alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
New Year's Day

New Year's Day is a holiday in many countries. It was made to welcome the new year. In most countries, New Year's Day is celebrated on 1 January. This holiday is celebrated the most, with over 200 countries and territories in the world that observe it.

The new year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have new year celebrations.

Modern new year celebrations 2023:

Historical dates for the new year

Early Christmas 
In Christmas Style dating, the new year started on 25 December. This was used in Germany and England until the thirteenth century, and in Spain from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century.

In Annunciation Style dating the new year started on 25 March, the feast of the Annunciation. This was used in many parts of Europe in the Middle Ages. The style was started by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525. Annunciation Style was used in England until 1 January 1752, and in Scotland until 1 January 1600, when the kingdom of Scotland changed to Circumcision Style. England, the kingdom of Ireland, and the Thirteen Colonies changed to Circumcision Style on 1 January, after the United Kingdom of Great Britain changed from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar on 3/14 September 1752. This happened because the Parliament of Great Britain made an act of parliament, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.

References

Other websites
 New Year's Around the World   – slideshow by Life magazine
 

January events
New Year
Coagulation

A coagulation, also known as clot is a semi-solid substance that blood forms, especially when it is in air. When a person bleeds, the blood turns into a clot at the injury.

A blood clot is also called a thrombus. The process is called coagulation.

If a person gets a cut on their body, that person may bleed. To stop the bleeding, the human body does several things. First, the brain orders the liver to produce chemicals that will help the clot to form. When the chemicals released by the liver arrive at the injury, the coagulation begins. In the mean time, the brain also lessens the blood flow near the injury (by tightening the veins and arteries in that area), so that not as much blood is lost. 

There is a limit to how quickly a clot can form. If the cut is very deep and the person bleeds too much, a clot may not be able to form and a lot of blood may be lost.

The details 

Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. When blood is exposed to proteins such as tissue factor it starts changes to blood platelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen, which is a clotting factor. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury. Proteins in the blood plasma, called coagulation factors or clotting factors, respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands. These strengthen the platelet plug.

Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology; that means its genetics is almost the same in all mammal species. In all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular (platelet) and a protein (coagulation factor) component. The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood.

Fibrin 
Fibrin is a white insoluble fibrous protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen when blood clots. it forms a network that traps red cells and platelets.

Vitamin K 
Vitamin K is an essential factor in blood clotting. Then, vitamin K is oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase, (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. This reactivation is important as a target of anticoagulant drug warfarin. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.

References 

Blood
1690



Events
 January 6 – Joseph, son of Emperor Leopold I becomes King of the Romans
 January 14 – The clarinet is invented in Nuremberg, Germany
 May 20 – England passes Act of Grace, forgiving followers of James II
 July 1 – The Battle of the Boyne, in Ireland
 October 6-12 – Massachusetts Puritans led by Sir William Phips besiege the city of Quebec. The siege ends in failure.
 December 29 – earthquake in Anconer in Papal States, Italy

 Earliest recorded sighting of the planet Uranus, by John Flamsteed, who mistakenly catalogues it as the star 34 Tauri
 Giovanni Domenico Cassini observes differential rotation within Jupiter's atmosphere.
 The French invade the small town of Teignmouth in Southwest England, in their last attack on England.

Births 
 January 22 – Nicolas Lancret, French painter (d. 1743)
 February 1 – Francesco Maria Veracini, Italian composer (d. 1768)
 February 3 – Richard Rawlinson, English minister and antiquarian (d. 1755)
 March 18 – Christian Goldbach Prussian mathematician (d. 1764)
 April 22 – John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville, English statesman (d. 1763)
 September 12 – Peter Dens, Belgian Catholic theologian (d. 1775)
 October 29 – Martin Folkes, English antiquarian (d. 1754)
 November 24 – Charles Theodore Pachelbel, German composer (d. 1750)
 November 29 – Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (d. 1747)
 December 1 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1764)
890

890 was a common year.

Events 
 The sovereignty of prince Svatopluk I in Bohemia is confirmed.
 First ceremonial visit by a Welsh king (Anarawd, King of Gwynedd) to an English court (that of Alfred the Great).
 Founding of Kirby Muxloe. (approximate date)
Bochum

Bochum ( , also  , ; Westphalian: Baukem, Low Franconian: Boochem, Old Saxon: Bochem) is a city in the Ruhr area of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It is part of the Arnsberg Government Region.

Bochum has about 380,000 inhabitants.
The city is formed by the traditional industry of coal mining in the Ruhr area, but today there is no mining in Bochum anymore.

Education
Today the most important institution in Bochum is the Ruhr-University Bochum, one of the biggest German universities.
It has an extremely wide spectrum of subjects, beginning with mathematics and science, social sciences, economy, engineering, laws, philosophy, historical subjects, theology, medicine, and languages even including Chinese and Polish.

Culture
Bochum has a rich cultural life and its theatre is one of the most prominent in Germany. Next to Bochum are the cities Essen and Hattingen.

References
Progressive rock

Progressive rock is a type of rock music with complicated musical technique and composition. This means that the tempo, time signature, and style can change many times in a single song.

Most normal rock songs follow a very simple pattern in the way they are arranged. This pattern is a verse followed by a chorus, then a different verse, and then the same chorus. Progressive rock is more complicated than this, and can require more skill to play.

Origins 
Progressive rock was first made in the late 1960s, but became most popular in the 1970s. It continues to be popular today, too. Progressive rock began in England and spread throughout Europe. It remains most popular in Europe, but there are several notable American and Canadian progressive rock bands. This genre was influenced by classical music and jazz fusion. Over the years, different sub-genres of progressive rock have been created, such as symphonic rock, art rock, math rock, and progressive metal.

Progressive rock artists wished to create music that was not limited to the structures of common popular rock and pop music. They wanted to make rock music that "progressed" to the complexity of jazz and classical music by creating a more serious, complex and sophisticated type of rock music. Progressive rock bands may have influences from psychedelic rock, folk music, traditional music, world music, and jazz or jazz fusion. It is also referred to as "prog rock" as an abbreviation, or as "Hobbit rock" because of frequent medieval or fantasy themes in the lyrics.

Progressive rock bands write and play songs that have many changes during each song. Regular rock songs have verses and a chorus, but progressive songs can have many different sections. For example, instead of having verses and choruses, progressive rock songs may have many different musical themes, solos, and musical moods. A typical progressive song might have a form such as: Introduction-Verse-Chorus-instrumental section-New verse-New chorus-Instrumental section-Ending.
Because of their depth and complexity, progressive rock songs are not played on pop music radio very often.

Bands 
Some of the important progressive rock bands from the late 1960s and early 1970s include The Moody Blues, Jethro Tull; Yes, Genesis; Pink Floyd; Emerson; Lake & Palmer; Rush; Gentle Giant; Happy The Man; Van der Graaf Generator, and King Crimson.

Characteristics of progressive rock 
Progressive rock is difficult to define, because progressive rock bands often play different types of progressive rock music which sound different. There are some common elements that are in most progressive rock band music, such as long, complex songs, unusual time signatures, unusual instruments or ways of using them, and use of improvisation, which means making up or inventing music while playing on stage.

Albums by progressive rock groups are often concept albums. In a concept album, the songs have a common theme, are arranged in a certain order and often tell a story or represent a larger concept.

References 

 

Music genres
San Juan, Puerto Rico

San Juan is the capital and largest city of Puerto Rico. The city's population is 433,733. It is the 42nd-largest city and the oldest European settlement in United States territory. Today, San Juan is Puerto Rico's most important seaport.

History 
San Juan was founded in 1521. It was named after San Juan Bautista, or St. John the Baptist (name given by Christopher Columbus). San Juan is also known as "La Ciudad Amurallada". This means the "walled city". San Juan has many old buildings still standing today. Many Spanish explorers came during the Age of Discovery and built forts, churches, and other historical buildings. An example of a very old fort is "La Fortaleza". It is also known as "Palacio de Santa Catalina". In the sixteenth century, it was a Spanish fortress against Caribs. These were the people native to the Caribbean islands and Central America. Another old building is the oldest residence in Old San Juan, Casas de los Contrasfuertes (House of Buttresses).

References 

Cities in Puerto Rico
Municipalities of Puerto Rico
United States capital cities
1521 establishments
1520s establishments in North America
Establishments in Puerto Rico
Rural area

Rural areas are areas which are not towns or cities. They are often farming or agricultural areas. These areas are sometimes called "the country" or "countryside". People who live "in the country" often live in small villages, but they might also live somewhere where there are no other houses nearby.

Rural is the opposite of urban, which means places such as cities where buildings and places where people work and live are all close together.

Many people who live in cities like to go to the country to relax. They go there for recreation, often for their holidays, or to read.

In the U.S. and Angola the term "rural area" technically describes a place that has less than 500 inhabitants per square mile.

Human geography
Urban and regional sciences

oc:Campagne
Stephen Crane

Stephen Townley Crane (November 1, 1871 - June 5, 1900) was an American writer.  He was born on November 1, 1871 in Newark, New Jersey to Jonathan Townley Crane, a clergyman, and Mary Helen Peck Crane. He attended Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, but did not graduate. He moved to New York City in 1892 to write about the slum life of Manhattan. His major works include the novella Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), the war novel The Red Badge of Courage (1895), and the short story "The Open Boat" (1897). After the success of Badge, his literary reputation declined.  His health was poor. In May 1899, he entered a sanitarium in Badenweiler, Germany. On June 5, 1900, he died of tuberculosis. He is buried in the Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside, New Jersey.

References 
 Stephen Crane biography
 Biography of Stephen Crane

1871 births
1900 deaths
Writers from Newark, New Jersey
Lawrence's goldfinch

The Lawrence's goldfinch (Carduelis lawrencei) is a small songbird of North America. Bigger than the Lesser Goldfinch, and smaller than the American Goldfinch, with less yellow markings than either.

It lives from central California and its southern coast in the United States, to Baja California in Mexico. Females have less yellow and do not have the black cap and chin of the males.

This bird is named after the American ornithologist (bird expert), George Newbold Lawrence.

References

Finches
Birds of North America
George Newbold Lawrence

George Newbold Lawrence (October 20, 1806 - January 17, 1895) was an American businessperson and amateur ornithologist (bird expert).

Lawrence counted birds for Spencer Fullerton Baird and John Cassin, and the three men wrote Birds of North America in 1858.

Lawrence left his 8,000 bird skins to the American Museum of Natural History. The Lawrence's Goldfinch Carduelis lawrencei was named for him by Cassin.

1806 births
1895 deaths
Businesspeople from New York City
American ornithologists
Cinnamon

Cinnamon is a spice from the inner bark of Cinnamomum verum.

The spice is used in both sweet and savoury foods. It is aromatic. People usually put cinnamon in sweet baked goods (such as cinnamon rolls), hot wine or liquors.

Cinnamon was used to make the spiced wine, claret, in the Middle Ages. In India, cinnamon is commonly used in making flavoured tea. It is either directly added as small pieces or put in powdered form during the preparation of tea. It is known as "Daal-Cheeni (दाल चीनि)" in Hindi.

The Sinhalese name of cinnamon is kurundu. Cinnamon is grown as an export crop in Sri Lanka.

Cinnamon as a herbal remedy 
There is a literature which suggests that cinnamon spice may have positive effects on diabetes type II. This is not the view of the U.S., National Institutes of Health.

References

Lauraceae
Spices
Medicinal plants
1186

Year 1186 (MCLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 John the Chanter becomes Bishop of Exeter.
 January 27 – Constance of Sicily marries Henry (the future Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor).
 The Byzantine Empire recognises the indepence of Bulgaria.
 Guy of Lusignan becomes King of Jerusalem.

Births 
 May 18 — Konstantin of Rostov, Prince of Novgorod (d. 1218)
 Queen Urraca of Portugal spouse of King Afonso II of Portugal (d. 1220)
 Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (d. 1225)
 Iziaslav IV Vladimirovich, Grand Prince of Kiev
 Ögedei Khan, third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (d. 1241)
 Song Ci, Chinese physician and judge (d. 1249)

Deaths 
 May 29 or June 23 or June 24 — Robert of Torigni
 August 19 — Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158)
 Baldwin V of Jerusalem (b. 1177)
 William of Tyre, Archbishop of Tyre (b. c. 1130)
 Minamoto no Yukiie, Japanese warlord
1187



Events 
 May 1 – Battle of Cresson – Saladin defeats the crusaders
 July 4 – Saladin defeats Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, at the Battle of Hattin.
 September 20 – October 2 – Siege of Jerusalem – Saladin captures Jerusalem.
 October 29 – Pope Gregory VIII issues the bull Audita tremendi, proposing the Third Crusade.
 Alexis Branas attempts to seize Constantinople in defiance of his master Isaac II Angelus.
 Cathedral of St. Jacob consecrated in Szczecin, Pomerania
 Destruction of Sigtuna – archbishop is killed
 Knut Eriksson builds a castle in the island of Stockholm
 Compass in Europe
 The Toltecs are deposed at Chichen Itza
 Zen Buddhism comes to Japan
 King of Ankor Vat, Jayavarman VII defeats Cham conquerors
 Ghorin Muhammed conquers Punjab
 Genoa takes Bonifacio (in Corsica) from Pisa

Births 
 September 5 — King Louis VIII of France (d. 1226)
 Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (d. 1203)
 Vladimir III Rurikovich, Grand Prince of Kiev (d. 1239)

Deaths 
 July 4 — Raynald of Chatillon, Prince of Antioch (executed, b. c. 1125)
 October 19 — Pope Urban III
 November 9 — Emperor Gaozong of China (b. 1107)
 December 17 — Pope Gregory VIII (b. c. 1100)
 Gerard of Cremona, Italian translator of scientific works (b. c. 1114)
 Roger de Moulins, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller
 Count Raymond III of Tripoli (b. 1140)

1187
1188

1188 was a leap year.

Events 
 Saladin unsuccessfully besieges the Hospitaller fortress of Krak des Chevaliers in modern Syria.
 Newgate Prison is built.
 Richard Lionheart allies with Philip II of France against his father, Henry II of England.
 Giraldus Cambrensis and Baldwin of Exeter travel through Wales attempting to recruit men for the Third Crusade.
 The "Saladin tithe" is levied in England.
 Alfonso IX of Castile becomes king of Leon.
 Queen Tamar of Georgia marries David Soslan.
Egg

Egg can mean different things:
 Egg (biology)
 Ovum, the female reproductive cell
 Zygote, a fertilised ovum
 Cleidoic egg: the type of egg produced by amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals)
 Egg (food): a type of egg that can be eaten.

Basic English 850 words
Blaise Pascal

Blaise Pascal (19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor,  philosopher, writer and Catholic theologian. He was born in Clermont-Ferrand, France. His mother died when he was three years old. His father's name was Étienne. He had two sisters, Jaqueline and Gilberte. Pascal was completely educated by his father.His father was a tax collector. Pascal was considered a child prodigy. Though best known for his works in mathematics, including the creation of Pascal's Triangle, which is named after him, and developments in the field of probability, Pascal was also a scientist. He wrote in support of the scientific method and also contributed to physics. Later he wrote two books about Christianity. Also, the Pascal unit was named after him.

Pascal died in Paris, France at 39. He had several illnesses; it is not known which of them caused his death.

Pascal invented a form of counting machine which helped inventors create the calculator in the 20th century.

1623 births
1662 deaths
Disease-related deaths in Paris
French mathematicians
French physicists
Scientists from Paris
People from Clermont-Ferrand
Pascal's triangle

1
 1   1
 1   2   1
 1   3   3   1
 1   4   6   4   1
 1   5  10  10   5   1
 
The first six rows of Pascal's triangle
Pascal's Triangle is a mathematical triangular array. It is named after French mathematician Blaise Pascal, but it was used in China 3 centuries before his time.

Pascal's triangle can be made as follows. On the first row, write only the number 1. Then, to get the numbers of following rows, add the number that can be seen above and to the left (if any) and the number above and to the right (if any) to find the new value. For example, the numbers 1 and 3 in the fourth row are added to make 4 in the fifth row.

The triangle displays the coefficients that occur when the binomial  is raised to the  power:

The same triangle can also be expressed using combinations:

, 

where

Uses of Pascal's triangle 
The triangle has many uses in probability. It can also be used in binomial expansions. For example,

(x + 1)2 = 1x2 + 2x + 12.

Notice the coefficients are the third row of Pascal's triangle: 1, 2, 1.
In general, when a binomial is raised to a positive integer power we have:

(x + y)n = a0xn + a1xn−1y + a2xn−2y2 + … + an−1xyn−1 + anyn,

where the coefficients ai in this expansion are precisely the numbers on row n + 1 of Pascal's triangle; in other words,

Pascal's rule 
Formally speaking, the way of making the Pascal's Triangle uses Pascal's rule, which states that

for non-negative integers n and k where n ≥ k and with the initial condition

Complicated structures based on Pascal's triangle 
Pascal's triangle generalizes readily into higher dimensions. The three-dimensional version is called Pascal's pyramid or Pascal's tetrahedron. A higher-dimensional analogue is generically called a "Pascal's simplex"*. See also pyramid, tetrahedron, and simplex.

Properties of Pascal's Triangle 
The first and last number in each row is always 1.

The second number in each row is the row number. In a binomial expansion, this second number is equal to the power. (This makes the 'first' row, 1, actually the zero row).

The rows always read the same forward and backward.

The sum of the numbers in each row is double the sum of the numbers in the row before. The sum of each row is 2n.
     The zero row, 1, has a sum of 1.
          

     The first row, 1,1 has a sum of 2.
          

     The second row, 1,2,1 has a sum of 4.
          

     The third row, (1,3,3,1) has a sum of 8.
         

     The sum of the nth row is

Other websites 

 Higher Dimensional Pascal's Triange - Like Structures 

Mathematics
Antidisestablishmentarianism

Antidisestablishmentarianism is a political position. It means "to keep an established church". An official state church is called the "established" church, so a disestablishmentarian is a person who wants to stop the state church. These people say a state church hurts the freedom of religion. These people say the state should be secular, meaning religion and the country are separate. This idea is called disestablishmentarianism. So antidisestablishmentarianism wants to keep the state church.

It is famous because it is one of the longest words in the English language.

History in England 
The word comes from England in the 1800s. In England, Ireland and Wales, there was an official state church called the Anglican Church. Ireland disestablished in 1871, and Wales disestablished in 1920. England still has the Anglican Church as the state church.

In 2014 Nick Clegg, who was the Leader of the Liberal Democrats at the time, said that he thought the Church of England should no longer be the established church. David Cameron, who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said the establishment helps the church and state.

As a word 
Antidisestablishmentarianism is one of the longest words in the English language. It has 28 letters and 12 syllables. It is considered to be the longest word, if you do not count technical terms. For example, "pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis" is a technical term for a lung disease made by people who wanted it to be the longest word.

In pop culture 
The word became famous because of a popular television show in the 1950s called The $64,000 Question, where someone spelled it and won. Duke Ellington, a jazz artist, had a song called "You're Just an Old Antidisestablishmentarianismist". Eminem, a rapper, used the word in his song "Almost Famous".

Construction of the word 
 establish
 to set up, put in place, or institute
 dis-establish
 to end the established status of something, in this case a state church
 disestablish-ment
 the separation of church and state
 anti-disestablishment
 do not want disestablishment
 antidisestablishment-ary
 about anti-disestablishment
 antidisestablishmentari-an
 someone who does not want disestablishment
 antidisestablishmentarian-ism
 the movement or ideology that does not want disestablishment

Related pages
State religion
Freedom of religion
Secularism
Multiculturalism

References

Long words
Religion in England
1193

1193 (MCXCIII) was .

Events 
 Saladin dies, and the lands of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria are split among his descendants.
 Qutb-ud-Din, a Ghurid slave commander, captures Delhi.
 Muhammad Khilji, a general under the command of Qutb-ud-Din sacks and burns Nalanda, India's greatest Buddhist university.
 Philip II of France marries Ingeborg, daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark.

Births 
 William de Ferrers, 5th Earl of Derby (d. 1254)
 Albertus Magnus, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1280)
 John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1254)

Deaths 
 March 4 — Saladin, Sultan of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria (b. c. 1138)
 Balian of Ibelin, noble of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (b. early 1140s)
 Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Gyalwa Karmapa (b. 1110)
 Minamoto no Noriyori, Japanese general (b. 1156)
 Emperor Renzong of Western Xia, 5th emperor of the Western Xia dynasty (b. 1124)
 Fan Chengda, Chinese poet

Heads of states 
 England — Richard I King of England (reigned 1189–1199)
 France — Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned 1180–1223)
 Byzantine Empire — Isaac II Angelus (reigned 1185 to 1195, and 1203–1204)
 Pope — Celestine III (Pope 1191–1198)
 China — Emperor Guangzong of Song (reigned 1189-1194)
Sarah McLachlan

Sarah Ann McLachlan (born January 28, 1968) is a Canadian singer-songwriter who is known for her emotional music. She was adopted and raised in Halifax, Nova Scotia. She went to the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, then moved to Vancouver, British Columbia.

Her recording company, Nettwerk, released her first album in 1988. After recording several albums, she organized the all-female music festival Lilith Fair in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Some of the money made from these concerts went to women's charities. McLachlan received the Elizabeth Cady Stanton Visionary Award in 1998 for helping women's music.

She married her drummer, Ashwin Sood, in 1997. They have a daughter, India, born in 2002.

McLachlan has been written about in magazines such as Rolling Stone, Time, and Entertainment Weekly. She has won Grammy and Juno awards for her music.

She funds a Vancouver program that helps poor children learn music. She has played at charity concerts, such as for victims of the December 26, 2004 tsunami and at the 2005 Live 8 concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.

Some of McLachlan's best-known songs include "The Path of Thorns", "Into the Fire", "Possession", "Building a Mystery", "Sweet Surrender", "Adia", "Angel", and "World on Fire".

Influences 
McLachlan stated music artists like Cowboy Junkies, Kate Bush, Tom Waits, 10,000 Maniacs, Sinéad O'Connor, Joni Mitchell, Peter Gabriel, Cocteau Twins, Daniel Lanois, Kate & Anna McGarrigle, Laura Nyro, Sandy Denny, Suzanne Vega, U2, Rickie Lee Jones, Stevie Nicks, Anne Murray, Jane Siberry and Bruce Cockburn as influences.

Albums 
Albums with only new songs:
 Touch (1988)
 Solace (1991)
 Fumbling Towards Ecstacy (1993)
 Surfacing (1997)
 Afterglow (2003)

Live albums 
 Mirrorball (1999)
 Afterglow Live (2004)
Live EPs (shorter albums) were released in 1992 and 2004.

Other albums 
 The Freedom Sessions (1994)
 Rarities, B-Sides and Other Stuff (1996)
 Albums called Murmers were released only for her fan club every year from 1995 to 2001.
 Two remix albums were released, in 2001 and 2005.

1968 births
Canadian adoptees
Canadian pop singers
Canadian singer-songwriters
Grammy Award winners
People from Halifax, Nova Scotia
Living people
Entertainers from Nova Scotia
Mark Twain

Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), more widely known as Mark Twain, was an American writer. He was born in Florida, Missouri.  He worked mainly for newspapers and as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River before he became a writer. He married in 1870, and raised his family in Hartford, Connecticut. In later life he invested and lost the money that his writing had made, and toured the world giving lectures that brought him enough money to pay his debt and recover his fortune. 

Clemens was  best known for his works in fiction, and especially for his use of humour. His first published story, in 1865, was The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is considered by many to be Clemens' best work.  This story of a white boy who helps a black man escape slavery in the southern United States is known for its humanity.

Clemens's style was usually informal and humorous. This made him different from many important 19th century writers whose books he disliked. For example, he greatly disliked Jane Austen's works, such as Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice, and famously remarked, "She makes me detest (hate) all her people, without reserve."

Actor Hal Holbrook plays Mark Twain on stage in a one-man show called Mark Twain Tonight.

Halley's Comet appeared in the sky during the year Twain was born and the year he died. This periodic comet comes back every 74 years, which is how long he lived.

Bibliography 
 The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876)
 The Prince and the Pauper (1882)
 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)
 A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889)

References

Other websites 
 
 
 
 
 The Mark Twain Papers and Project of the Bancroft Library (Archive of Mark Twain's papers and writings)
 Samuel Langhorne Clemens collection of papers at New York Public Library

1835 births
1910 deaths
 
19th-century American novelists
American autobiographers
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Pen names
Comedians from Connecticut
Comedians from Missouri
Writers from Missouri
Comedians from Nevada
Writers from Nevada
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban

Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is the third book in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling. The book was released on 8 July 1999. It covers Harry Potter's third year at Hogwarts. A movie based on the book was released on 31 May 2004. This is the only book where Lord Voldemort does not make an appearance.

Plot 
After accidentally inflating his aunt Marge, Harry leaves the Dursleys, and catches a ride on the street on a magical bus called The Knight Bus. Before he begins his way back to Hogwarts, he learns of Sirius Black, a mass murderer, believed to have killed thirteen people with a single curse. Black has escaped from the wizard prison, Azkaban. Meanwhile, upon meeting the Weasleys, Harry learns that, despite accidentally using magic (which is illegal), he has not been expelled.   Mr. Weasley tells Mrs. Weasley of Sirius Black's motive to kill Harry when Harry overhears this he is told not to go looking for Black. Later in the book, Harry soon realizes why.

Other websites

1999 books
Harry Potter books
Crohn's disease

Crohn's disease is a disease that causes the intestines to become swollen. It is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The intestines may also develop ulcers. People with Crohn's disease often have pain in the stomach, diarrhea, vomiting, and weight loss. Crohn's can also cause skin rashes, arthritis, and swollen eyes. It is named after Burrill Bernard Crohn, who described cases in 1932. It was first
described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771) in the 18th century.

Nobody knows exactly what causes Crohn's disease. In the disease, the person's body attacks itself. The immune system attacks healthy parts of the digestive tract. This causes swelling in the digestive tract.

Though Crohn's is an immune-related disease, it is not an autoimmune disease (the immune system is not triggered by the body itself). The exact underlying immune problem is not clear.  Crohn's disease seems to be connected to the person's genes. People whose brothers or sisters have the disease are the most likely to get it. Men and women can both be affected by Crohn's disease.

Managing Crohn's disease includes both lifestyle changes and various kind of medication. It is a chronic condition for which there is no cure. Certain parasitic intestinal worms appear to make the bowel less inflamed. It is supposed that the worms modify the immune reactions in the parts of the intestine where they live.

Alternative medicine of various kinds has been tried, with uncertain results.

References

Other websites 
Crohn's disease information and tools for patients 
Crohn's disease facts from the National Institutes of Health 
Crohns Disease Resource Site 

Diseases and disorders of the digestive system
Immunology
Pet door

Pet doors, also known as cat doors, dog doors, doggie doors, or in the United Kingdom, cat flaps, are small doors for pets. They are usually built in regular doors, but can also be in windows or walls. They usually have the hinge on the top, with no latch, so the animal can push their way in and out. Newer models sometimes only let the pet go outside, but not inside. Others have a latch and something that can be put on the pet that makes the latch open when the pet gets close to the door. They are most commonly used for pet cats, but can also be used for dogs, miniature pigs, or other small pets.

The pet door was developed by Isaac Newton.
Pets
Doors
Fort Knox

Fort Knox is an U.S. Army post in Kentucky. Named after Henry Knox, the fort is now the site of the U.S. Bullion Reservatory (where the United States keeps its gold). The fort's fortifications were built in 1862 during the American Civil War; however, after the war the camp became abandoned until 1917.  

It is named for Henry Knox, a general in the American Revolutionary War.

American Civil War
Buildings and structures in Kentucky
Knox
Census-designated places in Kentucky
Hardin County, Kentucky
Bullitt County, Kentucky
Meade County, Kentucky
1862 establishments in the United States
1860s establishments in Kentucky
Henry Knox

Henry Knox (1750-1806) was a military leader for the Americans during the American Revolutionary War. Originally from Boston, Massachusetts, he was appointed Chief Artillery Officer of the Continental Army. He is best known for transporting cannons and other artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston through icy conditions using oxen. Later, George Washington named him the first Secretary of War. 

Fort Knox in Kentucky & Maine are named after him.

1750 births
1806 deaths
American generals
American revolutionaries
Founding Fathers of the United States
Politicians from Boston
18th-century American politicians
Military people from Massachusetts
1775

1775 was a common year.

Events 
May – beginning of American Revolutionary War
May – First Continental Congress
June – Second Continental Congress
Continental Army

The Continental Army was the fighting force of the thirteen British colonies in the American Revolutionary War. It was created in 1775 by the First Continental Congress. Most of the army was disbanded in 1783 after the conclusion of the war. The army was officially closed by a resolution of Congress in 1784. A Legion of the United States partly replaced it in 1792, and the United States Army replaced it in 1796.

Congress elected George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army when it was formed. He led the army until it was disbanded.

United States Army
American Revolutionary War
1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
1784 disestablishments
18th-century disestablishments in the United States
Cream cheese

Cream cheese is a soft, mild-tasting, white cheese. Sometimes, it is given extra flavor by adding additional seasonings such as puréed garlic, chopped dill, or chopped olives; as well, some cream cheese has small pieces of fruit or other sweet food blended into it. Cream cheese is different from other cheese in that it is not allowed time to mature. It is either made by cream or a mixture of milk and cream.

Serving
Cream cheese is often spread on toasted bagels. Waffles with cream cheese and salsa is eaten in some areas of the United States.

As an ingredient
Cream cheese is used to make cheesecake, a sweet, rich cake that is served for dessert.

Related pages
 Fromage frais

References 

Cheeses
Spreads
Shrewsbury

Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, a county of England. It is located 9 miles (14 km) east of the Welsh border and serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid-Wales.

The town is very old. It was started around 700 AD. The town centre has almost the exact same medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. Many of these buildings have timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries. There is also Shrewsbury Castle, which was built  in 1074, and Shrewsbury Abbey, which was built in 1083. The town centre is almost completely surrounded by the River Severn.

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury and lived there for 27 years.

The population of Shrewsbury is just over 76,000, making it the second largest town in Shropshire, the biggest being Telford.

The town has a railway station and a professional football club, Shrewsbury Town, who compete in League One.

Twinning
Shrewsbury is twinned with  Zutphen, Netherlands.

In fiction
Shrewsbury Abbey is the setting of the Brother Cadfael Chronicles by Ellis Peters (Edith Pargeter). The books were later made into a television show.  The story is about a 12th-century monk who solves mysteries.  In 2013, the Abbey honoured Pargeter on the 100th anniversary of her birth.

Gallery

References

County towns in England
Market towns in Shropshire
Telford

Telford is a large town in the county of Shropshire, England. It is in the borough of Telford and Wrekin.

It is a new town and building began in the 1960s. It is known for its large shopping centre in the town centre. It also has an ice rink and a large park.

The population of Telford is just over 140,000. It is the largest town in Shropshire, however the county town is Shrewsbury.

The town has a railway station, Telford Central. The town also has a football club, A.F.C. Telford United.

Gallery

Towns in Shropshire
Ludlow

Ludlow is a town in Shropshire, a county of England. The town is very old and dates back to around 800 AD. There is a large castle and many other historic buildings. 

There are just over 10,000 people living in the town.

It is the largest town in the South Shropshire area.

The town, though not large, is important in its area, which includes the Welsh Marches, Wales and South Shropshire. Its parish church, St Laurence's, is the largest in the county.

Transport

Road 
The A49, A4117, B4361 and B4365 roads pass through or go near Ludlow.

Rail 
Ludlow has a train station.

References

Towns in Shropshire
7th century establishments in England
Civil parishes in Shropshire
South Shropshire

South Shropshire is an area of Shropshire in England.

It is very hilly and has few people living there. The only large town is Ludlow.

The area has many castles and other ancient features, such as stone circles.

District and borough councils in England
Shropshire
1189

1189 was a common year.

Events 
 January 21 – Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade
 September 3– Richard I of England is crowned as king of England.
 August 29– Ban Kulin wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of Bosnian statehood
 This year was fixed as the start of time immemorial in English law in 1276.
 Beginning of the Siege of Acre.
 The Crusader castles of Montreal and Kerak are captured by Saladin.

Births 
 Yuri II, grand prince of Vladimir (d. 1238)

Deaths 
 July 6 — King Henry II of England (b. 1133)
Horatio Gates

Horatio Gates (1726 - 1806) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War. General Gates fought for the Continental Army and is credited with the decisive American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. 

In the earlier French and Indian War, he fought along with George Washington against the French, as an officer in the British Army.

However, Gates also lost to British General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden in 1780. He had a child named Robert.

 

1726 births
1806 deaths

American revolutionaries
1276



Events 
 February – The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens move from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong to get away from an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
 March 9 – Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
 June – King Rudolph I of Germany starts a war with King Otakar II of Bohemia; by November, Otakar II has to give him four important pieces of land. (The diet of Nuremberg already decided this in 1274.)
 Four different men are pope in this year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in a short time.
 King Otakar II of Bohemia lays the foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna.
 Mamluk sultan Baibars takes Al-Maris, which was part of Makuria, and goes through it into Egypt.
 A 23-year drought begins to change the Grand Canyon area. In the end, the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture has to migrate out of the region.

Births 
 October 19 – Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
 Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
 Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
 Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
 Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
 Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France

Deaths
1274



Events 
 May 7 – The Second Council of Lyons, held by the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church convenes to consider the conquest of the Holy Land via Crusades and address the East-West Schism with the Byzantine church. The Council eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to conquer the Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism which ultimately proves unsuccessful.
 November – The diet at Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor be restored to Rudolph I of Germany; almost all European rulers agree, with the notable exception of King Otakar II of Bohemia, who had benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
 Pope Gregory X decrees that conclaves (meetings during which the electors have no contact with the outside) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over three years to elect him.
1198

{{Year in other calendars10021
 (MCXCVIII''') was .

Events 
 End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba, emperor of Japan
 Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan
 January 8 – Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne
 Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily

Births 
 August 24 — King Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1249)
 Ertugrul, Turkish leader, father of Osman I (d. 1281)
 Ferdinand III of Castile (d. 1252)
 Sybilla of Lusignan, wife of Leo II of Armenia (d. c. 1230)

Deaths 
 January 8 — Pope Celestine III (b. c. 1106)
 March 11 — Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145)
 April 16 — Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. c. 1175)
 September 1 — Dulce Berenguer, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1160)
 November 27 — Queen Constance of Sicily, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1154)
 December 10 — Averroes, Arab philosopher and physician (b. 1126)
 Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland
 Alix of France, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1150)
 William III of Sicily (b. 1190)
 June 2 — Lord Ygo III of Galama, Frisian knight and nobleman (b. 1139)
 William of Newburgh, English historian (b. 1135)
1433



Events 
 Winter: Much of the English town of Alnwick in Northumbria burnt by Scottish a raiding party.
 The Ming dynasty in China disbands their navy, altering the balance of power in the Indian Ocean, making it easier for Portugal and other Western naval powers to gain dominance over the seas.
1435

1435 was a common year.

Events 
 September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
 Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.
Heinrich-Heine-University

Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (HHU) () is the university of Düsseldorf, Germany, named after the most famous son of Düsseldorf, the poet Heinrich Heine.

History
In the era of Napoleon Bonaparte there was the first university in Düsseldorf, which ended after Napoleon surrendered.
So in the further 19th century there was only a Medical Academy and the famous Arts School of Düsseldorf and a Teacher Academy (Special University only for studying to became a teacher) until the 1970s, but no regular university, in Düsseldorf. In the 1960s the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to have a regular university in the state's capital. The university started about 1970.
It got its name only in the 1980s, because the medicine faculty wanted to have a physician's name, because of the tradition as Medical Academy.

Current situation
Currently the Heinrich-Heine-University is a university with about 20,000 students, which is middle-class in Germany.
It has a lot of subjects in sciences, arts, economics, and so on. The deep points are on biological-medicinal research in sciences and some deep points in arts, economics, political sciences, and philosophy.

Subjects
Like most German universities it has many subjects:

Other websites 
 http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de

Colleges and universities in North Rhine-Westphalia
Education in Düsseldorf
1239

1239 is a year in the 13th century

Events 
 September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
 Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.

Births 
 June 17 – King Edward I of England (died 1307)
 December 17 – Kujo Yoritsugu, Japanese shogun (died 1256)
 Peter III of Aragon (died 1285)
 John II, Duke of Brittany (died 1305)
 Ippen, Japanese monk (died 1289)

Deaths
1455



Other calendars
 Buddhist calendar: 1997 - 1998
 Hebrew calendar: 5215 - 5216
 Islamic calendar: 859 - 860

Events 
 February 9 – Wars of the Roses: Richard, Duke of York dismissed as Protector
 February 23 – Johannes Gutenberg prints the first Bible on a printing press
 May 22 – Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans – Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who is killed. York captures King Henry VI of England and has himself appointed Constable of England.
 May 25 – Victorious Yorkish lords ritually renew the monarchy of Henry VI in St. Paul's Cathedral.
1694

1694 was a common year.

Events 
 February 6 – The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed.
 July 27 – A Royal Charter is granted to the Bank of England.
 December 22 – The Triennial Bill became law.
 December 28 – Queen Mary II of England dies; King William III of England, Scotland and Ireland is now sole ruler after his co-ruler's death.
 Much of the town of Warwick, England destroyed by fire.
 The Lao empire of Lan Xang unofficially ends.
1290



Events 
 March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon, Portugal by King Denis of Portugal; it moves to Coimbra in 1308.
 July 18 – King Edward I of England banishes all Jews (numbering about 16,000) from Britain; Jews traditionally hold that this event occurs on Tisha B'Av, a sorrowful Jewish holiday.
 August 1 – The country of Wallachia is founded (traditional date).
 December – The twelve Eleanor crosses are erected between Lincolnshire and London in England as King Edward I mourns the death of his queen consort Eleanor of Castile.
 Construction of Llandaff Cathedral is completed in Cardiff, Wales, 170 years after it was begun.
 The Mongol Empire invades the Bessarabia region of Moldavia.
 The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under king Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the church. The statute Quia Emptores is also passed, reforming the feudal system of land leases and allowing the sale of fee simple estates.
 King Denis of Portugal decrees that Portuguese be the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity.
 Construction on the Akershus Fortress of Oslo, Norway is begun.