alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Oak

The oak tree is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus. There are about 500 living species. They are divided into subgenera. The common name "oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, such as Lithocarpus.

Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with rounded edges in many species; some have leaves with jagged edges or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species do not drop dead leaves until the next Spring. In Spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (as catkins) and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, carried in a cup-like structure. Each acorn has one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on species. The so-called "live oaks" are evergreen. They are not a taxonomic group, just a life style which occurs in the genus.

The oak is a kind of hardwood forest tree. They are well known as a climax vegetation in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. That means, left untouched by humans, it would be the dominant tree. Much of England was covered by oak forests before modern farming took over the land. The last extensive oak woodlands were cut down to build ships for the Royal Navy in the 18th century.

Some kinds of oak wood are very hard. That is why people in past centuries cut them down to make ships, furniture and other things. The wood is now scarce and expensive and only used to make a few things anymore. Much cheaper are softwoods like pine.

Oak trees grow slowly and can live up to 1000 years.

Associated animals 
A mature oak tree stands about 100 feet tall (~30 metres). It is a home for more animals than any other European tree. 30 species of birds, 45 different bugs and over 200 species of moth have been found on oaks. Beetles burrow under the bark, and some drill holes into the wood. The leaves are eaten by many caterpillars. Many leaves carry strange little bumps on the underside. These are insect galls, caused by many little animals. Midges, moths, worms and tiny wasps lay their eggs in leaves or leaf buds. The leaf reacts by forming a growth around the eggs. Inside the gall, larvae develop. The leaf falls, but the larvae may come out only the next spring. Small galls only have one larva, but larger galls may contain as many as 30 larvae.

Acorns 

Oak trees produce acorns once a year which ripen in autumn. Oak trees may start producing acorns when they are about 20 years old. A mature oak may produce 90,000 acorns a year; this is several millions in its lifetime.

Related pages 
 Cork oak

References 

Trees
Fagales
Glucose

Glucose (C6H12O6) is a simple carbohydrate, or sugar. It is one of several kinds of sugars. It is important because cells in an organism use it as a source of energy. Turning glucose into energy is called cellular respiration, which is done inside the cells of a living organism. Excess glucose is converted to fats and are stored in adipose tissues.

Glucose is made by plants in a process called photosynthesis.  It can also be made by animals in their liver or kidneys.

Having the right amount of glucose available in a person's body is important. Glucose is essential in the proper functioning of the brain. It can be measured with a simple blood test. People that do not have enough glucose have low blood sugar levels. This is a health condition called hypoglycemia. People with too much glucose have hyperglycemia. They might have a health condition called diabetes.

Its chemical formula is C6H12O6. This means it has six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms bonded together.

How sugars work, and how glucose can be formed, was studied by a German chemist named Emil Fischer in the 1890s. His work earned him the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Isomers

There are two forms of glucose, the α- and β- forms. The only difference between them is the position of the hydroxyl group, above and below the plane of the ring of the molecule.

For α-glucose, the hydroxyl (-OH) group is below the ring, while for β-glucose, the (-OH) group is above.

References

Monosaccharides
Cellulose

Cellulose is the main chemical that forms the main structure of plants.  It is the most abundant macromolecule and the most common organic compound on  Earth.  It is also a kind of fiber.  Cellulose is a very complex carbohydrate, consisting of 3,000 or more glucose units.  Cellulose was discovered by Anselme Payen in 1838.  He isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula.

Properties 
Cellulose has no taste. It is odorless and hydrophilic, meaning it attracts water.  It is insoluble in water and most organic solvents.  It is chiral and is biodegradable.

Cellulose is made from a form of glucose and makes up most of the cell wall of plant cells. This is what keeps a plant in shape. Humans and other animals cannot digest cellulose but some animals such as termites and ruminants use bacteria to digest it.

It is a polysaccharide, which is repeating units of a monosaccharide joined together by a glycosidic bond by a condensation reaction.  It is very tough because when you join beta glucose together, they are opposite ways up. The bonds are straight, forming straight chains. There are hydrogen bonds between the polymers.

These fibers are in bundles of about 40, called microfibrils. Microfibrils are embedded in a hydrated network of other polysaccharides. The cell wall is assembled in place. The parts are made inside the cell and then assembled by enzymes associated with the cell membrane.

Uses 

It is mainly used to make paper. It is also used to make as cotton, linen, and rayon for clothes, nitrocellulose for explosives, and cellulose acetate for films. Cellulose is used as insulation in transformers, cables, and other electrical equipment. Microcrystalline cellulose and powdered cellulose are used as inactive fillers in drug tablets. Cellulose derivatives are used as emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose can be converted into cellophane. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose.

Celluose can also be used as a anti-caking agent in some foods like pre-shredded cheese.

References 

Carbohydrates
Molecular biology
Wikiquote

Wikiquote is a sister (related) project of Wikipedia. It is one of many projects run by the Wikimedia Foundation.

Wikiquote was based on an idea by Daniel Alston and made by Brion Vibber. The goal of the project is to produce a large reference of quotations from famous people, books, and proverbs, and to give details about them.

Languages 
The project was first created in English. However, in July 2004, more languages were added. Some of there are:
 Afrikaans language: Wikiquote
 Arabic language: ويكي الاقتباس
 Bulgarian language: Уикицитат
 Catalan language: Viquidites
 Chinese language: 維基語錄
 Danish language: Wikiquote
 Dutch language: Wikiquote
 English language: Wikiquote
 French language: Wikiquote
 German language: Wikiquote
 Greek language: Βικιφθέγματα
 Hindi language: Wikiquote
 Hebrew language: ויקיציטוט
 Hungarian language: Wikidézet
 Italian language: Wikiquote
 Japanese language: ウィキクォート
 Korean language: 위키인용집
 Latin language: Vicicitatio
 Malayalam language: മലയാളം Wikiquote
 Marathi language: Wikiquote
 Punjabi language: Wikiquote
 Pushto language: Wikiquote
 Persian language: ویکی‌گفتاورد
 Polish language: Wikicytaty
 Portuguese language: Wikiquote
 Romanian language: Wikicitat
 Russian language: Викицитатник
 Spanish language: Wikiquote
 Tamil language: விக்கி மேற்கோள் 
 Telugu language: వికీవ్యాఖ్య
 Thai language: วิกิคำคม
 Turkish language: Vikisöz
 Urdu language: Wikiquote

As of May 2016, 31 versions each have more than 1,000 articles. The largest Wikiquote is the English project with over 26,500 content pages, followed by the Italian and Polish versions, both with over 22,000 content pages. In total, 60 languages have over 100 content pages.

In February 2010, the Simple English Wikiquote was locked and closed. It can still be read, however.

References

Other websites 
 Main page

Wikimedia
Wikis
Musical genre

A musical genre is how people describe different styles of music. Some of the most common music genres are:

 Blues
 Country
 Funk
 Gospel
 Hip hop
 Jazz
 Pop
 Rock
 Rhythm and blues
 Soul music
 Alternative

Plus there are several more common music genres. Religious music is also common, such as hymns, choir music and many more.

To provide an example of cross genre descriptions; Joe Walsh is to the SteelDrivers as Metallica is to Trampled by Turtles. Furthermore, The Rolling Stones are to Flatt and Scruggs as Nickelback is to Doyle Lawson and Quicksliver.

Related pages
 Musicology
Dim sum

Dim sum is a way of serving Chinese and/or Vietnamese food. A range of different foods are served to the people who are eating, including pork wontons, fried shrimp, and egg rolls.
They are served on small wooden platters, and are usually steamed.

Gallery

Other websites 
 Hong Kong Tourism Board Guide to Dim Sum 
 The mysterious art of dumpling cuisine , Asia Times, April 6, 2002

Chinese food
Super Smash Bros. Melee

Super Smash Bros. Melee, known in Japan as  is a video game where players can choose from many people from famous Nintendo games and have them fight each other. Players can fight alone or team up with someone else against a friend. This game is a sequel to Super Smash Bros. for the Nintendo 64. Super Smash Bros. Melee is for the Nintendo GameCube. The subsequent game is Super Smash Bros. Brawl for the Wii.

Characters
Super Smash Bros. Melee takes 26 characters from many of Nintendo's series. It includes all 12 veteran characters from Super Smash Bros. 64, and adds 14 new characters, including Princess Peach and Bowser from the Super Mario Bros. series, Princess Zelda/Sheik and Ganondorf from The Legend of Zelda, and new characters like Ice Climbers from Ice Climber and Marth from Fire Emblem. Some characters seem to play more like other characters who were in the first game, like Ganondorf compared to Captain Falcon.

Sakurai planned to include more characters, including Diddy Kong, Meta Knight, King Dedede, Balloon Fighter, Urban Champion, Ayumi Tachibana, Sonic the Hedgehog, Bubbles, Excitebike, Solid Snake, and Lucas, but did not have time to fit them in. All of them except for Balloon Fighter made it into Super Smash Bros. Brawl.

Default characters
Bowser
Captain Falcon
Donkey Kong
Fox McCloud
Ice Climbers
Kirby
Link
Mario
Ness
Pikachu
Princess Peach
Samus Aran
Yoshi
Princess Zelda/Sheik

Unlockable characters
Dr. Mario
Falco Lombardi
Ganondorf
Jigglypuff
Luigi
Marth
Mewtwo
Mr. Game & Watch
Pichu
Roy
Young Link

Items
Items from different games can fall from the sky, like Poké Balls from Pokémon or Mushrooms from Mario. These items can be used in different ways. For example, Poké Balls can summon Pokémon, and Mushrooms can either grow the person whom touches it, unless it is a Poison Mushroom which makes them shrink.

Stages
Super Smash Bros. Melee has many stages that players can battle on. Most of the stages are based on Nintendo series like Mario, Pokémon, and The Legend of Zelda.

Home Stages

Tournament Play
Super Smash Bros. Melee has become very popular in tournaments. These tournaments do not use items or most stages, believing that these make the game unfair. In tournaments, however, a lot of characters are not strong enough to win. Some of the best characters for tournaments are Fox McCloud, Falco Lombardi, and Jigglypuff.

2001 video games
Nintendo GameCube-only games
Super Smash Bros.
Catalysis

Catalysis is the process of change in rate (speed) of a chemical reaction due to the help of a catalyst. Unlike other chemicals which take part in the reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in many chemical reactions. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts that slow the reaction are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons.

in Chemistry 
A catalyst is something which changes the rate of a chemical reaction. An example is when manganese oxide (MnO2) is added to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and the hydrogen peroxide starts to break up into water and oxygen. Catalysts are either of natural or synthetic origin. Catalysts are useful because they leave no residue in the solution they have sped up. A catalyst can also be used in a reaction again and again as it is not used up. There are many catalysts in our body which play an important part in many biochemical reactions. These are called enzymes. Most catalysts work by lowering the 'activation energy' of a reaction. This allows less energy to be used, thus speeding up the reaction. The opposite of a catalyst is an inhibitor. Inhibitors slow down reactions. Some of them are found in snake venom and are dangerous for our nervous system or heart.

Related pages 
 Enzymes are biological catalysts
Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound. Its molecular formula is H2O2. It is used as a cleaner, and as hair bleach. In a concentration of 3% (meaning that there are 3 grams of hydrogen peroxide for 100 grams of a water solution), it can be used to treat wounds. Over time it will slowly become oxygen gas and water through decomposition. 

Chemists often use hydrogen peroxide in chemical reactions. It is a very strong oxidising agent when used with acid and water. Oxidising agents take electrons from other compounds.

2 Fe2+(aq) + H2O2 + 2 H+(aq) → 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Here hydrogen peroxide takes an electron from the Fe2+ ions and becomes water.

It can also be a reducing agent when used with other compounds. When it acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced. Reducing agents give electrons to other compounds. This method is often used to make oxygen in laboratories.

NaOCl + H2O2 → O2 + NaCl + H2O

Hydrogen peroxide can be bought in shops when mixed with lots of water but is very dangerous when the concentration is higher. It is flammable and causes burns.

Oxygen compounds
Hydrogen compounds
Mayotte

Mayotte is an island in the Indian Ocean next to Madagascar. 
It is geographically part of the Comoros Islands, but politically, it is part of France.

Related pages 
 Communes of Mayotte

Other websites 
 
 
 Open Directory Project - Mayotte  directory category
 Mayotte travel information at Wikivoyage
 Analysis of the linguistic situation on Mayotte  (in French)

 
Geography of the Comoros
Halldór Ásgrímsson

Halldór Ásgrímsson (8 September 1947 – 18 May 2015) was the Prime Minister of Iceland. He became the leader of the Progressive Party in 1994. On September 15, 2004, he took over as Prime Minister from the Independence Party leader, Davíð Oddsson. He resigned in 2009.

Halldór died from a heart attack at a Reykjavik hospital, aged 67.

References

1947 births
2015 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Prime Ministers of Iceland
Somaliland

Somaliland (;  ,  ), officially the Republic of Somaliland (,  is a territory that covers the former protectorate British Somaliland. De facto, .Somaliland  It is next to Djibouti to the west, the Federal Republic of Ethiopia to the south and Somalia to the east.

The area used to be the Somaliland area which was part of the British empire along with Jubaland, which was called Trans-juba. It was called the British Somaliland Coast Protectorate before 26 June 1960.  called the "Somaliland Republic". In May of 1991, after a war, Somaliland regained independence.  

Currently, Somaliland  international organization views Somaliland as an independent country. Instead, they see Somaliland as a part of Somalia. 

Somaliland has a republican government with free elections. The capital is Hargeisa. Berbera is a beautiful city on the coast. About 55% of the people of Somalilands are nomads. Most Somalis are Sunni Muslims. Some people are part of Sufi orders. 

A territory in the west, called  Khatumo State has been disputed between Somaliland and Puntland.

Demographics

Language
Most people in Somaliland speak Somali and Arabic. Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 says the official language of Somaliland is Somali, but Arabic is a mandatory subject in school. English is also spoken and taught in schools.

The main Somali dialect is Standard Somali. Standard Somali is spoken in most of Somalia and in countries that are next to it. Standard Somali is used by almost all of the media in the Somaliland region.

Religion
Almost all Somalilanders are Muslims. This is because Islam is the state religion, and practicing a religion other than Islam is against the law. Small amounts of non-Islamic traditions exist in Somaliland, but Islam is very important to the Somali sense of national identity.

References

Other websites 

 Somaliland's official website

 
States of Somalia
Penny

A penny (plural pence in the United Kingdom, plural pennies in Canada and the United States) is a coin used by several countries where people speak English. This includes United Kingdom, the United States, where a penny is worth one cent, and Canada, where "penny" is an informal term for one cent coins. Canada stopped minting the penny in 2012.

Popular Culture
In British and American culture, finding a penny is often thought to be lucky. A popular expression is "Find a penny, pick it up, and all the day you'll have good luck." If someone asks you "A penny for your thoughts" They're wanting to know what you think. The phrase was first written in John Heywood's 1547 Dialogue Conteinying the Nomber in Effect of All the Proverbes in the Englishe Tongue, written when the penny was still a sterling silver coin. The possibly related American expression "my two cents" (meaning "my humble opinion") uses the low value of the penny to make fun of one's own thoughts in a funny way. In British English, to "spend a penny" means to urinate. The phrase does actually imply spending an actual penny: coin-operated public toilets commonly charged a predecimal penny, starting with the Great Exhibition of 1851. Around Decimal Day, British Rail introduced the "Superloo", better public toilets that charged 2p (roughly the equivalent of 6d.).

Related pages
Penny sterling

References

Coins
Former currencies of the United Kingdom
Matt Groening

Matthew Abram "Matt" Groening (born February 15, 1954) is an American cartoonist, screenwriter, producer, animator, author, musician, comedian, and voice actor. He is the creator of the comic strip Life in Hell, as well as two successful television series, The Simpsons and Futurama.

Groening has won 12 Primetime Emmy Awards, ten for The Simpsons and two for Futurama as well as a British Comedy Award for "outstanding contribution to comedy" in 2004. In 2002, he won the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award for his work on Life in Hell. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14, 2012.

Early life
He was born on February 15, 1954 in Portland, Oregon, the middle of five children. His mother Margaret Ruth was once a teacher. His father Homer Philip Groening was a filmmaker, advertiser, writer and cartoonist. Groening has Norwegian and German ancestry.

Groening grew up in Portland, and attended Ainsworth Elementary School, Lincoln High School and also The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington.

Personal life
Groening identifies himself as agnostic and liberal. He has often made campaign contributions to Democratic Party candidates. His first cousin, Laurie Monnes Anderson, is a member of the Oregon State Senate representing eastern Multnomah County.

He has been married twice. Groening and Deborah Caplan married in 1986. They had 2 sons - Homer (who is called Will) and Abe. Couple split up in 1999. In 2011, Groening married Argentinian artist Agustina Picasso and became stepfather to her daughter Camille. In May 2013, Picasso gave birth to Nathaniel Philip Picasso Groening who was named after American writer Nathanael West.

References

Other websites

 
 Incomplete list of Matt Groening appearances on The Simpsons  at The Simpsons Archive
 The Story (1969) – Matt Groening tells a story to his sisters Lisa & Maggie in this film by father, Homer
 The Simpsons – a Norwegian/German success (in Norwegian)
 Forvo: Matt Groening Pronunciation

Actors from Portland, Oregon
Writers from Oregon
American agnostics
American cartoonists
Democrats (United States)
American voice actors
1954 births
Living people
Comedians from Oregon
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky

Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (, 1792–1856) was a Russian mathematician. He became known for his achievements in non-Euclidean geometry.

Biography 
Lobachevsky was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. His parents were Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky, a clerk in a landsurveying office, and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. In 1800, his father died and his mother moved to Kazan. In Kazan, Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium. He graduated in 1807 and then went to Kazan University which was founded just three years earlier, in 1804. 

At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels (1769–1833). Bartels was a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a Master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, and in 1822 he became a full professor. He served in many administrative positions and was the rector of Kazan University from 1827 to 1846. He retired (or was dismissed) in 1846. After this event his health rapidly deteriorated. In addition to teaching mathematics and physics at Kazan University Lobachevsky also was an astronomy teacher there. 

In 1832, he married Varvara Alexivna Moisieva. They had seven children.

1792 births
1856 deaths
Russian geometers
People from Nizhny Novgorod
Wildebeest

A wildebeest (or gnu) is an animal. It is a large hoofed mammal in the Bovidae family. There are two species of wildebeest. Both live in Africa.

Taxonomy
 Genus Connochaetes
Blue wildebeest or brindled gnu (Connochaetes taurinus)
Black wildebeest or white-tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou)

Size
Wildebeest grow to 1.15 to 1.40 metres (at the shoulder) and they weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms when they are fully grown. They live in the plains and open woodlands in southern Africa. The biggest herds can be found in the Serengeti. Wildebeest can live for more than 20 years.

What they eat
Like other members of the same family (antelopes, deer and goats, amongst others), they mainly eat grass. But since in the African grasslands, there is not always grass, wildebeest are forced to migrate to find food all year round. In May, about 1.5 million animals move from the grasslands to the woods. In November they move back; there is grass in the plains in summer.

Breeding and mating season

The cows (female Gnus) will calve (give birth to the young) in summer in the plains. After the females have given birth, the breeding season begins. The dominant males mark off (and defend) some territory. They do this with feces, and with scent.

Wildebeest are an important part of the ecosystem. With their feces, they fertilize the ground, and their trampling is good for new growth. They also provide food for predators, like lions and hyenas.

References
The Columbia Encyclopedia

Other websites 

The Great Migration , on migration patterns of the wildebeest
Wildebeest images

Bovids
Mammals of Africa
1760s

The 1760s was a decade that began on 1 January 1760 and ended on 31 December 1769.

Events and trends

Events 
 King George III takes the British throne in 1760. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) comes to an end. France gives Canada to Britain, but criticism of the government still grows, led by the controversial figure of John Wilkes. Meanwhile, there is increasing unrest in Britain's American colonies. King George III died later in 1820.

 Science and technology – development of the steam engine continues.

World leaders 
 Emperor Qianlong (Ch'ien Lung) (China)
 King Frederick V (Denmark and Norway)
 King Christian VII (Denmark and Norway)
 King Louis XV (France)
 King Augustus III (Poland)
 King José I (Portugal)
 Czar Peter III (Russia)
 Czarina Catherine II (the Great) (Russia)
 King Carlos III (Spain)
 King Adolf Fredrik (Sweden)
 Sultan Mustafa III (Ottoman Empire)
 King George III (United Kingdom)

Births 
 Josephine de Beauharnais, Empress of France
 Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military

Deaths 
 Pierre de Marivaux, French writer
Cacao tree

The cacao tree is a small tree originally grown in tropical South America. It only grows to 4 to 8 meters in height. Its seeds are called cocoa and are used to produce cocoa butter, chocolate drinks, and chocolate. Now the trees are grown in plantations in many tropical countries.

Cultivation
Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Indonesia. Each country produces about 15%, with smaller amounts coming from Brazil, Nigeria, and Cameroon.

A tree begins to bear fruit when it is 4 or 5 years old. In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste.

There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. For details of processing, see cocoa.

Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.

Other websites 
The food of the Gods - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg

Malvaceae
Mahabad

Mahabad and Piranshahr (, ); (Old name: سابلاخ: Sablakh, which may be of Mongolian origin) is a city in Iran. It is in the north-west of the country, in the region of Iranian Kurdistan and the province of West Azarbaijan. The city is south of Lake Urmia in a narrow valley 1,300 metres above sea level. There are about 162.434 people who live in the city. Mahabad is connected by road with Tabriz 300 km north, Urmia 150 km north and Arbil, in Iraqi Kurdistan.

The city is one center and symbol of the Kurdish nationalism. The reason is  because in 1945 it was the capital of the newly founded people's Republic of Mahabad. The republic was conquered by Iranian forces on 16 December 1946.  The president was Qazi Muhammad. The majority of the population is Kurdish. During the revolution in Iran, on 3 September 1979 the city was bombed and occupied by Iranian forces. After the death of Shivan Qaderi, a student and opposition activist in July 9 2005, the Kurdish population protested against the Iranian government.

Mahabad also a branch of the Islamic Azad University.

The region of Mukrian consists of Piranshahr and Mahabad.

Cities in West Azerbaijan Province
Kurdistan
Shivan Qaderi

Shivan Qaderi (or Sivan Ghaderi or Schuaneh Ghaderi; died 9 July 2005 in Mahabad) was a student and opposition activist in Iran. After his death in 2005, the Kurds protested and the Iranian government had to send more than 100,000 soldiers to this region. The Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported, that about 50,000 people had protested after his death on the Chuwarchira Square. Humans Rights First say that, after he was shot, Iranian soldiers tied Ghaderi's body "to a military vehicle and dragged it through the city, obviously trying to frighten the population so that they would not organize any more protests."

Related pages
 Anti-Kurdism

References

Other websites 
Amnesty International 
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor with the Bureau of Public Affairs Washington, DC: Iran: Voices Struggling To Be Heard 3.11.2005

Qaderi, Shivan
20th-century births
2005 deaths
History of Iran
Spaghetti

Spaghetti is a long, string-shaped kind of pasta.

The word spaghetti was first used in 1849 as sparghetti in Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery. It comes from Italian spaghetto, which means "string".

Spaghetti is made from wheat noodles, which are boiled in water for a short time. Spaghetti can either be served as a side dish, or as a main dish. As a main dish, a sauce is added. There are many different kinds of sauces. Simpler ones are made of butter, more complicated ones include tomatos, garlic, olive oil and various other herbs. Different varieties with mussels, fish or meat also exist. Ground Parmesan cheese is often added. 

In Italy the sauce is usually mixed with the spaghetti while they are being prepared. Usually, spaghetti are eaten only with a fork, or with a fork and a spoon. Sometimes, they are cut with a knife for small children. Many Italians see using a knife to eat spaghetti as bad manners, except to prepare them for small children.

In the United States, there is a kind of spaghetti called "Alvaro's spaghetti" which is served with alfredo sauce. In some countries,like United States or Canada, meatballs are often in the spaghetti sauce.

In China, spaghetti is often made by hand. In Italy, spaghetti is made with a machine so that large amounts can be made quickly. Italy is the biggest producer and consumer of spaghetti in the world. 

It is also a popular dish in Libya.

Spaghetti is called by other words when it has a different thickness: "spaghettini (n. 3)", "spaghetti (n. 5)", and "spaghettoni (n. 8)".

Usually, spaghetti leftovers last in a fridge for around 3 to 5 days, while spaghetti in a freezer will last more than one month.

References

Other websites 

Pasta
Italian food
Snares penguin

The Snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus), is a crested penguin. It is probably a subspecies of the Fiordland penguin. It is a penguin from New Zealand. It is between 50 and 70 centimetres in height and weighs between 2.5 and 4 kilograms.

It breeds on The Snares, a small island group south of New Zealand's South Island.

Penguins
Chahar Cheragh Square

Chuar-chira Square (, ) (meaning Square of the four candles), is a known square in center of city of Mahabad where after Iranian invasion in 1947, Qazi Muhammad the president of Republic of Mahabad was hanged in public as well as other leaders of the republic in Mahabad and Bukan. In 2005 the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported that about 50.000 persons had demonstrated against the Iranian gouverment. The reason was the death of Shivan Qaderi. 

It is now officially called Shardari Square. This square is one of the oldest places of Mahabad city.

Other websites 
 Photo of the Chuwar Chira Square 

Buildings and structures in Iran
History of Iran
Frederick I of Prussia

Frederick I of Prussia (), (11 July 1657–25 February 1713) of the Hohenzollern dynasty was the first King in Prussia (1701–1713).

1657 births
1713 deaths
Kings and Queens of Prussia
House of Hohenzollern
Siege of Jerusalem (1187)

The Siege of Jerusalem took place from September 20 to October 2, 1187. It was part of the war called the Third Crusade.

Balian of Ibelin defended Jerusalem against the armies of Saladin. When he surrendered, the Muslims enslaved thousands of Christians but let many leave after they bought their freedom.

A fictionalized version of the siege (attack) is seen in the movie Kingdom of Heaven, directed by Ridley Scott.

Jerusalem (1187), Siege of
Crusades
1187
Verona

Verona is a city in the Veneto region of Italy with 260,000 inhabitants. It is famous for being the setting for the Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet and because of the Roman Arena. This city is built on the Adige river. It has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification).

 
Capital cities in Italy
Kyiv

Kyiv or Kiev () is the capital and largest city in Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine on the Dnieper River. Almost three million people live there.

It is not a part of any oblast. However, it is surrounded by Kyiv Oblast, and is the headquarters of Kyiv Oblast.

The city hosted the UEFA Euro 2012 final. Kyiv also hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 2017.

Kyiv has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Climate

Notable people 
 Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer and playwright
 Victor Skumin, Russian professor, philosopher, writer, psychologist, psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and medical doctor

References

Notes

 
5th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Ukraine
482 establishments
Harare

Harare is the capital of Zimbabwe. It is home to over 1.6 million people. It was known as Salisbury from its foundation on September 12, 1890 until April 18, 1982.

Harare is Zimbabwe's biggest and most important financial, commercial, and communications centre, and a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits. Manufactured goods include textiles, steel and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area. The city's suburbs include Borrowdale, Mount Pleasant and Avondale. The richest neighbourhoods are to the north. The University of Zimbabwe, the country's oldest university (founded in 1952), is in Mount Pleasant, about 6 km (3.7 mi) north of the city centre. The country's main Test cricket ground, Harare Sports Club is in the city. The Dynamos F.C. in Harare is Zimbabwe's most successful association football team.

References

National capitals in Africa
Cities in Zimbabwe
Lye

Lye is the name of different things:

Lye is a caustic solution used for glass and soap making. It may have in it:
sodium hydroxide (soda lye) or 
less commonly, potassium hydroxide (potash lye).
Lye, West Midlands is the name of a small town in England, between Dudley and Stourbridge in the Black Country, Dudley Metropolitan Borough, West Midlands (it was in Worcestershire).
Lye is a commune of the Indre département, in France.
Luck

Luck can mean:
 Something that happens to someone by chance
 A superstitious feeling that brings good fortune or success
Antony and Cleopatra

Antony and Cleopatra is a play by Shakespeare. It is a tragedy. Shakespeare's source was Plutarch's Lives. The play was first performed between 1606 and 1607. It was probably first printed in the First Folio of 1623. The play describes the romantic love and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra.

References
 Antony and Cleopatra

Plays by William Shakespeare
1600s plays
1803



Events 

 January 4 – William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the "first practical steamboat".
 January 30 – Monroe and Livingston sail for Paris to discuss, and possibly buy, New Orleans. They end completing the Louisiana Purchase.
 February 21 – Edward Despard and six others are hanged, drawn and quartered for plotting to assassinate king George III and to destroy the Bank of England
 February 24 – The Supreme Court of the United States, in Marbury v. Madison, establishes the principle of judicial review.
 March 1 – Ohio is admitted as the 17th U.S. state, retroactive from August 7, 1953.
 April 30 – Louisiana Purchase made by the United States from France.
 March 12 – Port Gibson, MS is chartered
 May 18 – The United Kingdom redeclares war on France after France refused to withdraw from Dutch territory.
 July 4 – The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people.
 July 5 – The convention of Artlenburg leads to the French occupation of Hanover (which had been ruled by the British king).
 July 23 – Robert Emmet's uprising in Ireland begins
 July 26 – The wagonway between Wandsworth and Croydon is opened, being the first public railway line of the world.
 August 3 – British begin Second Anglo-Maratha War against Sindhia of Gwalior
 September 20 – Irish rebel Robert Emmet is executed
 September 23 – The Battle of Assaye in India – British-lead troops defeat Maratha forces
 October 20 – Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States.
 November 30 – At the Cabildo building in New Orleans, Spanish representatives Governor Manuel de Salcedo and the Marqués de Casa Calvo, officially transfer Louisiana Territory to French representative Prefect Pierre Clément de Laussat (just 20 days later, France had transferred the same land to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase).
 
 Aargau, Graubünden, St. Gallen, Thurgau, the Ticino, Vaud become Swiss cantons.
 France – the Livre Tournois (Tours Pound) is replaced by the Franc.
 William Osgoode, Chief Justice of Lower Canada, rules that slavery is inconsistent with British Law.

Ongoing events 
 Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)
1579

1579 was a common year.

Events 
January 6 – The Union of Atrecht united the southern Netherlands under the Duke of Parma, governor in the name of king Philip II of Spain.
January 23 –  The Union of Utrecht united the northern Netherlands in a confederation called the United Provinces.  William I of Orange becomes Stadtholder, and the Duc d'Anjou, younger brother of Henry III of France is invited to become hereditary sovereign.
 March – Capture of Maastricht by the Spanish under Parma.
 June 17 – Sir Francis Drake, during his circumnavigation of the world, lands in what is now California, which he claims for Queen Elizabeth I.  With an English claim here and in Newfoundland, it becomes the basis for English colonial charters which will claim all land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from "sea to sea."  Drake's claim is called "Nova Albion" (meaning, New England), and subsequent maps will show all lands north of New Spain and New Mexico under this name.
752

752 was a leap year.

Events 
Pope Stephen II, pope for 3 days in March.
Pope Stephen III, succeeded Stephen II.
Retired Emperor Shōmu takes part in the dedication ceremony of the great statue of Vairocana Buddha at the Todaiji temple and declares himself a Buddhist.
1005

1005 (MV) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the fifth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.

Events 
 Malcolm II succeeds Kenneth III as king of Scotland.
 Pomerania revolts against the church.
 Schaffhausen starts minting its own coins.
 Spring – The Republic of Pisa conducts a military offensive against the Saracen strongholds in Southern Italy. The Pisan fleet sacks the city of Reggio Calabria. Pisa becomes one of the four commercial Maritime Republics (the other three are Genoa, Venice and Amalfi), which fight each other for control of the Mediterranean Sea.

Births 
 King Macbeth of Scotland, Scottish royal (died 1057)

Deaths 
 King Kenneth III of Scotland

References
1233



Events 
 Fortress of Kalan built.
 Establishment of the Inquisition.
 Mustansiriya University founded in Baghdad.
1736



Events 
 January 26 – Stanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throne
 February 12 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor weds Maria Theresa, mother of Marie Antoinette
 April 14 – Porteous Riots erupt in Edinburgh after execution of a smuggler Andrew Wilson when town guard captain John Porteous orders his men to fire at the crowd. Porteous is arrested later
 May 8 – Marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.
 May 26 – Battle of Ackia: British and Chickasaw Native Americans defeat French troops.
 September 7 – Edinburgh crowd drags John Porteous out of his cell in Tolbooth prison and lynches him
 A French expedition led by Pierre Louis Maupertuis is sent by King Louis XV to Lapland to measure the length of a degree of the meridian, and proves that the Earth is flattened at the poles
 Real Arissona, namesake of the U.S. state Arizona is founded in what is now that state.
 Isaac Newton Publishes his Method of Fluxions
 Thomas Bayes publishes a defense of Isaac Newton's calculus
 Leonhard Euler solves the mathematical problem known as the seven bridges of Königsberg
1340



Events 
 Europe has about 74 million inhabitants.
 January 26 – King Edward III of England is declared King of France
 June 24 – The Battle of Sluys is fought between the naval fleets of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. The former was under the command of Edward III of England and the latter under those of admiral Hue Quiéret and treasurer Nicholas Béhuchet assisted by Genoese mercenary galleys serving under Egidio Bocanegra. The battle ends with the almost complete destruction of the French. Both their commanders were among the casualties. However the mercenaries manage to escape.
 A son of deceased King Christopher II of Denmark is elected to the throne following eight years of Interregnum. He will reign as Valdemar IV of Denmark.
1128

1128 was a leap year.

Events 
 Pope Honorius II recognizes and confirms the Order of the Knights Templar.
 King Afonso I of Portugal, then Count of Portugal defeats his mother, Teresa of Leon, in battle and gains control of the county.
 Geoffrey of Anjou marries Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England.
 Holyrood Abbey founded in Edinburgh by David I, King of Scotland.
984

984 was a leap year.

Events 
 End of the reign of Emperor En'yū, emperor of Japan
 Emperor Kazan ascends to the throne of Japan
 Henry II, Duke of Bavaria abducts the child king Otto III
 Antipope Boniface VII murders Pope John XIV

Births 
 Bethoc, eldest daughter of Malcolm II of Scotland
 Ch'oe Ch'ung, Korean scholar

Deaths 
 Pope John XIV
1639

1639 was a common year.

Events 
 January 14 – Connecticut's first constitution, the "Fundamental Orders," is adopted.
 January 23 – Francisco Maldonado de Silva, Peruvian Jewish poet, executed by burning at the stake
 March 13 – Harvard University is named for a clergyman named John Harvard.
 November 24 – Jeremiah Horrocks observes the transit of Venus.
 Charles I starts the first of the Bishops Wars against Scotland.
 The Casiquiare canal, a river forming a natural canal between the Amazon River and Orinoco River basins, is first encountered by Europeans.
 The Barbados House of Assembly meets for the first time.
 The first printing press in North America is started in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
 Russian Cossacks advance over Urals to Pacific, to Okhotsk.
 Montreal first settled.
1003

1003 (MIII) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the third year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.

Events 
 Sweyn I of Denmark begins his first invasion of England.
 Humbert I becomes the first count of Savoy.
 King Robert II of France invades Burgundy, but fails.
 Pope John XVII succeeds Pope Silvester II.
 Pope John XVIII succeeds Pope John XVII.
 Boleslaus I of Poland becomes duke of Bohemia and Moravia.
 Battle of Albesa: Muslim forces of the Caliphate of Cordoba defeat the northern Christian armies of León, Pamplona and Castile.

Births 
 c.December 25 – Edward the Confessor, King of England and founder of Westminster Abbey in London (died 1066)
 date unknown
 Prince Louis of France, French royal (died 1028)

References
Fuzzy logic

Fuzzy logic is a sort of computer logic that is different from boolean algebra founded by Lotfi A. Zadeh. It is different in the way that it allows values to be more accurate than on or off. While boolean logic only allows true or false, fuzzy logic allows all things in between. An example of this could be a computer game: A person is standing in a doorway while a thing explodes. The character is hit or not hit if boolean logic is used, but the doorway protects him from the explosion. Therefore, he might only be hit 20%, and takes less damage.

To put it in  more precise mathematical terms, classical logic has two values. These values are usually called  false (0) or true (1). With fuzzy logic, a (calculated) value of 0.8 or 0.971 is possible. It is important to know the difference between fuzzy logic and chance. A coin that is thrown has a chance of 0.5 for landing heads up. If it is thrown 1000 times, it is expected that it will land with heads side up 500 times. With fuzzy logic, a thing with a "truth value" of 0.5 will have a value of 0.5 no matter how many times it is done. It is not a 50% chance of true or untrue, it is 50% true and 50% untrue at the same time.
Fuzzy logic is used a lot in expert systems and neural networks.

Humans tend to use a combination of predicate logic and fuzzy logic. If you are an outfielder catching a baseball hit into the air, then your precise logic will calculate trajectory and start you running to the point of intercept (catching). However, once close to the ball the eyes and brain of the outfielder lacks the ability to accurately estimate distance and speed because the ball is coming straight at the outfielder. The human brain switches to fuzzy logic that says "get me closer", "get me closer", and so on. That is why you see outfielders in baseball run to a spot and then move around as the ball gets closer.

Predicate logic says calculate the point to be at to catch the ball. Fuzzy logic says because of wind or other things you might not be in the correct place so just keep getting closer until you catch the ball. 

In predicate logic it is the mathematics of calculating the path of the ball that determines your action. In fuzzy logic it is the error of your calculations that determines your action.

In effect, it's like your brain trying to steady a drink in your hand while traveling down a bumpy road.
Artificial intelligence
Logic
Douala

Douala is the largest city in the African country of Cameroon. It is the capital city of Littoral Province.

The city is placed near the Wouri River. Its population is about 2,000,000 people. The first European people who came to Douala were from Portugal. They found Duala in about 1472. Before 1884 it was named Cameroons Town. In 1884 German people came to Duala and changed its name to Kamarunstadt ("Camaroon City") and made it the capital of German Kamerun. In 1907 its name was changed to Duala. It became the capital of French Cameroons in 1919. From 1940 to 1946, it was the capital of Cameroon.

Duala is an expensive city. It ranked 24th most expensive city of the world in 2007.

Transport 
Douala is linked by rail to Yaoundé, Ngaoundéré, Kumba and Nkongsamba. The largest port and the most important airport in Cameron are both in Douala.

References

Other websites 
 Image of Douala from Google Earth

Cities in Cameroon
1472 establishments
15th-century establishments in Africa
1843



Events 
 February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show (Bowery Amphitheatre, New York City).
 February 8 – Earthquakes in Guadeloupe magnitude 8.5, 5000 people reported killed.
 February 11 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera I Lombardi premieres in Milan.
 May 18 – The Disruption of the Church of Scotland took place in Edinburgh.
 May 22 – The first major wagon train headed for the northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri, on the Oregon Trail.
 July 19 – The SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol.
 August 15  – Tivoli Gardens,  one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opened in Copenhagen, Denmark.
 October 13 – In New York City, Henry Jones and 11 others found B'nai B'rith (the oldest Jewish service organization in the world).
 November 28 – Ka La Ku'oko'a: Hawaiian Independence Day.  The Kingdom of Hawai`i was officially recognized by the United Kingdom and France as an independent nation.
 The world's first commercial Christmas cards are printed by Sir Henry Cole in London.
 December 17 – First publication of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
 James Joule quantifies the conversion of work into heat.
 In Barbados, the first black man, Samuel Jackson Prescod, is elected to the House of Assembly.
 The Danish government re-establishes the althing in Iceland as an advisory body.
 The first tunnel under the Thames is finished.
 Argentina supports Rosas of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo.
 Quaternions are discovered by William Rowan Hamilton. 
 The Economist is first published.
 Bishop's University is founded.
 Abbeville is founded by descendants of Acadians from Nova Scotia.

 January 1 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer and lyricist (b. 1779)
1225

1225 was a common year.

Births 
 Thomas Aquinas, Italian theologian (died 1274)
 Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France
 David VI Narin, King of Georgia (died 1293)
 Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (died 1282)
841



Events 
 June 25: Battle of Fontenay – Louis the German and Charles the Bald defeat Lothar.
Battle at Magh-Ochtar in Kildare, Ireland, at which Feidlimid mac Cremthanin is defeated by the Southern Uí Neill.