alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
David Hume

David Hume (7 May 1711 – 25 August 1776) was a philosopher and historian from Scotland. When he was still alive, people thought of him as a historian. He wrote a series of large books called The History of England. But today, people think of Hume as an important philosopher.

Works
In his books on philosophy, Hume said that many of our beliefs do not come from reason. Instead, they come from our instincts or feelings. For example, reason does not tell us that one thing causes another. Instead, we see one thing and then we see another, and we feel a link between the two. Similarly, reason does not tell us that someone is a good person. Instead, we see that the person is kind and friendly, and we feel a special moral feeling. Because Hume thought that these beliefs do not come from reason, people call him a "skeptical" or "anti-rationalist" philosopher.

Hume is famous for his 'Induction Fallacy'. This draws attention to a common mistake people make. People see something, and make claims that what they see will always be as they see it. For example, people see only white swans and claim that all swans are white. This is 'fallacious' or mistaken, because it is always possible that they then will see a black swan.

Hume was also skeptical about religion. He was not a religious person and religious people did not like his opinions. He did not believe in miracles. He said that suicide wasn't always wrong, but never said whether or not he believed in God. In 1776, when he was dying, his friends found him very calm about death, despite him not believing in an Afterlife. Today, Hume's books are very important to philosophers who are interested in religion.

Influence
Today's philosophers sometimes use the term 'Hume's fork' to refer to Hume calling everything we can think about either a relation of ideas (things like mathematics, that must be true) or a matter of fact (like science, where we have to look at things to tell whether or not they are true).

Another philosopher, Immanuel Kant, read some of Hume's books and changed his mind about some important things. Kant said Hume had made him wake up from a sleeping dogmatism, the traditional metaphysics.

Books
Here are Hume's most important books:

 A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects. (1739-40)
In this large book, Hume talks about the human mind and tries to figure out how it works. He talks about knowledge, cause and effect, emotions, right and wrong, and many other things.

 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) 
In this small book, Hume talks about many of the same things from the Treatise, like knowledge and cause and effect. He tried to make this book easy to read.

 An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751)
This is another small book, and again, Hume tried to make it easy to read. The book is about right and wrong.

 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (after Hume died)
In this book, Hume has three characters who argue with each other about God.

References 

1711 births
1776 deaths
Writers from Edinburgh
18th-century British philosophers
Bath

A bath (UK English) or bathtub (US English) is a basin large enough for people sit in when washing their body.  The bath is usually in the bathroom.  A less common name for a bath is a washtub.it can be painted with whiter color, a painted bathtub  have long life.

Sometimes people will add scents, oils and salts to the bath for better experience and relaxation.

A bath is also a place where people can sit in water (or other liquids, often hot) for their health. This is where the town name Bath comes from. Public baths for relaxing were built in all parts of the Roman Empire. The earliest known baths on record appeared somewhere around mid-2000 BC in Knossos, Crete. Another society known for their love of public bathing were the Romans. They invented the Thermae, which were grand in size, while Balineaes were smaller in stature. Similar to the Greeks, the Romans also used these places for socialising, while the rich and wealthy would build their own private bathhouses at home.

Other 
 Bird bath
 Bathhouse
Steam bath

References 

Home
Hygiene
Brush

A brush is a tool with bristles or wires or other filaments sticking out. There are many kinds. Most brushes have a long part at one end to hold (the handle), on the other end from the head that carries the bristles or filaments. We use brushes for cleaning, making hair look good, painting, and other purposes.

Brushes for cleaning

Many kinds of brushes are made for cleaning, for example toothbrushes or brushes for cleaning floors.

Paint brushes
We use paint brushes for putting ink or paint on paper. If a brush is dipped 1/3 to 1/4 of its length into a can of paint, a good brush will ideally pick up the perfect amount of paint and spread it on a surface in a film that is smooth and uniform and absent of any drips, dips, or brush marks. Paint brushes typically come in two forms, synthetic, and natural. Synthetic brushes are usually made from products such as nylon, while natural refers to bristles from an animal source. Computer graphics uses digital paintbrushes for making pictures.

Paint brushes can have three shapes:
 Round: The long, close-together bristles of these brushes mean they can hold more paint. This is why many artists like them for painting large things and for color washes.
 Flat: These are good for spreading paint.
 Fan-shaped: These mix paint well.

Brush care 
 Clean paint from brushes after you use them. This is very important for oil and acrylic paint because when the paint is dry, taking it off can break the brush.
 Never leave brushes in water (etc.) with the bristle end down. This is because the bristles can change shape.

Sizes and materials 
We can buy brushes in different sizes and materials. Here are some sorts.

Decorators' brushes 
The sizes of brushes used for painting and decorating (changing the colour or look of a room) are usually in millimeters or inches. This shows how wide the head is.

Here are some sizes:

 1/8", 1/4", 3/8", 1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 7/8", 1", 1", 1½", 2", 2", 3", 3", 4".
 10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 60 mm, 70 mm, 80 mm, 90 mm, 100 mm.

We can buy brushes with natural or synthetic (man-made) bristles. Handles (the part of the brush we hold) may be wood or plastic.

Artists' brushes 
Artists' brushes usually have sizes with numbers, but there is no standard.

From smallest to largest, the sizes are:

 7/0 (also  0000000), 6/0, 5/0, 4/0, 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30.

We use sizes 000 to 20 most often.

Bristles may be natural—either soft hair or hog (pig) bristle—or synthetic (man-made).

Artists' brush handles (the part of the brush we hold) are often wooden, but the cheapest brushes may have plastic handles. Many cheap handles are made of unfinished wood; better quality handles are of finished wood.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Tools
Starch

Starch is a complex carbohydrate. It is made of many glucose units joined by chemical bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets. Pasta, potatoes, bread, and other starchy foods are made out of carbohydrates.

Starch in every day activities

Starch in food 
Some good food sources of starch are cereals, bread, potatoes, grains, peas, and beans. Starch is also used for thickening sauces in cooking and thickening cold foods during a preheat. Starch is a white powder that is tasteless and odourless. Corn starch or cornflour is known as a popular kind of starch made from corn.

Foods with a lot of starch produce more energy than other foods. However, if this energy is not used, it is turned into fat by the liver through de novo lipogenesis.

Laundry starch 
There are also different kinds of starch, like laundry starch, which gives clothing a smooth and crisp feel. Sweat and dirt from a person’s wrist and neck will stick to the starch on the clothes, not to the fibers of the clothes, and will wash away along with the starch. Then, after each laundry load, the starch can be used again.

Other facts 
Starch glues are used in wood, cotton, and bonding of paper. Animals and humans have amylase, so they can digest starch.
Starch was used in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries to stiffen the collars and ruffs of the fine linen which surrounded the neck. Starch also requires heat to thicken. The actual temperature depends on the type of starch.

Carbohydrates
Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes (5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was a philosopher from England. His most famous book is Leviathan (1651).

Writings
Hobbes mainly wrote about government and law—he was a political philosopher. He tried to show that the best kind of government has one in which society was organised under one authority. All individuals in that society give up some rights for the sake of protection. There is no doctrine of "separation of powers" in Hobbes's discussion. According to him, the sovereign power must control civil, military, judicial, and ecclesiastical powers.

Studies
Looking at human nature, we will see that humans are very selfish and that we are willing to hurt each other if we think it will help us. Naturally, humans are all equal because we are all strong enough to kill each other—even a child can kill a strong man while he sleeps. Imagine what things would be like without a government. It would be terrible—a "state of war". There would not be enough stuff for everyone, and people would disagree about who got what. Some people would fight each other, and everyone else would be very worried about their own safety. No one would be able to trust anyone else or make plans for the future. Life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" (people would be alone, poor, mean, and would not live for long). Next, Hobbes argues that it would be a good idea for everyone to stop fighting and choose a Sovereign which could be one man or an assembly of men. Everyone should agree to obey the Sovereign, and give him all power of coercion or force of restraint under law. Once the Sovereign is in place, everyone has to obey him, even those who disagree with him. This is because everyone already agreed to obey him no matter what. Hobbes says it's better to be mostly safe under an all-powerful Sovereign, than to be in a state of war.

Hobbes wanted his argument to be like math, with each step leading to the next. However, many people disagreed with his argument. Some said that Hobbes was in favor of rebellion, because he said that people were naturally equal. Others said that humans are not as selfish as Hobbes thought. Today, most people do not like the idea of an all-powerful government. Nevertheless, Hobbes's argument was a very important one, and philosophers who are interested in government or political theory still study Hobbes's books very carefully.

References 

1588 births
1679 deaths
17th-century English philosophers
Writers from Wiltshire
Nicomachus

Nicomachos or Nicomachus is a Greek name. It can mean:
Nicomachus of Gerasa, an ancient mathematician

Nicomachus, the father of Aristotle and court physician (doctor) to King Amyntas III of Macedon. Nicomachus died when Aristotle was about 10. Nicomachus wanted Aristotle to follow in his footsteps. But Aristotle did not become a doctor but a philosopher.
This is a unique name (not in the top 1000 newborn names in the US in 2021).

References

Given names
Logo

A logo is a picture or drawing that is used by a person, group, or company to mark who they are. A wordmark, or 'logotype', is a logo made entirely of a word or words. It is usually the name of a product or organisation.

A company or group can use a 'logo' on the things that they make, like on the things they sell, on letters, and in advertisements. When a person sees the logo picture, that person knows that the thing they see the logo on came from that company.

Logos can have letters and words in them. Many logos have the name of the company or group in them.

Most logos are very simple drawings with only a small number of colors. Some logos are only in black and white.

In many countries, companies and groups should tell their country's government about the logo they are using. If they do this, the government can help stop a different company or group from using the same logo, so that every one can be sure that the logo is only used by the people who used it first. This is sometimes called a 'trade mark'.

Logos are not used only by companies. Many schools have logos. Some cities have logos. Clubs can have logos. Even people can have their own logos if they want. The heraldic badge is probably the oldest form of logo in the world.

References

Related pages 
Logogram

Symbols
Picture

A picture, also called an image, is a group of coloured points on a flat surface that looks the same as something else. For example, a picture can look the same as an object or a person. Pictures can also be drawings, paintings or photographs. People who make such pictures are called artists, photographers or painters.  Pictures are very helpful.  Sometimes people say pictures are worth a thousand words.  Pictures and diagrams can be used to explain how to do things, and thus a picture is a kind of tool. A moment captured in an image.

An image is something that can be seen, but it is not physically there.  It can be a photograph, a painting, or a picture on a television or computer screen.  A lens can make an image of an object appear somewhere else.  Cameras use this to make the image that becomes a photograph.

Making Pictures

Most pictures today are 'photographs'. Photographs are made with cameras. A camera makes a picture that looks very real.

When there were no cameras, people made pictures by using paint, brushes, pencils, crayons, pens, and other things that people can write or draw with. Pictures made with paint and brush are called 'paintings'. Before cameras, some artists were able to make very real looking pictures with just paint. Sometimes pictures made with pencil or pen are called 'sketches', if they are made quickly and only look a little bit like the real thing.

Usually pictures are put on paper. Pictures made with paint are usually put on a strong, rough fabric called 'canvas'. Sometimes pictures can be put on walls or other things, even glass.

Some places, such as churches have pictures on windows made out of colored pieces of glass. These are called stained glass.

Special types of Pictures 

If people take a lot of pictures, and show them one at a time, very fast, they can make a picture that looks like it is moving.  This is called a "moving picture", or a movie.  A television shows people a moving picture by using light. 

A slide show is a series of pictures arranged to tell a story, for example to illustrate a narrative.  

A projector shines light from a light bulb through a kind of transparent picture.  When light shines through this kind of picture onto a screen or another flat place, the picture can be seen on that flat place.  This is often used to show movies and slide shows to an audience.

Some people make pictures that do not look flat, by taking two regular flat pictures at the same time. People have to move their eyes in a special way or use a stereoscope so they can see both pictures together.  When they look at the pictures using their binocular vision correctly, the picture does not look flat.  This is called '3D' or 'three dimensional'.

Cutaway pictures show what is inside of something, that cannot actually be seen.

Graphics
Candle

A candle is a stick made of wax with a string (a thin piece of rope) straight in the middle. If someone puts the string on fire, the flame burns slowly but for a long time.

Fire can burn string very fast. But in a candle, the string does not burn fast, because the fire melts the wax instead. The wax sometimes drips down the side of the candle. When the melted wax is far from the flame, it gets hard again, and can be used again in a new candle. 
 
The flame is very hot, since it is a very small, real fire. The light blue part of the flame can be as hot as . It can still burn people and things. If the fire spreads, it can grow into a very big fire and even burn down a house or building. 

If the flame is kept on the candle long enough, the candle will slowly get shorter and shorter until it is gone. The fire on a candle can be put out by blowing air on it. There is also a special tool called a "candle snuffer" that covers the fire with a small metal cup and puts it out. Today, candle snuffers are usually only used in churches or in places where candles are up very high. Stopping the fire stops the candle from burning until it is all gone.

Before light bulbs, candles were used so people could see at night. Some people still use candles today when electricity is down, or because they like the little amount of light that candles make. Some people also like candles because they look nice, or because they smell nice. A special kind of candle called "citronella" can help keep bugs away.

Related pages
 Lantern
 Electric light
 Advent

References 

Light sources
Fire
Christian symbols
Newt

Newts or efts are small amphibia. They are in a subfamily of the salamanders. They are found in North America, Europe, and North Asia.

Life cycle 
Females lay eggs and leave them. Tadpoles are born from those eggs.

Newts have three life stages. First as a tiny aquatic larva, which gradually undergoes metamorphosis. Then they leave the water for a year as a juvenile called an eft. They go back in the water to breed as adults.

In some species the adults stay in water for the rest of their lives. Others are land-based, but return to water each year to breed.

Defences 
Many newts produce toxins in their skin secretions as a defence against predators. They have bright skin colours as a warning to other animals.

Taricha newts of western North America are particularly toxic; the rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa of the Pacific Northwest produces more than enough tetrodotoxin to kill an adult human. Recently, a 29-year-old man in Coos Bay, Oregon, who had been drinking heavily, swallowed a rough-skin newt for a dare; he died later that day despite hospital treatment.

Most newts can be safely handled, provided that the toxins they produce are not ingested or allowed to come in contact with mucous membranes, or breaks in the skin. After handling, proper hand-washing techniques should be followed due to the risk from the toxins they produce and bacteria they carry, such as salmonella. It is illegal to handle or disturb great crested newts in the UK without a licence.

Are newts a related group? 
The term "newt" has traditionally been used as a functional term for salamanders living in water, and not a systematic unit. The relationship between the genera has been uncertain, though they may be a natural systematic unit. Newer molecular analysis tend to suggest they actually do form a clade.
Newts only appear in one subfamily of salamanders, the Pleurodelinae (of the family Salamandridae).
Some genera occasionally listed as Pleurodelinae are not newts (Salamandrina and Euproctus).

References
Powder

Powder is very small, dry pieces or grains. When we press some dry solids very hard, or when we cut something up into lots of small pieces, we can sometimes make powder.  

For example, people sometimes put face powder on their faces, when they want to look good. Sometimes sports players put powder on their hands, to make them dry. We put curry powder in our food, to make it taste stronger. We put washing powder in the washing machine when we want to have clean clothes. People use gunpowder to make bombs and fireworks.

"Powder" is also a verb - meaning to apply powder.

Materials
Cosmetics
Larva

Many animals develop in separate stages. A larva (plural: larvae) develops from the egg in those animals. It is a separate life stage from the adult reproductive stage. A larva does not look like the adult animal, and changes shape (known as metamorphosis) as it grows up. There may be several larval stages before the adult form. Tadpoles, maggots and caterpillars are larvae.

Marine organisms with a larval stage often release large numbers of eggs and sperms into the water column. After fertilisation, the eggs develop into tiny larvae. The larvae develop and grow for some time before metamorphosing into adults. Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a pelagic larval stage or pelagic eggs. These live in the plankton, and may be transported long distances.

Evolutionary theory 
Probably the most widely accepted theory explaining the evolution of larval stages is the need for dispersal. Sessile organisms such as barnacles and tunicates, and sea-floor groups like mussels and crabs, need some way to move their young into new territory, since they cannot move long distances as adults. Many species have relatively long pelagic larval stages (how long a larva is in the water column). During this time, larvae feed and grow, and many species move through several stages of development. For example, most barnacles moult through six nauplius larva stages before moulting to a cipris, when they look to settle. The larvae eat different food from the adults, and disperse.

The other consideration is the small size of the eggs. If animals lay many small eggs (and most do), then the young stages cannot live the life the adults lead. They must live a separate life until they have the size and capability to live as an adult. This is what the larvae do.

Origin of vertebrates 
A long-standing theory is that in transformed larvae of sea-squirts (tunicates) lies the origin of vertebrates. Tunicates are sessile, but their larvae are mobile, and have some features found in early vertebrates. The process of paedomorphosis, where juvenile features are retained in the adult, is the proposed mechanism. Genome analysis does show that the tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates.

References 

Zoology
Developmental biology
Father

A father (also called dad or daddy) is a male parent. Most human beings are born from a mother and a father. The father of a person's husband or wife is their father-in-law. Fathers determine the gender of their child through a sperm cell which either contains an X chromosome (female), or Y chromosome (male).

Related pages
God the Father
Patriarchy

Basic English 850 words
Family
Gill

Gills are what fish, amphibians, and some other animals use to breathe in water. They have feathery parts which cause water to move across the animal's body, which contains dissolved oxygen, after the animal has swallowed the water. The oxygen is absorbed into the animal's blood, causing carbon dioxide moves out of the animal's blood and into the water through the gills.

Fish and frog gills are hidden on the sides of their heads. Sharks have many gills slits on their necks. Baby salamanders have gills that stick out like leaves from their heads.

In mushrooms, gills are the spore-bearing structure in agarics (gilled mushrooms) while fish and some young amphibians use them to get oxygen others breath.

Some insects that live in water have a plastron, which is a kind of gill. It is a patch of special hairs that keeps the water away from the insect's spiracles. This allows them to continue to take in oxygen and remove carbon dioxide while they are under water.

 

Animal anatomy
Anatomy of the respiratory system
Chemical compound

A chemical compound is a chemical formed from atoms of different chemical elements. The different atoms are joined by chemical bonds. Each compound has a fixed ratio between the elements.

The elements stick together so strongly that the compound behaves like it is one substance. The chemical that is made depends upon what atoms it is made of and how they are joined together.

Many compounds are made of separate molecules. Each molecule has the exact same number and types of atoms. For example, every water molecule has one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Other compounds are made of a large network of atoms. For example, sodium chloride always has equal numbers of sodium and chlorine atoms, but there are no separate molecules.

Chemical compounds can be solids like sodium chloride, liquids like water, or gases like carbon dioxide. We get compounds from natural sources such as plants or make them in laboratories. Compounds can be made from others by scientists and these are called synthetic chemicals.

When different compounds are mixed together they may have a chemical reaction. 
Some chemical compounds can be dangerous but are safe if they are used the right way. Most dangerous chemicals are only used by scientists who have had special training in how to handle and use them. These chemicals might be poisonous, corrosive, explosive, they may catch fire easily, or they may react with other substances.

People who work in factories near chemicals often wear special clothes that stop the chemicals from hurting their body.

References
Wood

Wood is the main substance in trees. It is mainly formed by the xylem vessels which carry water up the plant. The two main substances in wood are cellulose and lignin. Wood is used to make buildings and furniture, and also for art. Firewood is a fuel. Paper is made from wood fibres. Wood is a renewable resource although it has become scarcer in recent centuries. Its origin is about 425 million years ago.

Wood is hard to cut, but it is also strong. A lumberjack is a person who cuts down trees. After a tree falls, the wood in it can be cut into long, straight pieces called lumber. Lumber can then be used to make posts, or put together with nails, screws, or even glue to make wooden frames for other shapes.

Wood comes in many different kinds. Oak, maple (hardwood) and pine and redwood (softwood) are widely used types of wood. Woods are usually divided into softwood (from conifers) and hardwood from flowering plants.

Housing 
For a long time and even today, many buildings, mostly houses, have been made of wood. To build a house with wood, lumber is put together into frames that are the shape of each wall, floor, and roof of the house. Then the frames are placed into the shape of a house. Then the frames can be covered to make solid walls. Sometimes the walls are made of more wood.

When the outside of a house or building is covered in wood, the wooden pieces are usually flat and stacked. These pieces are called shingles. Wood is also sometimes used in other parts of the house, like doors and staircases. Wood is also used to make fences.

Carpentry 

Carpenters make houses of mostly soft wood such as pine. For many kinds of furniture they use harder wood such as maple or oak. When someone builds something with wood, they often paint it. Paint protects and beautifies the wood. Some people like the look of wood, so they put clear paint called varnish on it. This helps to protect the wood and gives it a shiny finish.

Some people make art with wood. Sometimes sculptures are built with wood: see Grinling Gibbons.

Regular pencils are made of wood. Inside is the "lead", which is not actually lead. Clay or wax and graphite form the "lead" in a pencil.

Paper 
Wood is turned into paper in large factories called paper mills.  Heat, chemicals and machines separate the cellulose fibers from other parts and press the fibers into paper.

References

Related pages 

 Tree
 Petrified wood
 Plywood
 Firewood

Other websites 
 Wood -Citizendium

Basic English 850 words
Chalk

Chalk is a type of limestone. It was made by calcareous (CaCO3) skeletons of tiny planktonic algae called coccoliths. They live in the sea in huge numbers. They make chalk (CO2) as a by-product of their photosynthesis. The chalk cliffs of Dover and elsewhere were made when England was below the equator in a tropical sea. It was in the Upper Cretaceous, when the Earth was even warmer than now. There are coccoliths today, but not the same species as formed the white cliffs.

Air and water do not wear chalk away easily, so when chalk is next to the sea, it often makes a large cliff. The "White Cliffs of Dover" in Kent, England are a good example of this. Chalk holds water, so these chalk hills may have a lot of water in them. When the weather is very dry, water comes slowly from the chalk. 

Blackboard chalk is not real chalk. It is really gypsum (calcium sulfate), but people call it "chalk". People use it for drawing on hard things, because it is soft. If this chalk is rubbed on something hard or rough, it will leave a mark. People often write with chalk on a chalkboard or blackboard. A chalk eraser or water can be used to clean the chalk marks away so the board is clean again. Shops usually sell blackboard chalk in sticks that are about 5 cm long.

There are also big pieces of soft chalk for children to write on the ground with, for example on concrete (such as a sidewalk) or on asphalt. It is usually okay to write on the ground with this kind of chalk, because the rain will wash the chalk away.

Tailors' chalk is not real chalk either. It is talc (magnesium silicate). Tailors use it to draw on material when they are making clothes.

Basic English 850 words
Carbonate rocks
Writing tools
Cretaceous
Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is the view that the right thing to do is whatever is most useful. It is a  about ethics. The word "utilitarianism" comes from the word "utility", which means "usefulness". In most forms of utilitarianism, things that increase human well-being or happiness are called useful. This is not limited to the happiness caused by a single action but also includes the happiness of all people involved and all future consequences.

In general, the theory of utilitarianism is that whatever brings the most happiness to the greatest number of people is the right thing to do.

History 
The theory was made popular by 18th and 19th century British philosophers like Francis Hutcheson, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill, but the idea goes all the way back to ancient times.

Bentham wrote about this idea with the words "The greatest good for the greatest number," but did not use the word utilitarianism. It was Mill, a follower of Bentham's ideas, who named the idea.

Utilitarianism in Practice 
Many philosophers argue that utilitarianism has important practical implications for how we should live ethically. For instance, according to utilitarianism we should help the poor, prevent animal suffering, and ensure that future generations have good lives.

Related pages 
Hedonism
Happiness pump

References 

Philosophical movements and positions
Ethics
Village

A village is a place where people live, normally in the countryside. It is usually larger than a hamlet and smaller than a town or city.  In some places, it may be a kind of local government. The dwellings in a village are clustered fairly near one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape.

In the past, villages were where most people lived. Villages were a usual form of community for societies that do subsistence agriculture, and for some non-agricultural societies. After the industrial revolution, when people started making a lot of things in factories, people lived more in towns. Moving to towns is called urbanization. When villages grow a lot they can grow into towns and then cities. This is what happened to Dubai and Chicago.

United Kingdom 
In The U.K. the main difference between a hamlet and a village is that many villages have a church.

Most villages are long-standing. The land has been settled (peopled) since the ice age. The soil is generally very fertile, and the land was once heavily forested. Much of what was forest was cut down to make ships, and farming replaced it. The land is fertile because of the deep loam (soil) in many places. That is partly due to the ice age, since the ice cover moved and ground against the bedrock.

United States

Incorporated villages 
The word "village" is not used in most states. However, in twenty  US states, a "village" is a sort of local government, similar to a city but with less power and for a smaller place. But this is not so in all the United States. In many states, there are villages which are bigger than the smallest cities in the state. The difference is not the population, it is how much power the different sorts of places have, and what they do for people living there.

New York 
In the state of New York, a village is a place which is usually called a town.

Unincorporated villages 
In many states, a "village" is only a place where people live, with no legal power, similar to a hamlet in New York state. The name for these is "unincorporated villages".

References

 
Types of settlements
Gangnihessou

Do-Aklin or Gangnihessou (Ganye Hessou) or Dogbari was the first of twelve kings of Dahomey in Africa. Gangnihessou might have been the king around the year 1620. One of his symbols was a bird called "gangnihessou" after his name. His other symbols were a drum, and sticks used for throwing or hunting. He had a younger brother called Dakodonou, who was a king. Some historians think Gangnihessou was not actually a king. Instead, Gangnihessou might have led people by giving advice to his brother.

History of Africa
Kings and queens
16th-century births
17th-century deaths
Beninese people
No

No is an English word which has a negative meaning. It is the antonym (opposite) of the word Yes, which is a positive term.

No is used when someone is denying or turning away something. It can also be used in different figures of speech.

In both sentences and talking, the words "No" and the word "Not" can both be used, though the word "No" is mainly used when speaking to other people. In some cases, however, "Not" is not acceptable, and vice versa. These words are not to be confused with the similar sounding words know and knot.

Examples of proper usage of "No" and "Not":
Is this green? No, it is not.
There is no way round the back.
 This is not the way (but there is another way).
 I will not come.
 Oh, no!
 No, thank you.
 Not on my watch!

Examples of improper usage of "No" and "Not":
 That is no the way you do it.
 Oh not!
 I know how to tie a knot. (Disambiguation)
 I didn't no that!
 I can no go.

Basic English 850 words
Leon Trotsky

Lev Davidovich Bronstein ( (; also transliterated Leo, Lev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij and Trotzky; October 26 (O.S.) = November 7 (N.S.), 1879 in Kropyvnytskyi (nowadays Ukraine) - August 21, 1940 in Coyoacán, Mexico) was the public name of Leib or Lev Davidovich Bronstein. He was a Russian revolutionary and political theoretician. He was of Jewish-Ukrainian descent.  After leading the Red Army in the Russian Civil War, he disagreed with other Bolsheviks and had to leave Russia.

Trotsky was a socialist and a Marxist. In 1905 there was a 1905 Russian revolution in Russia. Trotsky helped organize a committee of workers in St Petersburg which was called the Soviet. When the leader of the Soviet was arrested, Trotsky became leader of the Soviet in his place.  Trotsky helped to expand on the idea of Permanent Revolution, which is a theory originally thought up by Karl Marx.

After the revolution Trotsky left Russia for his own safety. In 1917, he returned to Russia because of the Russian Revolution. He helped to bring about communism in Russia and defend it during the Russian Civil War. He was in charge of the army at this time.  When the leader of the Bolsheviks (the party who led the revolution) Vladimir Lenin died, Trotsky became involved in a power struggle with Joseph Stalin for the leadership of the party.  He lost, and Stalin came to power. He had to leave Russia because of Stalin, who was now his own enemy and wanted to harm Trotsky. In 1938 Trotsky founded the Fourth International. Stalin had one of his spies, Spaniard Ramón Mercarder, stab Trotsky to death in Mexico in 1940 who was ordered by Lavrentiy Beria .

	
People who believe in Trotsky's ideas are called Trotskyists and follow Trotskyism.  Trotskyism is seen as being a more democratic form of communism than others, such as Stalinism and Maoism. The main Trotskyist organization today is the Socialist Workers Party in the UK and the International Socialist Tendency worldwide. 

In the novel Animal Farm by George Orwell, Trotsky is represented by Snowball the pig and Stalin is represented by Napoleon who was also a pig. The book reflected real world events.

References

Other websites 
 Fourth International (post-reunification) 
 Story of Trotsky's Murder
 Trotsky's Grave

1879 births
1940 deaths
Government ministers
Jewish politicians
Jewish writers
Marxists
Murders by blade weapons
People murdered in North America
Russian communists
Russian historians
Russian Jews
Assassinated Russian people
Russian politicians
Russian Revolution
Second International

The Second International (1889–1916) was an organization created on July 14, 1889, by socialist and labour parties who wanted to work together for international socialism. It continued the work of the First International, which stopped being an organization in 1886. However, it did not include the still-powerful anarcho-syndicalist movement and trade unions.

Among the Second International's most famous actions were its 1889 declaration of May 1 as International Labor Day and its 1910 declaration of March 8 as International Women's Day.

The International's permanent executive and information body was the International Socialist Bureau (ISB). It was located in Brussels and formed after the International's Paris Congress of 1900. Emile Vandervelde and Camille Huysmans of the Belgian Labour Party were its chair and secretary. Vladimir Lenin was a member from 1905.
Dadabhai Nauroji attended its Paris commune in 1906.

International organizations
1889 establishments
Political organizations
1916 disestablishments
Insectivore

An insectivore is an animal or insect that eats mostly insects for food. An anteater is an animal that eats ants. Insectivorous plants also eat insects. The Venus flytrap is one of them.

To eat insects for food is not very easy because insects are small. Large insect-eating animals must eat many of them. Anteaters eat hundreds of ants every day.

Some omnivores like humans and bears also eat insects for food. There was once a taxonomic group of mammals called Insectivora. Most of its animals are now called Eulipotyphla.

Related pages
 Herbivore - an animal that eats mostly plants
 Carnivore - an animal that mostly eats meat from other animals.
 Detritivore - an animal that eats garbage, dead animals or other food left from another animal.
 Omnivore - an animal that eats animal meat, plants, fruit, and insects.

Animals by eating behaviors
Copy

Copy means a thing that is made to look like another thing.

Copying, making a copy, the duplication of information
Photocopying, a process which makes paper copies of documents and other visual images
Fax, a telecommunications machine used to transfer copies of documents over the telephone network
Facsimile, a copy or reproduction that is as true to the original source as possible
Replica, a copy closely resembling the original concerning its shape and appearance
Copy (written), commonly used in newsrooms and publications to refer to a writer's written content

Basic English 850 words
Vapor

Vapor (British English: vapour) is when small drops of liquid float in the air.  Sometimes this happens because the liquid has been heated.  Vapor is not the same as gas.  It is a mixture of liquid and gas.

water
Vehicle

A vehicle is a machine to move people and things. A vehicle is not alive. A horse can move people and things, but it is an animal, not a machine or a vehicle.

The word vehicle is borrowed from French and Latin. French véhicule, going back to Middle French, borrowed from Medieval Latin vehiculum "medium, agent of transmission," going back to Latin, "wheeled vehicle, means of transport," from vehere "to carry, convey.

Types of vehicles

Land vehicles 
Some vehicles move on land. Most land vehicles have wheels. Examples of land vehicles are bicycles, cars, motorcycles, and trains.

Land vehicles that are powered by an engine or motor are called motor vehicles.

Some land vehicles, like tanks and snowmobiles, have tracks. These tracks look and work like conveyor belts.

Water vehicles 
Some vehicles move on, or in, the water.  Examples are boats, ships, and submarines.

Air and space vehicles 
Vehicles that move in the sky are called aircraft.  Examples are aeroplanes and balloons.

Some vehicles, like the Space Shuttle, can even leave the Earth's orbit and go to outer space.

Power 
Vehicles can be propelled by various sources of energy.

 Human muscles.  Examples are bicycles and skateboards.
 Engines.  Examples are automobiles, ships, and aeroplanes.
 Electricity.  Examples are many passenger trains. 
 Animals.  Examples are carts and chariots.
 Wind.  Examples are sailboats and iceboats.
 Some vehicles have no propulsion power.  Examples are gliders and balloons.
Line dance

Line dancing is a form of group dancing that is done to either country or hip-hop music. The term line dance is derived from the idea that the group of people participating in the dance are all facing the same direction when conducting the series of moves in the line dance. A line dance can go from 32 beats upwards of up to 92 beats per minutes, and can also be either a 4 or 2 wall dance. When the dance starts off everyone is facing the front wall, after all of the counts of the dance are complete (let's say we were doing a 32 count dance) then everyone would finish the dance facing either the back wall or the left or right wall. One example of a line dance is the "Men In Black" line dance. This dance is usually done to a hip-hop song, such as "Yeah 3X", by Chris Brown. Once the first 32 counts of the dance are completed everyone will finish the dance facing the left wall, and would have turned one quarter to their left counter clockwise. Once the series of moves is completed 4 times the group will end up facing the front wall again.

Dance types
Three Kingdoms of Korea

The Three Kingdoms of Korea were Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. They existed between the 1st century BC and 7th century CE. There were some smaller kingdoms like Gaya, Dongye, Okjeo, Buyeo, Usan, Tamna, etc.

Baekje helped spread Chinese characters, Chinese culture, Han Buddhism, and other technology to Japan.

The Three Kingdoms period ended in 668: Silla allied with the Tang Dynasty to conquer Baekje and then Goguryeo. Korea unified under Later Silla. The Tang occupied the northern parts of Korea. After this Korea split during the North and South States period.

Besides Chinese records, the books Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa also record the history of the era. "Samguk" (Hangul: 삼국, Hanja: 三國) means "Three Kingdoms".

Sources 

History of Korea
Eckernförde

Eckernförde (, sometimes also Egernfjord, , sometimes also Eckernföör) is a German city in Schleswig-Holstein, Kreis Rendsburg-Eckernförde at the Baltic Sea near Kiel. The population is about 23,000.

All 24 German submarines are stationed in Eckernförde.

Eckernförde is a well-known touristic centre in Northern Germany.

History 
 In 1302 Eckernförde is first mentioned as a city.
 The Count Saint-Germain is supposed to be buried in Eckernförde near the St.-Nicolai-Church. His grave was destroyed by the great storm tide on 13 November 1872.

Twin towns 
 , Macclesfield, (since 1953)
 , Hässleholm, (since 1958)
 , Tanga, (since 1963)
 , Nakskov, (since 1969)
 , Brzeg, (since 1989)
 , , Bützow, (since 1990)

References

Other websites

 Official homepage of Eckernförde 
 Official tourist information 
 Local Newspaper (Eckernförder Zeitung) 

Cities in Schleswig-Holstein
Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
Municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein
Port cities and towns of the Baltic Sea
Spa towns in Germany
Towns in Schleswig-Holstein
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria

Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Josef of Austria, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Este (Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Josef; ) (18 December 1863 – 28 June 1914) was an archduke (like a prince) of Austria and, from 1896 to his death, was the heir apparent and was supposed to be the next emperor of Austria-Hungary. He was killed in the city Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip. That made Austria declare war against Serbia, which started the First World War.

On 28 June 1914, Franz  Ferdinand went to Sarajevo in Bosnia for a trip. He was traveling to the Town Hall at 10pm with his wife, Sophie, in the third car of a motorcade in a roofless limousine. Franz Ferdinand had jokingly mentioned that he wouldn’t be surprised if there was a few bombs waiting for him on his trip. On his way to the Town Hall the first man to try to assassinate the Archduke, Grabez, was standing waiting for Ferdinand to try and shoot him but he froze and let the car pass. He went home afterwards and hid his gun and bomb but was later arrested.

On the same route to the Town Hall a man, also from the Black Hand, called Cabrinovic threw a bomb at the car injuring lots of Ferdinand's staff but he failed to kill the Archduke himself so he  tried to swallow cyanide and jump into the river Miljacka but failed to die  and got arrested. The Archduke was shocked but headed to the Town Hall anyway and did his speech whilst the paper was covered in the blood of his assistant who was injured in the bomb. After his speech he decided to go to the hospital to visit the 20 people injured in the bomb. As the driver took a turn to head to the hospital Princip jumped out and shot Sophie in the abdomen who collapsed and died instantly then shot the Archduke in his neck and in his leg. He died on the way to the hospital. Ferdinand's last words were “Sophie! Sophie! Don’t die! For our children!
Princip was sentenced to twenty years in prison, the maximum for his age, and was imprisoned at the Terezín fortress. The man who threw the bomb, Cabrinovic, was also sentenced to 20 years in prison.

References

1863 births
1914 deaths
Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria
Assassinated people
Habsburg Dynasty
Murders by firearm
World War I people