alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Major League Soccer

Major League Soccer (MLS) is an American soccer league that started in 1996. As of the current 2023 season, 29 teams play in the league. One other team plans to join in 2025. The commissioner of the league (the person in charge) is Don Garber.

MLS, founded in the United States, is a fully professional league with 28 teams, three of which are based in Canada. The United States Soccer Federation (USSF or U.S. Soccer), which runs soccer in that country, considers MLS to be the country's top men's league. The Canadian Soccer Association (CSA), which runs soccer in Canada, considers the Canadian Premier League as its top men's league, but MLS has much greater Canadian media coverage and is seen as having a higher level of play. Referees are approved by U.S. Soccer and the CSA. In turn, both national governing bodies are members of FIFA, which governs all play between national teams and sets the rules for the sport along with the national governing bodies of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.

MLS was formed in 1993 as a professional league, with play starting with 10 teams in 1996. The MLS regular season starts in late February and ends in November, with each team playing 34 games. The regular season is followed by a 14-team playoff tournament to decide the league champion.

Teams

Current

Former teams

Future teams

MLS Cup Winners

Related pages
 USL Championship

References 
 Best Players in Major league Soccer (MLS) in 2012. hub, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
 Major League Soccer.  Princeton, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
 An Overview of American Soccer History.  Dave Litterer, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
 Soccer Politics / The Politics of Football. Duke University, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.

 
Soccer in the United States
Sports organizations of the United States
1996 establishments in the United States
Soccer leagues in the United States
Chicago Fire FC

Chicago Fire FC (officially Chicago Fire Football Club, and before 2020 Chicago Fire Soccer Club) is a soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in Chicago.  They started in 1998 and won an MLS Cup in that year. The club is named after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.

League title 
 Major League Soccer : 1
 1998

League position

References 

American soccer teams
Sports in Chicago
1997 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in Illinois
Major League Soccer teams
Columbus SC

The Columbus Crew (known from 2015 to 2021 as Columbus Crew SC, and briefly in 2021 as Columbus SC) are an American soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in Columbus, Ohio.  They started play in 1996, playing at Ohio Stadium on the campus of Ohio State University until opening the new Columbus Crew Stadium in 1999. That stadium would be renamed Mapfre Stadium in 2015 and Historic Crew Stadium in late 2020. The Crew played their first match at the new Lower.com Field on July 3, 2021.

Shortly after the start of the 2021 season, the team announced a name change to Columbus SC. Fan reaction was extremely negative.  On May 17, 2021, only a week after the change to Columbus SC, the team announced that it would return to the original name of Columbus Crew, without the "SC".

Honors
 MLS Cup (league championship): 2 (2008, 2020)
 MLS Supporters' Shield (best regular-season record): 3 (2004, 2008, 2009)
 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup: 1 (2002)

League position

References

American soccer teams
Columbus, Ohio
Major League Soccer teams
1994 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Ohio
Sporting Kansas City

Sporting Kansas City are an American football (soccer) team that plays in Major League Soccer in Kansas City, Kansas.

They started out as the Kansas City Wiz, before changing their name to the Kansas City Wizards in 1997. Later, in November 2010, they changed their name again to Sporting Kansas City, as the team was moving into a new stadium in the 2011 season. The stadium has been known by several names, first Livestrong Sporting Park, then Sporting Park, and now Children's Mercy Park.

Honors
 MLS Cup (league champions): 2 (2000, 2013)
 Supporters' Shield (best regular-season record): 1 (2000)
 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup: 2 (2004, 2012)

League position

References

Other websites
 Official Homepage
 Official Website of Supporters Section: The Cauldron
 Official Wizards board, courtesy of BigSoccer

Major League Soccer teams
Kansas City, Kansas
1995 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Kansas
New England Revolution

The New England Revolution are a United States football (soccer) team from Foxborough, Massachusetts that plays in the Eastern Conference of Major League Soccer. They share the Gillette Stadium with the New England Patriots, a football team in the NFL.

The team is owned by Robert Kraft, who also owns the New England Patriots.

History 
The team won their first major trophy when they won the U.S. Open Cup in 2007. They won the North American SuperLiga in 2008.

Related pages
 List of United States soccer teams

American soccer teams
Major League Soccer teams
1994 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in Massachusetts
New York Red Bulls

The New York Red Bulls are an American soccer team. They play in Major League Soccer in Harrison, New Jersey. Until 2006, they were known as the MetroStars. Their homeground is the Red Bull Arena in Harrison.

History
The club was founded in 1995 by John Werner Kluge  and  Stuart Subotnick, two managers for MetroMedia, under the name MetroStars. The club was a founding member of Major League Soccer. In 2006 the team was sold to the Austrian company Red Bull and renamed the New York Red Bulls. The team is the only one in the MLS which never reached a major title. There were a lot of well-known soccer players on the team from all over the world such as Roberto Donadoni, Lothar Matthäus (FIFA World Cup 1990, UEFA Champion 1980), Adolfo Valencia, Youri Djorkaeff, Amado Guevara, Juan Pablo Angel,Daniel Rodriguez, Thierry Henry, and  Rafael Márquez.

Current squad

Captains 

|align="left"| Aaron Long||2021–2022
|}
|align="left"| Sean Nealis||2022–Present
|}

International players 
Former players Tony Meola, Tab Ramos, Tim Howard, Alexi Lalas, Clint Mathis, Jozy Altidore, Michael Bradley, Claudio Reyna, Eddie Pope, and Tim Ream have all played for the U.S. national team. Current players Juan Agudelo,Daniel Rodriguez, Dax McCarty, and Kenny Cooper have also played for the USMNT.

Achievements
MLS Cup
Runners-up (1): 2008
Supporters' Shield (best regular-season record)
Winners (3): 2013, 2015, 2018
MLS Eastern Conference
Winners (Regular Season) (2): 2000, 2010
MLS Western Conference
Winners (Playoff) (1): 2008
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup
Runners-up (1): 2003
Minor Trophies
Atlantic Cup (2): 2003, 2010
Walt Disney World Pro Soccer Classic (1): 2010

Head coaches
 Eddie Firmani (1996)
 Carlos Queiroz (1996)
 Carlos Alberto Parreira (1997)
 Alfonso Mondelo (1998)
Bora Milutinović (1998–99)
 Octavio Zambrano (2000–02)
 Bob Bradley (2003–05)
 Mo Johnston (2005–06)
 Richie Williams (2006), (Interim)
 Bruce Arena (2006–07)
 Juan Carlos Osorio (2008–09)
 Richie Williams (2009), (Interim)
 Hans Backe (2010–2012)
 Mike Petke (2013-2014)
 Jesse Marsch (2015-2017)
 Chris Armas (2018-2020)
 Bradley Carnell (2020)
 Gerhard Struber (2020- present)

Gallery

References

Other websites

American soccer teams
Football clubs owned by Red Bull
1995 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in New Jersey
Colorado Rapids

The Colorado Rapids are an American soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer. They are one of the founding clubs of the MLS. The hometown  of Rapids is Denver, Colorado. The club was formed in 1996.

Stadium

 Mile High Stadium; Denver, Colorado (1996–2001)
 Invesco Field at Mile High; Denver, Colorado (2002–2006)
 North Area Athletic Complex; Arvada, Colorado (2003) 1 game in US Open Cup
 Dick's Sporting Goods Park; Commerce City, Colorado (2007–present)

The Rapids play their home games at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City, Colorado (ca. 8 miles north of the center of Denver). The stadium capacity is 19,680 and cost $131 million to construct. It is a stadium for football only. The soccer stadium opened on April 7, 2007. Before moving to DSG Park in 2007, Colorado Rapids shared Mile High Stadium and then Invesco Field at Mile High with the Denver Broncos an American football team.

Honors
MLS Cup
Winners (1): 2010
Runners-up (1): 1997
MLS Eastern Conference
Winners (Playoff) (1): 2010
MLS Western Conference
Winners (Playoff) (1): 1997
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup
Runners-up (1): 1999
Minor Trophies
MLS Reserve Division (2) 2006, 2007
Rocky Mountain Cup (2) 2005, 2006

Team records

Year-by-year results

Year-by-year stats
Sources: 

Note: MLS did not allow ties prior to the 2000 season as games were decided by shootout when tied at full-time.

By opponent

 Dissolved after 2001 season.
 Dissolved after 2014 season.

International tournaments
 1998 CONCACAF Champions' Cup
Qualifying Play-off v.  Club León – 1:0, 2:4 (León advances 4:3 on aggregate)
 2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League:
 Group Stage v.  Isidro Metapán – 3:2
 Group Stage v.  Real España – 1:1
 Group Stage v.  Santos Laguna – 1:4
 Group Stage v.  Real España – 1:2
 Group Stage v.  Isidro Metapán – 1:3
 Group Stage v.  Santos Laguna – 2:0
 2018 CONCACAF Champions League:
 TBD

References

Other websites
 http://www.coloradorapids.com Official Homepage

1990s establishments in Colorado
1996 establishments in the United States
American soccer teams
Major League Soccer teams
FC Dallas

FC Dallas is an American soccer team. They play in Major League Soccer (MLS) in Frisco, Texas, a suburb of Dallas, Texas. The team is a founding member of the MLS. Before 2005, they were known as the Dallas Burn. The team is owned by the Hunt Sports Group, which also owns the National Football League team Kansas City Chiefs.

Players and staff

Roster

Out on loan

Team management

Head coaches

Record

Year-by-year

Year-by-year stats 

Note: MLS did not allow ties prior to the 2000 season as games were decided by shootout when tied at full-time.

MLS Scoring Champion/Golden Boot 

The following players have won the MLS Scoring Champion or the Golden Boot.

Top goalscorers

International competition 

 1998 CONCACAF Cup Winners' Cup
 Group stage v.  Necaxa – 1–4
 Group stage v.  Cruz Azul – 1–2

 2004 La Manga Cup
 Group stage v.  Odd Grenland – 1–2
 Group stage v.  Dynamo Kyiv – 2–2
 Semi-finals v.  Stabæk – 2–1
 Fifth place match v.  Bodø/Glimt – 1–3

 2007 North American SuperLiga
 Group stage v.  Guadalajara – 1–1
 Group stage v.  Pachuca – 1–1
 Group stage v.  Los Angeles Galaxy – 5–6

 2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League
 Preliminary Round v.  Alianza – 1–0
 Preliminary Round v.  Alianza – 1–0
 Group stage v.  UNAM – 1–0
 Group stage v.  Toronto FC – 1–0
 Group stage v.  Tauro F.C. – 1–1
 Group stage v.  UNAM – 0–2
 Group stage v.  Tauro F.C. – 3–5
 Group stage v.  Toronto FC – 0–3

 2016–17 CONCACAF Champions League
 Group stage v.  Real Estelí – 2–1
 Group stage v.  Real Estelí – 1–1
 Group stage v.  Suchitepéquez – 0–0
 Group stage v.  Suchitepéquez – 5–2
 Quarter-finals v.  Árabe Unido – 4–0
 Quarter-finals v.  Árabe Unido – 1–2
 Semi-finals v.  Pachuca – 2–1
 Semi-finals v.  Pachuca – 1–3

 2018 CONCACAF Champions League
 Round of 16 v.  Tauro F.C. – 0–1
 Round of 16 v.  Tauro F.C. – 3–2

Stadium

 Cotton Bowl; Dallas, Texas (1996–2002, 2004–2005)
 Dragon Stadium; Southlake, Texas (2003)
 Toyota Stadium; Frisco, Texas (2005–present; known as Pizza Hut Park through the 2011 season and FC Dallas Stadium in the 2012 season and most of the 2013 season)

From 1996 to 2002 the team played in the 92,100-capacity Cotton Bowl in Dallas. To save money the club played its 2003 home games at Dragon Stadium, a high school stadium in Southlake, a Fort Worth suburb. The club lost money in the high school stadium because Texas law does not allow the sale of alcohol on a public high school campus. The team moved back to the Cotton Bowl for the 2004 season. In August 2005, the club moved into Pizza Hut Park, a soccer stadium in the northern suburb of Frisco. The contract that allowed Pizza Hut to put its name on the stadium ended in January 2012, and the stadium was renamed FC Dallas Stadium. In September 2013, a new sponsorship contract was signed with Toyota, and the stadium was renamed Toyota Stadium. Following renovations to the south end of Toyota Stadium, the relocated National Soccer Hall of Fame opened at the stadium in October 2018.

References

Other websites
 Official Homepage

American soccer teams
Sports in Dallas
Major League Soccer teams
1996 establishments in the United States
1990s establishments in Texas
Houston Dynamo

The Houston Dynamo are an American soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in Houston, Texas.  In late 2005, the San Jose Earthquakes moved to the city because of financial problems in San Jose, California.

The Dynamo opened a new stadium, which opened as BBVA Compass Stadium and is now known as Shell Energy Stadium, in downtown Houston in May 2012, after playing their first seven games of the season on the road.

League title
Major League Soccer : 2
2006, 2007

League position

References

American soccer teams
Sports in Houston
Major League Soccer teams
2005 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Texas
San Jose Earthquakes

The San Jose Earthquakes are an American soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in San Jose, California.  In December 2005, they moved to Houston, Texas to become the Houston Dynamo. Failure to secure funding for a new stadium caused the team to move. In July 2007, they were granted an expansion team, which would bring them back in 2008.  From 1994 to 1999 they were known as the San Jose Clash. By agreement between MLS, the Dynamo, and the Earthquakes, the history of the original San Jose franchise belongs to the current Earthquakes.

Name 
 1994-1999 San Jose Clash
 1999-present San Jose Earthquakes

League title 
 Major League Soccer : 2
 2001, 2003

League position

References

American soccer teams
Sports in San Jose, California
Major League Soccer teams
1994 establishments in California
Los Angeles Galaxy

The Los Angeles Galaxy, branded as the LA Galaxy,  are an American soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in Carson, California. They shared their home field, Dignity Health Sports Park, with Chivas USA before that team folded at the end of the 2014 season.

Until he left when his contract ended after the 2012 season, the team's best-known player was English icon David Beckham, signed from Real Madrid in 2007. Landon Donovan, the joint all-time leading goal scorer for the US national team, played with the Galaxy from 2005 until his first retirement in 2014, and briefly returned to the team in the last part of the 2016 season. Robbie Keane, the Republic of Ireland's captain, leading scorer, and most-capped (most games) player, was a Galaxy captain. The team also included longtime Liverpool and England star Steven Gerrard. Currently, the Galaxy's best-known player is Sweden all-time leading scorer Zlatan Ibrahimović.

Honors 
 MLS Cup (Major League Soccer champion): 5
 2002, 2005, 2011, 2012, 2014
 MLS Supporters' Shield (best regular-season record): 4
 1998, 2002, 2010, 2011
 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup: 2
 2001, 2005

Players

Current Players

Notable Former Players
 Juan Pablo Ángel
 David Beckham
 Jorge Campos
 Ashley Cole
 Carlo Cudicini
 Landon Donovan
 Giovani dos Santos
 Steven Gerrard
 Luis Hernández
 Zlatan Ibrahimović
 Cobi Jones
 Nigel de Jong
 Robbie Keane
 Gyasi Zardes

League position

References

American soccer teams
Sports in Los Angeles
Major League Soccer teams
1995 establishments in California
Real Salt Lake

Real Salt Lake is an American soccer team. They play in Major League Soccer in Salt Lake City, Utah. They began playing in 2005. Their head coach is Jason Kreis. They play at Rio Tinto Stadium in Sandy, Utah. Their rival is the Colorado Rapids.

Current Roster 
As of January 15, 2009.

Head coaches 
  John Ellinger (2005–2007)
  Jason Kreis (2007—)

Team records 
 Games:  Andy Williams, 55
 Goals:  Jeff Cunningham, 18
 Assists:  Javier Morales, 17
 Shutouts:  Nick Rimando 7
 Single Season Goals:  Jeff Cunningham, 16 (2006)
 Single Season Assists:  Javier Morales, 15 (2008)
MLS regular season only, through 2006 season

 All-Time regular season record:  21-50-23 (Through Oct. 21, 2007)

Year-by-year

Average attendance 
regular season/playoffs
 2005: 18,037/missed playoffs
 2006: 16,366/missed playoffs
 2007: 15,960/missed playoffs
 2008: 16,179/19,632

References 

American soccer teams
Salt Lake City
2004 establishments in the United States
21st-century establishments in Utah
Toronto FC

Toronto Football Club, usually known as Toronto FC, is a soccer club based in Toronto, Ontario. They have played in the Eastern Conference of Major League Soccer (MLS) since the 2007 season. They were the first Canadian soccer team to join MLS. They play their home games at BMO Field in Downtown Toronto. The team is coached by Greg Vanney and operated by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment.

History 
Toronto FC has won the Canadian Championship five times, most recently in 2016. They also made it to the 2016 MLS Cup but lost to Seattle Sounders 4-5 in penalties. They were also semi-finalists of the 2011-2012 CONCACAF Champions League.

References

Sports teams in Toronto
Canadian soccer teams
Major League Soccer teams
2005 establishments in Canada
President of Germany

The President of Germany (German: Bundespräsident, literally: federal president) is the head of state of the Federal Republic of Germany. His functions are mostly supervising and representative, because of the negative experiences with the office of its predecessor the Reich President (Reichskanzler), who had more power than the current Federal President.

The president is elected every five years by the Bundesversammlung.

List of presidents 
 Theodor Heuss (FDP), 1949 – 1959
 Heinrich Lübke (CDU), 1959 – 1969
 Gustav Heinemann (SPD), 1969 – 1974
 Walter Scheel (FDP), 1974 – 1979
 Karl Carstens (CDU), 1979 – 1984
 Richard von Weizsäcker (CDU), 1984 – 1994
 Roman Herzog (CDU), 1994 – 1999
 Johannes Rau (SPD), 1999 – 2004
 Horst Köhler (CDU), 2004 – 2010
 Christian Wulff (CDU), 2010 – 2012
 Joachim Gauck (Independent), 2012 – 2017
 Frank-Walter Steinmeier (SPD), since 2017

References 

Lists of national presidents
Lists of German politicians
Miami Fusion

The Miami Fusion were an American soccer team that played in Major League Soccer from 1998 to 2001. They played in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

Sports in Miami
1998 establishments in the United States
2001 disestablishments in the United States
Defunct American soccer teams
Sports organizations based in Florida
Tampa Bay Mutiny

Tampa Bay Mutiny was an American soccer team that played in Major League Soccer from 1996 to 2001.  They played in Tampa, Florida. Their stadium was the Raymond James Stadium.

The Mutiny went out of business after the 2001 season, after having low attendance and finishing in last place.

Sports in Tampa, Florida
1996 establishments in Florida
2001 disestablishments in the United States
Defunct American soccer teams
Sports organizations based in Florida
The Gillette Company

Global Gillette (formerly The Gillette Company) is an American company famous for making shaving products. It has been merged recently into Procter & Gamble's operations.

References 

1900s establishments in Massachusetts
1901 establishments in the United States
Companies based in Boston
Abkhazia

Abkhazia  is an unrecognised country in the Caucauses.

The country fought a war with Georgia for its independence in 1991, the Georgian–Abkhaz conflict. Since its declaration of independence from Georgia in 1991, it has been ruled by the partly-recognized Republic of Abkhazia.

Georgia believes Abkhazia is part of its territory and has listed the province, in its official subdivisions, as an autonomous republic On 28 August 2008, the Parliament of Georgia passed a resolution declaring Abkhazia a "Russian-occupied territory".

The Republic of Abkhazia, with Sukhumi as its capital, is formally recognised by Russia and by Nicaragua, and the de facto independent republics of South Ossetia and Transnistria. The European Union, OSCE, and NATO recognise Abkhazia as an integral part of the territory of Georgia.

The secessionist movement of the Abkhaz minority led to the Georgian–Abkhaz conflict. The War in Abkhazia resulted in a Georgian military defeat and the mass exodus and ethnic cleansing of the Georgian population from Abkhazia.

There was a 1994 ceasefire agreement. There is a UN-monitored and Russian-dominated CIS peacekeeping operation. The sovereignty dispute has not been resolved. The dispute is a source of conflict between Georgia and Russia.

Related pages 
 Gagra
 Pitsunda
 Sukhumi

References

Other websites
inline

Abkhazia
Caucasus
Autonomous republics of Georgia (country)
1992 establishments in Asia
Nationalism
Occupied territories
Puppet states
Heinrich Schütz

Heinrich Schütz (born Köstritz, Saxony, 8 October 1585; died Dresden, Germany, 6 November 1672) was a German baroque composer. As a young man he travelled to Italy to learn the art of composition from the great Italian composers.  He had lessons from Giovanni Gabrieli.  When Gabrieli died in 1612 Schütz returned to Germany.  He visited Italy a second time in 1628 to learn from the music of Claudio Monteverdi.  He also visited Copenhagen.  For much of his life he was a court composer at the Electoral Chapel in Dresden.  Most of his work consists of choral works especially motets and madrigals.  He was very good at writing counterpoint and his music has some very striking effects.  His  Christmas Oratorio  is particularly famous.

17th-century German composers
Baroque composers
1585 births
1672 deaths
Domenico Scarlatti

Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti (born Naples, Italy, on 26 October 1685; died Madrid, Spain, on 23 July 1757) was an Italian baroque composer and harpsichordist. He was the son of the famous composer Alessandro Scarlatti. Part of his life he spent in Venice and Rome. His father Alessandro was a famous composer who wrote many operas. Domenico became famous for his sonatas for harpsichord. He wrote over 550 of them. They are mostly quite short pieces in one movement, most written in an early Classical style, which influenced many future Classical composers. He had some unusual effects in his music such as the crossing of hands as they leap wildly from one end of the keyboard to another. He also liked crunchy chords which sound like the strumming of Spanish guitars. He gave harpsichord lessons to the Infanta Maria Barbara at the Royal Court in Lisbon in Portugal. When she married she took Scarlatti, her harpsichord teacher, with her to Madrid in Spain where he spent the rest of his life.

Scarlatti, Domenico
Scarlatti, Domenico
1685 births
1757 deaths
Musicians from Naples
Italian harpsichordists
Wilhelm Friedemann Bach

Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (22 November 1710 – 1 July 1784) was a famous German composer and organist.

He was born in Weimar. He was the son of Johann Sebastian Bach, who taught him to play the harpsichord and organ. Johann Sebastian wrote some pieces and put them in a book called Notebook for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. Although they are in order of increasing difficulty, it is not known if these were used to teach him to play, or how to write music. The book does contain two allemandes and four preludes written by Wilhelm Friedemann. He also learned to play the violin.

Wilhelm Friedemann was an excellent organist, and took over teaching some of his father's students. In 1733 he was appointed as the organist at the Dresden Sophienkirche (St. Sophia's Church). While living in Dresden he continued to write music including harpsichord concertos, sinfonias, trio sonatas, harpsichord sonatas, and other smaller works for keyboard. He published his first music in 1745.

In 1746 became organist of the Liebfrauenkirche at Halle. This was an important position and he was paid twice as much as he had earned at Dresden. He was expected to provide music for feast days, and so he began to compose cantatas which could be reused each year. He still visited his father, and often used parts of his music. After his father's death in 1750, Wilhelm Friedemann inherited as lot of his father's music, and tried to make people think they were his compositions. He was in trouble with the church when he went to Leipzig to sort out his father's estate. They felt that he was away for too long and was not fulfilling his proper duties.

In 1764, after arguing with a lot of people, he left the job in Halle, remaining unemployed and living a life of poverty until his death.

He had a lot of talent which he did not use. He was a very good improviser, but was careless when playing music by other composers, including his father's.

References

1710 births
1784 deaths
Wilhelm Friedemann
Classical era composers
18th-century German composers
German organists
People from Weimar
Indiana Jones

Dr. Henry "Indiana" Jones, Jr. is a fictional American professor, archaeologist, and adventurer.

He originally appeared in a series of movies produced by George Lucas and directed by Steven Spielberg in the 1980s, 2008, and 2023, in which he was played by actor Harrison Ford.

Indiana Jones is noted for his trademark bullwhip, his fedora hat, and his great fear of snakes.

Indiana Jones is also the general name given to the series as a whole, which has five movies, a TV series, novels, comics, video games, and other media.

Movies
Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984) 
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989)
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008)
Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023)

Video games
Raiders of the Lost Ark - (Atari 2600)
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom arcade - (Atari System 1)
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game - (C64, NES, Amiga, Macintosh, PC)
Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures - (SNES)
Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis: The Graphic Adventure - (PC, Amiga, Macintosh)
Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine - (PC, Nintendo 64, Nintendo Game Boy Color)
Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb - (PC, PlayStation 2, Microsoft Xbox)
Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings - (Wii, Nintendo DS, PSP, PlayStation 2)
Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine - (PC, Nintendo 64, Gameboy Color)
Indiana Jones and His Desktop Adventures - (PC, Macintosh)
The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles - (NES)
LEGO Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures (PC, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, Macintosh)
LEGO Indiana Jones 2: The Adventures Continues (PC, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii)
Indiana Jones Adventure World - (Facebook)

Other websites 

Official Indiana Jones site

Fictional American people
Fictional characters introduced in 1981
Movie characters
Lord Protector

A Lord Protector is a British title for heads of state. It has two different meanings at different times in history.

The title of Lord Protector was first used by royal princes or other nobles who ruled as regent while the English monarch was still too young to rule or was not able to rule for some other reason, in this case the Lord Protector would make all the decisions for the country, and the young monarch would decide whether they agree or not.

The Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland was the title of the head of state during the Interregnum, following the first period of the Commonwealth under Council of State government. It was held by Oliver Cromwell (December 1653 – September 1658), leader of the roundheads and his son Richard Cromwell (September 1658 – May 1659) during what is now known as the Protectorate. 

Heads of state
Titles
Fantasy

Fantasy is a genre of fiction (make believe) that shows some form of magic or supernatural elements.

Often fantasy also means that the story happens in a fictional place, a world different from our own (e.g. Middle-earth or Narnia). Although the word fantasy is most often applied to low-tech worlds, it also can depict high tech worlds, overlapping with science fiction (science fantasy). Or it is used for historical fiction, if it is magical in some way.

Related pages

Fairy tale
Folklore

Other websites
EDGE Science Fiction and Fantasy Publishing
Materialism

Materialism is the philosophical belief that the world is made of material, and that there are no other types of entity (things). Everything is composed of material. Things that are not made of material, such as consciousness, are the result of actions by material. In other words, matter is the only real substance. Physicalism is a related term.

Especially, a materialist does not believe in supernatural entities. Many of history's materialists thinkers have found the idea of a spirit either meaningless or not scientifically proven. By definition, these thinkers are therefore also atheists, though not all atheists are materialists, and there have even been some historically important Materialist thinkers who believe in a Pantheist idea of God (such as Baruch Spinoza and Friedrich Engels).

Modern philosophical materialists extend the definition to include other basic entities proven by science, such as energy, forces, and the curvature of space. Matter and energy are known to be interchangeable, and much else, such as gravity, is caused by matter. However, the concept of matter is itself not entirely clear. 

Other types of philosophy share some of the aims of materialism. Examples would include reductionism, logical positivism and empiricism.

The origin of materialism is in a type of Ancient Greek philosophy. Thales, Epicurus, and Lucretius are early materialist philosophers. The idea also appeared in other ancient cultures.

References 

 

Philosophical movements and positions
Northern Cyprus

Northern Cyprus (), officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC; , KKTC), is a de facto state in the northern half of the island of Cyprus. It is internationally recognised as part of the Republic of Cyprus and only Turkey recognises it as a separate state. Three hundred thousand Muslim Turkish Cypriots live in its 3,335 km². Turkey is the only country which recognizes the territory as an independent republic despite the international sanctions and embargoes in place.

Cyprus was conquered and became part of the Ottoman Empire from 1570 to 1914. Many Ottoman Turkish people became settlers. As the Ottoman Empire sided against the British empire in World War I, the British annexed Cyprus. In 1923, by the Treaty of Lausanne Turkey gave up the island to the British Empire which in 1925 converted it to a crown colony. The British administered it from 1878 until 1960. Cypriot Turk males are circumcised, because Sunni Islam is the main religion.

In 1974, Turkish Cypriots were killed at the Maratha, Santalaris and Aloda massacre, in response to a growing conflict with Greece, the Turkish army invaded and occupied Cyprus. Many settlers from mainland Turkey came from Turkey into the northern part of the island. The move drew international condemnation and Northern Cyprus remains unrecognized by the United Nations.

Since 1974, the United Nations has established a ceasefire line between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots. The ''Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus'' was formed in 1983 and Rauf Denktash became the first president. Negotiations for a unified island have been held several times without success.

Northern Cyprus, despite its international pariah status, stands out amongst other "frozen conflict" zones as having a relatively stable and democratic form of government with high levels of political freedom and civic engagement in the political process.

The Gurbeti-Roma are a Xoraxane Roma Muslim subgroup, who settled in Cyprus since it was part of Ottoman Empire. They speak Gurbetca an own Romani dialect and Cypriot Turkish.

References

Other websites 
 Government of the TRNC
 Zypern Times
 Nordzypern Almanac
 North Cyprus Information Map  - A directory and information source for Northern Cyprus. Company information including location maps. General and specific questions for residences and tourists
New Caledonia

New Caledonia (; popular name: Le caillou) () is a "sui generis collectivity" (in practice an overseas territory) of France, made up of a main island (Grande Terre) and several smaller islands. It is in the region of Melanesia in the southwest Pacific. At about half the size of Taiwan, it has a land area of 18,575.5 square kilometres (7,172 sq mi). At the 2004 census, 230,789 people lived there. It has an internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) of .nc. The capital and largest city of the territory is Nouméa. The currency is the CFP franc. The inflation rate is -0.6%. The unemployment rate is 17.1%

A referendum was held in November 2018 to see if New Caledonia should declare independence from France. The results were more people wanted to stay in France than leave.

References

Islands of Oceania
Melanesia
Australasia
Gondwana
Dam

A dam is a large wall or barrier that blocks or stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir or a lake. Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir over which, or through which, water flows, either sometimes or always.
Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water. The tallest dam in the world is the 300 meter high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.

History 
Some of the first dams were built in Mesopotamia up to 7,000 years ago. Modern dams are built with arched walls of steel rod-reinforced concrete. The arched wall is a very strong shape which helps the wall to withstand the huge weight of the water.

Reasons for building dams 
There are a number of reasons that people build dams. Some countries build dams to control the flow of water in the downstream river systems, and prevent flooding. Other countries build dams to generate electricity using hydroelectric turbine generators. Other countries use dams to store water for use in irrigation (for farming) or drinking by people.

Notes

Civil engineering
 
Flood control
David Beckham

David Beckham (born 2 May 1975) is a former English association football player and businessman. He is now the owner of MLS team Inter Miami CF and EFL League Two club Salford City.

In June 2003, Queen Elizabeth II gave Beckham an OBE. In January 2005, Beckham became a UNICEF ambassador. 

When he moved from Manchester United F.C. to Real Madrid in 2003, he became the highest paid footballer in the world (this has long since been surpassed).

Early life 
Beckham was born at Whipps Cross University Hospital in London, England. He was the son of Ted and Sandra Georgina West. He grew up in the Manchester football youth system along with Ryan Giggs, Nicky Butt, Phil Neville, Gary Neville, and Paul Scholes who all turned out to be famous footballers. Beckham’s maternal grandfather was Jewish, and he describes himself as "half-Jewish", and wrote in his autobiography "I've probably had more contact with Judaism than with any other religion".

Career

Manchester United  
From 1992 through 2003, he played for Manchester United in the Premier League.

Real Madrid 
After leaving Manchester United, he signed a four-year contract with Real Madrid which ended in June 2007.

LA Galaxy 
From 2007 to 2012, he played for LA Galaxy in the United States. He was loaned out to AC Milan of Italy for the 2008-09 and the 2009-10 seasons before joining the Galaxy again.

PSG 
He played for Paris Saint-Germain in Ligue 1 until the end of the 2012/13 season. After the season ended, he retired.

England 
He played for England for 13 years, from 1996 until 2009. He was dropped from the England team after giving up his England captaincy but regained his place in the England squad when Fabio Capello became the England manager in 2008.

Personal life  
Beckham's wife is singer Victoria Beckham. Some people call her Posh Spice because she was a member of the Spice Girls. The couple have three sons: Brooklyn Joseph Beckham (born 4 March 1999 in London), Romeo James Beckham (born 1 September 2002 in London), and Cruz David Beckham (born 20 February 2005 in Madrid, Spain), and a daughter Harper Beckham (born 2 July 2011). She is also the youngest member of the Beckham family.

Club career statistics

International career statistics 

|-
|1996||3||0
|-
|1997||9||0
|-
|1998||8||1
|-
|1999||7||0
|-
|2000||10||0
|-
|2001||10||5
|-
|2002||9||3
|-
|2003||9||4
|-
|2004||12||2
|-
|2005||9||1
|-
|2006||8||1
|-
|2007||5||0
|-
|2008||8||0
|-
|2009||8||0
|-
!Total||115||17
|}

References 

1975 births
Living people
1998 FIFA World Cup players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
Footballers from London
Manchester United F.C. players
People from Leytonstone
UEFA Euro 2000 players
UEFA Euro 2004 players
Premier League players
European Jews
England at the 1998 FIFA World Cup
England at UEFA Euro 2000
England at the 2002 FIFA World Cup
England at UEFA Euro 2004
England at the 2006 FIFA World Cup
Sonata

A sonata is a piece of music for one instrument or one instrument with another instrument accompanying.  The word comes from the Italian “sonare” which means “to sound”.

A composer could call any solo instrumental piece “sonata” if he or she wants to, but usually a sonata is quite a long piece with several movements.  A sonatina is a simple and short sonata.

History
The term "sonata" was used in the 16th century to mean anything that was not sung.

In the Baroque period (17th and early 18th centuries) many composers like Arcangelo Corelli wrote sonatas with several movements.  There were two types: “sonata da camera” (“room sonata” i.e. “chamber sonata”) which were for playing in people’s homes, and “sonata da chiesa” (“church sonata”) which were for being played in churches.  The first type would have harpsichord accompaniment and the second type organ accompaniment.  There would also be a cello playing the bass line.  The solo instrument might be a violin, flute, recorder or oboe.

At the end of the Baroque period Domenico Scarlatti wrote over 500 sonatas for harpsichord.  These are all short pieces in binary form (two sections).

By the time we come to the Classical period sonatas have become longer pieces with three or four movements.  They would usually start with a fast movement, then a slow one, and then a fast one at the end.  If there were four movements the extra one would be a minuet and trio or a scherzo, either before or after the slow movement.  The first movement would be in sonata form.  The most important composers of sonatas at this time were Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven

Many composers in the Romantic period wrote sonatas, for example: Brahms wrote piano sonatas as well as sonatas for violin and piano, cello and piano, and clarinet and piano.

In the 20th century composers who have written sonatas include Bartok, Tippett and William Walton.

Related pages
Piano sonata
Sonata form

 
Classical music
Musical forms
Sonata form

Sonata form is a way of organizing a piece of music. It has been used in several pieces since the Classical period (from the middle of the 18th century onwards). Listening to  pieces of music in sonata form will help to understand it fully and it is helpful to know something about the different keys.

Sonata form is not just used in sonatas. It can be the form for movements from symphonies, concertos, overtures etc.

In the Baroque period composers like Bach and Handel wrote pieces with dance movements such as minuets. These were in “binary form”. This meant that there were two sections. The two sections were often the same length, and were separated by a double bar line which meant that each section was repeated. The music would not be in the same key all the time. The first section could modulate (change key) and then the second section would gradually modulate back again so that it sounded finished at the end.

Domenico Scarlatti wrote sonatas for harpsichord also in binary form, but long and with additional complexity. The first section would start with a theme in the main key, and then modulate to another key for contrast. The second section might be longer than the first second, starting off by modulating to remote keys before arriving back to repeat the main theme. This kind of piece is the beginning of sonata form.

Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven developed the idea of sonata form. A movement in sonata form has three sections called: “exposition”, “development” and “recapitulation”.
In the exposition we hear all the main material: the first tune- or group of tunes - in the main key, then a contrasting tune or tunes in a related key (normally the “dominant” i.e. the key on the 5th note of the scale of the main key, or the relative minor). Or in the case of a first section in a minor key, one might frequently hear the second subject or subjects in the relative major.
In the development section the music is developed, going into several different keys. The music here feels unstable. There is a feeling of tension. The listener wants to get back to the main key.
In the recapitulation the exposition is repeated, but it changes towards the end so that it finishes in the main key. It feels as if the tension has gone and the listener feels happy.

This way of building a piece of music was used by almost every composer from the mid 18th century onwards – well into the 20th century. It gives scope for a very dramatic piece. Of course, composers sometime use it differently. There is often a sense of development during the whole piece, not just during the so-called “development section”. The first movement of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony spends all the time developing the famous idea heard at the beginning: the first four notes (short-short-short-long). Even the other three movements carry on developing this idea.

Musical forms
The Lord of the Rings (disambiguation)


The Lord of the Rings is an epic high fantasy novel by J. R. R. Tolkien.

The Lord of the Rings may also refer to:

Movies 
There have been several movies based on the book by J. R. R. Tolkien:
 The Lord of the Rings (1978 movie), an animated movie directed by Ralph Bakshi
 The Return of the King (1980 movie)
 The Lord of the Rings (movie series), a trilogy of movied directed by Peter Jackson
 The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)

Music and theatre 
 The Lord of the Rings (musical) (2006-2007)
 The Lord of the Rings (soundtrack), the soundtrack for the 1978 movie by Ralph Bakshi

Astronomy 
 A euphemism for the planet Saturn
Aria

An aria is a long song accompanying a solo voice. An aria is usually in an opera. It is an Italian word of the 18th century meaning “air” (i.e. a tune).
A small amount of text is used in an aria. Characteristics include the use of melismas, repetition and sequences. Typically there would be full accompaniment to the solo voice in the aria although this is not the case in Purcell's Dido and Aeneas where the majority of its arias are only accompanied by the continuo part.

In operas of the Baroque period most of the music was either “recitative” or “aria”. Recitative (from a word meaning: “to recite” i.e. “to tell”) was sung quickly, almost as if it were being spoken. The singer was accompanied just by a few supporting chords, usually on a harpsichord. The story was being told in the recitative.
Once the situation in the story had changed there would be an aria. The singer would sing a song which expressed his or her feelings. The aria had more musical interest than the recitative. Arias were usually in what we call “ABA” form or “Da Capo” form. There was a main section, then a middle part, then the main section was repeated (“Da Capo” means: “back to the beginning”). In the Da Capo section the singer usually improvised, adding many embellishments and ornaments. The aria gave performers the opportunity to show off their virtuosity.

The word “aria” is not just used in opera. Arias can be found in cantatas or just by themselves. Sometimes pieces for instruments are called “aria”. These are often a tune with variations, such as Handel's famous "Air with Variations" for harpsichord, also known as The Harmonious Blacksmith.

In the 19th century the difference between recitative and aria in opera started to disappear. Composers like Richard Wagner made the music much more continuous. He did not want audiences clapping in the middle of his operas. He wanted the music to develop dramatically and continuously.

References 

Musical forms
Elijah Wood

Elijah Jordan Wood (born January 28, 1981, in Cedar Rapids, Iowa) is an American actor.

He has been a professional actor since he was nine years old. Wood is best known for his role of Frodo Baggins in the Lord of the Rings movie trilogy.

Films 
 Back to the Future Part II (1989)
 North (1994)
 Oliver Twist (1997)
 The Ice Storm (1997)
 Deep Impact (1998)
 The Faculty (1998)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
 All I Want (2003)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
 Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004)
 Everything Is Illuminated (2005)
 Green Street Hooligans (2005)
 Sin City (2005)
 Happy Feet (2006)
 Day Zero (2007)
 The Legend of Spyro: The Eternal Night (2007)
 The Oxford Murders (2008)
 The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon (2008)
 9 (2009/I)
 Beyond All Boundaries (2009)
 The Romantics (2010)

Other websites 

 Elijah Wood at the Internet Movie Database (IMDb)

1981 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Actors from Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Ian McKellen

Sir Ian Murray McKellen  (born 25 May 1939) is an English actor. He has had a Tony Award and two Oscar nominations.

Life
McKellen was born on 25 May 1939 in Burnley, Lancashire. In 1939, he moved to Wigan. In 1951, he moved to Bolton.

His work has spanned genres from serious Shakespearean and modern theatre to popular fantasy and science fiction movies.

In a television movie role in 1970 titled Edward II, he and his co-star, James Laurenson kissed in British television's first gay kiss.

Best known for his roles as Gandalf in the 2001-2003 Lord of the Rings movie trilogy, as Sir Leigh Teabing in The Da Vinci Code, and as Magneto in the X-Men series of movies.

He is openly gay and is a prominent activist for the rights of LGBT people. He said that the reason why he took the role in the X-Men movies was because of his sexuality. He said: "Mutants are like gays. They’re cast out by society for no good reason".

He was made a CBE in 1979 and knighted in 1990 for his outstanding work and contributions to the theatre. In 2008 he was made a Companion of Honour.

McKellen said in 2012 that he was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2006.

McKellen once signed an autograph to a fan stating "Fuck off, I’m gay." The person given the autograph was politician Michael Howard.

Movies
Apt Pupil (1998)
Gods and Monsters (1998)
X-Men (2000)
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
X2: X-Men United (2003)
Emile (2005)
Asylum (2005)
The Magic Roundabout (2005)
Flushed Away (2006)
The Da Vinci Code (2006)
X-Men: The Last Stand (2006)
The Good Liar (2019)
Cats (2019)

References

Other websites 

The papers of Sir Ian McKellen, actor are held by the Victoria and Albert Museum Theatre and Performance Department.
 
 
 Biography of Sir Ian McKellen, CH, CBE, Debrett's

1939 births
Living people
Actors from Greater Manchester
Actors from Lancashire
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of Honour
Drama Desk Award winners
English LGBT people
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
English voice actors
Gay men
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Knights Bachelor
LGBT actors
British LGBT rights activists
People from Bolton
Saturn Award winners
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Tony Award winning actors
Wigan