alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
CAF Champions League

The CAF Champions League is a football competition between the best club teams in Africa. The teams are selected because of good performances in matches.

Football competitions in Africa
Copa Libertadores

CONMEBOL Libertadores or Copa Libertadores (Libertadores Cup) is a football competition between the best club teams in South America. The teams are qualified based on how well they did in the national tournament. The last year winner has assured participation. The tournament is run by Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL).

Schedule
Copa Libertadores is played annually. It usually happens between the months of February and November (South American summer and spring). Its winner is qualified for the annual FIFA Club World Cup.

Libertadores starts in January with the worst classified team of each country playing for to be a part of the "Main Draw". In February, the Main Draw begins. It is made up of 8 groups with 4 clubs in each group. Each team plays 6 games. They play three home games and three away games. The top 2 clubs in every group advance to the next round. A total of 16 clubs play in the playoffs.

The better qualified clubs in the Main Draw take advantage of playing the second game of each round of the playoffs at home. Libertadores goes on with clubs playing home and away, round after round till the Finals.

Differences
Unlike European club competitions, the Copa Libertadores, in the past, did not use extra time or away goals to decide a tie. Starting with the 2005 event, CONMEBOL began to use the away goals rule, with the extra time used only in the final matches.

Football competitions in South America
CONMEBOL
Longbow

A longbow is a type of bow. It may not have been as strong as a crossbow, but it could shoot more arrows per minute. Also, the basic equipment cost little, and could be easily mass produced. Metal-tipped arrows could go through armour.  Only the strongest armor would stop it. Archers (longbowmen) would usually have a second weapon, often a battle-axe, if the fighting came close to them.

The longbow was mainly used in the Middle Ages until the 1500s.  

It was made from a single piece of hard wearing, flexible wood, often from a yew tree. Yew was cut during the winter when there was no sap. The flat side of the bow facing the target was flexible sapwood while the belly (facing the archer) was round and made of strong heartwood (from the center of a tree).

Groups of longbowmen would shoot at the same time.  The arrows would come down like hail.  This often scared the enemy.

Longbows have been found in Europe as far back as the Mesolithic period.

History 
The Welsh were the first people to use longbows. In AD 633 Offrid, son of Edwin, king of Northumbria, was killed by an arrow shot from a Welsh longbow. This was during a battle between the Welsh and the Mercians — more than five centuries before any record of its use in England. Despite this, the weapon is more commonly known as the "English longbow" than the "Welsh longbow".

In the Middle Ages, the English and Welsh were famous for their very powerful Welsh longbows. They were used to great effect in the civil wars of the period and against the French in the Hundred Years' War (with notable success at the battles of Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415).

The average length of arrowshafts recovered from the 1545 sinking of the Mary Rose is .

The bows were pretty easy and quick to craft, yet was quite lethal and could pierce through armor. 

A longbow has practical advantages compared to a modern recurve or compound bow; it is usually lighter, quicker to prepare for shooting, and shoots more quietly. However, other things being equal, the modern bow will shoot a faster arrow more accurately than the longbow.

Effects on the human body

Bowmen had to practice for many years before they could shoot a longbow well.  Also, longbows are very strong.  This made archers' bodies different from other people's bodies.  The skeletons of medieval bowmen are different from other people's skeletons.  The arm and shoulder bones are thick and a little bent.  These bones supported the large muscles that grew on the archers' arms and backs as they practiced with the bow.  On some archers, the right shoulder was higher than the left shoulder.  This is because archers almost always shot on the same side.  They did not switch hands.

References 

Archery
Weapons
African Union

The African Union (AU) is an supranational organization consisting of fifty-five African member countries. Founded in Durban on 9 July 2002, the AU was formed as a replacement to the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the African Economic Community (AEC). 

The current Chairperson of the African Union is President of Comoros Azali Assoumani since February 18, 2023.

The AU, in the future, aims to have a single currency and a single integrated defense force, as well as other institutions of state, including a cabinet for the AU Head of State. The purpose of the organization is to help secure the continent's democracy, human rights, and a sustainable economy, especially by bringing an end to conflict between African nations and creating an effective common market.

Related pages
 African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights
 European Union
 Pan-Africanism

Other websites 
 Official site

International organizations
Politics of Africa
2002 establishments in Africa
Pan-Africanism
The Freecycle Network

The Freecycle Network (TFN) is a global network of people who share and regive items. They organise their network through the Internet. Freecycle is a place for people to meet. There are just two things people can do there.

The first thing is this:  A person can ask the other people for an item.  If someone has it, they can tell the person who wants it.

The second thing is this: A person can give away an item.  Sometimes many people want the item, and the donator has to choose just one person.

Other websites 
Official website
Freecycle Group Finder

Internet
Recycling
Slashdot

Slashdot is a website where people can read news.  Most people who go to Slashdot like computers.  Other people go, too.

On the Slashdot website, people can comment on the news. Often this leads to interesting discussions with many points of view.

Slashdot has been a website for ten years.  It has lots of things to talk about.  Some of the things are: computers, the Internet, video games, and politics.

Many people like Slashdot because you can share ideas.  People who like computers and the Internet can read the ideas to learn.

Anyone can go to Slashdot and read it and do not need to give money.  People from every country go.  It has many ideas which are never the same.

Other websites 
http://slashdot.org/
News websites
Hooke's law

It is a law of mechanics and physics discovered by Robert Hooke. 

This theory of elasticity says the extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke's law is useful are known as linear-elastic or "Hookean" materials.

The spring equation 
The length of a spring always changes by the same amount when it is pushed or pulled. The equation for this is:

where
F is how much (push or pull) is on the spring 
k is a constant, the stiffness of the spring. 
 x is how far the spring was pushed or pulled 

When x = 0, the spring is at the equilibrium position. 
This equation only works on a linear spring. A linear spring is a spring that is only being pushed or pulled in one direction, such as left or right or up or down.

Elastic potential energy 
Examples of everyday objects that have elastic potential energy are stretched or compressed elastic bands, springs, bungee cords, car shock absorbers, etc. 

Elastic potential energy is the energy saved in an object that is stretched, compressed (compression is pressing objects together), twisted or bent. For example, an arrow gets the elastic potential energy from the bow. When it leaves the bow, the potential energy turns into kinetic energy. 
The equation of the elastic potential energy is:

Which means:
U is the elastic potential energy.
k is the spring constant. 
 x is the distance pushed or pulled.

Mechanical engineering
Elasticity (physics)
Railfan

A railfan is a person who likes railways and trains. Railfans like to take pictures of trains.  They also like to watch trains.  Some railfans make models of railways.  These are called model railways.  

Some railfans like to study the history of railways.  Some railfans collect things having to do with trains.  Railfans may carry a radio scanner when they are watching trains, so they can listen to the railway workers talk. Some railfans work for a railway, or have family members who worked for a railway. Most railfans like to ride trains.

There are many magazines for people who like trains.  Railfans enjoy reading books and magazines about trains.

Rail transport
Time (magazine)

Time is an American news magazine. It was founded in 1923. It is printed every week in the United States. It is published by Time Inc. It has articles on politics and current events. It is read by more people than any other news magazine.

There is also a magazine called Time For Kids, aimed at children. That magazine is eight pages long and contains more images and shorter articles than the regular Time magazine.

1923 establishments in the United States
American weekly magazines
Time Warner
Magazines published in New York City
Cable television

Cable television is a way of letting people watch television without having to get signals from an antenna. The television signals are brought to the television through a coaxial cable or optical fiber, people usually have to pay to subscribe to get cable television. With cable television, people can watch many television channels carrying many television shows. Usually some of these are television stations and others are cable channels, made for the cable companies. 

Cable TV is provided by many carriers, usually a place is served by only one or two cable companies. Some of those carriers in the United States are: AT&T U-Verse, Comcast, Time Warner Cable, Charter Communications and Verizon. Another method of subscription television is by Satellite television, especially in places where cable TV is not available.

Related pages 
 Satellite television
 History Channel
 Home Box Office

 
Television technology
Antenna

An antenna or aerial is a metal device made to send or receive radio waves. Many electronic devices like radio, television, radar, wireless LAN, cell phone, and GPS need antennas to do their job. Antennas work both in air and outer space.

The word 'antenna' is from Guglielmo Marconi's test with wireless equipment in 1895. For the test, he used a 2.5 meter long pole antenna with a tent pole called ' l'antenna centrale ' in Italian. So his antenna was simply called ' l'antenna '.  After that, the word 'antenna' became popular among people and had the meaning it has today. The plural of antenna is either antennas or antennae (U.S. and Canada tends to use antennas more than other places).

Types of antennas 
Each one is made to work for a specific frequency range. The antenna's length or size usually depends on the wavelength (1/frequency) it uses.

Different kinds of antenna have different purposes. For example, the isotropic radiator is an imaginary antenna that sends signals equally in all directions. The dipole antenna is simply two wires with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end standing free in space. It sends or receives signals in all directions except where the wires are pointing. Some antennas are more directional. Horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short. Satellite television and radio telescopes mostly use dish antennas.

References

Radio antennas
Jack London

John Griffith "Jack" London (born John Griffith Chaney, January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916) was an American writer. He wrote many books. He lived in the U.S. state of California but also spent a lot of time in Hawaii and Alaska.

His most famous book was The Call of the Wild.  The Call of the Wild is about a dog named Buck who is taken to Alaska to work with a pack of dogs pulling a sled.  This book took place during the Klondike Gold Rush. Many people bought The Call of the Wild and Jack London became a famous writer. He also wrote other books about dogs and wolves. Another one of his famous books is White Fang.

Jack London was also a hobo at one time.  He wrote a book about this called The Road.  Jack London had political beliefs.  He was a socialist.  One of his famous books is The Iron Heel, which is the story of the government using force against the socialist movement.

He also spent some time at sea and making a living as an "oyster pirate".  He wrote many books about sailing and boats.  One of his best-known books about life at sea was The Sea Wolf.

He married Charmian London born Kittredge (second wife). He was on the vanguard of animal welfare and attempted a model pig farm, and experimented with early ecological agriculture. He died in a state of depression.

References

 Reesman 2009, p. 23.
3. Cf. Saiz, Peter Ralph, "Political Tyranny and the Master-Slave Paradigm in Selected Sea-Tales of Herman Melville and Jack London", PhD thesis Purdue University 2003. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3113867/ Cf. also, Huebert, David, "Species Panic: Interspecies Erotics in Post-1900 American literature", PhD thesis University of Western Ontario 2018. 4. Cf. http://santarosahistory.com/wordpress/2016/11/the-case-for-arson-at-wolf-house/. Cf.Fresneau-Woodward, Servanne, "Nature animale et paysages naturels dans l'oeuvre de Jack London" Doctorat, Université de Paris X https://www.theses.fr/1987PA100174

American novelists
Writers from San Francisco
Writers from Alaska
Writers from Hawaii
1876 births
1916 deaths
Jerk

Jerk is the change in the acceleration of an object. Mathematically, jerk is the derivative, or the rate of change of acceleration by time. Jerk is also called jolt (in British English), surge, or lurch. Jerk is a vector and there is no word for its scalar value. 

The jerk is measured in metres per second cubed ().

Yank can be thought as a force in terms of jerk. Force is mass times acceleration. Similarly, Yank is mass times jerk. It is also the derivative of the force. However, when an object is moving near the speed of light, a force is often written as the derivative of momentum. In this case, Yank is the rate of change of the derivative of momentum.

Its use 
Jerk is used in engineering, particularly in making roller coasters. Weak objects such as people can be damaged by high acceleration or high jerk.
Also, jerk must be thought in the process of making any product. Sudden change in acceleration means very large jerk. Extent of exposure to jerk is often a good predictor of the rate of deterioration of tools while in normal use; it corresponds better to the appearance of metal fatigue among other modes of failure.

Mechanics
physical quantity
Electric current

An electric current is a flow of electric charge. The flow of electric current takes place by the movement of the electrons in a conductor. The equation of current is:

where
 is the current flowing
 is the change in electric charge
 is the change in time

The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A). This is equal to one coulomb of charge in one second. Electric current can be found in wires, batteries, and lightning.

The source of current 
In conducting materials, some electrons are very loosely bound to the atoms of the material.  When large amounts of these atoms come together, there is a sort of electron cloud that "hovers" near the atoms of the material.  If you examine a cross-section of the piece of conducting material, the electrons will move very quickly through it.  This motion is caused by temperature, and electrons flowing in one direction tend to equal the electrons flowing from the other direction, so this is not what causes current to flow.  Electrons flow from one atom to another, a process has been compared to the passing of water buckets from one person to another in a bucket brigade.

When an electric field is put on the wire, the electrons respond almost instantly by drifting slightly in the opposite direction of the field.  They gain energy from the field, which is lost very quickly when they bump into other electrons in the material.  As long as the field is in place, however, the electrons will gain back that energy that they lost, and the process will continue.  This "jolt" that electrons receive from the electric field is the source of current, not the overall flow of electrons themselves.  From this discussion, we can see two things that current is not:

It is not an actual "flow" of electrons in the everyday sense of the word:  If we examine the speed given to the electrons by the field, it is usually very small, on the order of millimeters per second.  It would take half an hour for electrons to cross a 10-foot (3 m) room at this rate.  Since a light bulb flips on almost immediately after hitting the switch, something else must be at work.
It is also not a "domino effect", although this analogy is closer than the flow.  Since electrons are so tiny, even when they are moving very quickly they are not being propelled by great force.

Current in circuits 
When current is flowing in a wire circuit, it accelerates when there is no resistance in the circuit. Resistors are used to increase resistance in the circuit so it slows down the current. The relationship between resistance, current, and voltage (another part of the circuit) is shown by Ohm's law.

References 

Electricity
Basic physics ideas
Inbreeding

Inbreeding is a term in genetics, meaning the crossing (mating) of closely related animals or plants.  Self-fertilisation in plants is the most extreme kind of inbreeding.  It is quite widespread in plants which carry both male and female flowers on the same plant. Inbreeding is the opposite of outcrossing, which is the mating of unrelated members of the same species. The combination of inbreeding and outcrossing is a standard method of artificial selection.

Other terms are inbred strain, a group of organisms so inbred that they have little or no genetic variation, and inbreeding depression, which is the decreased fitness (usually lack of fertility and early illness and death) brought about by inbreeding.

Inbred strains, for example of mice or drosophila, are often used in biology as model organisms when genetic uniformity makes them useful in investigation of such things as drugs and cancer.

For human beings, inbreeding is destructive, and almost all cultures have an incest taboo. For example, many prohibit marriage between first cousins, and most prohibit it for closer family members.

Loss of genetic variation 
Loss of genetic variation means that many gene loci that were heterozygous are now homozygous. The result of both genes at a locus being mutant can be serious. 

The most intense form of inbreeding is the self-fertilisation in an hermaphrodite, in which the proportion of heterozygotes is halved in each generation.p139 Aa x Aa (100%) gives 1 AA: 2 Aa; 1 aa (50%), and so on. A similar effect takes twice as long with brother-sister mating, and longer still with mating in very small isolated groups. The latter situation is famous because Sewall Wright did his calculations for just such groups, and he called the process genetic drift. Genetic drift and inbreeding are closely related concepts.

The degree of inbreeding can be measured in various ways. A simple test for mammals is the exchange of skin grafts. If the grafts are not rejected, the animals must be nearly identical genetically. Skin grafts can be successfully exchanged between rats in standard laboratory strains, and between cheetahs caught in the wild.

Discussion 
Why is it that inbreeding brings about a loss of viability? There are two answers, and both seem to be true. The first is that a group with little genetic variation is vulnerable to environmental challenges: infections, sudden climate events, predators. Small groups are vulnerable to chance events in any case, but with no heritable variability they are even more vulnerable.

The second explanation is genetic. Some of the homozygous genes will be deleterious recessives which would normally be shielded by a dominant allele. Also, there are some loci where the heterozygote is inherently fitter than either homozygote. If so, inbreeding will automatically cause a loss of vigour.p103

Many plant species do self-pollination in the wild, but the great majority have occasional outcrossing. This provides them with sufficient variety for their survival.

References 

Classical genetics
Cambridge

Cambridge is a city in England. It is  north of London. The city is famous for its university, the University of Cambridge, which is thought to be one of the best universities in the world. The university has a hospital (Addenbrooke's Hospital), laboratory (Cavendish Laboratory), chapel (King's College Chapel) and library (Cambridge University Library). There is also a Central Library in Cambridge, on the first floor of the Grand Arcade, St Andrew's Street.

There are 108,863 people living in Cambridge, of which 22,153 are students. There are lots of smaller towns and villages around Cambridge.

The city has lots of parks and is next to the river Cam - the city's name "Cambridge" means "bridge over the Cam."

References
Snooker

Snooker is a cue sport played by two players. It is popular in the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth and parts of Asia. 

It is played on a large (12 by 6 feet) table that is covered with a smooth green cloth called baize and has holes (called pockets) in each of the four corners and in the middle of each of the long side cushions.
 
The players use long thin sticks called cues to strike a white ball (the cue ball). The cue ball must always be hit first when attempting a shot at the target ball. 

There are 21 target balls in total - 15 red balls (worth 1 point each) and 6 colours: a yellow (2 points), green (3 points), brown (4 points), blue (5 points), pink (6 points) and black ball (7 points). 

Each target ball must be aimed or 'potted' into one of the pockets in order. A red ball followed by a colour then a red ball again. This happens until only the coloured balls are left. The colours then have to be potted in the following order: yellow, green, brown, blue, pink and black.

The player who scores more points wins the game or 'frame'. A match consists of an agreed number of frames.

Big events in snooker are the World Snooker Championship, UK Championship and the Masters. Professional players play on the World Snooker Tour.

The best-known snooker players are the seven-time world champion Ronnie O'Sullivan, seven-time world champion Stephen Hendry. Other former world champions are for example Joe Davis (fifteen wins), his brother Fred Davis, John Pulman (each eight wins) and six-time world champions Ray Reardon and Steve Davis.

References
Simple Plan

Simple Plan is a rock band from Montréal, Canada that was founded in 1999.

Influences 
Simple Plan's influences include Fastball, Green Day, Cheap Trick, Pennywise, Weezer, The Mr. T Experience, MxPx, Blink-182, Elvis Costello, Rancid, Jawbreaker, Everclear and The Cars.

Members 
 Pierre Charles Bouvier, Vocals & Acoustic Guitar (born May 9 1979 in Montréal)
 David Phillippe Desrosiers, Bass & Background Vocals (born August 29 1980 in Sept-Îles, Canada)
 Charles André "Chuck" Comeau, Drums (born September 17 1979 in Montréal)
 Sébestien Lefebvre, Rhythm Guitar and Background Vocals (born June 5 1981 in Montréal)
 Jean-François "Jeff" Stinco, Lead guitar (born August 22 1978 in Montréal)

When they were 13, schoolmates Pierre Bouvier and Chuck Comeau founded the band Reset. They published their first album in 1997. Soon after that, Comeau left the band because school was more important to him. He came back in 1999 and founded Simple Plan with Sebastien Lefebvre and Jeff Stinco. Bouvier met up with Comeau at a Sugar Ray concert, and Comeau offered Bouvier to join his band. David Desrosiers, who had replaced Bouvier in Reset, joined the band in 2000. in 2002, they published the album No Pads, No Helmets,... Just Balls. They worked together with Joel Madden (Good Charlotte) and Mark Hoppus (Blink-182). One year later, the album Still Not Getting Any... was published.

Singles
  No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls.
 "I'm Just a Kid" (2001)
 "I'd Do Anything" (2002) #51 US
 "Addicted" (2003) #45 US, #63 UK, #10 AUS (2004 release)
 "Perfect" (2004) #24 US, #6 AUS (2004 release)

  Still Not Getting Any....
 "Welcome To My Life" (2004) #40 US, #7 AUS, #1 CAN, #1 SPAIN, #12 FR
 "Shut Up!" (2004) #99 US, #14 AUS, #12 CAN, #14 SP
 "Untitled (How Could This Happen to Me)" (2005) #49 US, #9 AUS,#3 CAN, #1 SPAIN
 "Crazy" (2005) #32 AUS, #4 CAN
 "Perfect World" (2006) (Single only in iTunes, but not launched in CD single)

 Simple Plan
 "When I'm Gone" (2007) 
 "Your Love is a Lie" (2008)
 "Save You (2008)

Albums 
 No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls (2002)
 Live in Japan 2002 (2003)
 Live in Anaheim (2004) (Limited Edition)
 Still Not Getting Any... (2004)
 MTV Hard Rock Live (2005)
 Simple Plan (2008)
 Get Your Heart On! (2011)

DVDs 
 A Big Package for You (2003)
 MTV Hard Rock Live (2005)

Other websites

 Official website

Pop punk bands
Canadian rock bands
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
Atlantic Records artists
Serj Tankian

Serj Tankian (born on August 21, 1967 in Beirut, Lebanon) is an Armenian-American musician who lives in Auckland, New Zealand. He was the lead vocalist of System of a Down. He is now a solo artist and has released five solo albums.

Early life
Tankian was born in Beirut, Lebanon. Tankian moved with his parents to Los Angeles, California when he was five years old.

Studio Albums
Solo
 Elect the Dead (2007)
 Imperfect Harmonies (2010)
 Harakiri (2012)
 Orca (2013)
 Jazz-Iz-Christ (2013)

Soundtracks
Fuktronic (with Jimmy Urine) (TBA)
Prometheus Bound (TBA)

With System of a Down
System of a Down (1998)
Toxicity (2001)
Mezmerize (2005)
Hypnotize (2005)

With Arto Tunçboyacıyan
Serart (2003)

EPs
Lie Lie Live (2008)
Imperfect Remixes (2011)
Elasticity (EP) (2021)
''Perplex Cities (2022)

Other websites 
 Serj Tankian's official page
 
 Screamers Official Site
 'Screamers' and Genocide: A Talk With Serj Tankian From System of a Down 
 System of a Down Official Site
 Serjical Strike Records
 SOADFans Profile for Serj Tankian 
 SOADTalk.com Serj Tankian Biography 
 Recent interview with Serj 
 SerjFans.com

1967 births
Living people
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Beirut
Singers from Los Angeles
Axl Rose

Axl Rose (born February 6, 1962) is an American hard rock singer and songwriter. He was born William Bruce Bailey in Lafayette, Indiana, and grew up under the name William 'Bill' Bailey. He is best known as the lead singer for the rock band Guns N' Roses.

Personal life
Rose started dating Erin Everly in early 1986. He wrote "Sweet Child o' Mine" for her and she was in the song's video.

He married Everly on April 28, 1990 in Las Vegas. Everly later said that Rose came to her house the day before their wedding with a gun and told her he would kill himself if she didn't marry him.

In 2012 it was rumored that he was dating Lana Del Rey.

References

Other websites 
 GunsNRoses.Com - Official website of Guns N' Roses
 

1962 births
Living people
Guns N' Roses
American singer-songwriters
Singers from Indiana
American heavy metal singers
Gravitational energy

Gravitational energy is the potential energy held by an object because of its high position compared to a lower position. In other words, it is energy associated with gravity or gravitational force. For example, a pen being held above a table has a higher gravitational potential than a pen sitting on the table. Gravitational potential energy is mechanical energy minus kinetic energy. It has a scalar quantity measured in Joules (J). 

An object gets gravitational potential energy when it moves uphill. The energy used up when moving up the hill is changed into gravitational potential energy. When the object comes back down again, the gravitational potential energy is turned back into kinetic energy (movement). That is why riding a bike up a steep hill is very hard, but when you are coming back down, you will not need to pedal at all - you are being powered by the gravitational potential energy that you stored when you rode up the hill. Another way gravitational potential energy helps us is by keeping earth and the other planets in orbit in our solar system around the Sun.

Formula and example 
The mathematical formula for the gravitational potential energy:

Gravitational potential energy =  

Where:
 m is the mass of the object , 
 g is the gravitational acceleration of the object , and
 h is the height above a chosen point.

Most scientists and students use these measurement unit:

The value m is in kilograms.
The value h is in metres.
The value g is a physical constant with the value of 9.81 metres per second squared. This is known as the gravitational constant.
The value of the gravitational potential energy that is calculated using values in the above units is called the Joule (J).

For example, an object with a mass of 1.5 kilograms that is 2.5 metres above the ground would have a gravitational potential energy value of:

 joules.

Mechanics
Gravitation
Shining Rock Wilderness

The Shining Rock Wilderness is a protected area in the U.S. state of North Carolina. Its first  have been part of the National Wilderness Preservation System since the System was created in 1964. It now includes , and is managed by the United States Forest Service.

Within the wilderness, the Art Loeb trail can be followed to the top of Cold Mountain. Cold Mountain is the namesake of a historical fiction novel set in the time of the American Civil War. A movie based on the book is also named Cold Mountain.

Other webstites
Shining Rock Wilderness at recreation.gov
Shining Rock Wilderness at wilderness.net

Wilderness Areas of the United States
Geography of North Carolina
Appalachian Mountains
Nicotine

Nicotine is a drug in tobacco cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, vaping liquids and some e-cigarettes. Nicotine is an addictive stimulant that causes the heart to beat faster and makes blood pressure rise. It can also make a person feel less hungry and speeds up the metabolism. These effects can be very unhealthy. Many people who use tobacco products want to quit but have a hard time quitting. It is one of the most addictive chemicals that is widely consumed by humans. It can be as addictive as heroin or cocaine.

Nicotine is a substance found in most members of the nightshade family of plants. Small quantities of it can be found in tomatoes, potatoes, aubergines (eggplants) and green pepper (Capsicum, the peppers used as vegetables). Nicotine is also in the Coca plant. In higher quantities it is a very efficient poison. It acts on the nerves. It is a stimulant in lower quantities. It is the main reason people are addicted to smoking.

Nicotine is named after Jean Nicot. Nicot was a French ambassador in Portugal. In 1560 he sent tobacco seeds to Paris for analysis (as a drug).

Besides the treatment of nicotine dependency, it seems that the drug can also be used to treat special (severe) forms of epilepsy, as well as some other diseases.

Cigarette 
The amount of nicotine in one cigarette varies greatly. Factors which influence the amount include type of tobacco; brand of cigarette; and country or region (some markets restrict maximum average nicotine levels). Different ways of smoking a cigarette influence how much nicotine gets into the smoker.

Legislation 
Tobacco products and electronic cigarettes, the most popular form of nicotine worldwide, have become a public health concern. Leading to an increase in countries' governments' and public health organizations' efforts to regulate its use and sales. With 30 countries currently having banned the purchase of any form of these products. Since 2022 legislation against e-cigarettes  is on the rise as more studies are released. A large contributor to this was the World Health Organization's concerns raised about how secondhand smoke affects children in the home. Highlighting the potential risks of exposure to nicotine, which is known to cause issues in brain development and lead to anxiety disorders, among other health problems. While e-cigarettes have been marketed as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes, there is still much debate about the potential risks and benefits of these products. As nicotine percentages are higher on average in many forms of e-cigarettes compared to traditional tobacco products.

Drugs
Organonitrogen compounds
Addiction

Addiction is when the body or mind badly wants or needs something in order to work right. When you have an addiction to something it is called being addicted or being an addict. People can be addicted to drugs, cigarettes, alcohol,  caffeine, and many other things. 

When somebody is addicted to something, they can become sick if they do not get the thing they are addicted to. But taking more of the thing they are addicted to can also hurt their health. Some people who are addicts need to go to a doctor or hospital to cure the addiction, so they no longer crave (want or need) the drug.

Addiction takes place when the addictive element enters the body.  The blood stream moves the element around the body so that it gets to the brain, and makes the person feel that they are enjoying it; then they want more of that substance. This takes place remarkably fast for some addictions such as hashish and cocaine; but all of them control the consumer. Once under this control, the consumer does not have complete free will, and listens to the addiction's bidding.

People can also be addicted to other things which are not drugs. You may hear people talk about being "addicted to the Internet" or "addicted to chocolate" or gambling. This means that they get into a habit of enjoying that thing, so if they have to go without it for a while, they miss it a lot. 

Addiction is similar to a major disease like chronic heart disease or perhaps diabetes, but addictions are not taken as seriously as these major diseases. Most people believe addiction to be a lifestyle choice, which it is but it is also part of a person's genetics. While some people can do things and control themselves others cannot due to their genetic makeup. There are ways of helping the addict but this takes the admission of a problem and then proper testing to reveal what kind of treatment is needed.

The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) defines addiction as a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual's life experiences. People with addiction use substances or engage in compulsive behaviors and often continue despite harmful consequences. Prevention efforts and treatment approaches for addiction are generally as successful as those for other chronic diseases.

Related pages 
 Substance abuse
 Drug addiction
Alcoholism

References

Other websites 
  American Society of Addiction Medicine
 Addiction Citizendium

 
Psychology
Secession

Secession (independence) usually means when part of one country declares its independence and breaks away or leaves that country to start a new country.

Constitutions of countries may include articles that either legally forbid or allow secession of part of the country. Most national constitutions, which have articles about secession, forbid it, but a few constitutions, such as the constitutions of the former Soviet Union, the former Yugoslavia, and Ethiopia allow the secession of their republics.

A secession attempt might be violent or peaceful.

Violent examples include the secession of the 11 southern states, which formed the Confederate States, from the United States and led to the failed American Civil War, and the Bangladesh Liberation War of East Pakistan (Bangladesh), which succeeded against West Pakistan.

Peaceful examples include the secession of the Soviet republics from the Soviet Union, which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Threats of secession can be a strategy for achieving more limited goals such autonomy or more devolved powers from the national government of the country. 

Examples of giving more delvolved powers to prevent their secession include Quebec, Scotland and Flanders.

References

Political geography
Rockville, Virginia

Rockville is a small town in the U.S. state of Virginia. It is in Hanover County near Richmond, Virginia. Rockville is mainly a farming town. It got its name from nearby rock quarries.

Cities in Virginia
Dead Calm

Dead Calm is an American novel that was written in 1963. A 1989 Australian movie was made from it. The movie stars Sam Neill, Nicole Kidman, and Billy Zane.

What happened 

In it, a honeymoon couple rescue a young man from a sinking boat who claims to have lost his companions to food poisoning, but the real story is much less innocent.

In this movie, Kidman and Neill plays good guys and Zane plays a bad guy.  This movie was Kidman's first well-known movie, and it helped make her famous. In this movie, Zane's character rapes Kidman's character.

Other websites 
 

1963 books
Crime fiction books
20th-century American novels
Event Horizon

Event Horizon is a 1997 Anglo-American science fiction horror movie.
It was directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. It stars Laurence Fishburne, Sam Neill, Kathleen Quinlan and Joely Richardson.

Synopsis 
This movie is set in 2047. A spaceship is stuck near Neptune. Sam Neill's character (Dr. William Weir) is very sad because his wife has died. When they go to the space ship, they find that everyone has killed themselves. It all looks very scary. Then they find out that the ship has been to another dimension. It is like hell and everyone sees their worst nightmares.

Sam Neill sees his wife in his dream. She tells him to pull his eyes out. Neill then walks around without any eyes and starts to kill people. They send him out to space, but he does not die. People get very scared. Even after they kill Neill, they still see him.

Other websites 
 

1997 horror movies
1997 science fiction movies
1990s science fiction horror movies
1990s supernatural movies
American science fiction horror movies
American supernatural movies
British horror movies
British science fiction movies
English-language movies
Movies set in the future
Movies directed by Paul W.S. Anderson‏‎
Melting point

The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which this substance goes from the solid  state to the liquid one, at a normal pressure. For water, this is 0° Celsius (32 Fahrenheit, 273,15 Kelvin). The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten. Some chemical compounds have a higher melting point. 

When looking at when a liquid substance becomes solid, most people call this the freezing point. For most substances, like water, this is the same as the melting point. There are substances, where this is not the case (they melt at one temperature, and freeze at another). Agar seems to melt at 85° Celsius, but freeze at between 35°C and 40°C.  This phenomenon is a kind of hysteresis. 

Adding certain substances or impurities will change the melting point of the resulting mixture. For example, sugar or salt will lower the melting point, and alcohol will raise it. 

Thermodynamics
Chemistry
Michael Hayden

Michael Hayden (born March 17, 1945) is an American politician, writer and military personnel. He was the head of the CIA from 2006 to 2009.  On 24 May 2006, he was voted as the new head of the CIA by the United States Senate.  He was the director of the NSA from 1999 to 2005.  The NSA and CIA are both spy agencies.  He has worked as a spy since 1970.

On November 23, 2018, Hayden was hospitalized after suffering a stroke.

References

Other websites 
Michael Hayden biography from the NSA 

1945 births
Living people
American generals
American political writers
Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
Directors of the National Security Agency
Politicians from Pittsburgh
Writers from Pittsburgh
Military people from Pennsylvania
Lutherstadt Wittenberg

Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon: Wittenbarg; meaning White Mountain; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (traditional English: Luther City Wittenberg, Low Saxon: Lutherstadt Wittenbarg)) is a town in Germany. It lies in the eastern part of Saxony-Anhalt. Wittenberg became one of the most important German towns of political, cultural, historical, and artistic advances in the 16th century. The famous reformation places in the old town, and the buildings developed in different epochs, make up the architecture of the town.
Many people travel to Wittenberg because of its past, and its connection to Martin Luther who worked there.

Wittenberg has about 46,000 inhabitants. Its geographical coordinates are 51° 52’ N, 12° 39’ E.

Notes

References

States of the Holy Roman Empire
Wittenberg (district)
Martin Luther
Cyberstalking

Cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk or harass an individual, group, or organization.It may include false accusations, defamation, slander and libel. It may also include monitoring, identity theft, threats, vandalism, solicitation for sex, doxing, or blackmail.

Stalking 
Stalking is following someone around in a way that makes them feel hunted or not safe in some other way. It is not just one event but an ongoing process that threatens or makes that person feel scared. Someone who does this is called a stalker. The stalker may do this because they want to be involved in that person's life or because they want to have power over that person's life. The stalker can hurt that person's feelings by making them scared. They may feel they do not have the power to stop the stalker. Psychologists say stalking is a way of hurting someone's mind with serious effects. Sometimes a stalker may go on to hurt that person's body by assaulting, raping or murdering that person.

Cyberstalking 
Cyberstalking is when the stalker uses the Internet to contact or follow that person. The stalker may make direct contact with that person, they may send nasty messages to that person or spread lies about them to others. Sometimes stalkers use the Internet to learn more about the other person. They might find their address, phone number, workplace or photograph. Then they might use this information to do more stalking or find other ways to hurt that person on the Internet or hurt their body.

The person who is stalked on the Internet may feel they have more power if they can simply delete emails or turn their computer connection off. Or they may feel they have less power if they do not know who the stalker is.

References

Internet
Types of crime
Current

Current could mean:

Electric current
Current (fluid)
Ocean current
Air current
Current (mathematics)
Present (time), e.g. current events

Basic English 850 words
Stopwatch

A stopwatch is a tool used to measure the amount of time something takes. For example, to learn how soon a car can reach 60 miles per hour, or how much time it takes a runner to run 40 yards. These days, stopwatches are even installed in digital watches. You press a button to start the time and press it again to stop the time. A stopwatch can tell you the time in seconds, hundredths of a second, or thousandths of a second.

Clocks
Measuring tools
Departments of France

The départements (or departments) are administrative parts of France and many French colonies, similar to English counties.  Départements are a kind of local government.

The 101 French départements are now grouped into 13 metropolitan and five overseas régions. Their capitals are called préfectures.

French régions and préfecture
Macrosociology

Macro-sociology is a way of looking at the world of people in a broad way. It studies mass of many peoples.  It is about "concerned with human societies".  Macrosociology is considered one of the main foundations of sociology (contrast with micro-sociology).

In sociology there are different levels of analysis. Macro-sociology is the analysis of either large collectivities (the city, the church) or, more abstractly, of social systems and social structures. (Dictionary of Sociology, 2000)

With the perspective of macro-sociology, it is possible to better understand societies, culture, groups and organizations.

Important representatives of macro-sociological theories are:
 Karl Marx; who analyzed society from the perspective of class conflict between workers and owners, micro sociology
 Max Weber; who viewed society as rapidly modernizing and looked at the effects of this process, such as bureaucratization, macro sociology
 Emile Durkheim; who viewed individual issues as reflective of greater social patterns, completing the first sociological study (which linked suicide to societal trends), macro sociology

References 
 

Subfields of sociology
Banja Luka Region

Banja Luka is one of seven regions in Republika Srpska. In the center of this region is the city of Banja Luka. There are about 709,000 people in Banja Luka Region.

Regions of Republika Srpska
Doboj Region

Doboj Region is one of seven regions in Republika Srpska. In the center of this region is town of Doboj. Doboj Region is located in the north of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Regions of Republika Srpska
Bijeljina Region

Bijeljina Region is one of seven regions in the Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The capital city of this region is Bijeljina.

Bijeljina Region is located in the northeast of the country.

Regions of Republika Srpska
Flag of Poland

The flag of Poland is a rectangular, divided into two stripes: white above red. It was created in its modern form in 1921. The colors white and red were earlier declared the official national colors in 1831 by the Polish Parliament in 1831.

For many centuries the Polish flag was a white eagle on a red background.

Details 

The ratio of height to width is 5 to 8. The two horizontal stripes are of equal height.

There is a second version which has a coat of arms in the upper (white) half. The use of this flag is legally restricted.

If the flag is shown hanging vertically, the white should be on the left.

Polish flag day is May 2.

The Color White 

The exact color of the white was not clearly stated until 1980.

The Color Red 

The exact color of the red was not clearly stated originally, and has changed through the years. In 1919 the official act did not clearly define the red. In 1921 the Polish Ministry of Military Affairs used crimson as the shade of red in publications. In 1928 the president of Poland said the red should be vermilion. That was used until 1980, when people needed to specify the red more scientifically.

Similar flags in other places 

The same flag design is used in the German region Thuringia and the Spanish region Cantabria.

Both Indonesia and Monaco have flags that are the same colors, but upside-down.

Related pages
 Poland

References 

Poland, Flag of
National symbols of Poland
Transrapid

The Transrapid is a high speed train developed in Germany. It uses magnetic levitation. It can go very fast, up to 500km/h. Since now it is only used in Shanghai. 
It is developed by the company TRANSRAPID INTERNATIONAL GmbH & Co. KG, a company of the Siemens AG and the ThyssenKrupp AG. 

High-speed trains
Transport in the People's Republic of China
Shanghai