alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Mauna Kea

Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is the highest point in Hawaii at 4,205 meters.  If measured from top to bottom, below sea level, it is 10,200 meters high and would be the tallest mountain in the world. It is around 1,000,000 years old. Mauna Kea means 'white mountain' because in winter it often has snow at the summit.

Astronomy 

Mauna Kea is an important site for astronomy. Many different countries or institutions have an observatory there, including the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. The W. M. Keck Observatory with its 10-meter mirror is one of the most powerful in the world. Mauna Kea is an important site, especially for infrared astronomy, because of its height and clear skies.

High altitude is important because atmosphere causes an effect called seeing, which limits the quality of images by blurring them.  At high altitude, there is less atmosphere between the observatories and space and this lessens the effect.

References 

Volcanoes of Hawaii
Mauna Loa

Mauna Loa is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands of the United States.

Name 
“Mauna Loa” is Hawaiian for “long mountain”.

Size
The volcano is at least  in volume and over 4 kilometers above sea level.  Measured from its base on the ocean floor, it reaches above 8 kilometers, making it the tallest mountain on Earth, but not the highest. That distinction is reserved for Mount Everest. 

Measured from sea level Mauna Loa is 4,169 meters high. It is also one of the largest volcanoes measuring 60 miles long and 30 miles wide.  

The world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii's 'Big Island'. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 1984. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail 51 kilometres (32 miles) long.

References

Volcanoes of Hawaii
Kilauea

Kīlauea is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is a shield volcano. The volcano is 1,277 meters high. Kīlauea is a large lake of lava. The crater of Kīlauea is named Pu'u'O'o. The first eruption of Kīlauea is estimated as 300 to 600 thousand years ago. Its first recorded eruptions were in 1823. Its most recent eruption was March 3 2018. It is still erupting now. The Hawaiian name Kīlauea means "spewing" or "much spreading". It refers to the constant flow of lava. Kīlauea lies on the curve of volcanoes on the island of Hawaii that includes Mauna Loa and Kohala. The volcano of Kīlauea is one of the youngest and also is said to be the home of an ancient volcano goddess Pele. The oldest dated rocks are said to be about 23,000 years old. It has its own magma plumbing under the Earth that goes down under the Earths crust by 60 km. Kīlauea has a basalt-based lava rock type hot-spot.

In May 2018, the volcano erupted causing damage in nearby homes and streets.

References 

Volcanoes of Hawaii
Van

A van is a type of vehicle. A van can carry either goods or people. A van is usually bigger than the regular sized car, but relatively smaller than a truck/lorry or a bus. Panel vans (vans whose cargo space has no side windows) are used for deliveries and carrying goods. These usually have large cargo space and few windows. A van which is used to carry people is often called a minibus. It can usually carry many people, sometimes up to a total of 15 (like in hatchbacks, station wagons, and SUVs). 

Unlike a pickup truck, many companies make vans, including Chevrolet, Daihatsu, Dodge, Fiat, Ford, GMC, Honda, Hyundai, Isuzu, Mazda, Mercedes-Benz, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Subaru, Suzuki, Toyota, Vauxhall, and Volkswagen.

You may usually drive a van with the same driver's license as an ordinary car, but the heaviest and largest vans may require a truck licence.

Minivans

A minivan is smaller and usually carries up to seven people (like in hatchbacks, station wagons, and SUVs).

Related pages

 Ambulance
 Pickup truck
 Truck
 Minivan
Luggage

People use luggage to carry their possessions when travelling. In the United States luggage is often called baggage.

Types of luggage
A valise is a small bag. It is usually for carrying clothes or accessories. Some other words for this size of luggage are overnight bag, overnight case, and overnighter
A suitcase is a larger bag, most often for carrying clothes
A trunk, also known as a travelling chest or steamer trunk, is a very large, rigid chest that was mostly used when moving across the ocean on a ship; they are much less common in the 21st century

Travel
Pantograph

A pantograph is a machine. It is  used in drawing or planning. It makes it easy to copy diagrams. 

The device that an electric train uses to get its electricity is also called a pantograph, because it looks a bit like the drawing instrument.

tools
Paperback

A paperback is a type of book. It has a cover of thick paper or thin cardboard. Paperback book covers can bend and be folded. The covers are laminated (have layers), and some of the methods are more durable (lasting) than others. Another name for paperback is soft cover.  

Paperback books may be glued or held by sewing. If the pages are held only by adhesive, the book will eventually come apart. The quality of the paper also varies. It is generally less white than bound hardback books because it is less bleached.

Usually, paperback books cost less money than hardback books. In the middle 20th century a "mass market" type of paperback became commonplace, having a standard size, fitting a standard display rack, and glued. 

Book terminology
Palette

A palette is used for mixing colours.They are usually made out of plastic or wood but can be made out of other materials. An artist often uses one of these and is in fact an essential item in art, when painting.

Painting
Glow-worm

A glow-worm, or glowworm, is an insect.
Other names for glow-worms are fire-fly and lightning bug.

There are several insects given this name. Most are beetles, but one is a fly, Arachnocampa. They are nocturnal, active during the night. They have special organs that can produce light. This is used to find mates. The patterns in which the beetles flash is unique to each species.

The major families are
Lampyridae (Fireflies). The adult female of this family has no wings. It is the glow worm of the literature.
Phengodidae (Glow-worm beetles, glow-worms), found in North and South America. One species, the railroad worm features two colors.
Arachnocampa,  flies found in Australia and New Zealand

Beetles
Flies
Palette knife

A palette knife is not actually a knife. It has a very flexible steel blade and no sharpened cutting edge. It is a tool.

Uses
A palette knife is used for mixing paint colors. It may be used for mixing and applying a whole range of semi-fluid mixtures.

Cutting tools
Foolscap

Foolscap is paper cut to the size of , sometimes . This was a traditional paper size used in Europe and the British Commonwealth, before the adoption of the international standard A4 paper, the most common standard size in the world. Foolscap was so called because, in the 18th century, folio-sized paper had the watermark of a fool's cap on it. Basically, it is taller than A4. 

In North America, foolscap is lined, legal-size paper. In some South American countries it is called "oficio", because it is or was used for official documents.

Paper of the size is now very rarely used, being superseded by A4 (297 x 210). However, some ring binders, lever arch files, suspended files, and other filing related things still use the size.

Paper
Polymer

A polymer is a molecule, made from joining many small molecules called monomers. The word "polymer" can be broken down into "poly" (meaning "many" in Greek) and "mer" (meaning "unit"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called polymerization.

Some polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.

If the "units" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a "homopolymer". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix poly- before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.

If the monomers are not all the same, the polymer is called a "copolymer" or a "heteropolymer".

Many polymer molecules are like chains where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have branching from the main chain, or cross-linking between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.

In the same way how large hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil can be broken down in smaller molecules e.g. ethylene by applying heat (a process called cracking), the monomer ethylene can then be turned into the polymer polyethylene by applying pressure and adding catalysts. Polyethelene is the basis of many plastic objects.

Related pages 
 Macromolecule
 Synthetic fabric

 
Polymer chemistry
Phrase

A phrase is a group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb and a predicate. 

In English there are five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of speech. In a phrase, the main word, or the word that is what the phrase is about, is called the head. In these examples, it is printed in bold. The other words in the phrase do the work of changing or modifying the head.

In a 'Noun phrase', one or more words work together to give more information about a noun.

 all my dear children 
 the information age 
 seventeen hungry lions in the rocks

In an Adjective phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adjective.

 so very sweet 
 earnest in her desire
 very happy with his work

In a Verb phrase, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English, the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be found here.

In an Adverb phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about an adverb.

 especially softly 
 formerly of the city of Perth
 much too quickly to see clearly

In a Prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase (preposition = pre-position).

 after a very long walk
 behind the old building
 for all the hungry children
 in case it should happen again

Grammar
Preposition

Prepositions often describe the position of something, the time when something happens or the way in which something is done. The prepositions "of", "to" and "for" have other functions.  

Prepositions may sometimes be used to end sentences. For example, "What did you put that there for?" (better English is the alternative: "Why did you put that there?") Example 2: "A pen is a device to write with" (better English is "A pen is a writing device"). In general, because they are links, prepositions belong in the middle of sentences, rather than at the end.

The table below shows some examples of how prepositions are used in sentences.

List of common prepositions 
About
Above
Across
After
Along
Amid
Among
Around
As
At
Before
Behind
Below
Beneath
Between
Because of
Down
During
Except
For
From
In
Into
Inside
Instead of
Near
Next to
Of
Off
On  
onto
Outside
Out of: unusual in needing two words, e.g. "The bat flew out of the cave".
Past
Round
Since
Than
Through
Till
To
Towards
Under
Underneath
Until
Unto
Upon
Without
With

References
 

Parts of speech
Pronoun

A pronoun is traditionally a part of speech in grammar, but many modern linguists call it a type of noun. In English, pronouns are words such as me, she, his, them, herself, each other, it, what. 
 
Pronouns are often used to take the place of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun. For example, instead of saying 
Tom has a new dog. Tom has named the dog. Max and Tom let the dog sleep by Tom's bed.
it is easier to say 
Tom has a new dog. He has named him Max and he lets him sleep by his bed.

When a pronoun replaces a noun, the noun is called the antecedent. For example, in the sentence: The dog that was walking down the street, the relative pronoun is the word that referring back to the antecedent, the word 'dog'.  In the sentence The spy who loved me, the relative pronoun is the word 'who' and its antecedent is the word 'spy'.

Differences and similarities to nouns
Pronouns are different from common nouns because pronouns normally do not come after articles or other determiners. For example, people do not say "the it". Pronouns rarely come after adjectives. They are also different because many of them change depending on how they are used. For example, "we" is a 'subject' in grammar, but the word changes to us when used as an object.

Pronouns are the same as nouns because they both change for number (singular & plural), case (subject, object, possessive, etc.), and gender (male, female, animate, inanimate, etc.) Nouns and pronouns can be used in almost all the same places in sentences, and they name the same kinds of things: people, objects, etc. Even though they can not normally come after determiners, or adjectives, neither can proper nouns.

Kinds of pronouns
There are different kinds of pronouns: personal, reciprocal, interrogative, and relative.

Personal pronouns in English
This table shows all the personal pronouns in English that are commonly used today.

A subject pronoun can replace a noun that is the subject of a sentence. Refer to the table above; the subject pronouns are: I, You, He, She, It, We, They. An object pronoun can replace a noun that is the object of a sentence. A possessive pronoun shows who or what a noun belongs to.  

Another type of personal pronoun is called the 'reflexive pronoun'. Reflexive pronouns are the words ending in '-self' or '-selves', such as: myself, itself, themselves. One of the primary functions of reflexive pronouns is for situations in which a single agent is both the doer of the action and the receiver of the action. For example, if I cut my finger, we don't typically say "I cut me." in English; we use the reflexive pronoun and say "I cut myself." 

"It" and its other forms "its", and "itself" only refer to objects, not people. "They" and its other forms "them", "their", and "theirs" can be used as a singular, for a person whose gender is unknown at the time, or for a person who does not identify with either the "she/her" or "he/him" pronouns. For example: "The patient will be told how much they will be required to pay."

References

 
Parts of speech
Adverb

An adverb is a word used to tell more about a verb, and it almost always answers the questions how?, when?, where?, how often?, and in what way?. Words like slowly, loudly, carefully, quickly, quietly or sadly are all adverbs. Adverbs usually, but not always, end in -ly.

Examples of adverbs in a sentence (with the adverb in italics):
 How did the man walk? The man walked slowly. 
 How did the dogs bark? The dogs barked loudly.

An adverb can also modify (describe) an adjective or another adverb

Examples:
Adverb modifying a verb: He writes well
Adverb modifying another adverb: He writes very well
Adverb modifying an adjective: He is very well

In the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb. In the last example, it is an adjective. This is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the same sentence. 

As a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence. It all depends on what the word is doing in the sentence. It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc. Example: take the word 'cool'. In the sentence, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' is an adverb. In the sentence, "cool the hot dish", the word 'cool' is a verb. In the sentence, "it is a cool evening", the word 'cool' is an adjective. In the first example, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' really means 'coolly' as in "play it cool" (do not get excited; be calm).

Adverb form 
Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to the end of an adjective. To see 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here ---> : adjective

Parts of speech
Ottawa

Ottawa is the capital of Canada and is part of the province of Ontario. It is south of the Ottawa River. In 2004, there were about 808,391 people in the city. The region has about 1,146,790 people. The mayor of the city today (since December 2010) is Jim Watson. Ottawa is in the Ottawa Valley on the border with the province of Quebec which is divided by the Ottawa River. Ottawa is the fourth largest city in Canada and the second largest city in Ontario (after Toronto). Ottawa is the only officially bilingual city in Canada, where the English language and the French language are official languages and have equal status. Every official sign in the city is, as a result bilingual. The reason for this bilingual status, is not only because Ottawa borders the French-speaking province of Quebec, the city itself has a large French-speaking minority.

When people talk about Ottawa, they are sometimes using the name as an eponym meaning the highest government in Canada, and not its local government or the city.

The cities of Ottawa, Kanata, Nepean, Gloucester and Vanier and the villages of Manotick and Rockcliffe Park joined in the year 2000 to form the new city of Ottawa. Ottawa also includes Orléans, which joined at that same time.

The city began with the name Bytown and became the city of Ottawa in 1855. The Rideau Canal ends in Ottawa.

Ottawa has many museums, many buildings for the government of Canada and many parks. There is a market area downtown.

There are many festivals during the year including Winterlude in February, The Tulip Festival in May, and BluesFest in the summer. There is also a large celebration on July 1st for Canada Day.

The Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League (NHL) play ice hockey in an arena called Canadian Tire Centre. The Ottawa Redblacks of the Canadian Football League (CFL) also play in the city.

Media
 CFRA 580

 CKKL Kool 93.9

Climate
Ottawa has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfa).

Rain and snow
The average  yearly precipitation in Ottawa is 943 millimetres.

2017 was a record year in Ottawa because there was precipitation of 1,213 millimetres during the first ten months of the year. The old record was in 1972,  when the precipitation was 1,174 millimetres.

Related pages
 List of bridges in Ottawa
 List of Ottawa neighborhoods

References 

 
1826 establishments in North America
1820s establishments in Canada
News agency

A news agency is a kind of company. It supplies information to newspapers, radio and television.

In the United Kingdom and some other countries a news agency or newsagent is a shop which sells newspapers, magazines and cigarettes.

Although there are many news agencies around the world, three global news agencies, Agence France-Presse (AFP), Associated Press (AP), and Reuters have offices in most countries of the world, cover all areas of information, and provide the majority of international news printed by the world's newspapers.

References

Other websites 
 Brainpix  - Portugal/Brasil
Agentia
1EnGoogle 

Companies
News media
Journalism
Mudguard

A mudguard, fender or wing is a part covering the wheels of a vehicle to stop it from throwing off mud, water or objects from the road. It protects people and property from dirtiness, dampness, and damage. 

Mudguards protect in several ways:
 They protect brakes and lights.
 They protect the bicycle from getting rusted by mud and water.
 They protect clothes from being dirty.
 They protect from injuries.

Auto parts
Para rubber tree

A Para rubber tree (or simply, rubber tree) is the tree which naturally produces rubber. It is native to tropical areas from South America, in the Amazon (Brazil), but was spread by European farmers to the Far East.

Para Rubber trees belong to the Euphorbiaceae family. In the wild they may reach heights of 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) with large cylindrical trunks with or without buttresses. Crop trees reach a width of about 20 in. (50 cm), usually with a short bole, and with a sloped taper. 

Most rubber plantations are in South Asia and Southeast Asia. When trees reach 5-6 years old, they are harvested. Their trunks are cut just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the sap is collected in small buckets. This process is known as rubber tapping. Older trees produce more latex, but they stop producing it after 30-40 years.  It was first collected in para district of brazil. Sri henry Wickham brought the seeds of para rubber from Brazil to India and Sri Lanka through the kew botanical garden in 1876. At first, the plantation was done in Malayasia and Sri Lanka and later in Java, Sumatra, India and parts of Indonesia. 

Euphorbiaceae
Safety curtain

A safety curtain is a curtain in theatre at the front of the stage. It is made of material that will not burn.  The safety curtain may be lowered during the intermission and after the performance.  A safety curtain is there in case there is a fire on stage.  It will stop the fire from spreading to the auditorium where the audience sits.

Theater
Opera terminology
Safety lamp

A safety lamp is a miner's lamp with a covered flame that used to be used in coal mines.

Types of safety lamps
The first safety lamp was invented by William Reid Clanny. It used bellows and water to separate gasses. Later, two newer designs were invented. One newer design was the Geordie lamp, made by George Stephenson, and the other was the Davy lamp, made by Sir Humphry Davy. In 1815, Davy discovered that if a flame was in a lamp, it would not ignite the flammable gases in mines.

How it works
Coal mines are dangerous because of flammable gasses like methane that can accumulate (gather together). A lamp with a naked (exposed) flame might make these flammable gasses catch fire, causing an explosion, which could kill people. The safety lamp prevents the hot flame of the lamp touching the flammable gasses, reducing the chance of an explosion.

References 

Safety
Lamps
Christmas stocking

A Christmas stocking is a long sock hung by a fireplace or bed on Christmas Eve. Christmas presents are put into it for children. It came from an old legend. Stockings are now  a European Christmas tradition.

Christmas
List of football clubs in Austria

These are the Austrian football teams and the leagues they played in for the 2022/23 season.

Admiral Bundesliga (First Division)

S.K. Sturm Graz from Styria
F.C. Red Bull Salzburg  from Salzburg
FK Austria Wien from Vienna
S.K. Rapid Wien from Vienna
WSG Tirol from Tyrol
SV Ried from Upper Austria
SK Austria Klagenfurt from Carinthia
Wolfsberger AC from Carinthia
TSV Hartberg from Styria
 SC Austria Lustenau from Vorarlberg
SCR Altach from Vorarlberg
LASK from Upper Austria

Admiral Zweite Liga (Second Division)
The champion of the league promotes to the Austrian Bundesliga.
FC Blau-Weiß Linz from Upper Austria
FC Liefering from Salzburg
First Vienna FC from Vienna
SKN St. Pölten from Lower Austria
FC Dornbirn from Vorarlberg
Floridsdorfer AC from Vienna
SV Lafnitz from Styria
Grazer AK from Styria
SKU Amstetten from Lower Austria
SK Sturm Graz II from Styria
Kapfenberger SV from Styria
SK Rapid Wien II from Vienna
SV Horn from Lower Austria
Young Violets Austria Wien from Vienna
FC Admira Wacker Mödling from Lower Austria
SK Vorwärts Steyr from Upper Austria

Regionalliga (Third Division)
The Regionalliga is divided into three sections.

Regionalliga Ost (East)

ASK-BSC Bruck/Leitha from Lower Austria
 ASV Draßburg from Burgenland
 SV Leobendorf from Lower Austria
FC Marchfeld Mannsdorf from Lower Austria
Kremser SC from Lower Austria
 FC Karabakh from Vienna
 SR Donaufeld Wien from Vienna
 SC Neusiedl am See from Burgenland
 SV Stripfing from Lower Austria
USV Scheiblingskirchen-Warth from Lower Austria
 TWL Elektra from Vienna
 First Vienna from Vienna
Wiener Sport-Club from Vienna
 SC Wiener Viktoria from Vienna
 1. Wiener Neustädter SC from Lower Austria
ASV Siegendorf from Burgenland

Regionalliga Mitte (Middle)
SV Allerheiligen from Styria 
 TuS Bad Gleichenberg from Styria 
 Deutschlandsberger SC from Styria 
 FC Gleisdorf 09 from Styria 
Union Gurten from Upper Austria 
 SC Kalsdorf from Styria 
 Junge Wikinger Ried from Upper Austria 
USV St. Anna from Styria 
 SK Treibach from Carinthia 
 Union Vöcklamarkt from Upper Austria 
 SC Weiz from Styria 
 WSC Hertha Wels from Upper Austria 
 Wolfsberger AC II from Carinthia 
LASK Amateure from Upper Austria
 DSV Leoben from Styria
SAK Klagenfurt from Carinthia

Regionalliga West (West)
The league plays three separate rounds with twelve clubs. The first and the second of each league plays a play off for promotion to 2. Liga. The other teams play against relegation to the Landesliga.

Eliteliga Salzburg
SV Kuchl 
SV Austria Salzburg 
TSV St. Johann 
SV Seekirchen 
SAK 1914 
FC Pinzgau Saalfelden 
SK Bischofshofen 
SV Wals-Grünau 
SV Grödig 
USK Anif
SC Golling
UFC Hallein

Regionalliga Tirol
SC Schwaz 
 FC Kitzbühel	
SV Wörgl	
SV Telfs 
SVG Reichenau 
FC Kufstein	
 SC Imst	
SV Hall 
SV Fügen	
 WSG Tirol Amateure	
SPG Silz/Mölz
SC Kundl

Eliteliga Vorarlberg
VfB Hohenems 
Admira Dornbirn	
 FC Wolfurt	
RW Rankweil 
 SC Röthis	
 Dornbirner SV	
 FC Rotenberg	
FC Lauterach	
 SW Bregenz	
FC Egg	
SCR Altach Amateure
 SC Göfis

Austrian
Football in Austria
football
Hacksaw

A hacksaw is a tool for sawing. A hacksaw is designed for cutting materials like very thin metals and plastic. It has a handle on one end, and can be either pushed or pulled across the object being cut. There are manual and electric hacksaws.

Cutting tools
Spade

In gardening, a spade is a tool for digging. It is similar to a shovel. It has a straight handle, usually of wood and a blade, usually of steel. 

For some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important. For example, spade more easily digs in hard soil; a shovel more easily moves gravel. 

In card games a spade is one of the four shapes or "suits" of cards.
Basic English 850 words
Gardening tools
Hoe (tool)

A hoe is a tool in farming and gardening. It has a blade, usually metal, attached to a long handle, usually wood. There are many types of blade and several uses, probably the most common of which is weeding. Other uses include shaping the soil and harvesting root crops such as potatoes. Along with the spade and fork, the hoe is considered a basic, essential hand farming implement.

Gardening tools
Shovel

A shovel is a tool used for moving loose material.  Shovels have a flat bottom head which is angled slightly from the handle to enable scooping and moving of material. 

Although a shovel can be used for digging, it is much less efficient than a spade. Spades are straight, and transmit force straight downwards. Shovels move loose material, such as coal, snow, gravel etc. They are usually made of metal at the bottom, and wood is sometimes used for the handle.

References 

Gardening tools
Tools
Plunger

A plunger is a tool. It is used to get rid of things that are blocking pipes. The plunger is placed over one end of the pipe, and the handle is pushed up and down. Doing this creates a sucking force, which makes the thing blocking the pipe move and unclog.

Tools
Ladder

A ladder is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down. Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder. Between these supports are the horizontal rungs. The rung is what the climber can put his foot on. The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.

Some ladders are made in one piece. They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house. There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off. Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders. Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store. To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.

Step ladders are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges. They have two parts which are joined by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V. There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.

Some ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down). These are fixed onto something. Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.

Fire engines always have ladders. They often have a turntable ladder which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.

Rope ladders can be folded away easily. They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves.

References 

Tools
Construction
Oral history

Oral history is history that is told rather than written down. It is given through talking rather than reading a book. It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred. 

Though today oral history is not as popular as written history, it is still used in many places as a way of transferring knowledge about the past.
Generation

A generation can mean any group that is sorted by the time they were created.

In a family, a generation means all the people on one level of a family tree.  For example, your brothers, sisters and cousins are in the same generation as you.

In populations of people, a “generation” means groups of people born in different periods of time. Each generation lasts for the average amount of time between the birth of parents, and the birth of their children.

”Generation” can also mean a wave or series of something, like a generation of car model (2nd generation for example). Anything that is created in waves can have generations or editions. 

Family
Time
Gene

Genes are parts of DNA. DNA is a molecule inside a cell that carries the instructions for making the proteins the cell will need. Each gene contains a single set of instructions. These instructions usually code for a particular protein. Humans have about 20,000 genes that code proteins and many more that are non-coding. Half of a person's genes come from the mother. The other half come from the father.

The definition 
Originally: a hereditary unit which occupies a specific position (locus) on a chromosome. Other definitions are ways the gene showed itself: 
1. A unit which has one or more specific effects on the phenotype of an organism; 
2. A unit that can mutate to various alleles; 
3. A unit which recombines with other such units.

Modern definitions must take note of later discoveries. There are now two classes of genes:p173
1. genes that are transcribed into RNAs and are translated into polypeptide chains.
2. genes whose transcripts (tRNAs, rRNAs, snRNAs) are used directly. These are operators which serve as 'regulatory sequences' during transcription and translation of the DNA."The building blocks of life."

What genes do? 
Genes are passed on from parent to child and are an important part of what decides how children look and act (their biological properties). Genes affect the way our bodies work, including how we look. Our eye, hair and skin color are decided by genes. It is said that genes cause genetic effects in our bodies.

A gene may be dominant or recessive. These terms refer to the effect a gene has on the offspring who carry it in their genome.

For example, let's say a mother only has genes for brown hair and a father only has genes for red hair. The child will inherit – receive – genes for red hair (from her father) and brown hair (from her mother). The brown hair gene is 'dominant' to the red hair gene. This means the child will have brown hair even though she has genes for both red and brown hair. This means only one dominant gene is needed for the child to receive that particular trait, while two recessive genes are needed for one.

A recessive trait might stay hidden for many generations. Let us use the child from the last example. We will call her "Mary". Mary has brown hair but has genes for both red and brown hair. Let us say Mary grew up and married Tom. Tom also has brown hair, but like Mary one of his parents had red hair. This means Tom has genes for both red and brown hair. Mary and Tom would each have a chance of passing either brown or red hair genes to their children. This means that the children of Mary and Tom could have either red or brown hair. This explains why a person might look different from their parents, but look like their grandparents or great-grandparents.

Structure and function 
The structure of a gene has many elements: the actual protein coding sequence is only a small part. There are DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.

Related pages
Allele#Dominance
Sequence analysis
Genetics
ENCODE, the complete analysis of the human genome
Gene therapy

References 

Cell biology
DNA
Classical genetics
Homophone

Homophones are words that sound the same as another word but have a different meaning, and often a different spelling.

Examples include:
 one, won
 pail, pale
 fore, four, for
 it's, its
 there, their, they're
 Knight, night
 which, witch
 pore, pour
 pear, pair, pare
 see, sea, C
 high, hi
 wear, where
 hare, hair
 air, heir
 whether, weather
 too, to, two
 ate, eight
 no, know
 by, buy, bye
 flour, flower
 right, write
 be, bee
 week, weak
 rains, reins
 higher, hire
 fare, fair

Related pages
 Homonym
 Homograph
 Polysemy
 Synonym -a different word for the same or very similar meaning

Words

References
Condensation

Condensation is how gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation.

Process 
Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape.  Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing.  In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas, at that temperature).

During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change. Condensation is exothermic.  This means that condensation makes the temperature go up.  Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature loss.

It is a useful process. One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue.

Related pages 
 Desalination

References

Other websites 
 International Consortium of Advanced Technologies and Security at SDSU 
 ScienceDirect - Heat transfer and evaporation in geothermal desalination units
 Condensation (phase transition) -Citizendium

Chemistry
Precipitation

Precipitation is the falling of water from the atmosphere. It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets, dew, frost, and hail. These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.

Fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions. In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. 

If liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge. The most common form of solid precipitation is snow. Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals. Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets.

Related pages
Water cycle

Meteorology
Relative humidity

Relative humidity is a way of describing how much humidity is present in the air, compared to how much there could be. Meteorologists often use the relative humidity as a measurement to describe the weather at various places.

When the temperature is warm, more water vapor can be in the air than when it is cold. If the actual amount of vapor is compared to the total amount there could be as a fraction, then the number tells if the air feels dry or moist. The value is usually written in percent, where 0% means that the air is totally dry, and 100% means that it is so moist that mist or dew is about to form.

When the temperature is lowered to the dew point, relative humidity become 100% and the water vapor  condenses, making precipitation as dew, rain or snow (etc.).

Weather measurements
Meteorology
Dichlorphenolindophenol

DCPIP (its full name is 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol) is a blue chemical used as a dye because when it is oxidized it is blue.  Once DCPIP is reduced (by addition of electrons) it does not have a color anymore. This reaction can be reversed, and the colourless DCPIP will turn blue again, when it is oxidized.

Purpose 
DCPIP is often used to measure the electron transport chain in plants. It has a higher redox potential (electron affinity) than the Fe-S complex in cytochrome b and will therefore "steal" electrons from it. This means that cytochrome c does not  receive them. The process cuts off the electron supply of  photosystem I. A common way to illustrate this change is by the addition of vitamin C solution. This reduces the 'jelly' by transforming it to a colourless mass. This experiment can be carried out to illustrate the effect of changing cell sizes on SA/V (surface area:volume ratio). This is known as Titration.

References 
Mathews, Ahern, Van Holde, Biochemistry, Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 2000 pp534–5

Organochlorides
Organonitrogen compounds
Healthy diet

A healthy diet or balanced diet is a diet (what you eat) that contains the right amounts of all the food groups. It includes fruit, vegetables, grains, dairy products, and protein. It does not include too much or too little of any kind of food. Eating wrong amounts of a food group, whether it be too much or too little, is called an 'unhealthy diet' or an 'imbalanced diet'. A healthy diet is one that includes more foods that come from plants and fewer convenience foods.

Basic nutrition 
What is known about nutrition and diet keeps changing as more is learned. However, basic nutrition remains much the same. The best advice is to talk to a doctor or dietitian for personalized information based on an individual's lifestyle, health, and food likes and dislikes.
 Basic nutrition begins with a diet based on the major food groups that includes vegetables, whole grains, and dairy products. It should also have lean protein such as beans, legumes, nuts and seeds plus healthy fats.
 A basic nutrition plan should include guidelines for how much food from each group to eat.
 Foods should be those that can be found in local grocery stores instead of specialty and gourmet food stores.
 A basic food plan should be based on an individual's budget, lifestyle and (healthy) preferences.
 Drink plenty of water. Drink fewer Soft drinks, energy drinks and sports drinks which usually have sugar.
 Read the food labels to see what is in the foods. For example, labels usually show what foods are lower in sodium such as in soup, bread, and frozen meals.
 A healthy diet should include seafoods (such as salmon, tuna, and trout) and shellfish (such as crab, mussels, and oysters). Seafood has protein, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids which are heart-healthy.
 Basic nutrition should contain balanced amounts of macronutrients for energy. Carbohydrates are one of the three macro-nutrients in the human diet (fat and protein are the other two).
 A healthy diet can replace dieting for weight loss. Eating healthy, along with physical exercise and practicing moderation, can lead to better health in the long run.

Special diets 
There are some diets made for people with some diseases. Here are some examples:

DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension)
 Gluten-free diet (Coeliac disease)
 Ketogenic diet (Epilepsy)

Related pages 
Food pyramid
Diet (nutrition)

References 

Diets
Diets
Dye

Dye is a substance used to color materials. It is often used to color the fabric used to make clothing. It has low solubility. A pigment won't do this because it won't stick to the fibers of the fabric and color them. A dye can be natural, usually made from plant material such as berries, or a dye can be artificial, meaning that it is made by humans from chemicals such as petrochemicals.

Most natural dyes are gotten from different parts of a plant like the roots, fruits, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. Most dyes are synthetic and are made from petrochemicals.

Classification
Dyes can be classified based on their solubility and chemical properties. 

 Acid dyes can dissolve in water.  They are used on fibers such as silk, wool, nylon.  Most food coloring that are made by man are acid dyes.  Examples of acid dye are Alizarine Pure Blue B, Acid red 88, etc.
 Basic dyes can dissolve in water.  They are mainly used on acrylic fibers.  They may also be used on wool and silk.  Basic dyes are also used to make paper colourful.

Related pages 
Pigment
Food coloring#Natural food dyes
Hair coloring

References

Color
Cloth
Poetry

Poetry is written, spoken or sung language that is used in stronger or more original ways than prose is used. Poetry uses the meanings of words as prose does; but it also uses the sounds of words as if they were music, especially rhymes, other repeating sounds, and rhythms (beats or meters).

Poetry arranges words and groups of words to make repetitions and parallelisms. Poetry uses figures of speech, ellipses and delayed identification to suggest that there is more meaning in the language.

Some people believe that poetry began when language began. They think it is probably "as old as history and older, present wherever religion is present."

The English words "poetry," "poet," and "poem" first appeared in English in the 14th century. They come from the Latin word poeta, which itself probably comes from poiein, a Greek word that means "to make."

There are three major kinds of poetry: lyric, narrative, and dramatic.

 Lyric poetry tends to be brief and is often about emotions.
 Narrative poetry tells a story with a plot.
 Dramatic poetry can be performed as a play.

A poem can be as short as a few words or as long as a book. A one-line poem is called a monostich. A poem that is as long as a book is an epic.

Poems are often printed on the page as lines and groups of lines called stanzas.

There are many different "poetic forms" or ways to shape a poem on the printed page or in the ear of the person who hears it. Some forms are: the sonnet, haiku, the ballad, the stev, the prose poem, the ode, free verse, blank verse, limerick, and nursery rhymes.

Related pages 
 Acrostic
 Sonnet 
 Poet
 Free verse
 Digital Poetry

References
Literature

Literature is a group of works of art that are made of words. Most are written, but some are shared by word of mouth. Literature usually means a work of poetry, theatre or narrative. There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups by their language, historical time, place of origin, genre, and subject. The word "literature" comes from the Latin word "literatura," which means "writing formed with letters."

Most of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia. Ramayana and Mahabharta, two Indian epics, are still read today. The Iliad and Odyssey are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were shared over time through speaking and memory and were written down around the 9th or 8th century BCE.

Literature can also mean imaginative or creative writing, which is read for its artistic value.

Related pages
English literature
French literature
Italian literature
German literature
Japanese literature
American literature
Spanish literature
Modernist literature

References
Imagination

Imagination is the ability to form images of things or events in one's mind. When someone imagines something, they are trying to picture something in their mind that they are not experiencing at the moment or that is not really happening.

Related pages 
Fiction
Science fiction
Fantasy
Psychology

Thought
Calorimeter

A calorimeter is a tool that measures the amount of thermal energy contained in a substance, or released in a reaction. A commonplace use is to measure heat of combustion.   

Laboratory equipment
Measuring tools
Bolus

In biology, a bolus (from the Latin word for ball), is a ball-shaped living thing.

In medicine, a bolus is a large amount of a drug given to patients to raise the blood level before treatment.

A bolus can also refer to a ball of food after it has been chewed. It passes down the oesophagus by peristalsis.

Physiology
Drugs
Biology
Oesophagus

The oesophagus (or esophagus) is also called the gullet. It is the part of the gastrointestinal system between the mouth and the stomach. It connects the pharynx and the stomach. It is about  long.

The oesophagus is lined with muscle, and is lubricated. Its muscle pushes food down into the stomach. The oesophagus can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food. The muscular movement that pushes the food down the oesophagus is called peristalsis. At the entrance to the stomach there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter. This is usually closed, but relaxes as food approaches, allowing it to enter the stomach. In the stomach, the food is churned until it turns into a soupy mixture called chyme.

Anatomy of the digestive system
Protease

A protease is a digestive  enzyme. It breaks down long chains of  proteins into shorter amino acids. Proteases have evolved a number of times. We know this because different kinds of protease can do the same reaction in completely different ways. Proteases are found in animals, plants, bacteria, archaea and viruses.

Now more than 50 types of protease are known. Each is a separate evolutionary origin of proteolysis.

Protease can be divided into 6 types :
serine proteases
threonine proteases
cysteine proteases
aspartate proteases
metallo proteases
glutamic acid proteases

References 

Enzymes