alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Paper size

Paper comes in different sizes. There are names for the different sizes of paper. In different parts of the world, different sizes and names are used.

There are also envelope sizes made to fit different kinds of paper. Envelope sizes are normally wider to fit the paper inside.

International sizes 
In most of the world an international system of paper sizes is used. The normal size of paper is called A4. It is measured in metric units. It is 210 millimetres wide and 297 millimetres long. This is about the size of US letter, but it is a little narrower, and a little longer. The Deutsches Institut für Normung chose this standard in 1922 and other countries soon followed. 

The other common size of paper in Europe is called B5. It is 176 millimetres wide by 250 millimetres long. This is about the same as executive size in the United States. It is sometimes used for writing personal letters to people.

There are also many other paper sizes used for writing notes, for big posters, for books, and for other things.

In the international paper size system, the sizes are based on mathematical formulas. A0 is the biggest at 1 square metre. A1 is half as big as A0. A2 is half as big as A1, and so on. The sizes with "B" and "C" in their name are in between the "A" sizes.

Sizes in North America 
In the United States, Mexico and Canada the normal size of paper is called letter size, or sometimes US letter. It is  inches wide and 11 inches long (216 × 279 mm).

The other common size of paper in the US is called legal, or sometimes US legal. It is also  inches wide, but it is 14 inches long. It is similar to the size called foolscap in Britain.

Another size is called executive. It is  inches wide by  inches long. It is not very common. It is sometimes used for writing personal letters to people.

There is also a size called tabloid. It is 11 inches wide, and 17 inches long. That is the same size as two pieces of letter size put next to each other.

There are also many other paper sizes used for writing notes, for big posters, for books, and for other things.

Paper sizes and computer printers 
Most printers used with computers are designed to fit US letter and A4, and smaller paper sizes. Sometimes they can fit US legal also. For larger paper sizes, printers at professional printing businesses may be needed.

Details 
Below are charts showing all the different sizes of paper that are usually made, listed in increasing order of size. Dimensions are shown width first, then length.

If a company wants to make something with a different size of paper than these, they have to have it specially cut for them.

Paper
Envelope

An envelope is a form of packing. Envelopes are used for sending letters or documents using regular postal mail. Envelopes are usually made of paper or hardened paper.

An envelope may be small enough to make you need to fold the paper going into it, or it can be as large as the paper so that you do not need to fold it. A large envelope is called a manila envelope, usually colored a color in between yellow and orange, and is used to send several pages of papers when a regular envelope would be too small. Another reason a manila envelope would be used would be to send important papers (e.g. birth certificates) that are better left unfolded.

To pay to send the mail, a stamp is usually attached to the envelope.

Related pages 
 Electronic mail
 Letter (paper)
 Letter box
 Postcard
 Telegram

Other websites 

 

Stationery
Paper
Francis Hutcheson

Francis Hutcheson (born August 8, 1694, died August 8, 1746) was an Irish philosopher and one of the founding fathers of the Scottish Enlightenment.

Irish philosophers
1694 births
1746 deaths
Yasser Arafat

Yasser Arafat  (24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004) is best known as the first modern leader of the Palestinian people. He was Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004. In 1993, he also became president of the Palestinian National Authority (PA).

Arafat was born in Jerusalem, Gaza or Cairo. He studied civil engineering at Cairo University. He worked as an engineer in Kuwait.

In 1994, Yasser Arafat won the Nobel Peace Prize along with two others. They got the prize for their peace efforts in the Middle East when Palestinian National Authority was formed.

The views of him are somewhat divided. Some people see him as a hero, who fought for the cause of the Palestinian people. Others see him as a terrorist, who promoted the use of violence to reach his goals. Still others think he was a charismatic leader, but he made too many concessions to the Israeli government. 

Yasser died in Paris from a cerebral hemorrhage. The next day he was buried at his compound, with a hasty funeral in Ramallah on November 12. He was reburied on November 13, about 3:30 am. He was buried in a special casket, with the hope of being reburied in Jerusalem one day when an independent State of Palestine with East Jerusalem as its capital would be established.

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country

Notes

References

Other websites 

 Life in Palestine after Arafat, Situation worse, not what Bush and Sharon planned 
 The Real Obstacle to Peace was Ariel Sharon, not Yasser Arafat
 Death of Arafat, burial and reburial November 13 2004

1929 births
2004 deaths
Asian military people
Civil engineers
Palestinian Muslims
Palestinian nationalists
Presidents of the Palestinian National Authority
Politicians from Cairo

Presidents (government)
Time People of the Year
Cairo University alumni
Presidents of the State of Palestine
Yitzhak Rabin

Yitzhak Rabin (March 1, 1922 – November 4, 1995) was an Israeli politician and general. He was born in Jerusalem. He was the fifth Prime Minister of Israel from 1974 until 1977 and again from 1992 until his assassination in 1995 by Yigal Amir, a right-wing extremist who had strongly opposed Rabin's signing of the Oslo Accords and to peace with Palestine. He was the first local-born Prime Minister of Israel, the only Israeli Prime Minister to be killed and the second to die in office (following Levi Eshkol).
Yitzhak Rabin was one of the three recipients of the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize.  The others were Yasser Arafat and Shimon Peres. All three got the prizes for trying to make peace in the Middle East.

Death 
Yitzhak Rabin was shot dead in Tel Aviv on November 4, 1995. He was buried Helkat Gdolei Ha'uma in Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.

References

Other websites 

1922 births
1995 deaths
Assassinated people
Burials at Mount Herzl
Members of the Knesset
Government ministers of Israel
HaAvoda politicians
Israeli political leaders
Israeli generals
Israeli Nobel Prize winners
Jewish Israeli politicians
Jewish military people
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Murders by firearm
Politicians from Jerusalem
Prime Ministers of Israel
Time People of the Year
General (disambiguation)

General is a word with many meanings:

 The military rank of General officer, also in paramilitary, etc.
 The equivalent ecclesiastical position of general superior.
 Of or relating to a genus.
 A blue-collar worker who does many different services, often called simple a "General" or "General Employee".  This is most often found in food service careers.
 The corrupt leader of military regime in Capcom's Mega Man X4.
 General snus is a brand of snus manufactured in Sweden by Swedish Match
 General (Freeware game), a freeware strategic game developed by Russian NewGame Software
 General Tire, a brand of tire owned by German tire manufacturer Continental AG
 General Records, a record label
 The second strongest piece in Stratego.

Basic English 850 words
Pleasure

Pleasure is an emotion. It is the opposite of pain. Humans and many other mammals feel pleasure. People feel pleasure when they do something that is fun or that feels good.

Pleasure in neuroscience
Pleasure is studied in neuroscience. Neuroscientists have mapped pleasure "hotspots" in the brain. Pleasure is important for a person's mental health and well-being. The loss of pleasure is common in people with mental illnesses like depression, schizophrenia, and addiction.

Pleasure in psychology
Pleasure is studied in positive psychology. How much pleasure someone feels changes from person to person. Pleasure depends how special something is. There is no rule that says what pleasure is for every person. 

Sigmund Freud wrote about the "pleasure principle" in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle. According to Freud, the pleasure principle is what drives people to do things that give them a feeling of immediate gratification.

Pleasure in philosophy
The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus said that people feel the most pleasure possible when they have no suffering.

Hedonism is another philosophy that is focused on pleasure. It says that pleasure is good. In Hedonism, people focus on pleasure and avoid pain. 

Utilitarianism is a philosophy that focuses on pleasure. It says that morality requires that people do what has the most utility for the most people.

Related pages
Happiness

References 

Emotions
After

After might mean"
After (novel), a book by Francine Prose
After... (visual novel), a visual novel
After... (movie), a 2006 thriller film about urban exploration

Basic English 850 words
Kettle

A kettle is a type of pot that is used in a kitchen. It is used to make water hot or to boil water. It comes from the Latin word catillus ("deep pan or dish for cooking").

In the past, kettles were made of metal bins like copper. Kettles were put on a rack or a hook above the fire to become hot. Now, metal kettles are put on the stove or rangetop. Sometimes they are made of ceramic or clay.  

Now, some people have electric kettles. These kettles plug into the wall and use electricity to generate heat. They are usually plastic or metal. They heat water faster than kettles on a stove. Kettles are often used to make tea. 

They are more common in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth than in other places like the United States.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Cooking appliances
Home appliances
Herbicide

A herbicide is a poison that kills plants. There are many kinds of herbicides, from weedkillers for gardens to Agent Orange which was used to destroy forests in the Vietnam War.

Herbicides
Hugh Hefner

Hugh Marston Hefner (April 9, 1926 – September 27, 2017) was the founder of Playboy Magazine and its Editor-in-Chief.

Birth and education
Hefner was born into a Methodist family, to Glenn Hefner, an accountant, and Grace (Swanson) Hefner, a teacher, on April 9, 1926 in Chicago, Illinois. He was raised in Woodlawn, Chicago. Hefner served in the US Army (1944 - 1946). He attended the Art Institute of Chicago (1946), the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, earning a BA in psychology (1949), and Northwestern University, 1949.

Marriages and children
Hefner married Mildred Williams (June 25, 1949 - 1959, divorced); Kimberley Conrad (July 1, 1989 - September 2009, divorced); and Crystal Harris (December 31, 2012 - 2017, his death).

Hefner has several children. With Mildred, he has David Paul (August 30, 1955) and Christie Ann (November 8, 1952). With Kimberley, he has Cooper Bradford (September 4, 1991) and Marston Glenn (April 9, 1990).

Hefner was a distant relative of George W. Bush and John Kerry.

Career

Hefner owned a multi-million mansion called the Playboy Mansion. He was also the executive producer of Roman Polanski's 1971 movie version of Macbeth. Hefner also appeared in cameos of himself in some movies.

When nude photographs of Jayne Mansfield on the set of Promises! Promises! were published in the June 1963 issue of Playboy, Hefner was brought into Chicago city court on obscenity charges.

In 2013, Hefner announced that his youngest son, Cooper, would succeed him and eventually help run the Playboy Empire.

Hefner supported legalizing same-sex marriage. He said that a fight for gay marriage is "a fight for all our rights. Without it, we will turn back the sexual revolution and return to an earlier, puritanical time."

Hefner owned a burial plot next to Marilyn Monroe's grave in Los Angeles.

Death
Hefner died at his home in Beverly Hills, California on September 27, 2017 after suffering from a cardiac arrest and sepsis caused by respiratory failure and an e. coli infection the age of 91.

References

Other websites

 Hugh M. Hefner Foundation
 

1926 births
2017 deaths
Actors from Chicago
American chief executives
American civil rights activists
American editors
American journalists
American LGBT rights activists
American military personnel of World War II
American movie actors
American sex industry businesspeople
American socialites
Businesspeople from Chicago
Magazine founders
Military people from Chicago
American publishers
Writers from Chicago
Urination

Urination (peeing) is how animals and humans remove urine from their bodies.  Urine is the scientific term for pee, the liquid bodily waste filtered out of the bloodstream by kidneys and from the liquids that a person drinks. The bladder temporarily holds the waste fluid.

Related pages 

 Urinary system

Urinary system
Nyctalopia

Nyctalopia (Greek for Night blindness) is a disease of the human eyes.The eyes of people who are night-blind cannot adapt to situations where there is relatively little light; as a result, they have trouble seeing in such situations. 

There are a number of conditions that can cause this; most commonly:
lack or deficiency of Vitamin A
Several genetic conditions, most notably retinitis pigmentosa
Wounds of the eye

Diseases and disorders of the eye
Martinique

Martinique is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 1,128 km². Nearly 400,000 people live there.

Martinique was known by indigenous peoples of the Caribbean as Madiana or Madinina. It was colonized by the French in the 17th century, and they introduced racist slavery there as they spread it all around the world. France still claims to own the island today, even though there has been an independence movement.

The capital city is Fort-de-France. Other towns include Sainte-Anne and St. Pierre (which was destroyed by a volcano named Mont Pelée in 1902 and killed 30,000 people).

Martinique is well known for its zouk music. Artists such as Kassav' have made it famous over the years. Frantz Fanon, an important anti-colonial revolutionary, was born there.

The ethnic makeup of the country is: 90% African and Mixed African with anything from Chinese, East Indian or White. and 10% White, Amerindian, Chinese and East Indian.

Related pages
 Guadeloupe, French island in the Caribbean
 Saint Barthélemy, French island in the Caribbean
 Saint Martin, French island in the Caribbean

References

Other websites

 Martinique Tourism Authority
PHP

PHP (PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor) is a scripting language that helps people make web pages more interactive by allowing them to do more intelligent, complex things. PHP code is run on the web server. It is called a preprocessor because it builds the information before sending it to the computer that visits the web page.

A website programmed with PHP can have pages that are password protected. A website with no programming cannot do this without other complex things. Standard PHP file extensions are: .php .php3 or .phtml, but a web server can be set up to use any extension.

Its structure was influenced by many languages like C, Perl, Java, C++, and even Python. It is considered to be free software by the Free Software Foundation.

History 
PHP was first created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1995. It is now developed and improved by a large team of people. Its name at first stood for Personal Home Page, but it was later changed to PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor; using its old acronym in the new name.

Example 
An example Hello World program:

<?php
echo "Hello, World!";
?>

It is common to put PHP code inside a HTML document, for example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
	<head>
		<title>Hello World</title>
	</head>
	<body>
		<?= '<p>Hello World</p>'; ?>
	</body>
</html>

References

Other websites 
 Official PHP website
 PHP Tutorial  for beginners
 PHP Tutorial  for beginners
[./Https://webtopfree.blogspot.com/2021/07/php-what-is-php-in-hindi-technology.html  https://webtopfree.blogspot.com/2021/08/How-to-learn-PHP.html ] what is PHP

 PHP.orgPHP tutorials for beginners
 PHP Compiler - Compile PHP code in browser

Object-oriented programming languages
Web design
Cross-platform software
Hello world program

A Hello world program is usually a program made by computer programmers that are new to a programming languages, or to test if the compiler for this language is working correctly.
It will simply put the text Hello, World! on the screen.

Wikipedia articles that have Hello world programs

Sources 
<references>

</ref>
</references>

Other websites 
 helloworld.org
 The Hello World Collection
 codepad.org  - Can compile some of the programs

Programming languages
Software
1720s



Events and trends 
 The oldest pianos still in existence today are from the 1720s.

World leaders 
 Louis XV, King of France (king from 1715 to 1774)
 Shahs of the Safavid dynasty in Persia:
 Husayn, 1694–1722
 Tahmasp II, 1723–1732
 George I, King of Great Britain (king from 1714 to 1727)
 George II, King of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760)
 Philip V, King of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746)

References
2030s

The 2030s (pronounced "twenty-thirties") is the next decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It will begin on January 1, 2030 and end on December 31, 2039. It is distinct from the decade known as the 204th decade which will begin on January 1, 2031 and end on December 31, 2040.

The decade as a whole 
This decade will be called "the twenty-thirties". The Roman number will be MMXXX.

Events to happen 
 Voyager 2 will stop transmitting back to Earth.
 January 19, 2038 - 32-bit clocks will return to 1970.
 September 1, 2039 will be the 100th anniversary of Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland (the start of World War II).
DarkBASIC

DarkBASIC is a programming language that is very easy to create games in so people do not need to worry about DirectX. People now use the more powerful DarkBASIC Professional.

Hello World in DarkBASIC 

 print "Hello, World!"

Other websites 
DarkBASIC
DarkBasic - The Gaming Language 

Programming languages
XML

The Extensible Markup Language (short XML) is a markup language like HTML but is extensible. It's created by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). XML defines rules for the construction of a document. XML adds context to the information in a document. It does not say how this should be displayed.

Some programs get information out of an XML-document. To do that, they need an API.  There are many APIs for XML.

You can write a description of an XML document in a way that is useful for programmers. There are several languages for this; the best known is called DTD.

Syntax 
XML uses less than (<) and greater than (>) to show tags. For example, a paragraph in HTML would be <p>.

A closing tag is a tag used to enclose the value of the tag. The tag has a slash (/) before its name. For example, </p>

A tag which is empty can be represented as an opening tag but with a slash before the >. For example, <p />

The XML specification defines a valid XML document as a well-formed XML document which also conforms to the rules of a Document Type Definition (DTD).

Languages 
The following languages are based on XML.

Text 
 XSL-FO
 DocBook
 DITA
 XHTML (HTML based on ALL)
 TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)
 NITF (News Industry Text Format)

Images 
 SVG (vector graphics)
 X3D (3D modelling language)
 Collada (Language to change informations between different 3D programs)

Earth 
 Geography Markup Language (GML)
 GPS Exchange Format (GPX): XML for GPS informatons
 Keyhole Markup Language (KML): coordinates for Google Earth
 OpenImmo : XML for Houses with position informations

Multimedia 
 SMIL (Informations with times from multimedia)
 MPEG-7 (for MPEG-7)
 Laszlo (LZX)

Safety 
 SAML (describe and send informations about safety)
 XML Signature
 XML Encryption

Other 
There are a lot more languages that use XML. A couple of them are:
 RSS
 WAP/WML

Sources

Other websites 
 XeML.net 
 W3C XML Page

Markup languages
World Money Fair

The World Money Fair is an international bourse of coins. A bourse is where dealers, collectors and the public to buy, sell and trade coins. 

In 1970 A. M Beck founded in Muinch the "Organisation of European Coins-Bourses", "Organisation Europäischer Münzen-Börsen" (OEMB) in German. He had the idea to build up a stronger market for the collecting of coins.

Two years later the organisation organized in Basel the 1st international bourse of coins. During the time it was developed to the "World Money Fair". Today more than 40 nations are members of this organisation. In 2006, the bourse is at the 1st time in Berlin. At the start the German Secretary of State Karl Diller presented the new German 2 Euro Coin. It shows the Holstentor of Lübeck.

Money
Autocracy

Autocracy is a form of government.  In an autocracy, a single person has all legal and political power, and makes all decisions by himself or herself. The person who holds the power is called an autocrat.

When there is a monarch ruling a country as an absolute monarchy, this is also called an autocracy. Having an autocratic government does not mean the country is governed well or governed poorly. It is just a description on how it is set up.The two types of Autocracy are Absolute monarchy and Dictatorship 

In modern times, most autocrats gain power as part of a larger nationalist, communist, or fascist movement. Once in power, they eliminate all other kinds of authority in the country, such as judges, the legislature, and political parties.

Historical examples of autocracies include: 

 The Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica, in it, the Aztec Emperor functioned as both the sole ruler of the Empire himself, as well as of its military, he also was the religious figurehead behind the empire's aggressive foreign policy (In this time, the priesthood supported a pantheon that demanded human sacrifice, and the nobility consisted mainly of warriors who had captured many prisoners for these sacrificial rites)
 Eastern Han Dynasty under Dong Zhuo
 the Empire of Japan under Hirohito
 the Roman Empire, in 27 B.C., Augustus founded the Roman Empire following the end of the Roman Republic.  Augustus officially kept the Roman Senate while effectively consolidating all of the real power and influence in himself.  In recent years dictators have been called autocratic.

Related pages
 De facto rule, government
 Absolute monarchy
 Byzantine Empire
 Political polarization
 Theocracy
 Totalitarianism

References

Forms of government
Oligarchy

Oligarchy is a form of government. In an oligarchic system, all the power is held by a small group of people. It is usually the most powerful people who govern the state. It was used in Sparta, where the kingship alternated between three leading families. Oligarchy can be a form of dictatorship.

Rule by the best 
An oligarchy where the best rule is called Aristocracy.

Rule by the rich 
If the richest people rule the country, this is called Plutocracy.

Other websites 
 Online Text: Leonard Whibley, Greek Oligarchies: Their Character and Organisation  (1896), still the only full-scale treatment of oligarchy in Classical Greece.

Forms of government
Land

Land can mean some territory, forming part of a country. Dry land is the parts of Earth's surface not covered by the ocean or other permanent body of water. About 29% of the surface of Earth is dry land, while the rest is covered with liquid water. Land can have different types of soil; it may be covered with stones, sand, dirt, etc. Sometimes it is not clear where land ends and a body of water begins.

Amount and types of land 
The total area of Earth is about 510 million km2. About 149 million km2, which is 29% of the surface, is land. Large masses of ice called glaciers cover 15 million km2, or 10% of the land area. The biggest continuous landmasses are called continents, and smaller landmasses, surrounded by water, are called islands.

19% of land on Earth (28 million km2), is barren: without plants. This includes deserts, beaches, and rocky areas with no soil. 26% of land (39 million km2) is forests. 8% of land (12 million km2) is shrubland or grassland. 1% of land (1.5 million km2) is cities, towns, and land used for infrastructure. The remaining 34% of land (51 million km2) is used for farming: 7% (11 million km2) for crops (plants) 27% (40 million km2) for livestock (animals).

Formation of land 
Even today, some land is being formed and some land is sinking into the ocean. The surface of the earth, which includes both the land and the ocean floor, is made of large pieces of rock called tectonic plates. Continental plates are thicker and lighter, so they stay at the top and make up the land surface. Oceanic plates are thinner and heavier, so they sink down and make up the ocean surface.

Tectonic plates move over time, which is called continental drift. When two continental plates push into each other, they fold upwards to make mountains. When they move apart, they form a rift valley: the East African rift valley is forming now. Islands can be formed by volcanoes: the Hawaiian islands are a good example. Over time, land can wear away through erosion and sink below sea level. This can be seen with the Hawaiian islands, because the newer islands are taller than the older islands.

Related pages
 Geology
 Landscape
 Land (economics)

Other websites
 Conserving Land for People

References 

Basic English 850 words
Earth
Geology
Geography
Navigation
Surface

A surface is the outer part of something. Most surfaces have a width and a length, but no depth. 

Surfaces are studied in geometry.

Examples of Surfaces 
 An apple has a skin on its surface. 
 People live on the Earth's surface. 
 A piece of metal is put in red paint. The metal is taken out of the paint. After, the outside of the piece of metal is red. The parts of the metal that are now red are called the surface of the object.
 Boats move on the surface of the sea.
 Small insects can walk on the surface of the water, because of surface tension.

Notes 

Geography
Sexual slavery

Sexual slavery is a special case of slavery or forced labour. Sexual slaves are like normal slaves, except for the following:
They may have been forced into prostitution;
The people are slaves, forced to do non-sexual labour. However, sexual relations with the slaves may be permitted, or even common;
They may be forced into sexual slavery with only one master. Often the fact that they really are slaves is hidden through marriages.

This term is also used by the Vienna Declaration for the women's rights and by the name of humanitarian international law.

Sex industry
Modern-day slavery
List of Internet top-level domains

Here is a list of currently existing top-level domains (TLDs).

References

Other websites 
 IANA's information on TLDs
 The Internet Domain Survey 

Computer-related lists
Country codes
1784

1784 was a common year.

Events 
The Congress of the United States signs a treaty to end the American Revolutionary War.
The Methodist Church is started by John Wesley.

Births 
October 13 – King Ferdinand VII of Spain
November 24 – Zachary Taylor, 12th President of the United States

Deaths 
August 28 – Junípero Serra, Spanish missionary
December 26 – Seth Warner, American Revolutionary War leader
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons

The following is a list of Atlantic hurricane seasons. All began on June 1 in their respective years. They ended on November 30. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the Atlantic Ocean.

The Atlantic hurricane season is the time of year that hurricanes form in the northern Atlantic Ocean. The season starts on June 1 and ends November 30. There is an average of ten tropical storms, six hurricanes, and two or three major hurricanes in the Atlantic.

The National Hurricane Center helps watch for hurricanes in the northern Atlantic and makes forecasts about were the storms will go.

Before 1800s 
 Before 1600
 17th century
 18th century

1800s 
1800–1809 
1810–1819 
1820–1829 
1830–1839 
1840–1849 

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1860–1869 
1870 
1871–1879

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Related pages 
 List of Pacific hurricane seasons
 List of Pacific typhoon seasons

Weather lists
List of Pacific hurricane seasons

The following is a list of Pacific hurricane seasons. They all began on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and June 1 in the central Pacific in their respective years. There, they end on November 30. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

Before the satellite age started in the 1960s, data on east Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable. Most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land.

1900s
1950
1951
1952
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Related articles
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons
List of Pacific typhoon seasons

Weather lists
Sildenafil

Sildenafil is an aphrodisiac. It is a medication that is also called Viagra, Revatio and (in the Indian subcontinent) Caverta. 

Sildenafil makes the blood vessels become wider. This lowers the blood pressure. Sildenafil mostly works in the penis and in the lungs. This medicine increases blood flow to the penis. This helps the penis become erect during sexual intercourse. Sildenafil also helps pulmonary hypertension. Because this medicine makes the blood vessels wider, it makes it easier for blood to flow. Sildenafil was patented in 1996 and first made to sell in 1998.

Related pages
 Adverse effect

References 

Human sexuality
Drugs
1825

1825 was a common year.

Events 
January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies and is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies.
 February 12 – The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west
March 4 – John Quincy Adams officially succeeds James Monroe as President of the United States.
 July 6 – The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderborg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later became the Royal House of Greece, Denmark and Norway.
 July 30 – Malden Island (an uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean) discovered. 
 August 6 – Bolivia gains independence from Peru as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar
 August 25 – Uruguay declares independence from Brazil (See Uruguay's independence)
 September 27 – The world's first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens in England.
 October 26 – The Erie Canal opens – passage from Albany, New York to Lake Erie
 December 1 – Nicholas I of Russia succeeds his older brother Alexander I.
 Decembrist Revolt in Russia.
 The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London
 First roller skates
 Aluminium discovered
 City of Brisbane founded – see History of Brisbane
 The electromagnet was invented by William Sturgeon

Deaths
 May 2 – Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military
1771



Events 
 January 17 – Johann Friedrich Struensee and Queen Caroline Matilda are arrested, leading to his execution and her banishment from Denmark
 July 17 – Massacre at Bloody Falls: Chipewyan chief Matonabbee traveling as the guide to Samuel Hearne on his Arctic overland journey, massacre a group of unsuspecting Inuit.
 September 8 – In California, Fathers Pedro Cambon and Angel Somera found Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in what is now San Gabriel, California.
 October 9 – The Dutch merchant ship Vrouw Maria sinks near the coast of Finland. Captain Raymund Lourens and his crew escape unharmed.
 November 16 – During the night the Tyne floods, destroying many bridges and killing several people; the main bridge at Newcastle upon Tyne is not completed until 1781
Discovery of Oxygen.
The territory of Baden-Baden is inherited by the Margrave of Baden-Durlach, forming Baden.
Emperor Go-Momozono ascends to the throne of Japan
 Plague in Moscow – 57,000 dead
 The trade monopoly with Iceland is transferred to the Danish crown.

Births 
April 13 – Richard Trevithick, English inventor (d. 1833)
April 18 – Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, Austrian field marshal (d. 1820)
April 27 – Jean Rapp, French general (d. 1821)
June 5 – Prince Ernest Augustus of Great Britain, King of Hanover (d. 1851)
August 14 – Sir Walter Scott, Scottish writer (d. 1832)
September 5 – Archduke Charles of Austria, Austrian general and statesman (d. 1847)
September 23 – Emperor Kokaku of Japan (d. 1840)
October 9 – Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick (d. 1815)
October 23 – Jean-Andoche Junot, French general (d. 1813)
November 14 – Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (d. U momma)

Deaths
1777



Events 
 The Cornish language died out
 2nd edition of Encyclopædia Britannica published
 January 3 – American Revolutionary War: American general George Washington defeats British general Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Princeton.
January 12 – Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California
January 16 – Vermont declares its independence from New York becoming an independent country, a status it retained until it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791
 June 13 – American Revolutionary War: Marquis de Lafayette lands near Charleston, South Carolina to help the Continental Congress train its army.
 June 14 – Stars and Stripes adopted by the Continental Congress as the Flag of the United States.
 August 16 – American Revolutionary War:  Battle of Bennington – British forces are defeated by American troops.
 September 3 – Cooch's Bridge – Skirmish of American Revolutionary war in New Castle County, Delaware where the Flag of the United States was flown in battle for the first time.
 September 11 – Battle of Brandywine – Major American Revolutionary war victory for British in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
 September 19 – American Revolutionary War: First Battle of Saratoga/Battle of Freeman's Farm/Battle of Bemis Heights.
 October 4 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Germantown– Troops under George Washington are repelled by British troops under Sir William Howe.
 October 17 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Saratoga– American troops defeat the British.
 November 15 – American Revolutionary War: After 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation in the temporary American capital at York, Pennsylvania.
 November 17 – Articles of Confederation submitted to the states for ratification.
November 29 – San Jose, California founded.  It is the first pueblo in Spanish Alta California.
 December 24 – Kiritimati discovered by James Cook
 The code duello is adopted at the Clonmell Summer Assizes as the form for pistol duels in Ireland.  It is quickly denounced but nevertheless widely adopted throughout the English-speaking world.
1757



Events 
 January 2 – The United Kingdom captures Calcutta, India.
 March 14 – On board the HMS Monarch, Royal Navy Admiral John Byng is executed by firing squad for breach of the Articles of War.
 May 6 – Battle of Prague – Frederick the Great defeats an Austrian army and begins to besiege the city.
 June 18 – Battle of Kolin – Frederick is defeated by an Austrian army under Marshal Daun, forcing him to evacuate Bohemia.
 June 23 – Battle of Plassey – 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey.
 July 26 – Battle of Hastenbeck – An Anglo-Hanoverian army under the Duke of Cumberland is defeated by the French under Louis d'Estrées and forced out of Hanover.
 July 30 – Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf – A Prussian army under Hans von Lehwald is defeated by the Russian army of Marshal Stepan Apraksin.
 October 16 – Austrian raiders plunder Berlin.
 October 30 – Osman III dies and is succeeded as Ottoman Sultan by Mustafa III.
 November 5 – Battle of Rossbach. Frederick defeats the French-Imperial army under the Duc de Soubise and Prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen, forcing the French to withdraw from Saxony.
 November 22 – Battle of Breslau – An Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine defeats the Prussian army of Wilhelm of Brunswick-Bevern and forces the Austrians behind the Oder.
 December 6 – Battle of Leuthen – Frederick defeats Prince Charles's Austrian army.

Deaths
4 BC

Year 4 BC was a common year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Rufus.

Events
 Herod Archelaus becomes the ruler of Judea. Herod Antipas rules Galilee and Perea.
 Publius Quintilius Varus leads Roman legions to Jerusalem to restore order. He crucifies 2,000 Jewish rebels.

Births 

Jesus (possible)

Deaths 

 Herod the Great (b. 73 BC)
 Marcus Tullius Tiro, freedman of Cicero
Sylvester McCoy

Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith or Sylvester McCoy (born 20 August 1943) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing the seventh incarnation of the Doctor on Doctor Who from 1987 to 1989, he also briefly played the Doctor in beginning of the 1996 TV movie.

Other websites

1943 births
Living people
Scottish movie actors
Scottish stage actors
Scottish television actors
People from Argyll and Bute
Paul McGann

Paul McGann (born 14 November 1959) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in Withnail and I (1987) and as the Eighth Doctor in the 1996 Doctor Who television movie.

English movie actors
English television actors
1959 births
Living people
English voice actors
Georgia O'Keeffe

Georgia O’Keeffe (November 15 1887 – March 6 1986) was an American artist. She is known for her colorful close-up painting of flowers.

She was born on November 15, 1887 on a farm in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. O'Keeffe studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago and the Art Students League of New York. 

Georgia O'Keeffe married Alfred Stieglitz in 1924. Stieglitz was a famous photographer and he helped O'Keeffe gain success in her career. He owned the gallery which held her first solo exhibition.

In 1929 O'Keeffe traveled to New Mexico. She was inspired by the desert and light. She moved there in 1949.

In 1970 the Whitney Museum of American Art held a retrospective exhibition of her work.

O’Keeffe died on March 6, 1986 in Santa Fe at the age of 98.

Auction record 
O'Keefe holds the world auction record for a painting by a woman (November 2014). Her Jimson Weed/White Flower No 1 sold for $44.4m (£28.8m) at the O'Keeffe Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico. O'Keeffe's large-format depictions of flowers which she painted as if they had been seen in close-up.

Gallery

References

1887 births
1986 deaths
American painters
People from Wisconsin
Deadly nightshade

Deadly nightshade or belladonna (Atropa belladonna) is a well-known, hardy perennial shrub. It is a member of the nightshade family. 

It can be found in a few different continents: Europe; North Africa; Asia; and North America, but is far less common there. Usually it grows in the shade. The plant does not like direct sunlight. Often it grows in places where the soil is rich in limestone.

Dangers of belladonna 
Most parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous. Children have died from eating as few as three berries. One leaf contains enough poison to kill an adult. The root usually contains the most poison.

The poison present in the plant is called atropine.

Effects of the poison 
The effects of atropine are dilated (big) pupils, hallucinations, and difficulty in seeing (the vision may not be as sharp as always, it may be difficult to focus on some object). Other symptoms include: problems keeping upright; feeling like one is flying; and being confused. 
The pulse of the victim grows faster and faster, and the rate at which the heart is beating will go up. Toxic reaction to atropine causes fever, delirium, stupor (nearly being unconscious) and rash on head, neck and upper trunk. There may be agitation, difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Coma and convulsions usually come before death.

Solanaceae
Perennials
Shrub

A shrub or bush is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A shrub can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.

Very many  plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

A shrubbery is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.

Shrubs as a botanical structural form 
In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.

For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.

For shrubs 2–8 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
 dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-scrub
 mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — open-scrub
 sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — tall shrubland
 very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — tall open shrubland

For shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
 dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-heath
 mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — heath
 sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — low shrubland
 very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — low open shrubland

References

Other websites
Selecting Shrubs for Your Home (University of Illinois Extension)
Evergreen

An evergreen is a plant which keeps its leaves throughout the year. This is different from deciduous plants, which lose their leaves during the winter or wet seasons. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs.

Types of plants
Trees
Deciduous

Deciduous means "temporary" or "tending to fall off" (deriving from the Latin word decidere, to fall off).
When talking about plants this means that the plant loses its leaves, usually in autumn. The leaves will then grow again in spring.

When referring to teeth, it means the teeth at the front of the mouth that grow and fall out and are replaced in childhood. They are called  deciduous teeth.

In botany and horticulture, deciduous plants are trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials which lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This is called abscission. Leaf loss happens in winter in temperate or polar climates.

With evergreens, foliage is shed differently from deciduous trees. They seem green year round. Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous; they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the next growing season, keeping some in winter or dry periods. Some trees, including a few species of oak, have desiccated leaves that stay on the tree through winter. These persistent dry leaves are dropped in the spring as new growth begins.

Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. Not having leaves also improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants.

References

Types of plants
Shade

Shade is produced when the sun is shining and an object, a tree for example, blocks the direct sunlight so that it cannot reach a certain spot. The dark image which the object casts on the ground (or on another object) is called shadow, not shade.

Shade can also mean a darker or lighter color of the same base color. For example: in a picture of a tree's shadow, the grass in the shade will be a darker shade of green than the grass out of the shade.

Basic English 850 words
Optics
Shadow

A shadow is a dark area on a bright surface. It is caused by something blocking a source of light. A shadow's outline, called a silhouette, will have the same shape as the object blocking the light.

Depending on the light source, or sources, a wide range of effects can be produced. A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra". A "penumbra" is the region in which only a portion of the light source may be blocked. If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightness or even colours. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows,

Astronomical shadows are usually sharp.  This is because in space the light usually does not go through an atmosphere.

Light
1553



Events 
 June 26 – Christ's Hospital and King Edward's School, Witley created by Royal Charter
 July 6 – Edward VI of England dies
 July 10 – Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England – for the next nine days
 July 18 – Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen – Lady Jane Grey willingly gives up the title of queen.
August 2 – Battle of Marciano. French forces invading Italy under Marshal Blaise de Monluc are defeated by an imperial army under the Marquis of Marignano and are forced to retreat into Siena, which is besieged by the imperial forces.
 August 3 – Queen Mary arrives in London
 August 22 – Duke of Northumberland, supporter of Jane Grey, executed
 September Protestant bishops in England are arrested and Roman Catholic bishops are restored
 September 23 – The Sadians consolidate their power in Morocco by defeating the last of their enemies
 October 27 – Calvinists burn Michael Servetus as a heretic in Geneva
Battle of Sievershausen – Elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the Catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Maurice is mortally wounded.
 Shanghai is fortified for the first time.
1732



Events 
 February 23 –  First performance of Handel's Orlando, in London
 June 9 – James Oglethorpe is granted a royal charter for the colony of Georgia.
 December 7 – The original Covent Garden Theatre Royal (now the Royal Opera House) is opened
 Genoa regains Corsica
 139 members of the Paris Parlement are exiled by order of the King, but are eventually triumphant over the Crown, and secure their recall in December
 Cobalt discovered

Births 
 February 22 - George Washington, first President of the United States
 April 5 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French artist
 April 13 - Frederick North, Lord North, Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782
 December 6 - Warren Hastings, first Governor-General of India
 Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer

Deaths
 October 31 - Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, Duke of Savoy

References
1768

1768 was a common year.

Events 
 January 9 – Philip Astley stages the first modern circus (London)
 May 10 –  John Wilkes is imprisoned for writing an article for the North Briton severely criticizing King George III. This action provokes rioting in London
 Secretary of State for colonies appointed in Britain
 Massachusetts Assembly dissolved for refusing to assist collection of taxes.
 Boston citizens refuse to quarter British troops
 France buys Corsica from Genoa
 Gurkhas conquer Nepal
 First of the weekly numbers of the Encyclopædia Britannica are published; 100 are planned
 James Cook's first voyage: 1768-1771

Births 
 12 February 1768 Francis I of Austria

Deaths 
 3 March 1768 Nicola Porpora