alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Transposition (music)

Transposition or transposing in music means playing or writing music in a way that makes it sound higher or lower. This can be done by playing or writing the music in a different key, or by playing or writing it up or down an octave, without changing the key.

Transposing is a useful skill for people who play an instrument, especially the piano, organ, or some other keyboard instrument. If a pianist is accompanying a singer and the song is a little too high for the singer’s voice, it is very useful if he is able to transpose it down so that the music sounds in a lower key. For example, if the music is written in the key of C major, it could be transposed down a whole tone so that it sounds in B-flat major.

Most electronic keyboards and organs these days have buttons which can set notes to transpose automatically. This can be very useful, although it may be confusing for people with absolute pitch.

How to transpose 

It is a good idea for people who play keyboard instruments or other kinds of transposing instruments to practise transposing. There are two ways to do this:

Transpose each note, one at a time. For example, when transposing from C to B-flat major, each note has to be one tone lower: an A becomes a G, a G becomes an F, an F becomes an E-flat, and so on.
By watching or hearing the intervals between the notes in of the music and thinking of the same thing in the new key. For example: when a note leaps up a major third in the old key, the same needs to happen in the new key.

Transposing by intervals is the a better way of transposing, but when people transpose they sometimes also transpose the notes the first way, one by one.

There is another possibility which sometimes works: by thinking in a different clef. For example, someone who is used to reading music in the alto clef, such as a violist, can transpose up a tone from music written in the treble clef by imagining it was written in the alto clef and playing an octave lower (a note on the middle line in the treble clef is a B, but in the alto clef it is a C). They could also imagine the new key signature of 2 sharps – it becomes a C sharp.

It is very important to understand key signatures in order to be able to transpose.  This is why it is so useful to practise scales.

References 

Music
Music theory
Erinyes

The Erinyes (or Eumenides) were the goddesses of revenge in Greek mythology. They are also known as the Furies. These three female divinities were named Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megaera.

Description
The Erinyes were born from Mother Earth and the blood of Uranos. They avenged family crimes such as matricide and patricide. They also tormented evil men in the "Hell" of the underworld, Tartarus.

The Erinyes forever followed a person who did a crime. They even could make the person go mad. They are often shown with snakes on their heads, blood coming out of their eyes, and looking horrific.

In stories
A well known story about the Erinyes is that of Orestes. Orestes' mother Klytaimnestra, and her lover Aegisthos, killed Orestes' father Agamemnon. The god Apollo told Orestes to kill the murderers of his father, which he did. Orestes was then pursued by the Erinyes for his crime. With the help of Athena and Apollo Orestes went to a court in Athens. It was decided that Orestes acted correctly and nobody should hurt him. Even the Erinyes accepted the decision, and from then on they were also called Eumenides, which means "the kind ones", because they could also let people go in peace if their crime was done for a good reason.

Other websites

The Theoi Project, "The Erinyes"

Greek gods and goddesses
Indian subcontinent

The Indian subcontinent is a term mainly used for the geographic region which includes: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Republic of India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. It is north of the Indian Ocean. It is south of the Himalayas, one of the world's largest ranges of tall mountains.

The subcontinent was once part of Gondwana, the ancient southern supercontinent. Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate travelling northward at 15 cm per year to slowly squeeze the Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc resulted in the rock of the seabeds of that time being uplifted into mountains. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine limestone.

About 50 million years ago, this fast moving plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean. The existence of the Tethys has been proved by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sank to the floor. The Indian plate is still driving horizontally below the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards.

The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year. Over the next 10 million years it may travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also leads to earthquakes from time to time.

Related pages 
South Asia

References

Other websites 
 India News
 India News In Tamil

Geography of Asia
South Asia
Gondwana
Large igneous provinces
Horae

The Horae were three goddesses in Greek mythology.
There are in fact two different groups of goddesses which were known at different times: today they are called the first and second generation to distinguish between them.

They were the children of Zeus and Themis.

First Generation
The first Horae were goddesses of the seasons.
They were:
Thallo (or Thalatte)
Auxo (or Auxesia)
Karpo (also Xarpo or Carpo)

Second Generation
The second Horae were goddesses of order, justice and law.
They were:
Dike
Eunomia
Eirene (or Irene)

Greek gods and goddesses
Alkmene

Alcmene ALK-meen is a person mentioned in Greek mythology. She is not a goddess, for Alcmene was mortal. She was the daughter of King Elektryon of Mycenae and his wife Anaxo. She was the wife of Amphitryon. She is the mother of Heracles HERR-uh-klees and Iphicles.

Once when Amphitryon was not at home, the god Zeus, seduced Alcmene in the form of Amphitryon. Alcmene gave birth to Heracles, who was the son of Zeus, and Iphicles, who was the son of Amphitryon. Zeus wanted to kill her for yet another unknown reason of godlore, but Heracles, one day old, saved her.

People in Greek mythology
Danaë

Danaë is a person in Greek mythology. She was the daughter of King Akrisios of Argos. She is the mother of Perseus by Zeus.

Akrisios was told by an oracle that he would be killed by his grandchild. Because of that he put his daughter Danaë in a tower where noone was allowed to enter, so she could not have a child. But the god Zeus could enter in the form of a golden rain, and with him her child was Perseus.

Akrisios then put Danaë and her baby Perseus in a box and threw it into the sea. But Zeus tells the sea-god Poseidon to help them, and so Danaë and her son come to the island Seriphos. There they are found by Diktys, who lets them live with him.

A long time after that, the grown up Perseus takes part in some funeral games. During the games Perseus throws a discus, which accidentally hits Akrisios. Akrisios is killed by it: he was killed by his grandchild, like the oracle's prophecy said.

People in Greek mythology
Akrisios

Akrisios (or Acrisius) is a person in Greek mythology. He was the King of Argos. He is the father of Danaë, and grandfather of Perseus.

Akrisios was told by an oracle that he would be killed by his grandchild. Because of that he put his daughter Danaë in a tower where noone was allowed to enter, so she could not have a child. But the god Zeus could enter in the form of a golden rain, and with him her child was Perseus.

Akrisios then put Danaë and her baby Perseus in a box and threw it into the sea. But Zeus tells the sea-god Poseidon to help them, and so Danaë and her son come to the island Seriphos. There they are found by Polydectes, who lets them live with him.

A long time after that, the grown up Perseus takes part in some funeral games. During the games Perseus throws a discus, which accidentally hits Akrisios. Akrisios is killed by it: he was killed by his grandchild, like the oracle's prophecy said.

People in Greek mythology
Andromeda (mythology)

In Greek mythology, Andromeda (, Androméda or Ἀνδρομέδη, Andromédē) is an Aethiopian princess, the daughter of King Cepheus and his wife Cassiopeia. When Cassiopeia boasted that her daughter was more beautiful than the Nereids, this angered the sea god Poseidon, who sent the sea monster Ceto to ravage the land as punishment. Desperate, King Cepheus consulted the Oracle of Delphi, who stated that Andromeda must be offered as a sacrifice to the sea monster; Andromeda was then chained to a rock by the shore. When the hero Perseus saw Andromeda (having flown over after beheading Medusa), he killed the sea monster and saved Andromeda. They were soon married, with Perseus going on to found the city of Mycenae. By Perseus, she is the mother of Perses, Alcaeus, Heleus, Mestor, Sthenelus and Electryon as well as two daughters Autochthe and Gorgophone. Andromeda is also the great-grandmother of Herakles. 

In Greek, her name means "ruler of men," from  ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός (anēr, andrós - "[of] man"), and medon ("ruler"). 

People in Greek mythology
GB

GB or Gb could mean:

Sarin
Great Britain, or the United Kingdom (ISO code GB)
Gigabyte (GB) unit of measurement of bytes
Game Boy handheld video game console line
Centaur

A centaur is a creature in Greek mythology. It has the upper body of a human, but below the waist it has the body of a horse. There are also female centaurs. Centaurs lived in far away places, including Thessaly and Cyprus. They were wild, like wild horses. 

Famous centaurs are Chiron and Nessus.

Greek legendary creatures
Bruntál

Bruntál is a small city in the Czech Republic. Bruntál is in the Hrubý Jeseník mountains (part of Nízký Jeseník). Approximately 20,000 people live there. 

Bruntál was probably built in 1223. Its name is in the Unicov Charter published by Přemysl Otakar I. It is the oldest Czech city with Magdeburg Rights, meaning a city that can have its own wall and judges. Otakar I gave it these rights because of the gold, silver and other minerals from there.

Attractions 
In Bruntál there are many places that tourists visit – for example, the Castle of Bruntál, the Decanal church of the Virgin Mary, Gabriel's house, Mildner's villa, Klippel's column.

Notable people 

 Tereza Krones  - also known as Therese Krones
 Engelbert Adam  - writer 
 Jan Krištof Handke
 Rudolf Templer  - painter
 Viktor Heeger  - pedagogue
 Karl Anton Gebauer  explorer 
 Walter Gotschke  self-taught artist
 Emmerich Machold 

Some of the most notable authors who wrote about the place include: Erwin Weiser, Bruno Hanns Wittek, Josef Lowag, and Kurt Langer.

Schools 
There are 5 primary schools and 6 intermediate schools. Since 2003, there are 2 universities.

Culture 
There is one cinema, one theater, and one cultural building.

References 

Cities in the Czech Republic
Concerto grosso

A Concerto Grosso is a piece of music from the 18th century in which there are a small group of instruments and a large group of instruments.  These two groups are contrasted with one another. Sometimes both play together, sometimes one plays by itself, or the two groups might imitate one another.  The small group is called “concertino” and the large group is called "tutti", “ripieno” or “concerto grosso” (the same name as the musical piece).  “Concerto grosso” is Italian for “big concerto”.   The plural is “concerti grossi”.  Notice that the second “c” in “concerto” is pronounced like an English “ch”.

A concerto grosso has several parts that differ in speed and character. There are usually three movements; the first is fast, the second is slow, and the last is fast. The first movement contrasts the tutti and the soloists, the second movement is quiet, while the last movement is lively.

The composer who made the concerto grosso very popular was the Italian Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713).  The instruments in the small group of soloists in his concerti grossi were usually two violins and one cello.  George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) also used that combination for his concerti grossi.  

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) wrote a set of six concertos known as the Brandenburg Concertos.  Each of the Brandenburg Concertos is for a different combination of instruments.  Most of them are concerti grossi.  The second one, for example, has a concertino group of four instruments: trumpet, violin, recorder and oboe.

After the Baroque period, few composers wrote concerti grossi.  They were more interested in the solo concerto.  However, in the 20th century, some composers, including Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Bela Bartok (1881-1945), wrote pieces of music that are like concerti grossi.

Related pages 
Concerto

Musical forms
Hyundai Grandeur

The Hyundai Grandeur is an automobile made by Hyundai Motor Company. It was first sold in 1986. In North America the automobile was called Hyundai XG (third generation) and Hyundai Azera (fourth generation).

First generation (1986–1992) 

The first Grandeur of 1986 was developed together with Mitsubishi(Mitsubishi Debonair).

Second generation (1992–1998) 

The New Grandeur was developed together with Mitsubishi (Mitsubishi Debonair). Mitsubishi provided the powertrain and Hyundai took care of the exterior and interior design. Production of the car began in September 1992 and ended in 1998.

Third generation (1998–2005) 

The Grandeur XG, this time developed by Hyundai alone, used the same platform and engines as the Kia Amanti. In North America and Europe, it was called the Hyundai XG. Originally powered by a 3.0 L 6-cylinder engine, the XG300 was renamed to XG350 in 2002, to reflect the increase in engine size to 3.5 litres of displacement.

Fourth generation (2006–present) 

Sold as the Hyundai Azera in North America, the Grandeur TG is a full-size sedan introduced for the 2006 model year. It shares many of its components with the mid-size Sonata.

Being a step up from the Sonata, the Azera is the most luxurious model sold by Hyundai outside of Korea. Pricing for the base model starts at starts at US$24,995. The 2006 Hyundai Azera has a 3.8 L 6-cylinder engine, automatic gearbox, cruise control, automatic air-conditioning, power front seats, anti-lock brakes (ABS), electronic brake-force distribution (EBD), electronic stability control (ESC), and several airbags. The better equipped Limited trim level adds 17-inch alloy wheels, heated front seats, leather seat-upholstery, and a power sunshade for the rear window, and costs US$27,495.

Awards 
The Hyundai Azera was named "Best New Family Car (over CAN$35,000)" in the 2006 Canadian Car of the Year awards.

Other websites 
 Official US Site 
 AutoGuideWiki.com - Hyundai Azera 
 RoadTests.com - Hyundai Azera

Grandeur
Front wheel drive vehicles
Sedans
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Ape

Apes are mammals belonging to the primate family Hominoidea. Its members are called hominoids. They are native to Africa and Southeast Asia. Its living members are divided into two families:
Hylobatidae, the gibbons and siamangs.
Hominidae, consisting of humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans.
In everyday use, "ape" often refers only to hominoids other than humans.

One clear difference between monkeys and apes is that monkeys almost always have tails, but hominoids never do. There are also differences in their teeth and the way they move their arms. They have a wide degree of freedom at the shoulder joint, which helps them swing by their arms in the trees (brachiation).

The diets of apes are similar to those of other primates. They eat fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves and sometimes other animals. They are generally omnivores, though most of their intake is primarily herbivorous.

References

Other websites
Hattingen

Hattingen an der Ruhr is a city about 60,000 people in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It belongs to the Ruhr area. It is south of Bochum and Essen. Very famous is its Altstadt.

References

Other websites

Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis
Morning wood

Morning wood is an informal term for a morning erection, for which the technical medical term is "nocturnal penile tumescence". It means an erection that a man sometimes has while asleep or right after waking up. Men who do not have erectile dysfunction can experience this sensation. It usually happens during Rapid Eye Movement sleep. Other slang terms include "morning glory" and "morning tent".

References

Male reproductive system
Accompaniment

An accompaniment in music is music that accompanies (goes with) something else.

A piece of music may have a melody (tune) and an accompaniment underneath.  The music may be played on the piano with the right hand playing the tune and the left hand playing the accompaniment.  The accompaniment might also be played on a different instrument.

Music does not have to be a tune with accompaniment, although it often is.  The accompaniment does not always have to be lower than the tune.  To play the piano, the pianist has to learn to play a tune in the right hand and accompaniment in the left hand, or the tune might be passed from one hand to the other.  The tune should usually be played a little louder than the accompaniment.  The accompaniment must not ‘drown’ the tune.

An accompaniment might be single notes, or chords, or any other pattern. The accompaniments help us to feel the harmony. An accompaniment might be another tune (this is called counterpoint).  Tunes can be played or sung without accompaniment.  Folk songs are traditionally sung unaccompanied.

If one instrument accompanies another, the person who plays the accompaniment is an accompanist.  The piano is the most popular instrument for accompanying in Western music.  A good pianist can accompany a violin, cello, oboe, trumpet, singer or choir.  They have to listen carefully to the instrument(s) they are accompanying, and play with the same kind of feeling.

When a soloist plays a concerto the orchestra are accompanying the soloist.  An organist playing a hymn is accompanying the congregation.  A percussion player in a rock band is accompanying the lead instrument.

Guitars and electric keyboards are often used for accompaniment.  In Elizabethan times the lute was popular.  People sang songs and often accompanied themselves on the lute or harp.  In the Baroque period the accompaniment was often played by the basso continuo (harpsichord or organ with cello or bassoon on the bass line).

The pianist Gerald Moore was a famous accompanist.  When he started his career in the 1920s people did not think that the accompanist was very important.  Sometimes their name would not even be printed in the programme.  A singer would expect the audience to start to clap as soon as they had sung their last note, even if the piano had several more bars to play.  This might not matter too much with some music, but in songs by Schubert, Wolf and other composers of Lieder the piano parts are very important.  Gerald Moore made people realize how important the accompanist is.  A good performance can be ruined by a bad accompaniment.
Musical terminology
Tagalog language

Tagalog is one of the main languages spoken in the Philippines and is the national language of the country. More than 22 million people speak it as their first language.

It was originally spoken by the Tagalog people in the Philippines, who were mainly in Bulacan, Cavite, and some parts of Luzon. Now, Tagalog is spoken nationwide and used by Filipinos from different parts of the country to understand each other.

It originally was used with an abugida, the Baybayin script, but the Latin alphabet is now used.

Sample phrases 

 Magandang Umaga! - Good Morning!
Magandang Gabi! - Good Evening!
Magandang Tanghali! - Good Afternoon!
Kumusta!/Kamusta? - How are you?/Hello! (Informal)
May __ ba kayo? - Do you have __?(Formal)
 Mayroon po: Response to "May __ ba kayo", meaning "Yes, sir".
 Wala po - Opposite of "Mayroon po".
 Kayo - you (formal), informally, it refers to "you all".
 Magkano ito? - How much is this?
 po: ma'am or sir (used in sentences to be polite to an elder speaker)
 Mabuhay! - Long Live
 Ako po si (Pangalan)... - I am (Name)...
 Mahal kita - I love you
 Nanay - Mom
 Tatay - Dad
 Hindi - No
 Bakit? - Why?
 Saan? - Where?
 Ano? - What?
 Kailan? - When?
 Sino? - Who?

Related pages
Tagalog Wikipedia

References

Other websites

Austronesian languages
Tagalog
Basso continuo

Basso continuo is a form of musical accompaniment used in the Baroque period. It means "continuous bass".

Basso continuo, sometimes just called "continuo", was played by an instrument providing chordal accompaniment such as a keyboard instrument or plucked string instrument such as the lute along with another bass instrument such as cello, violone, or bassoon. The keyboard instrument was normally a harpsichord but could also be an organ, such as a small portative instrument. 

It was not usual to write out all the notes for the keyboard player.  The composer normally just wrote the bass line which would be played by the left hand and doubled on the other bass instrument.  The composer would indicate what the harmony should be (which chords should be played) by writing figures underneath the music.

Examples

References

Classical music
Diwali

Diwali (also: Deepawali) is one of India's biggest festivals. The word 'Deepawali' means rows of lighted lamps. It is a Festival of Lights and Hindus celebrate it with joy. During this festival, people light up their houses and shops with Diyas (small cup-shaped oil lamp made of baked clay). They worship the Lord Ganesha for  welfare and prosperity and Goddess Lakshmi for wealth and wisdom.

 This festival is celebrated in the Hindu month of Kartikamasam which falls sometime during October or November.  It is celebrated to mark the return of Lord Rama after 14 years of exile and his victory over the Demon Ravana. In many parts of India, Deepawali is celebrated for five consecutive days.  Hindus regard it as a celebration of life and use the occasion to strengthen relationships. In some parts of India, it marks the beginning of a new year.  People clean and decorate their house before the festival.  They do colorful rangoli art works on floors.

Deepawali is celebrated and is a public holiday in countries such as Nepal, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago. It is also a school holiday in many states of the United States with a large Hindu population. 
President George W. Bush had the first celebration of the holiday in the White House.

Hindus light up their homes and shops to welcome the Goddess Lakshmi and to give them good luck for the year ahead. A few days before Ravtegh, which is the day before Deepavali, houses, buildings, shops and temples are thoroughly cleaned, whitewashed and decorated with pictures, toys and flowers. On the day of Deepawali, people put on their best clothes and exchange greetings, gifts and sweets with their friends and family.

At night, buildings are illuminated with earthen lamps, candle-sticks and electric bulbs. Sweets and toy shop are decorated to attract the passers-by. The bazaars and streets are overcrowded. People buy sweets for their own families and also send them as presents to their friends and relatives. The Goddess Lakshmi is also worshiped in the form of earthen images, silver rupee. Hindus believe that on this day, Lakshmi only enters houses which are neat and tidy. People offer prayers for their own health, wealth and prosperity. They leave the light on in buildings believing that Lakshmi will not have difficulty in finding her way in.

Diwali is one of the most important festival of the Hindus.It is also known as deepawali or the  festival of lights. It comes on Amavasya day in the month of kartik. Both rich and poor wear new clothes on this day. Lots of sweets are made. People light diyas and burn crackers. They ex- change greetings and sweets. Goddess Laxmi is worshipped on this day.

References

Other websites 

The Ancient Origins of Diwali, India’s Biggest Holiday, Becky Little (2017)

Hindu festivals
Arthashastra

Arthashastra is an ancient book of India. Kautilya (also known as Chanakya) wrote this book. Kautilya was a minister of Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC – 297 BC), an emperor of Ancient India. After many revisions and additions, the book took its present form about 1800 years before, in the 2nd century. 

The book is divided into fifteen sections. It tells about politics and administration. Different sections of the book talk about many subjects, such as: war and politics "rule with a harsh hand"

Duties of the ruler
Training of the princes
Qualifications of ministers of state, home, and foreign offices
Civil services
Defense
Judiciary
Civil and criminal law
Corporation and guilds

Ancient India‎
4th-century BC books
2nd-century works
Hanuman

Hanuman is one of the most popular gods of Hindus. He is also known by other names like Hanumata. His mother’s name was Anjana. Based on her mother’s name, Hanuman is sometimes called Anjaneya, that is, one born of Anjana. His father’s name was Kesari. 
He is blessed by Vayu as the god of winds. Hanuman’s image shows him as a strong man with the face of a monkey. He also has a tail it represents the morality, higher pride of being self.
Hanuman was awarded boon of Immortality by Mother Sita ( Wife of Lord Rama) and is still alive

Hanuman is a very powerful and strong god. He finds an important place in the Ramayana. He was a devotee of Rama, a form (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, a god of Hindus. Hanuman is a figure of strength, perseverance and devotion. When he was young he thought the sun a mango. One of his most famous stories was when he helped Rama rescue Sita from Ravana which is the famous story of Diwali.

Other websites 

Hindu mythology
Hindu gods and goddesses
Indra

(Devanagari: इन्द्र) or  is the most important among the Indo-Aryan gods. He is the God of war, the god of thunderstorms. In the Vedas, many verses (hymns) are there in his praise. The Rigveda praises him as a very strong God. Many Hindu scriptures tell about Indra, his character and his deeds.

Indra resides in a mythical city located above in the sky. The city’s name is Amravati. He lives there with his wife named Indrani, and several other smaller gods. There are many apsaras in amravati.

Indra was a very important God during the Vedic period. Later his importance became less. Gods like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva became more important in Hinduism.  

Indra in current form of mythology is similar to that of Zeus in Greek mythology. Though his importance has come down, he is still considered to be king of Gods. His status is below that of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Thus, he is considered to be king of lesser Gods.

Again, his weapon is Vajra which is represented by Thunderbolt! His means, at times, treacherous and he is shown as, at times, jealous and vengeful. Further, he is made to suffer his own bad deeds.

References

 Masson-Oursel, P.; Morin, Louise (1976). "Indian Mythology." In New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, pp. 325–359. New York: The Hamlyn Publishing Group.
Janda, M., Eleusis, das indogermanische Erbe der Mysterien (1998).
http://www.magellanexperiences.com/tirta_empul_temple.htm

Other websites

Indra, the Storm-god - by Benjamin Slade
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Indra
Indra according to Vedic literature

Hinduism
Hindu mythology
Gods and goddesses of the sky
Gods and goddesses of thunder
Badrinath

Badrinath is an important pilgrimage place for the Hindus. The place is in Uttarakhand state of India, and is located at a high altitude in the Himalayas. The Hindu scriptures say that the place is sacred to Vishnu, one of the gods of Hindus.

Badrinath gets its name from a tree's name. The name of that tree is badri-tree or Indian Jujube tree. The botanical name of a badri-tree is Zizyphus jujba Lam.

The modern Badrinath temple was established by Adi Shankaracharya in the ninth century after the old temple fell to ruin. The Badrinath area is referred to as Badarikaashram (बदरिकाश्रम) in Hindu scriptures.
The temple was renovated many times because of age or damage by avalanche. In the 17th century, the temple was renovated by the kings of Garhwal. After the great 1803 Himalayan earthquake, it was rebuilt by the King of Jaipur.

Hindu temples
Temples in India
9th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in India
Kanchipuram

Kanchipuram is one of the seven most holy cities of Hindus. It is about  southwest of Chennai, Tamil Nadu state, India. Kanchipuram was an important religious and cultural place of Ancient India. The city continues to be an important religious place. 

For a long time, from the 6th century till the 8th century, the city was capital city of the Pallava dynasty.

There are many temples in the city.
There is a Math (religious centre) of Shankaracharya in this city.

Kanchipuram silk sarees are famous

Kanchipuram district
Cities in Tamil Nadu
Linga

A linga or a lingam is a very complex Phallus symbol of Hinduism. It is associated with Shiva, supreme god in main gods of the Hindus. The Hindu scriptures say that a linga represents energy and strength. In almost all the temples of Shiva, Shiva is shown in the form of a Circumcised linga.
The Hindu scriptures also say that Shiva took twelve forms as Jyotirlinga, that is, a linga of light. In India, there are twelve places where this form of Shiva is worshiped. The Hindu scriptures also tell about five more forms of lingas. These form of lingas represent the earth, the water, the fire, the air and the sky (or ether). There are five different places in India where Hindus worship these forms of Shiva. These places are located at the following locations:

 Kanchipuram: God Shiva’s linga in the form of the earth
 Srirangam: God Shiva’s linga in the form of the water
 Tiruvannamalai: God Shiva’s linga in the form of the fire
 Kalahasti: God Shiva’s linga in the form of the air
 Chidambaram: God Shiva’s linga in the form of the sky (or ether)

Beside above places, in almost all the towns and villages of India, Shiva’s temples are found. In all such temples, lingas are worshipped.
Also in other places in the World of Ancient history, Shiva Limgam was worshipped.

References 

Hinduism
United States National Guard

The United States National Guard is an organization of the United States Army and the United States Air Force.  The U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force are both branches of the United States military.  The National Guard is a militia (an emergency army) for the United States.  Each U.S. State has its own National Guard, usually under the control of that state's government.  When needed, they are mobilized under control of the United States. 

There are two parts of the United States National Guard, administered by the National Guard Bureau of the United States Department of Defense. The Air National Guard is part of the United States Air Force; the Army National Guard is part of the United States Army.  The two National Guard groups are identified by the kinds of jobs they do.  The Air National Guard does mainly air defense jobs, while the Army National Guard does the jobs on the ground.

Related pages
 United States Army Reserve
 National Guard (United States)

United States Army
Bishop's Stortford

Bishop's Stortford is a town in Hertfordshire in south-east England, with about 35,000 people living there.

History
People have lived in the area for hundreds of thousands of years but it became a permanent town by the time of the Saxons.

The Domesday Book says there were 120 people living there in the 1100s.  The Normans built a small castle there but it was unused and broken by the time of the Tudors.

The town grew as an important centre for transport.  After 1769, ships were able to use the river.  It was a stagecoach stop for travel on the road between London and Cambridge. In 1842 the town got a railway station.

In 1901 there were 7,000 people living there, and by 1951 it was 13,000.  

The town is popular for travellers to London because of the M11 motorway (an important road) and good train services to London.  Stansted Airport has also caused development.

Towns in Hertfordshire
Raven

A raven is a big black bird, (Corvus corax). It may be called the common raven or the northern raven. It is similar to a crow but bigger. It and the thick-billed raven are the two largest birds in the crow family, and perhaps the heaviest perching birds. The raven's feathers are all black, but a crow has feathers that are white at the bottom. This cannot be seen from a distance. 

The most famous raven is in the Edgar Allan Poe story called The Raven.

The common raven can be tamed. Some think it is mischievous and sly, and it has been regarded as a bird of evil and mysterious character.

References 

Corvids
National symbols of Bhutan
Malnutrition

Malnutrition is eating a diet which does not supply enough nutrients. There are two broad categories of malnutrition: 

 The amount of food eaten is too little to provide for all the nutrients required. This is usually called undernourishment. 
 Sometimes, the amount of food is enough, but the quality of the food is such that it does not provide all nutrients required for a healthy diet.  
 A third category is called dehydration; it is caused by not getting enough liquid (usually water).  

Sometimes, people need to lose weight, and eat according to a special diet. This is usually not called malnutrition.

Malnutrition  is considered a more scientific and official term than starvation which has negative associations.  Malnutrition is not, however, simply a matter of eating too little.  Someone can be malnourished if they eat an unhealthy diet.  This can be cured by eating a proper balanced diet.

Children whose daily diet contains less carbohydrate and protein do not grow well.  They do not gain weight. Their hands and legs appear as skin and bones.  They cry all the time with hunger.  They are not active and have sunken eyes.  Such children often fall sick.  Lack of a particular vitamin is another kind of malnutrition which can cause a particular deficiency disease, such as beriberi and rickets.

Malnutrition becomes a bigger problem during famine because most of the people do not get enough food, hence increasing the death rate.

Related pages 
 Famine
 Hunger
 Global Hunger Index
 Kwashiorkor
 Marasmus
 Starvation

Nutrition problems
Hunger
Carolina parakeet

The Carolina parakeet (binomial name Conuropsis carolinensis) is an extinct species of parrot.

It was the last parrot type to have lived before the European conquest in the eastern United States. It was found from the Ohio Valley to the Gulf of Mexico, and lived in old woods along rivers. 

The last wild Carolina parakeet was killed in Okeechobee County in Florida in 1904, and the last bird kept by people died at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918. This was the male bird called "Incas", who died within a year of his mate "Lady Jane". It was not until 1939, however, that it was agreed that all the Carolina parakeets had died.

At some date between 1937 and 1955, three parakeets looking like this sort of bird were seen and recorded on videotape in the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia. However, the American Ornithologists Union thought that they had probably recorded escaped pets. Additional sightings were recorded in Okeechobee County in Florida until the end of the 1920s.

Reasons for extinction 
The Carolina parakeet died out for a number of reasons. To make space for more farms, large areas of forest were cut down, taking away its living space. The colorful feathers (green body, yellow head, and red around the bill) were in demand as decorations in ladies' hats, and the birds were kept as pets. Even though the birds were bred easily in captivity, little was done to make sure enough birds were bred to avoid their dying out. Finally, they were killed in large numbers because farmers thought they were pests.

Another reason that led to their extinction was that, unfortunately, they liked to return in large flocks to places where some of them had just been killed.  This led to even more being shot by hunters as they gathered about the wounded and dead members of the flock.

References

Parakeets
Extinct birds
Birds of the United States
Melanesia

Melanesia is a region of islands in Oceania. 

It stretches from the western side of the Eastern Pacific Ocean, to the Arafura Sea, northeast of Australia. Its name was invented in 1832 and means "black islands". 

The following islands and groups of islands since the 19th century have been considered part of Melanesia:
 Bismarck Archipelago
 Fiji
 New Caledonia
 New Guinea (Papua New Guinea mainland and the Indonesian province of Papua)
 Maluku Islands 
 Solomon Islands
 Torres Strait Islands
 Vanuatu
 Palau Islands

Islands whose long-established inhabitants are of mixed ancestry and do not necessarily self-identify as Melanesian:
 Flores
 Nauru
 Sumba
 Timor

Some of the islands to the west of New Guinea such as Halmahera, Alor, and Pantar can also be considered part of Melanesia, although people in this area do not make use of the term.

 
Australasia
Diaphragm

The diaphragm is a muscle that is at the bottom of the ribcage of mammals.

What it does
When breathing in, the diaphragm pulls down so that the size of the lungs increases, allowing air to enter the lungs.
When breathing out, the diaphragm rests and goes up making a dome shape, decreasing the size of the lungs and pushing air out.
This increases the surface area of the air so that there is more oxygen that the lungs can hold.

Other websites
Science Aid: Lungs

Anatomy of the respiratory system
Muscles
Labor Day

Labor Day is a holiday in the United States and Canada on the first Monday of September. This holiday honors workers.  It is similar to the May Day holiday in other countries.  Many businesses close on Labor Day.  Many students start school the day after Labor Day. 

In some countries, it is known as International Workers' Day. It is celebrated every year on May 1 in almost 80 countries in the world. The day is celebrated on a different day, such as the first Monday of September in the United States.

References 

September events
Labor
Christian cross

The Christian cross is the main symbol of the Christian religion. These crosses are usually found on Christian churches. 

Jesus, who many Christians believe is God the Son and their Messiah, was crucified (nailed to a large wooden cross). This was a commonly used method for killing people in Roman times. 

Christians believe that Jesus' death made the sins of all humans who trust in him, go away, and that they are forgiven. They also believe that Jesus was resurrected (came back to life) after three days. Because of this, the cross is a symbol for Jesus' sacrifice and suffering, but also a symbol of hope, forgiveness of sins, and victory over death.

There are several different Christian crosses that are symbols for different Christian groups or persons.

A cross with the body of Jesus on it is called a Crucifix.

The empty cross is usually favoured by Protestants and Eastern Orthodox, and the symbol reminds them of the Resurrection of Jesus, though the Orthodox will add a slanted footbar, as well. The crucifix is favoured by Catholic churches and is a reminder of Christ's sacrifice. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus died on a simple upright pole, a "torture stake" ; and only display it as a picture of an impaled Jesus in their literature.

Christians remember the death of Jesus on the cross on Good Friday every year.

Latin Cross 
The most common cross is the Latin Cross. The cross represents and memorializes Christ's death.

This cross is a symbol of hope over death, and of victory in returning to life. (See Philippians 2:8-9)

Other uses 
The non-Christian religion of Scientology, also uses the Latin cross (but with a star in the middle) as its symbol.

Related pages 
 Latin cross
 Greek cross
Celtic cross

Christian symbols
Martin Luther King Jr. Day

Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is a US Federal Holiday. It commemorates civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr.'s birthday. It is celebrated on the third Monday in January and is one of only four United States Federal holidays to honor an individual person.

President Ronald Reagan signed a bill, proposed by Representative Katie Hall of Indiana, to create a federal holiday honoring King. The holiday was observed for the first time on January 20, 1986. It is observed on the third Monday of January.

References

January events
Washington's Birthday

Presidents' Day, originally was two separate observances, Abraham Lincoln's birthday, which was February 12, and George Washington's birthday, which was February 22. The two observances were combined in 1971 into a single observance which is held on the third Monday in February.

 

Presidential birthdays in the United States
February events
Memorial Day

Memorial Day is a national holiday in the United States. It is also a state holiday in many states. The holiday honors troops who have died in past wars like World War I and the Korean War. It was founded by U.S. Army General John A. Logan, who fought in the Civil War and the Mexican–American War.

Memorial Day was first held in 1865 after the American Civil War. It was called Decoration Day at that time. The holiday was first called Memorial Day in 1882, and became a federal holiday in 1967. On June 28, 1968, the United States Congress made a law that said that the official Memorial Day holiday is May 30, but that Memorial Day was to be observed by federal employees as a paid holiday on the last Monday in May.

Memorial Day is thought of by many Americans as being the start of summer.
Columbus Day

Columbus Day is a holiday celebrating the day Columbus landed on San Salvador. It is celebrated in many countries. This holiday is very controversial because of the way Columbus treated the Native Americans at the time.

Related pages
Virgin Islands–Puerto Rico Friendship Day
Veterans Day

Veterans Day is the American holiday when people who had served in the military during war-time are remembered and thanked. It is both a federal and a state holiday. The holiday is celebrated on the same day as Armistice Day or Remembrance Day in other countries. These holidays are all November 11. This is the day seen as the end of World War I. The first World War ended on November 11, 1918. 

The holiday was first created as Armistice Day in 1919 by President Woodrow Wilson. Thirty states made it a state holiday that year. It was made a holiday for the entire country in 1938. In June 1, 1954, the name was changed to Veterans Day.

Other websites 
 Official Website  United States Department of Veterans Affairs
Recycling

Recycling is when you recover scrap or waste  and reprocessing the material into useful products. Glass, paper, plastic, and metals such as aluminum and steel are often recycled. Dead plants, fruit and vegetable scraps can be recycled through composting. 

It is important not to confuse recycling with reusing, which is where old things, such as clothes, are donated or given a new use instead of being thrown out.

Recycling reduces trash in landfills and incinerators. Another reason people recycle is to reduce the amount of raw materials and energy used in making things. Most of the time, it takes less energy to recycle trash than to throw it away, The Economist says. Recycling can reduce your carbon footprint and it can help to minimize the whole size of landfills around the world

The 3 R's are Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.

Plastic recycling 

Most people make about two kilograms of waste (trash) every day, and about 7% of this waste is made up of plastic products that can be recycled. Today, plastic can be recycled into products like picnic tables, park benches, and even high-chairs.

Sort it out 
First, plastic is collected and taken to a recycling center, where it is sorted out. When plastic is sorted out, symbols have to be printed on every recyclable plastic product used. There are two types of plastic: polyethylene and polymer. There are two kinds of polyethylene plastic, too: high density polyethylene (HDPE), and low density polyethylene (LDPE). HDPE plastic is usually used to make furniture, and LDPE plastic are usually things like milk jugs, plastic and grocery bags.

Grinding  washing 

HDPE plastic is ground into a small powder. LDPE plastic, which are usually thin films, need to be ground by a special machine. After that, both plastics are washed with hot water and detergent. Dirt and other things, like labels, are taken off. After the wash, the powder is dried with hot air.

Sometimes, the powder is sold. But other times, the powder is heated, colored, and then put into a pelletizer. The pelletizer makes the powder into little pellets, which are bought by a company that shapes the pellets into pieces of plastic "wood". This plastic wood is used to make flowerpots, trash cans, pipes, picnic tables, benches, toys, mats, and many other things.

Related pages 
 Battery recycling
 Computer recycling
 Landfill
 Sustainable development

References
Transnistria

Transnistria (also called Transdniestria, or Pridnestrovie, officially the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, PMR; ), is a separatist country in Eastern Europe. This means that it claims to be a separate country from Moldova but this is not legally true. Most countries have no diplomatic relations with it. 

Transnistria is the only state to still use the hammer and sickle symbol on its flag.

Russia has a big influence on the territory. Between 1.500 and 2.000 Russian soldiers are stationed on the territory. In addition, there may be up to 10.000 paramilitary troops.

Moldovans, Russians, and Ukrainians make up about a third of the population each. The capital and largest city is Tiraspol.

History 
The area was part of the Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union. It was occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. 

Transnistria was officially formed between 1990, when the Soviet government established the Pridnestrovien Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in that area in hopes that it would remain if Moldova became independent.

Moldova did become independent of the Soviet Union and claimed Transnistria as part of its territory. Transnistria declared independence from Moldova on 2 September 1990. 

With the help of the Russian army, it defeated the Moldovan army in the War of Transnistria. There has been peace since 1992, but the Council of Europe calls Transnistria a "frozen conflict" area. Currently, no state recognises Transnistria and most countries agree that it is officially part of Moldova.

Recognition 
There is argument about whether Transnistria is really a country or not. It is recognized by three other unrecognized or partly recognized breakaway countries: Abkhazia, Artsakh, and South Ossetia. The area continues to claim independence, and acts independently over its territory with the help of peacekeeping forces from foreign countries. Many countries also think that Transnistria is a puppet state of Russia.

In a vote on 17 September 2006, 97% voted to be free from Moldova. This vote has not been accepted by Moldova, which calls the area the "Territory of the Left Bank of the Dniester".

Geography 
Transnisttria is landlocked and is located between Moldova and Ukraine.

The climate is humid continental with subtropical characteristics. Transnistria has warm summers and cool to cold winters. Precipitation is unvarying all year round, although with a slight increase in the summer months.

Politics 
Transnistria is a presidential republic, with the President of Transnistria being both the head of state and also shares the position of head of government with the Chairman of the Government.

The legislature is the Supreme Council, which has 43 members. There is disagreement over if elections in Transnistria are free.

Divisions 
Transnistria is divided into five districts and two municipalities. The districts are: Cameca District, Rîbnița District, Dubăsari District, Grigoriopol District and Slobozia District.

The two municipalities are Tiraspol and Bender, although Bender is not actually part of Transnistria's define territory.

References 

Moldova

Puppet states