alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Oliver!

Oliver! is a musical. It is based on the novel, Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. The book, lyrics, and music were written by Lionel Bart.

Premieres
Oliver! had its world premiere on 30 June 1960 at the New Theatre in the West End. It ran for 2621 performances. The musical was directed by Peter Coe, and choreographed by Malcolm Clare. It starred Ron Moody as Fagin, Georgia Brown as Nancy, Martin Horsey as Dodger, and Keith Hamshere as Oliver.

Oliver! opened on Broadway at the Imperial Theatre on 6 January 1963. Georgia Brown reprised her role as Nancy, Clive Revill played Fagin, Davy Jones played Dodger, and Bruce Prochnik played Oliver. It won three Tony Awards including Best Original Score.

Adaptations
In 1968, the musical was adapted to a movie of the same name. The movie won the Academy Award for Best Picture.

West End musicals
Broadway musicals
1960s musicals
Musicals based on books
Musicals adapted to movies

1960 works
Dr. Hook & The Medicine Show

Dr. Hook & The Medicine Show or simply just Dr. Hook was an American band. They formed in Union City, New Jersey in 1968. Their two best known songs were "Cover of the Rolling Stone" and "Sylvia's Mother".

American rock bands
Country bands
Musical groups from New Jersey
Musical groups established in 1967
1967 establishments in the United States
1960s establishments in New Jersey
Musical groups disestablished in 1985
1980s disestablishments in New Jersey
1985 disestablishments in the United States
Glider

Gliders are aircrafts which do not have a motor. Gliders are controlled by their pilots by using control-sticks. Some gliders can only carry one person; others can carry two. In gliders with two seats, each pilot has a control-stick. Gliders always have seats for the pilots.

'Sailplanes' are gliders with long wings so that they will only lose height slowly. In some places a vertical draft makes the air go up faster than the glider is going down. The pilot of a glider can make it climb by flying to these places. This is called soaring. Good pilots can travel long distances by always finding rising air. Some pilots race each other over hundreds of kilometres each day. Other pilots just fly for fun.

Gliders cannot get into the air by themselves. They are pulled into the air by an aircraft with a motor or they are pulled up by motor on the ground.

There are two other types of gliders. Hang-gliders have frames to give the wings their shape, but do not have seats for their pilots and do not have control-sticks. The wings of paragliders are like parachutes and so do not have frames to give them their shape. These other two types of glider are often launched from the tops of hills or cliffs.
Aircraft
John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was an English philosopher and political economist. He was a classical liberal thinker of the 19th century. He was for utilitarianism, the ethical theory first proposed by his third godfather Jeremy Bentham.

As a utilitarian, he believed that the good of society as a whole is more important than the pleasure of one or a few individuals.

References 

1806 births
1873 deaths
19th-century English philosophers
British economists
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Liberal Party (UK) MPs
Politicians from London
Scientists from London
Writers from London
Jeremy Bentham

Jeremy Bentham (15 February 1748 – 6 June 1832) was an English, jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. He is best known as one of the first people to be for utilitarianism, animal rights and gay rights.

Bentham was one of the most influential (classical) liberals, partially through his writings but particularly through his students all around the world, including John Stuart Mill and several political leaders (and Robert Owen, who later started the idea of socialism). He is believed to be the innovator of classical liberalism, a term first coined in the 19th century. After he died, his body was preserved and is on public display at University College London to this day

Refences 

1748 births
1832 deaths
Bentham, Jeremy
Dinosaur Comics

Dinosaur Comics is a comic by Ryan North. It shows dinosaurs who have adventures and talk about philosophy and some other topics.  The art is the same every day, but the words are different. This comic is intended to be funny.
Things in the comic that are not true: 
Dinosaurs did not talk 
There were no cabins, cars, or women when dinosaurs lived 
The dinosaurs in this comic (Tyrannosaurus Rex, Dromiceiomimus, and Utahraptor) did not live at the same time or even in the same places. 
Tyrannosaurus Rex was not friendly

Comics
Webcomics
Lucid dream

A lucid dream is essentially a dream in which the person is aware that he or she is in the dream. In a lucid dream, the person does not have to be in control of his or her surroundings for the dream to be lucid, and only being aware of the dream itself is sufficient condition for the dream to be described as lucid. 

The art of lucid dreaming is the art of being able to control your surroundings in the dream itself. People who lucid dream can usually control everything that happens in their dream. They can teleport, fly, make something appear, or even make everything disappear. Regular lucid dreamers usually do so for spiritual reasons but there certainly are people who do it for fun or to avoid bad dreams.

Ways to lucid dream
Although some people can have lucid dreams without trying, most people do not have them often. It is important to be able to remember dreams, because if the dreamer does not remember them, he or she will not know if they were lucid dreams or not. Remembering dreams becomes easier if they are written in a dream diary upon waking up. 

There are some ways that help make lucid dreams more likely. Stephen LaBerge, a psychologist who studies lucid dreams, made the MILD (mnemonic induction of lucid dreaming) technique. To do this, the dreamer must wake up after having a dream, and visualise himself or herself being in the dream again, except now knowing it is a dream. The dreamer should think "the next time I am dreaming, I want to remember I am dreaming", and should concentrate on this while returning to sleep. There are many other ways to help someone lucid dream. One other way is to fall asleep while keeping the mind awake. This is called the WILD (wake induced lucid dreaming) technique. It is easiest to perform after waking up from a few hours of sleep.

Other websites 

Dreamviews Lucid Dreaming Community & Resource
Lucidipedia 
Lucidity.com
LD4all
Sleep
My Fair Lady

My Fair Lady is a musical. It is based on George Bernard Shaw's play, Pygmalion, and on the movie adaptation of the play starring Wendy Hiller and Leslie Howard. The book and lyrics for the musical were written by Alan Jay Lerner. The music was written by Frederick Loewe.

Synopsis
The common flower girl, Eliza Doolittle, tells us of the simple pleasures she would like in life (a warm room, an enormous chair, chocolate, someone who cares for her) and how much she would appreciate these little things. As Eliza grew up on the streets of London, she has a strong cockney accent (therefore pronouncing ‘lovely’ as ‘loverly’), the phoneticist, Professor Henry Higgins, overhears her and he places a bet that he can turn Eliza into a lady within the space of a year.

Productions
The musical premiered on Broadway on 15 March 1956 at the Mark Hellinger Theatre.  It moved to other theatres in New York during its original run, and closed on 29 September 1962 after 2,717 performances. It starred Rex Harrison, Julie Andrews, Robert Coote, and Stanley Holloway. It was directed by Moss Hart. 

The West End production opened on 30 April 1958 at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Harrison, Andrews, Coote, and Holloway played their Broadway roles. It ran for five and one-half years for 2,281 performances.

Awards
The musical won the Tony Award for Best Musical.

Adaptations
The musical was made into a movie in 1964 starring Audrey Hepburn and Rex Harrison. 

Broadway musicals
West End musicals
Musicals based on plays
Musicals based on movies
Musicals adapted to movies
1950s musicals
Tony Award winning musicals

1956 works
A Man for All Seasons

A Man for All Seasons is a play by Robert Bolt about the life of Sir Thomas More that was first put on in 1960. It was made into a movie in 1966 that won the Best Picture Academy Award that year. It was also made into a TV movie in 1988.

Best Picture Oscar
Plays based on English history
1960s plays
1960 works
Composite number

A composite number (or simply a composite) is a natural number, that can be found by multiplying prime numbers.

For example, the number 9 can be found by multiplying 3 by 3.  Another example is the number 12, which is obtained by multiplying 3, 2 and 2.

All natural numbers (greater than 1) can be put in one of the two classes below:

 The number is prime. 
 The number is not prime. It can be found by multiplying together other primes. The same prime number can be used several times, as in the example with 12 above. This is known as the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.

Related pages
Perfect number

Number theory
A Portuguesa

"A Portuguesa" (, meaning "The Portuguese") is the national anthem of Portugal, adopted in 1911. The music of the song was composed by a Portuguese composer and painter named Alfredo Keil. The words of the song were written by a poet named Henrique Lopes de Mendonça, in response to the 1890 British Ultimatum for Portuguese troops to get rid of their positions in Africa between the Mozambique and Angola in the Pink Map.

Lyrics

References

European anthems
National symbols of Portugal
Stalking

Stalking means following something or somebody secretly. In the animal kingdom, Predators often hunt by stalking, or by combining stalking with ambushing. 

Someone who likes to watch other people is known as a voyeur. When this is continually done to a person it can have a bad effect.

Criminal stalking 
Stalking in a way that makes someone feel unsafe is a crime in many countries. It is not just one event but an ongoing process that threatens or makes that person feel scared. Someone who does this is called a stalker. The stalker may do this because they want to be involved in that person's life, because they want to have power over that person's life, or for other sexual reasons. The stalker can make that person feel scared. They may feel they do not have the power to stop the stalker. Psychologists say stalking is a way of hurting someone's mind. Sometimes a stalker may go on to hurt that person's body by assaulting, raping or murdering that person.

Cyber-stalking 
Stalking can sometimes be done on the internet. This is called cyberstalking.

References

Human behavior
Crime
Ham

Ham is pork that comes from a leg of a pig. 

Ham can be dry-cured or wet-cured. Dry-cured ham is made by rubbing the meat with salt. Wet-cured ham is made with brine.

Types of dry-cured ham:
Prosciutto crudo (Italian)
Prosciutto di Parma (Italian)
Jambon de bayonne (French)
Jamón serrano (Spanish)
Jamón iberico (Spanish)
Country ham (American)
York ham (English)
Westphalian ham (German)

Ham is used in SPAM.

Gallery

References
Spam (food)

Spam is a canned meat food made by the Hormel Foods Corporation. It is made from pork shoulder meat and ham. Spam Lite, a newer kind of Spam, is made with pork and chicken.

There have been many ideas about what the word "Spam" means. The Hormel Foods Corporation once said that it means "Shoulder of Pork and Ham", but in some dictionaries "Spam" means "spiced ham".
Members of staff at the SPAM museum say it stands for Specially Produced American Meat.
In 2019, Spam began making advertisements containing the definition “Sizzle Pork And Mmmm”.

Spam was used a lot in World War II, as there wasn't proper meat. Because of that, spam was used as a rationed item.

Jokes about Spam 
The British comedy group Monty Python created a short play about Spam in 1970. In it, a lady who does not like Spam is talking to a waitress in a restaurant when a bunch of Vikings cut their conversation by singing the word "Spam" over and over again. The lady does not like what is happening and eventually the word "Spam" became widely used to mean unwanted email messages.
There is also a song called Spam. It was sung by Weird Al Yankovic and first recorded in 1988.

Pork
Mushroom

A mushroom (also called a toadstool) is the part of a fungus that is comparable to the fruit of a plant. Unlike plants, mushrooms do not use sunlight to generate energy for themselves. Some mushrooms are edible, and are used for cooking in many countries, such as China, Korea and Europe. Other mushrooms, however, are poisonous, and can cause severe illness or death if eaten. People who search for edible mushrooms are called mycophagists, meaning "mushroom eater", while the act itself is called "mushrooming". Mushrooms have been known to support bone health and to regulate blood sugar in diabetics. It is available in Different colours and Shapes.

Kinds of mushrooms 

 Agarics (includes very poisonous, and hallucinogenic kinds)
 Boletus (edible)
 Chanterelles (edible)
 Coral fungi (edible)
 Cap fungi (usually edible)
 Jelly fungi (usually edible)
 Polypores (similar to boletes)
 Psychedelic (also known as shrooms)
 Puffballs (usually edible)
 Stinkhorns (edible, but has a stench)
 Tooth fungi

Structure of mushrooms 
Most mushrooms have a stem and a cap. The bottom of the cap usually has gills to hold spores, however, some mushrooms, such as the Porcini, have pores under the cap.

References

Other websites

Identification
 Mushroom Expert
 MykoWeb
 An Aid to Mushroom Identification, Simon's Rock College
 Online Edible Wild Mushroom Field Guide
 Mushroom Observer (mushroomobserver.org), a collaborative mushroom recording and identification project
 list of field guides to mushrooms , from the International Field Guides database

Research associations
 Mushroom Mania; the Newsletter 
 North American Mycological Association
 International Society for Mushroom Science 
 Pacific Northwest Fungi Online Journal
Factorization

Factorization (also called factorisation and factoring) is taking a composite number apart into numbers that multiply together to get the original number.  These smaller numbers are called factors or divisors.  1 is a factor of all numbers.

Prime factorization is breaking apart a composite number into prime numbers that can be multiplied to give the larger number.  Note that since 1 is not prime, it is not included in the prime factorization.

For example, 12 can be factored as 4 × 3. Since 4 is not a prime number, that is not its prime factorization.  12's prime factorization is in fact 3 × 2 × 2.

The numbers which are obtained from the factorization are usually ordered, for example, starting with the smallest number. For example, 72=2^3*3^2.  The factorization of every number is unique.  This generalizes to:

 Every number has a unique prime factorization
 Every prime factorization corresponds to a unique number

Since finding the numbers to multiply together is very difficult for large numbers, this fact can be used in cryptography.

Polynomials 

This is how one type of polynomial is factored.

Find two numbers that add up to 9 and can be multiplied to get 20. Here, these numbers are 4 and 5.

Related pages
Fundamental theorem of arithmetic

Algebra
Arithmetics
Joint

A joint is the place where two or more bones make contact. They allow movement (except for skull bones) and give mechanical support.

Joints have cartilage in between them, which help to make the movement flexible. Joints are described structurally and functionally. Structural classification is how the bones connect to each other; function is the degree of movement between the articulating bones.

Synovial bursa 
A synovial bursa is a small fluid-filled sac lined by a synovial membrane. It has an inner capillary layer of viscous synovial fluid (bit like raw egg white). The bursa is a cushion between bones and tendons and/or muscles around a joint. This helps to reduce friction between the bones and allows free movement.

References
Hosni Mubarak

Muhammad Hosni Said Mubarak (; 4 May 1928 – 25 February 2020), commonly known as Hosni Mubarak (), was an Egyptian politician. He served as President of Egypt from 14 October 1981 to 11 February 2011.

Mubarak became the vice-president of the Republic of Egypt after moving up the ranks of the Egyptian Air Force. Then he became the President after President Anwar Sadat was assassinated on 6 October 1981.  His almost thirty-year presidency made him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha.

As President of Egypt, Mubarak is thought to have been one of the most powerful leaders in the region. Under the 1971 Constitution of Egypt, Mubarak exercised strong control over the country and was generally considered a dictator. In 2005, he called an election and easily won it. Many opponents believed Mubarak changed the election results so he could win.

In early 2011, during the Arab Spring, there were huge protests against his government. In the end, Mubarak resigned and handed over power to the armed forces. It is hoped that elections later that year for a new government. On 2 June 2012, Mubarak was sentenced to life imprisonment for ordering the shooting of protesters in the revolution that ousted him.

On 13 January 2013, Egypt's Court of Cassation overturned Mubarak's sentence and ordered a retrial. On retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on 9 May 2015 of corruption and given prison sentences. Mubarak was detained in a military hospital and his sons were freed 12 October 2015 by a Cairo court.

He was acquitted on 2 March 2017 by the Court of Cassation and released on 24 March 2017.

He died on 25 February 2020 at a Cairo hospital after having surgery, aged 91.

References

1928 births
2020 deaths
Egyptian criminals
Egyptian generals
Egyptian Muslims
Presidents of Egypt
Prime Ministers of Egypt
Former dictators
Prisoners
Vice-presidents of Egypt
Euclid

Euclid of Alexandria  () (about 325 BC–265 BC) was a Greek mathematician who lived in Alexandria, Egypt and worked at the Library of Alexandria. Little is known about this person, but people think he lived there when Ptolemy I was Pharaoh. It is not known where and when he was born.

The Elements 
Euclid collected together all that was known of geometry, which is part of mathematics. His Elements is the main source of ancient geometry. Textbooks based on Euclid have been used up to the present day. In the book, he starts out from a small set of axioms (that is, a group of things that everyone thinks are true). Euclid then shows the properties of geometric objects and of whole numbers, based on those axioms.

The Elements also includes works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, and possibly quadric surfaces. Apart from geometry, the work also includes number theory. Euclid came up with the idea of greatest common divisors. They were in his Elements. The greatest common divisor of two numbers is the greatest number that can fit evenly in both of the two numbers.

The geometrical system described in the Elements was long known simply as geometry, and was considered to be the only geometry possible. Today that system is referred to as Euclidean geometry to distinguish it from other so-called non-Euclidean geometries which mathematicians developed in the 19th century.

Other works 
In addition to the Elements, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same logical structure as Elements, with definitions and proved propositions.
 Data deals with the nature and implications of "given" information in geometrical problems; the subject matter is closely related to the first four books of the Elements.
 On Divisions of Figures, which survives only partially in Arabic translation, concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given ratios. It is similar to a third century AD work by Heron of Alexandria.
 Catoptrics, which concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and spherical concave mirrors. The attribution to Euclid is doubtful. Its author may have been Theon of Alexandria.
 Phaenomena, a treatise on spherical astronomy, survives in Greek; it is quite similar to On the Moving Sphere by Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC.

Tributes to Euclid 
 An asteroid, is named after Euclid.
 A crater on the moon is named after Euclid.

References 

325 BC births
265 BC deaths
Ancient Greeks
Ancient mathematicians
Number theorists
Geometers
1770

1770 was a common year.

Events 
 March 5 – Boston Massacre: 5 Americans killed by British troops in an event that would help start the American Revolutionary War 5 years later.
 May 14 – Marie Antoinette arrives at the French court.
 May 16 – 14-year old Marie Antoinette marries 15-year old Louis-Auguste (who later becomes Louis XVI King of France).
 May 16 – Fireworks at the wedding of the crown prince of France in Paris cause a fire – 800 dead
 June 3 – Gasper de Portola and Father Junipero Serra establish Monterey, which was the capital of California from 1777-1849.
 July 1 – Comet Lexell (D/1770 L1) passes the Earth
 August 22 – James Cook claimed for Great Britain the eastern coast of New Holland (Australia)
 Joseph Priestley, British chemist, recommends the use of a rubber to remove pencil marks.
 Joseph Louis Lagrange proves Bachet's Conjecture.

Births 
 December 17 – Ludwig van Beethoven (baptised).
1616

1616 was a leap year.

Events 
War between Austria and Venice.

Births 
May 25 – Carlo Dolci, Italian artist

Deaths 
April 23 – Miguel de Cervantes
April 23 – William Shakespeare, English playwright and poet
Lou Reed

Lewis Allan "Lou" Reed (March 2, 1942 – October 27, 2013) was an American rock musician. He was originally from Long Island, New York and spent most of his life in New York City. He is remembered for being in the Velvet Underground, although he also released solo work. He was friends with artist Andy Warhol.

Early life
Lewis Allan Reed was born on March 2, 1942 in Brooklyn, New York City. He studied at Syracuse University. Reed was raised Jewish.

Career
Reed began his career in 1964. He is perhaps most famous for his songs "Walk on the Wild Side" (about transgender woman Candy Darling and other such people Reed had known), "Perfect Day" (which was covered by many other artists, including Duran Duran and a version used by the BBC) and "Heroin" (an  "love song" about the drug. Reed's 1989 album New York drew attention and praise, for its matter-of-fact look at the condition of New York City in the late 1980s.

At the height of his popularity as a solo artist, Reed released one of the least "commercial" recordings ever; his 1975 experimental album Metal Machine Music. It was an hour of electric guitar feedback, and not what many people thought was music. The album did not hurt his career in the long run, and it reminded people that Reed was a unique musician.

Because of his song about heroin, Reed was believed to have been addicted to the drug, but this was not the case. He was a longtime user of amphetamines, marijuana and tobacco, but gradually stopped using any drugs. He began exercising more, and enjoyed Tai Chi.

In May 2000, Reed performed before Pope John Paul II at the Great Jubilee Concert in Rome.

Reed was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with The Velvet Underground in 1996 and as a solo artist in 2015.

Personal life
Reed was bisexual. He was married to Betty Reed from 1973 until they divorced in 1978. Then he was married to Sylvia Morales from 1980 until they divorced in 1994. Then he was married to Laurie Anderson, the performance artist and musician, from 2008 until his death in 2013. Reed had no children.

Death
In April 2013, Reed had a liver transplant. He died from a liver disease on October 27, 2013 in his home in Long Island, New York. He was 71 years old.

Tributes were paid to Reed on Twitter, including those from Miley Cyrus, Salman Rushdie, Samuel L. Jackson, Lenny Kravitz, Ricky Gervais, Ryan Adams, Elijah Wood, and many others. John Cale, his Velvet Underground bandmate, posted on his Facebook: "The world has lost a fine songwriter and poet…I've lost my 'school-yard buddy'".

References

Other websites

 Official Lou Reed website
 
 Comprehensive music biography of Reed by Allmusic
  BBC obituary'

1942 births
2013 deaths
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
Bisexual Jews
Deaths from liver disease
Disease-related deaths in New York (state)
Jewish American LGBT people
Jewish American musicians
LGBT musicians
LGBT people from New York (state)
Musicians from New York City
Organ transplant recipients
Warner Bros. Records artists
Augusta

Augusta may refer to:

Places

In Australia
Augusta, Western Australia
Port Augusta, South Australia
Shire of Augusta-Margaret River

In Canada
Augusta, Ontario
North Augusta, Ontario

In Europe
Augusta, Sicily, Italy

In the United States
Augusta, Arkansas
Augusta, Georgia
Augusta, Illinois
Augusta, Kansas
Augusta, Kentucky
Augusta, Maine (capital city of Maine)
Augusta, Michigan
Augusta, Minnesota
Augusta, Missouri
Augusta, Montana
Augusta, New Jersey
Augusta, New York 
North Augusta, South Carolina 
Augusta, West Virginia 
Augusta, Wisconsin 
Augusta County, Virginia
Augusta Charter Township, Michigan
Augusta Township, Lac qui Parle County, Minnesota

People
 Augusta (given name)
Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism is the addition of human traits to something that is not a human. For example, the non-human might have human feelings, needs, and wants. It is common for people to use anthropomorphism.

Anthropomorphism is often used in stories and art. The story of the "Three Little Pigs" has a wolf and three pigs who talk and act like humans. Disney's Mickey Mouse also talks and acts like a human. An anthropomorphized animal is called a "furry".

The novel The Call of the Wild also uses anthropomorphism. The main character is a dog named Buck. Many other characters are dogs and wolves. In the story, the animals think and act more like humans than dogs.

Reasons for anthropomorphism
Humans can usually explain why humans do things. Humans are not as good at explaining why non-human things do things. This can lead to people assuming non-human things will do things like humans.

Humans learn about other humans early in life. They know more about humans than about things that are not humans, and they can remember it better.

Related pages
 Furry: A section of anthropomorphism where animals and legendary creatures are shown as human-like in stories and art.

References

Metaphors
Illusions
Apostrophe

The apostrophe is a punctuation mark used in writing. It is a diacritic (a mark used with letters).

In English, it has two jobs:
 To show where one or more letters have been left out, as in the abbreviation (contraction) of do not to don't.
 To show the possessive case, as in the cat’s whiskers.

Examples

Its versus it's 
The most common grammatical mistake in written English is to put it's where its is correct. 

Its: a possessive adjective and pronoun of the personal pronoun it. 
The cat chased its tail. (correct)
The tyre lost it's grip. (wrong)

It's: a contraction of the verbal phrase it is or it has.
It's mine. (correct; check: It is mine)
It's been here. (correct; check: It has been here)
The cat chased it's tail. (wrong; cannot be expanded to it is)

The same applies to yours, theirs and ours because these are also possessive adjectives of personal pronouns.
The colour is ours.
That book is hers (or his).
Theirs was the responsibility.

Possession 
Apostrophes are also used to show something belongs to someone (or something). Again, correct uses can be expanded:
 Mike's car. (correct; the car that belongs to Mike)
 The dog's ball. (correct; the ball that belongs to the dog)
Those dog's are large. (wrong; here "dogs" is a plural word)

The intrusive apostrophe 
Comes in plurals which don't (do not) need it. Do not put an apostrophe in word ending in s, such as a plural. Put an apostrophe, or 's, at the end of the word instead.
Mr. Jones' hat or Mr. Jones's hat. (both correct)
Both of my parents' birthdays. (correct)
CD's and DVD's (wrong; not possessive. See "Plural" section below)
Apple's and pear's (wrong; not possessive)

Writing dialogue or titles 
Apostrophes are also used when other words are shortened, as in slang:
Go get 'em tiger! or Li'l Bow Bow.
This is just a version of the abbreviation function.

Plural 
To make a word that doesn't (does not) usually exist as a plural into a plural, an apostrophe is occasionally used. See these examples:
 How many A's did you get this year? Here it is wrong because it is not needed.
 The poll received many yes's and very few no's. Here it is sensible because without it the words 'yess' and 'nos' look quite peculiar. However, you may find 'yeses' and 'noes' are appropriate as plurals. General rule: if an apostrophe is not needed, do not use it.

References 

Punctuation
Grammar
Ryan North

Ryan M. North (born October 20, 1980) is a Canadian writer. He is the author of the comic strip Dinosaur Comics, as well as Whispered Apologies and several other projects. He is also the programmer of ohnorobot, a web comic search engine. Ryan North is also a member of The Ryans, a group dedicated to being called Ryan and making comics.

Other websites

 Dinosaur Comics
 Whispered Apologies

Writers from Ontario
Comics writers
1980 births
Living people
People from Ottawa
By-election

A by-election or bye-election is a type of special election. These elections are held in between general elections. General elections are elections for all members of an elected body. By-elections are elections for just some members. A by-election could be needed if a member dies or resigns while in political office. They are also used if a person is removed from office for some reason, for example if he/she is guilty of a crime or is not qualified to be a member anymore.

By-elections in the United States and the Philippines are called "special elections". In India, they are called "bypolls".

In the 1980s, all 12 of the Unionist MPs in the British House of Commons resigned and all of the elections happened on the same day. Although unusual, these were still only by-elections. It is also defined as an election held in a single political constituency to fill a vacancy that has happened during a government's term of office.

Types of elections
Elections
Secretary

A secretary is a person who is employed to help in an office, and help the people in charge of the office do their job.

By definition, the main task of a secretary is to keep organized paper and electronic files for the business, school, hospital, or government agency they work for. Other common jobs that secretaries do are answering telephones; typing and writing letters; plan and schedule meetings with guests; and manage the website of their office.

In different workplaces, and for different reasons, a secretary may also be called an administrative assistant, receptionist, clerk, or executive assistant.

In the past, most secretaries were men. Today, 98% of secretaries are women, according to the US Census.

In 1952, several groups, for example the National Secretaries Association, founded Secretary's Day. It is celebrated in the 4th week of April. It has been renamed "Administrative Professional's Week" to represent the more challenging roles of secretaries today.

Other secretaries
In government, secretaries are important people who hold high positions in government. Many secretaries in government are in charge of government agencies.

Most members of the United States Cabinet are called "Secretary" including the United States Secretary of State, who deals with other countries.

In the United Kingdom, a Secretary of State is a senior Cabinet Minister in charge of a Government Department.

In the US,  United States Secretary Defense is the head of the US Department of Defense.

Sources

Basic English 850 words
Occupations
Happiness

Happiness is a feeling of pleasure and positivity. When someone feels good, proud, excited, relieved or satisfied about something, that person is said to be "happy". Feeling happy may help people to relax and to smile. 

Happiness is usually thought of as the opposite of sadness. However, it is very possible to feel both at once, often about different things, or sometimes even about the same thing. You are often excited when you are happy. Happiness can also be inspired too.

Many philosophers have said that people in the world go back and forth between times of happiness and sadness, but there is nobody who is always happy or always sad. Happiness sometimes causes people to cry when they laugh because the emotion takes control of them. Happiness was thought of as the key to love in ancient civilizations such as the Inca and the Maya.

Other websites
Dr Tal Ben-Shahar | Happiness Studies Academy on YouTube

Emotions
Charlie Parker

Charlie Parker (August 29, 1920 in Kansas City, Missouri – March 12, 1955 in New York City), also known as "Bird" or "Yardbird", was considered one of the greatest jazz saxophonists, specifically alto saxophonist. Parker was thought to have created bebop.

Parker died in New York City at the age of 34 from cirrhosis, internal bleeding and pneumonia caused by a heart attack.

1920 births
1955 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Deaths from pneumonia
Deaths from cirrhosis
American jazz musicians
Grammy Award winners
American saxophonists
Musicians from Kansas City, Missouri
Mount Price

Mount Price (sometimes Price Mountain) is a volcanic mountain in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, in British Columbia, Canada.

It is 2,049 meters (6,722 feet) tall. The mountain was formed 1.2 million years ago and is made of lava. It is not known to have been active in thousands of years, but it could be active again. If it did, it could cause problems for people who live nearby. There are teams that are prepared to help people if Mount Price becomes active.

Other websites 
Mount Price information from Natural Resources Canada 

Volcanoes of British Columbia
Mountains of British Columbia
Bun

A bun is a type of food made out of bread.

A bun can be either savoury (like a hot dog) or sweet (like a hot cross bun or a bun with icing and a cherry on top).

Breads
Goldfinger (band)

Goldfinger is an American punk band. It was founded in 1994. They released their self-titled first album in 1996. They were named after the Ian Fleming book and 1964 movie Goldfinger, based on the James Bond franchise.

Their line-up is as follows:

John Feldmann - vocals, guitar 
Charlie Paulson - gibson, fender, camel 
Dangerous Darrin Pfeiffer - drums, vocals 
Simon Williams - bass, vocals

Studio albums 

 Goldfinger - 1996
 Hang ups - 1997
 Stomping ground - 1999
 Open your eyes - 2002
 Disconnection notice - 2005
 Hello destiny - 2008

References 

American punk bands
Pop punk bands
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Salamanca

Salamanca is a city in central Spain. It is the capital city of the province with the same name. 
The city has a very important university started in 1218. It has two cathedrals and a famous Plaza Mayor (Main Square) built in the 18th century.

Frogs are a mascot of Salamanca.  Souvenirs of frogs can be found in almost every shop in the Plaza Mayor.

The Battle of Salamanca was an important defeat for France in the Napoleonic Wars.

Images

Other websites 

 Official Tourist Information Office
 Wiki of the city of Salamanca
 General information on Salamanca
 General information about events in Salamanca
 Salamanca travel guide
 Salamanca: Spain's answer to Oxford by The Guardian
 Salamanca city guide at HitchHikers Handbook 

Museums
 Art Nouveau and Art Decó Museum Casa Lis
 Car History Museum
 Cathedral Museum

Capital cities in Spain
1440s

The 1440s was a decade that began on 1 January 1440 and ended on 31 December 1449.

Events 
The Coptic Church of Ethiopia contacts the Roman Catholic Church for the first time.
The empire of the Maya breaks up into many little kingdoms.
 The Ottoman Empire starts to become weak.
 The Korean alphabet, the Hangul, is invented.

Births 
 King Ivan III of Russia
 King Edward IV of England
Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII of England
Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter 
Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia, king in the Solomonid dynasty.

Deaths 
Itzcóatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan 
Jan van Eyck, Dutch painter
Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden
Elizabeth Blackwell

Elizabeth Blackwell (3 February 182131 May 1910) was a British physician. She was the first female doctor in the United States and Europe.

She was born in Bristol, England, on 3 February 1821.  When she was young, her family moved to America.  At first, she was a teacher.  She became a doctor in 1849.  She founded her own hospital in New York. In 1874 she started a medical school for women in London with Sophie Jex-Blake and promoted women's rights.

She never married and opposed slavery.

In 2013 the University of Bristol launched the Elizabeth Blackwell Institute for Health Research.

Elizabeth Blackwell lost sight in one eye in 1851.
Blackwell wrote many books including Medicine as a Profession for Women and Address on the Medical Education for women.

Other websites 
An online history at the National Institutes of Health, including copies of historical documents
An online biography  of Elizabeth Blackwell, with links to more articles on Blackwell and others in her famous family, plus links to many resources on the Internet
Biography from the National Institutes of Health

1821 births
1910 deaths
19th-century American people
American physicians
British medical doctors
People from Somerset
Doom

Doom is a first-person shooter video game made by id Software in 1993. It is one of the first games to use three-dimensional levels. The game is about killing demons and zombies in order to stop an invasion. Doom has traps, including crushing ceilings, radiation pools, and exploding barrels, that can kill the player. Doom was also the first game with multiplayer deathmatch. This means you can fight with other players instead of the demons and zombies. The game was made with a computer language called C using some new techniques created by John Carmack.

It has five sequels: Doom 2 that came out in 1994, Final Doom that came out in 1996, Doom 3 that came out in 2004, Doom (2016), and Doom Eternal.

Doom is split into three basic components, the engine, the Iwad file, and the optional Pwad file. The engine contains the code needed to run the game on a computer. The Iwad file contains the default levels, sounds, pictures, and other components. Pwad files contain custom levels. The source code to the Doom engine was released in 1997 and can be downloaded for free. The full 3-episode and 4-episode Iwad files have not been released for free and must still be purchased.

Doom is a shareware game of three episodes, each having eight standard levels and one secret level. The secret level in each episode is accessed by finding a secret exit in one of the normal levels. The episodes are Knee-Deep In The Dead, The Shores Of Hell and Inferno. In the shareware version the only episode that can be played is Knee-Deep In The Dead. The expansion pack of Doom is Ultimate Doom, which has the fourth episode, Thy Flesh Consumed.

In Doom, the player can carry and use many different weapons. Each have their own special features and strengths. They are your Fists, the Pistol, Shotgun, Chaingun, Rocket Launcher, Plasma Gun, BFG-9000, and Chainsaw. The player gets new weapons by finding them in the level. Most weapons can be found in more than one level. Some weapons share ammo. For example, both the Pistol and Chaingun use bullets, and the Plasma Gun and BFG both use energy cells. The player must be careful not to waste ammo because if he or she does, there may be more than one weapon that cannot be used. The Fists and Chainsaw do not have ammo limits, so the player can use them as long as they want.

Doom was also made for the SNES, Sega 32X, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, 3DO, Atari Jaguar, and Game Boy Advance. It can also be downloaded online for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch. 

1993 video games
DOS games
Sega 32X games
Sega Saturn games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Doom video games
The Jam

The Jam was an English rock band formed in Woking, Surrey in 1972. The members were Paul Weller (guitar, vocals), Bruce Foxton (bass guitar, vocals), and Rick Buckler (drums). Having come out of from the short Punk movement they went on to become one of the UK's top bands. They had four number one hits which were Going Underground, Start!, Town Called Malice and Beat Surrender.

The Jam disbanded in 1982. Lead singer Paul Weller went on to have hits with The Style Council during the remainder of the 1980s. During the 1990s he had a successful solo career.

References

1972 establishments in the United Kingdom
1982 disestablishments in Europe
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
English punk bands
English rock bands
Musical groups disestablished in 1982
Musical groups established in 1972
New wave bands
Organisations based in Surrey
1980s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Alchemy

Alchemy is the very old study and philosophy of how to change basic substances (such as metals) into other substances. It also studied how substances (and how they are changed into other substances) were related to magic and astrology. People who studied alchemy were called alchemists. Some things alchemists tried to do were change lead or mercury into gold, make the philosopher's stone, and make the "elixir of life," which they thought could cure (make better) any disease and make someone young again.

Alchemists believed that substances, mind, philosophies, religion, magic and astrology were related to each other. They tried to find connections between them. They tried to understand one by understanding the other. Some alchemists used metals (like gold or silver) to represent spiritual or occult ideas. People in many different countries studied alchemy.

In the 1600s and 1700s, people started to study only the properties of substances without trying to relate them to secret, old knowledge. They did experiments and wrote down what they discovered so other people could learn from them. One of the important people who did these experiments was Robert Boyle. People called the new study of substances chemistry.

Scientists have since discovered how to change one kind of element (the simplest kind of chemical substance) into another. In 1980, an American scientist named Glenn Seaborg discovered how to change a very tiny amount of bismuth into gold with a nuclear reactor. Making gold this way is much more difficult and expensive (costs a lot of money) than mining or recycling it.

References

Alchemy
Goldfinger (movie)

Goldfinger is a 1964 spy movie based on the seventh James Bond book written by Ian Fleming. Goldfinger is the third James Bond movie in the series. It is also third to star Sean Connery as the British Secret Service agent James Bond. Shirley Bassey sings the title song of the movie.

Plot
In this movie, the main bad guy is named Auric Goldfinger, and he likes gold a lot. In the movie, James Bond tries to find out what Goldfinger's bad plan is, and in the end James Bond wins and stops Goldfinger.  His plan is to blow up Fort Knox so that the price of gold will go up.  Goldfinger has a sidekick called Oddjob who throws his metal hat at people.

It is noted for the character with the unusual name Pussy Galore, played in the movie by Honor Blackman.

Cast 
 Sean Connery as James Bond
 Gert Fröbe as Auric Goldfinger
 Honor Blackman as Pussy Galore
 Harold Sakata as Oddjob
 Cec Linder as Felix Leiter
 Shirley Eaton as Jill Masterson
 Tania Mallet as Tilly Masterson
 Desmond Llewelyn as Q
 Bernard Lee as M
 Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny
 Burt Kwouk as Mr. Ling
 Martin Benson as Mr. Solo
 Raymond Joung as Sierra
 Nadja Regin as Bonita
 Alf Joint as Capungo
 Michael Mellinger as Kisch
 Margaret Nolan as Dink
 Bill Nagy as Mr. Midnight
 Hal Galili as Mr. Strap

James Bond movies
1964 movies
Movies based on books
English-language movies
Movies directed by Guy Hamilton
Movies set in Switzerland
Movies set in the United States
Movies set in Kentucky
Movies set in London
Movies set in Florida
Movies about the illegal drug trade
Movies composed by John Barry
Scar

A scar is the natural result of a healing process in the human body. When the dermis is hurt by a wound, the wounded tissue will be replaced by scar tissue. Scar tissue is not identical to the tissue it replaces. A scar will look different (and have different characteristics) than the surrounding tissue.

Scar tissue is composed of the same protein (collagen) as the tissue that it replaces, but the fiber composition of the protein is different; instead of a random basketweave formation of the collagen fibers found in normal tissue, in fibrosis the collagen cross-links and forms a pronounced alignment in a single direction. This collagen scar tissue alignment is usually of inferior functional quality to the normal collagen randomised alignment. For example, scars in the skin are less resistant to ultraviolet radiation, and sweat glands and hair follicles do not grow back within scar tissues. A myocardial infarction, commonly known as a heart attack, causes scar formation in the heart muscle, which leads to loss of muscular power and possibly heart failure. However, there are some tissues (e.g. bone) that can heal without any structural or functional deterioration.

References

Dermatology
Warcraft

Warcraft is a series of computer games made by Blizzard Entertainment. The games in this series are real-time strategy games, where players play as their characters and gain experience to level up.

Series 
The different games from the series are Warcraft: Orcs and Humans, Warcraft 2: Battle.net edition (with an expansion pack) and Warcraft 3 and its expansion pack, The Frozen Throne. The most successful game of the series is The Frozen Throne expansion pack, which sold more than 12 million copies. The MMORPG World of Warcraft is based on these games. Blizzard Entertainment also created World of Warcraft, which was published by Vivendi Games.

References

Other websites 
 The History of Warcraft
 Warcraft series official website

Blizzard video games
Video game series
Real-time strategy video games
Deutsches Institut für Normung

DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (DIN German Institute for Standardization) is the German national organization for standardization.  

It publishes on average 2,000 standards per year in almost all fields of technology and increasingly in non-technical fields (e.g. services).

Example of DIN standards

DIN 476: international paper sizes (now ISO 216 or DIN EN ISO 216). Specifies the System where the paper size DIN A4 is from. In short, there are different series (A,B,C,..). Each series has a number of different sizes. If you go up one with the number, you halve the size. DIN A3 is as large as two pages of DIN A4. The biggest in that series is DIN A0. See Paper size for more.
DIN 1301: International System of Units (better known as the SI System of units)
DIN 5007: Rules for sorting words alphabetically. Also tells what to do with special characters, like ä or ß.
DIN 5008: Rules for writing a (German) letter. Specifies how the letter as a whole should look. Also looks at things like correctly writing a date, or a time.
DIN 72552: electric terminal numbers in automobiles
DIN 31635: transliteration of the Arabic language.

Organisations based in Germany