alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Garfield

Garfield is a famous comic strip created by Jim Davis. 

The comic has a cat called Garfield, a dog called Odie, and their owner, Jon Arbuckle. The cat is named after Davis's grandfather, James Garfield Davis (who was probably named after former U.S. President James Garfield). It debuted on June 19, 1978, in 41 US newspapers. Garfield at Large was Garfield'''s first book, published in 1980. It was listed in the New York Times bestseller list at #1. By 1983, Garfield was featured in 1400 newspapers, and was translated into seven different languages.Garfield got a website in 1996. In 2002, Garfield was declared "Most widely syndicated comic strip in the world" by the Guinness Book of World Records. Garfield's 1st cookbook was featured in 2003. In 2004, Garfield: The Movie was the first full-length feature movie based on Garfield''. Garfield is a fun-loving cat who loves lasagna but hates Mondays and is enjoyed by many people around the world.

, five Garfield movies have been made.

Main characters 
Garfield - orange, fuzzy tabby cat
Jon Arbuckle - Garfield's dad
Odie -  yellow, long-eared beagle
Dr. Liz Wilson - Garfield's veterinarian and a long-time girlfriend of Jon Arbuckle

Dates
June 19, 1978 (USA/UK)
August 12, 1978 (Australia)
July 14, 1979 (Worldwide)
December 21, 1980 (Brazil)
July 31, 1981 (Japan)

References

Other websites
 Garfield and Friends official site

Comic strips
Michael Moore

Michael Francis Moore (born April 23, 1954 in Davison, Michigan, USA) is an American writer and moviemaker. He is known for his strong liberal political views. He often expresses them using humor and satire. His work includes Roger & Me, Fahrenheit 9/11, Sicko, and Bowling for Columbine, and the satire show TV Nation. He has also written books including Dude, Where's My Country? and Will They Ever Trust Us Again?.

Youth
Until 1972, Moore went to Davison High School. When he was 18, he was elected to the Davison School Board. There he met Kathleen Glynn.

His job as a journalist
At the age of 22, Moore left school. He started an alternative magazine called The Flint Voice. He was the editor of the magazine for ten years. After that, Moore was hired as managing editor of the magazine Mother Jones in San Francisco. After five months, he left the editorial staff because of a dispute. After that he went back to Flint, Michigan.

Political activities
Moore has been a strong critic against Presidents Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. He supported Ralph Nader in the 2000 presidential election, and Barack Obama over Hillary Clinton in the 2008 presidential election. In December 2015, Moore announced his support for Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders in the upcoming 2016 United States presidential election. Moore has stated that Sanders is a "candidate not to be messed with" and showed his support for Sanders' debate performances.

Movies by Moore
Roger & Me (1989)
Pets or Meat: The Return to Flint (1992) (TV movie)
Canadian Bacon (1995)
The Big One (1997)
And Justice for All (1998) (TV movie)
Bowling for Columbine (2002)
Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)
Sicko (2007)
Captain Mike Across America (2007)
Slacker Uprising (2008)
Capitalism: A Love Story (2009)
Fahrenheit 11/9 (2018)

Books by Moore 
 Downsize This!  Random Threats from an Unarmed American (1997)
 Adventures in a TV Nation: The Stories Behind America's Most Outrageous TV Show (with Kathleen Glynn) (1998)
 Dude, Where's My Country? (2003)
 Stupid White Men... and Other Sorry Excuses for the State of the Nation (2004)
 The Official Fahrenheit 9/11 Reader (2004)
 Will They Ever Trust Us Again?  Letters from the War Zone (2004)
 Mike's Election Guide 2008 (2008)
 Here Comes Trouble: Stories from My Life (2012) (a memoir)

References

Other websites

General
 
 
 
 The Populist: Michael Moore Can Make You Cry / New Yorker (February 16, 2004)
 America's Teacher  by Naomi Klein, The Nation, September 23, 2009
Interviews
 A 2007 NOW on PBS interview with Michael Moore
 Michael Moore on His Life, His Films and His Activism – video interview by Democracy Now!
 Michael Moore on 2010 Midterm Elections, the Tea Party, and the Future of the Democratic Party
In Depth interview with Moore, October 2, 2011

American Roman Catholics
American movie directors
American movie producers
American political commentators
American journalists
American historians
American activists
Writers from Michigan
People from Flint, Michigan
1954 births
Living people
Socialists
Hawaiian Punch

Hawaiian Punch is the name of a brand of sweetened fruit punch drinks owned by Dr Pepper/Seven Up, Inc. (DPSU). It was created in 1934 by A.W. Leo, Tom Yates, and Ralph Harrison as an ice cream topping, and customers later discovered that it was an appealing drink when mixed with water.

In 1962, the character of Punchy was introduced in a commercial for Hawaiian Punch, eventually becoming the product's mascot. His long-time saying is "Hey, how about a nice Hawaiian Punch!"

It currently comes in the following flavors:
 Fruit Juicy Red: the original flavor
 Green Berry Rush: strawberry and kiwifruit
 Mazin' Melon Mix: melon
 Bodacious Berry: berry
 Tropical Vibe: orange
 Wild Purple Smash: grape and berry

The drink has its name because some of original recipe's main ingredients come from Hawaii.

The Fruit Punch 
The Fruit Punch is the name of a brand of sweetened fruit punch drinks owned by Dr Pepper/Seven Up, Inc. (DPSU). It was created in 1928 by Los Angeles, California, and Red Buttons as an ice cream topping, and customers later discovered that it was an appealing drink when mixed with water.

In 1988, the character of Peep was introduced in a commercial for The Fruit Punch, eventually becoming the product's mascot. His long-time saying is "Hey! How about a nice Fruit Punch!"

Cast 
 Keith Scott - Peep
 Frank Gorshin - Quack

Soft drinks
Marker

A marker is a writing device that allows a person to draw, write, or scribble. Ink comes out of the tip of the marker and onto the writing surface, commonly a piece of paper. Markers generally come in a variety of different colors. They are sometimes referred to as "magic markers", or magic pens.

The tip of the marker where ink comes out from is usually made of cloth. This allows the ink to go through easily. A lot of ink can come out from it at one time.

Marker types 

 Whiteboard markers are marker pens in which the ink can be rubbed out easily with tissues or dusters.
 Permanent markers are markers which the ink cannot be rubbed off.

Art
Writing tools
Tim Burton

Timothy Walter Burton (born August 25, 1958) is an American artist, director, producer and screenwriter.

Early life 
Burton was born in Burbank, California on August 25, 1958. His father is of Dutch, English, French, German, and Scottish descent and His mother is of Croatian, German, Norwegian, and Swedish descent. He began as an animator for Walt Disney Pictures, but soon moved on making his own kinds of movies and projects.

Career
He has an individual style; the movies that he makes are creative and often based on events that would not happen in real life. For example, the main character in "Edward Scissorhands" is a young man who has scissors instead of hands. His movies attract an audience usually that fits his unique tastes.

Personal life 
Burton has bipolar disorder. He lives in Belsize Park, London, next door to his former partner Helena Bonham Carter. Burton and Carter split in December 2014. The houses have a door connecting them. The couple have a son and daughter together.

Selected Filmography
 Pee-Wee's Big Adventure
 Beetlejuice
 Batman
 Batman Returns
 Edward Scissorhands
 Mars Attacks!
 The Nightmare Before Christmas
 Planet of the Apes
 Big Fish
 Sleepy Hollow
 Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
 Corpse Bride
 Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street
 Alice in Wonderland
 Dark Shadows
 Frankenweenie
 Big Eyes
 Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children
 Dumbo

References

Other websites 
 

1958 births
Living people
American movie directors
American movie producers
American television directors
American television producers
Movie directors from Los Angeles County, California
Movie producers from Los Angeles County, California
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People with bipolar disorder
Screenwriters from California
Writers from Burbank, California
Submarine

A submarine (or sub) is a vessel that goes underwater. Most large submarines are war vessels. Some small ones are used for scientific or business purposes. These are often called "submersibles" and cannot go far or stay long away from base. Some people buy their own to explore under the sea. A submarine is a boat, not a ship.

History 
Early submarines were often powered by hand. This is because boat engines had not been invented yet. They were almost always made for war. Submarines would try to sink enemy ships by crude methods. These included drilling screws into their wooden hulls. Some tried to blow up a ship. This often destroyed the submarine, too.  At the end of the 19th century, the Whitehead torpedo and electrical systems allowed much better submarines.

These better submarines were much used during the First and Second World Wars. Many of these better submarines were created by Germany, called U-boats. The submarines were powered by a diesel-electric system. A diesel motor would be used to turn a generator. The generator would charge a large battery while the submarine was on the surface. The power in the battery was then used by the submarine when it went underwater. These submarines were dangerous to enemies. They were difficult to see while underwater but it was easy to attack them when they surfaced to recharge.  Many modern boats still use this diesel-electric propulsion system.

The First Battle of the Atlantic was the first major battle that was mainly fought between submarines and their enemies. As in later wars, the main jobs of submarines were to enforce a blockade and to sink enemy warships. They usually attacked freighters at night, shooting with their deck guns and then hiding under the water. Sometimes they used their torpedoes, which they could fire while underwater, especially against larger ships and warships. During World War II The US Navy lost around 52 submarines due to combat and non-combat causes. 

After World War II better sonar helped the enemies of submarines to find and destroy them. New subs were more streamlined and had no deck guns because water dragging against the guns made noise underwater and slowed the subs.

Modern submarines 
Most large modern military submarines are powered by nuclear reactors. These submarines often have a system which can get air from the seawater. These two things allow them to stay underwater for long periods of time. Their most important uses are attacking ships or launching missiles. These include cruise missiles and nuclear missiles. There are two main kinds of subs. Attack submarines are small and fast. They attack other subs and surface ships with torpedos. Missile subs are larger and slower. They are built to shoot missiles at far-away targets on land.

Other websites 

 Submarine -Citizendium

Warships
Lebanon

Lebanon is a country in the Middle East, in Western Asia, next to the Mediterranean Sea. It has borders with Israel to the south, and Syria to the east and north.

History & Data
Lebanon was named Phoenicia under the Roman Empire. Some of the biggest temples in Antiquity were there at Heliopolis. In the eighth century Arabs conquered Phoenicia and imposed their religion Islam. But many areas in the mountains remained Christian as the "Maronites". However, the Christians who remained in the mountains became Arabized and started identifying themselves as "Arab Christians".

Lebanon has been independent since 1943. Its capital city is Beirut.

Lebanon has two chains of mountains. It has a long coastline. The area of Lebanon is 10,452 square kilometers.

The Cedar tree is the national symbol of Lebanon because many of them grow in the Lebanon Mountains.

Population of Lebanon 
Around 5.2 million people live in Lebanon. 

Around 14 million Lebanese people live outside Lebanon.

The people of Lebanon 
About 68% of Lebanese people are Muslim and 32% are Christian.

The official language of Lebanon is Arabic and it is the most common language. French, English, and Armenian are also common languages.

Governorates and districts
Lebanon is divided into six governorates.  These are divided into 25 districts. The districts are also divided into several municipalities. The governorates and their districts are listed below:

 Beirut Governorate
 The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut
 Nabatieh Governorate (Jabal Amel)
 Bint Jbeil
 Hasbaya
 Marjeyoun
 Nabatieh
 Beqaa Governorate
 Baalbek
 Hermel
 Rashaya
 Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi)
 Zahle
 North Governorate (al-Shamal)
 Akkar
 Batroun
 Bsharri
 Koura
 Miniyeh-Danniyeh
 Tripoli
 Zgharta
 Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan)
 Aley
 Baabda
 Byblos (Jbeil)
 Chouf
 Keserwan
 Matn
 South Governorate (al-Janoub)
 Jezzine
 Sidon (Saida)
 Tyre (Sur)

Related pages
Lebanese Civil War
2020 Beirut explosion
List of rivers of Lebanon
Lebanon at the Olympics
Lebanon national football team
Heliopolis (Roman Phoenicia)

Notes

References 

 
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
1943 establishments
Alan Alda

Alan Alda (real name: Alfonso Joseph D'Abruzzo) (born January 28, 1936) is an American actor. His mother was of Irish ancestry; his father was of Italian ancestry.

He directed, wrote and starred in many movies. He is probably most famous for his role as "Hawkeye" Pierce, the central character on the comedy/drama TV series M*A*S*H, as well as writing and directing several episodes of the show, and later becoming one of its producers. Alan also hosted Scientific American Frontiers on PBS from 1993 to 2005.

His father, Robert Alda, was an actor, and his mother, Joan, was once crowned Miss New York. Alan has been married to Arlene Weiss since 1957 and they have three daughters and a son.

In 2015, Alda was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. That same year, he starred in Steven Spielberg's Bridge of Spies. In 2019, he starred as lawyer Bert Spitz in Marriage Story.

References

Other websites 
 
 
 Bio on Scientific American Frontiers
 Comprehensive bio 
 InnerVIEWS with Ernie Manouse: Alan Alda  (TV Interview)
 Military Service
 Interview with Alda  on NPR's Fresh Air (September 21, 2005)
 Alan Alda's Charity Work
 Performance  Working in the Theatre seminar video at American Theatre Wing.org, April 1992
 Never Have Your Dog Stuffed: And Other Things I've Learned (Chapter 1) 

1936 births
Living people
Actors from New York City
American movie actors
American television actors
Emmy Award winning actors
Emmy Award winning directors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Sally Kellerman

Sally Clare Kellerman (June 2, 1937 – February 24, 2022) was an American movie actress. She was born in Long Beach, California. Her acting performances include the pilot for the original Star Trek television series, and the movies MASH (1970) and Back to School (1986). For her role in MASH, she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.

Kellerman, who had dementia, died on February 24, 2022 in Los Angeles, California from heart failure at the age of 84.

References

Other websites 

1936 births
2022 deaths
Actors from Long Beach, California
American movie actors
American television actors
Deaths from heart failure
Hagar the Horrible

Hägar the Horrible is the title of a comic strip and the name of the main character. The comic strip is about a Viking and his life of plundering and his family life. It was started in 1973 by Dik Browne. Since Dik's retirement (he stopped working) in 1988, his son Chris has continued the comic.

Comic strips
Comics characters
Baghdad

Baghdad (, transliterated Baghdād) is the capital city and largest city in Iraq. It is the second-largest city in Southwest Asia after Tehran. It is the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. 5,772,000 people lived there in 2003. Baghdad is on the Tigris River at 33°20′N 44°26′E. The city was once the center of Dar al-Islam, Muslim civilization. Baghdad used to be one of the largest learning centers in the world, during the post classical era. It was one of the greatest cities of Islamic civilization. It was one of the most important cities in the Muslim world and reached its extent of art and poetry. Baghdad was founded by the Abbasid Caliphate under the Caliph Abu Jafar al-Mansur better known as simply al-Mansur. The city was captured in 1055 by the Seljuk Turks. It was largely sacked and destroyed in 1258 by the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan. It then later came under the rule of the Safavid Iran and then the Ottoman Empire in 1537.

References

 
762 establishments
8th-century establishments in Iraq
760s establishments in Asia
Shirley Bassey

Dame Shirley Veronica Bassey, DBE (born 8 January 1937) is a Welsh singer, born in Cardiff to an English mother and Nigerian father. She is best known for singing the theme songs for the James Bond films, Goldfinger, Diamonds are Forever, and Moonraker. She was "one of the most popular female vocalists in Britain during the last half of the 20th century".

Other websites 
Songs of Shirley Bassey website

References 

1937 births
Living people
Black British musicians
Musicians from Cardiff
Welsh pop singers
Captain Beefheart

Don Van Vliet  (born Don Glen Vliet January 15, 1941– December 17, 2010) was an American singer. He is better known by his stage name Captain Beefheart.  He was best known for his collaborations and (sometimes) rivalry, with long time friend, Frank Zappa. He is an inspiration to many "alternative" singers. He retired from music due to illness and spent his time painting. He was born in Glendale, California. His stage name came from a movie project Zappa was writing, but soon abandoned, "Captain Beefheart battles the Grunt People". His best known album was recorded in 1969. It was titled "Trout Mask Replica".

He and his group Magic Band also made albums in the early 1980s that received positive critical attention.

Van Vliet was also a well known painter of abstract primitive art. His work has been shown in gallery presentations in New York City and Europe.

He died on December 17, 2010 at the age of 69 from complications from multiple sclerosis, twenty-nine days before his 70th birthday.

References

Singers from Los Angeles
American rock musicians
People with multiple sclerosis
Deaths from multiple sclerosis
1941 births
2010 deaths
Multi-instrumentalists
Drake & Josh

Drake & Josh was a Nickelodeon television series. It started in January 2004 and ended in September 2007. The stars of the series are Drake Bell and Josh Peck. The two appeared as best friends on The Amanda Show. In Drake & Josh, they play step-brothers of separate parents. The overall story of the show was to show how Drake & Josh, two people with completely different ways of life, come together through their parents' marriage, and trying to avoid getting pranked by their little sister Megan Parker (Miranda Cosgrove).

Other stars of the show include Nancy Sullivan, who also starred on The Amanda Show.

Characters

Main cast

Recurring Characters

Theme Song
The start of each episode uses a song called "I Found A Way". The song is written by Drake Bell and Michael Corcoran and performed by Bell. Bell can also be seen playing the song in a quick scene from an episode in the first season. The song can also be found on the series' official soundtrack, Drake & Josh: Songs from and inspired by the hit TV show, and on Drake Bell's albums, Telegraph and It's Only Time.

2000s American sitcoms
Nickelodeon television series
2004 American television series debuts
2007 American television series endings
English-language television programs
The Amanda Show

The Amanda Show is a sketch comedy television series starring Amanda Bynes, formerly of All That. It is a spin-off of All That. The series starred Amanda as almost every major recurring character, including herself, Penelope, Courtney, and Judge Trudy (a parody of Judge Judy.) The series aired on Saturday nights on the Nickelodeon television network in the United States.  It still shows the show in reruns. Three of the show's stars (Drake Bell, Josh Peck, and Nancy Cartwright) Were on the very popular Drake and Josh.

Penelope Taynt
Penelope Taynt is a fictional character played by Amanda Bynes "Number One Fan, Please" on The Amanda Show. She never once met Amanda, but often came very close. She is known for saying "please" and "actual" often. She does not know the names of any cast member that is not Amanda. On the show, she had a website called "www.amandaplease.com." Eventually, it was made into the show's official site.

Comedy television series
Nickelodeon television series
1999 American television series debuts
Television spin-offs
English-language television programs
Sally Ride

Sally Kristen Ride (May 26, 1951 – July 23, 2012) was an American astronaut and astrophysicist. She was the first American woman to reach outer space.

Ride was born on May 26, 1951. She was born in the neighborhood of Encino in Los Angeles, California. She earned a Ph.D. in physics from Stanford University. She joined NASA in 1978. She was an astronaut until 1987. In order to be an astronaut and go into space, Sally Ride had to train for a year. Training included adapting to gravity, water survival, radio communications, and navigation. She went on the Space Shuttle Challenger in June 1983. This trip was the first time an American woman was in space. She helped design the robot arm for the space shuttle. The robot arm lifts heavy objects in space. Ride was the first person to use the robot arm in space. The robot arm put a satellite in space that showed how the sun affected weather. Ride flew to space twice.

She worked on the commissions that investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger and Space Shuttle Columbia disasters. Ride became a professor in 1989. She was the professor of physics and director of the Oklahoma Space Institute at the University of California.

She was married to astronaut Steven Hawley from 1982 until they divorced in 1987. At the time of her death, Ride had been in a relationship with writer Tam O'Shaughnessy for 27 years.

On July 23, 2012, Ride died of pancreatic cancer at her home in La Jolla, a neighborhood of San Diego, California. She was 61.

References

American astronauts
American physicists
Cancer deaths in San Diego County
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
LGBT people from Los Angeles
LGBT scientists
Scientists from Los Angeles
1951 births
2012 deaths
Court

For the court as the seat of a royal person see royal court.
For the court as a space inside a building, see courtyard.
A court, in law, is a part of the government in which people come together to decide how to apply the country's laws to a specific situation, especially when there is an argument over how to apply the law. Some disagreements a court may decide are whether a person is guilty of a crime, who is the legal owner of property, or who the children of two divorced parents should live with. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is commonly known as the judiciary. A court is usually located in a special building called a courthouse.

Most countries have multiple courts to deal with different issues.  For example, civil courts deal with private disputes between people or organizations, while criminal courts deal with people who have been accused of crimes.

Types of courts 

 Appellate court
 Court-martial
 Constitutional court
 International court
 Supreme court
 Trial court
Birth

Birth (to be born) means when a baby animal comes out of its egg, or out of its mother after pregnancy. It is sometimes thought of as the beginning of life. It is also known as calving in livestock or whelping in meat-eating mammals.

Related medical words 
 Childbirth is the process at the end of a human pregnancy that results in a baby being born.
 Natural childbirth is the technique of minimizing medical intervention, particularly anaesthetics, during childbirth.
 Multiple birth is the birth of two (twins), three (triplets), four (quadruplets), etc., babies resulting from a single pregnancy.
 Birth pangs are the pains felt by the mother during labor
 Caesarean section or C-section is surgical birth through the wall of the abdomen.
 Afterbirth is the birth of the placenta following the birth of the baby.
 Birth canal is the term used for the vagina during birth
 Birth control is the prevention of pregnancy.
 Birth defect is a physical or mental abnormality present at the time of birth.
 Complications may cause a miscarriage or spontaneous abortion to occur.
 Infertility treatments are devices, medications, or behavior patterns to increase the probability of pregnancy.
 Premature birth is the birth of an infant before the full term of pregnancy.
 Stillbirth is the birth of a dead fetus or infant.

Changes in pelvis during human pregnancy 
In adult females the pelvis is shaped differently from males. The differences are connected with allowing the baby to pass through the birth canal successfully. Also, during pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin softens the ligaments in the pelvis area. This produces a little bit of extra space for the baby's head to get through. The process is hard to describe in words, but fortunately there is an excellent video which explains what goes on.
Baby Centre expert advice: how pregnancy changes your pelvis.

Legal meanings
 Birth certificate is a legal document describing details of a person's birth.
Birthday is a day to celebrate that the person has lived a certain number of years. 
 In some countries a person is considered of illegitimate birth if the child is born of parents not legally married to one another.

Spiritual meanings
Born again -a term used primarily in Protestantism, is associated with salvation, conversion, and spiritual rebirth. See Gospel of John chapter 3.
 Rebirth is a belief that a person is born again after their death based on the karma of their previous births.
 Virgin birth of Jesus is the Christian doctrine that asserts that Jesus Christ was born to a virgin, and thus that his conception was carried out without an earthly father.

Related pages
 Death
 Fertilisation
 Home birth
 Pregnancy

References

Pregnancy and childbirth
Immunity (medical)

Immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself from 'foreign bodies'. This means rejecting infections, clearing up dust which gets in the lungs, and killing cancer cells. 

Immunity is of two types. Innate immunity protects the host against infection, but has no 'memory', and so gives no long-term immunity.

The second type is adaptive immunity, which does have a kind of 'memory'. It does give long-term protection against specific pathogens.

All animals, plants and fungi have some innate immunity. Vertebrates also have adaptive immunity.

People can be immunised from some diseases by having a vaccination 
(injection of some dead or weakened virus, or bacteria that causes the disease). Vaccination builds on the natural immune system to make a person resist certain diseases. By doing so, the body reacts more quickly to fight the virus/bacteria when it comes.

History of immunology
Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.

In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.

This and other observations of acquired immunity was later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory.

It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century.  Humoral immunity (antibodies) and cellular immunity (T cells and dendritic cells). were all recognised.

Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Mechnikov.

Humoral immunity 
Humoral immunity is immunity that is done by macromolecules. Antibodies, complement proteins, and certain antimicrobial peptides are in extracellular fluids.

Cell-mediated immunity  
This is an immune response which does not involve antibodies. Cell-mediated immunity is the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen.

References 

Immunology
Map

A map is an image of an area, usually of the Earth or part of the Earth. A map is different from an aerial photograph because it includes interpretation. Many maps are called "charts" such as star charts and nautical charts. Some maps are of distant worlds. Before the late 20th century almost all maps were on paper. Today, many maps are digital, and can be seen on smartphones and computers. However, paper maps are still used.

The word "map" can also be used to talk about a chart or drawing that shows relationships between ideas, people, events, or anything else you can think about. This is why web developers call a list of web pages on a web site a site map.

People who make maps are cartographers.

Many maps today are made using GIS computer systems. These are database systems that are organized by location instead of named records. 

If a map is on a piece of paper or a computer screen, it has to be projected.  This is because the Earth is round and paper and screens are flat.  There are a lot of ways that use mathematics to make map projections.  The only kind of map of the Earth that is not projected is one drawn on a sphere.  This is called a globe.

Basic English 850 words
Cartography
Survival skills
Tools
Noah

Noah (meaning rest or comfort) is a man in the Abrahamic religions. He was the son of Lamech, and the father of sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. Noah and his ark are in the Book of Genesis, which also describes Noah as the 'first man to plant a vineyard' (chapter 9). Several other parts of the Bible mention him, as does the Quran.

The Ark 

As described in the Book of Genesis, Noah and his family kept believing in God in a time when most people were not, like his son Canaan and his wife Naamah. Knowing this was true, God told Noah he was going to flood the world, so he could drown out evil. He told Noah to build a boat called an ark. Noah was to put himself, his family (except his son and his wife because they refused to come aboard the ark), and two (a male and a female) of every kind of animal on it. People laughed at Noah, but they were killed by the flood with his son and his wife. Noah and family stayed on the ark until they reached land. To find land Noah sent out a dove, which returned with an olive branch. After the flood, God made a rainbow as a promise to say that he would never destroy the Earth by flood again. When they were able to walk on dry land, the animals were released and they were able to repopulate the earth.

References

Old Testament people
1452

1452 was a leap year.

Events 
 March – Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor becomes the last to be crowned in Rome.
 Portuguese navigator Diogo de Teive discovers Corvo Island in the Azores.
 18 June – Pope Nicholas V issues the bull Dum Diversas, legitimising the colonial slave trade.
 October – English troops under John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, land in Guyenne, France, and retake most of the province without a fight.
 A major eruption of the South Pacific volcano Kuwae in Vanuatu has a subsequent global cooling effect (the eruption released more sulfate than any other event in the past 700 years).
 Battle of Bealach nam Broig, a Scottish clan battle.
 Murder of William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas by James II of Scotland at Stirling Castle.
 Revolt of Ghent: Forces of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, clash multiple times with rebel militia from Ghent in the region around Ghent.

Births 
 February 6 – Joana, Crown Princess of Portugal (d. 1490)
 March 10 – King Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1516)
 April 15 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist and inventor (d. 1519)
 April 19 – King Frederick IV of Naples (d. 1504)
 July 10 – King James III of Scotland (d. 1488)
 July 27 – Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1508)
 September 21 – Girolamo Savonarola, Italian religious reformer and ruler of Florence (d. 1498)
 October 2 – King Richard III of England (d. 1485)
 December 10 – Johannes Stöffler, German mathematician (d. 1531)

Deaths 
 February 10 
 Svitrigaila, Grand Prince of Lithuania
 Michał Bolesław Zygmuntowicz, Prince of Black Ruthenia
 May 26 – John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury
 December 12 – Guillaume Huin d'Estaing, Catholic cardinal
 date unknown
 Nicholas Close, English bishop
 Gemistus Pletho, philosopher
 William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas
Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide

Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide is a TV show on Nickelodeon.

From "A middle middle school full of bullies, insane teachers and gross school lunches" comes Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, a show on Nickelodeon. The show stars Devon Werkheiser as Ned Bigby (that everyone hates), a 12-15-year-old student at James K. Polk Middle School. Every episode is a group of tips to surviving a school based activity. The show is part of Nick's Sunday lineup. It first aired on September 12, 2004.

The show is very successful, it has had a promising start. The show also stars Daniel Curtis Lee and Lindsey Shaw as Simon "Cookie" Cook and Jennifer "Moze/Mose" Mosley/Mozely.

It also comes on Family Channel.

Nickelodeon television series
English-language television programs
2004 television series debuts
2007 television series endings
VH1

VH1 (Video Hits One) is an American television network. It is a sister station to the groundbreaking MTV.

VH1 shows reality shows and reruns of sitcoms, whereas MTV's focus is on the current hits and also reality shows. VH1 also shows You're Cut Off! on Mondays for 3 weeks and Wednesdays for 5 weeks. It started airing on . Casting has been renewed for a 2nd season.

Related pages
You're Cut Off!
MTV

Notes

Other websites

VH1 Classic 
VH1 Country
VH1 Divas Live 
VH1 Europe
VH1 Save The Music Foundation
VH1 Soul 
VH1 Latin America
VHUno US Latin Channel

American television networks
Companies based in New York City
Music media
Cable television
Cabinet

A Cabinet is a group of important people in a government, who normally represent the head of government. It is also known as the Council of Ministers or the Executive Council.  They are part of the executive branch of government. People in the cabinet are called ministers or secretaries, and they do different things, such as look after the environment. 

In most countries with parliamentary systems, the cabinet decides the government's policy.  In other countries, such as the United States, the cabinet has limited power, and is an advisor to the Head of Government. In some countries, cabinet members are given their jobs by those who are in the government.

Many years ago the cabinets were called Privy Councils. The cabinet of today came about during the time that George I and George II were Kings of England. 

In some European countries, the term "cabinet" is used to mean the assistants of an important politician.

In the UK and some Commonwealth countries, the Shadow Cabinet are the leaders of the main opposition party in a parliament.

Related pages 
 Cabinet of the United States
 Cabinet of the United Kingdom
Shadow cabinet

Government
Newspaper

A newspaper is a publication printed on paper and issued regularly, usually once a day or once a week. It gives information and opinions about current events and news.  Usually people like to read them to stay informed about their local city, state or country.  Newspapers can be delivered to one's home, by subscription.  One also can buy a newspaper at a store or at a newsstand.  Recycling of paper is common.  It may be converted to new paper, for example. 

Newspapers usually have many topics.  They usually include political events, crime, business, sports, and weather news.  Newspapers use photographs to illustrate stories; and also often include comics and other entertainment, such as crosswords and horoscopes.  Many have opinion sections.  These sections print the opinions of people who work for the newspaper.  The opinions, which are usually on stories in the news, are called editorials.  Opinion sections usually also print short letters from people who read the newspaper.

Related pages 
 Media studies

Other websites 
 Newspapers from List of Newspapers - Online Newspapers Directory

 
Printing
Reference works
1833



Events 
January 3 – Britain invades the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic.
March 2 – United States President Andrew Jackson signs the Force Act, which authorizes him to use troops to enforce federal law in South Carolina.
March 4 – Ayya Vaikundar incarnated from the sea of Thiruchendur as the avatar of Kali Yukam.
June 6 – U.S. President Jackson becomes the first President to ride a train.
May 11 – French-American farmhand Antoine le Blanc murders family of three.
September 29 – The infant Isabella II becomes Queen of Spain, under the regency of her mother, Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies.  Her uncle Don Carlos, Conde de Molina challenges her claim, beginning the First Carlist War.
December 14 – The assassination of Kaspar Hauser, who dies three days later on December 17.
Charles Babbage described his analytical engine. (see also history of computing hardware)
The dawn of biochemistry: discovery of the first enzyme, diastase, by Anselme Payen.
The British Parliament passes the Slavery Abolition Act giving all slaves in the British Empire their freedom.
Heard Island and the McDonald Islands discovered.
Public domain

Public domain is a phrase that describes something that belongs to all people in general: the public. The public domain contains works (such as books, films, or paintings) that are not under copyright protection.

The opposite of "public domain" is copyrighted material, which is owned either by the creator of the work or their estate.  The term public domain is only used to describe things that can be copyrighted, such as photographs, drawings, written articles, books or plays, or similar works of art.  As a general rule, all intellectual property works, after enough time has gone by, will become part of public domain. Examples include the works of Leonardo da Vinci, William Shakespeare and Ludwig van Beethoven, and the books of Isaac Newton.

A work can enter the public domain in many ways.
The copyright expires, many years (usually 50 or 70 years) after its creator dies.
The work's creator may legally give up all claims to the material.
The creator forgets to renew the work's copyright (for works before 1963).
The work may have been created by agencies of certain governments, in which case it was in the public domain from the time of its creation.
The work is made by an animal.
The copyright notice is missing an owner, year or copyright symbol (for works before 1989).

In some cases, if a work enters the public domain after copyright expiration, anyone using the work may still be required to note who created the work.  Even if some works are in the public domain due to not being copyrighted, there may be still non-copyright usage restrictions. For examples, even though the design of national currencies may be ineligible, or be unsuitable, for copyright, counterfeiting them for fraud is widely a very serious crime. Another example are logos and images that only have text or simple shapes. These logos aren't copyrighted in the United States, but they are often protected by trademarks.

Related pages 
Copyleft

Intellectual property law
Child

A child (the plural is children) is a person below the age of puberty (biologically) or below the age of majority (legally). A person can be called his or her parent's child, no matter how old he or she is. Another word for "child" is "kid".

In most countries, children go to school. Small children may go to nursery school, preschool or kindergarten. Playing with small toys and using their imaginations are important for child development. But often in a developing country, children sometimes work in factories or in the fields with their parents or guardians.

When two people get married and one (or both) of them have children with someone else before this marriage, that child is called a step child by the child's non-birth parent. If both people had children, the children of each parent are step brothers or step sisters of each other. A child whose parents have died is an orphan. Orphans with no parent may be raised by grandparents or other relatives. Otherwise they may go to live in an orphanage. They may be adopted by another adult or couple wanting a child. They will then be able to grow up in a new family.

Related pages
 Adolescent
 Parent
 Sibling (a brother or sister)

 
Basic English 850 words
Composer

A composer is someone who writes (composes) music. Some composers work by writing music down on paper; this is called 'written notation'. Classical music writers work this way. Writers for TV and movie music also usually write this way, so that an orchestra or other players can read the music and play it.

Some musicians are very good at improvisation. This means that they think up (invent) the music as they play it. Some church organists are good at improvising. During a service they may need to play some organ music to fill in the gaps while people are collecting money or taking communion. Jazz musicians are usually excellent at improvising. Improvisation is not written down, so each time it is different.

Popular and rock or soul music writers are often not able to read and write music down. Many pop and rock composers compose their songs on a guitar or piano. Cole Porter and Irving Berlin usually composed at the piano.

Many songs are written by two or more people. It is common for two people to work together to write songs. Sometimes, one person writes the music and one writes the words (the lyrics). Some songs such as folk songs were composed many years ago and no one knows who wrote them.

Related pages
 Composition (music)

 
Entertainment occupations
Factor

A factor can be:

 a circumstance in the social sciences 
 a number in mathematics
 a chemical in science
 a character in the game Dungeons & Dragons
Ball

A ball is a round object (usually spherical, but can sometimes be ovoid) with several uses. 

Ball is used metaphorically sometimes to denote something spherical or spheroid, e.g., armadillos and human beings curl up into a ball, making a fist into a ball.

Basic English 850 words
Ferrocement

Ferrocement is both a method and a material used in building or sculpting with cement, sand, water and wire or mesh material. It is often called the thin shell. Thin shell ferrocement offers strength and economy and can be used in many ways including: building homes, creating sculptures, or building boats and ships.

Related pages 
 Reinforced concrete

Other websites 
 FerroBoats.com
 Ferrocement.com (multi-lingual)
 Ferrocement Educational Network
 Water Storage book by Art Ludwig, includes Ferrocement Tanks & Excel Water Tank Calculator
 Water Tank Design  Water Tank Design information

Building materials
Camera lens

A camera lens is the part of a camera that directs light to the film or, in a digital camera, to a computer chip that can sense the light. Many cheap lenses are plastic but better ones are made from glass. The lens makes an image by focusing the light.

The majority of cameras only have one lens that users cannot change or take out. This is called a fixed lens design. More expensive cameras usually have lenses that come off, so anyone can take out one lens and put in another. A lens may be simple, or may actually be made of several lenses.

Photographers can use different lenses (objectives) to make different kinds of pictures. For example, a telephoto lens can take a picture of something far away. A  wide-angle lens is the opposite. A zoom lens is more versatile; it can do both. There are many kinds of lenses.

The study of lenses and how they work is called optics.

Lenses for large sheet film cameras are especially difficult to design. Cameras and their lenses have been made since the 19th century. Some from before World War II, are still usable today. Computers now let engineers make better lenses, though, because they can calculate the way that light goes through the lens and find the best design for each task. Together with lenses, filters, macro lenses, teleconverters, wide-angle and tele attachments are used.

Camera lenses
Boy

A boy is a young male human, either a child or teenager.  Little boys still have the body of a child.  It is not until they reach puberty (adolescence) that their bodies start to mature and they become a man.
The word “boy” was used a long time ago in Anglo-Saxon English. The opposite of a boy is a girl.

Culture
The way boys are brought up will vary a lot between different cultures.   Boys are supposed to be tougher than girls.  It is their job to do work that is physically hard, including fighting in the army when they are grown up.  However, people’s attitudes are changing and nowadays many girls like to do the same things as boys. In Western cultures boys traditionally wear trousers (pants) while girls wear dresses or skirts.    However, many girls also wear trousers these days, like boys, especially when dressed informally.  Boys often have shorter hair than girls, although this can vary a lot according to quickly changing fashions.

Traditionally boys like rough games (such as soccer or rugby) and enjoy playing with mechanical things such as toy cars and trains.  People today have long discussions about whether this is because they are born like that, or because that is the way society expects them to behave.

The traditional color for a boy is blue.  For girls, it is pink.  When a baby is born in a hospital it usually gets a blue or pink tag on its wrist or ankle, according to whether it is a boy or a girl.

Names
Some names are boys’ names, others are girls’ names. There are some names that can be for boys and girls (although they may be spelled differently, e.g. “Lesley” for a boy and “Leslie” for a girl).

In some countries such as Britain an “old boy” means a grown-up who used to be a pupil at a particular school (e.g. “He is an old boy of Cransbury High School”).   The expression can also be used in a very informal, friendly way, e.g. “Nice to see you, old boy!”.

Related pages

Man
Boyfriend

Basic English 850 words
Childhood
Company clerk

Responsible for performing clerical and administrative duties in an office setting. Assists executive assistants and secretaries by sorting mail, filing, answering phones, greeting clients, scheduling meetings, and restocking supplies.

Business occupations
Afrikaner people

Afrikaners are white South Africans who speak Afrikaans as mother tongue and follow the Afrikaans culture. Most of them have Dutch, German, French Huguenot, ancestors. Also known as Boere, Voortrekkers and Burgers, although under slightly different contexts. In South Africa there are about 3 million white people with Afrikaans as mother tongue, that can be assumed to be Afrikaners if they chose to follow the Afrikaans culture.

Ethnic groups in South Africa