alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Kabul

Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. 

According to a 2012 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,289,000. Ths includes Tajiks, Pashtuns, Hazaras and some other smaller ethnic groups. It is the 64th largest and the 5th fastest growing city in the world.

It is 1,800 meters, or 5,900 feet above-sea-level. Kabul is over 3,500 years old.

Districts

The city of Kabul is inside Kabul District - a district of Kabul Province. The city is also a municipality (shārwāli) - because it is also capital of a province; That municipality is divided into 22 administrative districts called municipal districts or city districts (nāhia); These districts (are the same, or) coincide with the official Police Districts (PD).

Related pages 
 Kabul Province
 Wahida Amiri, Afghan activist

References
Parfait

Parfait is a type of food that is eaten as a dessert. It is a French word that means perfect.

Styles of Parfait
Parfaits are made differently in different countries.

French Parfait
A common parfait is the French kind. A French parfait mixes sugar, whip cream, an egg yolk, sauce, cold fruit and frozen ice cream. French parfaits are usually served on a plate not in a glass.

Japanese Parfait
Japanese parfait made mainly of ice cream and fruit with a sweet ingredient. It is served in a tall glass. It is a classic on a coffee shop menu. It is one of the more popular desserts.

Varieties
Fruit parfait
Chocolate parfait
Strawberry parfait
Mango parfait
Banana parfait
Custard pudding parfait
Green tea parfait

Ice cream
French food
Angel food cake

Angel Cake is also the name of a doll in the Strawberry Shortcake series.

Angel food cake is an example of cake that became popular in the United States in the 19th century. It is also called angel cake. It is very light and fluffy. Because of this, it is named Angel cake because it is said to be "food for the angels."

Angel food cake needs the egg whites to be whipped until they are stiff, and carefully folded into the other ingredients. For this method of "leavening" to work well, it is helpful to have flour that has been made of softer wheat. This causes angel food cake to have a very light texture and taste.  Angel food cake should be cut with a serrated knife, as a solid blade tends to compress the cake rather than cut it.

Some people like to add aromatic spices to angel food cake.

References

Other websites

Cakes
Wrench

A wrench (or spanner) is a tool used to provide grip and turn nuts and bolts, and similarly shaped objects.

In British English, spanner is the standard term. The most common shapes are called open-ended spanner and ring spanner. The term wrench is generally used for tools that turn non-fastening devices (e.g. tap wrench and pipe wrench), or may be used for a monkey wrench – an adjustable spanner.

What a wrench or spanner does is to grip. Pulling or pushing the handle to rotate gives mechanical advantage. It applies torque to turn objects – usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts – or keep them from turning.

Adjustable wrenches 
An adjustable spanner, or adjustable wrench, or crescent wrench in American English, is a tool. It may move its jaw to rotate nuts or bolts of different sizes. It was invented by Edwin Beard Budding (1795–1846), who also invented the lawnmower.

tools
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs

AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs is a list of the top one hundred comedy movies in American cinema. The American Film Institute presented it on June 14, 2000.

The list 
 Some Like It Hot (1959)
 Tootsie (1982)
 Dr. Strangelove (1964) 
 Annie Hall (1977)
 Duck Soup (1933)
 Blazing Saddles (1974)
 M*A*S*H (1970)
 It Happened One Night (1934)
 The Graduate (1967)
 Airplane! (1980)
 The Producers (1968)
 A Night at the Opera (1935)
 Young Frankenstein (1974)
 Bringing up Baby (1938)
 The Philadelphia Story (1940)
 Singin' in the Rain (1952)
 The Odd Couple (1968)
 The General (1927)
 His Girl Friday (1940)
 The Apartment (1960)
 A Fish Called Wanda (1988)
 Adam's Rib (1949)
 When Harry Met Sally... (1989)
 Born Yesterday (1950)
 The Gold Rush (1925)
 Being There (1979)
 There's Something About Mary (1998)
 Ghostbusters (1984)
 This Is Spinal Tap (1984)
 Arsenic and Old Lace (1944)
 Raising Arizona (1987)
 The Thin Man (1934)
 Modern Times (1936)
 Groundhog Day (1993)
 Harvey (1950)
 National Lampoon's Animal House (1978)
 The Great Dictator (1940)
 City Lights (1931)
 Sullivan's Travels (1941)
 It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963)
 Moonstruck (1987)
 Big (1988)
 American Graffiti (1973)
 My Man Godfrey (1936)
 Harold and Maude (1972)
 Manhattan (1979)
 Shampoo (1975)
 A Shot in the Dark (1964)
 To Be or Not to Be (1942)
 Cat Ballou (1965)
 The Seven Year Itch (1955)
 Ninotchka (1939)
 Arthur (1981)
 The Miracle of Morgan's Creek (1944)
 The Lady Eve (1941)
 Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948)
 Diner (1982)
 It's a Gift (1934)
 A Day at the Races (1937)
 Topper (1937)
 What's Up, Doc? (1972)
 Sherlock, Jr. (1924)
 Beverly Hills Cop (1984)
 Broadcast News (1987)
 Horse Feathers (1932)
 Take the Money and Run (1969)
 Mrs. Doubtfire (1993)
 The Awful Truth (1937)
 Bananas (1971)
 Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936)
 Caddyshack (1980)
 Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House (1948)
 Monkey Business (1931)
 Nine to Five (1980)
 She Done Him Wrong (1933)
 Victor/Victoria (1982)
 The Palm Beach Story (1942)
 Road to Morocco (1942)
 The Freshman (1925)
 Sleeper (1973)
 The Navigator (1924)
 Private Benjamin (1980)
 Father of the Bride (1950)
 Lost in America (1985)
 Dinner at Eight (1933)
 City Slickers (1991)
 Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982)
 Beetlejuice (1988)
 The Jerk (1979)
 Woman of the Year (1942)
 The Heartbreak Kid (1972)
 Ball of Fire (1941)
 Fargo (1996)
 Auntie Mame (1958)
 Silver Streak (1976)
 Sons of the Desert (1933)
 Bull Durham (1988)
 The Court Jester (1956)
 The Nutty Professor (1963) 
 Good Morning, Vietnam (1987)

Lists of movies
American Film Institute
Irish Sea

The Irish Sea (sometimes called the Manx Sea) is a body of water that separates Ireland and Great Britain. It is known to be one of the most polluted seas in the world including the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The sea is important to regional trade, shipping and fishing.  It is a source of power generation in the form of wind power and nuclear plants. Annual traffic between Great Britain and Ireland amounts to over 12 million passengers and  of traded goods.

Economics 
It covers  and at its deepest point is  deep. In 2008, about  of fish were caught. Shell fish made up three quarters of this amount.

The Irish Sea has 17 active oil and gas drilling platforms. It is estimated there are about 1.6 billion barrels of oil in the Barryroe oil field alone.

Sealife 
At least thirty species of shark can be found in the Irish Sea at different times. These include the basking, thresher, blue, mako and porbeagle sharks. There are about 12 species of Dolphin, porpoise and whales in the Irish Sea. These include the common dolphin, bottlenose dolphin and the harbor porpoise.

References 

Seas of the Atlantic Ocean
Geography of Ireland
Geography of the United Kingdom
Hatred

Hatred is an emotion of very strong dislike for someone or something. It is a desire to avoid, restrict, remove, or destroy that person or thing. It is often thought the opposite of love. Hatred can also be a form of projection.

Sigmund Freud said that hatred was a selfish feeling that wishes to get rid of whatever is making that person unhappy. The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology says that hate is a "deep, enduring (long-lasting), intense emotion expressing animosity, anger, and hostility towards a person, group, or object."

Hatred can often cause the hate crime and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights prohibits inciting hatred by the Article 20.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Emotions
1270



Events 
 The Solomonid king Yekuno Amlak kills the last king of the Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopia. The Solomonids begin to rule Ethiopia, which they continue until 1974.
 Louis IX of France starts the Eighth Crusade by attacking Tunis.
 In Korea, the Sambyeolcho Rebellion begins.

Births 
 Jacob ben Asher, Spanish Rabbi (Jewish religious leader)

Deaths 
 King Louis IX of France
Dallas

Dallas is a large city in the northern part of the U.S. state of Texas. It is a part of a much larger group of cities called the Metroplex, along with important cities like Arlington, Denton, Fort Worth, and Plano. The city is the ninth largest in the United States.

For many years, the city was known as the city in which President John F. Kennedy was killed, but that is not associated with the city as much anymore.

Geography 
Dallas has a total area of 385.9 square miles.

Sports 
The city is home to the Dallas Cowboys, a professional American football team.
The city is also home to the Dallas Stars, a hockey team in the NHL, the Texas Rangers, a baseball team in the MLB, and the Dallas Mavericks, a basketball team in the NBA.

History
The city of Dallas was founded in 1841 by John Neely Bryan. Over time, it grew into a large city with many companies. In 1907 Neiman Marcus set up shop , and later in 1915 Southern Methodist University opened.

On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was shot dead. In 2014, ebola virus infected several people in Dallas, killing some. A nurse who got it sued the hospital. On July 7, 2016, five police officers were shot dead.

Climate
Dallas has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Koeppen climate classification).

People
Dallas has a large Mexican American and African American population.

References

Other websites 

 Official city website
 The Handbook of Texas Online: Dallas, Texas

1840s establishments in the Republic of Texas
1841 establishments in the United States
 
County seats in Texas
Ilulissat

Ilulissat (population 4,000) is the third largest city in Greenland. The town is about halfway up the country's west coast, at 69 degrees north latitude, about 200 kilometers north of the Arctic Circle. Illulisat is also known by its Danish name of Jakobshavn (or Jacob's Harbour). In direct translation, Ilulissat is the Greenlandic word for 'The Icebergs'. Ilulissat is Greenland's most popular tourist place, because it is near to the beautiful Ilulissat Ice Fjord - tourism is now the town's main industry. Ilulissat was the birthplace of the great polar explorer Knud Rasmussen, and his childhood home in the center of the town is now a museum dedicated to him.

History

Inuit villages have been in the area of the ice fjord for at least three thousand years. The abandoned settlement of Sermermiut two kilometers south of the modern town of Ilulissat was once amongst the largest settlements in Greenland, with around 250 residents. The modern town was founded in 1741 by a missionary and a trader of fur, who had built a trading lodge in the area.

Ilulissat ice fjord
The Ilulissat fjord goes west 40 kilometers from the Greenland icecap to Disko Bay, close to Ilulissat town. At its eastern end is the Jakobshavn Isbrae Glacier, the most productive glacier in the Northern Hemisphere. The glacier flows at a rate of 20-35 metres per day, resulting in around 20 billion tons of icebergs breaking off and leaving the fjord every year. On breaking up the icebergs come out into the open sea and at first, they travel north with ocean currents.  Soon, they start turning south and they go into the Atlantic Ocean. 

The Ilulissat Icefjord was made a United Nations World Heritage Site in 2004.

Transportation
Air Greenland has air services to Ilulissat.

Related pages
List of towns in Greenland

Other websites
Ilulissat tourist information site 

Settlements in Greenland
Meridian

A meridian is an imaginary line of longitude drawn along the surface of the earth from the North Pole to the South Pole. 

Geographers today measure these lines from what they call the Prime Meridian. It is the line of longitude that goes through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England. They decided this at the 1884 International Meridian Conference.

Meridians, as lines of longitude, are measured in degrees. The Prime Meridian, as the starting point, is 0 (zero) degrees. Lines west of the Prime Meridian are either called west, as in "the longitude of Los Angeles, California is 118 degrees west", or as a negative number: "the longitude of Los Angeles, California is -118 degrees". Going the other direction, east of the Prime Meridian is always said as a positive number: "The longitude of Mecca is about 40 degrees east," or just "The longitude of Mecca is about 40 degrees."

Related pages
Eastern Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere
International Date Line

Lines of longitude
1700s

The 1700s was a decade that began on 1 January 1700 and ended on 31 December 1709.

Events and trends 
 The Bonneville Slide blocks the Columbia River near the site of present-day Cascade Locks, Oregon with a land bridge 200 feet (60 m) high. The river eventually removes the blockage, but this event is remembered in the local legends of the Native Americans as the Bridge of the Gods.
The first newspaper to be published in English.
The War of the Spanish Succession, started in 1701.
The Age of Enlightenment
The Industrial Revolution, a time period starting in the 1700s.
The Scientific Revolution, another important cultural advance.

World leaders 
King Frederick IV of Denmark (1699–1730).
King William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702).
Queen Anne of Great Britain (1702–1714).
King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1705–1711).
Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725).
King Philip V of Spain (1700–1746).
King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718).
Literacy

Literacy means the ability to read and write. Being able to read and write is an important skill in modern societies. Usually, people learn how to read and write at school. People who can read and write are called literate; those who cannot are called illiterate.

According to UNESCO, illiteracy is not being able to write or read a simple sentence in any language. They estimated that, in 1998, about 16% of the world's population were illiterate. 

Illiteracy is highest amongst the states of the Arabian Peninsula, and in Africa, around the Sahara. In those countries about 30% of men, and 40-50% of women are illiterate, by the UN definition. One of the causes of illiteracy is that someone who can manage to live without being able to read and write often does not have any reason to want to learn to read and write. Cultural factors also play a part, such as having a culture in which the oral tradition (communicating by speaking) is more important than writing. A tribe that mostly herds livestock, for example, may have no need to read or write. 

There are two different kinds of illiteracy:

 People with primary illiteracy have never learned how to read or write.
 People who have learned some reading and writing, but not well enough for their work are called functionally illiterate. Perhaps they cannot write well enough to fill out a form, or to understand instructions in a manual. In most industrial countries, the main problem is functional illiteracy.

In English the word literacy has traditionally meant to be well educated. It also meant to be familiar with literature (to know about books). In the late 19th century the word came to include the ability to read and write. It still kept its larger meaning. In modern usage, literacy also means being able to read print, visual, and sound texts. To continue learning students must be literate in more than just reading and writing text.

Related pages
 Writing
 Reading
 Literacy test
 Aliteracy
 Functional illiteracy
 Right to education

References 

Education
French Revolution

The French Revolution was a time when France went through very big political changes. It began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended when the French Consulate was made in November 1799. Many of the ideas made during the French Revolution are considered basic parts of liberal democracy, and today are very important in the French government.

It was caused by many different things. The Age of Enlightenment happened, and people had new ideas on how the government should work. France was also in debt because they spent money helping the United States of America in the American Revolutionary War. They also spent a lot of money on the Seven Years' War and the War of the Austrian Succession. Many French people at the time did not like the government. The government was a monarchy.

References
Daffy Duck

Daffy Duck is a cartoon duck from the Warner Bros. cartoons. He stands on two legs, has a black body, a white ring about his neck, and an orange beak. He first appeared in Porky´s Duck Hunt in 1937. In 1946, Daffy had started to change, and Daffy became less looney. Over the years, Daffy Duck had changed from a screwball and heckling character to greedy and a jealous character. He was created by Tex Avery and Bob Clampett. 

Animated characters
Anthromophic characters
Comics characters
Fictional animals
Fictional characters introduced in the 1930s
Fictional ducks
Looney Tunes characters
Tune Squad players
1650s

The 1650s was a decade that began on 1 January 1650 and ended on 31 December 1659.

World leaders 
King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670).
Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1653–1658).
Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1658–1659).
King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657).
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
 King John II of Poland (1649–1668).
 King John IV of Portugal (1640–1656).
King Afonso VI of Portugal (1656–1667).
Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676).
King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
King Charles X of Sweden (1654–1660).
Guillotine

The guillotine is a machine used to execute people by decapitation (chopping off their heads). 

A guillotine is made of a heavy blade attached to a rack, which moves up and down on a vertical frame. When the executioner releases the rack, it will fall down and the blade will cut the convict's head off.

History 
Machines like the guillotine were first invented in the Middle Ages, and were used throughout Europe. For example, Scotland used a machine called the "Scottish Maiden".

Such machines were not used in France, until the French Revolution of 1789. Instead, aristocrats were executed by beheading and ordinary criminals by hanging. The guillotine became the only legal way to execute someone in France. The guillotine was used because it caused a quick death.  Everyone, rich or poor, died the same way, no matter what social class.  

The guillotine was commonly used in France (including France's colonies), Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Germany, and Austria.  It was also used in Sweden. Today, all of these countries have abolished (legally stopped) the death penalty.  The guillotine is no longer used.

The invention of the guillotine

Joseph Guillotin 

The guillotine is named after a French medical doctor, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin. Guillotin was against the death penalty. Realising he could not stop the death penalty, Guillotin instead tried to think of a quicker, less painful way of executing people. On October 10, 1789, he suggested using a machine to do all the executions. 

The actual guillotine was designed by another doctor, Antoine Louis.  Guillotin did not help much with the design, but his name went down in history.  Against Guillotin's wishes, the new machine quickly became known as the  Guillotine. Guillotin regretted this until death in 1814.

Design 
The design for a quick, painless, decapitation machine was given to Tobias Schmidt, a German engineer.  Schmidt built the first guillotine and tested it, on animals at first, but later on dead humans. It was made of two fourteen-foot uprights joined by a crossbar, whose inside edges were grooved and greased with tallow; the weighted blade was either straight, or curved like an axe. The system was started by a rope and pulley, while the whole construction was set up on a platform. The first execution was in 1792.

Later use 

The guillotine was still the only legal way to execute a person in France until 1979, when France stopped using the death penalty. In Nazi Germany, the guillotine was used to kill prisoners sentenced for serious crimes like murder, treason, or conspiracy against the government. 

A guillotine was last used in West Germany in 1949 and East Germany in 1961.  The last person guillotined was the Tunisian murderer Hamida Djandoubi in 1977.
Capital punishment
School uniform

A school uniform  is a standard set of clothes that students wear when they go to some schools. It might have a particular color of trousers or skirt,  a matching shirt and sometimes a jacket or necktie, with matching shoes.

In some countries, like Germany, students can wear whatever they want whenever they want. It's common for many students to be naked around each other causing major erections in older classes. In other countries, like England and India there is usually a standard dress code in school, usually a set of dressing for girls and one for boys. Boys and girls need to wear school uniforms when they go to school. In many countries, such as the United States, some schools require wearing a uniform, and some do not.

Originally, school uniforms were introduced to hide the social differences between students, but uniforms can also help with safety. Using standard uniforms can also save the money needed to buy extra clothes as fashion to impress other people at school. Uniforms are also thought to improve discipline and school spirit.

However, school uniforms can also help with health and safety by having clothes which have been tested to be safer when worn. Some fabrics can cause skin rashes in some people, while a uniform can be made of comfortable fabrics. Also, loose-fitting clothes can get caught in machinery or playground equipment, which limits what activities children can do safely.

There are several types of economic bullying which can be lessened by use of school uniforms. When many students are from families with less money, sometimes students with more money have stood out because they wore newer shoes, where neither shoe was in poor shape. In schools where more students are rich, poorer students have been insulted for the old-style or tattered clothes they wore.

Other websites 

Uniforms
Primate

Primates are an order of mammals. It includes all lemurs, monkeys and apes, including humans. Most primates (but not humans) are mainly or entirely forest dwellers.

There are about 400 species of primates. All primates are similar to humans in many ways, but language is an important advantage which only humans have. Other primates have a pattern of calls and gestures, but not language as we know it. 

Primates have hands with five fingers and flat fingernails (most other animals have claws or hooves). All primates are covered with fur (hair), but in humans the body hair is only noticeable in two places: on the head and around the genitals.

Primates are split into two groups: Strepsirrhini and Haplorhini. Haplorrhini includes larger monkeys such as, tarsiers and apes including humans. Strepsirrhini includes smaller monkeys such as lemurs, lorises, galagos (also called bush babies) and the aye-aye.

Primates are one of the few mammal groups which re-evolved full color vision. Even so, color vision in birds is better. Color vision was lost in mammals during the long period when dinosaurs ruled the Earth, and mammals were mainly small nocturnal animals.

Close contact between humans and non-human primates creates opportunities for zoonotic diseases to get to humans.  Virus diseases transmitted to humans include herpes, measles, ebola, rabies, and hepatitis.

Classification
Order Primates
Suborder Strepsirrhini
Lemurs
Lorises
Suborder Haplorhini
Tarsiers
Platyrrhini: New World monkeys
Catarrhini:
 Old World monkeys
 Apes and humans

Clade

References

Related pages
Tropic of Cancer

The Tropic of Cancer (cancer (♋) is Latin for crab) is one of the five major circles of latitude (imaginary lines around the Earth) that are often marked on maps of the Earth. This is the parallel of latitude that is 23° 26' 22" north of the Equator. At every June Solstice the Sun passes straight overhead on the tropic. This never happens anywhere north of the Tropic of Cancer.

Related pages
Northern Hemisphere
Eastern Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere
Seasons
Solstice and equinox
Equator
Tropics
Tropic of Capricorn
Southern Hemisphere
Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle

Lines of latitude
Equinox

An equinox is when the sun passes directly over the equator. There are two equinoxes each year.  Equinox can also mean either of the two days when this happens. On these days, the nights are equal in length at latitudes L° North and L° South. The word equinox comes from two Latin words meaning "equal" and "night". 

Around the day of the equinox, the length of the day is a little over twelve hours and the length of the night is a little under twelve hours. They are not exactly equal because the sun is not a point in the sky and because the sunlight bends as it comes to earth. The exact day and time when this happens depend on how far away from the equator it is being measured. They occur on or around March 21 and September 21. Solstices fall around June 21st and December 21st at odd intervals.

The equinoxes are the beginning of spring, and autumn (or fall in the US).

The time of daylight is quite easy to measure. This was done in many cultures where festivals were celebrated at the equinoxes.

Related pages
Solstice

References

Time
Astronomical phenomena
Teufelsbrücke

The Teufelsbrücke (bridge of the devil) is a bridge over the river Reuss in the Swiss canton of Uri.

First bridge

The valley called Schöllenenschlucht is an important access route to the St.Gotthard alpine pass. However, the valley is very narrow, featuring a dangerous river Reuss. 

The first bridge across the river was built in 1230. This was a wooden bridge. This meant that due to bad weather it had to be replaced often. 

In the 16th century, it was replaced by a bridge of stone. That stone bridge was heavily damaged in the Napoleonic wars in 1799. Nobody could use the bridge because of the damage. Trade with Italy was done over the alpine pass at Splügen.

The first bridge was completely destroyed in a stormy night in 1888.

Second bridge
Only in 1820 could the order to build a new bridge be given. The construction of the bridge took 10 years.

Third bridge
In the middle of the 20th century, the second bridge was no longer able to handle the traffic. A third bridge, featuring two lanes, one for each direction, was built in 1958.

Myth of the creation of the bridge

Building the first bridge was very hard. According to a local myth, the first bridge was built by the devil himself. The condition attached was that the devil should get the soul of the first to pass over the bridge. So, when the bridge was finished, people chased a goat over the bridge. Of course, the devil was furious, so he went to pick up a large stone (called Teufelsstein, the devil's stone). He wanted to smash the bridge he just built to pieces. On his way to the ridge however, he encountered an old believing woman with a cross. Scared of the cross, he left the stone, and fled.

The devil's stone weighs 2000 tons. 300.000 Swiss Francs were used in 1977 to shift the stone 127 meters to make way for the motorway passing over the St.Gotthard pass.

Popular belief has it that the moving of the stone was the cause of an increased number of accidents on kilometre 16 on the St. Gotthard road tunnel.

Other websites

Buildings and structures in Switzerland
Stone bridges
1230
Canton of Uri‎
1630s

The 1630s was a decade that began on 1 January 1630 and ended on 31 December 1639.

Events and trends 
 Thirty Years' War goes on in Europe.
 September 8, 1636 – Thanks to a vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Harvard College is the first college in the Americas.

World leaders 
King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648).
King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland (1625–1649).
Hong Taiji, Emperor of the Qing.
King Louis XIII of France (1610–1643).
Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France (1624–1642).
Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (1620–1637).
Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657).
Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1625–1647).
Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644).
King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1611–1632)
Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
Lepton

Leptons are elementary particles with spin 1/2 (a fermion) that are not affected by strong nuclear force.  They are a family of particles that are different from the other known family of fermions, the quarks.

Electrons are a well-known example that are found in ordinary matter. There are six leptons: the electron, muon, and tau particles and their associated neutrinos. The different varieties of the elementary particles are commonly called "flavors", and the neutrinos here are considered to have distinctly different flavor. Of the six leptons, three have electric charge and three do not. The best known charged lepton is the electron (e). The other two charged leptons are the muon (µ) and the tau (τ), which are like electrons but much bigger. The charged leptons are all negative particles, their antiparticles are positively charged (for example, the antiparticle of the electron, e-, is a positron, e+). 

The superparticle of a lepton is called a "slepton."

Elementary particles
1620s

The 1620s was a decade that began on 1 January 1620 and ended on 31 December 1629.

Events and trends 
 Permanent Dutch settlement of New York Bay and the Hudson River.
 Permanent English settlements in Massachusetts and Virginia.
1690s

The 1690s was a decade that began on 1 January 1690 and ended on 31 December 1699.

Events and trends 
 Thomas Neale designed Seven Dials
 The Salem Witchcraft Trials are held in Massachusetts Bay Colony (1692).
 Dutch explorer Arnout Vielle discovers the first trade route down the Ohio Valley, New York Colony financed and profitable (1692).

World leaders 
King Christian V of Denmark (1670–1699).
King Frederick IV of Denmark (1699–1730).
Queen  Mary II of England and Scotland (1689–1694).
King  William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702).
King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
Tsar Ivan V of Russia (1682–1696).
Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725).
King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700).
King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).
King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718).

Deaths 
Daibhidh O Duibhghennain, d. 1696
Tootsie

Tootsie is a 1982 American romantic comedy-drama movie from Columbia Pictures. It stars Dustin Hoffman as a struggling actor, who dresses as a woman and soon has a role in a soap opera.

In 1998 the United States Library of Congress chose the movie to keep in the National Film Registry.

Theme song
The theme song to the movie, "It Might Be You", was a Top 40 hit in the U.S., and also hit #1 on the U.S. adult contemporary chart.  Stephen Bishop sang the song and the music was by Dave Grusin / Marilyn and Alan Bergman.

Cast
 Dustin Hoffman as Michael Dorsey / Dorothy Michaels
 Jessica Lange as Julie Nichols
 Teri Garr as Sandy Lester
 Dabney Coleman as Ron Carlisle
 Charles Durning as Leslie "Les" Nichols
 Bill Murray as Jeff Slater
 Sydney Pollack as George Fields
 George Gaynes as John Van Horn
 Geena Davis as April Page
 Doris Belack as Rita Marshall
 Lynne Thigpen as Jo
 Estelle Getty as Middle Aged Woman
 Michael M. Ryan as Elderly Aged Man

Release dates

Awards
The movie was nominated for ten Academy Awards. Lange was the only winner, for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.

The nominations were:
Best Picture: Sydney Pollack and Dick Richards
Best Actor in a Leading Role: Dustin Hoffman
Best Actress in a Supporting Role: Teri Garr
Best Director: Sydney Pollack
Best Original Screenplay: Larry Gelbart, Murray Schisgal and Don McGuire
Best Original Song ("It Might Be You"): Dave Grusin (music), Alan Bergman (lyrics) and Marilyn Bergman (lyrics)
Best Sound: Arthur Piantadosi, Les Fresholtz, Dick Alexander and Les Lazarowitz
Best Cinematography: Owen Roizman
Best Film Editing: Fredric Steinkamp and William Steinkamp

The movie was number two in the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list in 2000.

It was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.

References

Other websites 

1982 comedy-drama movies
1982 romantic comedy movies
1982 romantic drama movies
Academy Award winning movies
American comedy-drama movies
American romantic comedy movies
American romantic drama movies
Columbia Pictures movies
1980s English-language movies
Movies directed by Sydney Pollack
United States National Film Registry movies
Lynyrd Skynyrd

Lynyrd Skynyrd is an American southern rock band from Jacksonville, Florida. Their name comes from one of their school teachers who was named Leonard Skinner. They wrote songs including: "Sweet Home, Alabama", "Simple Man" and "Freebird." The lead singer's name was Ronnie Van Zant. After Ronnie died, his brother Johnny Van Zant became lead singer. Lynyrd Skynyrd has been performing for 50 years now. They had a concert on October 6, 2023.

Plane crash
On October 20, 1977, the band was on tour flying to Baton Rouge, Louisiana for their next gig, when their 1977 Convair 240 plane ran out of fuel and crashed in a heavily wooded area. Ronnie Van Zant, Steve Gaines, backup singer Cassie Gaines, assistant road manager Dean Kilpatrick and the pilots were killed in the crash. The rest of the band and crew were injured and temporarily split up. They reunited in 1987 with Van Zant's younger brother Johnny as their new singer.

References

1966 establishments in the United States
1960s American music groups
1970s American music groups
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American rock bands
Musical groups established in 1966
Musical groups from Florida
Musicians from Jacksonville, Florida
Southern rock bands
Peter Handke

Peter Handke (born December 6, 1942 in Griffen (Carinthia)) is an Austrian author and translator of books.

Peter Handke is known for his extremely critical (and perhaps even absurd) plays. Perhaps his best-known play is called Publikumsbeschimpfung (translates roughly as insulting /offending the audience).  The play consists of actors insulting and offending the audience, and later congratulating them for the good performance. The play has been labelled as  antitheater.

In 2019, Handke was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Note

Other websites

Peter Handke, Song of childhood 

"A son's long good-bye", Svenska Dagbladet, Karl-Erik Tallmo, September 23, 1988

1942 births
Living people
Austrian Nobel Prize winners
Austrian writers
European translators
People from Carinthia (state)
Density

Density is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has to its volume. An object with much matter in a certain volume has high density. An object with little matter in the same amount of volume has a low density.
Density is found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume:

where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume.

Changes of density 
In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature usually lowers the density, but there are exceptions. For example, the density of water increases slightly between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C. When water freezes, it expands by about 9% in volume, making ice that is less dense than liquid water. Water expands as it drops below 4 °C.

Measures 
Fresh water is often used as a standard of relative density. This is called specific gravity.

The most common SI units for density are g/cm3 and kg/m3. When the numerator is much larger than the denominator, that means the substance has a higher density. When the denominator is much larger than the numerator, the substance has a lower density.

Other uses of the term 
"Density" sometimes means the ratio between other properties instead of mass and volume.  Then it means how much of a property can be found in a specific piece of what they are looking at.  For example, population density is how many people live within the same amount of land area. The population density in the city is higher than the country side because people live closer to each other in the city. In computers, storage density is how much data can fit on a data storage device in relation to its physical size. A Blu-ray disc has a higher storage density than a DVD which has a higher storage density than a CD, even though they all have almost exactly the same volume.

References

Releted pages 
Archimedes' principle

Physical quantity
Matter
Gram

A gram, or gramme, is a unit of measure in the metric system. It measures mass, or how much matter something is. The symbol is g. One gram used to be defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of pure water at 3.98 degrees Celsius. Now one gram is defined as 1/1000 of a kilogram. A milligram is 1/1000 of a gram.

References

Units of mass
Longitude

Longitude is a way to say where a place is on the Earth. It is measured starting from an imaginary north–south line called the Prime Meridian. (A meridian is an imaginary line drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole.) Longitude says how far east (positive numbers) or west (negative numbers) of the Prime Meridian any place is.

Longitude is measured using degrees, the same way an angle is. The Prime Meridian is 0° (zero degrees), and the farthest away is +180° eastward and -180° westward. Unlike latitude, which has the equator as a natural starting position, there is no natural starting position for longitude. Other meridians have been used in the past, but most scientists now agree to use the Prime Meridian.

For centuries navigators at sea were seldom able to know their longitude. The problem was solved by making better clocks (chronometers) in the early 19th century.

Unlike  latitude, longitude does not maintain a constant distance between degrees since meridians all come together at the poles and are far apart at the equator. This means people near the North or South Pole can cross many degrees of longitude by travelling a short distance. The time difference between longitudes is 4 minutes per degree. The distance between degrees of longitude is maximum at the equator.

Related pages
 Latitude

What are the lines latitude and longitude 

Lines of longitude
Measurement
Hilary Duff

Hilary Erhard Duff (born September 28, 1987) is an American actress and singer. She got celebrity famous by being in the television program show' Lizzie McGuire she has gone onto a movie career, with roles in mainstream pictures. Among the movies she plays in are Cheaper by the Dozen, The Perfect Man, A Cinderella Story, Raise Your Voice, Material Girls and independent movies such as War, Inc. and Greta. Duff has also ventured into a music career as a pop musician, releasing 8 albums (for example Most Wanted, Dignity, Metamorphosis, Hilary Duff) and 15 music videos (for example "Reach Out", "With Love", "Stranger", "Wake Up", "So Yesterday", "Come Clean"). Lately she has also ventured into a fashion career as a designer for DKNY, with her new line Femme for DKNY.

Personal life 
Duff has an older sister, Haylie, who is also an actress.

Duff was married to hockey player Mike Comrie from 2010 to 2016; they share a son, Luca. She is currently married to music producer Matt Koma and shares two children with him, son Banks and daughter Mae.

Filmography 
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;" border="2" cellpadding="4" background: #f9f9f9;
|- align="center"
! colspan=4 style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Film
|- align="center"
! style="background: #CCCCCC;" | Year
! style="background: #CCCCCC;" | Film
! style="background: #CCCCCC;" | Role
! style="background: #CCCCCC;" | Notes
|-
| 2001
| Human Nature
| Young Lila Jute
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2003
| Agent Cody Banks
| Natalie Connors
|
|-
| The Lizzie McGuire Movie
| Lizzie McGuire/Isabella Parigi
|
|-
| Cheaper by the Dozen
| Lorraine Baker
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2004
| A Cinderella Story
| Samantha "Sam" Montgomery (Cinderella)
|
|-
| Raise Your Voice
| Teresa "Terri" Fletcher
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2005
| The Perfect Man
| Holly Hamilton
|
|-
| Cheaper by the Dozen 2
| Lorraine Baker
|
|-
| 2006
|Material Girls
| Tanzania "Tanzie" Marchetta
| also Producer
|-
| 2008
|War, Inc.
| Yonica Babyyeah
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2009
|What Goes Up
| Lucy
| Premiered at the 3rd Annual Buffalo Niagara Film Festival
|-
| Greta
| Greta
| also Executive Producer
|-
| Stay Cool
| Shasta O'Neil
| Premiered at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival
|-
|rowspan="2"| 2010
|Provinces of Night
|Raven Halfacre
| [Post-production] 
|-
|The Story of Bonnie and Clyde
| Bonnie Parker
|[Pre-production]
|-
| unreleased
| Foodfight!| Sunshine Goodness
| (Voice only)
|}

 Discography 

Studio albums
 Santa Claus Lane (2002)
 Metamorphosis (2003)
 Hilary Duff (2004)
 Dignity (2007)
 Breathe In. Breathe Out. (2015)

Compilation albums
 Disney Artist Karaoke Series: Hilary Duff (2005)
 Most Wanted (2005)
 4Ever (2006)
 Best of Hilary Duff (2008)
 Metamorphosis / Hilary Duff / Dignity (2009)

Live albums
 The Girl Can Rock (2004)
 Live At Gibson Amphitheatre - August 15th, 2007'' (2009)

References

Other websites 

 Official music site
 

1987 births
Living people
Actors from Houston
American movie actors
American pop singers
American television actors
Extras
Singers from Houston
Oil platform

An oil platform is a large structure placed in the sea. It is used to drill for oil or natural gas at the bottom of the sea. The platform may be attached to the sea floor (stationary)or it might be movable(mobile).

In general, oil platforms are located on the continental shelf. As of 2006, drilling for resources up to 8km away from the platform was possible.

Energy

Buildings and structures
Continental shelf

A continental shelf is the part of the continent that is under water. The shelf was part of the land during the ice ages in the glacial periods, but under water in the interglacial periods. We are at present in an interglacial period.

Every continent is in the sea, like an island. Most of the island is above the water line, and we see it as a continent. Some of it though, is below the water line. Beyond the continental shelf, the bottom goes down to much greater depths.

The continental shelf is a shallow ocean. It varies in depth, up to 140 metres deep. It varies greatly in its width. At the leading edge of a moving continental plate there will be little or no shelf. The western edge of the Americas are an example. The shelf on a passive edge of a plate will be wide and shallow. The widest shelf is the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean: it is 1500 km (930 miles) in width.

Inland seas 
There have been, at some periods, shallow seas inside continents. These are called epicontinental seas. Much of present-day North America was covered by an epicontinental sea called the Sundance Sea during the Jurassic period. In the Cretaceous an even larger area was covered by the Western Interior Seaway.

Ecology 

Continental seas have the richest life of the oceans, more species and greater numbers than anywhere else. This is because it has both sunlight and nutrients for photosynthesis. This causes microscopic algae and cyanobacteria to bloom, and then animals eat the phytoplankton. Most of the nutrients in the oceans are washed down from the continents by rivers. In particular, the continents are almost the only source for some key elements such as iron. The lack of nutrients away from continents explains why so much of the Pacific Ocean is almost barren of life, and why the shelves are so rich in life.

Topography
The shelf usually ends at a point of decreasing slope (called the shelf break). The sea floor below the break is the continental slope. The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly ; this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now.p43

References 

Landforms
Oceanography
Biomes
Mariana Islands

The Mariana Islands (also the Marianas; up to the early 20th century sometimes called Islas de los Ladrones meaning "Islands of Thieves") are a group of islands made up by the summits of 15 volcanic mountains in the western Pacific Ocean. 

They are the southern part of a seamount range that goes on for 1,565 miles (2,519 km) from Guam to near Japan. The Marianas are the northernmost islands of a larger island group called Micronesia. The Marianas have a total land area of 396 square miles (1026 km²) and are composed of two administrative units:
Guam is a US territory
the Northern Mariana Islands (including the islands of Saipan, Tinian and Rota) comprise a Commonwealth of the United States .

The first European to discover the island group was Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. In 1667 Spain formally claimed them, and named them after Spanish queen consort and later regent Mariana of Austria. 

Islands of Oceania
Island insular areas of the United States
Micronesia
Archipelagos
Image scanner

In computing, an image scanner is a device used to transfer images or text into a computer. There are special models for scanning photo negatives, or to scan books. In the computer, the signal from the scanner is transferred to a digital image. This image can then be edited, printed, etc. All scanners have special parts which are used to take a picture from an object.

Charge-coupled device or Contact Image Sensor parts take the light from the object and change it into a digital signal. The digital signal is then transferred to the computer memory or is read in the scanner's processor. With some software it can be changed to a compressed digital image, like JPEG or PNG. Text printed or written by hand can be changed to ASCII code by an OCR program.

Types 
The main types of scanner 
Desktop scanner (flatbed scanner). This is probably the most popular type. An object to be scanned (picture, image, text sheet) is put on the glass. Under the glass, there is a moving Image Sensor.
Hand scanner. The device is moved on the paper by hand. It was popular during the 1990s. 
Rotary scanner (drum scanner) used for fast scanning large numbers of sheets of paper.
Smartphone scanner scans a document by taking a photo with the smartphone's camera.

Producers 
 Canon
 HP
 Lexmark
 Mustek
 Plustek
 Other

References

Related pages
 Digital camera

Other websites 
 Scanning tips
 More tips on scanning 
 HP scanning

Computer hardware
Data input
Brassière

A brassière, commonly called a bra, is an undergarment for women. Its main purpose is to support their breasts, but is sometimes also used for sexual attraction in the form of lingerie. The bra is a nineteenth century invention which took off as a fashion garment in the 20th century.

Brassière measurement 
Brassière measurement (also called bust size or bra size) refers to the size of bra a woman wears. Bra sizes were first introduced in the 1910s. The sizes vary from one manufacturer to another. Bra size systems are often used to label off-shelf bras and not custom-made bras.

The term cup, in relation to bras, began being used in 1916 when two patents were issued. Cup sizes are given in letters such as A, B, C, D, E, F and G the Further the letter is the bigger the bra needed so for example a C size bra is bigger than an A size bra.
Bra sizes in most countries have a number and a letter (for example, 34B). The number comes from the measurement of the ribcage directly underneath the breasts. The letter is a measure of how much larger the breasts are than the ribcage. This is found by measuring the chest over the breasts (across the nipples) and subtracting the ribcage measurement from the breast measurement, then finding the matching letter of the alphabet. For example, someone with a 3-inch difference between the breast measurement and the ribcage measurement would have a C-cup bra. However, this does not always work, since different manufacturers have differently-sized bras. Many women prefer to find a brand and size that works for them by trial and error.

Many Males and Females can find looking at bulging bras arousing.

Underwear
Breasts