alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Rapping

Rapping is a type of vocals, like singing. It is different to singing because it is more like talking, but timed with rhythm over music. Someone who raps is called a rapper, or sometimes an MC. That stands for Master of Ceremonies.

Rapping can be done over music of many types (or genres), including jazz, house, reggae and many more. One genre of music that includes a lot of rapping is hip hop. What people think of as rapping today, was started by African Americans in New York City, USA, in the 1970s. People would talk over disco music DJs at parties, and this gradually evolved into rapping. But, the start of the art of rapping is even older. Reggae artists in Jamaica used a similar style to rapping from the 1950s. Going back further than that, the West African Griots (travelling musicians and poets) would also rap over tribal drums in the 1400s.

Today rapping is a very popular style of vocals. Many of the best selling artists in the world use it in their music.

References

Vocal music
Snowboarding

Snowboarding is a sport that is much like skiing. A person stands on a snowboard and rides down a mountain covered with snow. A snowboard is a flat board with bindings that hold your feet in place while gliding down the mountain. It is different from skiing because both feet are on one board - like surfing.

Some snowboarders like to ride over jumps and do tricks.

Origin 
The snowboard was born in the seventy's through the imagination of several different Americans.

The original idea was born in 1965 through Sherman Poppen. He invented the ‘’snurfer ‘’, which was made of two skis fixed together, as a gift to his daughter. It soon became very popular, so he licensed it to the Brunswick Corporation who sold about a million over the next 10 years.

In the mid-1970s Dimitrije Milovich created a snowboard inspired by the surfing board called the 'Winterstick'. Finally, in 1977 Jake Burton Carpenter helped by Tom Sims and Chuck Barfoot created the first snowboard model, which made them very rich.

During the eighty's, the sport became very popular. In 1982 the first National Snowboard race was held in Vermont at Suicide Six. The number of windsurfering and snowboarding stations grew very fast everywhere there was snow and mountains.

Snowboarding was first recommended to join the Olympic program in 1996 by the Olympic council in Atlanta. Two years later, some competitions like the Big slalom and the Half-pipe took place in The Olympic Nagano games.

Equipment 
Snowboarders must wear hot and good quality clothes against the cold temperature. They wear also some ski goggles to protect their eyes from reflection of the sun on the snow, against the snow and the wind that can be very hurtful. It is essential to have a good view during the ride. The board that they used has to be fitted by squares on all its length that allow snowboarders to practice this sport even if there is not a lot of snow. Also, the snowboard is equipped with binding to provide snowboarders solidity and stability. The security attach have to be firmly tied on the binding and clip on one of your boots adapted to this sport. Wearing a helmet is strongly recommended.

Positions 
There are two possible positions on the board. First of all, there is the regular one. With this position, your right foot is placed in the back. The second one is called goofy where you have to put your left foot in the back. The choice between those two positions is personal to everyone. Contrary to what everybody can thinks, goofys are not necessary left-handed or regulars right-handed. In fact, seventy-five percent of the people are regulars. Because the board make a curve in the front and in the back, it can glide on the two sides. In addition, the board called twin-tips is perfectly symmetric, so it allows windsurfers to glide in switch (when the favorite foot is in the back) or in normal-foot (when the favorite foot is in the front).

References 

Winter Olympic sports
Winter sports
Board sports
Aquamarine

Aquamarine is a gemstone, named for its blue-green color, which looks like some shallow seas. It is a type of beryl. The color aquamarine is named for the gemstone. It is considered as a birthstone of March.

Other websites

Gemstones
Birthstones
Trinitrotoluene

Trinitrotoluene (Abbreviated TNT) (/ˌtraɪˌnaɪtroʊˈtɒljuiːn/) more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, is a powerful nitroaromatic explosive, occasionally used as a reagent in chemical synthesis.

History 
TNT was first made in 1863 by Julius Wilbrand and originally used as a yellow dye. It was not recognized as an explosive for 28 years, until the chemist Carl Häussermann discovered it's explosive properties in 1891.

The German military started filling artillery shells with TNT 1902. TNT-filled shells would explode after they had broken through the armour of ships, whereas the British Lyddite (Picric acid)-filled shells exploded when they hit the armour, wasting energy outside the ship. The British started replacing Pciric acid with TNT in 1907.

Uses 
TNT is one of the world's most commonly used explosives, in the military, mining, and industrial operations.

TNT is often blended with other explosives to get desired properties.

References 

Explosives
Organonitrogen compounds
Spore

Spores are the way fungi and some non-seed plants (ferns and mosses) reproduce. They are also made by bacteria for long-term survival. Some protozoa also make long-term survival spores.

The spores of seed plants are single cells that grow into a pollen grain or the gametophyte inside the ovule. The structure of seeds in higher plants is more complicated than spores. The main 'innovation' of seeds is their nutrition for the developing embryo, which spores do not have.

Fungal spores 
Fungi (for example, mushrooms) produce spores, which may be asexual or sexual. The asexual spores have inside them the genetic material to make a whole new organism identical to its parent.

Conidia are asexual, non-motile spores of a fungus; they are also called mitospores due to the way they are generated through the cellular process of mitosis. They are haploid cells genetically identical to the haploid parent, can develop into a new organism if conditions are favorable, and serve in dispersal.

Asexual reproduction in Ascomycetes (the Phylum Ascomycota) is by the formation of conidia, which are borne on specialized stalks called conidiophores. The morphology of these specialized conidiophores is often distinctive of a specific species and can therefore be used in identification of the species.

Germination
Sporangia

Bacterial spores 
Bacterial spores are extremely resistant. Spores of tetanus and anthrax, for example, can survive in the soil for many years. The origin of these spores was discovered in the 19th century, when a biologist noticed, under the microscope, a small, round, bright body inside bacterial cells. This survived even when the bacteria were boiled for five minutes. This killed the bacteria, but not the spores. They germinated when conditions were right.p186

Plant spores
Plants have alternation of generations. One of the generations is the sporophyte, which produces spores by meiosis, and the other is the gametophyte with produces gametes.

References 

Plant anatomy
Fungi
Bacteria
Biological reproduction
Ladino language

Ladino (also called Judeo-Spanish) is a Jewish Romance language that is very close to the Spanish language. It has many old Spanish words and Hebrew words.

History
During the Middle Ages, many Jews lived in Spain. They were called Sephardic Jews or Sephardim (in Hebrew).  Forced to leave Spain after the country was taken over by Christians, they brought the old Spanish with them to their new countries. Some Sephardic Jews still speak Ladino in Israel, Turkey, Bulgaria, the United States, and other countries.

Like many other Jewish languages, Ladino is an endangered language, is in danger of language death. It could become an extinct language. Most native speakers are old because many of them who emigrated to Israel and did not pass on the language to their children or grandchildren. In some Sephardic Jewish communities in Latin America and elsewhere, there is a threat of dialect levelling by the extinction by assimilation into modern Spanish.

Writing
Ladino is usually written by using the Latin alphabet but in Israel, it uses the Hebrew alphabet.

Ladin language
Ladino should not be confused with the Ladin language, which is related to the Swiss Romansh and Friulian languages and is mostly spoken in the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region of Northern Italy.

References

Other websites 

 Socolovsky, Jerome. "Lost Language of Ladino Revived in Spain", Morning Edition, National Public Radio, March 19, 2007.

Romance languages
Languages of Europe
1839



Events 
January 19 – British East India Company captures Aden
January 20 – In the Battle of Yungay, Peruvian and Bolivian soldiers lose to Chilean soldiers.
February 24 – William Otis patents for the steam shovel
March 23 – First known use of "OK" oll korrect in the Boston Morning Post
March 26 – The first Henley Royal Regatta
April 9 – The world's first commercial electric telegraph line is built, next to the Great Western Railway line from Paddington station to West Drayton.
April 19 – The Treaty of London makes the kingdom of Belgium
June 22 – Louis Daguerre receives patent for his Daguerrotype camera. By September a company sells copies of the camera for 400 French Francs.
July 1 – Slaves fight their masters on the Amistad
November 11 – The Virginia Military Institute starts in Lexington, Virginia, USA
November 17 – Giuseppe Verdi's first opera, Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio opens in Milan.

Undated 
Abd-ul-Mejid becomes emperor of the Ottoman Empire.
Mississippi passes the first state law in the U.S. letting women own property.
The first parallax measurement of the distance to Alpha Centauri is found by Thomas Henderson.
Excavation on Copan begins
Half of the Limburg province of Belgium was added to the Netherlands, making a Belgian Limburg and Dutch Limburg.
Abd al-Kader makes a jihad against the French.

Births 
January 19 – Paul Cézanne, French painter (died 1906)
February 11 – Josiah Willard Gibbs American physicist and chemist (died 1903)
February 22 – Francis Pharcellus Church, American editor and publisher (died 1906)
March 9 – Phoebe Knapp, American hymnwriter (died 1908)
March 21 – Modest Mussorgsky, Russian composer (died 1881)
April 12 – Nikolai Przhevalsky, Russian explorer (died 1888)
July 8 – John Davison Rockefeller, American industrialist and philanthropist (died 1937)
July 17 – Ephraim Shay, Inventor (died 1916, see Shay locomotive)
December 5 – George Armstrong Custer, American cavalry officer (died 1876)

Deaths 
April 1 – Benjamin Pierce, U.S. politician (born 1757)
April 2 – Hezekiah Niles, American editor and publisher (born 1777)
April 11 – John Galt, Scottish novelist (born 1779)
May 17 – Archibald Alison, Scottish writer (born 1757)
August 10 – John St Aubyn, British fossil collector (born 1758)
August 22 – Benjamin Lundy, American abolitionist (born 1789)
August 28 – William Smith, English geologist and cartographer (born 1769)
November 15 – William Murdoch, Scottish inventor (born 1754)
December 3 – Frederick VI, King of Denmark, ex-King of Norway (born 1768)
Lake Chaubunagungamaug

Lake Chaubunagungamaug, or Lake Webster is a lake in the United States. It is in the state of Massachusetts. The lake is also known by the much shorter name of Webster Lake, but some people prefer the long name Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg, which is the Native American name for the lake. The name is the longest place name in the United States.

Other websites

Long words
Lakes of the United States
Geography of Massachusetts
Hans Enoksen

Hans Enoksen (born 7 August 1956) was a Greenlandic politician. He was the Prime Minister of Greenland from 2002 to 2009.

1956 births
Prime Ministers of Greenland
Living people
Nunarput, utoqqarsuanngoravit

Nunarput utoqqarsuanngoravit (, ; "You Our Ancient Land") is the national anthem of Greenland. It was written by Henrik Lund, and it became the national anthem in 1916.

Lyrics

Greenlandic lyrics

Translations

References 

Greenland
North American anthems
Danish anthems
DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story

Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story is a 2004 American comedy movie, released by 20th Century Fox. It is set in Las Vegas, Nevada and stars Ben Stiller, Rip Torn and Vince Vaughn.

Plot 
A little-known gym, Average Joe's, tries not to go out of business by playing a game of dodgeball against a more expensive rival, Globo's Gym.

Other websites 
Official site 

2004 comedy movies
2000s LGBT movies
2000s sports comedy movies
American LGBT movies
American sports comedy movies
English-language movies

Movies set in Las Vegas
20th Century Fox movies
Sieve of Eratosthenes

The Sieve of Eratosthenes is a simple way to find all the prime numbers up to some number n:

 Write all the numbers from 2 up to n onto a piece of paper, in order. We will perform the following steps so that all the non-prime numbers will be crossed out, and what's left will be the primes.
 Choose the first, i.e. the smallest available number. Call it p (it will be 2 at the start). If there's no more available numbers, stop.
 Count up from p as 2p, 3p, 4p, ..., up to n in steps of p, and cross out each of those numbers. Some numbers will be already crossed out, that's okay. Do not cross out the number p itself but consider it no longer available.
 Go back to step 2.

When the algorithm is finished all the numbers that are left not crossed out are all the prime numbers from 2 up to n.

As an optimization we can start the counting in step 3 from  p2, and stop in step 2 when  p2  is greater than n. 

This is allowed because for each number k that is smaller than p, the number kp in step 3 will be already crossed out as part of the algorithm working for some previous prime that is smaller than p – the smallest such prime which divides k evenly.

Number theory
Noble Eightfold Path

In Buddhism, the Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ariya atthangika magga) is the path to the end of suffering. It is the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. It can be summed up in three categories: wisdom (pañña), virtue (sila), and concentration (samadhi). It asks for the Right view and the right intention, as well as other things. It also asks for the right speech.

Here is a description of the path:

 Right Thought - Realizing the Four Noble Truths (samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)
 Right Understanding - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation.

 Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
 Right Actions - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)
 Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)
 Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)
 Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)
 Right Concentration - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)

Other websites 
 Notes on the Noble Eightfold Path
 Noble Eightfold Path, in Chapter 7: Success, in "A Young People's Life of the Buddha" by Bhikkhu Silacara
 The Noble Eightfold Path - The Middle Way by Ven Dr.K.Sri.Dhammananda
 The Fourth Noble Truth: The Middle Path: BuddhaNet’s Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students

Religious ethics
Buddhist terminology
Gone with the Wind

Gone with the Wind is a 1936 novel by Margaret Mitchell. It tells the story of a family woman in the American South (and in the plantation of Tara) during the Civil War. She falls in love with a city gentleman. It is one of the most famous books of its time, and was made into a movie of the same name.

The title takes the name from the line of Ernest Dowson's poem: "I have forgot much, Cynara! gone with the wind." (The line appeared in the book). Critics and historians have disagreed with its views of Confederacy and the American South before the Civil War. But it is true to the events of the time, and also has a well-written account of the fall of Atlanta in 1864. The book won the Pulitzer Prize on May 3, 1937. In 1991, Alexander Ripley wrote its official sequel, Scarlett. Three years later, it was made as a television miniseries. In 2001, the copyright holders of the original book tried to stop sales of Alice Randall's The Wind Done Gone. (The book retold Mitchell's story from a slave's point of view.) The resulting lawsuit allowed the book to be published; it was seen, based on rules in the First Amendment, as a parody.

Related pages
Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century

Other websites 
 The Story behind Margaret Mitchell's book 
 
 RaveCentral: Gone with the Wind 
 Greatest Movies page
 
 Photos of the first edition of Gone with the Wind

1936 books
20th-century American novels
Fiction set in the past
Georgia (U.S. state) in fiction
Novels about the American Civil War
Pulitzer Prize winners
Romance novels
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies

AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies is a list of the top one hundred movies in American cinema. It was made by the American Film Institute in 1998. The television station CBS aired the list's special.

Movies that were on the list:
had to be made in the United States;
must have English as their language;
must run over sixty minutes in length;
had to be recognised at many award shows and festivals, and by critics and audiences;
left a lasting mark on American history and society.

The list 
Citizen Kane (1941)
Casablanca (1942)
The Godfather (1972)
Gone with the Wind (1939)
Lawrence of Arabia (1962)
The Wizard of Oz (1939)
The Graduate (1967)
On the Waterfront (1954)
Schindler's List (1993)
Singin' in the Rain (1952)
It's a Wonderful Life (1946)
Sunset Boulevard (1950)
The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957)
Some Like It Hot (1959)
Star Wars (1977)
All About Eve (1950)
The African Queen (1951)
Psycho (1960)
Chinatown (1974)
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975)
The Grapes of Wrath (1940)
2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)
The Maltese Falcon (1941)
Raging Bull (1980)
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982)
Dr. Strangelove (1964)
Bonnie and Clyde (1967)
Apocalypse Now (1979)
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939)
The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948)
Annie Hall (1977)
The Godfather Part II (1974)
High Noon (1952)
To Kill a Mockingbird (1962)
It Happened One Night (1934)
Midnight Cowboy (1969)
The Best Years of Our Lives (1946)
Double Indemnity (1944)
Doctor Zhivago (1965)
North by Northwest (1959)
West Side Story (1961)
Rear Window (1954)
King Kong (1933)
The Birth of a Nation (1915)
A Streetcar Named Desire (1951)
A Clockwork Orange (1971)
Taxi Driver (1976)
Jaws (1975)
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969)
The Philadelphia Story (1940)
From Here to Eternity (1953)
Amadeus (1984)
All Quiet on the Western Front (1930)
The Sound of Music (1965)
M*A*S*H (1970)
The Third Man (1949)
Fantasia (1940)
Rebel Without a Cause (1955)
Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)
Vertigo (1958)
Tootsie (1982)
Stagecoach (1939)
Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977)
The Silence of the Lambs (1991)
Network (1976)
The Manchurian Candidate (1962)
An American in Paris (1951)
Shane (1953)
The French Connection (1971)
Forrest Gump (1994)
Ben-Hur (1959)
Wuthering Heights (1939)
The Gold Rush (1925)
Dances with Wolves (1990)
City Lights (1931)
American Graffiti (1973)
Rocky (1976)
The Deer Hunter (1978)
The Wild Bunch (1969)
Modern Times (1936)
Giant (1956)
Platoon (1986)
Fargo (1996)
Duck Soup (1933)
Mutiny on the Bounty (1935)
Frankenstein (1931)
Easy Rider (1969)
Patton (1970)
The Jazz Singer (1927)
My Fair Lady (1964)
A Place in the Sun (1951)
The Apartment (1960)
Goodfellas (1990)
Pulp Fiction (1994)
The Searchers (1956)
Bringing Up Baby (1938)
Unforgiven (1992)
Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967)
Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942)

Other websites 
American Film Institute 
Filmsite.org article
Montreal Mirror's opinion of the list 

Lists of movies
American Film Institute
Flag of Greenland

The Flag of Greenland was designed by Greenlander Thue Christiansen. It features two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk at the center. The top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white.

Its local name in the Greenlandic language is Erfalasorput, which means "our flag", but Aappalaartoq (meaning "the red") is also used for both the Greenlandic flag and the Dannebrog. Today Greenlanders display both the Erfalasorput and the Dannebrog, often side by side.

Greenland first thought of the idea of a flag of its own in 1973, when five Greenlanders proposed a green, white and blue flag. The following year, a newspaper printed eleven design proposals (all but one of which was a Nordic Cross), and polled the people to determine the most popular. The Dannebrog was better liked than any. Little came of this effort.

In 1978, Denmark granted home rule to Greenland, making it an equal member of the Danish Kingdom. The home rule government asked for flag proposals, receiving 555. 293 were made by Greenlanders.

Out of all the designs, the current red-and-white design by Christiansen narrowly won over a green-and-white Nordic cross by a vote of fourteen to eleven. Christiansen's red-and-white flag was officially adopted on June 21, 1985.

To honor the tenth anniversary of the Erfalasorput, the Greenland Post Office issued commemorative stamps and a leaflet by its creator. He described the white stripe as representing the glaciers and ice cap; the red stripe, the ocean; the red semicircle, the fjords; and the white semicircle, the icebergs and pack ice. The design is also reminiscent of the setting sun half-submerged below the horizon and reflected on the sea.

Greenland
Greenland
Wire

Wire is a long, thin and flexible piece of metal. Wires are made in many different metals and sizes, and are used for many purposes. Wire rope has been used for centuries. 

Electrical wire is wire used to carry electricity. When people touch wire that is carrying electricity, they get shocked, which is bad, so the outside coating of electrical wires is colored. Most electric wires are black, but some wires have a differently colored coating. Different colors indicate different purposes, for example, in the United States, green or bare is a ground (earth) wire, white is a neutral wire, and black, blue, red, brown, yellow, and orange are hot (live) wires.

A wiretap is when law enforcement puts a device into a phone or other electronic device to hear what suspected criminals are going to do. 

Copper wire is the best known type of wire, but wire can also be made out of aluminum or other metals. If we did not have wiring almost all of our electronics would not be working or available.

Basic English 850 words
Hardware (mechanical)
Electrical wiring
Whistle

A whistle is a thing that uses a stream of gas (usually air) to make a sound, or the act of making a similar sound called whistling. 

Basic English 850 words
Tools
Whip

A whip is a long strand of leather or other fabric with a hard handle. When a person shakes a whip fast, it makes a loud "crack" sound, because it has broken the sound barrier. It is used for directing or hitting animals or people. Some whips are made for corporal punishment.

Basic English 850 words
Tools
Die Toten Hosen

Die Toten Hosen is a German punk band from Düsseldorf, Germany. They are one of the most popular punk bands from Germany. Their career started in 1982. Their first album was released in 1984 and named Opel-Gang.

Most of their songs are in German. Some are in English and in a few other languages such as Spanish. They have many fans in German-speaking countries but also they have many fans in South America and other parts of Europe.

Members
The band consists of the following members:
 Voice - Campino (Andreas Frege)
 Guitar - Kuddel (Andreas von Holst)
 Guitar - Breiti (Michael Breitkopf)
 Bassguitar - Andi (Andreas Meurer)
 Drums - Vom (Stephen George Ritchie)

Albums 
 1983: Opel Gang
 1984: Unter falscher Flagge (With wrong flag)
 1985: The Battle Of The Bands EP
 1986: Damenwahl (Ladies's choice)
 1987: Never Mind The Hosen-Here's Die Roten Rosen (aus Düsseldorf) (... (from Düsseldorf))
 1987: Bis zum Bitteren Ende (LIVE) (Up to the bitter End)
 1988: Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau (A little bit of Horrorshow)
 1990: Auf dem Kreuzzug ins Glück (On the Crusade to luck)
 1991: Learning English
 1993: Kauf MICH! (Buy ME!)
 1993: Reich & Sexy (Best of) (Rich & sexy)
 1994: Love Peace and Money
 1996: Opium fürs Volk (Opium for the people)
 1996: Im Aufrag des Herrn (LIVE) (In the Name of the Lord)
 1998: Wir warten aufs Christkind (Waiting for Christmas)
 1999: Unsterblich (Immortal)
 1999: Crash Landing
 2002: Auswärtsspiel (Guest Match)
 2002: Reich & Sexy II-Die fetten Jahre(Rich & sexy II-The big years)
 2004: Zurück zum Glück (Back to Luck)
 2005: Nur zu Besuch: Unplugged im Wiener Burgtheater (Only for a visit: Unplugged in the Viennese castle theatre)
 2008: In aller Stille (In complete silence)

Images

Other websites 
 Homepage

German musical groups
Punk bands
Heavy metal bands
Hard rock bands
Düsseldorf
Musical groups established in 1982
1980s establishments in Germany
1982 establishments in Europe
Balalaika

The balalaika is a musical instrument from Russia. The Balalaika family includes the piccolo balalaika, prima balalaika, sekunda balalaika, alto balalaika, bass balalaika and contrabass balalaika. They all have three strings. There are many ways to tune balalaika; the most common tuning is E-E-A. The prima balalaika is played with the fingers, the sekunda and alto either with the fingers or a pick depending on the music being played. The basses and contrabasses, which have legs that rest on the floor, are played with leather picks.

Early pictures of the balalaika show it had between two and six strings, like some Central Asian instruments. Frets on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player.

Development 

The balalaika was improved by a Russian, Vasily Vasil'yevich Andreev. He had heard peasants on his farm playing badly made instruments. Andreev wanted to improve the instrument and use it for concerts. He spent the rest of his life working on this instrument with help from two violin makers and a carpenter. They improved the soundboard, which made it louder. He came up with the idea of the prima balalaike, sekunda, alto, bass and controbass balalaika. He then spent several years writing and arranging music for groups of balalaikas to play. The first public performance by the Ensemble of Balalaika Players took place in 1888.
After the Russian Revolution, the Communist Party encouraged the playing of the instrument and large balalaika orchestras were started.

Other websites 
 Balalaika picture
 Балалайка.орг.ру — theory, music sheets, video, forum...

References 

Plucked string instruments
Klezmer

Klezmer is a kind of music. It was made by the Jews of Eastern Europe, and it is a mix of Russian, Greek and Romanian folk music, based on and Jewish prayer music. 

In old times, it was played during Jewish weddings and religious festivals, and it was made for dancing. The most common klezmer instruments are the clarinet and the violin, because they are the best to play in the sad klezmer style.

Folk music
Hemp

This article is about the cultivation and uses of hemp. For the biology of the plant, see Cannabis. For the drug, see Cannabis (drug). For other uses of the word hemp, see Hemp (disambiguation).

Hemp (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa) is a plant and the fibers made from it. It is a subspecies of the Cannabis sativa plant. It is usually used to make cloth and other textiles, and ropes.

History
Hemp is one of the oldest plants humans have grown and used. Hemp was domesticated in Asia over 10,000 years ago. It was already used to make clothes, ropes, and an early form of paper. The seeds were eaten, and the plant had medicinal uses. From there the use of hemp spread. In Europe, hemp was at least used 5,500 years ago. It is one of the earliest domesticated plants recorded. It is quite strong and does not need many pesticides (to keep away bugs) and no herbicides. Linen and hemp were the most important fiber plants in Europe for a long time.

Hemp is similar to marijuana, but contains very little THC, the chemical that makes people feel good while using marijuana. Hemp is completely legal in most U.S. states, France, Spain, Indonesia, England, and Ireland.

Uses for hemp 
Hemp can be used for the following things:

 Building materials
 Hempcrete
 Mud bricks
 Rammed earth
 Wallboard
 Cellulose based plastics
 Paints and finishes
 Paper
 Medicine (cannabidiol)
 Food & edible oil (seeds)

References

Other websites

Fibers
Cannabis
1000s

The 1000s decade span from 1000 to 1009.

Events 
 Sweyn I of Denmark invades England.
 1001: Stephen I becomes the first king of Hungary.
 1008: Olof, king of Sweden, is baptized.
 1009: The Ly dynasty, Vietnam's first independent dynasty, is proclaimed.
1010s



Events 
 Canute invades England. He and Edmund II divide the country; after Edmund's death he becomes sole king. 
 Bulgaria becomes part of the Byzantine Empire (1018).
 Rajendra Chola I, son of the illustrious Rajaraja Chola I The Great, became the Chola Emperor. There is confusion on the exact date. According to Professor Kielhorn it is between 27 March and 7 July.
 The Nile River in Egypt freezes over.

References
1157

1157 was a common year.

Births 
 September 8 – King Richard I of England (died 1199)
 Leopold V of Austria (died 1194)
 Hojo Masako, wife of Minamoto no Yoritomo (died 1225)

Deaths 
 May 15—Yury Dolgoruky, Russian prince (b. c. 1099)
 August 21—King Alfonso VII of Castile (b. 1105)
 Agnes of Babenberg, daughter of Leopold III of Austria (b. 1111)
 Eystein II of Norway, king of Norway, (b. c. 1125)
 Sweyn III of Denmark, king of Denmark (b. c. 1125)

Events 
 June 11 Albert I of Brandenburg, also called, The Bear (Ger: Albrecht der Bär), became the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, Germany and the first Margrave
 23 October—Battle of Grathe Heath. A civil war in Denmark ended with the death of king Sweyn III. Valdemar I became king of all Denmark and restored and rebuild the country.
1512



Events 
 April 11 – Battle of Ravenna. French forces under Gaston de Foix, Duc de Nemours defeat the Spanish under Raymond of Cardona, but Gaston is killed in the fighting.
 October 19 – Martin Luther becomes a doctor of theology [Doctor in Biblia].
 October 21 – Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg
 November 1 – The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti), is shown to the public for the first time.
 Juan Ponce de León discovers the Turks and Caicos Islands.
 Selim I succeeds Beyazid II as Sultan, ruler of the Ottoman Empire.
 Moldavia is conquered by the Turks.
 Copernicus writes Commentariolus and moves the sun to the center of the solar system.
 First use of the word "masque" to denote a poetic drama.
 Florentine Republic is dismantled and the Medici family comes back into power.

Births 
 January 31 – King Henry of Portugal (d. 1580)
 March 5 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish cartographer (d. 1594)
 April 10 – King James V of Scotland (d. 1542)
 Galeazzo Alessi, Italian architect (d. 1572)
 Henry Balnaves, Scottish politician and religious reformer (d. 1579)
 Patrick Hepburn, 3rd Earl of Bothwell, Scottish renegade (d. 1556)
 Edward Fiennes Clinton, English admiral (d. 1585)
 Marcin Kromer, bishop of Warnia (d. 1589)
 James Lainez, Jesuit General and theologian (d.1565)
 Catherine Parr, sixth wife of Henry VIII of England (d. 1548)
 Mikolaj Rudy Radziwill, Polish magnate (d. 1584)
 Tabinshwehti, king who unified Burma
 Adrianus Turnebus, French classical scholar (d. 1565)
 Jeronimo Zurita y Castro, Spanish historian (d. 1580)

Deaths
Lung

The lung is an organ in many vertebrates (animals having a spine, or backbone). It takes blood oxygen from the air, and expels carbon dioxide. Most vertebrates with lungs have two of them.

In animals, the lungs are the area where gas exchange takes place. Without gas exchange, oxygen would not pass into the blood from the lungs so the body cells would not be able to receive the oxygen needed for respiration.

The alveoli are moist to allow oxygen to move from the lung through the alveoli into blood vessels and red blood cells. Carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the alveoli. The oxygen-filled blood goes back to the heart and the carbon dioxide in the alveoli is pushed out of the lungs and into the air we breathe out.

Bird lung 
Birds lungs are smaller than mammal lungs, and do not have alveoli, instead they have millions of para-bronchi. These para-bronchi end up in tiny capillaries or very small blood vessels and they pass close to the body's blood vessels, so diffusion can occur and the oxygen and carbon dioxide is exchanged. The oxygen and carbon dioxide in birds lungs are continuously  diffused into and out of the blood, not like in mammals where diffusion can only happen in the alveoli. Air does not go into and back out of the lungs as in mammals. Instead, muscular air sacs push the air forward through bird lungs.

Reptile lung 
Reptile lungs open and close because of the ribs surrounding them pressing down on them and then opening up with the help of muscles. The liver is also attached to the bottom of the lungs and when a muscle which is attached to the liver pulls, the liver moves away from the lungs and pulls them, making them bigger.

Amphibian lung 
Frog lungs are very simple compared to most other lungs, they are simply balloons, with moist outsides allowing for diffusion. But frogs do not move around much and so do not need lots of oxygen, but they can also take in oxygen through their moist outer skin if a big demand of oxygen is needed (e.g. Fight or flight response)

Other websites
 A revision site directed towards IGSCE students 
 A to Z list of diseases of the Lung
 List of Lung Cancer information sites 
 In depth articles on the lung
 In depth article on the anatomy of a lung

Anatomy of the respiratory system
Rock music

Rock music is a genre of popular music. It developed during and after the 1960s in the United States. It originally started in the 1940s and 1950s with the start of rock and roll. Rock and roll grew out of rhythm and blues and country music.  Rock music is related to a number of other genres such as blues and folk. It has influences from jazz, classical, and other music genres.

Musically, rock mostly uses the electric guitar as part of a rock band with bass guitar and drums. Rock music is song based. It has a 4/4 beat and it has verse-chorus form. However, rock has become very different and it is hard to say what its common musical instruments are. Like pop music, rock music lyrics are mostly about "romantic love". They can also have social or have political themes, however, rock focuses on musical skill, live performance, and it tries to be more real than pop music.

By the late 1960s, a number of different rock musicians genres had come out. These included hybrids like blues rock, folk rock, country rock, and jazz-rock fusion. From these forms, the counterculture developed psychedelic rock. New genres that came from this scene included progressive rock, glam rock and heavy metal. Progressive rock made the music more artistic. Glam rock focused on showmanship and what you can see. Heavy metal focused on loudness, power and speed.  Punk rock became more popular in the second half of the 1970s. It was inspired by other types of rock, as well as counterculture. Punk rock is a loud type of rock music with political and social critiques. Punk caused other below-genres to come about into the 1980s, including New Wave, post-punk and eventually the alternative rock movement. From the 1990s, alternative rock began to be the most popular type of rock music. It broke through into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop, and indie rock. More merging of below-genres have since emerged. These include pop punk, rap rock, and rap metal, as well as conscious attempts to revisit rock's history, including the garage rock/post-punk and synthpop revivals at the beginning of the new millennium.

Rock music has also helped cultural and social movements. This led to large sub-cultures including mods and rockers in the UK and the "hippie" culture that spread out from San Francisco in the US in the 1960s. Similarly, 1970s punk culture made the goth and emo subcultures. Rock music has the same folk tradition as the protest song. Rock music has been involved with political activism. It has also made changes to social attitudes towards race, sex and drug use. It is often seen as an expression of youth revolt against adult consumerism and conformity.

Other websites

Sources
Cream

Cream (also called milkfat, milk fat, butterfat, and butter fat) is the fatty part of regular milk. Skimmed milk (or skim milk) is milk sold with some or nearly all of the fat removed. Cream is usually used in coffee to make it lighter in taste. Cream can also be used to make some sauces such as the Americanized Alfredo sauce.

Dairy products made from cream 
 Butter
 Cheese
 Cottage cheese
 Cream cheese
 Ice cream
 Sour cream
 Whipped cream

Things named after cream 
 Cream (color)
 Skin cream (including face cream)

Dairy products
Food ingredients
Supreme Court of the United States

The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States of America. Because of this, the Court leads the Judicial Branch of the United States Federal Government. It is the only U.S. court established by the United States Constitution. Its decisions are supposed to be followed by all other courts in the United States. Since 1935, the Court has met in its own building in Washington, D.C.; before that, it met in the United States Capitol.

Background
There are 9 justices on the court now: one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. Courts (a set of all justices of the court while one Chief Justice is serving) are unofficially named for the Chief Justice; the current Court is called the "Roberts Court" after Chief Justice John Roberts.

The Supreme Court chooses which cases it will decide on, by choosing to give a writ of certiorari or not. Almost 7,000 people, known as petitioners, ask the Supreme Court to decide their cases every year, but the court only gives a writ to about 100 or less. For the Supreme Court to decide a case, the case must be about: federal law, the Constitution of the United States, disagreements between states or their residents, or another court's decision that differs from what the Supreme Court has decided on a similar case. Cases must first be decided by a federal district court and a federal court of appeals or by a state supreme court. Even after that, the Supreme Court can choose not to decide a case for any reason. Cases about disagreements between states or their residents sometimes can only be decided by the Supreme Court, but those are rare.

The justices serve for life unless they want to retire earlier or are impeached. If a justice retires, he or she can still be asked to serve as a judge on a federal Court of Appeals. New justices are nominated (picked) by the President of the United States, and then must be approved by the United States Senate. 

The most recent justice to be chosen is Ketanji Brown Jackson, who was nominated by President Joe Biden in February 2022, to replace retiring Justice Stephen Breyer. After the Senate approved her, Jackson became the first female African American justice.

The current Court

Living former justices

References

Supreme Court of the United States
Fall (motion)

A fall is, in everyday language and thought, a movement down that happens due to gravity.  An example is when something rolls off a table and falls down to the floor.

Scientific and universal definition 
Falling is a motion towards a place where an object will have a lower total potential energy or lower potential.  Total potential energy being the sum of all potential energies -- those from gravitational fields, electric fields, and magnetic fields.

The idea of falling in natural human language(s) as falling down begs the definition of what down really is. Down may be straight towards your feet, or if you are on a hill, be off at an angle. Often an attempt is made to correct this definition by saying down is towards the center of the Earth. But that definition only works here on Earth. The idea of falling using common everyday language as being in the direction of down does not work in places in the universe other than Earth. In space, somewhere between the Earth and its moon, an object may fall to the earth or fall to the moon. At other places an object may fall towards the Sun or Jupiter. At other places in the universe an object may even fall to a point in space between stars and planets.

Falling using common everyday language is also true only due to gravity. A balloon rubbed on your hair and held close to the ceiling will fall up towards the ceiling. Electrically charged objects do not always fall due to the force of gravity, but due to electric forces. As masses fall in gravitational fields, charges or charged objects will fall to a place where they have less total potential energy. Magnetic objects will fall in a magnetic field to a place where they have less total potential energy.

Falling people
Falling is a very common cause of people's injuries, possibly the most common cause. This is especially the case for elderly people, people with various conditions causing a loss of balance, and for people who do sports and other leisure activities requiring significant motion.

In many cases, elderly people become less steady on their feet and if they fall they are at a greater risk of having serious injuries, such as breaking their hip, because of the more brittle condition of their bones.

During sports and other recreational activities such as bicycling or skateboarding, people are more likely to fall.  Some bicyclists and skateboarders wear protective clothing to protect their body in the event of a fall, such as a helmet, elbow pads, and knee pads.

Force
Safety
Fall
Autumn

Autumn is the season after summer and before winter. In the United States and Canada, this season is also called fall. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is often said to begin with the autumnal equinox in September and end with the winter solstice in December. In the Southern Hemisphere, it runs from the autumnal equinox in March to the winter solstice in June.

In many places in the temperate zone, autumn is a time for harvesting most crops. Deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves every year) lose their leaves, usually after turning yellow, red, or brown. In many countries, autumn is the time a new school year starts. The period of school between the start of September and the end of December is often referred to as the “Fall Semester”, “Fall Quarter”, or “Fall Term”.

When it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Southern Hemisphere. When it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere. On the Equator, autumn is very much like spring, with little difference in temperature or in weather. Autumn is a time when most animals are looking for food so they can store up for winter, because they soon will be going into hibernation. The weather gets colder and more windy.  In Autumn the hours of daylight and the hours of night are the same. In autumn the weather changes all the time. The weather turns cooler and often windy and rainy.

Environment
Meteorology
Seasons
Fall

Fall has several meanings:
Autumn, one of the four seasons of the year
Falling or other downward movement
A waterfall is sometimes called a fall or falls for short

Basic English 850 words
Marcha Real

"Marcha Real" (, which means "Royal March") is the national anthem of Spain. The music was composed by Manuel de Espinosa de los Monteros in 1761 also in this year the anthem was first published. When Francisco Franco ruled Spain, new lyrics were written for it. Since 1978, those words are no longer official. In 2007, a contest for new lyrics did not result in new lyrics being made official. It is one of only four national anthems in the world with no official words, only music.

Former lyrics 
The lyrics used when Alfonso XIII was king were written by Eduardo Marquina (1879–1946):La bandera de España (Coro)
Gloria, gloria, corona de la Patria,
soberana luz
que es oro en tu Pendón.
Vida, vida, futuro de la Patria,
que en tus ojos es
abierto corazón...!
Púrpura y oro: bandera inmortal;
en tus colores, juntas, carne y alma están.
Púrpura y oro: querer y lograr;
Tú eres, bandera, el signo del humano afán.

España guiadora (Solo)
¡Pide, España! ¡Tu nombre llevaremos
donde quieras tú;
que honrarlo es nuestra ley!
¡Manda, España, y unidos lucharemos,
porque vivas tú,
sin tregua pueblo y rey!
Una bandera gloriosa nos das;
¡nadie, viviendo, España, nos la arrancará!
Para que, un día, nos pueda cubrir,
¡danos, España, el gozo de morir por ti!

¡Viva España!... (Coro)
¡Viva España! Del grito de la Patria,
la explosión triunfal
abrió camino al sol;
¡Viva España! repiten veinte pueblos
y al hablar dan fe
del ánimo español...
¡Marquen arado martillo y clarín
su noble ritmo al grito de la Patria fe!
¡Guíe la mente a la mano hasta el fin,
al "Viva España" asista toda España en pie!
Flag of Spain (Chorus)
Glory, glory, crown of the Fatherland
sovereign light
which in your standard is gold.
Life, life, future of the Fatherland,
in your eyes it is
an open heart
Purple and gold: immortal flag;
in your colors, together, flesh and soul are.
Purple and gold: to want and to achieve;
You are, flag, the sign of human effort.

Guiding Spain (Solo)
Ask of us, Spain! Your name we will take
anywhere you want;
because honoring it is our law!
Command us, Spain, and united we will fight,
so that you may live,
relentless people and king!
You give us a glorious flag;
Nobody, who is alive, Spain, will take it from us!
So that, one day, we can be covered by it,
Give us, Spain, the joy of dying for you!

Long live Spain! ... (Chorus)
Long live Spain! The cry of the Fatherland,
the triumphant explosion
Has opened the way to the sun;
Long live Spain! repeated twenty peoples
and when they speak they have faith
in the Spanish will ...
Mark plow hammer and bugle
your noble rhythm at the cry of the Fatherland faith!
Guide the mind and the hand until the end,
the "Long Live Spain" Spain attends all standing!

References

National anthems
 
National symbols of Spain
Césarville-Dossainville

Césarville-Dossainville is a French village in the département of Loiret and the région of  Centre.

Geography
 Old maps of Cesarville-Dossainville

History
 Local History of Cesarville-Dossainville

Demography

Administration

People of Cesarville-Dossainville
+ Jean GUILBERT  Mayor and "Conseiller Général"

Other websites 
Cesarville-Dossainville on the website of the "Institut Géographique National" (in French) 
Cesarville-Dossainville on the website of the "Insee" (in French)
Cesarville-Dossainville on the website of the "Quid" (in French)
Village near Cesarville-Dossainville (in French)
Localisation of Cesarville-Dossainville in France (in French)
 Map of Cesarville-Dossainville on Mapquest
Website on Cesarville-Dossainville 

Communes in Loiret