alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Sanskrit

Sanskrit is an ancient Indo-European language. It is a sacred language of Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism and is the origin of most Indo-Aryan languages. Today, about 14,000 people in India use it as their daily language mostly for religious purposes. It is one of the 22 official languages of India. Most languages in Pakistan, North India, Nepal and Bangladesh are derived from Sanskrit. The Dravidian languages of South India are not derived from Sanskrit but got many loanwords from it. The two primary languages of Pakistan and India, Hindi and Urdu, are derived mainly from Sanskrit.

Sanskrit is a standardized dialect of Old Indo-Aryan and has a linguistic ancestry that can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European. The Indo-European Aryan migration theory proposes that the Indo-Europeans migrated from the Central Asian steppes into South Asia during the early 2nd millennium BC and brought the Indo-European language Sanskrit with them. The main script used to write Sanskrit is Devanāgarī, but it can be written in the scripts of various other Indian languages and is sometimes written in the Latin alphabet. Historically, it was written in the ancient and holy Brāhmī script.

William Jones, working as a judge in India in the 18th century, studied Sanskrit and recognised its similarities to Latin, Greek and other European languages. That led to the Indo-European languages being recognised as a group of related languages stretching from Europe to India.

Literature
Sanskrit literature includes poetry and drama and has also scientific, technical, philosophical and religious texts. Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns and chants.

Grammar
Sanskrit  has a very complex grammar, with eight grammatical cases, three grammatical genders, and three grammatical numbers. Words are also described based on their qualities. Sanskrit is considered highly scientific, words in a sentence can describe the subect's number, gender and action.

References
Dementia

Dementia is a group of diseases with symptoms, which affect the way people think and interact with each other. It can often be linked to a disease or damage done to the brain. Very often, short-time memory, mind, speech and motor skills are affected. Certain forms of dementia cause a change in the personality of the sufferer. A person suffering from dementia will lose certain skills and knowledge they already had. This is the main difference to other conditions affecting the mind. People who suffer from learning problems, or lower intelligence will never acquire certain skills, people suffering from dementia will lose skills they have acquired. Dementia is more common in older people, but younger people can be affected as well. Certain forms of dementia can be treated, to some extent. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer's disease, which accounts for between 50 and 60 percent of all cases. Other types include vascular dementia and lewy body dementia.

Famous people who suffered from dementia include Augusto Pinochet, the Chilean leader, and also Rosa Parks, the civil rights activist.

People who see the following worsen may suffer from dementia:
 Decision-making ability
 Judgment
 Orientation in time and space
 Problem solving
 Verbal communication

Behavioral changes may include: 
 Eating
 Dressing (may need assistance)
 Interests
 Routine activities (may become unable to perform household tasks)
 Personality (inappropriate responses, lack of emotional control)

Some types dementia are reversible. This means the damage can be undone. Other types are irreversible. This means that they cannot be undone. Irreversible dementia is usually caused by an incurable disease, such as Alzheimer's disease.  

Reversible causes of dementia also include diffuse axonal injury after injuries to the head or the brain, known medically as Traumatic brain injury.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease causes a dementia that gets worse quickly, over weeks or months, and is caused by prions. ,other forms like encephalopathy or delirium may develop relatively slowly, over a number of years.

The two leading causes of dementia are Alzheimer's disease and Multi-infarct disease. Glioma related tumors are another kmown cause. Alcohol dementia, is sometimes associated with Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, and is caused by long-term or uncontrolled, heavy alcohol abuse.

Possible metabolic causes are such as liver failure or kidney failure; and chronic subdural hematoma. Possible other causes may include brain infection by illnesses like meningitis leading in cases to viral encephalitis drug toxicity (e.g. anticonvulsant drugs). A recent report by Science Daily says that researchers at the University of Bergen, in Norway have discovered a connection between Oral health and Alzheimers disease.

Related pages
Alzheimer's disease
Vascular dementia
Meningitis
Encephalitis 
Primary central nervous system lymphoma

References

Other websites
Elasticity (physics)

Economic elasticity is at elasticity (economics)

Something that is elastic can be stretched or deformed (changed) and returned to its original form, like a rubber band. It tries to come back to its first shape. The stress is the force applied; the strain is how much the shape is changed, and the elastic modulus is the ratio between those numbers.

This idea was first suggested by Robert Hooke in 1675.

The simplest model for elasticity is Hooke's law. It says that the force to stretch something (F) is proportional to the distance it is stretched (x). This is usually written as , where  is a constant called the spring constant. If it is easy to stretch a material, that material has a lower k value. 

Elastic materials are different than plastic materials. A plastic material can be stretched or deformed, but it will not return to its original form.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Harmonica

A harmonica is small musical instrument that is played with the mouth by blowing into holes in its side. Harmonicas are cheap and easy to play. Harmonicas produce their musical sounds from the vibrations of reeds in the harmonica's metal case. Harmonicas are used in blues music, folk music, rock and roll music, and pop music. A special type of harmonica, the chromatic harmonica, is used in jazz and classical music. Harmonicas are made in several different keys: G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, and F♯. Each key can play a different range of notes.

How they are played
Harmonicas are played by blowing or sucking air into one side. On this side, there are many holes. Each hole has a different note. Different notes are played when you blow or suck air.

Harmonica players
Bob Dylan is a famous harmonica player from the 1960s folk rock scene.
Willi Burger is a famous classical harmonica player.eez
Neil Young is a folk/grunge musician who plays the harmonica.
Steven Tyler, from Aerosmith, plays the harmonica.
Little Walter, one of the most well known blues harmonica players ever.
Yvonnick Prene is a groundbreaking jazz harmonica player.

Other Harmonica players
*Bluesharp players

Jazz
 Larry Adler
 Matthias Broede
 Jens Bunge
 Hermine Deurloo
 Maurício Einhorn
 Adam Glasser
 Howard Levy
 Hendrik Meurkens
 Richard Oesterreicher
 Toots Thielemans

Types of harmonicas
Another type of harmonica is the chromatic harmonica.  More songs can be played on it than a regular harmonica, because chromatic harmonicas can play more different notes. Chromatic harmonicas have a button which moves a sliding bar. By pressing the button, the player can play a larger range of notes.

Different names
The harmonica is called many different names, such as: mouth organ, mouth harp, Hobo Harp, French harp, Reckless Tram, harpoon, tin sandwich, blues harp, Mississippi saxophone, or simply harp.

Other websites
 todoarmonica.org 
 Virtual harmonica lessons HarmoPoint 
 Harmonica's blog 
 Harmonica Riff 

Woodwind instruments
Straits of Florida

The Straits of Florida (or Florida Straits) is a  strait between the Florida Keys and Cuba.

Geography of Florida
Bodies of water of the United States
Electron microscope

An electron microscope is a scientific instrument which uses a beam of electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. In an optical microscope, the wavelength of light limits the maximum magnification that is possible. As electrons have a smaller wavelength, they can achieve a higher magnification, and can see very small objects - typically around 1,000 times smaller than those seen in an optical microscope. The outline of objects, as revealed by the flow of electrons, is changed into a picture using visible light for people to see. Electron microscopes were invented in Germany in the 1930s.

Types of electron microscope

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 
A beam of electrons is sent towards the specimen - some electrons are reflected, while some pass through. Those that pass through are detected and used to form an image of the specimen at a magnification of about 500,000 times. This microscope is more powerful than a light microscope.

Reflection Electron Microscope (REM) 
Similar to a Transmission Electron Microscope, but the reflected electrons are detected. By measuring the reflected electrons, some information about the surface of the specimen can be gathered.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 

A narrow beam of electrons is moved across the specimen and a picture is built up piece by piece by detecting how the electrons are reflected or absorbed as it moves.

Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) 
It combines the high magnification of TEM with the better surface detail of SEM. It can be used to perform complex analysis on the specimen, which cannot be done using TEM alone.

Related pages

 Scanning tunneling microscope

Microscopes
Insomnia

Insomnia is when people cannot sleep for long or short periods. A person with this problem is called an insomniac. Insomnia can mean a problem with getting to sleep or a problem with staying asleep. Insomnia is a symptom and not a disease or illness.

Different kinds of insomnia 
There are at least three different types of insomnia:
 Transient Insomnia: this lasts from one night to a few weeks.
 Acute Insomnia: lasts from a few weeks to about six months.
 Chronic Insomnia: lasts for years at a time.

Causes 
There are many causes of insomnia. Some of them are:
 As people get older, their sleep patterns change. They will sleep shorter periods of time, but more often. Younger people usually sleep longer. This is normal.
 Some insomnia issues are caused by stimulant drugs, such as amphetamine, cocaine and nicotine. Coffee stimulates the body, and people tend to drink quite a lot of it when they are at work. If they drink too much of it, they will have problems falling asleep in the evening. (The same is true for tea, colas, or any other drink with caffeine in it.)
 Some people worry a lot. Their worries during the day will bother them at night. They might have nightmares, or they may wake up sweating.
 Some substances, like alcohol can have a bad effect. It can be very hard to sleep after drinking a lot of alcohol. The world may spin and there can be an urge to vomit as soon the person closes their eyes. Drugs can also have this effect, even some "sleeping" pills.
 A very rare disease called fatal familial insomnia prevents some people from falling asleep. In this disease, a person can no longer sleep and after a while will die from being so tired. It is caused by a protein similar to the one that causes mad cow disease which is a very bad disease that comes from eating infected meat.
 People with disorders of their circadian rhythms often have trouble sleeping at normal times.
 Insomnia is a common symptom of some mental disorders: bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, dementia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Treatments
There are drugs available that can help treat the different kinds of insomnia. In some cases, there are also certain herbs that can help. A third way that seems to help is a type of therapy that aims at changing the behaviour of those affected.

References 

Sleep disorders
Priest

A priest or priestess is a person who  is allowed to do religious rites. Their office or position is the priesthood, a word which can also be used for such persons collectively. In most religions and cultures in history there have been priests, although they have a lot of different names, and follow different rules.

In Christianity 

A priest is a member of a church that has been told to look after his (spiritual) community. He is the head of a parish.

Catholic priests are ordained (put in place) by the Pope (or in his absence: a bishop).
Orthodox priests are ordained by the Patriarch
Anglican priests are ordained by their bishop.
Most Protestant groups do not ordain priests.

To become a Catholic priest, you are required to study Theology. The Orthodox and Protestant Churches also have laymen as clergy.

Catholic priests are not allowed to marry meaning that they have to be celibate. Orthodox priests can be married, but they must not marry after they become a priest. Anglican priests can get married before or during the time they are a priest.

The Catholic Church does not allow women to become priests. However, some Anglican Churches allow women to be priests.

Higher priests are called Bishops and Archbishops in the Anglican Church. John Sentamua and Rowan Williams are the archbishops of York and Canterbury. In some denominations only men can become priests.

The Orthodox Church has a higher priest called a Patriarch. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, like the Roman Catholic Church has a Pope, Pope Tawadras.

Protestantism
Many Protestant churches have ministers or pastors instead of priests.

Japan
In Japan there are Buddhist priests and nuns, Shinto priests and priestesses (kannushi) as well as clergy in the Christian traditions.

Other websites

 
Religious occupations
Christian religious occupations
Red Sea

The Red Sea is a sea between the Arabian Peninsula of Asia in the northeast and Africa in the southwest. It is a part of the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea is about 2200 km long and  less than 330 km wide.

Many ships go through the Red Sea because the Suez Channel at the north end connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Bab-el-Mandeb in the south is a gate to the Indian Ocean. Ports include Suez, Port Sudan, Massawa, Yanbu al-Bahr, Jeddah, Aqaba and Eilat. 

The Red Sea has that name because it sometimes looks red from the red algae. The water has more salt and is clearer than water of most other seas because almost no rivers run into it.

The climate is dry and warm. Many people, including those from Europe, like to vacation there. Some of them are divers and want to see the beautiful coral reefs and fish. Seaside resorts include Sharm el-Sheikh, Eilat or Hurghada.

Geography 
The countries next to the Red Sea are Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Israel.

In the Bible 
According to the book of Exodus, God parted it for Moses and the Israelites so they could escape from the Egyptian Army.

References 

Seas of the Indian Ocean
List of country calling codes

The page is a list of country calling codes. These are area codes for telephone numbers.

Zone 1 - North American Numbering Plan Area 
Places in the NANPA (North American Numbering Plan Area) have been given area codes as if they were all areas inside one country.

For more information please see nanpa.com

Zone 2 - Mostly Africa

Zone 3 - Europe

Zone 4 - Europe

Zone 5 - Mexico, Central and South America, West Indies

Zone 6 - South Pacific and Oceania

Zone 7 - Russia and its vicinity (former Soviet Union) 
 7 - Russia; Kazakhstan; Abkhazia (disputed with Georgia)

Zone 8 - East Asia and Special Services

Zone 9 - West, South and Central Asia, Middle East

Zone 0 
 0 - unused

Other websites 
 http://www.lincmad.com/world.html
 http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-LT.1-2015-PDF-E.pdf
 http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-E.164D-2016-PDF-E.pdf
 http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-E.164C-2011-PDF-E.pdf
 http://www.wtng.info/

Lists of countries
Telephone numbers
Country codes
Pilot

A pilot is a person that drives a vehicle (form of transportation) such as an airplane, spacecraft, or boat. All types of pilots must pass a number of tests and obtain a license before they can operate the vehicle. The pilot of a flying machine is usually in charge for the whole trip. A ship pilot usually only guides the ship through an especially difficult place such as a harbor. 

Occupations in aviation
Water transport
Charles August Lindbergh

Charles August Lindbergh, Sr. (January 20, 1859 – May 24, 1924),  was a United States Congressman for 6th District of Minnesota  from 1907 to 1917. He was the father of Charles Lindbergh.

References
 Larson, Bruce L. Lindbergh of Minnesota: A Political Biography. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1973. .

United States representatives from Minnesota
1859 births
1924 deaths
Faroese language

Faroese is the Germanic language of the Faroe Islands spoken by about 70,000 people. The language came from Old Norse which was spoken in the Middle Ages. Faroese is the most similar to Icelandic. The alphabet has 29 letters that come from the Latin alphabet.

Faroese numbers

References
Laura Ingalls Wilder

Laura Ingalls Wilder (February 7, 1867 - February 10, 1957) was an American writer. She was born in Wisconsin and spent her childhood in Missouri and Kansas. She became a teacher in South Dakota at age 16.

Wilder is best known as the author of the Little House on the Prairie series of books. A TV series, Little House On the Prairie, was inspired by the story of her life as told in her books. The series starred Melissa Gilbert as Laura and Michael Landon as Charles 'Pa' Ingalls.

Other websites 

Little House Wiki: Laura Ingalls Wilder

1867 births
1957 deaths
Writers from Wisconsin
Mestizo

Mestizo (meh-STEE-tzo) is a Spanish term for a person who is of mixed European (usually Spanish) and Amerindian ancestry.

Mestizos have existed since the time when Spain controlled much of what is now Latin America. A mestizo was usually the son of a Spanish father and a Native American mother. Mestizos form the largest part of the population in some Latin American nations, a large minority of mestizos makes up most of the population in Mexico, which is the Spanish-speaking nation with the largest population in the world.

During the colonial era, many Native Americans were converted to Roman Catholicism and began using the Spanish language instead of their traditional one. This was because of the concept that existed in the Spanish colonies which gave more "value" to European people over Native Americans and Africans. Because of this, many Native Americans gained better social status by calling themselves "mestizos" instead of "indios."

Indo-Mestizo 
Indo-Mestizo (also known as Cholo) is a Spanish term for a person who is around 3/4 Native American and 1/4 Caucasian ancestry and an unfortunate derogatory term used by the European cast system for racial discrimination against Original Native people https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta

Indo-Mestizos term is a racial slur used  mostly to discriminate against Original Native people  in Eastern and Southern Mexico, much of Northern Central America,in South American West Pacific Side Ecuador, Peru, Chile Colombia and Bolivia

Indo-Mestizos usually have more Native American traits, but may have a light pigmentation with completely Native American features, or a dark pigmenation with some obvious Caucasian features.

Famous Indo-Mestizos include Maya Zapata, George Lopez, and Danny Trejo. They are so called because of their appearance, not because of known genetic background. 

Native Americans
 
Ethnic groups
Royal Air Force

The Royal Air Force (acronym: RAF) is the air force of the United Kingdom. The RAF began in 1918 when the Royal Flying Corps (pronounced core) and the Royal Naval Air Service joined together. It is the oldest air force in the world. The first man to lead the RAF was Hugh Trenchard. The RAF has many bases across the world, including the United Kingdom, Falkland Islands, Cyprus and Gibraltar. Some examples of the British bases are RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland, RAF Valley in Wales, RAF Aldergrove in Northern Ireland and RAF Linton-on Ouse in England. The RAF has new planes including the Eurofighter Typhoon, F35 Lightning II and the BAE Systems Hawk. The Hawk is used to train fast jet pilots. At the end of 2022 the UK had 30 F35 Lightning II.

World War II 
The RAF were very busy during World War II. Many important planes were built for the RAF. The Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricane helped defend Britain during the Battle of Britain. The Avro Lancaster bomber attacked Germany with strategic bombing. The RAF lost great numbers of pilots and aircraft, fighting around the world and especially against the Luftwaffe, the German Air Force.

References

Other websites 
 241 Squadron RAF  1918 Great War Forum
 The RAF website
 pictures of RAF planes in action

 
1918 establishments in Europe
1910s establishments in the United Kingdom
Tequila

Tequila is a Latin American drink from Mexico that contains alcohol. It is made from a plant called agave. It contains about 40 percent alcohol, and is often used in bars and nightclubs to make mixed drinks such as the tequila sunrise or the Margarita. It is also muggish

Alcoholic spirits
One Thousand and One Nights

One Thousand and One Nights is an old cycle (or group) of stories that mostly come from Arabia and Persia, and a few also from India, Central Asia and China. All these stories were later collected together. There are different layers of the stories:

 Uppermost is the story of Queen Scheherazade who needs to entertain her husband, the Sultan or King Sheheryar, or she would be put to death.
 The next layer is made up of the actual stories, such as Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, Aladdin and the Magic Lamp, etc.
 In those stories, there is often also a narrator who tells the story.

It is similar to 101 Nights, also known as The Book with the Story of the 101 Nights, another Arabic story collection. The collections only have two stories in common - “The Ebony Horse” and “The King’s Son and the Seven Viziers,” popularly known as “The Book of Sinbad.”

Related pages
 Sinbad the Sailor

References

Other website links
 The Thousand Nights and a Night in several classic translations, including unexpurgated version by Sir Francis Burton, and John Payne translation, with additional material.
 Stories From One Thousand and One Nights, (Lane and Poole translation): Project Bartleby edition
 The Arabian Nights (includes Lang and (expurgated) Burton translations): Electronic Literature Foundation editions 
 The Medieval Arabic Nights  - a study
 Jonathan Scott translation of Arabian Nights
 Notes on the influences and context of the Thousand and One Nights 
 1001 Resources and Links for A Thousand and One Nights  University of Houston
 The Book of the Thousand and One Nights  by John Crocker
 (expurgated) Sir Burton's ~1885 translation, annotated for English study.
 Arabian Nights' Tales  Dedicated site with just the stories of 1001 nights listed in order.

Persian literature
Arabic literature
Coup d'état

A coup d'état (pronounced []), or just coup ([]) for short, is the removal of a head of state and/or a head of government from power (overthrow). Unlike a revolution in which large numbers of people usually take over, a coup can be done by a small number of people. Even one person can cause a coup, such as Idi Amin for example, who controlled the Ugandan Army. Coups can also be organized by other countries, such as the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. One well-known failed coup was the Beer Hall Putsch in which Adolf Hitler tried to take over the government of Bavaria , a state in Germany.

The term comes from the French for "a (sudden) blow (or strike) to a state".

Informally, coup is sometimes used to refer to takeovers or wins, in places other than government such as in a company or corporation.
Eucharist

The Eucharist, also called holy communion, the sacrament, or the Lord's supper, is a kind of religious ritual in many Christian churches. It started when Jesus Christ told his followers to eat bread (His body) and drink wine (His blood) in memory of him, at the Last Supper.

In the Roman Catholic Church
According to the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is the true presence of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. During a Mass, through the act of transubstantiation, the bread and wine offered change, and are no longer bread and wine.  They become the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ. The bread and wine do not change appearance, but they are the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, which Catholics in good standing (not in the state of mortal sin) come and receive Christ—they consume Him.  This follows what was said by Christ "Eat my Body and Drink my Blood" (John ch.6). Most Protestant denominations believe that this was meant as a symbol, while the Catholic Church bases its beliefs on the tradition handed down through the church.

First century St. Ignatius of Antioch, disciple of the beloved disciple John, in speaking of "the heretics plaguing the church" in their day, wrote:  "They abstain from the Eucharist because they do not confess that the Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ" (Smyrnaeans, 7).

From the second century, St. Justin Martyr wrote:
"This food we call Eucharist, which no one is allowed to share except the one who believes that our teaching is true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and so lives as Christ has handed down. For we do not receive these as common bread and common drink; but just as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise we have learned that the food over which thanks has been given by the prayer of the word which comes from him, and by which our blood and flesh are nourished through a change, is the Flesh and Blood of the same incarnate Jesus" (The First Apology).

In other churches

In most Protestant churches, not including Lutheranism, the sacrament of communion involves eating small wafers or Matzos and drinking wine or grape juice, and not believing that it is the actual body and blood of Jesus, but as a very important symbolic observance, and fulfillment of what Christ commanded. Some churches offer it daily, some weekly, some monthly, and some a few times a year.

Unlike the Catholic teaching, Lutherans teach that the bread and wine is Jesus' body and blood, but is bread and wine also (consubstantiation).

In the Latter Day Saints or "Mormon" Church, followers eat small pieces of bread and drink water. They believe that this is a symbol of the body and blood of Jesus, and they call it the Sacrament. They also believe that it helps them to make the promises of baptism all over again.

Related pages
Transubstantiation

Sacraments
Christian terminology
Piccolo Coro dell'Antoniano

Piccolo Coro dell'Antoniano is an Italian choir of children. It was created in Bologna in 1963 by Mariele Ventre. The children had to help singing children at Zecchino d'Oro festival. In 1995, Mariele Ventre died and the choir has a new director - Sabrina Simoni - and a new name - Piccolo Coro "Mariele Ventre" dell'Antoniano.

Choirs
Italian musical groups
1963 establishments in Europe
People from Bologna
1960s establishments in Italy
Ward Cunningham

Howard G. "Ward" Cunningham (born May 26, 1949) is an American computer programmer. He started the first wiki website on March 25, 1995, and is considered the inventor of that software. He currently lives in Beaverton, Oregon.

Ward Cunningham got a Bachelor's degree in electrical engineering and computer science from Purdue University, and then got his master's degree in computer science from there as well. he has worked for Tektronix Computer Research Laboratory, the Eclipse Foundation, and Microsoft, among other places. In 2009, he joined AboutUs, an editable guide to websites.

Other websites 
 WikiWikiWeb, the first wiki hosted at c2.com
 Ward's personal pages on c2.com

1949 births
Living people
American computer scientists
Scientists from Oregon
Scientists from Indiana
People from Michigan City, Indiana
Chain

A chain is like a rope, but made up of several elements called links.
 A chain (unit) is also a measure of length
 A human chain can be made by people standing next to one another and who hold hands or link arms. It is a chain that has people for its links. 
 Chain store, retail stores which share a brand and central management, usually with standardized business methods and practices. They may all have the same owners or may be franchised.

Basic English 850 words
Rope

A rope is made out of several threads. The material can be organic, like flax, or it can be small threads of steel (in case of a steel rope, wire or cable). A rope can be used to lift, or pull things, like pulling a ship into a harbor with another ship, or fixing the ship so it does not move away. The twisting of fibers in rope is what leads to its high tensile strength (meaning it's very difficult to pull apart) and this innovation allowed the rope to become a construction staple that has been used for millennia. Ropes have been used for thousands of years, from the Egyptians using them in 4000BCE and modern-day construction that relies heavily on the strength of this tool.

Gallery

Hardware (mechanical)
Ropework
Gillian Anderson

Gillian Leigh Anderson,  (born August 9, 1968) is an American-British film, television and theatre actress, activist and writer. Her credits include the roles of FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the long-running and widely popular series The X-Files, ill-fated socialite Lily Bart in Terence Davies' film The House of Mirth (2000), and DSI Stella Gibson on the BBC crime drama television series The Fall. Among other honours, Anderson has won a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.

After beginning her career on stage, Anderson achieved international recognition for her role as FBI Special Agent Dana Scully on the American sci-fi drama series The X-Files for all ten seasons (1993–2002, 2016). Her film work includes the dramas The Mighty Celt (2005), The Last King of Scotland (2006), Shadow Dancer (2012) and two X-Files films: The X-Files: Fight the Future (1998) and The X-Files: I Want to Believe (2008). Her other notable television credits include: portraying Lady Dedlock in the successful BBC production of Charles Dickens' Bleak House, Wallis Simpson in Any Human Heart, portraying Miss Havisham in Great Expectations (2011) and Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier on Hannibal. In 2013, Anderson began starring as DSI Stella Gibson on the critically acclaimed BBC crime drama television series The Fall. She has been serving as an executive producer from its second series. She will be appearing as goddess Media in the upcoming TV series American Gods. Anderson is the co-writer of The EarthEnd Saga novel trilogy and the self-help guide book WE: A Manifesto for Women Everywhere.

Aside from film and TV, Anderson has taken on the stage and has received both awards and critical acclaim. Her stage work includes Absent Friends (1991) – for which she won a Theatre World Award for Best Newcomer, A Doll's House (2009) –  that earned her a Laurence Olivier Award nomination, and a portrayal of Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire (2014, 2016) – for which she won the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actress and received her second Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress.

Anderson has been active in supporting numerous charities and humanitarian organizations. She is an honorary spokesperson for the Neurofibromatosis (NF) Network and the co-founder of South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes). Anderson was appointed an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2016 for her services to drama.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Gillian Anderson at Emmys.com

1968 births
Actors from Chicago
American activists
American feminists
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
American voice actors
DePaul University alumni
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Honorary Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Living people
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Debt

Debt is what someone owes to someone else. Usually, debt is in the form of money, but it can also be items, services, favors, or other things. Thus if you make an agreement to give or do something for someone else, you now owe a debt. Unpaid debt can lead to problems such as the Greek government-debt crisis. Debt is used by governments, corporations and individuals to make purchases that they could not normally afford.  Common types of debt owed by households and individuals are mortgage loans, car loans, credit card debt, and income taxes. In the case of individuals, debt is a way to use an anticipated income combined with the future purchasing power at present before earning the same. 

On the other hand, corporates have a multitude of options when it comes to debt.  Companies may use debt for their working capital or day-to-day operations.

Types of debt 
Goods, services or money borrowed with the intent of repayment (in kind or not) creates a debt. Debt can be classified as either secured debt, unsecured debt, revolving debt, or a mortgage.

A secured debt uses collateral, which is an asset that is promised to the debt-holder until the debt has been repaid. If the repayment is not made in full, the lender gets the collateral asset. For instance, a car loan typically creates a secured debt. If you still owe money on the car loan and do not make timely payments, the note-holder can take back (or repossess) the car and sell it to get the money still due. A home mortgage is similar. 

An unsecured debt is more risky to the debt-holder (the lender, also called creditor). In the event of non-payment of the debt, the lender cannot take assets. Credit card debt is typically unsecured. If you charge items to a credit card and do not make the monthly payments, the credit card issuer can report the non-payment to the credit-reporting agencies. That will reduce your credit score so others will not lend you money. But usually they cannot take back whatever you bought with the card.

Revolving debt is a line of credit or an amount that a borrower can continuously borrow from. In other words, the borrower may use funds up to a certain amount, pay it back, and borrow up to that amount again. Revolving credit accounts are open ended, meaning they don’t have an end date. As long as the account remains open and in good standing, borrower can continue to use it.

A mortgage is a debt issued to purchase real estate, such as a house or condo. It is a form of secured debt as the subject real estate is used as collateral against the loan.

Related pages 
Debt bondage
Loan

References 
Basic English 850 words
Economics
Aquitaine

Aquitaine (Occitan: Aquitània; ; ) is a part of southwestern France. It was once an administrative region but is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. With over 41,000 square kilometers, it is one of the largest regions of mainland France (the largest of all French regions is French Guiana, in South America).

Its capital was Bordeaux, the largest city. The French name of the people living in the region is Aquitain.

The five departments in the region were Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne, and Pyrénées-Atlantiques.

Geography
The Aquitaine region was the third largest region of Metropolitan France, after Midi-Pyrénées and Rhône-Alpes. Its area was . It bordered with three French regions: Poitou-Charentes to the north, Limousin to the northeast and Midi-Pyrénées to the east. To the south is Spain (Aragon and Navarre) and to the west the Atlantic Ocean. The coast along the Atlantic Ocean, part of the Bay of Biscay, is called the Côte d'Argent (Silver Coast).

The Greenwich Meridian passes through Aquitaine.

Most of Aquitaine is in the Aquitanian basin, a relatively flat and geologically young landscape. High mountains are found only in the south of Aquitaine, in the Pyrenees mountain range. The Pic Palas (), at , is the highest point of Aquitaine; it is on the border with Spain.

The main rivers of the region are the Garonne, that flows through the Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; the Dordogne, that flows through the Dordogne and Gironde departments; the Lot, that flows through the Lot-et-Garonne department; the Dropt, that flows through the Dordogne, Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; and the Adour, that flows through the Landes department.

The climate is mild - except in the high mountains - all year round. On the Atlantic coast, the annual average temperature is above 15 °C, in Bordeaux is about 14 °C and on the border of Limousin is still 11 °C. Rainfall is relatively high and is higher in the south of the region.

History
In the Middle Ages Aquitaine was at times a kingdom and a duchy. Various wars made it larger and smaller. Aquitane came into the control of England when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. It remained in English control until 1453 at the end of the Hundred Years' War.

Departments
The Aquitaine region is formed by five departments:

Demographics
The Aquitaine region had a population, in 2012, of 3,285,970, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

The 10 most important cities in the department are:

Gallery

Notes

References

Other websites 

 Regional Council of Aquitain official website  
 Visit Aquitaine 
 Regional information and tourist attractions
 Aquitaine: the cradle of humanity
Nightmare

A nightmare is a very powerful dream that the sleeper finds disturbing or frightening. Nightmares usually have either physiological causes, like a high fever, or psychological ones, like trauma or stress in the sleeper's life.  Nightmares are common, but nightmares that happen very often can cause problems with sleep. They may cause people to get medical help.

Nightmares usually happen during REM sleep.

In earlier times 
In earlier times, people thought that such nightmares were really the work of demons. They thought people were having nightmares because an Incubus was sitting on the chest of the sleeper. This can also be seen on the image. Sometimes people also thought magic and demonic possession were involved. 

In the 19th century, people thought their diet was responsible. When Ebenezer Scrooge sees a ghost in A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens, he thinks "... an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato..." is responsible. Similarly, the Household Cyclopedia (1881) offers this advice about nightmares:

"Great attention is to be paid to regularity and choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy meats and pastry... Moderate exercise contributes in a superior degree to promote the digestion of food and prevent flatulence; those, however, who are necessarily confined to a sedentary occupation, should particularly avoid applying themselves to study or bodily labor immediately after eating... Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent cause of night-mare, as it either occasions the patient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the night. Passing a whole night or part of a night without rest likewise gives birth to the disease, as it occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, to sleep too soundly. Indulging in sleep too late in the morning, is an almost certain method to bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently it returns, the greater strength it acquires; the propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresistible."

References 

Psychology
Sleep
Melilla

Melilla is a city in North Africa, which is separated from Spain by the Mediterranean Sea. It is an exclave that belongs to Spain, and is all surrounded by Morocco, which believes it should belong to them. Ceuta is another such city. Until it became a self-governing city in 1995, it belonged to the Province of Málaga.

Its surface is about 20 square kilometers, and there are almost 70,000 people living there.

References

Other websites 

 Google Maps entry for Melilla

Exclaves
Ceuta

Ceuta is a Spanish city in North Africa, at the Strait of Gibraltar which divides it from mainland Spain. It is an exclave of Spain, and is all surrounded by Morocco, which believes it should belong to them. Melilla is another such city. The city area is about 20 square kilometers, and there are over 82,000 people living in the city. The city is surrounded by a border fence, which has been built to keep the Moroccans (and other Africans) from moving there unlawfully. Until it became a self-governing city in 1995, it belonged to the Province of Cádiz.

It was built by the Phoenicians at a strategic position.

References

Other websites

Exclaves
 
North Africa
Equatorial Guinea

The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is a nation in west central Africa, and one of the smallest countries in Africa. It borders Cameroon on the north, Gabon on the south and east, and the Gulf of Guinea on the west. The country's territory is both on the continent and on islands. The continental part is known as Río Muni. On one island, Bioko, is the capital, Malabo.

Equatorial Guinea and the peoples living there were colonized by Spain. Spanish is an official language because of this.

Provinces 
Equatorial Guinea is divided into eight provinces (capitals appear in parentheses):

 Annobón (San Antonio de Palé)
 Bioko Norte (Malabo)
 Bioko Sur (Luba)
 Centro Sur (Evinayong)
 Djibloho (Ciudad de la Paz)
 Kié-Ntem (Ebebiyín)
 Litoral (Bata)
 Wele-Nzas (Mongomo)

The provinces are further divided into districts.

References

Other websites

1968 establishments in Africa
 
French-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Spanish-speaking countries
Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (born June 5 1942) has been the President of Equatorial Guinea since 1979. Mbasongo did the military academy in Zaragoza, Spain. He came to power in a military coup, deposing the former leader Francisco Macías Nguema. Ngema had ruled the country for the previous decade. He was known to be very cruel. Ngema was sentenced to death and executed by a firing squad. Mbasonga promised to start over and to do a better job at governing the country.

In 1982, a new constitution was made. MBasogo was given the newly created post of president. He was re-elected in 1989, 1996 and 2002. In 1989 he was the only candidate, in the 1996 and 2002, international observers said the election results were false.

Obiang's regime kept clear authoritarian characteristics even after other parties were legalized in 1991.  Most domestic and international observers consider his regime to be one of the most corrupt, ethnocentric, oppressive and undemocratic states in the world. Equatorial Guinea is now essentially a single-party state, dominated by Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE). In 2008 American journalist Peter Maass called Obiang Africa's worst dictator, worse than Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe. The constitution grants Obiang wide powers, including the power to rule by decree.  Nonetheless, Obiang has far less power than Macías. For the most part his rule has been considerably milder.  Notably, there have been none of the atrocities that characterized the Macías era.

All but one member of the 100-seat national parliament belong to the PDGE or are aligned with it. The opposition is severely hampered by the lack of a free press to express  their views. Around 90% of all opposition politicians live in exile, 550 anti-Obiang activists have been jailed unfairly, and several killed since 1979.

In July 2003, state-operated radio declared Obiang to be a god who is "in permanent contact with the Almighty" and "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell."  He personally made similar comments in 1993.  Despite these comments, he still claims that he is a devout Catholic and was invited to the Vatican by John Paul II and again by Benedict XVI. Macías had also proclaimed himself a god.

In November 2021, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo was appointed at his party's congress as a candidate for a sixth term in the 2023 election.

References

1942 births
Living people
African Union chairpersons
Current national leaders
Presidents of Equatorial Guinea
Dictators
Toronto Maple Leafs

The Toronto Maple Leafs are an ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL).

Origin 
They were formed in 1917 as one of the six original NHL teams. They were called the Toronto Arenas, but changed their name to St. Patricks, then to Maple Leafs, in the 1920s. The maple leaf is a symbol of Canada. The hockey team was actually named for an older team, a minor league baseball team called the Toronto Maple Leafs.

History 
The Maple Leafs have won the Stanley Cup championship 13 times, more than any team except the Montreal Canadiens. However, they have not won since 1967.

Early years 
They won in their first year, 1918, and then again in 1922 and 1932. In their early years, they had many NHL scoring champions: "Babe" Dye in 1923 and 1925, "Ace" Bailey in 1929, Harvey "Busher" Jackson in 1932, Charlie Conacher in 1934 and 1935, and Gordie Drillon in 1938. However, no Toronto player has been scoring champion since then.

Victories 
They were a strong team in the 1940s. They won the Stanley Cup in 1942 against the Detroit Red Wings, four games to three, even though they were losing three games to none at one point. This was the first of six championships in ten years; they also won in 1945, then three years in a row: 1947, 1948, and 1949, and again in 1951. Some of their best players in that time included goaltender Turk Broda, forward Syl Apps, and defence "Babe" Pratt, who won the Hart Trophy as the most valuable player in 1944. Ted "Teeder" Kennedy won the Hart Trophy in 1955; but no other Maple Leaf has won that award.

The team won four Stanley Cups in the 1960s: three in a row - 1962, 1963, and 1964 - and again in 1967. Frank Mahovlich, a left winger, was the star player. They were also led by defenceman Tim Horton (who began the Tim Horton's doughnut shops), center Dave Keon, goaltender Johnny Bower, and winger George Armstrong. Keon won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the top player in the playoffs in 1967.

Later years 
In the late 1970s, the Maple Leafs were a good team, with players such as centre Darryl Sittler (who scored a record 10 points in one game) and Swedish defence Borje Salming (one of the first Europeans to play in the NHL). However, there were 18 NHL teams by then, so it was hard to come first. Wendel Clark was a strong player in the 1980s; he became the team's all-time top scorer. Mats Sundin was another Swedish star in the 1990s and 2000s. They also had some good goaltenders around this time: Curtis Joseph, then Ed Belfour.

References

Notes

Other websites
Official website

1910s establishments in Canada
1917 establishments in North America
National Hockey League teams
 
Toronto Maple Leafs players