alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
1645



Events
 January 10 – Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud executed for treason on Tower Hill, London.
 January 14 – English Civil War: Fairfax appointed Commander-in-Chief.
 January 29 – English Civil War: Armistice talks opened at Uxbridge.
 February 2 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Inverlochy
 February 15 – English Civil War: New Model Army is founded officially
 February 29 – English Civil War: Uxbridge armistice talks failed.
 March 4 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert left Oxford for Bristol.
 March 31 – Fearing the spread of the plague, Edinburgh Town Council bans all gatherings except weddings and funerals
 April 3 – Lords pass Self-Denying Ordinance.
 April 10 – Because of the plague, Edinburgh town council orders that the college graduation ceremony should be brought forward so that students can leave the city (in November 19, teaching continues in Linlithgow)
 April 23 – English Civil War: 150 Irish soldiers bound for service with King Charles, were captured at sea by parliamentarians who celebrated St George's Day by joyfully killing them all at Pembroke.
 May 9 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Auldearn.
 June 1 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert' army took sacked Leicester
 June 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell confirmed as Lieutenant-General of Cavalry.
 June 14 – English Civil War: Battle of Naseby – 12,000 Royalist forces are beaten by 15,000 Parliamentarian soldiers
 June 28 – English Civil War – the Royalists lose Carlisle.
 July 2: Fight at Alford, Aberdeenshire.
 July 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell won the Battle of Langport, Somerset.
 July 23 – Alexei Mikhailovich, Tsar of Russia came to the throne.
 September 10 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert surrendered Bristol.
 September 13 – Covenanters defeated Montrose at the Battle of Philiphaugh, Selkirk.
 September 24 – English Civil War: Parliamentarians defeated Royalist cavalry at the Battle of Rowton Heath.
 October 8 – English Civil War: Final crushing of Basing house begun.
 October 8: Jeanne Mance founds the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, the first hospital in North America.
 October 11 – English Civil War The re-fortification of Bourne, Lincolnshire castle against threatened Royalist attack, was begun.

 Siege of Raglan Castle during the English Civil War
 The Long Parliament outlaws the 1559 version of the Book of Common Prayer
 Beginning of the Maunder Minimum, a time period when sunspots became exceedingly rare
 Founding of the Stolberg-Wernigerode branch of the family of counts of Stolberg and Wernigerode in Germany
 Wallpaper begins to replace tapestries as a wall decoration
 Mechanical calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal.
1072

Year 1072 (MLXXII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 William I of England invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.
 Osbern FitzOsbern becomes Bishop of Exeter.
 January 10 – Normans conquer Palermo in Sicily.
1263

1263 was a common year.

Events 
 October – King Alexander III of Scotland defeats the Viking armada of King Haakon IV of Norway in the Battle of Largs.
 King James I of Aragon conquers Crevillente, Spain from the Moors during the Reconquista.
 Mindaugas, the only Christian king of Lithuania, is assassinated by his cousin Treniota.
 The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to the Icelandic Commonwealth and the Icelandic civil war.
 Genoa captures the city of Chania on Crete from the Venetians.
 Hulagu Khan is defeated in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus.
 Based on Magdeburg Law Żnin (Poland) was given city rights
1264



Events 
 Before May – Second Barons' War, a civil war in England, begins.
 May 12 to May 14 – The Battle of Lewes of the Second Barons' War is fought between Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and King Henry III of England in Sussex. By the end of the battle, de Montfort's forces capture both King Henry and his brother, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the "uncrowned king of England" for 15 months before Edward escapes captivity and recaptures the throne.
 June 18 – The Parliament of Ireland meets at Castledermot in County Kildare, the first definitively known meeting of this Irish legislature.
 In Spain, King James I of Aragon reconquers the cities of Orihuela in Alicante and Elx in Valencia from the Moors, ending over 500 years of Islamic rule.
 The Thuringian War of Succession ends.
 The state of Hesse gains its independence from Thuringia and becomes a free state of the Holy Roman Empire.
 In the Peerage of England, the title Baron de Ros, the oldest continuously held peerage title in England, is created by writ of summons.

Births 
 May 26 – Prince Koreyasu, Japanese shogun (died 1326)
 Pope Clement V (died 1314)

Deaths
1641

1641 was a common year.

Events 
The Long Parliament passes a series of laws written to help keep Charles I's absolutist policies.
 August 10 – Charles I of England runs from London to the north
 Irish Rebellion of 1641 – revolt of the Gaelic Irish in Ulster against the English settlers
The Dutch found a trading colony on Dejima, near Nagasaki, Japan.
Portugal is ousted from Malacca by the Dutch.
Claudio Monteverdi's opera Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria is first performed.
Moses Amyraut's De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion is published.
The Norwegian city of Kristiansand was founded by King Christian IV
814

814 was .

Events

Deaths 
January 28-Charlemagne, King of the Franks
Sultan

Sultan is a title of Arabic origin for Islamic rulers who are monarchs. The title often corresponds to that of a king.

The word sultan comes from the Arabic language. It means "strength", "authority", or "rulership". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain Muslim rulers who claimed full sovereignty. They did not have to take orders from any higher monarch, without claiming the overall caliphate. There is no specific word for a sultan's wife in Arabic. The word, sultana began to be used (as the feminine version of the Italian word for sultano) in the 16th century in Italy, to describe the  wife, mother, daughter, or concubine of a sultan. The Italian word also passed to other European languages.

The dynasty and lands ruled by the Sultan is called a sultanate, which corresponds to a kingdom. During the 20th century, several Sultans in the Arab world changed their title to "Malik", which means "king" in Arabic.
States and union territories of India

The Republic of India is divided into twenty-eight States and eight union territories, including the National Capital Territory.

States and capitals

Union territories and capitals

Proposed States and union Territories

Intrastate proposals

Andhra Pradesh
 Rayalseema
 costal andhra

Assam
 Bodoland
 Hirimbapur(autonomous  state)
 Borail bhum
 Karbi anglong

Bihar
 Magadh

Gujrat
 Kutch
 Saurastra

Jammu and Kashmir
 Panuna Kashmir (U.T)
 Kashmir
 Jammu
 Gujjar

Kerala
 Malabar

Karnataka
 Karu Nadu
 Kodagu
 Kalyan
 Bangalore (U.T)

Maharashtra
 marathawada
 vidharbha
 Devagiri
 mumbai(U.T)

Madhya Pradesh
 Rewakhand
 Vindhya Pradesh
 Mahakosal

Manipur
 Kukiland

Meghalaya
 khasi-jaintia

Mizoram
 Chakmaland
 Bruland
 Hmarland

Nagaland
 Eastern Nagaland

Odisha
 Kosal
 Kalinga

Punjab
 Maalwa

Rajasthan
 Maru Pradesh
 Matsya Pradesh

Tamil Nadu
 Pandya Nadu
 Chola Nadu
 Chera Nadu
 Kongu nadu 

Telangana
 Hyderabad(U.T)

Tripura
 Kokborokland

Uttar Pradesh
 Purvanchal
 Awadh
 Harit/pashchim pradesh

West Bengal
 Gorkhaland
 Jangalmahal
 North Bengal

Puducherry
 Pondicherry(State)
 Karaikal(U.T)
 Mahe(U.T)

Interstate proposals

 Bhojpur(east up and west bihar)
 Bundelkhand(North mp and south up)
 Bhilistan (bhill region of India)
 Sindhistan (Sindhi migrant region of India)
 Dimarji ( dimasa dominant region of Assam and Nagaland)
 Mithila
 Rarh
 Braj
 Baghelkhand
 Greater delhi
 Greater Jharkhand
 Gondwana
 Uttrandhra
 Garoland
 kamatapur
 Greater coochbehar
 Taniland
 Tulunadu
 konkan
 khandesh
 Greater chandigarh
 Hirakhand
 Dandyakarnaya
 Bangalistan
 Purwa Pradesh
 Greater Punjab
 Greater Nagaland

Joint States
 Kutch-Saurashtra
 Dima-Karbiland
 Tulunad and Kodava Pradesh

Related pages
List of states and union territories of India by area
List of state and union territory capitals in India

India-related lists
Anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa (usually just called anorexia) is an eating disorder. 

People with anorexia think that they are fat, or desperately fear becoming fat even if they are very skinny. To try to lose weight, anorexics do not eat enough. When they do eat, they do not eat the amount of food their body needs, in an effort to avoid gaining weight.  This causes them to lose too much weight too quickly. This is very harmful to a person's body. There are various treatments for anorexia. One example is the Maudsley Method. This type of treatment is for patients who are 18 or younger. Two thirds of adolescent anorexia patients are 'recovered' at the end of this treatment. People with anorexia are more likely to die than people with any other mental illness.

Diagnosis
Doctors use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders to make a medical diagnosis and decide if a person has anorexia or not. Four signs of anorexia are listed in the manual. People do not have to show all four signs for the doctor to decide that they have anorexia.

Signs of anorexia
People with anorexia do not want to keep a body weight and BMI that is normal for their age and height.
People with anorexia think that they are fat. They are afraid of gaining weight.
People with anorexia have low self-esteem because of the shape or weight of their body.  Also, they do not think that low body weight is a problem.
A woman with anorexia might not have their period multiple months in a row (one period is sometimes called a menstrual cycle).  They also must make sure the woman is not pregnant and has not had their periods stop permanently due to their age, which is called menopause.

Symptoms of anorexia
 Rapid, unexplained weight loss
 Refusal to maintain a healthy weight
 Low self-esteem and distorted self-image
 Frequent weighing, "body-checking", or negative comments on appearance
 Amenorrhoea, the loss of menstrual periods
 Low body temperature
 Low pulse, blood sugar and blood pressure
 Depression

Dangers of anorexia
 Total self-starvation
 Heart attack or heart failure
 Kidney failure
 Electrolyte imbalance
 Muscle and organ damage (when the body has no fat to live off of, it begins to digest muscle and tissue)
 Suicide

Causes
There is no single cause of anorexia. Researchers believe that it is caused by a combination of biological and environmental factors. It has been linked to the media. Many people think that anorexia is caused by wanting to be thin like models in magazines. However, it is not that simple.

People who develop anorexia tend to be perfectionistic. They are also more likely to have problems socializing. There has been research about the link between anorexia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a disorder that involves problems with socializing. Another symptom of autism spectrum disorder is OCD, which has also been linked to anorexia. Starvation is known to create antisocial behavior so there needs to be research that compares those traits in anorexics with people who have recovered.

References

Related pages
Bulimia nervosa

Eating disorders
Madness

Madness (or Insanity)  is a word that can have different meanings:
 Up to about the 19th century someone who acted strangely, or outside the socially accepted norms was called mad or insane. This could range from having weird  ideas to someone having delusions or hallucinations, as they are common in some mental illnesses, such as psychosis. 
 Today, those having delusions or hallucinations (or other mental illnesses) are sometimes called mad or insane by people who are not doctors. Doctors say they have "mental disorders"
 Certain diseases, such as rabies, lead to a major change in behaviour.  An animal that suffers from rabies is sometimes called rabid or mad. 

Being able to tell right from wrong is the base of a working society and of law; for this reason, the law treats those people differently who are not able to make this distinction. In the law, when people who can’t understand that their crimes are crimes it’s called the insanity defense.

Related pages 
 Lunatic
 Psychiatry
 Insanity defense

Mental illnesses
Tirana

Tirana ( or Tirana) is the capital city of Republic of Albania. It is the largest city in that country. According to 2011 census, the population of the city was 621,286 people. Other people think there may be up to 1 million people who live in the city. Tirana was founded in 1614. It became Albania's capital city in 1920.

The origin of the city name is unknown. According to one of the versions, its name comes from Tyrkanos Castle, which was near the current location of Tirana.

References and notes
John Forbes Nash Jr.

John Forbes Nash Jr. (June 13, 1928 – May 23, 2015) was an American mathematician who worked in game theory and differential geometry. He was born in Bluefield, West Virginia. He shared the 1994 Memorial Prize in Economics with two other game theorists, Reinhard Selten and John Harsanyi.

Early life
Nash was born on June 13, 1928, in Bluefield, West Virginia. He studied at Princeton University and at Carnegie Institute of Technology.

Career
The winner of a Westinghouse scholarship, he attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he received both his bachelor's degree and his master's degree in 1948. From Pittsburgh he went to Princeton University where he worked on his equilibrium theory. He received a Ph.D. in 1950 with a dissertation on non-cooperative games. The thesis, which was written under the supervision of Albert W. Tucker, contained the definition and properties of what would later be called the Nash equilibrium. His studies on this subject led to three articles:
 "Equilibrium Points in N-person Games", published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) (1950);
 "The Bargaining Problem" (April 1950) in Econometrica, and
 "Two-person Cooperative Games" (January 1953), also in Econometrica.

Nash also did important work in the area of manifolds (complex spatial structures):
 "Real algebraic manifolds", (1952) Ann. Math. 56 (1952), 405 – 421. (See also Proc. Internat. Congr. Math., 1950, (AMS, 1952), pp. 516 – 517.)

This work led to Nash embedding theorem: "Two real algebraic manifolds are equivalent if and only if they are analytically homeomorphic."

Personal life
He is best known in popular culture as the subject of the Hollywood movie, A Beautiful Mind, about his mathematical genius and his struggles with schizophrenia, with which he was diagnosed.

Nash married Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Lardé in 1957. They had one son. Nash had a first son out of wedlock to Elenor Stier.. In 1963, the couple divorced. They later remarried in 2001. Nash lived in West Windsor Township, New Jersey for a long time.

Death
On May 23, 2015, Nash and his wife Alicia were killed in a car accident near Monroe Township, New Jersey. A taxi that they were riding in was struck by another vehicle and the pair was ejected from the taxi. Nash was 86 years old.

References

Other websites 

 Autobiography at the Nobel Prize website
 Nash's home page at Princeton
 John Forbes Nash Jr Information 
 Nash FAQ  from Princeton's Mudd Library, including a copy of his dissertation in PDF format
 Beautiful mind, unconventional matter , a 2001 Daily Princetonian interview
 PBS documentary 
 John Nash speaks out about alleged bisexuality

Abel Prize winners
American geometers
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from West Virginia
People with schizophrenia
Road accident deaths in New Jersey
1928 births
2015 deaths
Differential geometers
Calisthenics

Calisthenics is a  series of exercises used to develop strength, power and balance or a repeated rhythmical exercise that uses the weight of the body as resistance or the systematic exercises for attaining strength-gracefulness or the practice of calisthenic exercises.

The name calisthenics is Greek in origin, a combination of the words 'beauty' and 'strength'.

Calisthenics is recommended for general good health, light exercises designed to promote general physical fitness.

Related pages

 Equilibrioception
 Flexibility training
 Jogging
 Training
 Weight training

Fitness
Muteness

Muteness means not being able to speak. A person that cannot speak is called a mute. A mute keeps the ability to hear the speech of others. If not, the person would be a deaf mute.

Muteness is a type of speech  disorder. A person who chooses not to speak is said to be silent rather than mute. Slang for this (British English) is "keeping mum".

Originally, the common word dumb or dumbness used to mean "unable to speak," though was taken over to mean "unwilling to speak" or "unintelligent". So, people now prefer the term "muteness". "Dumb" is a much more common word, and might be used if it would not be misunderstood.

Cause (eteliology)   
In general, someone who is mute may be mute for one of several different reasons: genetics, psychological, or trauma.

For children, a lack of speech may be developmental, neurological, psychological, or due to a physical disability or a communication disorder. 

Adults who previously had speech and then became unable to speak: this may be due to disease, injury, damage or surgery affecting areas of the brain needed for speech. Loss of speech in adults may occur, but rarely, for psychological reasons. Damage (however caused) to the parts of the brain needed for speech is called aphasia.

Action 
Treatment or management of muteness depends on what has caused the absence of speech. A speech assessment may  decide cause and treatment. Treatment of absence of speech is possible in a variety of cases. If the absence of speech is a permanent condition, a range of communication devices are available to help communication.

Speech-generating devices help people with speech deficiencies.

Related pages
Deaf-mute
Aphasia
Aphonia
Autism
Deafness
Dysarthria

References 

Disability
Hearing
Sign languages
Wooden spoon

A wooden spoon is a spoon made from wood. Wooden spoons are used for mixing food.  Wooden spoon is also a  term for last place in a sporting contest.

Other websites
Stuart King's collection of carved wooden spoons 

Food utensils

sv:Slev
Mindanao

Mindanao is one of the three main island groups in the Philippines. It is the southernmost major island of the Philippines, and is the only island in the Philippines to have many Muslim people. Mindanao is northeast of Sabah. It may also refer to the main island in the group. 

Islands of the Philippines
Phylum

A phylum (plural: phyla) is the third highest rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. The second rank is kingdom and the highest is domain. Usually biologists count about 32 phyla of animals, about 14 of plants, and about 8 phyla of fungus, but definitions vary.

With genome analysis, groups of phyla have been put together based on evolutionary relationships. These are informal, not part of the standard classification.

Botanists usually prefer the word division instead of phylum.

Related pages 
List of animal phyla

Taxonomy
Knuckle

Knuckles is also the name of a Sonic the Hedgehog-related video game character.
A knuckle, in anatomy, is where two bones join in the hands or feet. When talking about humans, knuckles most often refer to the joints in the fingers.

Animal knuckles, such as pig knuckles are sometimes sold as food.

Joints
Conduction

Conduction in physics is about forms of energy, namely heat or electricity.

 Heat conduction takes place between two objects in contact with each other.  Heat energy moves from one to the other.  In heat conduction, the heat energy travels from the hot point to a cold point.  Eventually, the two materials will even out in temperature as the heat keeps on transferring until the temperatures are the same.  This is equilibrium.  For example, a pan of hot soup is taken off the oven and put on a table.  The area of the table under the pot gets hot.  Heat from the pot moved to the table top by conduction. 

 Electrical conduction is usually done through wires or cables. Something that electrons can easily move through is a good electrical conductor.  Metals are mostly  good conductors.  An insulator like rubber is a poor conductor.  Plastics are insulators.  Some materials, such as glass, are conductors for heat but not electricity.

Besides conduction, the other major ways of moving energy are by radiation and convection.

Related pages
 electrical conductor
 heat conduction
 fiber optics

Basic physics ideas
Royal family

A royal family is the family of a monarch (king or queen of a country). Or, it is someone who is related to a queen, king or a monarch. A royal family may be called "House of" something, as in "House of Habsburg". Some royal families such as the British Royal Family participate in various ceremonies and royal duties. As of 2021, there are 26 royal families in the world.

Royalty
General election

A general election is an election in which all or most members of a given political body are chosen. The term is usually used to mean the elections held for a nation's primary legislative body. This is different from primary elections, by-elections or local elections. In the United Kingdom when Parliament is dissolved every seat in the House of Commons becomes vacant and a general election is held.

References 

Types of elections
2005 United Kingdom general election

The 2005 United Kingdom General Election was an election held on May 5, 2005 to elect 646 members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The three main candidates to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom are shown to the right. 

The election resulted in the Labour Party and it's leader Tony Blair winning a majority in the House of Commons for the third time in a row. The Labour Party did lose 47 of their seats in parliament and the amount of votes they got dropped by 5.5% from the 2001 General Election. Many people believe the Labour Party lost support because of Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair's unpopular decision to send troops to Iraq in 2003.

Results
 Labour Party (355 MP's, 35.2% of vote)
 Conservative Party (198 MP's, 32.4% of vote)
 Liberal Democrats (62 MP's, 22.0% of vote)
 UK Independence Party (0 MP's, 2.2% of vote)
 Scottish National Party (6 MP's, 1.5% of vote) - Scotland only
 Green Party (0 MP's, 1.0% of vote) - England and Wales only
 Democratic Unionist Party (9 MP's, 0.9% of vote) - Northern Ireland only  
 British National Party (0 MP's, 0.7% of vote)
 Plaid Cymru (3 MP's, 0.6% of vote) - Wales only
 Sinn Féin (5 MP's, 0.6% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Ulster Unionist Party (1 MP, 0.5% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Social Democratic and Labour Party (3 MP's, 0.5% of vote) - Northern Ireland only 
 Respect Party (1 MP, 0.3% of vote)
 Scottish Socialist Party (0 MP's, 0.2% of vote) - Scotland only
 Veritas (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Scottish Green Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - Scotland only
 Socialist Labour Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
 Liberal Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
 English Democrats (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - England only

The constituencies of Blaenau Gwent and Wyre Forest elected Independent candidates. The seat of Glasgow East was won by the Speaker of the House of Commons Michael Martin, who is not considered to be of any political party.

The next election was held on May 6, 2010. See United Kingdom general election, 2010

Related pages
MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005

2005 in the United Kingdom
2005 elections
United Kingdom general elections
May 2005 events
Dover

Dover can refer to:

 Dover, Delaware, the capital of Delaware
 Dover, Kent, a town in England
 Dover, Arkansas, a city in Arkansas
 Dover, Idaho, a city in Idaho
 Dover, Kentucky, a city in Kentucky
 Dover, New Hampshire, a city in New Hampshire
 Dover, New York, a city in New York
 Dover, Pennsylvania, a city in Pennsylvania
 Dover-Foxcroft, Maine, a city in Maine
Flash memory

Flash memory is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives, and video games. It was developed in the 1980s from the earlier and similar EEPROM.

Flash memory is different from RAM because RAM is volatile (not permanent). When power is turned off, RAM loses all its data. Flash can keep its data intact with no power at all. A hard drive is also permanent (non-volatile) storage, but it is bulky and fragile. Flash memory is one kind of Non-volatile random-access memory. It is slower than RAM but faster than hard drives. It is often used in small electronics because of its small size and lack of moving parts.

The main weakness of flash memory is that it is more expensive than hard drives for the same amount of storage.  Another weakness is the number of times that data can be written to it. Data can be read from flash as many times as desired, but after a certain number of "write" operations, "write cycles", it will stop working. Most flash devices are designed for about 100,000 - 1,000,000 write cycles.

EEPROM has the same limitation that flash does: ones made in the 20th century could only survive about 100,000 write cycles, later increased to about a million. It is more expensive than flash, so it is rarely used for storage greater than 128kB. The main difference between EEPROM and flash memory is that most EEPROM devices can erase any byte of memory at any time. Flash memory can only erase an entire chunk, or "sector", of memory at a time. Both EEPROM and flash are subject to the limitation that only bytes in an 'erased' state can be written, which means that if the user wants to change only one byte of flash, the entire sector must be erased and re-written. This means that flash memory can wear out faster than EEPROM.  Some flash memory can store hundreds of gigabytes, or even terabytes.  Many are in the form of a pen drive.  

Flash memory is used in USB Drives, solid-state drives, computer RAM (occasionally), hybrid drives (small SSD + hard drive), graphics cards, and memory cards.

Related pages
 USB flash drive

Computer memory
Bottrop

Bottrop is a city in west central Germany, on the Rhine-Herne Canal, in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen). Bottrop is in the Ruhr industrial area, It is next to Essen, Oberhausen, Gladbeck and Dorsten. The city had been a coal-mining and rail center. There are factories producing coal-tar derivatives, chemicals, textiles, and machinery. The population is currently 119,655. Bottrop grew as a mining center beginning in the 1860s and was chartered as a city in 1921. In 1975 it was put together with the unification with the neighbor communities of Gladbeck and Kirchhellen, but Gladbeck left in 1976.

History 
The place is first heard of in 1150, as Borthorpe. This name means village on the hillside. In the year 1423, Bottrop is awarded the status of a market town. In 1786 the first cotton mill opens. Coal mining starts in 1856. The city gets town privileges in 1919. In 1953, the population passed 100.000 people for the first time.

Popular persons 

 Josef Albers
 August Everding
 Theo Jörgensmann

References

Other websites 

 Official city website

Urban districts in Regierungsbezirk Münster
New York Yankees

The New York Yankees are a professional baseball team based in New York City, New York in the Bronx. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as part of the American League (AL) east division. They are one of two MLB teams based in New York City, the other being the National League's (NL) New York Mets. They won 27 World Series championships to date, more than any other team in the Major Leagues. From 1923 to 2008, the Yankees home stadium had been Yankee Stadium. Currently, they are playing at their new Yankee Stadium.

The word "Yankee" (slang for "American") and the "Uncle Sam" top hat, make up part of what they are all about. As with the more common use of the term "Yankee", the team name is more often called "the Yanks". Their most commonly used "unofficial" nickname is "the Bronx Bombers", or simply "the Bombers". This nickname was given to them by the press a long time ago. It refers to their ability to hit home runs a lot (a home run is sometimes called a "bomb"). A less used nickname is "the Pinstripers", for their well-known uniform style.

The Yankees currently don't have a team captain. Derek Jeter retired after the 2014 season

The Yankees' current team ace is Geritt Cole.

The New York Yankees' main rival is the Boston Red Sox.

The Yankees' current team manager is Aaron Boone.

The Yankees' current General Manager is Brian Cashman.

The official fight song for the Yankees is "Here Come the Yankees".

After the game, they play Frank Sinatra's "New York, New York".

They have 22 retired numbers, more than any other teams in MLB. The number 42 was retired not only in the Yankees but also throughout Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson who broke the color barrier.

The Yankees were also the last team to repeat as World Series champions. They won three straight titles from 1998 to 2000.

References

Other websites

 Official website of the New York Yankees
 New York Yankees Home Uniform - American League (AL) - Chris Creamer's Sports Logos Page - SportsLogos.Net

Further Reading
Pinstripe Pride by Marty Appel
1048



Events 
 The city of Oslo is founded by King Harald Hardrada of Norway.
 Battle of Pasinler – Seljuks defeat a force of Byzantines and Georgians.
 Pope Benedict IX is driven out of Rome, ending his third and final pontificate.

Births 
 May 18 – Omar Khayyam, Persian poet and mathematician (died 1134)
 date unknown
 Michael IX Comneus, Byzantine emperor (died 1088)
 Pope Paschal II (died 1118)

Deaths 
 Pope Damasus II (born 1000)
Terry Pratchett

Sir Terry Pratchett OBE (Terence David John Pratchett; 28 April 1948 – 12 March 2015) was an English author. He was known for his fantasy works, including the famous Discworld series. His first novel, The Carpet People, was published in 1971. He was the UK's best-selling author of the 1990s. He was born in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England.

Pratchett died at his home in Broad Chalke, Wiltshire, England on 12 March 2015 from a severe chest infection with final complications from his Alzheimers, aged 66.

References

Other websites 
TerryPratchettBooks.com Official US site
Transworld  Official UK, Europe and Canada site
TerryPratchettBooks.org Fan site

1948 births
2015 deaths
English science fiction writers
English novelists
Writers from Buckinghamshire
1218

1218 was a common year.

Events 
 Damietta is besieged by the knights of the Fifth Crusade.
 Livonian Brothers of the Sword begin to conquer Estonia.
 Minamoto no Sanetomo becomes Minister of the Right (udaijin) of Japan.
 Alfonso IX of Castile founds a university in Salamanca.
1282

1282 was a common year.

Events 
 March 30 – The Sicilian rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers begins
 March – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother to Prince of Wales Llywelyn the Last, attacks an English castle
 Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph I of Germany makes his sons Albert I of Germany and Rudolph II of Austria as rulers of the of Austria and Styria, thus founding the Habsburg dynasty in those territories.
 Floris V, Count of Holland defeats the Frisians at the battle of Vronen and retrieves the body of his father, who had been dead for 26 years.
Critic

A critic is a person who reviews things like movies, books, and food to see if they are any good and if other people would like them.  They write reviews about what they have seen or read. 

Critics may write about art, music, theatre, politics, movies, television, books, or anything in which good or bad is a matter of personal opinion.

Roger Ebert, Gene Siskel, Raymond Williams, Susan George, John Ruskin, Rene Ricard, John Amis, Vladimir Vladimirovich Kara-Murza, George Bernard Shaw, Robert Schumann and Pauline Kael are some famous critics of art, music, politics and movies.

Related pages
Art critic
Criticism
Movie criticism
Music critic

 
Writing occupations
Søren Kierkegaard

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855), was a 19th-century Danish philosopher and theologian, and is usually thought of as the first existentialist philosopher.

He wrote many philosophical books about faith, existence, emotions, and feeling. He disliked people who tried to make Christianity political and people who tried to limit the single individual in favour of groups of many people. Many people have found his works interesting and have said that they were great works of philosophy. Ludwig Wittgenstein, a 20th-century philosopher, thought Kierkegaard was "by far, the most profound thinker of the nineteenth century".

Life
He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. He attended Copenhagen University and earned his master's degree in 1841. During this time, he met and fell in love with Regine Olsen in 1837. Although they were engaged for a time, Kierkegaard ended the engagement in 1841.

After breaking up with Regine, he spent much of his time writing book after book, in a highly dramatic yet subtle way. He also wrote some of his works using pen names, or pseudonyms. He died in Copenhagen. Although his works were not very popular during his lifetime, after his death they became influential in the 20th century.

Works 
Books by Kierkegaard. Either/Or and Fear and Trembling, both published in 1843, are thought to be especially significant.

 (1841) The Concept of Irony (Om Begrebet Ironi med stadigt Hensyn til Socrates)
 (1843) Either/Or (Enten - Eller)
 (1843) Fear and Trembling (Frygt og Bæven)
 (1843) Repetition (Gjentagelsen)
 (1844) Philosophical Fragments (Philosophiske Smuler)
 (1844) The Concept of Dread (Begrebet Angest)
 (1845) Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vei)
 (1846) Concluding Unscientific Postscript to The Philosophical Fragments (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift)
 (1847) Edifying Discourses in Divers Spirits
 (1847) Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger)
 (1848) Christian Discourses (Christelige Taler)
 (1849) The Sickness Unto Death  (Sygdommen til Døden)
 (1850) Training in Christianity (Indøvelse i Christendom)

Related pages
List of Danish writers

References 

1813 births
1855 deaths
19th-century philosophers
Danish writers
People from Copenhagen
1667



Events 
 January 20 – Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power.
 April 27 – The blind, impoverished John Milton sells the copyright of Paradise Lost for £10.
 June 12-17 – In the Raid on the Medway, a Dutch fleet under admiral Michiel de Ruyter burns Sheerness, sails up the River Medway, raids Chatham dockyards and escapes with the royal barge The Royal Charles.
 June 15 – The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys. He transfuses the blood of a sheep to a 15-year-old boy. (Though this operation is a success, a later patient dies from the procedure and Denys is accused of murder).
 June 20 – Dutch troops attack Royal Navy ships in London and Chatham and burn them.
 July 31 – Second Anglo-Dutch War ends: The Treaty of Breda ends the war. The treaty also recognizes Acadia as a French possession.
 October 18 – Brooklyn is chartered under the name Brueckelen by Mathias Nicolls, Governor of New Netherland.
 November 25 – Devastating earthquake rocks Caucasia, killing 80,000 people.
 Suleiman I becomes Shah of Persia.
 The Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb buys off the bandit Shivaji by making him a Rajah and allowing him to collect taxes.
 Robert Hooke demonstrates that the alteration of the blood in the lungs is essential for respiration.
 The War of Devolution begins, France invades Flanders and Free County.
 Louis XIV of France abolishes the Livre Parisis (Paris Pound) in favor of the much more widely used Livre Tournois (Tours Pound). He also designates Gabriel-Nicolas de la Reynie as first chief of "police" of Paris.
 French army uses grenadiers.
 Yohannes succeeds his father Fasildos as Emperor of Ethiopia.

Births 
 August 11 - Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Tuscan princess
 November 30 - Jonathan Swift, Irish writer
Despotism

Despotism is a form of government that is controlled by one person or a small group of people. The person who controls the state is called a despot. The despot has complete control of the state, like a dictator or tyrant. In history, the pharaohs of Egypt were despots. The word despot is thought to come from the Ancient Greek word despotes, which means "the master".

According to Montesquieu, the difference between absolute monarchy and despotism is as follows. In the case of the monarchy, a single person governs with absolute power by fixed and established laws, whereas a despot governs by his or her own will and caprice.

The importance of the idea of despotism is that today it is a very common type of dictatorship or direct rule. Ruling monarchies are today few in number.

Even when there are elections, as there are for the Russian presidency,  opposition candidates are at such a disadvantage that they are rarely, if ever, successful.

Despotism has always been associated with Eastern rather than Western states. Of the former Soviet Union, it is only the new states to the west which have attempted, with difficulties, to build genuine democracies (such as Moldova and Ukraine).

References 

Forms of government
Lakshadweep

Lakshdweep, formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy and Aminidivi Islands are a group of islands in the Arabian Sea. They belong to India. Their capital is Kavaratti. It covers an area of . Eleven of the 36 coral atoll islands of Lakshadweep are inhabited. Lakshadweep is known for its exotic and sun-kissed beaches and lush green landscape. The name Lakshadweep in Malayalam and Sanskrit means 'a hundred thousand islands'.

The islands are the only coral atolls in India. The people living there are Malayalam and Mahl people, who have been influenced by Arab traders. Lakshadweep is a Muslim region just like the neighbouring Maldives, where tourism is strictly regulated. Lakshadweep has the largest percentage of Muslims - 98%, even larger percentage than Jammu and Kashmir and is the only Muslim-majority Indian administrative division entirely within India. 

Apart from the emerging tourism, government jobs, fishing and coconut production are the mainstays of the Lakshadweep economy.

Territorial symbols of Lakshadweep

Other websites 

Commonwealth dependent states
Islands of India
Territories of India
Daman and Diu

Daman and Diu was a union territory in India. It covers an area of . The area is bigger than Saint Helena but smaller than Wallis and Futuna. It was made of two districts, Daman and Diu.

The territory used to belong to Portugal. In 1961, Indian soldiers and air fighters took control of the territory. In 2020, it merged with Dadra and Nagar Haveli to make a new union territory, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

References

Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
Riding helmet

A riding helmet, sometimes called a horse riding helmet, is a type of helmet made for people who ride horses. It is important to wear a riding helmet when riding. It is easy for a person to fall off a horse and hit his or her head.  Riding helmets keep the rider of a horse from being hurt. Horses can accidentally step on a person who has fallen to the ground.

Helmets should be worn by all riders, but are most often worn by English style riders.

Protective clothing
Horse riding
Helmets
1718

1718 was a common year.

Events 
 July 21 – Treaty of Passarowitz signed
 November 22 – Off the coast of Virginia, English pirate Edward Teach (best known as "Blackbeard") is killed in battle when a British boarding party cornered and then shot and stabbed him more than 25 times.
 November 30 – After the death of Charles XII, Ulrika Eleonora becomes Queen of Sweden.
 December 17 – Austria, Great Britain, and France declare war on Spain, launching the War of the Quadruple Alliance.
 The Funj warrior aristocracy deposes the reigning mek and places one of their own ranks on the throne of Sennar. (History of Sudan (Coming of Islam to the Turkiyah))

Births 
 March 31  -  Mariana Victoria of Spain, queen regent of Portugal (d. 1781)
 November 3  -  John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English statesman (d. 1792)

Deaths 
 May 7  -  Mary of Modena, queen of James II of England (b. 1658)
 July 30  -  William Penn, American settler, founder of Pennsylvania (b. 1644)
 November 22  -  Blackbeard, English pirate (b. c. 1680)
 November 30  -  King Charles XII of Sweden (b. 1682)
 December 10  -  Stede Bonnet, the "gentleman pirate"
Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Dadra and Nagar Haveli was a union territory in India. It covers an area of 188 mi² or 487 km², it is bigger than Andorra, but smaller than Saint Lucia.

In 2020, it merged with Daman and Diu to make a new union territory, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. Dadra and Nagar Haveli is now a district of this territory.

References

Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
1323

1323 was a common year.

Events 
 Canonization of Saint Thomas Aquinas
 Vilnius becomes capital of Lithuania
 The Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden and Novgorod (Russia) is signed, deciding on the border for the first time
 Pharos of Alexandria Lighthouse (one of the Seven Wonders of the world) is destroyed by many earthquakes
Birthday

A birthday is the day when a person was born. In many places, on a person's birthday, he or she celebrates with friends and family at a party, where they eat cake or other foods, and get gifts. It is a common use to offer gifts in packages decorated for the occasion and accompanied by greeting cards.

Customs 
Not everyone celebrates birthdays, including Jehovah's Witnesses.

In much of the English-speaking world people sing the song "Happy Birthday to You" to the person celebrating her or his birthday.  There are similar songs in other languages.

A birthday cake is usually decorated and covered with candles.  Usually the number of candles is the same as the age of the birthday person.

Coming of age 
Children usually reach their age of majority on a birthday.

In the United States of America and also in many other countries a person can vote and become a legal adult at age 18.
In Judaism, boys have a bar mitzvah around the time they become 13. Girls sometimes have a bat mitzvah around their 12th or 13th birthday.
In Latin America, a quinceañera party marks a girl's 15th birthday.

Astrology 
A person's astrological sign is based on his or her birthday.

Symbolism

Birthstones
A birthstone symbolizes the month of birth. In 1912, the Jewelers of America agreed on a list of birthstones:

References
1442

1442 was a common year.

Events

Births 
 April 28 – Edward IV of England

Deaths
Yi I

Yi I (1536 – 1584) was a Korean Confucian scholar. His mother was a famous calligraphist, Shin Saimdang. He was very intelligent as a child, learning to read at three and being very bright at his studies. He was also devoted to his parents: when his mother was sick, he prayed to his ancestors to heal her; and when his father was sick, he cut his own finger with a knife and let his father drink his blood (at that time, people thought human blood was very good medicine).

Works 

 Seonghakjipyo (성학집요 聖學輯要)
 Gyeokmongyogyeol (격몽요결 擊蒙要訣)
 Donghomundap (동호문답 東湖問答)
 Gijasilgi (기자실기 箕子實記)
 Gyeongyeonilgi (경연일기 經筵日記)
 Suneon (순언 醇言)

Korean people
Confucianism
1536 births
1584 deaths
Sunrise (company)

Sunrise is a Japanese animation company. The staff uses the name Hajime Yatate in all their productions by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, but this is not a real person--it is a name that all the people who work for the studio use for themselves. 
Some cartoons made by the company are:
Argentosoma (also "Argento Soma, and "Argent Soma")
(The) Big O
Blue Comet SPT Layzner
Brain Powerd (also "Brain Powered")
Brave Raideen (勇者ライディーン; Yuusha Raidiin) (co-production with Tohoku Shinsha)
City Hunter
Cowboy Bebop (Co-production with Tokyo Movie Shinsha)
Cyborg 009 (1979 color series; co-production with Toei Animation)Crest of the Stars (星界の紋章; Seikai no Monshō)Dirty PairFuture GPX Cyber Formula (新世紀ＧＰＸサイバーフォーミュラ; Shin Seiki GPX Saibaa Fohmyura) (literally "New Century GPX Cyber Formula")Gasaraki Infinite Ryvius (無限のリヴァイアス; Mugen no Ryvius)
InuYasha (犬夜叉)
My-HiME (舞-HiME)
My-Otome
Mobile Suit Gundam (機動戦士ガンダム; Kidō Senshi Gandamu) co production with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 
Outlaw Star 
Overman King Gainer
Planetes
Scryed
The Ultraman (co-production with Tsuburaya Productions)
The Vision of Escaflowne (天空のエスカフローネ; Tenkuu no Esukaforohne) (literally "Escaflowne of the Heavens")
Witch Hunter Robin
Yakitate!! Japan (焼きたて!! ジャぱん)
Yoroiden Samurai Troopers (鎧伝サムライトールパー) (Ronin Warriors)
Japanese entertainment companies
1972 establishments in Japan
Animation studios in Asia
Companies based in Tokyo
X-ray

X-radiation is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays are waves of X-radiation. They have a shorter wavelength, and therefore more energy, than ultraviolet radiation. X-rays have a much shorter wavelength than visible light (the light that we can see). Radiation with shorter wavelengths (more energy) than the X-ray is called Gamma radiation (γ-rays). These are all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The wavelength of X-rays covers a wide range. Most X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometres. This corresponds with frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.

X-rays can go through many solid materials. For this reason, taking photograms with X-rays is used in medicine in order to see bones and other things inside the body. Sometimes the term "X-ray" means these pictures instead of the radiation that makes them.

What these images show will depend on three things: Rayleigh scattering,  Compton scattering and photoabsorption. The images show bone because it is dense enough that X-rays are not able to pass through it. Instead, the X-rays are either absorbed or scattered. The images do not show skin and muscle, however, because these tissues are transparent enough for the X-rays to pass through them without being absorbed too much. To detect tumors, other imaging devices are used; such as magnetic resonance imaging. A computed tomography scanner combines an X-ray machine and computer to construct a three dimensional (3D) picture. This has some ability to see other things besides bone.

X-rays are made by hitting metal with fast-moving electrons. They are photons, tiny packets of energy that can move atoms and change chemicals in the body. They are ionizing radiation but the things they do depend on the wavelength of the X-rays (or how much energy they have). X-rays with smaller energies ("soft" x-rays) cause the photoelectric effect. Mid-level energies cause Compton scattering. High-level energies ("hard" X-rays) cause pair production. X-rays used for making pictures of people have low to medium energy. Radiation therapy that treats cancer uses Compton scattering and sometimes Pair production.

There are small amounts of X-rays in the air. Like other energy in the air, X-rays can change living cells. Exposing the human body to high doses of X-rays for a long time is dangerous. It can cause cancer. However, cancer cells are hurt more easily, so X-rays are sometimes used to kill them.

Related pages
 X-ray crystallography
 Interventional Radiology

References

Medical procedures
Light
Electromagnetic radiation
Medical imaging
Computed tomography scanner

A computed tomography (CT) scanner is an X-ray machine that takes cross section images. They can help a doctor in diagnosis.

Medical equipment
Laboratory equipment
Medical imaging