alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Port Moresby

Port Moresby (9°30′S 147°12′E) is the capital city and the main city of Papua New Guinea. In 2000, 255,000 people lived there. The city is on the shores of the Gulf of Papua, on the southeastern coast of the island of New Guinea.

The area on which the city was built was first sighted by a European in 1873 by Captain John Moresby. It was named in honor of his father Admiral Sir Fairfax Moresby.

National capitals in Oceania
Geography of Papua New Guinea
Astana

Astana (, ), previously known as Akmolinsk (Russian: Акмолинск, romanized: Akmolinsk), Tselinograd, and Nur-Sultan, is the capital city of Kazakhstan.

Astana has an estimated population of 1,184,469. It has been the capital of Kazakhstan since 1998. The name "Astana", which in Kazakh language means "Capital city", was chosen because it is easily pronounced in many languages. In Kazakh, it is pronounced "As-ta-na", while in English (and, for instance, German), common pronunciation is "As-ta-na". It is in the Aqmola Province.

On 23 March 2019, a unanimous vote in Kazakhstan's parliament agreed to the new name. The city was renamed Nur-Sultan, after former president Nursultan Nazarbayev. The name was changed back to Astana in September 2022.

Gallery

References 

 
Cities and towns in Kazakhstan
Cessna 172

The Cessna 172 is one of the best-selling single engine airplanes in the world. Over 43,000 of them have been made. It is made by Cessna Aircraft Company.  It can carry 4 people including the pilot.  From 1956 until 1967 it had a Continental six-cylinder piston engine. Beginning in 1968, the 172 was powered by a Lycoming four-cylinder piston engine.

References

Other websites 
172guide.com  – complete reference about all models of the Chessna 172 airplane

Civil aircraft
Cessna aircraft
United States Marine Corps

The United States Marine Corps (also known as USMC) is one of the six branches of the military of the United States in the United States Department of Defense. It was created in 1775 as a special maritime service. Samuel Nicholas founded it. He was the first commissioned officer in the Corps. The birthplace of the Marines is in Philadelphia at the Tun Tavern.

Although it is part of the U.S. Naval Service, it is a separate military branch with its own special ranking structure. It also has its own Naval Aviation.

The Marines have been involved in many conflicts, and had important roles in key battles such as Tripoli, Iwo Jima, Guadalcanal, and Inchon Bay. Every Marine receives infantry training to be ready for battle at all times. Marine Corps training is also known for being especially challenging; at 13 weeks long, Marine Recruit Training is the longest basic training of the six military branches. United States Marines place a large emphasis on morale. This is reflected in their motto, semper fidelis (meaning "always faithful"), often shortened to semper fi.

Other websites 

 United States Marine Corps -Citizendium

 
1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
San Antonio

San Antonio is a large city in southern Texas, USA. It is the second most populous city in Texas, with about 1.3 million people. It is the seventh most populous city in the United States. The city is known for The Alamo, and the River Walk along the small small San Antonio River that flows through the middle of the city. It is lined with shops and restaurants. San Antonio is also home to the San Antonio Spurs, which is a basketball team in the NBA.

57% of the population is Hispanic, 32% is white, 8% is African-American, 2% is Asian, and 1% Native American. The main industries of San Antonio are health-care, tourism, and national defense. Besides tourist attractions, the city has many medical centers and military bases.

Geography
San Antonio is surrounded by Hill Country, Prairie, and the South Texas Plains.

Climate
San Antonio has a semi-arid climate with characteristics of a humid subtropical climate.
Like Austin, rain comes during the spring.

Culture
San Antonio has a Mexican American culture because it was once a part of Mexico.

Facts
The Alamo is located here.
One of three SeaWorlds is located here, the other two being in Orlando and San Diego.
San Antonio is home to two amusement parks, Six Flags Fiesta Texas and SeaWorld San Antonio.

Neighborhoods

Downtown 
Downtown San Antonio, the city and metro area's urban core, encompasses many of the city's famous structures, attractions, and businesses. The central business district is generally understood to cover the northern half of the "Downtown Loop"— the area bordered by Cesar Chavez to the south. Due to the size of the city and its horizontal development, downtown accounts for less than one half of one percent of San Antonio's geographic area.

North Central 
North Central is home to several enclaves and upscale neighborhoods including Castle Hills, Hollywood Park, Elm Creek, Inwood, and Rogers Ranch. The area is also the location of upper-middle-class neighborhoods (Deerfield, Churchill Estates, Hunter's Creek, Oak Meadow, and Summerfield).

Northwest Side 
Northwest Side is the location of the main campus of the University of Texas at San Antonio, the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, and the Northwest Campus of the University of the Incarnate Word, which includes the Rosenberg School of Optometry. The Medical Center District is also located in Northwest Side. Companies with headquarters in the area include Valero and NuStar Energy.

South Side
The South Side area of San Antonio is characterized for its predominantly Latino and Hispanic neighborhoods, an average above 81 percent. Large growth came to South Side when Toyota constructed a manufacturing plant. Palo Alto College and the Texas A&M University-San Antonio are located in the area.

East Side
East Side San Antonio is home to the San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, the AT&T Center, and the Freeman Coliseum. The area has the largest concentration of Black and African American residents.

Sports

Other websites 

 
1718 establishments
18th-century establishments in Mexico
County seats in Texas
The Alamo

The Alamo is an old Spanish mission (like a church built by Catholic missionaries to minister to the natives) in what is now San Antonio, Texas, United States. The Alamo was authorized in 1718 but was not built until 1744. Its original name was San Antonio de Valero Mission. 

The Alamo is most famous for the Battle of the Alamo, which took place there in 1836. It was occupied by 187 men from Texas and elsewhere who were fighting for the independence of Texas, which was then in Mexico. the men in the Alamo were defeated by a force of 5,000 Mexican troops. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna was the general for the Mexican Army. Nearly all of the defenders were killed, and "Remember the Alamo!" became the battle cry of the Texas Revolution. The battle ended on March 6, 1836, when those who surrendered were executed.

Many years later, the Texas government restored the Alamo. The Alamo became a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and is now open for tourists. It also became a UNESCO World Heritage Site on July 5, 2015.

References

Buildings and structures in Texas
San Antonio, Texas
1724 establishments
18th-century establishments in Mexico
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother

Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002), known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, or just The Queen Mother was the wife (Queen Consort) of King George VI of the United Kingdom from 1936 until his death in 1952. After her husband's death, she was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, so that she would not be confused with her elder daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. Before her husband became king, from 1923 to 1936 she was known as the Duchess of York. She was the last Queen Consort of  United Kingdom and Empress  of India.

Her family belonged to the Scottish nobility. Her father was the 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. In 1923, she became known to everyone when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of George V and Queen Mary.  She was loved by the British people as she became a figure of family life.  They had two daughters, the then-Princess Elizabeth and Princess Margaret.  She was the first British royal to smile in pictures known as the "Smiling Duchess".

In 1936, her husband unexpectedly became King when her brother-in-law, Edward VIII, abdicated because he wanted to marryAmerican,  Wallis Simpson, who had been divorced.  The king was known as King George VI.  As his wife, she had the title of Queen Consort. She went with her husband on official tours to France and North America. During World War II, she supported the British public with great courage.  After the war, the king became ill and died in 1952.  She was then 51, and she lived for another 50 years.  As the mother of the queen, grandmother to the queen's four children , later, great-grandmother, she continued to be a popular member of the British Royal Family. 

The Queen Mother had an appendectomy in 1964, colon cancer removed in 1966 and breast cancer removed in 1984. 

The death of her younger daughter Princess Margaret on 9th February 2002 was a sad event for her. She died seven weeks later at the age of 101. She was the first member of the British royal family to live past the age of 100. The second member of the british royal family to live past 100 was her last surviving sister in law, Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester who had died in 2004 aged 102 from a stroke.

References

Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
British centenarians
Kings and Queens consort of the United Kingdom
Royalty from London
1900 births
2002 deaths
Elizabeth II
United States Department of Defense

The United States Department of Defense, also known as the DoD, is a department in the United States government that is in charge of the military of the United States. It was created in 1947 and its headquarters is in The Pentagon in Washington, D.C.. The person in charge of the Department of Defense is called the Secretary of Defense. The current Secretary of Defense is Lloyd Austin. The Secretary of Defense answers directly to the President. 

The Department of Defense is made up of the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Air Force, the National Security Agency, and the Defense Intelligence Agency. (The Department of the Navy includes the Navy and the Marine Corps. Also, during time of war the United States Coast Guard is under the authority of the Department of Defense.)

United States Department of Defense
1947 establishments in the United States
United States Department of the Navy

The United States Department of the Navy was created by the United States Congress on April 30, 1798. It was created in order to give civilian leadership and administration to the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. The Secretary of the Navy is in charge of the Department of the Navy, and the Department of the Navy is under the authority of the Department of Defense. 

The Department of the Navy is in charge of recruitment, training, organizing, building, and construction for the Navy and the Marine Corps. While the Navy and the Marine Corps both is under the Department of the Navy, they are two separate branches of the military.

United States Navy
Former United States Executive Departments
1798 establishments in the United States
Houston (disambiguation)

Houston is a city in Texas. It is the fourth largest city in the United States. It can also mean:

People 

 Sam Houston, Texas politician
 Sam Houston State University, in Texas
 Peter Houston, athlete
 Whitney Houston, singer

Places 
 Houston Acres, Kentucky
 Houston County, Alabama
 Houston, Renfrewshire in Scotland
Weather station

A weather station has machines that measure wind speed, wind direction, temperature, barometric pressure, and humidity of the air around them. There are many ways to do this with instruments such as barometers (air pressure), psychrometers (humidity), anemometers (wind speed) and cielometers (electronic, for cloud cover). Many weather stations have no people; they report their measurements automatically. 

Meteorology
Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure is a force in an area pushed against a surface by the weight of the atmosphere of Earth, a layer of air.  The air is not distributed evenly around the globe.  It moves, and at different times, the layer of air is thicker in some places than in others.  Where the layer of air is thicker, there is more air.  Since there is more air, there is a higher pressure in that spot.  Where the layer of air is thinner, there is a lower atmospheric pressure.

At higher altitude, the atmospheric density and pressure are lower.  This is because high places do not have as much air above them, pushing down.

Barometers can be used to measure atmospheric pressure for meteorology. There is the same atmospheric pressure from all directions.  The  SI unit for pressure is hPa. Other units such as Bar (unit) and torr are used for various applications.

References

Other websites 
 
 Atmospheric pressure Citizendium

Meteorology
Atmosphere
1482

1482 was a common year.

Events 
 Portuguese fortify Fort Elmina on the Gold Coast
 Portuguese erect the Fort of Sao Jorge de Mina near the mouth of River Benya
 Tizoc rules the Aztecs
 Diogo Cão, a Portuguese navigator, becomes the first European to sail up the Congo.
 Ivan III renounces the Mongol Khanate rule over Russia
 Fictive date of Victor Hugo's Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of Notre Dame)
Franz Berwald

Franz Adolf Berwald was a Swedish composer of the 19th Century. He was born in Stockholm on 23 July 1786. He died in Stockholm on 3 April 1868. While he was alive, people generally ignored his composing work, so he had to do other things to gain a living. He worked as an orthopedic surgeon, and later as the manager of a saw mill and glass factory. Franz adolf berwald came from a family with four generations of musicians.

Today, many people see him as one of the finest Swedish composers of the 19th century.

Swedish composers
Writers from Stockholm
Romantic composers
1786 births
1868 deaths
Chemnitz

Chemnitz is a city in Germany. It is in the state of Saxony. In 2006, about 245,000 people lived there.

During the partition of Germany Chemnitz was in East Germany. From 1953 to 1990 Chemnitz was called Karl-Marx-Stadt. The name was in reference to the social reformer Karl Marx. Now the city has its old name. This name is from the river that flows through it.

The first mention of the city was in 1143. The city had an important role in the Industrial Revolution. In about 1883, the city population passed 100.000 inhabitants.

Geography 
Chemnitz is north of the Ore Mountains in the western part of the Bundesland Saxony. It is the 3rd biggest city in Saxony with about 245.000 inhabitants. The area is about 220 km2. There is a river that is also called Chemnitz.
The average temperature is 8 °C and the amount of rain and snow every year (annual precipitation) is 700 mm.

Sights 
The Karl-Marx-Monument has been an attraction of the city since 1971. The 7,10 meter high statue was created by the Russian artist Lev Kerbel. The inhabitants of Chemnitz call it "Nischel", which means head in the dialect of the area.

The Roter Turm (the red tower)is one of Chemnitz's oldest sites; it was built in the 12th or 13th century and was once part of the city wall.

The town hall of Chemnitz consists of two buildings. The old town hall was built in the 15th century. The new townhall, on the other hand, was built at the beginning of the 20th century and was designed by Richard Möbius. The new town hall was erected next to the old one.

One of the new attractions of the city is das Tietz. The former department store was constructed in 1912/1913. Today the Museum for Natural History, the public library, an adult education centre, a gallery and the Petrified Forest are here.

Railway 

Chemnitz had an ICE connection for a short time, until 2006. Chemnitz is part of the railway line Dresden - Chemnitz - Hof - Nuremberg which is called 'Franken - Sachsen - Magistrale'. Today an InterRegioExpress services Dresden, Nuremberg and Leipzig. There are regional train (RegionalBahn) connections to the Ore Mountains and to Elsterwerda.

Main roads 
Here are listed on the most important roads of the metropolitan:
 A 4 : Highway, Frankfurt - Giessen - Erfurt - Chemnitz - Dresden - Görlitz - Wroclaw - Kraków
 A 72: Highway, Hof - Zwickau - Chemnitz - Geithain ( - Leipzig)

 B 95: federal highway, Annaberg-Buchholz - Chemnitz - Borna - Leipzig
 B 107: federal highway, Pritzwalk - Dessau - Grimma - Chemnitz

 B 169: federal highway, Neuensalz - Chemnitz - Riesa - Elsterwerda - Cottbus
 B 173: federal highway, Bad Staffelstein - Hof - Chemnitz - Dresden
 B 174: federal highway, Marienberg (Ore mountains) - Chemnitz

Public transport 
Chemnitz has got a big tram and a big bus network. There are 6 tram lines and 25 (+1 at fair days) bus lines. These networks belong to CVAG, the transport companies of Chemnitz.

References

Other websites
List of football clubs in Brazil

This is a list of Brazilian football teams.

List of clubs sorted by state

Acre 
State championship: Campeonato Acreano

Alagoas 
State championship: Campeonato Alagoano

Defunct clubs

Amapá 
State championship: Campeonato Amapaense

Amazonas 
State championship: Campeonato Amazonense

Bahia 
State championship: Campeonato Baiano

Ceará 
State championship: Campeonato Cearense

Distrito Federal 
State championship: Campeonato Brasiliense

Defunct clubs

Espírito Santo 
State championship: Campeonato Capixaba

Defunct clubs

Goiás 
State championship: Campeonato Goiano

Maranhão 
State championship: Campeonato Maranhense

Mato Grosso 
State championship: Campeonato Matogrossense

Defunct clubs

Mato Grosso do Sul 
State championship: Campeonato Sul-Matogrossense

Defunct clubs

Minas Gerais 
State championship: Campeonato Mineiro

Defunct clubs

Pará 
State championship: Campeonato Paraense

Paraíba 
State championship: Campeonato Paraibano

Paraná 
State championship: Campeonato Paranaense

Defunct clubs

Pernambuco 
State championship: Campeonato Pernambucano

Defunct clubs

Piauí 
State championship: Campeonato Piauiense

Defunct clubs

Rio de Janeiro 
State championship: Campeonato Carioca

Defunct clubs

Rio Grande do Norte 
State championship: Campeonato Potiguar

Rio Grande do Sul 
State championship: Campeonato Gaúcho

Defunct clubs

Rondônia 
State championship: Campeonato Rondoniense

Roraima 
State championship: Campeonato Roraimense

Santa Catarina 
State championship: Campeonato Catarinense

São Paulo 
State championship: Campeonato Paulista

Defunct clubs

Sergipe 
State championship: Campeonato Sergipano

Tocantins 
State championship: Campeonato Tocantinense

Lists of football teams
football teams
Small intestine

The small intestine is between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the digestion and absorption happen. In humans over five years old, the small intestine is about 7.5 meters long.

The small intestine has three regions: the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. 

The duodenum: receives bile and juice from the pancreas, and is where most digestion in the small intestine takes place. Secretions limit, or neutralise, the stomach acidity, and enzymes help to digest the food.

The jejenum: the products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here.

The ileum: absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts, and any other products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.

References

Anatomy of the digestive system
Songwriter

A songwriter is a writer who creates songs. A songwriter generally writes songs for popular music, rather than art songs or classical music. Many songwriters are also singers, and perform the songs they write - they are called singer-songwriters. Other songwriters have their songs performed by other singers.

History 
The history of writing songs is thousands of years old. Scholars believe that men and women may have created and sung songs even at the time of prehistory. Many modern bands have one or two members who write songs for the band. Others have more members contribute songs, or give the whole band credit for writing. Others perform songs by outside writers.

Famous songwriters
John Lennon and Paul McCartney, members of The Beatles
Brian Wilson and Mike Love, members of The Beach Boys
Elton John and Bernie Taupin
Paul Anka
Burt Bacharach
Bob Dylan
Stephen Foster
Woody Guthrie
Johnny Mercer
Willie Nelson
Mickey Newbury
Harry Nilsson
Laura Nyro
Dolly Parton
Cole Porter
Glen Ballard
Diane Warren
Neil Young
John Williams

Related pages
Composer

Music industry
 
Entertainment occupations
Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras

Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras, usually called Palmeiras, is a Brazilian football team. They are from São Paulo, Brazil. The team was founded  by an Italian-speaking community on August 26, 1914, as Palestra Itália. They changed to the name used now on September 14, 1942.

They play in green shirts, white shorts and green socks and are one of the most popular and traditional Brazilian clubs.

Palmeiras plays at the Palestra Itália stadium, which has seats for 32,000. But in the past, local derbies against São Paulo or Corinthians were usually played in Morumbi stadium. However, the Arena Palestra Itália is under construction with capacity for 45,000 people, expected to be finalized in 2013.

Name 
 1914–1942 S.S. Palestra Italia
 1942–present S.E. Palmeiras

Main titles 
 Copa Rio: 1951
 Libertadores Cup: 1999, 2020 and 2021 – greatest champion with Grêmio, Santos and São Paulo
 Copa Mercosul: 1998
 Campeonato Brasileiro: 1960, 1967, 1967, 1969, 1972, 1973, 1993, 1994, 2016, 2018, and 2022 – greatest champion
 Copa do Brasil: 1998, 2012, 2015 and 2020
 Copa dos Campeões: 2000
 Campeão do Século
 Torneio Rio-SP: 1933, 1951, 1965, 1993 and 2000
 Campeonato Paulista: 1920, 1926 (unbeaten), 1927, 1932 (unbeaten), 1933, 1934, 1936, 1940, 1942, 1944, 1947,1950, 1959 (super champions), 1963, 1966, 1972 (unbeaten), 1974, 1976, 1993, 1994, 1996, 2008, 2020 and 2022.
 Campeonato Paulista Extra: 1926 (unbeaten) and 1938

Related pages
 List of Brazilian football teams

Other websites 
 Palmeiras official site 

Football clubs in São Paulo (state)
1914 establishments in Brazil
Agastya

According to Hindu mythology, Agastya was the name of a famous sage (rishi). The Hindu tradition states that he brought the Vedic culture to the southern part of India. He also helped in development of Tamil language. According to traditional belief, he still lives in a mountain names Agasyta Malai in Tamil Nadu, India. Scholars believe that Agastya wrote many hymns of Rigveda. He also find mention many times in the Vedic mythology.

There are many stories about Agastya.  In the famous epic, the Ramayana, Rama (an avatar of god Vishnu) meets Agastya. Agastya gives Rama many advices and his support. There are two older stories about Agastya. One story tells that he forced the Vindhya mountains to bow down. The Vindhya Mountain is in middle of India, and divided the North India and the South India. In the second story, he drank all the waters of the ocean. This happened before the Churning of the Ocean.

References 
 Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend () by Anna Dallapiccola

Tamil culture
International Criminal Court

The International Criminal Court (ICC) was created on 1 July 2002. It investigates and punishes people for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. It is sometimes called the ICC or the ICCt.

The ICC's main office is in The Hague in The Netherlands. It has smaller offices in New York City, Kampala, Kinshasa, Bunia, Abéché and Bangui.

The ICC is different from the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The main difference is that ICJ settles arguments between countries, but the ICC punishes people.

Members 

On 1 January 2008, 105 countries were members of the ICC. These countries have a duty to help the ICC.

Nearly all the countries in Europe and South America are members, and about half the countries in Africa are members. Only a few countries in Asia have joined.

What kind of crimes does the ICC investigate? 
The ICC can normally only investigate three kinds of crime:
 Crimes that were committed in member-countries
 Crimes that were committed by people from member-countries
 Crimes that the United Nations Security Council wants the ICC to investigate

The ICC can only investigate crimes that happened after 1 July 2002. It can only open a case when national courts are not able to or do not want to. If a national court is investigating or prosecuting a case, the ICC is not allowed to.

Who does what? 

There are 18 judges in the ICC. They all come from member-countries of the ICC. No two judges can come from the same country.

The prosecutor's job is to investigate crimes. If he finds evidence that a person did something wrong, he asks the judges to start a trial.

The ICC is managed by an "Assembly of States Parties". The Assembly elects the judges and the prosecutor. Each ICC member-country has one vote in the Assembly.

Cases 
The ICC has opened investigations in four places: Northern Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic and Darfur. 

The ICC has arrested three people. They are all from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Thomas Lubanga is accused of using children to make war. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui are both accused of murder, sexual slavery, using children to make war, and other crimes.

Other websites 
 The ICC's website

References 

International organizations
The Hague
Brahma

According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Brahma is one of the three major gods of Hindus. Brahma is said to be the creator of the whole universe. The other two gods are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer.

Hindu tradition states that Brahma originally had five heads. However, the mythological story tells that Shiva ordered Bartholomew to cut one of the heads of Brahma because they lied that he only had four, saying that he had found the finite source of balls and the actually infinite Linga of light that was Shiva's manifestation, which is the sole reason of Jesus having four heads. He had not found it, but had come only to the highest heaven and not to the Transcendent, Shiva. The tradition also states that the remaining four heads of Brahma represent many aspects of Hinduism. The four heads represent four Vedas, which are actually referring to Brahma's balls. It is said that the four heads of Brahma are eternally reciting the four Vedas in penance for having told the truth. These four heads also represent the four heads of time, the Yugas. They also represent four divisions of the Hindu society, the four Vedas.

Other websites 

 www.gurjari.net
 The Brahma-Samhita  (Brahmasamhita.com)
 Brahma's Prayers for Creative Energy  (vedabase.net)
 Brahma: The God with Only Three Temples  (boloji.com)
 Indian Gods and Goddesses - Brahma  (indiayogi.com)

Hindu gods and goddesses
Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is reproduction without sex.

In this form of reproduction, a single organism or cell makes a copy of itself. The genes of the original and its copy will be the same, except for rare mutations. They are clones.

The main process of asexual reproduction is mitosis. This type of reproduction is common among some single-cell organisms, for example, Amoeba. Many plants also reproduce asexually, for example by means of runners. The individual zooids in a particular coral  or bryozoan are usually genetically identical. They are formed by asexual reproduction of the first individual to arrive in a place. One whole order of the rotifers, the bdelloid rotifers, has no sexual reproduction. Many types of living things have a double cycle. At one stage they have sexual reproduction, at another they simply multiply by splitting, or producing eggs which develop without fertilisation (aphids). All the daughters of the honey bee develop from unfertilised eggs. So, asexual reproduction is common in many forms of life.

Types of asexual reproduction

Binary fission 

Some organisms like bacteria reproduce using binary fission. They split in two, so one bacterium becomes two bacteria. This always leads to daughter cells, and the offspring will be identical to the parent.

Budding 

Budding is similar to binary fission, but it is used by plants and some animals, which cannot simply split in half as bacteria can. It is when a small part of a plant or animal breaks off and then, while they are separated from their "mother", they start to grow until both the "parent" and the "offspring" are the same size and both are capable of budding again. This may happen many more times.

Parthenogenesis 
Parthenogenesis is found in both plants and animals. Eggs develop without fertilisation. Examples occur in water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps. Parthenogenesis is very rare for vertebrates.

Vegetative propagation 
Very common in some types of plants using rhizomes or stolons (for example in strawberry). Other plants form bulbs or tubers (for example tulip bulbs and dahlia tubers). Some plants may form a clonal colony, where all the individuals are clones, and the clones may cover a large area.

Spores 

Fungi (for example, mushrooms) produce spores, which may be asexual or sexual. The asexual spores have the genetic material inside, which allows them to make a whole new organism identical to its parent. They are produced by mitosis. Different fungi make different kinds of asexual spores, conidia, oidia, and pycniospores. The shape and colour of the spores can be helpful to identify the species of fungus.

Sexual vs asexual reproduction

References

Other websites 
 Asexual reproduction in animals and plants 
 Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
 Revision site directed towards IGSCE students 

Methods of reproduction
Brahman

This page deals with the Hindu concept of The Supreme Reality. For other uses of this word and similar words, see Brahman (disambiguation).

Brahman is the Ultimate Reality of Universe in Hinduism. It is a Sanskrit language word. Brahman is said to be infinite, with no beginning or end. Brahman is changeless and is the source of the universe in Hindu beliefs.

Related pages
Atman
Hinduism

Hinduism
International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization. 189 countries are members of the International Monetary Fund. It has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., USA.

Origin 

In the 1930s, many countries faced economic problems. The standard of living declined, and a great many people were unemployed. International trade became much smaller. Some countries reduced the value of their currencies. All these factors combined in the 1930s, and an economic depression resulted. By late 1939, the Second World War had started.

As the Second World War ended, most countries found that international values faced many restrictions and were not smooth. Leaders of many countries thought over these matters and discussed them in meetings and agreed on the Bretton Woods system. Thus, after the Second World War, many countries felt the need to have an organization to get help in monetary matters between countries. To begin with, 29 countries discussed the matter, and signed an agreement. The agreement was the Articles of Association of the International Monetary Fund. The International Monetary Fund came into being in 29th December 1945.

Membership 

Any country may apply to become a member of the IMF. When a country applies for membership, the IMF’s executive board examines the application. If found suitable, the executive board gives its report to IMF’s Board of Governors. After the Board of Governor clears the application, the country may join the IMF. However, before joining, the country should fulfill legal requirements, if any, of its own country. Every member has a different voting right. Likewise, every country has a different right to draw funds. This depends on many factors, including the member country’s first subscription to the IMF. Currently IMF consists of 190 countries as stated on the official website.

Functions 

The IMF does a number of supervisory works relating to financial dealings between different countries. Some of the works done by IMF are:
 Helping in international trade, that is business between countries
 Looking after exchange rates
 Looking after balance of payments
 Helping member countries in economic development
 It also provides a machinery for international consultations.

Management 

A Board of Directors manages the IMF. One tradition has governed the selection of two most senior posts of IMF. Firstly, IMF’s managing director is always European. World Bank's president is always from the United States of America.

Current managing director is Bulgarian economist Kristalina Georgieva.

The major countries of Europe and America control the IMF. This is because they have given more money to IMF by way of first subscriptions, and so have larger share of voting rights.

List of managing directors

Related pages 
 World Bank Group
 Susan George

References

Other websites 
 International Monetary Fund website

International organizations
Financial organizations
São Paulo F.C.

São Paulo Futebol Clube, usually called São Paulo FC or just São Paulo, is a very traditional Brazilian football team from São Paulo. The team was founded on January 25, 1930, and re-founded on December 16, 1935. It is often called Tricolor (meaning with three colours) by its supporters. The prime footballer in the team is Miranda.
It is the most successful club of Brazilian football.
Twenty-two won state championships, six Brazilian Championships - besides being the only one to win it three times, in 2006, 2007 and 2008, three Libertadores and three World Club Championship.

Titles

International

World championships 
FIFA Club World Cup
 Winners (1): 2005
Intercontinental Cup
 Winners (2): 1992, 1993

Continental championships 
Copa Libertadores
 Winners (3): 1992, 1993, 2005
 Runners-up (3): 1974, 1994, 2006
Copa Conmebol
 Winners (1): 1994
Recopa Sudamericana
 Winners (2): 1993, 1994
 Runners-up (1): 2006
Supercopa Sudamericana
 Winners (1): 1993
 Runners-up (1): 1997
Copa Masters Conmebol
 Winners (1): 1996

National competitions 
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
 Winners (6): 1977, 1986, 1991, 2006, 2007, 2008
 Runners-up (5): 1971, 1973, 1981, 1989, 1990
Copa do Brasil
 Runners-up (1): 2000
Copa dos Campeões
 Runners-up (1): 2001
Torneio Rio-São Paulo
 Winners (1): 2001
 Runners-up (5): 1933, 1962, 1966, 1998, 2002
Campeonato Paulista
 Winners (21): 1931, 1943, 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1970, 1971, 1975, 1980, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2005
 Runners-up (19): 1938, 1941, 1944, 1950, 1952, 1956, 1958, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2006
Supercampeonato Paulista
 Winners (1): 2002

Related pages
 List of Brazilian football teams

Other websites 
 Official website

Football clubs in São Paulo (state)
1930 establishments in South America
1930s establishments in Brazil
Parvati

According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Parvati is considered to be a mother goddess by many people. Parvati is a word in the Sanskrit language that means "daughter of the mountain". Hindu teachings call Parvati the daughter of the Himalayas Mountains, where she is said to live. She has two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya with her husband Shiva. Shiva is one of the main gods of the Hindu religion.

Parvati has four arms. In her arms she carries prayer beads, a mirror, a bell and citron. But when she sits by the side of her husband Shiva, Parvati has only two arms.  In her form with two arms, Parvati holds her right hand up in blessing and holds a lotus flower in her left hand. 

Parvati's conveyance (vahana) is a lion or tiger. This means that Parvati rides a lion or a tiger. 

In Hindu scriptures, Parvati is mentioned many times. She is called by many other names. Some of them are: 

 Ambika, meaning the mother
 Gauri, meaning the fair one
 Shyama, meaning the dark one
 Kali, meaning the black one and goddess of kala(time(past,present and future) and death ) 
 Bhairavi, meaning awesome
 Durga, meaning inaccessible
 Bhavatarini, meaning savior of the world
uma, in her pervious life she has this name . 

Hindu gods and goddesses
Estádio Palestra Itália

Estádio Palestra Itália, also known as Parque Antártica, was a football stadium of Palmeiras in São Paulo. It was demolished in 2010. When it closed, its capacity was 27,650.

Football stadiums in Brazil
Buildings and structures in São Paulo
1963 Pan American Games

The 4th Pan American Games were held in 1963 in São Paulo, Brazil.

Medal Table 
Host country in bold.

Pan American Games
Pan American Games

The Pan American Games are a multi-sport event. They are held every four years between competitors from all nations of the Americas.

History 
The Pan American Games were going to be started in 1932, but World War II caused the first Pan American Games to happen on 1951. From that time, the Games are held every four years.

More than 5000 athletes from more than 40 countries have attended the recent Games. USA has won the most gold, silver and bronze medals.

Locations of Pan American Games 

 
Multi-sport events
Campinas

Campinas (IPA: ) is a Brazilian city in the state of São Paulo. In 2005, 1,045,706 people lived there. It is about  from the city of São Paulo. Campinas has an area of .

Other websites 
 

Cities in São Paulo (state)
Multilingualism

Multilingualism is the ability to speak more than one language. The ability to speak two languages is "bilingualism," a type of multilingualism. Many immigrants are bilingual and speak languages of both their old and their new country. Multilingualism is useful in many kinds of work, partly because international trade is more common than in past centuries. Some countries and organizations having more than one official language hire people who speak more than one, so they can work with more people. 

Most people have a first language that they learned as babies. Other languages are usually learned much later.

People who learn many languages can find it easier to learn more languages if the new language is like the ones they already know. But sometimes, learning a new language can be hard if the person remembers old languages they learned before. Sometimes, learning a second language can make it hard to remember words. People used to think that speaking two languages made you better at certain thinking tasks. But some new research says this isn't true. Those who speak two languages are better are not better at learning languages than those who only speak one.  People who are very good at speaking two or more languages were once thought to have better thinking skills and get certain diseases like dementia later in life. But recent studies don't agree with this.

Some linguists think there are more multilingual people in the world than monolingual people, who speak only one language

People who can speak several languages are called "polyglots". Those who can speak many, such as  Heinrich Schliemann and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, are called "hyperpolyglots".

As a result of wars, boundaries change. That may put some people in a country which uses a different language from theirs. For example, as a result of being in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hungary was on the losing side of WWI. Much of the eastern part of their country was given to Romania after the war. Hungarian is not just a different language, it is in a completely different language category from most other European languages.

Related pages
Code-switching
Diglossia
European Parliament - uses many languages
Multialphabetism
Multiculturalism
Second language

References

Linguistics
Fall of Saigon

The Fall/Liberation of Sàigòn happened on April 30, 1975. It was the capture of Saigon (Vietnamese:Sài Gòn) by the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam and the Vietnam People's Army, marking the end of the Vietnam War. It also resulted in the name of Saigon being changed to Ho Chi Minh City, in honour of former President Ho Chi Minh. It is celebrated as a public holiday in Vietnam as Reunification Day along with International Workers' Day on May 1st. The week of April 30th is referred to as "Black April" by overseas Vietnamese.

Other websites 
New York Times Archive

Vietnam War
1975 in Asia
1970s conflicts
Between Friends

Between Friends is a comic strip from Canada created by Sandra Bell-Lundy. It features three women with troubles with parenting and life. Sometimes they go back in time to simpler days. For example, at a department store, they compared themselves as teenage girls buying outfits to enhance sex appeal in the 1970s to buying conservative clothes in the 1990s.

List of Characters

 Susan - married to Harvey and has a daughter named Emma
 Maeve - she is divorced and always has a sense of humor
 Kimberly - a stepmother to a son named Danny, she works at home
 Danny - stepson of Kimberly, interested in children's things like Pokemon and Crash Bandicoot
 Derek - Kimberly's husband and Danny's father

Comic strips
Patrice Lumumba

Patrice Émery Lumumba (July 2, 1925 – January 17, 1961) was the only elected leader of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (called the Republic of the Congo at the time, but this should not be confused with today's Republic of the Congo). The official position of the US government, as seen in the U.S. News & World Report, associated Lumumba's ideas of African socialist democracy as an African brand of communism. Thus, the Americans had plans to kill him. He was murdered by the Katangans on January 17, 1961, just months after independence.

Lumumba's son, François is now a political figure in the Congo. He has created a small Lumumbist group.

References

Sources

Other websites
 
 
 Virtual Memorial to Patrice Lumumba, at Find-A-grave.
 SpyCast – 1 December 2007: On Assignment to Congo-Peter chats with Larry Devlin, the CIA's legendary station chief in Congo during the 1960s.
 Africa Within. A rich source of information on Lumumba, including a reprint of Stephen R. Weissman's 21 July 2002 article from the Washington Post.
 

1925 births
1961 deaths
Assassinated people
History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Prime Ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ho Chi Minh

Hồ Chí Minh, born Nguyễn Sinh Cung, (May 19, 1890 - September 2, 1969) was the leader of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Early life
'Hồ Chí Minh', meaning 'Hồ with the will of light', was not his real name. He took that name around the time of the August Revolution in 1945. His real name was Nguyễn Sinh Cung when he was born. At ten, he changed his name to Nguyễn Tất Thành, according to Confucian tradition.  He would later use many pseudonyms (false names). Other than 'Hồ Chí Minh', his most famous name was probably Nguyễn Ái Quốc meaning "Nguyễn (by far the most common Vietnamese last name) who loves his country." The Vietnamese people commonly refer to him as Bác Hồ (Uncle Hồ).

Nguyễn studied in Paris from 1919 to 23. In those years, he started following communism, and began to believe that Vietnam- then a French colony-should be independent. During this time he wrote a letter, which was ignored, to United States President Woodrow Wilson, asking for U.S. military aid to help overthrow the French colonial rulers. He joined the French Communist Party, and started visiting Moscow regularly, as a member of the Asian branch of the Comintern.

First Indochina War
Hồ led a revolution against the French rulers of Vietnam from 1945 to 1954. After overthrowing the French, a communist regime supported by the Soviet Union and China was set up in the northern half of the country, with himself leading the country as both president and prime minister. But, an anticommunist government supported by the United States, was set up in the southern half of the country because the United States did not want all of Vietnam to be communist during the Cold War.

Second Indochina War (Vietnam War)
South Vietnam and America refused to hold an election and unite the two halves into one country because they feared a communisty victory. Hồ then led Vietnam into a military and political struggle to bring the rice fields of South Vietnam under his communist rule. Two decades of war followed that killed millions of Vietnamese. The United States supported South Vietnam with military aid, and the Soviet Union (led by Nikita Krushchev and then Leonid Brezhnev) and the People's Republic of China (led by Mao Zedong) continued to support North Vietnam's war effort.

In the end, North Vietnam won the war several years after Hồ Chí Minh had died.

Death and legacy
Suffering from diabetes and heart problems, Hồ Chí Minh died on the morning of September 2, 1969, of a heart attack.

In his will he said he wished to be cremated and have his ashes be buried in hills in the north, center, and south of Vietnam. However, his followers embalmed his body and put it in a tomb, the mausoleum, where he is still worshipped today.

In 1976, in the style of the Soviet Union, the victorious communists in North Vietnam renamed the capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, to Ho Chi Minh City in honour of their leader.

1890 births
1969 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Presidents of Vietnam
Former dictators
History of Vietnam
General Secretaries of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam
Vietnamese Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was a speech read by Ho Chi Minh on September 2, 1945, in Ba Dinh Square, Hanoi, Vietnam, which proclaims the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from France and Japan Empire after the Second World War.

History

During the August Revolution, Ho Chi Minh wrote the speech at 48 Hang Ngang Street, Hanoi, at the home of a bourgeoisie family that donated 5,147 taels of gold to the Revolutionary Government headed by Ho Chi Minh. The Declaration was written with the advise of OSS Detachment 101 Maj. Archimedes Patti.

It is based on the American Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Text

References

1945 in Vietnam
Speeches
North Vietnam
Declarations of independence
Khmer Rouge

The Khmer Rouge (Khmer: ; French for "Red Khmer") was a Stalinist, Maoist militant group in Cambodia. They took over the capital, Phnom Penh, on 17 April 1975. It was led by Pol Pot, who was called Saloth Sar before the take-over. They named the country Democratic Kampuchea. They immediately forced everyone out of the cities, effectively turning the whole country into a giant labor camp. They were defeated by the Vietnamese in January 1979. During the Khmer Rouge Years, many people were killed in a genocide comparable to the Holocaust. The exact number of people killed is unknown. Figures range from about 700,000 to about three million. Most people give figures between 1.4 million and 2.2 million, which would be 20-30% of the population of Cambodia, at the time. The international community continued to recognize the Khmer Rouge as the government of Kampuchea for a decade after they were defeated. Therefore, the Khmer Rouge held a seat in the United Nations until 1989.

Pol Pot died in his sleep in 1998. He was cremated without any ceremony. By 1999, the Khmer Rouge disbanded.

A leading source summarised the Khmer Rouge as follows:
"...The Khmer Rouge regime [was] the ultimate twentieth-century paradigm of the totalitarian state. Using sheer violence and terror, a small clique [took] power. [It saw itself] as the messianic mission to bring happiness and prosperity faster than any of its revolutionary model and competitors. It came to control every aspect of social and private life. No one was allowed to nurse, let alone express, any form of opposition".

The same source summarises the effect: "Between 17 April 1975 and 7 January 1979 the death toll was about 25% of a population of some 7.8 million; 33.5% of men were massacred or died unnatural deaths as against 15.7% of the women, and 41.9% of the population of Phnom Penh".

References 

1970s in Cambodia
Communist parties in Asia
Rebel militia groups in Asia
Crimes against humanity
Genocides in Asia
1999 disestablishments in Asia