alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Operating system

An operating system (OS) is a kind of computer program that makes it easier for people to interact with a computer. An OS is not actually one single program but a group of small programs, like file managers, device drivers, and kernels. An OS can be small (like Damn Small Linux), or large (like Microsoft Windows). Some are meant for everyday use, like in a personal computer or a smartphone. Others are very specialized - for example, an ATM uses a kind of operating system.

An operating system has many jobs. It makes sure that all the programs share access to the computer's processor, memory, screen, input devices, and other hardware. Today, most operating systems also include a visible interface so the user can easily interact with it. An OS is also responsible for sending data to other computers or devices on a network. 

Some examples of commonly used operating systems are macOS, Linux, and Android.

History

One of the first computers was ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), built by the United States during World War II. It was very hard to make ENIAC do work. To program ENIAC, scientists had to move switches and cables around on the side of the computer. While this was an operating system of a kind, it is not really like modern operating systems.

The first operating system that looked and felt like today's operating systems was UNIX, made in 1969 by Bell Labs.  With UNIX, people could program computers by typing on a keyboard. Many of its features were taken from Multics, an older operating system made in 1964.

Types
Operating systems come in many different types. An OS might fit one or several of the types listed below, and the difference between the types isn't always clear.

Single- and multi-tasking 
A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time. A multitasking operating system can run more than one program at the same time. To multi-task, the computer lets each program take a turn using the processor.

Single- and multi-user 
Single-user operating systems doesn't let people create their own "accounts" on the computer - there is only one user. A multi-user operating system lets multiple users interact with the system, even at the same time.

Distributed 
A distributed operating system takes a group of distinct computers, which might be all over the place, and makes them work together like one single computer.

Embedded 
Embedded operating systems are very small OSes that are used in embedded systems. They are designed to operate on small machines, like the electronic part of a microwave, and they only do a few very specific things.

Related pages
 BIOS

References
Value (personal and cultural)

A value (or principle) usually means an abstract rule, one that can be seen to apply in many experiences, or can be applied by choice in a lot of situations. It can also mean a moral choice one makes often and consistently, for example, some Buddhists avoid eating meat as a matter of principle.

Many groups of people agree on lists of principles. They may also try to agree on the order in which they are to apply, that is, which principles should be violated before which other ones. They might also try to list best practices which reflect the principles in the right order, and provide more practical (less abstract) instruction.

Culture
Pet

A pet is a domesticated animal that lives with people, but is not forced to work and is not eaten, in most instances. In most cases, a pet is kept to entertain people or for companionship. Some pets such as dogs and cats are placed in an animal shelter if there is no one willing to take care of them. If no one adopts it or the pet is too old/sick, the pet may be euthanized or in some cases even abandoned.

Dogs, cats, fish, rodents, lagomorphs, ferrets, birds, certain reptiles and amphibians, and a wide variety of arthropods such as tarantulas and hermit crabs are the most common pets in North America.  Horses, elephants, oxen, and donkeys are usually made to work, so they are not usually called pets.  Some dogs also do work for people, and it was once common for some birds (like falcons and carrier pigeons) to work for humans.

Rodents are very popular pets. The most common are guinea pigs, hamsters (especially Syrian and dwarf hamsters), mice and rats. Rabbits are also very popular pets.

Common Pets

Related pages
 Domestication
Program

The term Program can be used in many ways.

A program or programme can be a plan of how to do something. It tells the steps that we think we need to do to make something happen. For example, a government might make a program to improve the health of the people in part of a country by giving the people better food, by helping to kill insects that carry diseases, and by bringing more doctors. 
A computer program is a set of computer instructions. A set of computer instructions is called Program and a set of program is called software. All software must have these three parts.
Television program(me) is a show that is on television.
Radio program is similar to a television program but it is on the radio.
Webcast is similar to a television program but it is shown on the Internet.
12-step program is a way people use to stop doing something. Examples would be to stop drinking alcohol, stop smoking tobacco or stop using drugs.
an event program is a thing that lists the what will happen during an event such as an opera or auction.
Paradox

A paradox is a sentence in logic that cannot be true but also cannot be false. It is self-contradictory. Many famous problems of this kind exist.

Liar's paradox
A famous paradox is called the liar's paradox. It is the simple sentence "This sentence is a lie", or equivalently, "This statement is false."

If the sentence is true, then it is a lie as it says.  But if it is a lie, it cannot be true. A lie cannot also be a truth. So the sentence being true makes it a lie.

On the other hand, if the sentence is a lie, then it is not as it says: it is true.  But that is just what the sentence says, which makes the content of the sentence true.  So the sentence being a lie makes it true.

This paradox is not just in English, but in any language. It is true of mathematics as well.  Paradox can never be removed from any symbol system that makes claims about itself.

Other examples
Another example is the statement that "there is no cabal".  Only a cabal can know if there is no cabal, so this is either a guess, or, it is a cabal trying to pretend it does not exist.

Not all paradoxes are true logical paradoxes, since they can also be common-sense-defying statements that appear true. Some famous examples of this kind of paradox include:
 Zeno's paradoxes of motion
 Simpson's paradox in statistics
 Grandfather paradox
Banach–Tarski paradox

Informal uses of "paradox" 
A paradox can also arise in ethics. Assuming power over others may sometimes be required to protect them while diminishing their right to autonomy. This is an ethical dilemma but not a logical paradox.

Related pages
 Contradiction
 Dilemma
 Irony
 Oxymoron
 Buttered cat paradox
 Thought experiment

References
Potato

A potato is a vegetable, the Solanum tuberosum. It is a small plant with large leaves. The part of the potato that people eat is a tuber that grows under the ground.

A potato has a lot of starch and other carbohydrates. Potato usually has a light-brown or yellowish skin and is white or yellow inside. If the potato gets light on it, the tuber turns green and will be poisonous.

History 
The potato came from the high and cool areas of the Andes mountains. It was grown as a food crop thousands of years ago. When Spanish conquistadores came to South America in the 1500s, they took potatoes back to Europe.

It took nearly 200 years for the potato to become a widely grown crop. In the 1780s the farmers in Ireland began growing potatoes because they grew well in the poor soils. They also have most of the vitamins that people need to live. When a potato plague destroyed the crop in 1845, the Irish Potato Famine killed many people.

The potato plant is now grown in many parts of the world. Captain William Bligh planted potatoes on Bruny Island, Tasmania in 1792. In Australia they are now the largest vegetable crop.

Name origin 
The English word "potato" comes from the Spanish word "patata". The Royal Spanish Academy says the Spanish word is a hybrid of the Taíno  ('sweet potato') and the Quechua  ('potato').

Types 
 Yukon Gold – developed in Canada
 Norgleam
 Bismark
 Coliban
 Russet
 Pontiac
 Sequoia
 Desiree – cream colored flesh, red skin
 Bintje
 Irish grown

Scientists in Germany have used genetic engineering to make a potato called the Amflora, which could be grown to make starch for making other things in factories.

Cooking 
Potatoes are almost always eaten cooked. People cook potatoes by boiling, baking, roasting, or frying them. French fries or "chips" are potatoes cut into long pieces and fried until they are soft. Potato chips, often called crisps, are potatoes cut into very thin round pieces and fried until they are hard.

References 

Solanum
Prediction

A prediction is a statement that someone makes about what they think is going to happen. It is often very helpful to know what is going to happen to help prepare for these future events. Predictions are based on the idea that two beginning positions that are like each other will have similar results. By watching something happen, it is possible to predict what will happen if something similar happens. Predictions are given by science or fortune tellers or horoscopes. 

The most common example of a prediction is the weather forecast. Studying how weather happens lets people predict what the weather will be by looking at what is currently happening. This is helpful because by knowing that it is going to rain, a person can wear the right clothes for it.

Nostradamus has made many predictions about the future.

Related pages 
Forecasting
Hypothesis

Future events
Probability

Probability is a part of applied mathematics. It has to do with chance, the study of things that might happen or might not happen.

For example, using probability, one can show that by throwing a coin up in the air and letting it land, half of the time it will land with one side facing up, and half of the time with the other side facing up. Many coins have a picture of the face of a famous person on one side, and something else on the other side. Often people call the side with the face "heads", and the other side "tails".

The probability (p) of an event E, written , is always between zero (impossible) and one (certain).

If we roll a die (plural: dice), then the chance that it will land on 1 is 1/6 (because there are 6 numbers on a die). Similarly, the chance it will land on 2 is also 1/6. The chance it will land on any number between 1 and 6 is 1, because every time we roll the die, it will always land on a number between 1 and 6.

Probability can be figured out using mathematics. For example, if one rolls six dice, the chance of them getting a number more than ten is not obvious, but can be figured out using math and science.

One of the most interesting things about chance is that to figure out the probability that two things will both happen, one usually multiply their two probabilities together. For example, suppose that one wants to know the probability of rolling two dice and getting a certain combination (it could be two 6s or a 3 then a 5, just any two). The possibility of getting a 3 is one in six (), and the possibility of getting a 5 is also one in six, so the chances of getting a 3 then a 5 is ×=⅟36. If that number is expressed as somewhere between 0 and 1, it equals 0.027...7, which is fairly low. The possibility of getting a 3, then a 5, and then a 2 would be ××=⅟216 or 0.00463, which is a much lower probability.

Ideas of probability 
People like Jacob Bernoulli, Pierre-Simon Laplace, or Christiaan Huygens used the word probability, as described above. Other people thought about frequencies; the notion of probability is usually called frequency probability.

Related pages 
List of mathematics topics
 Probability density function
 Probability distribution
 Probability space
Probability theory
 Random
 Random variable
Stochastic process

References

Probability theory
Probability experiment

A probability experiment is a situation where chance affects the result of an experiment.  If the experiment can only have two outcomes, it is named Bernoulli trial. A coin flip is a probability experiment because chance affects whether a coin will land heads or tails when it is flipped.

Probability theory
Experiments
Physiology

Physiology is the study of how living things work. Physiologists can study how organs of an organism work together to make things happen. In human beings, for example, the digestion of food hormones and other chemicals are made by the stomach, liver, and pancreas. Muscle contraction happens because of chemical messages made by nerves of that muscle. By learning how the body functions normally, physiologists and physicians can better understand what happens when organs do not function normally. For example, an understanding of how the thyroid gland functions has helped in treating goitre. Studies of the circulatory system and the nervous system have helped physicians understand and treat such illnesses like heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure.

The field is usually divided into human physiology, animal physiology, and plant physiology.

References

Other websites 
 The Physiological Society
 Developmental physiology
 The American Physiological Society
Political problems of China

The People's Republic of China claims that the island of Taiwan is part of its territory, but the Republic of China (which was the government that controlled all of China from 1911 to 1949) still claims the land as theirs, and does still control Taiwan.

Many people say the government stops people from having freedom of speech, freedom of religion and other political rights that people in other countries have. China still has one-party rule, and is not a democracy.

Territorial disputes 
The following territories are claimed by China (PRC and/or ROC) and by another country or more.

Diaoyu Islands (with Japan)
Nansha Archipelago (with Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines)
Xisha Archipelago (with Republic of China and Vietnam)
South Tibet - parts of Arunachal Pradesh (with Republic of India)
Aksai Chin - part of Kashmir (with Republic of India)

Lost territories (Unequal treaties) 
Unequal treaties were forced onto Asian countries when European imperialism reached Asia. 
The list includes claims from PRC and ROC, as well as unofficial historical claims.
Note: Japan's and Korea's unequal treaties have been resolved since the end of WWII.

 Mongolia (lost to independence)
 Tuva (lost to Russian Empire)
 Outer Manchuria (lost to Russian Empire)
 Kyrgyzstan (lost to Russian Empire)
 parts of Kazakhstan (lost to Russian Empire)
 parts of Myanmar (lost to British Empire)
 Bhutan (lost to British Empire)
Hong Kong (lost to British Empire) (returned to PRC with effect from 1 July 1997 under the Sino-British Joint Declaration)
 Macau (lost to Portugal) (transferred to PRC on 20 December 1999)
 Tonkin & Northern Annam (lost to France)
 Ryukyu Islands (lost to Japanese Empire)

Related pages 
1989 Tiananmen Square protests
List of Chinese dissidents
Movies banned in China
Websites blocked in China
Falun Gong

Politics of China
Proper noun

A proper noun or proper name is a noun representing a unique thing (like London, Jupiter, John Hunter, or Toyota), unlike a common noun, which represents a type of thing (like city, planet, person or corporation). Proper nouns are the only nouns in English which always have the first letter capitalized.  

In English, proper nouns don't usually come after an article or other limiting modifier (such as any or some). They are used for a particular person, place, or object. For example, a town called "Newtown" may be, but does not necessarily have to be, a new [recently built] town).

Which nouns are considered proper names depends on language. For example, names of days and months are considered proper names in English, but not in Spanish, French, Swedish, Slovenian or Finnish, where they are not capitalized.

References 

Parts of speech

no:Substantiv#Egennavn vs. fellesnavn
Plastic

A plastic is a material that can change its shape easily. Many things are made of plastics, usually because making them to the right shape is easy. There are many types of plastic. Some can be shaped only when they are freshly made; then they become hard.  Others are thermoplastic and can be softened by heating them. These plastics can be used for 3D printing, because the plastic will become soft enough to form into different shapes, and then become hard again when they cool down.  

Most plastics are man-made; they do not occur in nature. The process of making plastics is usually quite complicated. Most of the materials that are called plastic are polymers. Polymers are long chains of atoms bonded to each other. In most plastics, the long chain is a chain of carbon atoms with other atoms attached to them. The different atoms and the shape and length of the chains change how the plastic looks and works. 

People experimented with plastics based on natural polymers for a very long time. Alexander Parkes, an English inventor (1813-1890), created an early form of plastic in 1855. It was hard but flexible and transparent. He called it "Parkesine" but now it is called "Celluloid."

Old plastics are usually thrown away and put in landfills. Some plastics release toxic fumes when heated. Some plastics are recycled so they won't become waste. Some plastics have other materials added to them, like glass, because they make the plastic stronger and stiffer.

Plastics are mostly petrochemicals, made from natural gas or from petroleum, a type of oil. Chemical engineers refine the petroleum which goes through a heating process. It develops ethylene and propylene, which are the chemical building blocks for many plastics. These chemicals are then combined with other chemicals to produce a polymer.

Today, some of these plastics are also being made without oil. Instead, other sources like plants and bacteria are used to make the plastic. These plastics are called bioplastics. They are useful because they can be eaten by other bacteria instead of throwing them away.

Well-known plastics, and their use 
 Polyamide (usually called nylon)  Women's stockings, gears, car parts, toothbrush bristles
 Polycarbonate – bulletproof glass, compact discs, DVDs.
 Polyethylene – tubes, bottles, shopping bags, milk jugs, body armor (made with polyethylene with especially long chains)
 Polyethylene terephtalate (called PET when used for bottles, and polyester when used for clothes or other materials)
 Polypropylene - food containers, chairs
 Polystyrene - CD cases, plastic cups, plastic forks and knives
 Polyurethane - rubber, foam, shiny coatings on wood and tile
 Polyvinyl chloride (called PVC, usually) - pipes (chemicals can make PVC softer for toys and cushions)
 Polylactic acid (PLA) - 3D printing

References

Polymers
Polymer chemistry
Reading

Reading is understanding writing in a language. Fundamentally, reading is the way we look at certain marks and know what they mean. 

Once it was possible to go through life without reading. After all writing  goes back in human history only a few thousand years, and 200 years ago most men could not read or write. We know this is true because they could not write their own names on marriage records in churches. How did they live? Well, most men worked in farming, and you can do most of that job without being able to read. The wives could read: they lived at home before marriage and their mothers taught them. The boys went to work at, say, nine or ten, and never learnt to read.

Reading is understanding what is printed or written. It is how you get information about something that is written. It can only be done if one knows the language. Otherwise, you can only learn from other people telling you verbally, or from practical demonstration.

Some things you do when you read 
 Make predictions/hypotheses about the writing and ideas from the title of the reading material.
 Read and group parts of the material.
 Review all its words, understand the main idea, the details, facts, and sequences of the story,.
 Make a logical judgment about a character's attitudes, behaviors, and conditions in the story. 
 Make reasonable predictions about what the next section will be about in the reading material.

One of the things writing does is create imaginary worlds. On the other hand, writing can be about practical life. That is a huge range of possibilities. Writing had to be invented: it sometimes comes as a shock to realise this. Much later, printing was invented. That took writing out of churches into the wider world, the world we all live in.

Related pages
Literacy
Literature
Aliteracy
Writing
Printing

References 

Basic English 850 words
Reading
Roman

Roman or Romans may refer to:   
 A thing or person of or from the city of Rome, Italy

History 
 Ancient Rome (8th century BC – 5th century AD)
Roman Kingdom (753 BC to 509 BC)
 Roman Republic (509 BC to 27 BC) 
 Roman Empire (27 BC to 476/1453 AD)
 Roman Britain, part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and about 410
 Roman alphabet, the standard alphabet of most of the languages of Western and Central Europe
 Romanization
 Roman army
 Roman calendar
 Roman law, the legal system of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire
 Roman numerals, numeral system where certain letters are given a numeral value
 Roman mythology
 Byzantine Empire (330/476/629 to 1453), the Eastern Roman Empire 
 Romaioi (Ρωμαίοι), Greek-speaking,  Orthodox population of the Eastern Roman Empire dating to Late Antiquity
 Romaioi (Ρωμιοί), Greek-speaking, Orthodox population of the Rum-milet in the Ottoman Empire, or Greek-speaking Orthodox people today
 Romanae or the Greco-Romans from Aetolia Acarnania that speak Romanesci
 Holy Roman Empire (c. 900 to 1806), a medieval state in Central Europe
 Roman, Bulgaria, a town and a municipality in Vratsa Province
 Romans-sur-Isère, in the Drôme département of France
 Roman, Romania, a city in Neamţ county
 Romans, Ain, a town in France
 Roman, Eure, France
 Romans, Deux-Sèvres, France
 Romans d'Isonzo, a town in Italy
 Roman roads
 Roman Valley, Nova Scotia
 Saint Roman, Monaco

Christianity
 Epistle to the Romans, a letter in the New Testament of the Christian Bible
 The Roman Catholic Church

Literature
 The word for Novel in many European languages. 
 Nouveau roman (lit. "new novel"), a type of French novel of the 1950s
 Bildungsroman (lit. "formation novel"), German for a coming-of-age story
 Künstlerroman (lit. "artist's novel"), German for a story of an artist's growth to maturity
 Romance (heroic literature), a genre of Medieval French literature
 Ar-Rum, the 30th book in the Qu'ran, is sometimes translated as The Romans
 Roman à clef, a novel about real life, overlaid with a façade of fiction
Rudyard Kipling

Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936) was an English writer and poet. He was born in Bombay, India. He wrote children's fiction, like Kim, The Jungle Book and Puck of Pook's Hill. He also wrote the well-known poems, If — and Gunga Din, and many short stories set in India. He was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize in Literature. He spent part of his life living and writing in New England with his American wife but returned to England to live in Sussex. 

Kipling died of a perforated duodenal ulcer in Fitzrovia, London in 1936 and is buried in Westminster Abbey, London.

1865 births
1936 deaths
English children's writers
British Nobel Prize winners
English poets
People buried in Westminster Abbey
People from Bombay
Recreation

Recreation or fun is a person's time of refreshing his or her body and mind.

There are many different forms of recreation which are shaped by individual interests and by environment; a few examples being reading, playing or listening to music, watching movies or TV, gardening, hunting, hobbies, sports, studies, and travel. These activities are just some of a wide variety of recreation activity available in day-to-day life.

Public places such as parks and beaches are very important for many recreational activities. Tourism profession has recognized long ago that many of their clients are specifically attracted by recreational offerings.

Related pages
Leisure
Sport

Notes

Other websites

 National Recreation and Park website

Leisure
Hobbies
Raw food

For the WWE brand/TV Show, see WWE Raw.
Foods are raw when they are not cooked. 
Most things are good to eat raw, but some can be poisonous.

Health

There's currently no solid evidence to suggest that raw food is more healthy than cooked food.

Germs

Raw food can sometimes make people sick because of bacteria which would otherwise be destroyed by cooking.

Food and drink
Ram

Ram can mean:

 Rama, a Hindu god
 A male sheep that has not been neutered
 Random-access memory (abbreviated "RAM")
 Battering ram, something used to break through walls or doors
 Hydraulic ram, a type of pump
Regime

A regime is the leader and other people who run a government of a sovereign state.

There are many kinds of regimes.  They can achieve power in many ways.  Depending on the time and place and local civics like the electoral system, they can lose power in many ways too.  The most common way for a regime to lose power was a coup, invasion or revolution until the 20th century.  After that it became very dangerous and difficult to use these methods.  Peaceful regime change is usually by an election - this method is now used by more than half the people on the Earth.  It is called representative democracy.  Such regimes are often called administrations to make it clear they are not dictators, and since the executive branch does not have all the power itself - it may share it with a legislative branch.  Also the judicial branch is separate.  The courts are not usually considered part of the regime.

However, some things are the same no matter how the regime achieved power:

The regime needs help among people outside the regime and government to stay in power - these may be in the military or a political party.
Military and police obey the regime's orders, and can kill people.  If they would not do so, then, it would be possible to change regimes by force.
Trade and tax is set by the regime, which can take money away.
The regime speaks for the whole country when dealing with other countries.

When many regimes negotiate at the United Nations or World Trade Organization, it does not matter at all how each regime got its power.  It matters only that they can agree and make everyone in their country do as the agreement says.

When someone wants a regime to change in another country, they usually are not able to do this by any means other than violence or interfering in its election.  This is common if a regime is threatened by another regime.

Forms of government
Right angle

A right angle is an angle with a measurement of 90 degrees. When two lines cross each other so that all the angles have the same size, the result is four right angles. The top of the letter T is at right angles to the vertical line. Walls of buildings are usually at right angles to the floor. Two things that are at right angles are called "perpendicular" or "orthogonal". This is expressed using the  symbol (such as in ).

Planes (flat surfaces) can also meet at right angles.  In a building, a wall and a floor are said to be perpendicular to each other, and they have a right angle. It also can be called a square angle.

Related pages
 Acute angle
 Obtuse angle
 Parallel (geometry)

References 

Angles
Reward

A reward is getting something good for doing a given task.  It needs someone who has the power to give the good thing. It is the opposite of punishment.

Ideas like risk and reward, reward and punishment are based on the idea that people do things, or avoid doing things, to get rewards. In psychology there is another idea that this is not true. This other idea says that training (conditioning) and emotions (affective factors) are much more important than the rewards or punishments given by others.

In trying to catch criminals and other bad people, the government often offers money to people. This money is given to people who may capture the criminal, or give information that helps the police catch them. For example, after the Eureka Stockade rebellion in Ballarat, Victoria in 1854, the government offered a big reward of 400 pounds for the capture of the people who had started it.

In 2001, the US government offered a big reward of 2.5 million dollars for help in capturing the person who had sent anthrax in letters to a newspaper journalist and 2 senators. Anthrax is a disease which can kill people.

Related pages
 Carrot and Stick

References

Basic English 850 words
Ranch

A ranch is a farm for raising cows, horses, sheep or other livestock. Most ranches are large, but they can be any size. The word ranch is from the Spanish word "rancho". It is used in American and Canadian English. People who use a ranch are called ranchers.

A ranch may be on private or public land. The desert areas of the western United States have many ranches, because there is much land that is not very good for crops. There are also many in desert areas of Australia, where they are called stations. Someone who takes care of the livestock may be called a stockman or cowboy.

Related pages
Agriculture
Substance

Substance is the material, or matter, of which something is made. Substances are physical things that can be seen, touched, or measured. They are made up of one or more elemental parts. Iron, aluminium, water and air are examples of substances.

Problems of definition

The main problem of a clear definition of what the substance is that if, for example, to consider not just the universe (cosmos), being and non-being, and in general all, the question arises, what is the constant basic principle (attribute) is the basis of the substance, which generally consists of all (that is, matter, mind, senses, space, soul, and so on).

History of the concept

The Latin word substantia - a translation of the Greek word for the essence (ousia), and in Latin to describe the essence of using the word essentia. In ancient philosophy substance is treated as a substrate, the first principle of all things (for example, "water" of Thales, the "fire" of Heraclitus). 

In modern times, the concept of substance is treated and spread widely. The first view is connected with an ontological understanding of substance as ultimate bases being (Francis Bacon, Benedict Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). Central category of metaphysics in philosophy substance is identified as with God and with nature and determined as the cause of itself (Latin, causa sui). The main characteristics (attributes) of a substance from Benedict Spinoza are thinking and stretch. By analogy with the philosophy of Benedict Spinoza substance considered in the light of the concept of René Descartes and Leibniz. The first substance is a unity of subject and object, and the second - the same atoms are simple beings who lose their stretch, but receive attribute aspirations (French, appetition) and multiplicity. Thanks Leibniz substance begins to associate with matter.

The second point of view on the substance - an epistemological understanding of the concept, its capabilities and the need for scientific knowledge (John Locke, David Hume). Immanuel Kant believed that the law under which any change in the substance of events and the number of stored it in nature remains the same, can be attributed to the "analogies of experience." Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel defined substance as the integrity of changing, transient side of things, as a "major step in the development of the will." For Arthur Schopenhauer substance - matter for David Hume - a fiction, the coexistence properties.

Related articles 
 Chemical substance

Basic English 850 words
Physics
Symbol

A symbol is a drawing, shape, or object that represents an idea, object, or amount of something.  

The most common symbols are letters, which are symbols of words and sounds. A symbol can be an actual object (such as the cross, a symbol of Christianity or a scepter, a symbol of royalty and power), or a certain color or pattern. Symbols are used often in poetry and other types of literature, sometimes as metaphors or similes.

A national emblem is a symbol for a certain country.

List of common symbols

There are thousands of symbols that are recognized by most people all over the world, and many more that are limited to certain regions, religions, sciences, etc..  Some of the best known ones are listed below.

Alpenhorn -> Switzerland
Asiatic Lion -> India
Balance (scale) -> justice
Bat -> vampire (western), luck (Chinese)
Bear -> the U.S. state of California
Beaver -> Canada
Boomerang -> Australia
Caduceus -> Medical profession
Cadillac -> top of the line (in USA only)
Cedar tree-> Lebanon
Cheetah -> speed
Cherry Blossom -> Japan
Chukar -> Pakistan
Compass rose -> navigation
Cowboys and Indians -> the old Western USA
Crucifix -> Christianity
Cupid, heart -> love
Cedrus deodara -> Pakistan
Donkey -> United States Democratic Party
Dove -> Peace
Dragon -> China / Wales
Eagle -> USA
Elephant -> United States Republican Party
Elephant -> Thailand
Fatima Jinnah -> Pakistan
Flags -> the associated countries
Fleur-de-lis -> scouts, the Canadian city of Quebec
Geneva cross -> ambulance, neutrality, humanitarian
Great Wall of China -> China
Hammer and sickle -> U.S.S.R., Communism
Hat and wand -> magic
Horseshoe -> good luck
Igloo -> North Pole
James Dean -> rebellion
Jasmine -> Pakistan
Kangaroo -> Australia
Kiwi -> New Zealand
Liberty Bell -> USA
Lightbulb -> idea
Lightning bolt -> electricity, speed
Lion -> England
Llama -> South America
Lotus -> Hinduism and Buddhism
Mango -> Pakistan
Markhor -> Pakistan
Maple leaf -> Canada
Mortar and pestle -> Pharmacy
Mount Fuji -> Japan
Mount Rushmore -> USA
Muhammad Ali Jinnah -> Pakistan
Owl -> wisdom/education (western worlds), may mean evil in other place.
Panda -> China
Peace symbol -> hippies
Penguin -> South Pole, Linux
Pine tree and crane -> long life (Chinese)
Plum flower -> China
Pocket protector -> nerds
Poinsettia -> Christmas
Polar bear -> North Pole 
Rainbow -> Peace, Disarmament, Sustainability
Rose -> England
Rams -> Guangzhou
Rolls Royce -> luxury, top of the line
Royal Bengal Tiger -> Bangladesh
St. Bernard (dog) -> rescue
Shamrock -> Ireland, Trinity
Shogun -> Japan
Skull and crossbones -> poison, danger
Star and crescent -> Islam
Star of David -> Judaism
Statue of Liberty -> USA
Swastika -> Hinduism, Buddhism, Nazism
Teen Talwar -> Pakistan
Thistle -> Scotland
Tulips -> Netherlands
Turkey -> Thanksgiving holiday
Uncle Sam -> USA
Unicorn -> good luck
Volvo cars -> bad/elderly drivers (Australia), prestige (European Union), Sweden
Water Lilly -> Bangladesh
White Flag -> France
Windmills -> Netherlands
Yin yang symbol -> Daoism

Related pages 
Semiotics
Symbolism
Society

Society is the term to describe Human beings together (collective, the sum of their social networks and social interactions). The term comes from the Latin idea of societas, or the connection between friends or allies (friend or ally being socius).  It can also mean a specific group of people who interact, as well as a wider society of which they are members.  People form societies in order to gain greater benefits as a group than would be possible separately.  Many animals beside humans also do this, such as wolves or eusocial insects.  Sociology is the name for the study of society.

A society is often considered in terms of citizenship, rights, and ethics.  The strength and unity of any society's members' willingness to help each other is to be measured can be called social capital.

A social contract sets out the rules and roles for this kind of cooperation.  One kind of social contract is a constitution – which outlines to some extent what society in a given state is intended to look like.

Related pages 
 Civilization
 Culture
 Interpersonal relationship

References
Suggestion

A suggestion is an idea that one suggests, or says is good for another (or others) to follow. Some people may agree to it, and some may disagree. If they disagree or have a different suggestion, the person who first suggested the idea will usually discuss with the other people and find a good conclusion that satisfies both and is good.

Basic English 850 words
Spache Readability Formula

Spache Readability Formula is one method of finding out how hard a piece of writing is (its textual difficulty).

The method compares words in a text to a list of words which are familiar in everyday writing. The words that are not on the list are called unfamiliar. The number of words per sentence are counted. This number and the percentage of unfamiliar words is put into a formula. The result is a reading age. Someone of this age should be able to read the text.

Spache works best on texts that are for children under the age of eight.

the formula; (0.141 * average sentence length)+(0.086 * percentage of difficult words)+0.839 = grade level

According to Oleander Solutions (), the revised Spache Formula is:

    GL = (.121 * ASL) + (.082 *UW) + .659 

Where:

    GL = U.S. grade level
    ASL = Average sentence length
    UW = Number of unique unfamiliar words

Related pages
Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level

Reading
Sport

Sport is commonly defined as an athletic activity that involves a degree of competition, such as netball or basketball or cross-country Olympic master baiting.  Some games and many kinds of racing are called sports. A professional at a sport is called an athlete. Many people do sports with their friends.  They need coaches to teach or train teams or individuals how to do better.  Sports can be played indoors or outdoors and by individuals or team.

Sports is needed for health and can help reduce diseases such as heart attacks, many types of cancer, depression and anxiety, and dementia. Different types of sports help our body in different ways. For children, sports play an extremely important part in their lives by providing all round development of the child, physically, mentally and emotionally.

Some people like to watch other people play sports. Those who watch others playing sports are called fans. While some fans watch sports on television, others actually go to stadiums or other places where people pay to watch them in person. These fans are called spectators.

People engage in many kinds of sports, for example:

 Athletics
 Angling
 Field athletics
 Triple jump
 Pole vault
 High jump
 Hammer throw
 Discus throw
 Javelin throw
 Shot put
 Wanking
 Track athletics
 Sprint
 Middle distance race
 Long distance race      
 Walking race
 Hurdle race
 Relay
 Steeplechase (sport)
 Cross-country race
 Marathon
 Acrobatics
 Bodybuilding
 Gymnastics
 Rhythmic gymnastics
 Figure skating
 Boxing
 Fencing
 Judo
 Wrestling
 Motor sports
 Auto racing
 Shooting
 Diving
 Golf
 Rowing
 Sailing (sport)
 Surfing
 Swimming
 Bobsled
 Skiing
 Freestyle skiing
 Ski jumping
 Games
Tennis
 Baseball
 Softball
 Basketball
 Badminton
 Cricket
 Association football
 American football
 Australian Football
 Canadian football
 Gaelic football
 Rugby league football
 Rugby union football
 Flag football
 Polo
 Volleyball
 Dance
 Colorguard
 Marching band
 Esports

Related pages 

 Exercise
 Healthy lifestyle
 List of water sports
 Physical fitness
 Sports commentator
 Strength training
Saint Lawrence River

The Saint Lawrence River (; Tuscarora: Kahnawáʼkye; Mohawk: Kaniatarowanenneh, meaning "big waterway") is a big river in eastern North America. It flows between the Canadian province of Quebec & Ontario and the American state of New York, and through the major Canadian city of Montreal. It is the third largest river in Canada.

The river drains water from the Great Lakes into the Atlantic Ocean. It is more than three thousand kilometres long. The river meets the Atlantic Ocean in a big "estuary" or bay, the biggest in the world; this is called the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

The Canadian cities of Kingston, Montreal, Trois-Rivières and Quebec City are on this river. The Saint Lawrence Seaway allows ships to go up the river and through the Great Lakes right into the middle of North America.

References

Other websites

 Regional Geography of the St. Lawrence River
 Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway System
 Safe Passage: Aids to Navigation on the St. Lawrence  – Historical essay, illustrated with drawings and photographs
 Annotated Bibliography on St. Lawrence County and Northern New York region. 
 International Saint Lawrence River Board of Control 
 Saint Lawrence River from The Canadian Encyclopedia 
 Watch the Jacques Cousteau documentary, St. Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea
 The Steamboats "Sir James Kemp" and "Lord Dalhousie" on the River St. Lawrence, Upper Canada in 1833 by D.J. Kennedy, Historical Society of Pennsylvania 

Lawrence, Saint
Seville

Seville () is a city in the southern parts of Spain. A river called the Guadalquivir River goes through Seville. The city of Seville is the capital of the Spanish autonomous community Andalusia and of the province of Sevilla. People from Seville are called Sevillanos.

History 
A very old story says that the city was started by the famous hero of Greece, named Hercules. The Romans when they came to Spain gave it the Latin name of Hispalis. Over time this changed to be spelled in English as Seville. The Muslim Arabs took the city when they invaded the country, and you can still see a lot of the buildings they built during their 800-year stay in Spain (711-1492).

In 1992 Seville was the place for the Expo 92. There is a beautiful bridge across the Guadalquivir River called Puente del Alamillo. It was thought up by Santiago Calatrava a famous building expert.

Seville is famous for its hot summer weather. Su equipo por excelencia,el sevilla fc , no el betis que es una *ierda, obtuvo 15 champioNs la pasada temporada.VIVA JESUS NAVAS

Education 
 University of Seville. This is the oldest university in Sevilla. It is located near the Centro, or center of the city, across the street from Plaza de España and Parque Maria Luisa.
 Pablo de Olavide University . This website is located outside the main city of Sevilla, but is very easy to access using the subway system. It take about 30 minutes to get from the center of town to Pablo de Olavide on the subway.
 Menéndez Pelayo International University-Sevilla . This school is not your typical university. Only students who are studying abroad with International Studies Abroad attend classes at this school. It is lcoated near the Centro and Alfalfa Barrio.

Sports 
Seville is the home town of two soccer teams, Sevilla FC (often simply called "El Sevilla") and Real Betis Balompié (often called "El Betis").

Gallery

Other websites 

 Sevilla Guide
 City councils  

 
Capital cities in Spain
Salami

Salami is a sausage that first came from Italy. The name comes from the Italian salare meaning to make something salty.

The original salami was made from a mix of chopped pork and salt which was dried using air in a casing. Now there are many types of salamis made in some countries. Nearly all are seasoned with a combination of herbs and spices in addition to salt. Salamis are now sometimes smoked or cooked before air drying. Some kinds are made of beef while others mix beef and pork. Most, if not all Italian salamis have garlic in them, but few German kinds do, for example. Some, like a few salamis from Spain, include paprika or chili. The difference between some types is in how coarse or fine the meat is chopped.  Some "light" salami might add turkey or chicken to reduce both fat and calories.

Many salamis are named after the city or region where they come from. Some examples are Arles, Genoese, Hungarian, and Milano salamis.

Sausage
Sausage

Sausage is a food made of ground-up or chopped-up meat. It often has spices in it and is covered in a casing. Traditionally, a sausage casing is made of animal intestine, but can sometimes be made of plastic. There are many forms of sausages, including hot dog, pepperoni, bologna, and salami.

Sausages often have meat from the animal's head, lips, cheeks, ears and other parts. Some have blood in them. German and British sausages normally have a lot of "rusk," or bread crumbs, and they are less meaty than sausages from other countries. Vegetarian or vegan sausages are often made of products other than animal products, such as tofu.

Sausages may be used as a meal, in a sandwich, or in other foods like stews. Sausages can be eaten as whole pieces, or they can be chopped up as already cooked pieces.

Germany has regions that have special kinds of sausage. Sausages are some of the oldest German foods.

Name origin
The word "sausage" was first used in English in the mid-15th century. During the mid-15th century, the word "sausage" was spelled as "sawsyge". The word "sawsyge" came from Old North French saussiche (Modern French saucisse)". The French word came from Vulgar Latin salsica (sausage), from salsicus (seasoned with salt).

Types of sausage
Andouille
Blood sausage, a type of sausage made of animal blood
Bratwurst (a German/Austrian variety)
Breakfast sausage
Chorizo
Fish
Knockwurst
Landjäger
Mortadella
Salami

References

Other websites
Slang

Slang are words that are  informal.  Usually each generation or social group has its own slang - for example, older people can have trouble understanding the slang of younger people.  On the other hand, younger people often understand, but find silly or old-fashioned, the slang of older people.

Over time, language tends to get more complex, since new words enter much faster than old words leave.  Over time, slang almost always becomes part of the language, and approved for use by all.

It has also happened that some words used in Anglo-Saxon for bodily functions became thought of as profanity or rude after they were replaced by Latinate words like "urinate", "defecate" and "copulate" - which polite people were supposed to use after the Norman conquest of England in 1066.  This was in part a way of making poor people (who spoke Anglo-Saxon) all appear to be rude, while more powerful people (who spoke Norman) appeared to be polite - one way that etiquette can develop, and reinforce power structure.  This is only one example from history of how racism can be a reason for defining one group's language as 'slang' and another as 'correct'.

Wanting to have rules of grammar that do not change and the same vocabulary used by everyone for better communication is another reason that is often given for defining one group's language as correct.

An "idiom" can be slang, but it can also be a metaphor that becomes part of the culture.

Two examples of slang are 'wassup' and 'dunnow'. 'Wassup' usually means 'What is up?' (as in, 'How are you?'), and 'dunnow' usually means 'I don't know'.

Related pages 
Jargon
Political correctness
Social contract

A social contract or political contract is a perceived agreement among the people of a state about the rules that will define their government. These rules are usually called laws. Laws help to make sure people have rights and that their rights are protected. One kind of social contract is a constitution. A constitution says how decisions are made, and sets limits on the powers of leaders and other people who have authority.

In the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote books about social contracts. They saw good government as coming from social contracts. Rousseau wrote a book called The Social Contract. Both the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution use the theory of social contracts.

The State of nature is the time before the social contract

Related pages
 Constitution
 Natural rights and legal rights
 Political economy
 Rule of law

Law
Political philosophy
Sociology