alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
List of nearest stars

This list of the nearest stars to Earth is by distance in light years (ly). These distances are taken from parallax data determined by the Research Consortium on Nearby Stars (or Recons). 
The sources for this information were the Yale Parallax Catalog [Y], Hipparcos [H], Soderhjelm 1999 [S], Tinney 1996 [T]. Stars move, and so distances are as at present only.

Some 52 star systems beyond our own, the Solar System,  lie within  of the Sun. These systems contain 63 stars. 50 of these are red dwarfs, by far the most common type of star in the Milky Way. Much more massive stars, such as our own, make up the remaining 13. In addition to these "true" stars, scientists have identified 11 brown dwarfs (objects not quite massive enough to fuse hydrogen), and four white dwarfs. White dwarfs are extremely dense collapsed cores that remain after stars such as our Sun have exhausted all fusible hydrogen in their core and have slowly shed their outer layers. Despite the relative proximity of these 78 objects to Earth, only nine are bright enough in visible light to be visible to the naked eye from Earth, 6.5 apparent magnitude. All of these objects are currently moving in the Local Bubble, a region within the Orion–Cygnus Arm of the Milky Way.

List 
 Sun – about 8.2 light minutes from Earth
 Alpha Centauri star system – 4.24 to 4.36 ly
 Proxima Centauri – 4.24 ly [YH]
 Alpha Centauri A – 4.36 ly [YS]
 Alpha Centauri B – 4.36 ly [YS]
 Barnard's Star – 5.96 ly [YH]
 WISE 1049-5319 – 6.5 ly, also known as Luhman 16, a binary of two brown dwarf stars
 Wolf 359 – 7.78 ly [Y]
 Lalande 21185 – 8.3 ly [YH]
 Sirius star system
 Sirius A – 8.58 ly [YH]
 Sirius B – 8.58 ly [YH]
 Luyten 726-8 – 8.73 ly 
 UV Ceti – 8.73 ly [Y]
 Gl 65 B – 8.73 ly [Y]
 Ross 154 – 9.68 ly [YH]
 Ross 248 – 10.32 ly [Y]
 WISE 1506+7027 – 16.85 ly
 Epsilon Eridani – 10.52 ly [YH]
 Lacaille 9352 – 10.74 ly [YH]
 Ross 128 – 10.92 ly [YH]
 EZ Aquarii star system
 EZ Aquarii – 11.26 ly [Y]
 Gl 866 B – 11.26 ly [Y]
 Gl 866 C – 11.26 ly [Y]
 Procyon star system
 Procyon A – 11.4 ly [YH]
 Procyon B – 11.4 ly [YH]
 61 Cygni star system
 61 Cygni A – 11.4 ly [YH]
 61 Cygni B – 11.4 ly [YH]
 Struve 2398 (Gliese 725) star system
 Struve 2398 A – 11.52 ly [YH]
 Struve 2398 B – 11.52 ly [YH]
 Groombridge 34 (Gliese 15) star system
 Groombridge 34 A – 11.62 ly [YH]
 Groombridge 34 B – 11.62 ly [YH]
 Epsilon Indi – 11.82 ly [YH]
 DX Cancri – 11.82 ly [Y]
 Tau Ceti – 11.88 ly [YH]
 GJ 1061 – 11.92 ly [RECONS]
 YZ Ceti – 12.13 ly [YH]
 Luyten's Star – 12.36 ly [YH]
 Teegarden%27s_Star – 12 ly (discovered 2003)
 Kapteyn's Star – 12.77 ly [YH]
 AX Microscopium – 12.86 ly [YH]
 Kruger 60 star system
 Kruger 60 A – 13.14 ly [YS]
 Kruger 60 B – 13.14 ly [YS]
 Ross 614 star system
 Ross 614 – 13.34 ly [YS]
 Gl 234 B – 13.34 ly [YS]
 Gl 628 – 13.81 ly [YH]
 Gl 35 – 14.06 ly [YH]
 Gl 1 – 14.22 ly [YH]
 Wolf 424 star system
 Wolf 424 – 14.30 ly [Y]
 Gl 473 B – 14.30 ly [Y]

Related pages 
 Astronomy
 Star
 List of stars

References 

Lists of stars
List of planets

This is a list of two types of planets: standard planets and dwarf planets, in the Solar System.

Planets in the Solar System 
 Terrestrial planets
Mercury – The planet with the second highest temperature in the Solar System and the closest planet to the Sun.
 Venus – The warmest planet. Sometimes called "Earth's twin" because Venus and Earth are very similar.
 Earth – The only planet that is known to have life. It has one natural satellite, the Moon.
 Mars – Sometimes called the "red planet" and "the brother of Earth".

 Gas giants
Jupiter – The largest planet in the Solar System.
 Saturn – Sixth planet from the Sun. It has giant rings around it.
 Uranus - Seventh planet from the Sun. It has 11 rings around it.
 Neptune – The farthest planet that we know from the Sun.

Other 
 Pluto – the smallest planet, Pluto is now considered a "Dwarf planet" by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) since August 24, 2006.  
 Theia – Hypothetical planet which some think crashed into Earth and created the Moon.
 Planet Nine – a hypothetical planet beyond Neptune. It has not been found, but some astronomers think its gravity pulls on the orbits of many dwarf planets.  It is thought to be a gas giant.

Dwarf planets 
 Ceres is the largest asteroid (not to mention plutinos) in the Solar System's main asteroid belt.
 Haumea is shaped like an egg.
 Makemake crosses paths with Eris.
 Eris follows the most elliptical path of any planet.

Exoplanets

Definition of a planet

Technically, there was never a scientific definition of the term planet before 2006. When the Greeks observed the sky thousands of years ago, they discovered objects that acted differently than stars. These points of light seemed to wander around the sky throughout the year. The term "planet" derives from the Greek word "planets" - wanderer.

In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) convened a Planet Definition Committee, deliberated, and ultimately reached a consensus on a new definition of a planet which leaves us with the eight planets we today consider to comprise the Solar System (thus the exit of Pluto).  That new definition: " A “planet” is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit [meaning: 'there are no other bodies in its path that it must sweep up as it goes around the Sun'.]"

Astronomy lists
List of nearest galaxies

This list of the nearest galaxies to Earth is ordered by increasing distance. Many of the distances are only estimates, and some may be incorrect by 50% or more. The distance ranking in this list should be seen only as a guess. Distances are given in light years (ly).

The nearest galaxies (ranked) 
Milky Way – home galaxy of Earth
Canis Major dwarf  25,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Segue 1 – 75,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sag DEG – 70,000 ly (satellite or part of Milky Way)
Large Magellanic Cloud – 160,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Small Magellanic Cloud – 190,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Ursa Minor dwarf – 205,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Draco dwarf – 248,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sculptor dwarf – 254,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Sextans dwarf – 257,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Carina dwarf – 283,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Fornax dwarf – 427,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
Leo II – 701,000 ly
Leo I – 890,000 ly
Phoenix dwarf – 1,271,000 ly
Barnard's galaxy (NGC 6822) – 1,760,000 ly
NGC185 – 2,021,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
NGC147 – 2,152,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda galaxy (M31) – 2,363,000 ly
Messier 32 (NGS 221) – 2,650,000 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
M110 (NGC 205) – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda I – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda II – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
Andromeda III – 2,363,500 ly (satellite of Andromeda)
LGS 3 – 2,477,500 ly (satellite of Triangulum)
IC 1613 – 2,494,000 ly
Triangulum galaxy (M33) – 2,592,000 ly
Aquarius dwarf – 2,608,000 ly
Tucana dwarf – 2,836,000 ly
Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte (WLM) – 3,064,500 ly

Related pages 
Galaxy
List of galaxies
Local Group
Most distant things
IC 1101: the largest known galaxy, with about 100 trillion stars.

References 

Astronomy lists
List of satellites of the Milky Way

List of satellites of Milky Way:
 Canis Major dwarf galaxy - 25,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Sagittarius dwarf - 81,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Large Magellanic Cloud - 160,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Small Magellanic Cloud - 190,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Ursa Minor dwarf - 205,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Draco dwarf - 248,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Sculptor dwarf - 254,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Sextans dwarf - 257,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Carina dwarf - 283,500 ly (satellite of Milky Way)
 Fornax dwarf - 427,000 ly (satellite of Milky Way)

Note: ly means light years

Related pages
 List of galaxies
 List of nearest galaxies

Local galaxies
Astronomy lists
Milky Way
List of comets

This is a list of some comets in the solar system.

Periodic comets visit us again and again. Non-periodic comets visit us only once. On this list there is a "P" in front of the periodic comets. In front of non-periodic comets there is a "C".  There is sometimes a number in front of the "P": it shows the number of times people saw the periodic comet visiting us.

Comets we usually know by a name
Caesar's Comet
 Comet Borrelly (19P/Borrelly)
 Comet Encke (2P/Encke)
 Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1)
 Halley's Comet (1P/Halley)
 Comet Humason (C/1961 R1)
 Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2)
Comet Ikrya–Seki (C/1965 S1)
 Comet Kohoutek (C/1973 E1)
 Comet Mrkos (C/1957 P1)
 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (D/1993 F2)
 Comet Skjellerup–Maristany (C/1927 X1) 
 Comet West (C/1975 V1)
 Great Comet of 1807 (C/1807 R1)
 Great Comet of 1811 (C/1811 F1)
 Great March Comet of 1843 (C/1843 D1)
 Great January Comet (C/1910 A1)
 Comet Swift–Tuttle (109P/Swift–Tuttle)

Periodic comets 
Periodic comets have a special place in astronomy, because their orbits are often the same. We know when they will visit us, and we can plan to watch them, and send space probes to look at them. 

On August 24, 1994, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) standardized the way they name this type of comet. This system tells us which comet is which. The IAU chose the letter P for periodic comets and D for periodic comets that were lost or which broke into pieces.
Other letters are C for non-periodic comets, and X for comets where we do not know their orbits. It uses A for objects people say are asteroids. Each name starts with a number, so two comets have the same name.

sources 
 Bright Comet Chronicles

Astronomy lists
List of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets

The following is a list of main sequence stars with confirmed extrasolar planets. Note that the masses of the planets are lower bounds only. If a planet is detected by the spectral line displacement method referred to above, no information is gained about the inclination of the planet's plane of orbit around its star, and a value for this is needed to calculate the mass. It has become customary to arbitrarily assume that the plane is exactly lined up with the line of sight from Earth (this produces the lowest possible mass consistent with the spectral line measurements).

 HD 83443 - .35 MJ and .16 MJ
 HD 16141 - .215 MJ.
 HD 168746 - .24 MJ
 HD 46375 - .249 MJ 
 HD 108147 - .34 MJ 
 HD 75289 - .42 MJ 
 51 Pegasi - .47 MJ (0.25-AU)
 BD -10 3166 - .48 MJ
 HD 6434 - .48 MJ
 HD 187123 - .52 MJ
 HD 209458 - .69 MJ
 Upsilon Andromedae - .71 MJ (0.06AU), 2.11 MJ (0.83AU), and 4.61 MJ (2.5AU)
 HD 192263 - .76 MJ
 Epsilon Eridani - .86 MJ
 HD 38529 - .81 MJ
 HD 179949 - .84 MJ
 55 Cancri - .84 MJ (0.25-AU) and >5? MJ
 HD 82943 - .88 MJ and 1.63 MJ
 HD 121504 - .89 MJ
 HD 37124 - 1.04 MJ
 HD 130322 - 1.08 MJ
 Rho Coronae Borealis - 1.1 MJ (0.5-AU)
 HD 52265 - 1.05 MJ
 HD 177830 - 1.28 MJ
 HD 217107 - 1.282 MJ
 HD 210277 - 1.24 MJ
 HD 27442 - 1.43 MJ
 16 Cygni B - 1.5 MJ (1.5+AU)
 HD 74156 - 1.56 MJand >7.5 MJ
 HD 134987 - 1.58 MJ
 HD 160691 - 1.97 MJ
 HD 19994 - 2.0 MJ
 GJ 876 - 1.98 MJ and .56 MJ
 HD 92788 - 3.8 MJ
 HD 8574 - 2.23 MJ
 HR 810 - 2.24 MJ
 47 Ursae Majoris - 2.54 MJ (2+AU) and .76 MJ
 HD 12661 - 2.83 MJ
 HD 169830 - 2.94 MJ
 14 Herculis - 3.3 MJ
 GJ 3021 - 3.37 MJ
 HD 80606 - 3.90 MJ
 HD 195019 - 3.43 MJ
 HD 213240 - 3.7 MJ
 GJ 86 - 4 MJ
 Tau Boötis - 3.87 MJ (0.25-AU)
 HD 50554 - 4.9 MJ
 HD 190228 - 4.99 MJ
 HD 168443 - 7.2 and 17.1 MJ
 HD 222582 - 5.4 MJ
 HD 28185 - 5.6 MJ
 HD 178911 B - 6.47 MJ
 HD 10697 - 6.59 MJ
 70 Virginis - 6.6 MJ (0.5AU)
 HD 106252 - 6.81 MJ
 HD 89744 - 7.2 MJ
 HD 141937 - 9.7 MJ
 HD 114762 - 11 MJ (0.5-AU)

confirmed extrasolar planets
Planets
List of water sports

Many sports are played in water.
The following is a list of water sports, divided by category. This list is not complete. Some of the sports include only one part 

 to swimming, as for example Triathlon.

In the water (13)
Swimming
Triathlon - Usually a combination of swimming, cycling and running
Modern pentathlon includes épée fencing, pistol shooting, swimming, a show jumping course on horseback, and a cross-country run.
Rescue swimming - Swimming with the goal to rescue other swimmers or the practice thereof.
Surf lifesaving - A competitive sport which evolved from the training activities of lifeguards at Australian surf beaches.
Water polo - A team ball sport played in water.
Synchronized swimming - A hybrid of swimming, gymnastics, and ballett.
Fin swimming - Swimming with fins
Water aerobics - Aerobics in the water
Water gymnastics - Gymnastics in the water
Snorkeling - The practice of swimming at the surface (typically of the sea) with a mask and a short tube called a snorkel.
Diving off springboards or off platforms
A water slide  - A slide with water flowing down it

Underwater water (6)
Diving
Scuba diving - Swimming under water using a (self contained) breathing apparatus
Free-diving - The aim to maximize the depth dived using no breathing apparatus
Apnea - The practice of not breathing for extended times.
Underwater rugby - Rugby played under water with a ball that has been rendered neutrally buoyant. Surfacing to breathe is only allowed without the ball.
Underwater hockey - Hockey played under water with short wooden curved sticks and a heavy puck. Players wear diving masks, snorkels, and fins, and must surface to breathe while team mates continue the game on the pool bottom.

Near the water (20)
Boating - The use of boats
Bodyboarding - Similar to surfing, but the board is smaller and the person lies down on the board
Canoeing
Canoe Polo - Polo using a canoe
Dragon Boat Racing - A team paddling sport on water
Fishing - The recreation and sport of catching fish
Hydroplane racing
Jet sprint boat racing
Kayaking
Kite surfing - on flat water using a kite for propulsion
Motor boating
Offshore powerboat racing
Parasailing - A person is towed behind a vehicle (usually a boat) while attached to a parachute
Rowing - Propels a boat by means of oars
Sailing - Using the wind for propulsion
Surfing - The sport or pastime of riding a wave towards the shore while standing or lying on a surfboard.
Wakeboarding - Similar to water skiing, but using only one board attached to the feet
Wake skating - Similar to wakeboarding, but the board is NOT attached to the feet
Water skiing - Using skis to slide over the water while being pulled by a boat or other device
Wind surfing - On flat water using wind for propulsion in combination with sails

Overall, there are a total of 39 water sports.

Sports lists
List of waterways

The list of waterways is a link page for any river, canal, estuary, or firth.

Albania

Australia
Swan River
Port Jackson
Botany Bay

Belgium
Ghent-Terneuzen Canal

Brazil
Amazon River
Tocantins River

Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosna
Buna
Drina
Neretva
Una
Vrbas

Canada 
Lachine Canal
Rideau Canal
Saint Lawrence Seaway, (Canada and USA)
Trent-Severn Waterway
Welland Canal

China
Amur
Chang Jiang (Yangtze)
Grand Canal of China
Huang He (Yellow River)
Lingqu Canal
Mekong
Songhua River
Tumen River
Yalu River

Egypt 
Nile River
Suez Canal

France
Aa River
Aude River
Canal du Midi
Cher River
Dordogne River
Gironde River
Loire River
Meuse River
Moselle River
Rhone River
Saône River
Seine
Têt River
Var River

Germany
Elbe River
Main River
Mittellandkanal
Neisse River
Rhine River
Rhine-Main-Danube Canal (Rhein-Main-Donau-Kanal)
Oder River
Weser River

Greece
Corinthian Canal connected the Gulf of Corinth with the Aegean Sea,

India
Agra canal
Brahmaputra
Ghaggar River
Ganges River
Godavari River
Hakra River (dried-out)
Indus River
Krishna River
Saraswati River
Vedic Saraswati River

Italy
Po River
Isonzo (Soca)
Tevere (Tiber)
Ticino River

Netherlands
Afgedamde Maas
Amsterdam-Rhine Canal
Beneden Merwede
Bergse Maas
Boven Merwede
Canal through Walcheren
Canal through Zuid-Beveland
Ghent-Terneuzen Canal
Gooimeer
Haringvliet
Hollands Diep
IJssel
Linge
Meuse river
Nieuwe Maas
Nieuwe Merwede
Nieuwe Waterweg
North Sea Canal
Oude Maas
Rhine
Scheldt
Scheldt-Rhine Canal
Volkerak
Waal

New Zealand
List of rivers of New Zealand

North Korea
Taedong River

Panama
Panama Canal

Poland
Bydgoszcz Canal
Notec
Nysa
Oder (Odra)
Vistula
Warta River

Republic of Ireland
Grand Canal
Royal Canal
River Shannon

Romania
Danube-Black Sea Canal

Russia
Amur
Lena
Irtysh
Ob
Volga
Yenisei

Slovenia
Bednja
Drave (Drava)
Dravinja
Hudinja
Krka
Ljubljanica
Ložnica
Mirna
Mislinja
Mur (Mura)
Savinja (old English name Sann)
Soča
Sava
Voglajna

South Korea
Geum River
Han River
Nakdong River

Sweden 
Göta Kanal

United Kingdom
Rivers of the United Kingdom
Waterways in the United Kingdom

United States
Rivers in the United States
Canals in the United States

Geography-related lists
List of wave topics

This is a list of wave topics, by Wikipedia page.

0-9

21 cm line

A
Abbe prism
Airy disc
Alfvén wave
amphidromic point
amplitude
amplitude modulation
analog sound vs. digital sound
atmospheric diffraction
atmospheric wave
atmospheric waveguide
audience wave

B
Babinet's principle
bandwidth limited pulse
beat
Berry phase
Bloch wave
blueshift
Brillouin scattering

C
carrier wave
chirp (frequency)
circular polarization
closed waveguide
coherence (physics)
coherence length
collimated light
Compton effect
continuous wave
cutoff wavelength

D
decollimation
delta waves
dielectric waveguide
diffraction
dispersion (optics)
dispersion relation
dominant wavelength
Doppler effect
Doppler radar

E
E-skip
echo (phenomenon)
electromagnetic wave
electromagnetic wave cut-off
Elliott wave
elliptical polarization
evanescent wave

F
F wave
frequency
frequency modulation
fundamental frequency

G
Gaussian beam
geometric optics
gravity wave
groundwave
group delay
group velocity

H
harmonic
holography
Huygens' principle

I
in phase
interferometry
inverse scattering

K
knife-edge effect

L
linear elasticity
linear polarization
longitudinal wave
longwave

M
Mach wave
Mach-Zender interferometer
mediumwave
megatsunami
microwave
microwave auditory effect
microwave oven
microwave plasma
microwaving
Mie scattering
Millimeter Cloud Radar
monochromator

multipath propagation

O
optical waveguide
out of phase
overtone

P
phase (waves)
phase difference
phase inversion
phase modulation
phase velocity
plane wave
polarization
pressure wave
pulse-density modulation

Q
quadrature
quadrature amplitude modulation
quantum optics
quantum tunneling

R
radar
radar astronomy
Radar gun
radio propagation
radio waves
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh-Jeans law
redshift
reflection coefficient
relativistic Doppler effect
ring modulation
ring wave guide
ripple tank
Rossby wave

S
sample (signal)
sawtooth wave
Seiche
seismic wave
seismograph
seismology
Sellmeier equation
shock wave
shortwave
sine wave
single-sideband modulation
skywave
soliton
sonar
square wave
standing wave
standing wave ratio
surface-wave-sustained mode
surfing
Synthetic aperture radar

T
tidal power
transverse mode
transverse wave
triangle wave
trigonometric function
tsunami

U
ultraviolet catastrophe
Underwater wave

V
vestigial-sideband modulation
voltage standing wave ratio

W
wave drag
wave equation
wave front
wave model
wave period
waveform
waveform monitor
waveguide
wavenumber
wavenumber-frequency diagram
waverider
wave velocity
wave-particle duality
wavefunction
wavefunction collapse
wavelength
wavelength-division multiplexing
Wien's law

X
X-band radar

Z
zero-dispersion slope
zero-dispersion wavelength

Science-related lists
List of tunnels

The list of tunnels is a link page for any road tunnel,  railway tunnel, or waterway tunnel anywhere in the world.

Australia
Sydney Harbour Tunnel

Austria
Tauern Tunnel

Canada
Detroit-Windsor Tunnel

France
Channel Tunnel
Mont Blanc Tunnel

Iceland
Hvalfjörður Tunnel
Vestfirðir Tunnel
Múlagöng Tunnel

Italy
Fornaci Tunnel
Mont Blanc Tunnel

Japan
Seikan Tunnel

Netherlands
List of tunnels in the Netherlands

New Zealand
Tunnels in New Zealand

Spain
Alfonso XIII Tunnel

United Kingdom
Channel Tunnel
Tunnels in the United Kingdom

United States
Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, Alaska
Allegheny Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Big Walker Mountain Tunnel, Virginia
Blue Mountain Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Brooklyn Battery Tunnel, New York
Caldecott Tunnel, Orinda, California to Oakland, California
Callahan Tunnel, Boston
Cascade Tunnel, Washington
Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel
Cumberland Gap Tunnel, Kentucky to Tennessee
Detroit-Windsor Tunnel, United States and Canada
Downtown Tunnel, Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
East River Mountain Tunnel, West Virginia to Virginia
Eisenhower Memorial Tunnel, Colorado
Flathead Tunnel, Montana
Fort McHenry Tunnel, Baltimore, Maryland
Fort Pitt Tunnel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel, Hampton, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
Harbor Tunnel, Baltimore, Maryland
Holland Tunnel, New York
Kittatinny Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Liberty Tubes, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Lincoln Tunnel, New York
Midtown Tunnel, Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, Virginia
Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel, Newport News, Virginia to Suffolk, Virginia
Posey Tube, Alameda, California
Queens Midtown Tunnel, New York
Squirrel Hill Tunnel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Sumner Tunnel, Boston
Ted Williams Tunnel, Boston
Transbay Tube, San Francisco Bay
Tuscarora Tunnel, Pennsylvania Turnpike
Webster Tube, Alameda, California

Transport lists
List of symbols

This is a list of graphical signs, icons, and symbols.

Religious and mystical symbols

Political symbols
 Fasces
 Hammer and sickle
 Swastika (as used by Nazis and neo-Nazis)
 Peace symbol
 List of political party symbols in India

Scientific and engineering symbols
 Astronomical symbols
 Chemical symbols
 Electronic symbols
 Hazard warning symbols
 Mathematical symbols

Other symbols
 Jolly Roger
 Skull and crossbones
 "No" symbol
 Chess symbols in Unicode

Other websites

Lists
Beach

A beach is a landform along the coast of an ocean, sea, lake, or river. It usually consists of loose particles, such as sand, gravel, shingle, or pebbles. The particles of a beach are sometimes biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or bits of coral and sometimes bits of igneous rock, but the most common mineral in beaches is quartz.

Beaches are natural landing and launching places for boats, and landing craft are specially made for beaches.

People often use beaches for recreation. They swim, bask in the sun, or just relax. The most popular beaches have fine white or light-colored sand and warm water to swim in. Beaches are also used for diving or for seeing marine life.

Among the world's most popular and well-known beaches are Aruba (Dutch Caribbean), Long Beach (Canada), Copacabana Beach (Brazil), Hot Water Beach (New Zealand), Megan Bay (St. Thomas), Kailua Beach (Hawaii), Zandvoort Beach (Netherlands), Jeffreys Bay (South Africa), Bondi Beach (Australia) and Lake Como beaches (Italy).

Taking holidays on the beach is something of a British cultural export. Early railways in the 19th century took people to places they had never seen before. This tourism was made possible by the industrial revolution. Whole seaside resort towns grew to support visitors, where before there were just villages. Vacations at the sea became common all over the world.

Beaches are never static. They are always being built up or eroded, more quickly than other landforms. Over time the boundary between the land and the sea changes. New Romney, a small town in Kent, is one of the Cinque Ports, a mile from the sea. In Henry VIII's time it was a port on the south coast of England. The growth of Dungeness has cut it off from the sea. Dungeness is a huge shingle beach.

References
Accident

An accident is when something goes wrong when it is not meant to. Physical accidents are things like collisions, injuries, and falling. Non-physical accidents are things like telling someone a secret without meaning to, forgetting something important, or deleting an important computer file.

Road accidents kill thousands of people each month in the United States, and thousands each week in the world. They injure more thousands each week. The majority involve a car but there are also many bus, truck and bicycle accidents. Aircraft crashes, ship sinkings and other transport accidents also attract much attention. 

Injuries from accidents, however, are more numerous at home than elsewhere. They attract less attention because only a few people are hurt at a time.  

Often, accidents are investigated so that we can learn how to avoid them in the future. Sometimes by studying an accident we can discover new things, for example penicillin.

Most of the deaths resulting from injuries are caused by fire accidents. Thus, accidental fires are one of the leading causes of unintentional deaths.  The main cause of death in fire incidents is burning, but inhalation of smoke and toxic gas causes death as well. Often the cause of the fire is very simple and unexpected, such as forgetting a candle near something flammable, defect in the hardware, or old electrical wires. So most of the large fires are caused by simple reasons.

Work accidents 
Industrial accidents such as mine cave-ins and the West Gate Bridge collapse also kill and maim many workers. The Bhopal disaster killed thousands, mostly not workers. 

An accident at work is defined as an external, sudden and violent event. Work accidents happen while an someone is working. It may cause the injury or death of the worker or someone else.  For an accident to be a work accident, there must be a direct or indirect relationship of cause and effect between the accident and the work.

Many construction workers are injured.  There are multiple reasons for that, but the main  reason is working on the edge of high buildings without using a safety belt. Thus, you have to follow the safety rules when you are working on these places.

Chemical accidents can happen in a laboratory.  Especially, some students make chemical mistakes that injure them seriously.

References 

Injuries
Events
Stone Age

The Stone Age was a prehistoric time when people made tools from stone such as flint. It began when people created the first stone tools about 3.3 million years ago. About 99% of human history happened during the Stone Age. It lasted for about 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC and started in 15000 BC

Stone Age people also made tools out of wood and bone. However, these materials do not last as long as stone. For this reason, most of the Stone Age tools archaeologists have found are made of stone.

Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three sections: Paleolithic ("old stone"), Mesolithic ("middle stone"), and Neolithic ("new stone"). During the Neolithic period, people invented farming and pottery, and started to care for animals like cows and pigs.

Sometime between 3000 BC and 2000 BC, people discovered the art of smelting (making metals). This probably happened in the Middle East. People used copper first, then learned how to make bronze. When people started using these metals instead of stone, the Stone Age ended and the Bronze Age began.

Some groups of people in Papua New Guinea continued to use Stone Age technology into the 20th century. They used stone-tipped weapons to kill animals for food and clothing. They made shelters using animal skin.

Food that was eaten in the Stone Age was berries (e.g. blackberries), fish, animals (e.g. mammoth) and animal organs

References
Virgil

Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was a poet in the Latin language. His poems are about gods and their mythology.  Virgil's most famous epic poem is called the Aeneid.

Life 
Tradition is that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Scholars looking at the way he used words think that he may have Etruscan, Umbrian or even a Celtic background. Study of his name has led to beliefs that his family may have been earlier Roman settlers. These modern beliefs are not supported by evidence from his own writings or from writers of his biographies. Some scholars have noted that his nickname, MARO, is an anagram of the two main themes in the Aeneid: AMOR (love) and ROMA (Rome).

References 

70 BC births
19 BC deaths
Ancient Roman poets
Alcohol

This article is only about the chemistry of the alcohols. 
The alcohol used in drinks is ethanol; more information can be found at alcoholic drink and alcoholism.

In chemistry, alcohol is a general term which refers to many organic compounds used in industry and science as reagents, solvents, and fuels. Alcohols are carbohydrates which are  made of an alkyl group with one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups bound to its carbon atoms. Alcohol is colorless, and also transparent.

Names for alcohol 
There are two ways of naming alcohols: Common names, and IUPAC names. 

 Common names often are made by taking the name of the alkyl group, and adding the word "alcohol". For example, "methyl alcohol" or "ethyl alcohol".
 IUPAC names are made by taking the name of the alkane chain, removing the last "e", and adding "ol". Examples of this are "methanol" and "ethanol".

Properties 
The hydroxyl (OH) group makes alcohols polar. Alcohols are very weakly acidic. Most alcohols are highly flammable.

Common alcohols 
The simplest two alcohols are methanol (or methyl alcohol) and ethanol (or ethyl alcohol), which have the following structures:

IUPAC nomenclature is used when describing more complex alcohols.

In common usage, "alcohol" often means ethanol or "grain alcohol". (See also: alcoholic proof).

Other commonly used alcohols include:
 Isopropyl alcohol (sec-propyl alcohol, propan-2-ol, 2-propanol) H3C-CH(OH)-CH3, or "rubbing alcohol"
 ethylene glycol (ethane-1,2-diol) HO-CH2-CH2-OH, which is the main substance in antifreeze
 glycerin (or glycerol, propane-1,2,3-triol) HO-CH2-CH(OH)-CH2-OH bound in natural fats and oils, which are triglycerides (triacylglycerols)
 phenol, an alcohol where the hydroxyl group is bound to a benzene ring.

 
Carbohydrates
Functional groups
Kyoto

Kyoto () is a city in Japan. This city was the capital of Japan from 794 until 1868.

Kyoto is a major city in the Kansai region of Japan. Its population is 1.5 million people. The city of Kyoto is the capital city of the prefecture of Kyoto. Kyoto is one of the cultural, educational, and technology centers of Japan. In it are many universities including Kyoto University, the second oldest national university of Japan.

History
After 794, the Japanese emperors lived in this city which was called Heian-kyō.

In 1868, the city was called Saikyō ("Western capital") in order to distinguish it from Edo (Tokyo) which was the "Eastern capital".

Geography
There are mountains around the city on the east, north, and west sides. Some people in Kyoto believe that these mountains make Kyoto's summer especially hot and humid, and Kyoto's winter very cold.

We can see many temples and shrines built in traditional Japanese architectural styles here. Some of those buildings are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. On the other hand, since Kyoto was one of biggest and richest Japanese cities in the middle of the 19th century; the citizens were eager to import European style, and there are many European style buildings in the center of Kyoto for company offices and schools.

Kyoto is one of oldest cities in Japan. Many tourists from all over the world come to Kyoto. Japanese people often come to Kyoto in the spring to see the cherry blossoms, and in the autumn to see the leaves change color.

Traditional Kyoto food often uses vegetables. McDonald's signboards in Kyoto are brown to preserve the traditional surroundings.

The oldest novel in the world, Shikibu Murasaki's The Tale of Genji is set in Kyoto during the Heian Period.

Kyoto is famous for three festivals: Gion festival, Aoi festival in the summer, and Jidai festival in the autumn.

Related pages 
 Kyoto Protocol
 Tokyo

References

Other websites

 
Former capitals of Japan
Anarchy

Anarchy (from Greek αναρχια meaning "without a leader") is a word that has more than one meaning. Some of its meanings are:
 When there is no leader, or when nobody has power over everyone (used just in the anarchist movement).
 When there is no political order, and there is confusion (used often from mass media)
 When people do not have any reason to work together, or do not have anything that makes them feel like a group.

In the first meaning listed, an anarchy might be a made-up or real society based on a group's beliefs about anarchism (see anarcho-communism).

In the second meaning listed, "anarchy" has to do with having no political order. The CIA World factbook  says that there is only one nation, Somalia, that is in a state of anarchy. In Somalia, the government is no longer in control, and some parts of the country are ruled by mobs and warlords who sometimes fight one another.

There are some countries (Afghanistan, Albania, Burundi, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Rwanda) where government is "emerging" or "transitional", and were in civil unrest in the near past. The DC  says that the Solomon Islands is moving towards civil unrest because "violence, corruption and crime have undermined stability and civil society".

When there is no political order, more than one government or political authority might sometimes compete for the same food, oil, land, or groups of people. The word "Anarchy" to used to describe this. However, because there is more than one competing authority, a better word might be polyarchy. The difference between "anarchy" and "polyarchy" is important to someone who thinks that true anarchy would work well. The word for someone who thinks this is "anarchist", and the word for this kind of thinking is "anarchism". Anarchism has been thought about for hundreds of years. The book called "The Politics of Individualism" attempts to teach its readers that anarchism is not always simply an opposition to the government, but a complicated political movement against the domination of few people.

Other uses of the word 
Anarchy which follows the death of a ruler and ceases when his successor rises to power, is called interregnum (literally: "in-between rules").

(Another use of the word “Anarchy” is when it is said as “The Anarchy”. This is the name that is sometimes given to the civil war and unsettled government in England when Stephen of England was King.) (See The Anarchy)

References

 
Economic systems
Society
Bread

Bread is a type of baked food. It is mainly made from dough, which is made mainly from flour and water. Usually, salt and yeast are added. Bread is often baked in an oven. It can be bought all over the world.

Bread can be toasted or used to make sandwiches.  Pizza is a food-based on bread. There are many different kinds of bread. 

The two main types of bread are:
 Leavened bread is made by adding yeast or other leavening agents to the dough. The yeast produces gas that makes the dough lighter. Leavened bread can be made into larger loaves baked in an oven. This is the main type of bread eaten in Europe, America, and many parts of Asia.
 Unleavened flatbread is baked from a dough of water and flour, with no yeast. It is baked in flat rounds like tortilla or chapati. This type of bread cannot be made thick as it would be too dense to eat. Unleavened bread is eaten throughout Greece, Africa, parts of Asia, and as the Central America such as Pitta bread or tortilla. Baking can be done on a metal plate or hot stone, or in an oven.

The color and taste of the bread depending on the kind of flour used and the style of baking. Flour made from the whole grain gives darker bread. Flour made just from the polished wheat grain gives a very white bread. Rye and barley flour give darker types of bread. The type of flour also changes how long the bread can be kept before going bad. Some strains of wheat are resistant to fungus, but may not produce bread as tasty as a weaker strain.

Religious breads 
Christianity and Judaism have rules about the use of bread in their religions. Unleavened bread (matzo) is eaten by Jews during the Passover. The Catholic celebration of the Eucharist uses unleavened wafers.

Orthodox churches forbid the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist (Old Testament) and permit leavened bread only as a symbol of the New. This was one of the three points of contention that brought about the schism between Eastern and Western churches in 1054.

Types of bread 

Bagel
Baguette
Croissant
Injera
Khachapuri
Lavash
Markouk in Egypt and the Levant
Matzo in all Kosher communities
Naan
North American biscuit
Pita
Pizza dough
Pretzel
Rice bread
Roti
Rye bread (Includes Pumpernickel)
Scone
Sprouted bread
Tortilla
White Bread
Wholemeal bread

Bread is an important part of life in many countries because so many people eat it. In many cultures, bread is so important that it is part of religious rituals. 

Cake is made in a similar way to bread but sugar, fat, and milk are added to the dough and often more ingredients.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Shinto

Shinto () is a form of Japanese animism. It has many kami, translated as gods or nature spirits. Some "kami" are just spirits of certain places, and some are the overall "kami" (like "Amaterasu", the Sun goddess). The word "Shinto" comes from the Japanese words "", shin—the word for spirit or god, and "", tō—the word for "the way" or "path". So, Shinto means "the way of the gods." 

State Shinto was the main religion of Japan before World War II. During the period 1868 to 1945 the Japanese government used Shinto for propaganda. All Japanese were forced to register with their local shrine. All Shinto priests worked for the government. War was seen as a sacred duty. The Emperor of Japan was seen as a god. Japanese Buddhism was also involved with the war effort (See Zen at War).

Shinto has many rituals and customs, and some are done every day. Festivals are frequent. Some people mix Shinto and Buddhist rituals and beliefs. 

 Although Jinja-Honcho manages almost all shrines, some, such as Yasukuni, are run separately.

 Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, is seen as the holiest of all Shinto kami. Her shrine is in Ise, Japan.

Related pages 
Shinto shrine

Other websites 
 Kokugakuin University Encylopedia of Shinto
Gmail

Gmail is a free e-mail service that is run by Google. It can be accessed on the web, by POP3, or by IMAP. Some of the competitors to Gmail are Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail/Windows Live Mail, and Inbox.Com. The space given to any Gmail member is increased a small amount every second, and as of July 26, 2012, Google provides each account with about 10272 MB of space.

Google Apps 
Google Apps is a service from Google that was created in February 2006 as Gmail for your domain. It is to allow system administrators of a company or organisation to create email accounts for their own domain.

Trademark issues 
In the United Kingdom (UK), the trademark "Gmail" was owned by another company before Gmail by Google was started. Thus, the United Kingdom uses a domain of "googlemail.com" for their users, and the logo has the words of "Google Mail" instead of the normal "Gmail".

In September 2009 Google began to change the branding of UK accounts back to Gmail following the resolution of the trademark dispute.

References

Other websites
 Gmail Website

Mail
E-mail
Astronomer

An astronomer is a scientist who studies astronomy. Observational astronomers work in observatories with telescopes to collect information from things in outer space such as planets, stars, or galaxies. Theoretical astronomers study the collected information, and use it to help us understand how the universe behaves.

Related pages
 List of Astronomers

 
Science occupations
Analysis

Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.

The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analusis, "a breaking up", from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening").

In this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.

The following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:
 Mathematical analysis is the name given to any branch of mathematics that looks at what functions are, how they behave, and what things can be done with them.
 Analytical chemistry looks at the qualities of substances, and their composition.

Some definitions 
The process of breaking up a concept, proposition, or fact into its simple or ultimate constituents. Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2nd ed, 1999, ed. Robert Audi.
Resolution into simpler elements by analysing. 2. (Maths) Use of algebra and calculus in problem-solving. Concise Oxford Dictionary. 1976, ed. J.B. Sykes.
The isolation of what is more elementary from what is more complex by whatever method. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. 1925, ed. James Mark Baldwin, Vol. I
The original Greek sense [was] a ‘loosening up’ or ‘releasing’. Geometry assumes a proposition to be true and searches for another known truth from which the proposition may be deduced. Physical science resolves complex wholes into their elements. A Kant Dictionary, 1995, by Howard Caygill.
The process of breaking a concept down into more simple parts, so that its logical structure is displayed. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. 1996, Simon Blackburn
Philosophical analysis is a method of inquiry in which one seeks to assess complex systems of thought by ‘analysing’ them into simpler elements whose relationships are thereby brought into focus. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1998, entry under ‘Conceptual Analysis’ by Robert Hanna

References

Philosophy
Research methods
Foolishness

Foolishness is when someone acts without wisdom or sense. A foolish decision is one made without careful reasoning or judgement. An act of foolishness is called folly. A person who shows foolishness may be called a fool. It is different to stupidity, which is the lack of intelligence.

A fool's errand is a useless piece of work.

A fool's paradise a happy state for which there is no good reason.

The wise fool is a common literary character, a person who appears at first to be unintelligent but then reveals him or herself to possess a grest deal of wisdom. An example of this is Sancho Panza in Cervantes' Don Quixote. Sancho is an uneducated peasant who at first seems to have little sense or experience. However, as the tale unfolds, he reveals himself to possess a wealth of common sense, first expressed through endless proverbs, but then through his own skill. In this sense he provides a comic juxtaposition to Quixote himself, who is highly educated but insane; both of them supply what the other lacks.

References

Related pages 

 Silliness

Knowledge
Basic English 850 words
Matsuo Basho

Matsuo Munefusa, known as Matsuo Bashō (, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.

According to Japanese custom, he is usually called Basho without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually "はせを". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.

He was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself Tosei (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means plum in white.

He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master ("Sosho") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (basho-an). He planted the plant and called himself Basho because it became his favorite tree in his garden.

In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making renga, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.

His most famous book is Oku no Hosomichi ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.

Basho died because of disease in early autumn of 1694 in Osaka, while staying at a house of his disciple on a trip.  Before his death, he made a haiku as his last words:

Tabini yande / yume ha kareno wo / kake meguru
On travel I am sick
My dream is running around
a field covered with dried grass

Notes

1644 births
1694 deaths
Japanese poets
Colonization

Colonization is the act of one country settling another place, in order to become the new rulers of the new country, and to live in the new country. An early example is the settlers who went from the cities of Ancient Greece to start new cities.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas. This is how the Europeans learned that North America and South America were there.  The Europeans colonized the Americas. Because of this, and the killing of many Native Americans, most people now living in North America are the descendants of Europeans.

Sometimes, science fiction stories talk about space colonization on space stations or planets other than Earth. Some science fiction stories like The Matrix speak of the robots the human beings made, taking over, and colonizing Earth.

Related pages
Annexation
Colonialism
Colony
Decolonization
Protectorate

International relations
Colonialism
Choreography

Choreography (dance-writing) is the art of making dances. It tells dancers how they should dance and move. The word has been used since the late 18th century to mean the art of composing dance.

A person who does choreography is called a choreographer. A choreographer makes a dance based on music or a synopsis (a writing of what occurs in the dance). They may also act as trainers for professional dancers in ballet, stage shows and competitive ballroom dance. Their ideas may be recorded in dance notation, or on videos.

Choreography is also used in other types of performances. In Ice skating and Ice dancing, the choreographer designs the moves the skates does. In theater, movies and television, a choreographer is used to design fight scenes. For example, Bob Anderson designed many of the sword fight scenes in the Lord of the Rings movies as well as some of the Star Wars movies. A person who does this type of choreography is usually called a fight choreographer.

References 

Dance