alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor is a health condition of poor nutrition from not having enough protein in the diet.  If a person uses up energy from carbohydrates (starches) and lipids (fats), their body may begin to use protein for energy. 

The body breaks down protein into energy that can be used. They then do not have enough protein for other needed bodily functions such as growth and building tissues like bones. Usually this is a condition of children from aged 1 to 5 years, but rarely adults and older children get it. It is common in poor places in Africa. Symptoms include having a pot belly, swollen face, and hair that is dark then light then dark. This can be cured by having a protein- rich diet.

Kwashiorkor comes from a protein deficiency (lack) in the diet. Body parts becomes swollen due to an accumulation of water in the spaces between the body's cells. Other symptoms are poor muscle development, swollen legs, puffy face, difficulty in eating, diarrhea, and dry skin are the symptoms of this disease.

Nutrition problems
Hunger

References
Kwashiorkor - The New Oxford Dictionary of English, OUP 1998
Popocatépetl

Popocatépetl (also called El popo or Don Goyo) is an active volcano.   The volcano is the second highest mountain in Mexico after Pico de Orizaba (5,610m). It is  high .

History
Popocatépetl is the Aztec word for "Smoking Mountain". Popocatépetl was an Aztec warrior who loved Iztaccíhuatl. Iztaccíhuatl's father sent Popocatepetl to war in Oaxaca. He promised him his daughter as his wife if he returned (which Iztaccíhuatl's father thought he would not). Iztaccíhuatl's father told her that her lover had died in battle. She died of sadness. When Popocatépetl returned, and found out about the death of his lover, he killed himself by stabbing a knife into his heart. The gods covered them with snow and changed them into mountains. Iztaccíhuatl's mountain was called "La Mujer Dormida, (the "Sleeping Woman"), because it looks like a woman sleeping on her back. Popocatépetl became the volcano Popocatépetl, raining fire on Earth in anger at the loss of his lover.

Eruptions
Popocatepetl has had more than 20 big eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. A major eruption happened in 1947. On December 21, 1994 the volcano threw out gas and ash which was carried as far as 25 km away by the wind. This led to people having to leave nearby towns. Scientists began to check the volcano for an eruption.The way scientists checked the volcano was by implementing 10 composite monitoring stations around the volcano, including broadband seismometers, thermal surveillance cameras, tiltmeters, electronic distance meters, lahar acoustic detectors and other instruments. In December 2000, tens of thousands of people were made to leave the area by the government based on the warnings of scientists. The volcano then made its largest display in thousands of years. The most recent eruption which was this year didn't have any injuries. Since it was so near Mexico City so many cameras were recording this eruption. Officials recorded that the eruption had a column of smoke that went as high as 2 miles into the air, with moderate ash content.

Related pages 
 List of volcanos
 Dormant volcano
 Extinct volcano

Notes

References

De la Cruz-Reyna, Servando, et al. “Tectonic Earthquakes Triggering Volcanic Seismicity and Eruptions. Case Studies at Tungurahua and Popocatépetl Volcanoes.” Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, vol. 193, no. 1, 2010, pp. 37–48.
https://earthsky.org/earth/volcano-popocatepetl-eruption-mexico-jan-9-2020

Other websites

Volcanoes of Mexico
VEI-6 volcanoes
Mountains of Mexico
Jan Peter Balkenende

Jan Peter Balkenende (born 7 May 1956) is a Dutch politician. He was the Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 2002 until 2010. He is a member of the Christian Democratic Appeal party.

Balkenende lives in Capelle aan den IJssel, Netherlands.

References 

 Bio at Parlement.com

Other websites 
 

1956 births
Living people
Christian Democratic Appeal politicians
Dutch academics
Dutch Calvinists
Dutch councillors
Dutch jurists
Leaders of political parties in the Netherlands
Members of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands
Politicians from Zeeland
Prime Ministers of the Netherlands
Toleration

Tolerance is not taking action against people who do things one does not like. The opposite of tolerance is intolerance. Intolerance is often found in dictatorships historically and often causes the hate crime and hate speech. Tolerance is often about religion (religious toleration), sex, or politic opinion, nation, race, disability, sexual orientation or gender identity.

Also multiculturalism is promoted through toleration.

Related pages
Altruism

Politics
William the Silent

William I of Orange-Nassau (24 April 1533 – 10 July 1584) was an important leader of the Dutch rebellion against the Spanish in the Eighty Years' War. He was the first leader of the Netherlands. He held the title of Prince of Orange.

William of Orange is better known as William the Silent (in Dutch: Willem de Zwijger). It is not known how he got this name. One story says that when the kings of France and Spain proposed to William to kill all Protestants in his area, William did not reply.

William was born in Nassau in Germany. The king of Spain made him stadtholder (a sort of leader) of several Dutch provinces. But William converted to Protestantism, the religion of the Dutch people, and joined their struggle for independence. The king of Spain offered a reward for the person who would kill William. In 1584 William was shot by Balthasar Gerards in his house in Delft. William's  last words were in French: "Mon Dieu, mon Dieu, ayez pitié de moi et de ton pauvre peuple" (My Lord, My Lord, have pity on me and your poor people). Balthasar Gerards never received his reward, because he was killed by the angry Dutch.

In the Netherlands, people often call him "Father of the fatherland". The Dutch national anthem, the Wilhelmus, is about William. 

1533 births
1584 deaths
Dutch royalty
Tux

Tux is a mascot of the Linux operating system; a cartoon penguin made by Larry Ewing in 1996. Wherever he is seen, it means such a system can work with Linux. He is also a character in some video games made for Linux, like Super Tux.

The name "Tux" comes from James Hughes, who named the Linux mascot that as an shortened form of "Torvalds' UniX," as Linus Torvalds was the creator of the Linux kernel. Tux is also an abbreviation of tuxedo.

References 

Linux
Mascots
Fictional penguins
Computer graphics

Computer graphics are visual representations of data, made with the help of computer. Computer graphics can be a series of images (video or animation) or a single image.

Computer graphics are very useful. Computer-generated imagery is used for movie making, video games, computer program development, photo editing, scientific modeling, design for advertising and more. Some people see computer graphics as art.

Areas of computer graphics 
Computer graphics can be 2D or 3D. They are made differently and used differently. People can use computer programs to make different types of graphics.

2D graphics 
2D computer graphics are usually split into two categories: vector graphics and raster graphics.

Vector graphics 

Vector graphics use lines, shapes and text to create a more complex image. If a vector graphic image is made very big on the monitor, it will still look as good (smooth) as its regular size. This is one of the reasons vector graphics are liked so much. Vector images also take very little computer memory when saved. Vector graphics are made with programs like Adobe Illustrator and Inkscape, and were used for some older computer games. Today, they are often used for when computer graphics have to be printed out. 

Examples of vector graphics

Raster graphics 

Raster images are made up of very small points called pixels. Digital cameras create raster pictures but artists can make them with computers too. The artists don't have to change a single pixel at a time –⁠ raster programs often have tools like paintbrushes, paint buckets and erasers to make a picture. Programs used to make these include Adobe Photoshop, GIMP and Corel Paint Shop Pro.

Sometimes people do use only pixels to make an image. This is called pixel art and it has a very unique style.

Examples of raster graphics

3D graphics 
3D graphics are graphics that look more realistic because they are three-dimensional. This means the computer thinks it has a height, a length and a depth, and displays them as we would see them in the real world with our eyes. Among other things they use solid geometry and trigonometry to create correct perspective. Some programs used to make 3D graphics are Bryce, 3D Studio Max, Maya and Blender. 3D graphics are used many times in movies and TV shows and video games.

Most of 3D graphics can be seen as vector graphics because it uses mathematical shapes like 3D triangles to describe objects. But there also exists 3D graphics that uses a grid of "3D pixels" which we call voxels.

Examples of 3D graphics

Related pages 
 Computer animation

Computer graphics
FC Bayern Munich

Fußball-Club Bayern München e. V. (FCB, ), also known as FC Bayern (), Bayern Munich, or simply Bayern is a German professional sports club based in Munich, Bavaria. The club was founded in 1900 and has over 200,000 paying members. It has won the most titles in the Bundesliga and in the German Cup.

The football team is playing in the Allianz Arena. The team also has the most supporters in all of Germany.

Bayern Munich won its first national title in 1932. This was the last season before the Nazi Regime took over the power. Bayern Munich was blamed to be a 'Club of Jews', the president, Kurt Landauer, was forced to flee and several players were punished. After the war ended, erroneously the local rival 1860 München was considered to be better and let into the first German league. But in the first season 1963, Bayern Munich won most of its games, ascended into the first league and still plays there without any descend.

Bayern Munich won the UEFA Champions League in 2001 and in 2013. 2013 also was the year of the victory of the historic treble - an achievement no other German club ever gained before.

Honours

 
  shared record

Trebles
Bayern Munich has completed all available Trebles (seasonal treble, domestic treble and European treble).
 Treble
 Seasonal treble (Bundesliga, DFB-Pokal, UEFA Champions League)
 2012–13, 2019–20
 European treble (UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, European Cup, UEFA Cup)
 1966–67 European Cup Winners' Cup, 1973–74 European Cup, 1995–96 UEFA Cup
 Domestic treble (Bundesliga, DFB-Pokal, DFL-Ligapokal)
 1999–2000

The football competitions, which consist of a single match involving only two teams (for example, the UEFA Super Cup or DFL Supercup) are generally not counted as part of a treble.

Players

Current squad

Out on loan

Retired numbers
 12 – "The twelfth man", dedication to fans

Notable past players

At his farewell game, Oliver Kahn was declared honorary captain of Bayern Munich. The players below are part of the FC Bayern Munich Hall of Fame.

1930s
  Conrad Heidkamp (DF)

1970s:
  Franz Beckenbauer (DF)
  Gerd Müller (FW)
  Uli Hoeneß (FW)
  Paul Breitner (MF)
  Sepp Maier (GK)
  Hans-Georg Schwarzenbeck (DF)
  Franz Roth (MF)

1980s:
  Karl-Heinz Rummenigge (FW)
  Klaus Augenthaler (DF)

1990s:
  Lothar Matthäus (MF/DF)
  Stefan Effenberg (MF)

2000s:
  Oliver Kahn (GK)
  Mehmet Scholl (MF)
  Bixente Lizarazu (DF)
  Giovane Élber (FW)

2010s:
  Philipp Lahm (DF)
  Bastian Schweinsteiger (MF)

Captains

Coaches

Current staff

Coaches since 1963

Literature
 Hüetlin, Thomas: Gute Freunde. Die wahre Geschichte des FC Bayern München. Blessing, München 2006, .
 Schulze-Marmeling, Dietrich: Der FC Bayern und seine Juden. Aufstieg und Zerschlagung einer liberalen Fußballkultur. Verlag Die Werkstatt, Göttingen 2011, .
 Bausenwein, Christoph, Schulze-Marmeling, Dietrich: FC Bayern München. Unser Verein, unsere Geschichte. Verlag Die Werkstatt, Göttingen 2012, .

Notes

References

Other websites

  (German, Japanese, Spanish, Chinese, Russian, and Arabic versions also available)
 Yearly record in the Bundesliga

Fußball-Bundesliga
German football clubs
1900 establishments in Germany
FC Bayern Munich
Cape of Good Hope

The Cape of Good Hope is a place near the far south end of Africa, where the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean meet. It is a well known area for ships that pass in the sea between southern Africa and Antarctica. It is in the Western Cape Province of South Africa and forms part of the Table Mountain National Reserve. 

The first person from Europe to see it was the Portuguese man Bartolomeu Dias.  He saw it in 1488 and named it the "Cape of Storms". His king renamed it.

Other websites
An old map of Cape of Good Hope from 1842

Good Hope
Peninsulas
Western Cape
Hand washing

Hand washing is the process of cleaning hands with water and soap or other special liquids. It is done to take off dirt, germs, and poisons.  Germs and poisons cause diseases and other health problems.  Germs are bacteria, viruses, or fungi.  Some diseases are not stopped by antibiotic drugs. Hand washing prevents lots of new diseases. Not washing hands before cooking or touching food is risky.

When hands are washed
Always wash hands:
After using the toilet, urinate, or defecate.
After touching an animal or pet, such as a dog, cat, or turtle.
Before and after touching or helping a sick person.
Before making or cooking food.
After touching uncooked meat, fish, or poultry (bird meat). Some uncooked foods carry diseases.
Before eating so as to prevent contamination of food from germs.
After blowing one's nose/or sneezing into his/her hand.

Washing hands
Use soap and warm (running, if available) water. Wet hands and add soap. Rub wet hands strongly with soap outside running water more than 10 seconds. Rub all parts of the hands again and again. Clean all dirt under fingernails. Then rub hands under running water again and again to take off all soap. Dry hands using a clean cloth or paper. Use moisturizing lotion so hands do not dry if the hands are being washed many times every day.

Families & Parents
Train a boy or girl to wash his or her hands every time before eating and after using the toilet, urinating, or defecating.
Wash hands after taking off dirty clothes, pants or diapers from a baby.
Request medical workers, doctors, and nurses to wash their hands before touching a boy or girl.

Medical hand washing
For a medical worker, doctor, or nurse, not washing hands before touching every new person is dangerous. Use more than enough soap and water and rub each part of the hands again and again. Rub between each finger. Use a brush and clean under fingernails. Use more water to take off the soap and dry hands paper towel.

To scrub the hands for a surgery, water that can  be turned on and off without touching with the hands is needed, a cleaning liquid named "chlorhexidine" or "iodine wash", sterile cloth for drying the hands after washing, a sterile brush for hard washing and another sterile instrument for cleaning under the fingernails. Take off all watches, rings, and other jewels from the hands before washing. Wash the hands  and arms to the elbows again and again. Be strong and serious about the washing.  Use running water again and again to take off all soap. Keep hands up so water does not go from arms to hands. Dry the hands with the sterile cloth and put on surgical shirt or dress. Sterile means nothing on it that could cause a disease.

Related pages
Global Handwashing Day
Ignaz Semmelweis

Other websites
3000 word report - Comprehensive overview Importance of handwashing 
official website of Global Handwashing Day celebrated on October 15

Healthy lifestyle
Hygiene
Venezuela

Venezuela is a country in northern South America. Its official name is República Bolivariana de Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela). The official language is Spanish, and the capital is Caracas.

The country has a wide range of geography including islands in the Caribbean Sea, coastal areas, highlands, and parts of the Andes Mountains. Venezuela is famous for being the home of Angel Falls, the world's tallest waterfall, in the Bolivar state.

Venezuela produces a large amount of oil every year, and it has one of the largest oil supplies in the world. The country has a very large supply of fossil fuels, gasoline, and minerals. Venezuela's economy is based on oil, cotton, cocoa, sugar, coffee, and tobacco.

Some other languages spoken in Venezuela are Carib, Guahibo, Warao, Wayuu, Pemon, and Piaroa. Most people are Roman Catholic at 96%, and a small minority is Protestant at 2%.

People and History 
Ancient Venezuelans came from the east, west, south, and north. Christopher Columbus was the first European to enter Venezuela, but there were already people living there for a long time. The Spaniards first conquered Venezuela. Slaves were brought from Africa.

Venezuela's inhabitants are very racially mixed. This comes from the colonial period. When whites (the British, Spaniards, French, etc.) conquered America's territory, they took their black African slaves to America to work. During Venezuela's colonial time, black people did not have any rights. They just worked for food. The native people were taught Roman Catholicism. For a long time, society was headed by white creoles, people in Venezuela who were descended from Spaniards but considered Venezuela home. The other Venezuelan people did not like that, and they started thinking about independence. On July 24, 1823, Venezuela won its independence, led by Simón Bolívar.

Venezuela's modern history was shaped by a number of people, including President Romulo Betancourt, who replaced a military dictatorship with a democracy. By the 1970s, Venezuela had become rich off of oil revenue, but it had problems in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1999 Hugo Chávez became president and tried to remake Venezuela as a socialist state. While popular at first, the economic changes Chavez and the next president, Maduro, passed caused a massive economic depression in the mid-2010s. The current president is disputed.

Demographics 
The population of Venezuela is about 28,000,000 people. The ethnic groups of the population are:
 65%: multiracial.
 21%: European.
 10%: African.
 3%: Amerindian.

Map

Gallery

References

 
Spanish-speaking countries
Current dictatorships
1845 establishments
1840s establishments in South America
Abel Tasman

Abel Janszoon Tasman (1603–1659) was a Dutch sea explorer. He found Tasmania and New Zealand while on voyages in 1642 and 1644, in the service of the VOC (Dutch East India Company). He also made the first historical sightings of large parts of Australia.

He was born in Lutjegast, Netherlands. He went to Batavia (now called Jakarta) to work for the VOC in 1633. He went back to Holland in 1636. He went back to Batavia with his wife, Jannetie Tjaerss, two years later. He went north to Japan in 1640. In 1642 Tasman went south to Palembang.

Tasmania and New Zealand 1642-4 
Tasman set Governor General of the Dutch East Indies. This man sailed around to the east coast of Van Diemen's Land and claimed the land for the Dutch on December 3, 1642. The ships then sailed west and found New Zealand. His ships were attacked by Maori in large war canoes (boats) and four sailors died. Tasman then sailed north-east to Tonga and Fiji. He then sailed north west to New Guinea and got back to Batavia in June 1643.

Western Australia 1644 
In 1644 Tasman sailed from Batavia with the ships Limmen, Zeemeeuw and Bracq. He sailed along the west coast of New Guinea, and then the coast of Australia from Cape York to North West Cape. He went back to Batavia in August 1644. He showed that Western Australia and Queensland were part of the same country. He was not able to get through Torres Strait, but his maps were used for the next 200 years. Tasman made more trips including to Sumatra in 1646, Siam in 1647, and Manila in 1648. He purchased a lot of land in Batavia where he died in October 1659.

Several places have been named after him, including Tasmania, the Tasman Peninsula, Tasman Island and the Tasman Sea.

References 

1603 births
1659 deaths
Dutch explorers
Exploration of Australia
People from Groningen (province)
Hard science

Hard science is science that uses systematic observation, experiments and sometimes mathematics to get knowledge. In hard science, experiments have to be reproducible (if the experiment is done a second time, it will have to produce the same results as the first time). Also, in hard sciences there is usually good agreement as to what is known for sure. This is not true of soft sciences. Also, in hard science there is a world-view or theory which is widely agreed.

Hard science subjects include the natural sciences, which are about the natural world. These include physics, chemistry, biology, geology, astronomy, and botany. Soft science is any of the social sciences, including history, sociology, and political science. Those sciences are soft because something could be done more than once, and produce a very different result each time. Also, there are radical disagreements between various schools of thought. Some aspects of psychology are hard science, especially relating to perception.

References 

Science
Programmer

A computer programmer is a person who makes computer programs using a programming language. Programmers are also called software developers, coders.

A programmer's main jobs are writing program source code, testing if it works, and debugging (fixing) the program if there are problems. Programmers often use software tools such as text editors and IDEs (Integrated Development Environments) to help them work.

Computer programming is a profession that can be done from a computer anywhere in the world. This is called telecommuting - doing work on the Internet instead of in an office.

Some programmers are famous because their software is used by many people. One example is Linus Torvalds, who created an important part of the Linux operating system.

Programming can be done in many different languages and can look very different but do the same thing.  An example of this is the Hello world program.

Related pages 
 Software engineering

Computer science
Occupations
Booting

Booting is what happens when a computer starts. This happens when the power is turned on. It is called "reboot" if it happens at other times. When you boot a computer, your processor looks for instructions in system ROM (the BIOS) and executes them. They normally 'wake up' peripheral equipment and search for the boot device. The boot device either loads the operating system or gets it from somewere else.

People use the word "boot" to mean "to start a computer" or other device with electronics built in. For example, if a person wants to ask a friend to turn on a satellite phone, they would say "could you boot up the satellite phone?".

Most operating systems call the first data storage device it uses a boot device.  It may also be called a bootstrap loader. This is because the computer is making itself go, as in the idiom.  When we start a computer, we can often see the simple instructions the computer uses to start, then more complicated pictures or software. 

The phrase "to boot" in this meaning is short for "to bootstrap".  This use is part of net jargon along with similar multi-use words like Internet or web.  Often the computer is just called a box, so a phrase like "to boot the box" means "to start the computer".

The term "reboot" can also be used in a different context to mean a restarting of a storyline established in previous iterations of a series of fiction.

Computing
Software
DBS

DBS may stand for:
 Direct broadcast satellite
 Deep brain stimulation
 Development Bank of Singapore
 Douai Business School, an international business college in Douai, France
 Diocesan Boys' School, Hong Kong
 Den Beste Sykkel - a Norwegian bike manufacturer
 Dibutyl sebacate - an organic compound used to make plastics
Tea

Tea is a drink that is made from steeping the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. Tea can have other herbs, spices, or fruit flavors in it, like lemon. All teas are made from the Camellia sinensis plant.

Sometimes the word "tea" is used for other drinks that have been made by soaking fruit or herbs in hot water, like "rosehip tea" or "chamomile tea". These are called "herbal teas".

Types of tea 
There are three main types of tea: black tea, oolong, and green tea.

To make black tea, workers take the leaves and spread them out on shelves where they can dry. Next they are rolled and broken into pieces and put into a room where they absorb oxygen, or oxidize. Chemical reactions change the taste and style of the tea. Finally the leaves are dried with hot air until they turn brown or black. Most black tea comes from Sri Lanka, Indonesia and eastern Africa. When black tea leaves are brewed in boiling water, the tea made from them looks deep dark red, so another name used for black tea, especially in China, is red tea. 

The process for oolong is similar to making black tea. It is made by partially oxidizing the tea leaves, rather than fully oxidizing them.  Rutter’s has tea.

Green tea is made by putting freshly picked leaves into a steamer. This keeps them green. Then they are crushed and dried in ovens. India is the biggest maker and user of green tea.

Tea is mainly grown in China, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Japan, Nepal, Australia, Argentina and Kenya. 

The word tea can also be used as another word for an afternoon meal (mostly in the Commonwealth countries), as in "I am having tea in a short while."  The word also applies to "afternoon tea", a small snack meal served sometimes, usually featuring sandwiches, cakes and tea.  This small snack meal is also called "tea time".

Brewing 
Green tea is usually steeped for 2–3 minutes in water at , while black tea is steeped for 3–5 minutes in boiling water.

Blends
 Earl Grey is black tea with bergamot oil.
 English breakfast is a full-bodied, robust blend that is made to go well with milk and sugar.
 English afternoon tea is medium-bodied, bright and refreshing. Strong Assamese and Kenyan teas are blended with Ceylonese teas which adds a light, brisk quality to the blend.

Japan 

Shizuoka is Japan's top producer of tea. Japan has many kinds of tea.

Related pages
Infusion
Coffee
Mate (drink)

References

Other websites 

 The United Kingdom Tea Council
World

When people say "the world" they usually mean Earth, especially in a cultural and geopolitical sense. Humans and all other known living things live in this world. Sometimes "world" means another planet. 

Before people discovered that Earth is a planet, they often used "World" to mean "Universe". They still sometimes use it to mean all humans or all civilization. For example, they may say "end of the world" to mean the end of history or humanity. 

Sometimes they mean a small part of Earth such as Western world, Islamic world, third world, new world, or ancient world.

Related pages 

 Universe

References 

Geography
Al-Khwarizmi

Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (, ) was a Persian mathematician and astronomer. He was believed to have been born around 800 AD and died in 850 AD during the Abbasid Empire.

Al-Khwarizmi was known for the book he wrote about algebra, Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing. He also wrote a book which taught the Western world about Hindu numerals and how to use them. This book was later titled the Hindu Art of Reckoning. With his books, al-Khwarizmi authored astronomical tables- tables designed to calculate the position of planets or eclipses.

His work changed the understanding and knowledge of mathematics in the Middle Ages and mathematicians in Europe read his book. They began to use these Hindu–Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...) instead of the Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, ...). The Arabic numeral system is easier to do mathematics with, as Roman numbers have no place values. This means that they can only deal with whole numbers and do simple equations. Roman numerals also have no number zero.

He wrote a book on algebra named Al-Jabr Wal' Muqibla. In this book, he introduced his own number system and also introduced Arabic numerals. His books were translated into Greek and Latin. They named his books "So said Algorizmi". The word "algorithm" is derived from the word Algorizmi. The word algebra comes from the word al-jabr that is at the beginning of the title of the book.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi worked at the House of Wisdom, where people worked on translating scientific works.

Related pages 
Kharazmi University

References 

780s births
840s deaths
Iranian Muslims
Persian mathematicians
Astronomers
Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy ( ; ;  – ) was a Greek who probably lived and worked in Alexandria, Egypt. He is famous for his work on astronomy and geography. Very little is known about his personal life.

He was an astronomer, mathematician, and geographer. He described in his writing the Greek geocentric view of the universe. Earlier Greek philosophers changed the old assumption of a flat Earth below a "vault of the heavens". They substituted a spherical Earth surrounded by a Celestial sphere. Ptolemy built these two spheres into a system of nested spheres. He also thought out and described the apparent motions of the planets as they were known in his time.

Ptolemy explained and extended Hipparchus's system of epicycles and eccentric circles to explain the Earth-centered theory of the world. Ptolemy's system involved at least 80 epicycles to explain the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets known in his time. He believed the planets and sun moved around the Earth in this order: Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.

This system became known as the Ptolemaic system. It predicts the positions of the planets well  enough for naked-eye observations, so it seemed accurate at the time. This is described in his book Mathematical Syntaxis (widely called the Almagest), a thirteen-book mathematical treatment of the phenomena of astronomy. It contains a wide variety of information ranging from earth conceptions to sun, moon, and star movement as well as eclipses and an explanation of the length of months. The Almagest also included a star catalog containing 48 constellations, using the names we still use today.

In addition to his well-known works in astronomy, Claudius Ptolemy was important in the history of geography and cartography (making maps). He was influential up to the 16th century. Then his ideas were disproved by Nicolaus Copernicus. Ptolemy knew that the Earth is a sphere. Ptolemy's is the first known projection of the sphere onto a plane. His Geography remained the main work on the subject until the time of Christopher Columbus. But he had Asia extending much too far east, which may have been a factor in Columbus's decision to try to reach India by sailing west from Europe.

The Ptolemaic explanation of the motions of the planets was the accepted wisdom until the Polish scholar Copernicus proposed a Sun-centered (heliocentric) view in 1543. Though the heliocentric idea is correct, its predictions were not better than Ptolemy's until Kepler's Laws were added.

Ptolemy may not actually have believed in the reality of his system. He may have thought of it only as a method of calculating positions.

Related pages 
Geocentrism

Notes 

100 births
160s deaths
Ancient Greek astronomers
Greek geographers
Moctezuma II

Moctezuma II, also known as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (1466-1520) and often called Montezuma in English, was the Aztec emperor (tlahtoani) from 1502 to 1520. His name comes from the Nahuatl Motecuhzoma, it means "he who is leader because of his fury". In Spanish, he is called Moctezuma.

When Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519, Moctezuma thought he was the god Quetzalcoatl, and did not want to fight against him. Cortés took Moctezuma prisoner. When the Aztecs wanted Cortés to get out of their capital Tenochtitlan in 1520, Cortes told Moctezuma to calm down his people. When doing that he died. The Spaniards said he was killed by the Aztecs, while the Aztecs said Cortés killed him. The Spanish said that the Aztec people threw rocks at him, killing him. The Aztecs said that they found his body in the streets with a lot of cuts made with a sword after the Spanish left.

Other websites 

A reconstructed portrait of Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.

 
 

1466 births
1520 deaths
Mexican people
Emperors and empresses
Aztec
Antonio López de Santa Anna

Antonio López de Santa Anna Pérez de Lebrón (February 21, 1794 - June 21, 1876) was a Mexican general and dictator. Under his rule, Mexico lost half its territory.

Santa Anna was president of Mexico 11 times. In the war against Texas (1835-1836), he won the famous Battle of the Alamo, but he then lost the Battle of San Jacinto and was taken prisoner by the Texas rebels. He also lost the Mexican-American War against the United States (1846-1848). He was overthrown in 1855 and went to live in other countries.

1794 births
1876 deaths
Mexican military people
People from Veracruz
Presidents of Mexico
Granzyme

A Granzyme is an enzyme contained within cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells.  These substances are used to destroy virus-infected cells.

Granzyme secretion can be detected and measured using the ELISPOT and ELISA techniques.

Blood cells
Enzymes
Dreyfus Affair

The Dreyfus Affair was one of the biggest scandals in the history of France. It happened at the end of the 19th century. It was about Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army.

In 1894, Dreyfus was accused of being a spy, and accused of crimes against France. People thought he wrote letters to the Germans telling them about secrets of the French army. 

His punishment was to be sent to a prison island in South America for the rest of his life.

When he was in prison, people (mostly his brother Mathieu and a high-ranking officer called Picquart) thought he was innocent. They proved that another soldier, Major Esterhazy, was guilty. But the army did not want to admit that it had been wrong.  They refused to free him.  Finally, the evidence that Dreyfus was innocent became so strong that the government had to demand a new trial.  At the new trial, the army again found him guilty.  The President of France, who did not want an innocent man to suffer any more, pardoned Dreyfus in 1899.

Dreyfus was released.  Seven years later, he was officially declared innocent, and allowed back into the army.

The affair divided France into people who thought Dreyfus really was a spy and people who thought he was innocent.  Many of those who thought Dreyfus was a spy hated Jews and believed that he was a criminal because he was a Jew, and that a Jew could not be a good Frenchman; this belief is called anti-Semitism.  Others thought that the army could not be questioned. The other side believed that an innocent man should not be imprisoned, and feared that Dreyfus's enemies were also enemies of France.

19th century in France
Judaism in France
French military people
Espionage
Antonym

An antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning of another word.  The first known use of the word antonym was in 1857.  Properly defined it means a word of opposite meaning and is a noun.

Related pages
 Synonym - two words similar to each other
 Contronym - word that has two meanings

References

Words
Names of God in Judaism

In Judaism, God is known by many names. The most important of these names is the Tetragrammaton, or "Four-lettered word": YHVH, YHWH, or י ה ו ה. Jews are not allowed to say this name, and instead say Adonai. Even Adonai is only used by some Jews in prayer. Most Jews would refer to God as Hashem, or "The Name". Jews are not allowed to erase the Tetragrammaton, so they rarely write it down outside of their most holy books, such as the Torah.

Other names include Elohim, El, Shaddai, Tzeva-ot, ‘Elyon, and Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh  which are respectively pronounced by observant Jews as  Elokim, Kayl, Shakkai, Tzeva-Kot.

Certain names, such as Shalom, are pronounced as written, but when written one letter, in this case the last letter, is omitted.  The last of the above "other" list is often said as Ek-yeh Asher Ek-yeh.

Other Jewish names of (or references) to God include 
 Emet (Truth)
 Tzur Yisrael (The Rock of Israel)
 Elohei Avraham, Elohei Yitzchak, v'Elohei Yaacov (God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob)
 Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh (I Am That I Am)
 Avinu Malkeinu (Our Father, our King)
 Ro'eh Yisrael (Shepherd of Israel)
 Ha-Kadosh, Baruch Hu (The Holy One, Blessed be He)
 Melech ha-Melachim (The King of Kings)
 Makom (literally, "the place"; meaning "The Omnipresent")
 Magen Avraham (Shield of Abraham)
 Shalom: of Peace
 YHWH-Jireh: The Lord will provide (Genesis 22:13, 14).
 YHWH-Rapha: The Lord that healeth (Exodus 15:26).
 YHWH-Nissi: The Lord our Banner (Exodus 17:8-15).
 YHWH-Shalom: The Lord our Peace (Judges 6:24).
 YHWH-Ra-ah: The Lord my Shepherd (Psalms 23:1).
 YHWH-Tsidkenu: The Lord our Righteousness (Book of Jeremiah 23:6).
 YHWH-Shammah: The Lord is present (Book of Ezekiel 48:35).

Judaism
EFL Championship

The EFL Championship, commonly known as The Championship, is the name of the English second division of football.

2022–23 clubs

Champions

Former champions

Related pages
 English Premier League
 Football League One
 Football League Two
 

Championship
Football in England
1888 establishments in England
Richmond, Virginia

Richmond () is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. It is an independent city and not part of any county. The population within the city limits was 204,214 in 2010, with an estimated population of 1,258,251 for the Richmond Metropolitan Area — making it the third largest in Virginia.

Location
Richmond is at the fall line of the James River,  south of Washington DC,  east of Charlottesville, Virginia, and  west of Williamsburg, Virginia. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, and encircled by Interstate 295 and Virginia State Route 288.

History
Richmond began as an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was briefly settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609, and in 1610–11. English settlers returned to found a permanent town in 1737. It became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the Revolutionary War period, the city was known for Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death" speech in 1775 at St. John's Church, and the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom written by Thomas Jefferson. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America. The city entered the 20th century with one of the world's first successful electric streetcar systems.

Economy
Richmond's economy is primarily driven by law, finance, and government. It has federal, state, and local governmental agencies in its downtown.  The downtown also has offices for legal and banking firms. The city is home to both the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, one of 13 federal appellate courts, and the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, one of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks. Dominion Resources, Carmax, Genworth Financial, and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, along with Massey Energy and Universal Corporation, Fortune 1000 companies, are headquartered in the city. The historic sites in the area bring tourists.

References

Former national capitals
 
County seats in Virginia
State capitals in the United States
1737 establishments
1730s establishments in Virginia
Tutankhamun

Tutankhamun (Tutankhaten, Tutankhamen) was an Egyptian Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (royal family) during the New Kingdom.  He reigned from when he was nine years old (1334 BC) to when he died (1324 BC).

Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of Akhenaten's sisters, or perhaps one of his cousins, Kiya.
Tutankhamun ruled for 9 years and died very young, at 19, so he is known as The Boy King. He was married to his half-sister Ankhesenamun, daughter of Queen Nefertiti, his stepmother.

In his third year of his reign, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhenaten abandoned. This is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, "Living image of Amun", reinforcing the restoration of Amun.

In 1922 Howard Carter found Tutankhamun's tomb. Tutankhamen was believed to carry a curse. Actually, the archeologists who visited his tomb died from natural causes. Tutankhamen's tomb's unique and priceless treasures have taught us a lot about the boy king, the pharaohs, and ancient Egypt.

Illness and death 
Recent studies of his body using CT scans and DNA tests show that he had two children, but they died very young. Scientists now believe he died from a broken leg, made more complicated by bone disease and malaria. Before this discovery there were many theories about his early death, including murder. It is quite certain that he was infected by several strains of malaria, and very likely that he had some genetic defects caused by inbreeding. His parents were brother and sister. The final cause of his death is still unclear.

New galleries in Cairo Museum 
In 2014 the Egyptian Museum in Cairo opened four new halls in the Tutankhamun Gallery.

References

2nd-millennium BC pharaohs
Deaths from bone disease
Deaths from malaria
Independence

The word independence means "not dependent", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about people or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in independent variable the word does not mean it is good or bad.

In countries 
A country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left the British Empire in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful.

Examples 
Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan.  Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).

Related pages 
 Declaration of independence
 Autonomy
 Nationalism
 Self-determination

Politics
Nationalism
Anubis

Anubis is the protector of the gates to the Underworld, Osiris replaced him as the god of the dead. He looks like a man with the head of a Pharaoh Hound, called Tesem.

Anubis's Purpose 

Anubis, as the god of death and the afterlife, was closely associated with mummification and burial rites. Egyptian jackals had an association with the dead, as well. They were often found digging up buried bodies and eating them, which may be why Anubis was depicted as part jackal. The priests who mummified the  pharaohs wore costumes to make them appear like Tesem (Pharaoh hound).

The Egyptian people believed that Anubis helped decide the fate of the dead in the afterlife. The heart of the dead was weighed against the feather of truth (representing the goddess Ma'at), to see if the deceased was worthy of entering the afterlife. If the person had lived an evil life, his or her heart would be heavy with evil, and he or she would be eaten by Ammit (the Devourer). If a person was kind and good, the heart would be light, he or she could continue on to the afterlife safe and sound to meet Osiris.

Anubis, in the Book of the Dead. Is shown giving equality through research of weighing the human heart to a feather. Any honesty will make the feather heavier than the heart on the scale.

In Greece and Rome 
In later times, during the Ptolemaic period, as their functions were similar, Anubis came to be identified as the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis. The centre of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name simply means "city of dogs". In Book XI of  "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, it was revealed that Hermanubis also appeared in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in heaven, and Cerberus in the underworld.

References

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Gods and goddesses of the underworld
Dog breeds
Atum

Atum was the creator of everything in ancient Egyptian mythology. He represented the very first history; nothing existed yet except for him. According to the myth, he rose up out of the chaotic waters of Nu and used his own female side to create Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture). For a while, his two children were lost at sea. Atum sent his removable eye, the Udjat Eye, to go look for them.  When they returned, Atum cried tears of joy. Where these tears hit the ground is where men formed. Out of the two elements water and air, the other gods and goddesses were born. The Egyptians believed he was the father of all the gods.
Atum was first the partner of the earth then the partner of the setting sun.

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Antisemitism

Antisemitism is the hatred of or prejudice against Jews. Antisemitism has a long history, but the most well-known act of anti-semitism is the Holocaust perpetrated by Germany, also known as the Final Solution, a genocide which happened between 1933 and 1945. The plan was to totally get rid of the Jewish people in Europe, and up to 60-75% of them were killed. Around six million European Jews were killed because of the Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. He said that Jews were a racial group with naturally bad features. 

Antisemitism is still common today. In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled had very bad opinions of Jews. Only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a good view of Jews. In a 2013 survey of 5,847 Jewish people in Europe, 76% thought that antisemitism has increased in the past five years and 29% had thought about moving countries because they felt unsafe. Some related words include Judeophobia and Israelophobia. In the United States, a 2017 survey showed that 14% of Americans had antisemitic feelings.

Anti-Semitism in the Bible
The New Testament has anti-Semitic contents.

Related pages
Babi Yar
Kristallnacht
Islamophobia
Pogrom
Racism
Nazism

References
Esteban Huertas

Esteban Huertas López (1876-1943) was a Colombian military leader from Panama.

He was born in Boyacá, Colombia. When he was 8 years old he ran away from home and he joined the army. He won many medals and in 1902 he became general. In 1900 he lost an arm when he fired a cannon.
In 1903 he was one of the people who made Panama independent. A year later president Manuel Amador forced Huertas to retire because he was afraid Huertas wanted to become dictator. Huertas died in Panama City in 1943.

Panamanian people
1876 births
1943 deaths
Boyacá