alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Optics

Optics is the science of light and how it interacts with the world. Optics explains how rainbows exist, how light reflects off mirrors, how light refracts through glass or water, and what splits light shining through a prism. In addition to visible light in the standard "spectrum" of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, optics also deals with invisible parts of the whole electromagnetic spectrum of which visible light is only a small part.

Optics is both a science and an area of engineering. It has been used to make many useful things, including eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes, and microscopes. Many of these things are based on lenses, which focus light and can make images of things that are bigger or smaller than the original.

While optics is an old science, new things are still being discovered in it. Scientists have learned how to make light travel through a thin optical fiber made of glass or plastic. Light can go long distances in a fiber. Fibers are used to carry phone calls and the Internet through cities and around the world.

Related pages 
Spectroscopy
Václav Klaus

Václav Klaus (; born 19 June 1941) is a Czech economist and politician. He was the 2nd President of the Czech Republic from 2003 to 2013. He also served as the second and last Prime Minister of the Czech Republic.

His presidency was very controversial because he did not believe in global warming and because of an amnesty he declared on the 20th anniversary of the creation of the Czech Republic. In the amnesty, Klaus forgave many punishments for investigated crimes and stopped the investigation of others.

Early life
Klaus was born in Prague during the Nazi occupation and grew up in the Vinohrady neighborhood. Klaus studied "economics of foreign trade" and graduated from University of Economics in Prague in 1963. He also spent some time at universities in Italy (1966) and at Cornell University. He also studied in the United States in 1969.

He soon obtained a position in the Czechoslovak State Bank. In 1987, Klaus joined the Institute for Prognostics of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. In 1995, as Prime Minister, Klaus was awarded the title of Professor of Finance, so he is sometimes addressed as "Mr. Professor". Since that time Klaus occasionally teaches seminars in economics at the University of Economics.

Political career
At a congress 1997, Klaus was confirmed as chairman of the ODS. Klaus was elected President of the Czech Republic on 28 February 2003. He won with a majority of 142 votes out of 281.

References

1941 births
Living people
Presidents of the Czech Republic
Barbra Streisand

Barbara Joan "Barbra" Streisand (born April 24, 1942) is an American singer, actress, producer, and director. She has won multiple Emmy Awards, Grammy Awards and Golden Globe awards. 

Her grandparents on her father's side of the family were from Galicia. (That region is now in Ukraine and Poland.). She is of Jewish descent.

References

Other websites 

1942 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Brooklyn
American movie actors
American television producers
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning directors
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American actors
Jewish American musicians
Jewish businesspeople
Movie directors from New York City
Movie producers from New York City
Musicians from Brooklyn
Singers from New York City
Denver

Denver is the capital and largest city in the U.S. state of Colorado and a county named Denver County. For this reason, Denver is the county seat of Denver County. It is at the foot of the Rocky Mountains on the South Platte River, and was founded in 1858. A nickname for Denver is The Mile High City, because Denver is very high above sea level.  It is at least 5,280 feet (or 1,609 meters) above sea level at a point in the city's state capitol building. The dome at the top of the capitol building is covered in gold.

History

Denver was founded in November 1858 as Denver City during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush as a mining town in western Kansas Territory. That summer, a group of gold prospectors from Lawrence, Kansas, started a settlement  on the banks of the South Platte River. They called it Montana City. This was the first settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The settlement faded quickly. By the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria (named after the gold mining town of Auraria, Georgia), and St. Charles City.

The Colorado Territory was created on February 28, 1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1, 1861, and Denver City was incorporated on November 7, 1861. Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the Territorial Capital. With its new-found importance, Denver City shortened its name to just Denver. On August 1, 1876, Colorado was admitted to the Union.

Sports teams in Denver 
Denver is the home of the Denver Broncos football team, the Denver Nuggets basketball team, the Colorado Rockies baseball team, the Colorado Avalanche hockey team, and the Colorado Rapids soccer team.

Newspapers
The Denver Post
The Rocky Mountain News

References 

 
State capitals in the United States
1858 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Colorado
County seats in Colorado
Carl Lewis

Frederick Carlton "Carl" Lewis (born July 1, 1961) is an American retired track and field athlete. He has won nine Olympic gold medals and eight World Championships. Lewis became an actor and has appeared in a number of movies.

References

Other websites

 
 

1961 births
Living people
African-American track and field athletes
American sprinters
American movie actors
American Olympic gold medalists
Sportspeople from Alabama
Actors from Birmingham, Alabama
Bleach

Bleach is the name for a number of chemical substances which can be used to remove colors, or to make things white. Very often, they act through oxidation. Bleaches on the base of sulfur have been in use for thousands of years. Modern bleaches are usually based on chlorine or on oxygen.

Many bleaches can kill bacteria easily. For this reason, they are often used for disinfecting or sterilisation.

Dangers of using bleach
Mixing bleach with some things commonly found at home, like vinegar or even fruit juice can produce chemicals like chlorine that are irritating or even dangerous. Bleach should also not be mixed with ammonia because a hazardous chemical reaction will occur. This effect can kill people.

Certain types of bleaches produce toxic waste. Some of them produce dioxins.

Examples of bleaches
Sulfur dioxide, one bleach that is a reducing agent
Hydrogen peroxide
Sodium hypochlorite, household bleach
Bleaching powder
Bleach made from hydrogen peroxide is used to make hair lighter in color, orange, blonde, or even white. It is often used by dark-haired people to make highlights, and most hair dyes contain it.

Other websites 

Bleach (MSDS) 

Cleaning tools
Polygon

A polygon is a closed two-dimensional shape. It is a plane figure that is made up of a number of sides. These are also called edges or line segments. Each side is connected to another one by a corner, or vertex. Each pair of connected sides makes an angle.

These sides and angles can be different from one another, or they can all be the same. Polygons made of only sides of the same length (equilateral) and angles the same width (equiangular) are called regular polygons.

A square is a polygon because it has four sides. The smallest polygon in Euclidean geometry or "flat geometry" is the triangle, which has three sides and three corners. On a sphere, there can also be a digon and a henagon.

If the edge lines of the polygon do not cross each other, the polygon is called simple; otherwise it is complex.

In computer graphics, polygons (especially triangles) are often used to make graphics.

Gallery

List of polygons

References

Polygons
Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan is a landlocked country in the middle of Eurasia. Its official name is the Republic of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan is the ninth biggest country in the world, and it is also the biggest landlocked country in the world. Before the end of the Soviet Union, it was called "Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic". The president of the country from 1991  through March 2019 was Nursultan Nazarbayev. Astana is the capital city of Kazakhstan. Almaty was the capital until 1998, when it moved to Astana.

The Kazakh language, which is a Turkic language, is the native language, but Russian has equal official status for all administrative and institutional purposes. Islam is the largest religion- about 70% of the population are Muslims, with Christianity practiced by 26%; Russia leases (rents) the land for the Baikonur Cosmodrome (site of Russian spacecraft launches) from Kazakhstan.

Geography 
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country mostly in Asia with a small western part across the Ural River in Europe. It has borders with the Russian Federation in the north and west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the southwest, and China in the far east. The northern border is mostly with Siberia, Russia, so Russia has the longest border with Kazakhstan. Basically, Kazakhstan runs from the Caspian Sea in the west to the mainly Muslim Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang.
Kazakhstan has no ocean shoreline, but borders the Caspian Sea, which boats use to get to neighboring countries. The Caspian Sea is an Endorheic basin without connections to any ocean.

Natural resources 
Kazakhstan has plenty of petroleum, natural gas, and mining. It attracted over $40 billion in foreign investment since 1993 and accounts for some 57% of the nation's industrial output. According to some estimates, Kazakhstan has the second largest uranium, chromium, lead, and zinc reserves, the third largest manganese reserves, the fifth largest copper reserves, and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. It is also an exporter of diamonds. Kazakhstan has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.

Regions
Kazakhstan is divided into 14 regions. They are divided into districts.

Almaty and Astana cities have the status of State importance and are not in any region. Baikonur city has a special status because it is leased to Russia for Baikonur cosmodrome until 2050.

Each province is headed by an Akim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal Akims are appointed by province Akims. The Government of Kazakhstan moved its capital from Almaty to Astana on December 10, 1997.

Population 
The population of Kazakhstan is 17,165,000. It takes the 62th place in the List of countries by population. Average density is one of the lowest on earth with almost 6 people/km2  ( List of countries by population density).

Related pages
Kazakhstan at the Olympics
Kazakhstan national football team
List of rivers of Kazakhstan

References

Notes

Other websites

 Official Website of Kazakh Parliament, in Қазақша, Русский, and English 

 
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Sign

A sign is something you see (or hear) which means something. A sign may be natural or man-made.

A natural sign shows something significant. Leaves turn brown and fall off deciduous trees in the autumn. Temperatures drop, daylight hours shorten. It suggests winter is coming. Many birds migrate and some mammals hibernate in response to natural signs like these. Humans, as usual, are a bit different. They make their own signs.

A man-made sign is called a signal or symbol. It is an artificial thing, which people decide means something in their society. For example, the stop sign on the road tells the person that they must stop their car there. So does a red traffic light. They are signals with a legal meaning, and people learn what these meanings are.

Sometimes a person may not know what a sign means. Feeling a cold wind could be a sign that someone left a door or window open.

In medicine, a sign is something seen, whereas a symptom is something felt, like a pain. A sign might be something like high blood pressure, which can be measured.

Road signs 

A road sign or traffic sign is something that gives information by means of a symbol, or in only 1 or 2 words. It helps people in their vehicles on the road. Some signs include: Give way, Stop, Keep left, No U-turn, no parking, Zebra crossing and much more. Signs are very useful. Without signs and traffic lights there would be many accidents and arguments on the road.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Human communication
Semiotics
Barley

Barley is a member of the grass family of plants. Its seeds are a cereal grain. It is a staple food of humans and other animals, and it is one of mankind's oldest crops. It can be made into flour or beer.

Its Latin name is Hordeum vulgare. Barley is an annual plant.

Production

References

Grains
1853

1853 (MDCCCLIII) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

Events
 October 4–5 – the Crimean War begins when the Ottoman Empire begins war with the Russian Empire

Births 
 March 30 – Vincent van Gogh, painter
 July 18 – Hendrik Lorentz, Dutch physicist and mathematician

Deaths 
 March 30 – Abigail Fillmore, wife of U.S. President Millard Fillmore
1371

1371 was a common year.

Births 
 May 28 – John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy
Mineralogy

Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Minerals are things that make rocks. There are many different types of minerals. Some are hard, like diamonds. Some are soft, like talc. Some are metal, like gold or silver. Minerals are put into special groups of minerals made of similar chemicals, or that have similar structures inside. For example, the chemicals that make up some minerals line up in chains, while in other minerals, they make bow-tie shapes. 

Studying minerals can be useful for figuring out certain things about a rock. Sometimes the shape or size of the mineral can tell something about the rock as well. For example, minerals in igneous rocks can help figure out how long the rock took to cool down (turn from lava into a rock). Larger minerals mean the rock cooled slowly (probably underground). Smaller minerals mean the rock cooled down quickly (probably above ground, like from a volcano). The type of mineral in a rock can also tell what kind of a rock it is, or what has happened to the rock since it formed. Many rocks are named based on what kinds of minerals they have.

Mineralogists (people who study minerals) study minerals in rocks with hand lenses (a magnifying glass), and in thin section (thin slices of rock) with microscopes. They record things about the minerals like how big they are, what shape they are, what color they are, and if the mineral changes colors when you turn it. Mineralogists also record what color minerals turn in a special light. These details can help mineralogists figure out what minerals they are looking at. 

Minerals can be used in a lot of different things, like mining, jewelry, farming, pottery, making metals, and more . Mineralogists can help find important minerals in the Earth using what they know and learn.

Other websites
International Mineralogical Association
Mineralogical Association of Canada
Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy 
The Giant Crystal Project 
The Geological Society of America 

subfields of geology
1515

Year 1515 (MDXV) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.

Events
 January 25 – Coronation of Francis I of France
 August 25 – Conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founds Havana, Cuba.

 September 22 – Anne of Cleves
1495

Year 1495 (MCDXCV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Births 
 March 28 – Mary Tudor, Queen of France (died 1533)
Orlando, Florida

Orlando is a city in the center of the U.S. state of Florida. It is the county seat of Orange County. It contains 307,573 people as of 2020. It is number four among cities in Florida by number of people.  The current mayor, or leader, of Orlando is Buddy Dyer.

History
Orlando was created in 1836 when someone found a tree where the name "Orlando Reeves" was carved.  Thinking it was a place of burial, they named the site "Orlando's grave".  It was cut to Orlando later.

Before the American Civil War, Orlando was a center of trade in cattle.  After the war, many people came to the town.  Orlando became a city in 1875.  Before 1900, Orlando was a center of orange farming.  After 1900, it became a popular place for visitors.

Orlando was an important base for the military during World War II, as home of Pinecastle Army Air Field.  Lockheed Martin (once Martin Marietta) opened a manufacturing site in Orlando in 1956.

In 1965, Walt Disney said that he would build a large amusement park southwest of the city.  That place, Walt Disney World Resort, opened in 1971. After Walt Disney World opened, Orlando is now very popular as a tourism city, attracting millions of visitors each year from every place in the world.

Three hurricanes moved over Orlando in 2004, causing billions of U.S. dollars of damage.

Climate 
Orlando has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Koeppen climate classification). Summers are hot and wet; winters are warm with moderate rainfall.

Transport
A major road in Orlando is Interstate 4.  Another major road is State Road 408.  They meet downtown.  Florida's Turnpike also meets Interstate 4 southwest of the city.

Orlando International Airport is one of the biggest airports in the United States.

Amtrak trains and Greyhound buses also go to Orlando.

Sports
The Orlando Magic are an NBA basketball team in Orlando.  They play at TD Waterhouse Centre.

The Orlando Predators are an football team with the Arena Football League in Orlando.  They play at the TD Waterhouse Centre.

References

Other websites

The Orlando Travel & Visitors Bureau
The Orlando Regional Chamber of Commerce

County seats in Florida
 
1836 establishments in the United States
1830s establishments in Florida Territory
1397



Events 
 Richard II of England takes revenge on his political opponents, the Lords Appellant.
Glossary

A glossary is a list of words and what they mean.  They are usually found at the end of a book or report that uses hard words to read or special words.  Websites about complicated subjects also sometimes have glossaries.

For example, in a book about philosophy that has the word "epistemology", there might be a glossary at the end of the book with the definition of this word.

Words
Reference
1527



Events 
 January 5 – Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, is drowned in the Limmat River in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church.
 May 6 – Spanish and German troops led by the Duke of Bourbon sack Rome (the infamous Sacco di Roma), forcing Pope Clement VII to make peace with Charles V.
 May 16 – Florentines drive out the Medici for a second time and Florence re-establishes a republic.
 Spanish conquest of Guatemala highlands completed; first Guatemala City founded (Ciudad Vieja).
 Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo invades Yucatán.
 Battle of Tokay: Ferdinand of Austria defeats John Zapolya and takes over most of Hungary. John appeals to the Turks for help.
 Protestant Reformation begins in Sweden.
 Ahmed Gragn of Somalia defeats the Ethiopian army with his new firearms.
 People of the University of Wittenberg flee plague to Jena.
 Bishop Vesey's Grammar School in Sutton Coldfield, West Midlands, UK is founded by Bishop John Vesey.

Births 
 March 21 – Hermann Finck, German composer and music theorist (died 1558)
 April 14 – Abraham Ortelius, cartographer and geographer (died 1598)
 July 13 – John Dee, English mathematician, astronomer, and geographer (died 1608)
 July 31 – Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1576)
 Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Italian artist (died 1593)
 Charles of Guise, French Cardinal and member of the powerful House of Guise (died 1574)
 Lawrence Humphrey, president of Magdalen College, Oxford (died 1590)
 Luis Ponce de León, Spanish lyric poet (died 1591)
 Sakuma Nobumori, Japanese retainer and samurai (died 1581)
 Annibale Padovano, Italian composer and organist (died 1575)
 Philip II of Spain

Deaths 
 January 21 – Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador (born 1489)
 June 21 – Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian writer and statesman (born 1469)
 July 28 – Rodrigo de Bastidas, Spanish conquistador and explorer (born 1460)
 Boabdil, last Moorish king of Granada (of the Nasrid dynasty)
 Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, Count of Montpensier and Dauphin of Auvergne (born 1490)
 Francesco Colonna, Italian Dominican priest (born 1433)
 Thomas Docwra, Grand Prior of the Knights Hospitaller (born 1458)
 Felix Manz, co-founder of the original Swiss Brethren Anabaptist congregation in Zürich
 Cristoforo Solari, Italian sculptor and architect
 Jan "Ciezki" Tarnowski, Polish nobleman
1373



1373 (MCCCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 January–December 
 March 24 – The Treaty of Santarém is signed between D. Fernando of Portugal and Henrique II of Castile, ending the second war between the two countries.
 May 13 – Julian of Norwich receives the sixteen Revelations of Divine Love.

 Date unknown 
 Bristol is made an independent county.
 The Anglo-Portuguese alliance is signed (currently the oldest active treaty in the world).
 The city of Phnom Penh (now the capital city of Cambodia) is founded.
 Philip II of Taranto hands over the rule of Achaea (now southern Greece) to his cousin, Joanna I of Naples.
 Leo VI succeeds his distant cousin, Constantine VI, as King of Armenian Cilicia (now southern Turkey).
 A city wall is built around Lisbon, Portugal to resist invasion by Castile.
 Tran Kinh succeeds Tran Phu as King of Vietnam.
 Byzantine co-emperor Andronikos IV Palaiologos rebels against his father, John V Palaiologos, for agreeing to let Constantinople become a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. After the rebellion fails, Ottoman Emperor Murad I commands John V Palaiologos to blind his son.
 The death of Sultan Muhammad as-Said begins a period of political instability in Morocco.
 Merton College Library is built in Oxford, England.
 The Adina Mosque is built in Bengal.
 The Chinese emperor of the Ming Dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, suspends the traditional civil service examination system after complaining that the 120 new jinshi degree-holders are too incompetent to hold office; he instead relies solely upon a system of recommendations until the civil service exams are reinstated in 1384.

Births 
 March 29 – Marie of Alencon, French princess (d. 1417)
 June 23 – Queen Joan II of Naples (d. 1435)
 September 22 – Thomas le Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester (d. 1400)
 date unknown
 Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York (d. 1415)
 Margery Kempe, writer of the first autobiography in English

Deaths 
 January 16 – Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (b. 1342)
 February – Ibn Kathir, Islamic scholar (b. 1301)
 July 23 – Saint Birgitta, Swedish saint (b. 1303)
 November 3 – Jeanne de Valois, Queen of Navarre (b. 1343)
 December 7 – Rafał z Tarnowa, Polish nobleman (b. c. 1330)
 date unknown
 Constantine VI of Armenia (assassinated)
 Robert le Coq, French bishop and councillor

References
Comedian

A comedian is a person who tells jokes, or acts in comedies. Some people use the French loanword comedienne to refer to female comedians. A comedian can also be called a comic or a comic actor.

 
Entertainment occupations
Turin

Turin ( , Piedmontese: ;  ; , then Taurinum) is a major industrial city on the west bank of the Po river in Piedmont, northwest Italy. Over a 900,000 people live in it. Turin is the fourth largest city in Italy, after Rome, Milan and Naples. Turin is the capital of Piedmont. Fiat's first car factory was in Turin. The city was the host of the 2006 Winter Olympics. In Turin there are two major rivers the Po and the Dora, and two minor rivers the Stura and the Sangone.

Turin was the first capital of Italy in 1861. It had previously been the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia and before that it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy. Filippo Juvarra designed many churches and palaces in the city. 

 
Olympic cities
Hobart

Hobart (Palawa Kani: Nipaluna) is a city in Australia. It is the capital city of the state of Tasmania, and it has about 200,000 people. It is on the western shore of the Derwent River, although some of its suburbs are on the eastern shore. In the western suburbs of Hobart is Kunyani/Mount Wellington.

Hobart was founded in 1803 as a penal colony. Today it is a busy seaport, and is the home port of Antarctic expeditions. Tourist attractions include Salamanca Markets, the Cadbury chocolate factory and the Cascade Brewery.

Hobart has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).

References

Other websites

1803 establishments
 
19th-century establishments in Australia
New Testament

The New Testament is part of the Christian Bible, and the most important religious writing of Christianity. It tells the story of Jesus Christ, his followers, and the beginnings of Christianity. It was written in Koine Greek.

The New Testament is made up of different parts. In total, there are 27 texts in the New Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant Churches have the same texts, but their arrangement varies; the Syriac Churches and the Ethiopian Churches have different versions. The Syriac Churches do not put Peter 2, John 2 and 3, Jude and the Revelations in the New Testament. The Ethiopian Churches do not have a common canon.

Four of the Books of the New Testament are the Gospels. Most of the others are Epistles.

The Four Gospels 

Each of the Gospels tells the story of Jesus Christ, or the young Messiah, who Christians believe is the "Son of God who is born to save the world from sin". Each of the Gospels tell this same story, with a little more or less detail from the other. The other books tell about the history of the church and explain the Christian faith through letters written to persons and groups that have believed in Jesus 

The traditional author is listed after each entry.
 The Gospel of Matthew, traditionally the Apostle Matthew, son of Alphaeus.
 The Gospel of Mark, traditionally Mark, who wrote down the narrative given by the Apostle Simon, called Peter.
 The Gospel of Luke, traditionally Luke, who was a companion of the Apostle Paul, who was formerly called Saul.
 The Gospel of John, traditionally John the Apostle.

Acts of the Apostles 
 Acts of the Apostles (or Acts), the story of the apostles after the Gospels' story

Pauline epistles 
Pauline epistles, the 13 or 14 letters believed to be written by Saint Paul the Apostle. They are named for the person or group to which they were sent. 
 Romans
 First Corinthians
 Second Corinthians
 Galatians
 Ephesians
 Philippians
 Colossians
 First Thessalonians
 Second Thessalonians
 First Timothy
 Second Timothy
 Titus
 Philemon
 Hebrews was traditionally attributed to Paul, but nowhere is the author mentioned.

General epistles 
General epistles are other letters which are named for the person traditionally believed to have written them. 

 James
 First Peter
 Second Peter
 First John
 Second John
 Third John
 Jude

Book of Revelation 
 Book of Revelation

References

Other websites 
 The New Testament Gateway 
Full text in original Greek
Gospel

Gospel originally meant the Christian message ("the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out.

The word gospel came from the Old English word "gōdspel", which literally means "good news", since it narrates Jesus Christ's life and teaching to invite anyone to believe that he was born to save the world from sin and make humans truly know God as a Father. It includes the Death and Resurrection of Jesus.

The Gospel was originally spoken, not written. Eventually gospel came to mean an ancient book about Jesus, especially one of the four books collected by the Church in the Bible. 

These books are the first part of the New Testament of the Bible, and are put in a group of this order: the Gospel of Matthew, the Gospel of Mark, the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John.

"Injil" (Arabic: إنجيل) is the Arabic name for the Gospel of Jesus (Isa). In Islam, Jesus is believed to be the second-to-last prophet and messenger of God (Allah) and the Messiah. Muslims believe that God revealed the Injil to Jesus, while also declaring the truth of the previous revelations: the Tawrat (the Torah) and the Zabur (the Psalms).

Related pages
Gospel music

References

Other websites 

Christian theology
Paul the Apostle

Paul the Apostle, (born as Saul of Tarsus) and also often called Saint Paul (2BC–64/65), was a Messianic Jewish-Roman writer and rabbi. He was a convert to Christianity. It is believed that he wrote thirteen books of the Bible, together called the Pauline epistles. They are letters to churches and Christians. He wrote these letters to encourage them, to help them understand Christian teaching, and to help them to live Christian lives.

Life

Anti-Christian 

Paul's name was originally Saul (not to be confused with King Saul from the books of Samuel in the Old Testament). He grew up learning both the Jewish law and the Greek ways of discussing things. We are first introduced to Saul in the Bible near the end of Acts 7. The Christian movement had begun with the resurrection and ascension of Jesus. Saul was strongly against this, and he was happy as he watched Saint Stephen, the first martyr of Jesus, being killed by stoning after giving a speech that made the Jewish court angry.  He worked for the Roman Government and helped lead the arrests and killing of many Christians in Israel and the nearby area.

Later on, Saul was told to go to Damascus to find and bring back Christians there to be punished. On the way, God came down from heaven and spoke to Saul. The Bible tells of what happened like this:

Saul becomes Paul 
When Saul reached Damascus, he was taken to Ananias, one of Jesus's disciples, where he got his sight back and was baptized as a Christian. He spent the next three years studying the Jewish scriptures again to find explanations for the Christian teachings. His experiences changed his view on Christianity completely. In Acts 13:9, he begins to be called Paul.  This was the Hellenized version of the name Saul. He used his earlier education to explain his new faith to other people and to discuss things with people who had other beliefs.

He traveled around the Roman Empire, teaching others about Christianity, and wrote letters back and forth with the churches he helped to begin. The letters contain many important parts of Christian teaching and have since been part of the New Testament of the Bible, coming between the Acts of the Apostles and the General Epistles. It is not known whether Paul actually wrote all of these letters, or whether other people could have written the letters for him. Part of these letters are read at Mass as the second of two readings that come before the Gospel.

Although the Bible does not say how Paul died, various writers said Paul was put to death by orders of the emperor Nero in Rome, in 64/65 AD. He had the rights of Roman citizenship, which meant that he could be put to death by decapitation with a sword, rather than by crucifixion. Some stories say he was decapitated.

Related pages
Twelve Apostles

Other websites 
 Online study about the early Christians in simple English
 Jewish Encyclopedia: Saul of Tarsus (known as Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen)
 "Saint Paul, the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009.

0s BC births
67 deaths
Early Christian saints
Jews who converted to Christianity
New Testament people
People executed by decapitation
Painting

Painting is using colors to make visual art. It is also the word for a painted work of art. Many kinds of paints are used to create art. They include watercolors, acrylics and oils.  Other artists like working with pencil or chalk. Sometimes charcoal can be used.  

Famous paintings are often kept in art galleries, like the National Gallery in London and the Louvre (Paris) where one of the most famous paintings in the world hangs, the Mona Lisa, painted by Leonardo da Vinci.  People do not have to go to a famous gallery to view art.  There are private art galleries in many cities around the world.

There is a basic difference between drawing and painting. In drawing, a single layer is the entire image. In painting, one layer is painted over another to get the final image. As a result, most of the time the image will not be clear until it gets to the final stage.

There are four basic stages in painting: preparation, divide, layer, and touch up.
Preparation: most artists prepare a canvas or other surface. A thin and uniform cover or "wash" of white or other color is laid on the whole surface. This may help the later layers to get the same fix all over the surface. Also, the unseen wash may help the reflection of light from the surface, thus improving the effect for the viewer. For really uneven or colored surfaces, such as wood or rough canvas, a more substantial covering is needed. That is called gesso, traditionally a mixture of chalk and gelatin, but nowadays available as a thick white acrylic. Painting on some surfaces requires a special technique. Painting on plaster uses the fresco method.
In the divide stage, the canvas is divided into a few major areas (depending on the image you paint), and background for those areas are plotted.
In the layer stage, a layer is plotted over another layer, to get the desired shape in each area. By the end of this stage, all objects in the image will be easily and clearly identifiable.
The touch-up stage needs extra effort. This stage is to provide an extra look to the image, like precise bordering, merging layers and other visual effects.

References
Afterlife

The afterlife is what some people believe happens after death. Different religions teach different things about the afterlife.

Characteristics

Some religions believe in reincarnation (to come back to life as a different person or even animal). These religions include Buddhism and Hinduism. Hinduism specifically believes that at death the soul leaves the physical body but does not die. It lives in an astral body in an astral plane. Here the soul continues until it is born again in another physical body as a baby. Salvation (called Moksha) in these religions is a release from this endless cycle of re-births.

Most people in the world believe you go to another place after you die, such as heaven or hell. Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Jainism are religions that believe in this. For example, those that follow Christianity believe that if you accept the Christ (Jesus of Nazareth, the son of the Virgin Mary) as your saviour, you will spend eternity in heaven after death; if you do not accept him, you will be separated from him after death.

Many other religions believe in an afterlife of some kind. Ancient Egyptians believed in an `afterlife`. They put things into the graves of important people. These were to be used in the next life. The Vikings had some similar beliefs. Others (like African animists) believe that some people change into spirits called ghosts.

There are also those who do not believe that there is an afterlife, and that you simply cease to exist once you die. Atheists believe there is no God and no afterlife. The Sadducees were a sect of Judaism in the time of Jesus. They believed there was no spirit in man. So, after death there was no more life. .

There are several reports around the world of visions of a supposed afterlife in near death experiences, which, although varying in accounts, typically contain drawing closer to a light, or seeing one's dead relatives. Some people who experience clinical death, but are revived afterwards, report still being able to think and see things even after their vitals flatlined. Several people who have claimed to have visited the afterlife have often claimed to have had new information revaled to them, and are sometimes able to describe events that occurred during their clinical death or provide knowledge of past/future events.

Related pages 
 Funeral
 Immortality

Notes

Eschatology
Prayer

Prayer is a worship and communication to God.  Prayer can be spoken, silent (no talking), or in a song.  It can be used to praise God or to ask for something including help and forgiveness. 

Prayer can take a variety of forms: it can be part of a set ritual or an individual invocation and can take the form of a hymn, a ritual statement, or a spontaneous expression. It can be done alone or in groups. 

In Christianity, prayers are varied. They can be completely spontaneous, or read entirely from a text, like the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. The most common prayer among Christians is the Lord's Prayer, which according to the gospel accounts is how Jesus taught his disciples to pray.

Islamic prayer, or salat is a duty to be performed five times per day.  

Hinduism has prayer to various divinities or holy beings.

Dua 

 () is a prayer or request made by Muslims in which they ask for help from their God. Muslims see dua as a very serious way of worship.

Dua has been done by Muslims for a long time, as it is seen as very important by a lot of Muslims and Muslim families. They have been carried on as traditions.

References

Theology
Worship
Joseph (Hebrew Bible)

In the Bible, Joseph was a son of Jacob. Joseph's brothers hated him, because he was their father's favorite son, and his father gave him a coat with many colours. Joseph had dreams about his brothers bowing to him. One day they decided to kill him but changed their minds. According to Genesis they sold him as a slave. In Islamic tradition they threw him in a large well that had only a little salt water but when he drank it, by the will of God, it was very sweet. A passing caravan found him and took him as a slave to Egypt.

Joseph became the slave of the chief of the Pharaoh's guards but was put in prison, where he interpreted the dreams of other prisoners. The Pharaoh heard of his power and asked for interpretations of his own dreams. Joseph became the Pharaoh's prime minister. This caused the Israelites to leave Canaan and live in Egypt. 

Old Testament people
Ancient Israeli people
16th-century BC births‎
16th-century BC deaths
Mary Magdalene

Mary Magdalene is a woman in all four gospels of the New Testament. She became a faithful follower of Jesus after he delivered her from seven demons.
 She witnessed the crucifixion and burial of Jesus, and was the first person to see and talk with him after he arose from the dead.
 She told the apostles that she had seen him alive.

Mary is a saint in the Catholic church. She is remembered on July 22.

References

New Testament people
Ancient Israeli people
Witness

A witness is someone who sees something happen. They are often used in court to help find the truth. During a trial, the two lawyers will bring in witnesses to help back up their arguments.  

In a criminal trial, the prosecution lawyer will often bring in the victim of the crime to say what happened, and anyone else who can prove the accused person did the crime. The defense lawyer will nearly always call up the accused person to explain why they are not guilty, and bring in other witnesses who can prove the accused person is not guilty. Each time a lawyer brings in a witness, the other lawyer will cross examine the witness - they will ask them questions to make sure they are telling the truth.

Witnesses have to swear to tell the truth during the trial. If a witness lies in court, it is known as perjury, which is a crime. A witness can be subpoenad, which means they are required to testify in court. If the witness does not testify when given a subpoena, they can be punished.

Related pages
Notary

Other websites
Witness statements (UK)

Trials
Legal terms
Corinthians

Corinthians is the name of different things:

 Two books in the New Testament. They are letters by Saint Paul to the church at Corinth.  They are called the First Epistle to the Corinthians and the Second Epistle to the Corinthians.

A Brazilian football team from São Paulo. It is very famous in Brazil and have the second biggest number of football supporters in this country.
Corinth

Corinth is a city in Greece. It gave its name to the Corinth Canal. This is in the middle of the Isthmus of Corinth, a narrow strip of land which joins the Peloponnese peninsula with mainland Greece. It has a castle called the acrocorinth. Corinth is in the north of Peloponnese. It is a coastal city. It had 60,000 people at the 2011 census.

History 
During antiquity, Corinth was one of the most important Greek cities. It was often the opponent of Athens and these two cities competed with each other. It founded many colonies in south Italy and Sicily such as Siracusa. Corinth was conquered by Romans in 146 B.C. Two epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthian Christians are in the Bible.

The modern city of Corinth is about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northeast of the ancient ruins. Since 1896, the Corinth excavations by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens have revealed large parts of the ancient city. Recent excavations by the Greek Ministry of Culture have brought to light important new discoveries.

During Middle Ages, it was an important city with a fortification. In 1460 it came under Turkish rule and it was liberated in 1830, after the Greek War of Independence.
 

Cities in Greece
Cross

A cross is a symbol, which is used for many things.

Crosses in religion 
the Christian cross
the Ankh, an Ancient Egyptian symbol for life
the Swastika, a symbol in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, but also used in many cultures at different times.

Other crosses 

the Swastika, also known as Hakenkreuz used as a symbol of Nazism. This sign is thought to be insulting by many people in the West.
the Cross of Saint Peter, an upside down Latin cross, used by Catholics and also associated with Satanism.
the Red Cross, used by medical and humanitarian groups

Symbols
Peloponnese

The Peloponnese is a large peninsula in Greece. It is the part of Greece which is south of the Isthmus of Corinth.

The Peloponnese has many mountains and a long jagged coastline. The highest part is Mount Taygetus in the south. 

There are four south-pointing peninsulas within the Peloponnese. They are called Messenia, the Mani Peninsula, Epidaurus, and the Argolid.

There are also two groups of islands near the Peloponnese. In the east there are the Argo-Saronic Islands and in the west there are the Ionian Islands. There is also the island of Kythira, which is near to the Epidaurus peninsula. Kythira is often thought of as part of the Ionian Islands.

The Peloponnese has had people living on it since prehistoric times. Its name means Island of Pelops. Pelops was a person from Greek mythology, who took over the island. During the Middle Ages and the Ottoman Empire, the peninsula was known as the Morea.

Peninsulas of Europe
Peripheries of Greece
Isthmus of Corinth

The Isthmus of Corinth is a narrow bit of land which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with mainland Greece.  It is near to the city of Corinth. The narrow Corinthian Canal cuts through the isthmus, connecting the Aegean Sea to the Gulf of Corinth.

Geography of Greece

hr:Korintski kanal
Tripoli

Tripoli is a city in northwest Libya.  It is the capital of the country.  More than three million people live in the metropolitan area. 

Originally a Phoenician colony, Tripoli became in turn part of Greek and Roman Cyrenaica, a pirate port, a part of the Ottoman Empire, and the capital of the Italian empire in North Africa.

References

Phoenician colonies
Argos

Argos is a city in south Greece, the capital of Argos-Mycenae Municipality. It is in the Argolis prefecture, which is on the Peloponnese peninsula. It is named after the child of Zeus and Niobe in Greek mythology. It is the biggest city in Argolida prefecture but the capital of prefecture is Nauplion. Argos is very historical city. The first residents arrived more than 7,000 years ago. It is considered the oldest city in Greece from ancient Greek writers. 

The city houses numerous archaeological monuments. Agriculture is an important sector of the local economy. 

Cities in Greece
Olympia

Olympia ( Olympía) was a place in ancient Greece. It was in Elis, which is now called Ilia; and is in the east of the city Pyrgos. It was the site of the Olympic Games in classical times, the most famous games in history. The Olympic Games were held every four years throughout Classical Antiquity, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. The first Olympic Games were in honour of Zeus.

History 

Olympia was a sanctuary, consisting of various buildings. These included a hippodrome, Palaestra, Gymnasium and several temples. The Olympic Games began here in 776 BC. They were founded by king Pelopas. They happened every four years, in the summers. All the ancient Greek towns competed. The winners of the Olympic games were important people. The Olympic games were abolished by emperor of Byzantium Theodosius I, in 394 AD.

During ancient history, Olympia was a powerful and rich town. It ruled over the west of Peloponnese. Olympia kept its strength and during Roman period. During the Middle Ages it was an unimportant city.

Gymnasium 
The Gymnasium at Olympia was a large, open air, quadrangle surrounded on all four sides by colonnades of the Doric order. Only the southern and eastern sides survive. They date to the second century BC. The River Kladeos has destroyed the western side. The gymnasium was used by runners and pentathlon athletes for training. Athletes trained in the nude. In bad weather, training took place under the eastern colonnade (210.51 meters) and the other three colonnades. Little of the gymnasium has been excavated. About 200 BC, a portico of the Corinthian order was built to join the gymnasium and the palaestra.

Hippodrome 
The Hippodrome was the site of horse and chariot races at Olympia, Greece. It was 1,153 meters long. It was south of the stadium, but none of it survives. It was washed away by the Alpheios River.

Palaestra

Footnotes

References 
 

Olympia
770s BC
390s
Pyrgos

Pyrgos is a city in Greece.  It is the capital of the Ilia prefecture on the Peloponnese peninsula. Pyrgos is in the west of Peloponnese peninsula. It is in the south of Patras and in the north of Kalamata. It has 24,765 people. Near Pyrgos is the ancient town of Olympia. 

Cities in Greece
Florina

Florina is a city in Greece in the region of Macedonia.  It is the capital of the Florina prefecture. Its population is 15,265 inhabitants. Florina is build at the foot of Varnus mountain. It is built at an altitude of 600 meter approximately. Around Florina there are many forests. 

Cities in Greece
Argolis

Argolis is one of 51 prefectures of Greece.  It is on the Peloponnese peninsula.  The capital of Argolis is the Nafplio.

Prefectures of Greece
Ilia

Ilia is one of 51 prefectures of Greece.  It is on the Peloponnese peninsula.  The capital of Ilia is the Pyrgos.

Prefectures of Greece
Achaea

Achaea is one of 51 prefectures of Greece. It is on the Peloponnese peninsula. The capital of Achaea is Patras.

References 

Prefectures of Greece
Arcadia

Arcadia is one of 51 prefectures of Greece. It is on the Peloponnese peninsula. The capital of Arcadia is Tripoli.

Prefectures of Greece
Laconia

Laconia is one of 51 prefectures of Greece. It is on the Peloponnese peninsula. The capital of Laconia is Sparta.

Prefectures of Greece
Pella

Pella is one of 51 prefectures of Greece.  The capital of Pella is the Edessa and the largest town is Giannitsa. It is also the site of the ancient city of Pella, the capital of the kingdom of Macedon where Alexander the Great and Philip II of Macedon lived.

Prefectures of Greece