alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Graffiti

Graffiti is marks, scratching or drawings made on a surface on a public place. It is often created with paint or spray paint (paint that is sprayed from a can). A single mark could be called a graffito but the word graffiti is usually used, meaning that there is more than one mark.

Graffiti can take the form of art, drawings or words. When done without a property owner's permission it can be considered vandalism. Sometimes it is just a person's name or a rude word. Sometimes it is a public political protest because graffiti is illegal without permission.

Types 
There are lots of different types of graffiti, and some people call some things graffiti that other people would not.

In some kinds of graffiti, people write their name in different ways. It is usually not their real name. Sometimes people write the name of their crew, which is a group of friends who write together. Small writing like a signature is called a tag. Bigger writing that is very round and has an outline is called a throw up. A graffiti writing with lots of detail is called a piece, which is short for masterpiece.

Some graffit is made of pictures. This can be a small picture or a large mural.

Graffiti can be legal or illegal. Some towns have walls that anyone is allowed to paint on. Sometimes the government or a business will pay someone to paint, to attract tourists or advertise something. Some graffiti artists like Keith Haring became very famous.

History 

Paintings were done on cave walls over 40,000 years ago in Australia. The oldest graffiti that used writing was in the Roman Empire, people wrote messages on walls. It wasn't considered vandalism, instead people saw it as just a way to talk to one another.

In the 1700s and 1800s in the United States, some people began to write "monikers" on trains. Monikers were pictures and fake names. One famous moniker was Bozo Texino.

Modern graffiti was made famous in New York City in the early 1960s and 1970s by the children of the working class. They called it "writing" and called themselves "writers." At first they wrote on trains, but when the New York Subway started to make it harder, writers moved into the city to write on walls instead.

In a 1971 New York Times article, Norman Mailer first used the term "graffiti" was first used to refer to the new kind of art people were painting on trains. This period of the early 1970s is known as the "Original School." Later in the 1980s, the next generation of graffiti artists is known as "Old School."

References

Other websites 
 Graffiti.CX  Online Graffiti Contest 
 Graffiti art on train
 Graffiti.org.br 
 Walls & bridges from south Belgium
 How to remove graffiti?
 Remove Graffiti From Different Surfaces?
 Graffiti art or vandalism
Appellation d'origine contrôlée

Appellation d'origine controlée (AOC, "controlled designation of origin") is a French phrase which shows that a product comes from a certain area.  

Some products must come from a certain area and be made in a certain way in order to have the name of the product.  The most famous example is champagne, which must be fermented in the bottle and be made in the Champagne region of France.

The French government set up the Institut national des appellations d'origine  et de la qualité (INAO, "National institute of controlled designation of origin") in 1935 to oversee the system.  Although usually linked with wines, the start of the system of protecting the name of goods started in the 15th century when the French parliament defined what could be called Roquefort cheese.   

AOCs are most often found in connection with:
 Wine regions (like Bordeaux Entre-Deux-Mers AOC)
 Some ciders
 Some cheeses (like Roquefort) and Parmesan (in Italy)

References

Marketing
French food
Distillation

Distillation is a process where a mixture made of two or more liquids (called "components") with different boiling points can be separated from each other.  The mixture is heated until one of the components boils (turns to a vapor).  The vapor is then fed into a condenser, which cools the vapor and changes it back into a liquid that is called distillate.  What remains in the original container is called the "residue".  This is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction.   Fractional distillation (using a distillation column with more than two outlets) can be used to improve the separation.  An oil refinery uses fractional distillation to purify crude oil, separating several different liquids for different uses.   

This has been used for a long time, to distill alcohol and produce alcoholic drinks.  Distillation is a commonly used operation in many industries.

Distillation can be done anywhere, whether it's in a house or a laboratory, but in most countries it is illegal to distill alcohol without a license. Illegally distilled alcoholic drinks are in some places called moonshine.

Distillation is also the main way of desalination of water. In this case the salt is a solid that is in solution with the water. In alcohol distillation or  petroleum distillation, the things to be separated from their solution are two or more distillation liquids.

Gallery

References

Laboratory techniques
Lawyer

A lawyer (also called an "advocate", "attorney", "barrister", "counsel", "counsellor", or "solicitor") is someone who practices law. A lawyer has earned a degree in law, and has a license to practice law in a particular area. 

If people have any problem regarding the law, they can contact a lawyer for advice.  A legal problem is referred to as a case.  A person can hire a lawyer to start a case against someone else, or to help with a case that has been started against them.  If the case goes to court, the lawyer will represent their client in court.  The lawyer will use their knowledge of the law to convince the court that the client is on the right side of the argument.  Lawyers also help people "settle out of court," which means that both sides of the argument agree to resolve the dispute ahead of time so that they will not have to go to trial. 

When a person is accused of a crime, the person has a defense lawyer to try to show they have not committed a crime.  The lawyer arguing that they did do the crime is called the prosecutor.

Lawyers also prepare legal documents for their clients. Examples: buying or selling property or making a will (testament). Certain lawyers (called "commissioners of oaths" in England) can take legally binding witness statements which can be presented to the court.

Lawyers work in different settings.  Some work by themselves, while some work in law firms.  Some lawyers work for hospitals and private companies. Lawyers who work for private companies are usually called in-house counsel.

Lawyers generally charge a fee for the work that they do, but sometimes advice is offered freely, which is called "pro bono," meaning "for the public good."  In many countries, if a person is accused of a crime and unable to pay for a lawyer, the government will pay a lawyer to represent them using tax money.

Law occupations
Loreto Region

Loreto is Peru's most northern region. Covering almost one-third of Peru's territory, Loreto is the nation's biggest region.  It is also one of the least populated ones, because of its remote location in the Amazon rainforest. Its capital is the city of Iquitos.

Boundaries
 Northwest: Ecuadorian provinces of Sucumbíos, Orellana, Pastaza and Morona-Santiago
 North: Colombian department of Putumayo
 Northeast: Amazonas Department, also in Colombia
 East: Brazilian states of Amazonas and Acre
 South: Ucayali and Huánuco regions
 West: San Martín and Amazonas regions

Administrative divisions
The region is divided into eight provinces (provincias, singular: provincia), which are composed of 53 districts (distritos, singular: distrito). The provinces, with their capitals in parenthesis, are:
 Maynas (Iquitos)
 Alto Amazonas (Yurimaguas)
 Datem del Marañón (San Lorenzo)
 Loreto (Nauta)
 Mariscal Ramón Castilla (Caballococha)
 Putumayo (San Antonio del Estrecho)
 Requena (Requena)
 Ucayali (Contamana)

Other websites 

 INEI Peru
Iquitos

Iquitos is the capital city of the Loreto Region in northern Peru. It is on the banks of the Amazon River. Iquitos is the biggest city in the rain forest of Peru, with about 400,000 residents. It is a major port on the Amazon. 

Excluding towns on islands, Iquitos is thought to be the largest city in the world that can not be reached by road. One can only get to Iquitos by boat, or by airplane. It is very remote, in the middle of the Amazon rainforest. 

Iquitos was founded in 1747 by Jesuit José Bahamonde. Originally it was the home of the Iquito native tribe. About 100 years ago, Iquitos was a very rich town, because of the rubber industry. Today Iquitos relies mostly on tourism, wood industry and local trade.

Other websites 
 http://www.munimaynas.gob.pe/  (in Spanish) (uses Macromedia Flash)
 Iquitos information at biopark.org 

Cities in Peru
Capitals of regions of Peru
Loreto Region
1747 establishments
Establishments in Peru
18th-century establishments in South America
Calvados (drink)

Calvados is an alcoholic drink. It is made from distilling cider in Normandy, one of the oldest Provinces of France (created in 911). It got its name from the place called Calvados which is famous for making it (sometimes called 'le Pays d'Auge'). It is also made in the  other places in Normandy including la Manche (Cotentin) and l'Orne (Domfront).

How Calvados is made 
The way to make Calvados is to distil cider twice. The first time it is done, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. The second time it is done, the amount of alcohol is increased to about 40%.

Since 1942, the Calvados has its own Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC), which means it is from one place. The rules are:
 The « Calvados Pays d’Auge » (25% of production): The Cidre needs to come from apples of the « Pays d'Auge ». Two rounds of distillation in a multi-pass still
 The « Calvados » (74 % of production): The apples used for the cidre need to be from Normandy.
 The « Calvados Domfrontais » (1% of production) : Base for the production are apples and pears from the region called « domfrontais », there is only one round of distillation in a still.

How Calvados is served 
Calvados can be served either dry or with ice, as a cocktail, an aperitif, or as a digestif. It goes very well with cheese, chocolate, dessert or ice cream. Crepes can also be served with Calvados.

Calvados can also be added to coffee. People usually do this at the end of dinner.

Other websites 
 Apples, cider and Calvados in Pays d'Auge, Normandy (Multilingual)*
 Ferme du Ponctey Normandy (Multilingual) *

Alcoholic spirits
Calvados
Apple products
Still

A still is a tool used to clean a liquid. It does this by first boiling the liquid and turning it into a gas. This gas is then cooled, changing it back into liquid. Stills get their name from the word distillation. Distillation is the process of boiling and cooling a liquid to purify it. Stills are most often used to create alcohol, but they can also be used with any liquid. Some examples are medicines and perfumes.

There are two main types of stills: pot stills and reflux stills. In a pot still, the pot (like a large kettle) holding the liquid is heated. The hot gas is cooled in a simple neck, or tube, and collected. Pot stills are used for making alcohol like whisky. A reflux still is much more complex. It works with a continual flow of liquid going into the boiler, and a continual flow of distilled liquid coming out. The distilled liquid can also be put through the process several times, which is why it is called a reflux still. This allows for a more pure product, and the person working the still can control the level of purity. Reflux stills are used in the chemical and petroleum industries.

References

Tools
Ravioli

Ravioli is a type of Italian food pasta dish. It is usually two layers of pasta dough with a filling between the two layers. There are many different recipes, with different kinds of fillings. The most common fillings are meat, vegetables or blackboard cheese. People eat this kind of food with a sauce or melted butter.

Pasta
The Bridge on the River Kwai

The Bridge on the River Kwai is a British 1957 movie from Columbia Pictures, based on Pierre Boulle's 1952 book The Bridge over the River Kwai (). The movie was mainly filmed in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and also in England.

In 1941 the Japanese Army invaded Thailand.  They built a railway to link Bangkok to Rangoon.  Thousands of Asian workers and POWs (prisoners of war) died while working on the project.  Part of this project was building bridges over Thailand's Kwai Yai, at a place named Tamarkan, which is near a town named Kanchanaburi.

The deaths of the Asian workers and the prisoners were real events, but most of the book and the movie are not true.  The British soldiers were slaves; they did not help the Japanese.  Two bridges were built; one was made of wood, one was made of concrete and steel.  Both bridges stood for two years and were destroyed by bombers in 1945.

In the movie the bridge is destroyed by commandos.  A real train rode over the bridge as it blew up. (This can be compared to a scene in the 1927 movie, The General, which starred Buster Keaton.)

The movie is best known for the "Colonel Bogey March", the song that is whistled by the POWs. It is also known as the "River Kwai March".

The movie won seven Academy Awards, one for Best Picture.  It also won the BAFTA Award for Best British Screenplay.

Other websites 
 Account of bombing crew 
 

1957 war movies
1957 adventure movies
1957 drama movies
Best Picture Oscar
British drama movies
British war movies
Columbia Pictures movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by David Lean
United States National Film Registry movies
World War II
Multilingual movies
Tannin

Tannins are bitter-tasting chemical compounds that bind proteins. 
Tannins are present in the following:
 Wine
 Tea
 Cannabis

Tannins are also used in the treatment of leather, to make it more durable. Natural tannins for this purpose come from oak trees, but synthetic tannins are more used.

chemical compounds
Cuisine

Cuisine refers to any style of cooking, including its practices, traditions and recipes. A cuisine is usually associated with a specific culture. It is mainly influenced by the ingredients that are available to that culture. Cooking methods, customs and ingredients together form meals that are unique to a particular region. When people talk about Italian cuisine, they are referring to the food that Italians are famous for. Cuisine is a French word that means "kitchen", but it originally comes from the Latin word coquere, which means "to cook". 

Traditionally, cuisines are shaped by a number of things. In some religious traditions, certain foods are forbidden by law (an example is pork in Islam). Climate and trade affect the what ingredients are available. Climate may also affect the methods by which food is prepared. Before the exploration of Asia and America by Europeans, certain foods were not known to European cuisine. Tomatoes, maize, avocados and cacao, for example, did not enter European diets until merchants brought these ingredients back from the New World. In modern times, cuisines are becoming more and more multicultural. New cuisines continue to develop even today.

Cuisines have different courses or three meals Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner. Ancient Greeks had breakfast—bread dipped in wine.  The bread was made from barley, the main source of all bread in ancient times.  It was probably hard, which is why the Greeks would dip it in the wine, to soften it and make it easier to eat.

The history of breakfast goes back to the ancient Greeks who ate something called a teganites (τηγανίτης), which resembled a pancake. These were made with wheat flour, olive oil, honey, and curdled milk, and usually topped with honey or cheese.

Related pages 

 :Category:Foods by nationality
 Diet
 Food

References
Some Like It Hot

Some Like It Hot is a 1959 American comedy movie starring Marilyn Monroe, Tony Curtis, Pat O'Brien, Jack Lemmon and George Raft, and directed by Billy Wilder. It is seen by some as a remake of the 1951 German movie, Fanfaren der Liebe. (Michael Logan wrote the story for the version) The movie is set in 1929. It has been remade for the stage twice (in 1972 and 2002). It was ranked at Number One on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list and fourteen on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

Other websites 

 
 
 JenFlick.com Review 
 Roger Ebert's Great Movies review 

1959 comedy movies
1959 crime movies
American criminal comedy movies
American movie remakes
American musical movies
American romantic comedy movies
Movies set in the 1920s
MGM movies
United States National Film Registry movies
Movies directed by Billy Wilder
Yale University

Yale University is a private university in New Haven, Connecticut. It is in the Ivy League and considered by many people to be one of the best universities in the world. Yale is the third oldest university in the United States.

Yale was founded in 1701 in a town near New Haven by a group of church ministers. At first it was called "The Collegiate School" and was created to teach male church ministers in Connecticut. When Elihu Yale, a businessman with the East India Company, gave the school money and books in 1718, the school changed its name to Yale College. It moved into the center of New Haven in the same year. About fifty years later, the school began to teach other subjects like science and history. As the school became more liberal, it became one of the first American schools where extracurricular student groups were created, especially singing groups, sports teams, and student publications like the Yale Daily News.

In the beginning, Yale only taught undergraduate students. Over time, it created graduate schools for medicine, nursing, environmental science, law, music, drama, business, and other professions. In 1869, Yale became the first school in the United States to offer a PhD.  Because it had grown to have many types of schools, degrees, and courses, Yale changed its name to Yale University in 1887. The undergraduate college began to accept women as students in 1969.

Yale has one of the largest libraries in the United States, with 19 library buildings and over 15 million books. The school's main library building, Sterling Memorial Library, is built to look like a cathedral. The Beinecke Library has one of the world's largest collections of rare books and old manuscripts.

The school's campus is known for its Gothic Revival architecture, which was built to look like older English universities like Oxford and Cambridge. On its main campus, Yale has two art museums, a natural history museum, and many theaters. The university also has a golf course near campus and owns five forests in New England.

Fifty-two Nobel Prize winners have been students or professors at Yale, and five U.S. presidents have graduated from Yale, including George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Other famous alumni include politicians Hilary Clinton and John Kerry, actors Meryl Streep and Edward Norton, inventors Eli Whitney and Samuel Morse, CNN anchors Fareed Zakaria and Anderson Cooper, FedEx founder Fred Smith and Pepsi CEO Indra Nooyi, and computer scientist Grace Hopper.

Yale's color is blue, and its mascot is a bulldog named "Handsome Dan." Its sports teams are called the Yale Bulldogs, and they play in the Ivy League.

Peter Salovey, a psychologist, is the current president of Yale.

Related pages 
Database of (Macro)Molecular Motions at Yale University

References 

 
Association of American Universities
ECAC Hockey
Ivy League
1700s establishments in Connecticut
1701 establishments
Salt (disambiguation)

Salt could mean:

Salt, a chemical compound
Table salt (sodium chloride), the salt that people eat
Heinz Fischer

Heinz Fischer (born 9 October 1938) is the former president of Austria. His wife is Margit Fischer.

1938 births
Living people
People from Graz
Presidents of Austria
Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Halogen

The halogens are chemical elements under the second-to-right column in the periodic table, also known as Group 17. The elements in the group are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, and tennessine. Halogen literally means "salt becomer", but it is often said to mean "salt producer". They are very reactive, so they are likely to join with other elements on the left side of the periodic table to make compounds. This is because they are missing one electron. They are rarely found alone in nature. Fluorine is the most reactive, while iodine is the least reactive. Astatine is very radioactive and hard to get.

Halogens
Vitamin

A "vitamin" is also a pill that contains vitamins, eaten regularly to keep one healthy.

A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. They include Vitamin A, many B vitamins (like B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. For example, citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain vitamin C. 

The term was coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named vitamine. By convention the word vitamin does not include other essential nutrients, such as certain minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids. 

Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, and not their structure. Each vitamin name (the word vitamin followed by a letter) refers to a number of vitamer compounds which all show the same biological activity. For example, vitamin A refers to several different chemicals.  Vitamers convert to the active form of the vitamin in the body. They are sometimes inter-convertible to one another as well.

The body does not make these chemicals. They come from other places, usually food. A short term lack of a certain vitamin is usually not a problem, because the body can store vitamins for a short time. Not having a certain vitamin for a longer period of time can lead to different diseases, depending on the vitamin. Probably the best-known of these diseases is scurvy, which results from not having enough Vitamin C. Beriberi and rickets are others. 

Today, many drug companies make inexpensive pills that contain various vitamins. They help people avoid those diseases.

Vitamins can be either fat-soluble or water-soluble.  Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) can be stored in the body, and are used when needed.  Water-soluble ones only stay in the body a short time.

Name changes 
Currently there are no vitamins F to J.  These existed at some time.  Today they are no longer seen as vitamins.  Some of them were also false leads, and turned out to be something else.  Others were renamed as B vitamins.  Today, the B vitamins are a whole complex, and not just one vitamin. 

The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the 'Koagulation' (clotting) of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through I were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.
The following table lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.

List of vitamins

Related pages
 Dietary mineral
 Essential fatty acid
 Essential amino acid

References
Adultery

Adultery (informally known as cheating in non-religious situations) is a word used in religious texts like Exodus 20:14. Adultery applies to a married person having sex with someone other than the person who they are married to. 

In countries where religion is important, adultery often comes with a heavy punishment. Some Muslim countries punish it with death by stoning. In most countries adultery is no longer a crime, but most people still see it as a bad thing.(see Gospel of John 8) If a person who is married takes part in adultery, that person's husband or wife would usually have the right to be able to go to court to divorce them.

Word origin 
The word adultery originates not from “adult”, as is commonly thought in English-speaking countries, but from the Late Latin word for “to alter, corrupt”: “adulterare”.  “Adulterare” in turn is formed by the combination of “ad” (towards), and “alter” (other), together with the infinitive form “are” (making it a verb). Thus the meaning is literally “to make other”. In contrast, the word “adult” (meaning a person of mature years) comes from another Latin root, “adolescere”, meaning to grow up or mature: a combination of “ad” (towards), “alere” (to nourish, to grow), and the inchoative infix “sc”(meaning to enter into a state of).

Literature 
Famous adulterers include :
 Paris (mythology) and Helen in the Iliad
 Lancelot and Guinevere
 David and Bathsheba the wife of Uriah (2 Samuel 11)
 Anna Karenina and Vronsky
 Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert
 Genji
 Hestor Prynne

 Othello

Related pages 

 Infidelity: the same concept, but without a religious background
Perjury

Perjury is the word used for a person that tells a lie while they are under oath (in a courtroom). Committing perjury is against the law, and can be punished with a jail or prison sentence.

Perjury is a serious crime because it might be used to take away the power of a court, which can lead to punishment for the wrong person. In the United States, perjury is a federal offense, and it can be punished by five years in prison. However, in California, a person who commits perjury can get the death penalty if the perjury led to a wrongful execution.

The rules of perjury also apply when a person says or does something under penalty of perjury, even if he or she never swore an oath. One example is the United States' income tax return, where people have to sign as true and correct under penalty of perjury. A person can be punished by three years in prison if he or she lies on the tax return.

A statement that involves interpretation are not perjury because people can judge incorrectly without knowing it. Perjury only happens if a person wanted to do it and then actually did.

Canada 
The offence of perjury is written in section 132 of the Criminal Code. It is described by section 131, which says that perjury is when a person says something false when he or she knows that it is false. People who commit perjury can be imprisoned for fourteen years at most.

European Union 
A person in the Court of Justice of the European Communities swears anything he knows is false is guilty of perjury. Proceedings for perjury can happen in any place in the State and the offence can be treated as if it happened in that place.

United States 
Perjury in American law comes from the common law of England, which defined the it as giving a false testimony under oath that has to do with the issue.

Definitions 
The American legal system defines perjury as saying anything knowingly false under oath to a "competent tribunal, officer, or person". The punishment can be a fine or up to five years in prison or both.

References 

Types of crime
Lust

Lust is a term for a strong desire or wanting, or maybe even needing, often for sexual acts, although it is also commonly used to talk of a lust for life or a lust for power or for other goals.

As a sexual desire, it is considered a sin (a failing) by Christianity, which lists it as one of the seven deadly sins.

"Lust" was originally an Anglo-Saxon word which meant "desire" or "appetite". 

Seven deadly sins
Emotions
Bromine

Bromine (Br) is a chemical element. Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 35, and its atomic weight is 80. It is part of the Group 7 elements (halogens) on the periodic table. It is diatomic, which means that two atoms are stuck together to make a molecule in any bromine sample.

Properties

Physical properties
Bromine is a red-brown liquid. Liquid elements are rare; only bromine and mercury are liquid at room temperature. It easily evaporates to make suffocating brown fumes. It has a bad smell. Its name means "stench of he-goats". It can become a metal at very high pressures.

It has two stable isotopes. They are 79Br and 81Br. There are about 29 other radioactive isotopes.

Chemical properties
Bromine is quite reactive. Its reactivity is between chlorine, which is more reactive, and iodine, which is less reactive. It reacts with metals and nonmetals. Phosphorus reacts violently with bromine. Aluminum reacts in a similar way.  It can bleach things like chlorine. It reacts better in the light. It dissolves a little in water. Hot water makes it disproportionate into hydrobromic acid and hypobromous acid. Bromine can form compounds with substances such as sodium to form sodium bromide.

Chemical compounds

Bromine forms compounds in many oxidation states: –1, +1, +3, +5, and (sometimes) +7. –1 is the most common. It is found as bromide. Bromides are not reactive. They are colorless solids that dissolve in water easily. Covalent bromides can be liquids or gases. The other compounds are all strong oxidizing agents. Their chlorine cousins are more common. +1 has the hypobromites, which are unstable. +3 has the bromites. Bromine dioxide is the only common bromine compound found in the +4 oxidation state. +5 has the bromates, which are more common than all the other ones except the bromides. Bromates are strong oxidizing agents and are sometimes added to flour. +7 has the perbromates. Perbromates are very unstable.

Occurrence
Bromine is found as bromide in the ocean and in brine pools. The Dead Sea has a lot of bromide in it. Bromine is not an important part of our body, unlike its relatives chlorine and iodine.

Preparation
Bromine is made by bubbling chlorine gas through a solution of a bromide. The bromide is oxidized to bromine, while the chlorine is reduced to chloride.

Uses
It is mainly used to make organobromine compounds, organic compounds with bromine in them. Organobromines are used to put out fires. They used to be added to gasoline. Some were used as pesticides. Some inorganic bromides were used as sedatives. Bromine can also be used as a disinfectant. Silver bromide is used in film.

Safety
Bromine is toxic and corrosive to skin. Bromine gas is irritating when it is breathed in, too. Bromine can react violently with many things.

Halogens
Astatine

Astatine is a radioactive, chemical element. Its atomic number is 85, and its atomic weight is 210. It is part of the Group 17 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements. All of astatine's isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.3 hours.

History 
The first creation of the element was in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio G. Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley, who named it from the Greek estates (ἄστατος), meaning "unstable".

Chemistry 
Astatine is highly radioactive and all its isotopes have half-lives of approximately 8 hours or less, the longest being astatine-210 with a half-life of a bit over eight hours. Some of its isotopes may be found in nature, but because it is so unstable, only about an ounce exists in the Earth's crust at any point in time. Chemists say it is the rarest element in the Earth's crust. Less reactive than iodine, astatine is the least reactive of the halogens. Only a few compounds with metals have been found, in the form of astatides of sodium, palladium, silver, thallium, and lead.

Uses 
It can be used for cancer treatment and in radioactive tracers.

References 

Halogens
United States House of Representatives

The United States House of Representatives is a part of the United States (U.S.) Congress. Congress is the legislature of the U. S. government and makes federal laws. The other part of Congress is the U. S. Senate. There are maximum 435 members in the United States House of Representatives. These members are called U. S. Representatives or just representatives. All representatives are elected every two years.

The number of representatives from each state depends on the number of people in that state, the population, but there is at least one U. S. representative from each of the 50 states. Every 10 years, the United States Census Bureau counts the population of the United States. States gain or lose Representatives based on the count. The House of Representatives is in one of the two wings in the U.S. Capitol building. The other wing is for the Senate. Sometimes the House of Representatives is informally called the House. The chairman/chairperson in the U.S. House of Representatives is called the Speaker of the House.

According to the U.S. Constitution, all bills about raising revenue, which includes taxes, must start in the House of Representatives. Also, only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach certain officials, such as the president or federal judges. According to the U.S. Constitution, the House of Representatives can expel, or impeach, one of its representatives by a vote of at least two-thirds of its members.

Notes

Other websites
 
Clerk of the House of Representatives
 Chief Administrative Office of the House
 Office of the majority leader
 Office of the speaker of the House
 Official list of current members
 Rules of the House
 Legislative information and archives for US House and Senate, via Congress.gov
 Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774 to Present
 A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 
 Complete Downloadable List of U.S. Representative Contact Information, via AggData LLC]
 Information about U.S. Congressional Bills and Resolutions
Lourdes Flores Nano

Dr.Lourdes Celmira Flores Nano (born October 7 1959) is a Peruvian lawyer and politician. She is the leader of the Christian People's Party. She tried to become the mayor of Lima in 2010.

Flores Nano was born in Lima in 1959. She studied law at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. She studied for a Phd in Law from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, one of the world's oldest universities in Madrid, Spain. She was a member of the Lima Municipal Council and then a member of the National Congress of Peru. In 2001 and 2006 she was a candidate in election for the President of Peru.

References

1959 births
Living people
Politicians from Lima
Novel

Novels are books which have one long story written in them. They are works of prose fiction. They are longer than short stories and novellas. There are many kinds. For example, some are adventure stories, like Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson. There are horror (scary) stories like Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. There are also science fiction novels like Dune by Frank Herbert, and humorous novels like Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain. Novels in English are usually at least 60,000 words long. Some are much bigger, 150,000 words or more. Novels usually have 100 pages or more.

The first novels were written more than three hundred years ago. Some people say that Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes is the first novel. It was first published in 1605.

Genres of novels 
There are many different genres, or categories, of novels. Some of these are:

Campus
Crime fiction
Fantasy
Gothic
Horror
Romance
Spy
Thriller
Science fiction
Speculative
Westerns
Picaresque
Gothic Novel
Sentimental Novel
Weird fiction

References
1095



Events 
 The county of Portugal is established for the second time.
 Pembroke Castle is built in Wales.
 The cathedral in Valence, France is consecrated.
 Coloman becomes King of Hungary.
 March – Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus sends ambassadors to Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza, to discuss sending mercenaries against the Seljuk Turks.
 November 18 – The Council of Clermont began. The council was called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land.
 November – Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont; Peter the Hermit begins to preach throughout France.
 November 28 – On the last day of the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II appoints Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy and Count Raymond IV of Toulouse to lead the First Crusade to the Holy Land.
Oak Lawn, Illinois

Oak Lawn is a village in Cook County, Illinois, USA. It is a suburb of Chicago.

Villages in Illinois
Suburbs of Chicago
Settlements in Cook County, Illinois
1607



Births
 January 10 – Isaac Jogues, Jesuit missionary to Native Americans (died 1646)
 March 20 – Lady Alice Boyle, Irish noblewoman (died 1667)
 March 24 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (died 1676)
 July 13 – Václav Hollar, Bohemian etcher (died 1677)
 November 1 – Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, German poet (died 1658)
 November 15 – Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (died 1701)
 November 26 – John Harvard, American clergyman (died 1638)
 Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll (died 1661)
 Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (died 1691)
 John Boys, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (died 1664)
 John Dixwell, English judge and regicide (died 1689)
 Jan Kazimierz Krasinski, Polish nobleman (died 1669)
 Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French courtier (died 1693)
 Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton (died 1667)
 Yagyu Jubei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (died 1650)
 Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Spanish dramatist (died 1660)
500s BC



Events
 509 BC -the Roman Republic starts.
 509 BC, September 13 - The temple of Jupiter on Rome's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides (15th) of September.
 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus made in Rome
 507 BC - Cleisthenes, Greek reformer, takes power and increases democracy
 506 BC - Battle of Bai ju: Forces of the Kingdom of Wu under Sun Tzu defeat the forces of Chu
 505 BC - First pair of Roman consuls elected
 502 BC - December 4: Solar eclipse darkens Egypt. (we think this because of scientific pattern, no clear historical record of observation)
 502 BC - The Latin League defeats the Etruscans under Lars Porsenna at Aricia.
 502 BC - Naxos rebels against Persian domination sparking the Ionian Revolt.
 501 BC - Cleisthenes reforms democracy in Athens.
 501 BC - Naxos is attacked by the Persian Empire.
 501 BC - because of threats by the Sabines, Rome makes the office of dictator.
 501 BC - Confucius is made governor of Chung-tu.
 501 BC - Gadir (present-day Cádiz) is captured by Carthage. (approximate date)
 500 BC - Bantu-speaking people come into south-west Uganda from the west. (approximate date)
 500 BC - Refugees from Teos resettle Abdera.
 500 BC - Darius I of Persia proclaims that Aramaic be the official language of the western half of his empire
 500 BC - the end of the Nordic Bronze Age civilization in Oscar Montelius periodization system and the start of the Pre-Roman Iron Age
 500 BC - the first republic in Vaishali Bihar India starts.
 c. 500 BC—Yayoi period starts in Ancient Japan.
 c. 500 BC—Oldest known Zapotec writing.
 The Gutaii tribe began around this time, in Middle and Southern Africa.

Significant people
c. 500 BC—Heraclitus, Greek philosopher
Siddharta Gautama
c. 585–501 BC—Pythagoras, mathematician

Deaths 
 Lucretia, Roman noblewoman
 Lucius Junius Brutus, Roman consul (509 BC)
 Aruns Tarquinius, Roman prince (509 BC)
 Shen Yin Shu, general of Chu, (506 BC)
 Titus Junius Brutus, Roman noble and monarchist conspiractor
 Tiberius Junius Brutus, Roman noble and monarchist conspiractor

How the world looked

References

500s BC
Fossil fuel

Fossil fuels are fuels that come from old life forms that decomposed over a long period of time.  The three most important fossil fuels are coal, petroleum, and natural gas.     

Petroleum and gas are hydrocarbons (molecules that have only hydrogen and carbon in them).  Coal is mostly carbon. These fuels are called fossil fuels because they are dug up from underground. Coal mining digs up solid fuel; gas and oil wells bring up liquid fuel. Fossil fuel was not much used until the Middle Ages. Coal became the main kind of fuel with the Industrial Revolution.

Uses 
Most of the fuels people burn are fossil fuels. A big use is to make electricity. In power plants fossil fuels, usually coal, are burned to heat water into steam, which pushes a fan-like object called a turbine. When the turbine spins around, magnets inside the turbine make electricity. 

Crude oil (petroleum) can be separated to make various fuels such as LPG, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel.  These substances are made by fractional distillation in an oil refinery.  They  are the main fuels in transportation. That means that they are burned in order to move cars, trucks, ships, airplanes, trains and even spacecraft.  Without them, there wouldn't be much transport.  

People also burn fossil fuels to heat their homes. They use coal less for this than they did long ago, because it makes things dirty. In many homes, people burn natural gas in a stove for cooking.

Fossil fuels are widely used in construction.

Origin 
All fossil fuels come from the periods in Earth's history when the Earth had huge tropical forests. In those periods, plants lived, grew and died, faster than they decayed. In other words, they were times when much of the dead vegetation did not entirely decompose. Instead it became coal and related substances such as peat.

The times of the great wetlands which produced coal and peat were in the Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian), continuing in the first part of the Permian; the Jurassic and Eocene periods. Virtually all the worlds' coal dates to those periods.

Problems 

Most air pollution comes from burning fossil fuels. This can be reduced by making the combustion process more efficient, and by using various techniques to reduce the escape of harmful gases. This pollution is responsible for causing the earth to get warmer, called global warming. They are also non-renewable resources, there is only a limited amount of coal, gas, and oil, and it is not possible to make more. Eventually all the fossil fuels will be used. Some scientists think that coal will have run out by 2200 and oil by 2040. 

Renewable energy sources like biomass energy such as firewood are being used.  Countries are also increasing the use of wind power, tidal energy, and solar energy to generate electricity.  Some governments are helping automobile makers to develop electric cars and hybrid cars that will use less oil.

References

Other websites 
 The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on fossil fuels and their impact on climate change (includes Global Warming)
George Morrow

George Morrow (c. 1934 - May 7, 2003) was part of the early microcomputer industry in the United States. Morrow  promoted (make popular) and improved the S-100 bus used in many early microcomputers. Morrow was also a member of the Homebrew Computer Club.

Starting in 1976, he designed and sold computers, computer parts, and accessories under several company names, including Morrow Designs. Morrow's companies built microcomputers that used the CP/M operating system. When IBM started selling their IBM PC personal computer in 1981, Morrow and other CP/M computer makers had trouble competing. Morrow Designs filed for bankruptcy in 1986.

References

American computer scientists
Scientists from Detroit
1934 births
2003 deaths
Dietary mineral

A dietary mineral is a chemical element that a living thing needs to be part of what they eat, other from the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are already very common in living things.

One example of a dietary mineral is calcium, which humans and many other animals need to build strong bones and teeth, among other things. Iron is another mineral, which you can find in red meat. It is important for us to have iron as it creates red blood cells. Other common minerals include potassium and phosphorus.

Related pages
Vitamin
Essential fatty acid
Essential amino acid

Nutrients
Cleveland, England

Cleveland is an area in the North of  Yorkshire, England. That means it is in North East England.

As a non-metropolitan county it existed between 1 April 1974 and 31 March 1996. The districts which made up the county are now all unitary authorities.

References 

1974 establishments in England
1996 disestablishments in England
Historic counties of England
North East England
Hungarian language

Hungarian is a Uralic language. The Hungarian name for the language is Magyar.

The Finno-Ugric languages also include Finnish, Estonian, Lappic (Sámi) and some other languages spoken in Russia: Khanty and Mansi are the most closely related to Hungarian. The Hungarian name for the language is Magyar.

Although Hungarian is not an Indo-European language, unlike most other European languages, its vocabulary has many words from Slavic and Turkic languages and also from German.

Speakers and dialects 
Hungarian is spoken by approximately 13 million people. Most of them live in Hungary (around 10 million) and Romania (around 1.5 million), but there are also speakers in Slovakia, the northern part of Serbia (Vojvodina), Ukraine and other countries. Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the official languages of the European Union (EU). It is also an official language of the Autonomous Republic of Vojvodina (Serbia) and of some places in the Republic of Slovenia.

Hungarian has several dialects, but people can easily understand one another. The Csángó dialect in Romania, however, is archaic and has changed less than the other dialects.

Hungarian literary language is based on the Northeastern dialect.

Although Hungarian is not an Indo-European language, its vocabulary has many words from Slavic and Turkic languages and also from German.

Grammar 
Hungarian grammar is very different from that of Indo-European languages like English.

Hungarian has no grammatical gender. For example, there are no separate words for "he" and "she" but there is one pronoun (ő). Instead of prepositions, (like "from" or "with"), Hungarian uses suffixes (particles at the end of main words). For example, "from Budapest" becomes Budapestről, and "with Alexandra" becomes Alexandrával.

Another Hungarian feature is vowel harmony: suffixes change according to (harmonise with) the vowel of the main word. If they have a in the word, the suffix normally has a as well (fa "tree" and fával "with a tree"), and if they have e, the suffix will change to have e as well' (teve "camel" and tevével "with a camel").

Hungarian words have the accent on the first syllable.

Writing 
The Hungarian alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet. Some letters have diacritics (dots or commas above them) and so Hungarian has 44 letters, more than the 26 of English.

Since Hungarian writing is mostly phonetic, it is easy to write words by knowing their pronunciation.

History 
The earliest known written Hungarian words are to be found in a Latin document, the Foundation Charter of the Abbey of Tihany (1054). The Funeral Oration and Prayer (1192-95) and the Old Hungarian Lament of Mary (13th century) are the earliest known continuous Hungarian texts.

In the 16th century, the first printed Hungarian texts were published. The modern literary language appeared in the 18th and the 19th centuries.

Hungarian replaced Latin as the official language of Hungary between 1844 and 1849 and then again in 1867.

References

Other websites 

 Collection of Hungarian Dictionaries
 SZTAKI szótár
 Dicfor (DICtionary FOR you) szótár

Uralic languages
Languages of Europe