alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Kazan State University

Kazan (Volga region) Federal University (, Kazanskiy (Privolzhskiy) federalnyy universitet; ) is a university in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia. It was founded in 1804. The famous Russian mathematician Lobachevsky was its headmaster from 1827 till 1846. The post is now being held by Myakzyum Salakhov (Mäğzüm Säläxev).

Kazan University is also known as "the birthplace of organic chemistry" because of the works of Aleksandr Butlerov, Vladimir Markovnikov, Aleksandr Arbuzov, and others.

Notable graduates 
 Aleksandr Arbuzov
 Mily Balakirev
 Aleksandr Butlerov
 Vladimir Lenin (expelled)
 Nikolay Lobachevski
 Vladimir Markovnikov
 Leo Tolstoy
 Nikolay Beketov
 Afanasy Shchapov
 Vladimir Galkin
 Michael Minsky (Spirin)

Other websites 

 List of Kazan State University's rectors
 Kazan State University Official Site 

Colleges and universities in Russia
Tatarstan
New World

The New World is a name used for the western hemisphere. It specifically refers to the Americas. It can also refer to certain Atlantic and Pacific islands (like Bermuda) and sometimes Oceania. The name started in the early 16th century, shortly after America was colonized. The people of the European Middle Ages thought the world was only Africa, Asia, and Europe. These continents are called the Old World. The Americas were also referred to as the "fourth part of the world".

The continent (North America and South America) was named America after Amerigo Vespucci.

The term New World is considered problematic. This is because it only presents the view of colonists. It does not consider the geographical complexities.

Related pages
 Americas
 Colonization
 Old World
 Western hemisphere

References 

History of North America
History of South America
Rabbit

Rabbits are mammals of the order Lagomorpha. There are about fifty different species of rabbits and hares. The order Lagomorpha is made of rabbits, pikas and hares. Rabbits can be found in many parts of the world. They live in families and eat vegetables and hay. In the wild, rabbits live in burrows, that they dig themselves. A group of rabbits living together in a burrow is called a warren. Rabbits are famous for hopping and eating carrots. 

A male rabbit is called a buck, and a female is called a doe. A baby rabbit is called a kit, which is short for kitten. Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days. The female can have up to 12-13 kits, very rarely litters as big as 18 and as small as one. When the doe gives birth her babies are collectively referred to as a litter. Some people have rabbits as pets.  Rabbits are also raised for their meat. Rabbits are of a different biological classification than hares.  

Since rabbits are prey animals, they are careful in open spaces. If they sense danger, they freeze and watch. Rabbit vision has a very wide field, including overhead scanning. Their predators are foxes, wolves, coyotes, cougars, lynxes, cats, dogs, bears, raccoons, skunks, weasels, badgers, snakes, and birds of prey. People are also known to shoot rabbits, because they eat crops. Their escape method is to run for their burrow, where they are usually safe.

Rabbits have a complex social structure and, like dogs, they have a hierarchy. Rabbit ears probably have several functions. The main function is to give warning of predators, but they may be used for signalling, and temperature regulation.

Rabbits as pets 
In the wild, rabbits have plenty to keep them occupied, from foraging to reproduction to territorial defence. Captive rabbits, on the other hand, often lack stimulation. This can lead to behavioural problems and poor health. Pet rabbits often live eight to twelve years.

References 

Lagomorphs
Pets
Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist.
He and his wife, Marie, are best known for their experiments supporting the germ theory of disease, and he is also known for his vaccinations, most notably the first vaccine against rabies and anthrax.

Career 
He made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry (different shapes) of crystals. He is also well known for his way of keeping milk and wine from going sour for longer periods of time. That process is called pasteurization. It is when the milk and or wine is put under about 161 Fahrenheit (72 Celsius) for fifteen seconds. 

Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, Pasteur noticed how a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled, and it failed to induce the disease in some chickens, which he was infecting, with the disease.

Personal life 

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a poor tanner. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois. He gained degrees in Letters and in Mathematical Sciences before entering the École Normale Supérieure, an elite college. 

After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector, in 1849.

Louis Pasteur and Marie were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children. Only two survived to adulthood; his other three children had died of typhoid fever. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases, such as typhoid.

Death 
In 1895 at Marnes-la-Coquette, a commune in Paris, Pasteur died after several strokes.

References 

1822 births
1895 deaths
Deaths from stroke
French chemists
French microbiologists
Vaccinologists
Akrotiri and Dhekelia

Akrotiri and Dhekelia are two British overseas territories that border the Republic of Cyprus. They are used as military bases by the United Kingdom. The bases were kept by the United Kingdom after Cyprus changed from being a colony in the British Empire, to being an independent republic. The United Kingdom kept them because of the important location of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.

Military bases 
The smallest of the bases is known as Akrotiri Sovereign Base Area or even the Western Sovereign Base Area.

References

Other websites

British overseas territories
Geography of Cyprus
Military buildings and structures
Transcontinental country

A transcontinental country is a country that is in more than one continent.

Examples 

Africa and Asia
 Egypt, though the vast majority lives in Africa, and mostly around the Nile, and few people live in the Sinai Peninsula, which is in Asia. 

Africa and Europe
 Spain, because the exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla are in mainland Africa and the Canary Islands are part of the African continental plate.

Asia and Europe
Cyprus
Georgia
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkey

Asia and Oceania
Indonesia, controlling large islands in Oceania.

America and Oceania
United States, because Hawaii is in Oceania.

America, Oceania and Antarctica
Chile, because Easter Island is a province in Oceania and Chilean Antarctic is a claimed (but not officially accepted) territory in Antarctica.

Oceania and Antarctica
Australia,  Australian Antarctic Territory is a territory in Antarctica.
New Zealand,  Ross Dependency is a territory in Antarctica.

Europe, Africa, and America
 France, because Réunion, Mayotte, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana are regions of France.
 Portugal, because Madeira is part of the African continental plate and the westernmost islands of Corvo and Flores in the Azores are part of the North American continental plate.

References 

Country classifications
Kurów

For the place of similar name in New Zealand see: Kurow

Kurów is a village in south-eastern Poland, near Puławy and Lublin, on the Kurówka River. It is the main village of a gmina within the Lublin Voivodship and has 2826 people living there (as of 2010). The village was built before 1185 and made bigger between 1431 and 1442 with city rights based on the Magdeburg Law. The former President of Poland, Wojciech Jaruzelski was born in Kurów in 1923.

Other websites 
 Wiki about Kurów

Villages in Lublin Voivodeship‎
Scorpion

Scorpions are eight legged venomous arachnids of the order Scorpiones. They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting. The average adult scorpion is about  in length. The longest scorpion is the Gigantometrus swammerdami (Giant forest scorpion) from India, which can be  long. There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.

The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica. There are 13 living families. Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.

Anatomy 
They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws). The tail is narrow, with segments. It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.

Their body is in three parts. The front section is the cephalothorax; the abdomen is called the mesosoma, and the tail is the metasoma. The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.

Survival in the desert 
Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert. They can slow down their metabolism. This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year. This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen. 
Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution. Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.
Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them. This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface. This also warns them of possible dangers, such as other bigger hunters.
The scorpion’s most feared and recognized feature is its sting. The sting contains a neurotoxin, which the scorpion uses to paralyze the victim, so it would be easier to kill and eat. They also stay hidden under rocks and that makes their body temperature cool.

Breeding cycle 
The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws. After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender. After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore. Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her. The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot. Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual. A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.

Related pages 
Arachnid
Desert scorpion
Scorpion Tattoo

References 

Arachnids
1216

1216 was a leap year starting on a Friday in the Julian calendar.

Events 

 April 10 – Eric X of Sweden dies. He is succeeded by Johan Sverkersson.
 April – Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons' War
 July 24 – Ascension of Pope Honorius III; in the same year, he officially recognises the Order of Preachers (the Dominican Order)
 October 19 – Henry III becomes King of England, after the death of King John of England.
 Dresden, Germany becomes a city
 Ballintubber Abbey is founded by King Cathal Crovdearg O'Connor of Connaught in Ireland.

Births 
 Eric IV of Denmark (d. 1250)
 September 17 – Robert I, Count of Artois (d. 1250)

Deaths 

 Shota Rustaveli, Georgian poet (b. 1172)
 April 10 – King Eric X of Sweden (b. 1180)
 June 11 – Henry of Flanders, Emperor of the Latin Empire (b. 1174)
 July 16 – Pope Innocent III (b. 1161)
 October 19 – King John of England (b. 1167)
John Schlesinger

John Richard Schlesinger, CBE (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was a British movie director. He was born into a Jewish family in London. He was openly gay. He died of a stroke in Palm Springs, California, United States.

Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s. He started to direct in 1956. By the 1960s he was not acting so he could just direct. His documentary Terminus (1961), got a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award.  A Kind of Loving won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962.  Schlesinger's movie, Midnight Cowboy (1969), made in the United States, was internationally successful. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first movie shot in the U.S. It won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. In 1996 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.

Filmography
Feature and television movies (as Director)
 A Kind of Loving (1962)
 Billy Liar (1963)
 Darling (1965)
 Far From the Madding Crowd (1967)
 Midnight Cowboy (1969)
 Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971)
 Visions of Eight (1973)
 The Day of the Locust (1975)
 Marathon Man (1976)
 Yanks (1979)
 Honky Tonk Freeway (1981)
 Privileged  (1982)
 Separate Tables (1983) (TV)
 An Englishman Abroad (1983)  (TV)
 The Falcon and the Snowman (1985)
 The Believers (1987)
 Madame Sousatzka (1988)
 Pacific Heights (1990)
 A Question of Attribution (1991) (TV)
 The Innocent (1993)
 Cold Comfort Farm (1995) (TV)
 Eye for an Eye (1996)
 The Tale of Sweeney Todd (1998) (TV)
 The Next Best Thing (2000)

References

Other websites 

1926 births
2003 deaths
Academy Award winning directors
Actors from London
BAFTA Award winners
British television directors
Deaths from stroke
English movie actors
English movie producers
English television actors
English LGBT people
Jewish British actors
LGBT directors
Gay Jews
Jewish screenwriters
Movie directors from London
Landjäger

Landjäger (or Landjaeger) is a type of German sausage. The name stands for "hunter's sausage". It is smoked, so it does not need refrigeration. Usually, some of the water has also been taken out (they are dehydrated).

Sausage
Gilbert and Ellice Islands

The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 12 January 1916. They are formed from two groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. On 1 January 1976 the islands were split into two different colonies that became independent states. The Gilbert Islands have been the biggest part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.

Islands of Kiribati
Pacific islands
History of the United Kingdom
1892 establishments in the United Kingdom
19th-century establishments in Oceania
Former colonies in Oceania
Casablanca

Casablanca (classical Arabic name: الدار البيضاء, "the white house"; Spanish:Casablanca, "whitehouse") is a city in western Morocco, on the Atlantic Ocean. 

With 2.95 million people (September 2004 census), Casablanca is Morocco's biggest city.

Casablanca has a Mediterranean Climate with hot dry summers and wet rainy winters.

Education 
 EMLYON Business School
 Toulouse Business School

References

Other websites 

 Official web site of Casablanca
Flatulence

Flatulence or farting is when gas leaves the anus. This often happens with a sound that can be embarrassing to some people, but in some cultures it is treated like humor. The word flatulence comes from the Latin word flatus, which means blowing or breath, but people today usually call it farting.

In mammals like humans, the gases come from two sources: swallowed air (for example, while eating, talking or drinking) and gases naturally created by bacteria in the body during digestion. Of the gases that come out during flatulence, most of it is nitrogen (which has the chemical formula N2 and makes up between 21% to 89% of all the gases), followed by hydrogen (H), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4).

References

Other websites
7 Easy Ways to Tame Excessive Gas

Digestive system
Computability theory

Computability theory is part of computer science. Scientists want to know what can be computed, and what can not. 

There is a model of a computer that is used for this. It is called the Turing machine. A Turing machine basically is a special typewriter with an endless ribbon. The machine is named after the mathematician Alan Turing.

A problem is computable if it can be expressed in such a way that a Turing machine can solve it. 

One of the best known examples is the Halting problem. The task is to write a program which says for all programs whether they will finally stop. This is impossible to decide. Mathematicians say the problem is undecidable.

Theoretical computer science
Batman (city)

Batman is a city in southeast Turkey. It is the capital (city) of the province with the same name. In 2010, 325,000 people lived there. There are many Kurds in that area. The area has much oil and gas.

There is a railway track at Kurtalan, near this city. The track runs all the way to Istanbul. There is also an airport near Batman. The name is short for the Bati Raman mountains.

Other websites 
 Batman Municipality 

Batman
Typewriter

A typewriter is a machine that is for typing on a piece of paper instead of writing by hand.  It has keys for typing letters, numbers, and symbols one at a time.  Typewriters were created in 1829.  Typewriters were originally invented to make writing faster and printing.  The earliest typing was done on stone, clay, or metal sheets by inscribing them. 

A typewriter does not have computer memory.  As with writing with a pen, it is difficult to correct mistakes.  One advantage is that many of them are not electrical, so you do not need to plug them in.  Hackers cannot see what you have typed.  On many typewriters, a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key.  The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874. They did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.     

Typewriters quickly became a necessary tool for almost all writing other than personal handwritten letters.  They were used a lot by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes.  Typewriters were common in most offices up to the 1980s.  After that, computers often replaced them. Nevertheless, typewriters are still common in some parts of the world. They are needed for a few specific applications, and they are popular in certain subcultures.  Early typewriters, and later cheap ones, were "manual" typewriters. This means they were powered completely by the user.  After the mid-20th century, electric typewriters with a motor became most common.

Related pages 
 Teletypewriter

Writing tools
Nocturnal animals

Nocturnal (Latin: nox - night, darkness) animals are animals that are mainly active during the night. They hunt or feed during the night, and sleep during the day. Diurnal animals do it the other way around.

Crepuscular animals are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the full moon throws light. Domestic cats hunt mice and voles mostly at this time.

Cathemeral animals are equally likely to be awake and active at any time of day or night. 

Many nocturnal animals have good night vision.  Their large eyes may be highly reflective when a bright light flashes on them. Owls and bats are typical nocturnal predators. More specifically, they have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures. This increases their visual sensitivity in low-light conditions.

Examples of nocturnal animals
Owls
Bats

References

Zoology
Czestochowa

Częstochowa is a city in south Poland on the Warta River. It has 248,894 residents. It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).

The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary. Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it.

City name 

The name Częstochowa means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch. It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir. Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.

Tourism 

Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, kept at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a very popular attraction.

Cities in Silesian Voivodeship
50s

This is an article about the years 50 AD to 59 AD. Sometimes, the 50s is used for the 1950s.

Events and trends 
The Roman emperor Claudius is murdered in (54). Nero be comes emperor.
Buddhism comes to China through the Emperor Ming of Han China

Significant people 
Claudius, Roman Emperor (41–54).
Nero, Roman Emperor (54–68).
Kujula Kadphises, Kushan emperor
Saint Paul, Christian evangelist
Emperor Ming of Han China

Births 
 Juvenal, Roman poet. 
 Domitian, Emperor of Rome

Deaths 
Claudius, Emperor of Rome
Agrippina the younger, mother of Nero
Twilight

Twilight means either dawn (in the morning) or dusk (in the evening).

In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear, before sunrise. In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk. At sunset, the sun disappears, and darkness is settling in. Light fades away.

The following have been defined:
Civil twilight is when the sun is less than 6° below the horizon. It ends at sunrise in the morning or follows sunset in the evening.
Nautical twilight is when the sun is between 6° and 12° below the horizon.
Astronomical twilight is when the sun is between 12° and 18° below the horizon.
For all these definitions, the horizon is at sea level.

Other websites 

Definition of Twilight , US Naval Observatory
Twilight time calculator 
Formulae to calculate twilight duration , by Herbert Glarner

Parts of a day
Dusk

Dusk occurs at the darkest stage of twilight, or at the very end of astronomical twilight after sunset and just before nightfall. At predusk, during early to intermediate stages of twilight, enough light in the sky under clear conditions may occur to read outdoors without artificial illumination; however, at the end of civil twilight (when Earth rotates to a point at which the center of the Sun's disk is 6° below the local horizon), such lighting is required to read outside.
Parts of a day
1291



Events 
 The Crusades end.

Births 
 February 8 – King Afonso IV of Portugal (d. 1357)
 October 31 – Philippe de Vitry, French composer (d. 1361)
 Pope Clement VI (d. 1352)
 Theodore I of Montferrat (d. 1338)
 Aimone of Savoy (d. 1343)

Deaths 
 March 10 – Arghun, Mongol ruler
 June 18 – King Alfonso III of Aragon (b. 1265)
 June 26 – Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry III of England
 July 15 – Rudolph I of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1218)
 Hong Dagu, Korean military leader (b. 1244)
 Talabuga, khan of the Blue Horde
Delhi

Delhi (;  Dillī;  Dillī;  Dēhlī), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a city and territory in India. It includes the country's capital New Delhi. It covers an area of . It is bigger than the Faroe Islands but smaller than Guadeloupe. Delhi is a part of the National Capital Region, which has 12.5 million residents. The governance of Delhi is like that of a state in India. It has its own legislature, high court and a council of executive ministers. Delhi is a part of Panjab region 

Delhi is on the banks of the Yamuna River. Historians have evidence that people have been living in this region since at least the 6th century BC. People also believe that the legendary city of Indraprastha was here. This city has many remains and monuments of historic importance.

The India Gate is a war memorial in Delhi. Following the Bangladesh Liberation war in 1972, a structure consisting of a black marble plinth with a reversed rifle, capped by a war helmet and bounded by four eternal flames, was built beneath the archway. This structure, called Amar Jawan Jyoti (Flame of the Immortal Soldier), has since 1971 served as India's tomb of the unknown soldier.
The largest gotra of Brahmin caste in Delhi is Jamdagni in 2023.

References

Other websites 
 Nightlife in Delhi
   newstaza
European Central Bank

The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union (EU) listed in the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany.  the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005). The bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters.

The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone. Its basic tasks, set out in Article 3 of the Statute, are to set and implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone, to conduct foreign exchange operations, to take care of the foreign reserves of the European System of Central Banks and operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and the technical platform (currently being developed) for settlement of securities in Europe (TARGET2 Securities). The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand.

The ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been adjusted. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.

The European Central Bank is the main bank of the European Union. The European Central Bank is in Frankfurt am Main. The main goal of the European Central Bank is to maintain price stability, in other words make sure inflation is below 2%. This is done by e.g. controlling the interest rates. It is also the only bank allowed to issue euro banknotes (€), used by 16 of the 28 member states of the European Union (EU).

Presidents:
 Wim Duisenberg (from the Netherlands): 1998-2003
 Jean-Claude Trichet (from France): 2003-2011
 Mario Draghi (from Italy): 2011-present

References

European Union
Banks of Europe
Frankfurt
1998 establishments in Europe
Friendship

Friendship means familiar and liking of each other's mind.

People who are friends talk to each other and spend time together. They trust one another and also help each other when they are in trouble or are hurt. Friends are people that can be looked up to and trusted. Friends usually have similar interests. A friend is one who admires another person.

The strength of the bond of friendship between two people can vary. If the bond is very strong, they are called best friends.

There are expectations, demands, and complaints in friendship too. If friends do not match your expectations, it does not mean you will break the friendship. It is all about understanding, realizing, and helping whenever possible.

Friendship is both good and bad. Generally, it is only people of similar age, character, and background, mentality, etc., who can understand the problems of another person. Friends are needed for support and for sharing.

There are many different types of friendships. Most people find friends at a young age. Some do not have friends until much later in life, others will never make friends in their lifetime. Friendships can end. Friends leaving can be caused by differences in opinion or not talking to each other for a long time.

Many movies and TV shows are based on people making friends. An example of a friendship would be that of Sierra, Olivia, Emma, Langli, and Mallory in the movie Eight grade Whittier.

The word Friendship is also the official motto of Texas.

Related pages
 Platonic love
 Cross-sex friendship

Other websites

Friendship facts by RoastedBook.com 

Sociology
Emotions
Relationships
State mottos of the United States
Clitoris

The clitoris is a female genital organ. It includes erectile tissue, glands, muscles and ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels. In an embryo there is a small raised point that grows into a clitoris in girls or a penis in boys. Inside the penis, there is the urethra, but there is no urethra in the clitoris. In women, the urethra is hidden behind the clitoris and in front of the vagina. Penises with male urethras are used daily for urination, and can be used for sex: semen passes out of the body through the male urethra. 

Although the parts are placed differently, the clitoris is a match to the male penis. The clitoris causes females sexual pleasure, arousal and orgasm. Rubbing or applying other consistent pressure to it is usually needed to help the female have an orgasm.

During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood. This causes the clitoris to grow. It grows until orgasm happens. Also during arousal, touching the clitoris and other sensitive areas of the female genitals makes a woman's vagina change shape and release a lubricant.  The lubricant and change of shape makes it easier for a man to enter a woman and for sex to occur. Most of the clitoris is hidden inside the body. Only a small part of it is seen outside the body. Adding the outside and inside parts, the clitoris is about the same size as the penis. The clitoris and penis grow from the same tissue in the womb; they bear many similar parts.

Parts of the clitoris

Outside the body
The parts of the clitoris that can be seen from the outside are located from the clitoral junction (the point where the outer lips meet at the base of the pubic mound) to the fork (where the lower edges of the inner lips meet below the vaginal opening). The outside parts include:
 the glans: the head or tip. It is filled with nerve endings. The glans creates pleasurable feelings. It also increases a woman's sexual response.
 the hood: the fold of skin formed by the outer edges of the inner lips. It covers the glans. The hood is the same as the male foreskin.
 the inner lips: hairless and very sensitive to touch.

Inside the body 
 The parts of the clitoris inside the body include erectile tissue, glands, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. In both the clitoris and the penis, there are two types of erectile tissue. These are corpus cavernosum (cavern-like body) and vestibular bulbs. These tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal. This causes an erection. The clitoral shaft is connected to the glans. It is just underneath the surface of the skin. The shaft is a round spongy erectile tissue. It is very sensitive like the glans. It feels like a hard ridge. The shaft is about  long. It moves toward the pubic mound for a short distance, then bends sharply and divides. This forms two thin legs. These legs are also made of spongy tissue. The legs spread out like the wishbone of a chicken.

References 

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
Łódź

Łódź () is the third-largest city in Poland. As of 2022, 411,310 people reside within the city. It is in central Poland, contained within the lodz voivodeship. In native polish, the name alludes to  "boat". The mayor of Łódź is Hanna Zdanowska.

History 
The first documents mentioning the city date from 1332. Łódź was awarded city rights (according to the Magdeburg law) in 1432. The Congress of Vienna decided in 1815 that the city should be part of Russia. Only in 1918 did the city fall back to Poland.

Geography 
The city is about 120 km south-west of Warsaw. In and around the city, there are some textile and electronics industries. Because of prolonged economic difficulties, there has been a decline in the population of the city. The city has a university and a film academy. Łódź has a humid continental climate (Dfb in  the Koeppen climate classification).

Sports 
There are two major football teams in Łódź: the first is called ŁKS Łódź and the second is Widzew Łódź.

Images

Notable residents 
Grażyna Bacewicz, composer
Max Factor, Sr., businessman, founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company
Piotr Fronczewski, Polish actor
Marcin Gortat, NBA basketball player for the Phoenix Suns
Roman Polanski, cinema director, Oscar and Golden Palm winner
Władysław Reymont, writer, Nobel Prize winner
Paweł Rogaliński, journalist
Artur Rubinstein, pianist, settled
Julian Tuwim, poet
Miś Uszatek, cartoon character
Marek Saganowski, football player
Adam Ostrowski, better known as O.S.T.R., rapper
Kraków

Kraków (Polish: Kraków; (pronounced: ); variant English spelling Cracow; in full Royal Capital City of Krakow, Polish: Królewskie Stołeczne Miasto Kraków) is one of the oldest and largest cities in Poland. In 2014 in Kraków lived 759,800 people. It is on the Vistula river. Krakow is the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship (województwo małopolskie); before that it was the capital of Kraków Voivodship (since 14th century).

During the mid-early 19th century, Krakow became an independent city-state, under the name of "The Free, Independent and Strictly Neutral City of Krakow". However, it was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1846.

Pope John Paul II was raised in Krakow and was its archbishop from 1964 until he was elected as Pope in 1978. When it was later announced that the city will host World Youth Day in 2016, it will be a tribute to the late Pope who became a saint in 2014.

The current mayor of Krakow is Jacek Majchrowski.

During World War II, there was once a ghetto in the city which held mostly the Jews of Kraków. The ghetto was liquidated for the final time in March 1943, with most of it's inhabitants sent to the Treblinka extermination camp.

Sister cities
Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations with:

Related pages 
Trams in Kraków
 Buses in Kraków

Other websites 
 www.e-krakow.pl
Portland, Oregon

Portland is the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is the county seat of Multnomah County. About 538,544 people live in the city of Portland, and about 1,927,881 people live in the city's metropolitan area. It is in the northern Oregon, where the Willamette River meets the Columbia River. Portland has the second most people of any city in the Northwest United States, after the city of Seattle.

Portland has many nicknames. One of these is "The City of Roses," because roses grow well there. Some other nicknames of Portland are "Stumptown" (because Portland was built over a forest), and "Puddletown" (because it often rains in Portland).

Many things are from Portland. Some of these things are Powell's Books, Beverly Cleary (and some of her most popular fictional characters, Henry Huggins and Ramona Quimby, which also have statues in the city's Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden for Children), and the Portland Trail Blazers basketball team.

References

 
Cities in Oregon
County seats in Oregon
1845 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Oregon
Frame of reference

In physics, a frame of reference, or reference frame, is a perspective that one uses to determine if an object is moving. A frame of reference consists of an object or environment that is considered to be stationary. Typically the observer is at rest in the reference frame; in this context, the term is "observational frame of reference."

For example, when you see a ball roll down a street, you can tell the ball is moving because the frame of reference is the streets, whatever may be on the side of the roads, or the Earth. All of these are frames of reference.

All measurements of motion will be compared to a frame of reference. Therefore, the most commonly used frame of reference is Earth itself, even though it moves. Stars are used as a frame of reference when discussing the motions of the Earth.

When we walk from one side of a ship to the other, our frame of reference is the ship; whether the ship is moving is not relevant to that frame of reference.

Inertial frame of reference 

An inertial frame of reference is a frame that is either not moving or moving at a constant velocity. In other words, an inertial frame of reference has no net force acting upon it, and therefore Newton's laws of motion are observed.

Inertial reference frames are often used in general relativity and special relativity to describe relative motion of observers or objects and the effects they will endure.

Inertial frames of reference are useful in everyday life as well. For example, consider a situation where two cars are traveling along a road. See Figure 1. If they are separated by a distance of 100 meters, the car in the back is moving at 10 meters per second and the car in front is moving at 5 meters per second, both relative to the ground.

There are three obvious inertial reference frames that can be used to determine when the cars will be even with each other: one where the back car is not moving but the front car is moving backwards at 5 m/s, one where the front car is stationary and the back car is moving forward at 5 m/s, or one where the ground is not moving and the cars are moving at their given velocities. These three perspectives all describe the situation accurately and are physically identical.

Related pages 
 General relativity
 Special relativity
 Cartesian coordinate system
 Lorentz transformation
 Principle of relativity

References 

Relativity
Reference
Basic physics ideas
Broadway

Broadway is a -long main street in New York City. It is different from other streets in that it runs diagonally across the street grid of Manhattan, diagonally crossing newer streets. The street also goes through the Bronx. It continues north as U.S. Route 9 to Albany, the capital of New York State.

Times Square, where Broadway meets 7th Avenue and 42nd Street, is a center of entertainment and is famous for its many Broadway theatres and stage plays.  

One of the New York City Subway lines, the BMT Broadway Line, runs under the street in Manhattan, south of Times Square. The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line runs under Broadway, north of Times Square.

Manhattan
Roads in New York City
Theater
The Bronx
Nutmeg

Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) is a species of evergreen tree in the genus Myristica. It is found in tropical Southeast Asia and Australia.

Nutmeg powder can  cause allergic reactions. 

Spices
Magnoliales
Run (island)

Pulau Run is an island in Indonesia. It is one of the smallest Islands of the Banda Islands. It is about 3 km long and less than 1 km wide.

It used to be of great importance, because of the value of the spices nutmeg and mace. Both spices are from the same tree. The trees were only grown on the Banda Islands.  During the history of the spice trade sailors of the British East India Company of the second expedition of James Lancaster, John Davis and John Middleton who stayed in Bantam on Java first reached the Island in 1603. They made good contacts with the people who lived there.

Two wars were fought over the extremely costly spices.

The Treaty of Westminster ended the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1654. According to the treaty, Run should have been returned to England. The first attempt in 1660 failed due to formal constraints by the Dutch; after the second in 1665 the English traders were expelled in the same year and the Dutch destroyed the nutmeg trees.

After the second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–1667 England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed in the Treaty of Breda to the status quo: The English kept the island of Manhattan which a fleet sent by the Duke of York (the future Charles II), had occupied illegally in 1664 and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York. Run was officially given to the Dutch.

The Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace was destroyed by the transfer of nutmeg trees to Ceylon, Singapore and other British colonies in 1817 after the capture of the main Island Bandalontor in 1810 by Captain Cole. This led to the decline of the Dutch supremacy in the spice trade, but there are still nutmeg trees growing on Run today.

Further reading 

 Milton, Giles.  Nathaniel's Nutmeg: or the True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader Who Changed the Course of History.  Penguin, 1999.  ()

Islands of Indonesia
Shinty

Shinty a traditional game now mainly played in the Scottish Highlands. It involves 2 teams of twelve players using a stick (known as a "caman" from Scottish Gaelic) to put a ball in the opposing team's net.

It was once played over all Scotland but is now played mostly in the Scottish Highlands and Highland communities in the big Scottish cities. It is also played in universities and in America by enthusiasts.

The sport's rules and regulations are decided by the Camanachd Association.

It has a common ancestor with the Irish game of hurling and hurlers and shinty players sometimes hold internationals.

Other websites 
 An Interesting Site about the Sport 
 The Camanachd Association website.

Games
Sport in Scotland
1229



Events 
 February 18 – The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy.
 March 18 – Sixth Crusade of Emperor Frederick II ends in truce with Sultan al-Kamil and coronation of Frederick as King of Jerusalem.
 Catalans capture island of Majorca from Muslims.
 University of Paris strike of 1229.
 Foundation of the University of Toulouse in Toulouse, France.
 Founding of the city of Turku, Finland.

Births

Deaths 
 January 17 – Albert of Buxhoeveden, German soldier
 Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab biographer and geographer (born 1179)

1229
1626



Events 
 September 30 – Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Huang Taiji.
 November 18 – The new St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is consecrated, the anniversary of that of the previous church in 326.
 Spanish establish a trading colony on Taiwan.
 Peter Minuit, director of the New Netherland colony, begins a policy of "purchasing" Manhattan from the Lenape.
 Work begins on building the sailing ship Vasa.
 The Duchy of Urbino is incorporated into the Papal States.
 The English Parliament impeach George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of England.
 Charles I dissolves Parliament.
 The Dutch settle Manhattan, founding the town of New Amsterdam. The town would transform into a piece of what is now New York City.
 In New England, the Town (later City) of Salem, Massachusetts is founded at Naumkeag
1399

1399 was a common year.

Events 
 February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
 September 30 – Accession of Henry IV of England
 October 13 – Coronation of Henry IV of England
 November 1 – Accession of John VI, Duke of Brittany

Deaths
 February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
54

54 is a common year in the 1st century.

Events 
October 13 – Roman Emperor Claudius dies after being poisoned by Agrippina, his wife and niece.
Nero succeeds Claudius as emperor of Roman Empire
Patriarch Onesimus succeeds Stachys the Apostle as Patriarch of Constantinople.
Judea is returned piecemeal to Agrippa I's son Marcus Julius Agrippa between 48 and 54.
Saint Paul begins his third mission.
Apollos, a later assistant of Paul, is converted to Christianity in  Ephesus
Maiden Castle, Dorset in Dorset was captured from the Celtic Durotriges by Vespasian.
48

48 is a year in the 1st century. It was a leap year starting on Monday  of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vitellius and Poplicola.

Events 
 Roman Emperor Claudius makes Agrippa II superintendent of the Temple in Jerusalem
 Probable date of the Apostolic Council
 The Silures, with the help of Caratacus, revolt against the Romans in Britain.
 The Hsiung-nu empire ends
 Gallic nobles are admitted to the Roman Senate

Births 
 Ts'ai Lun, inventor of paper (d. 121)
 Ulpia Marciana, sister of emperor Trajan (d. 112)

Deaths 
 Valeria Messalina, third wife of emperor Claudius
 Pompey - military and political leader of Roman Republic

40s
1244

1244 was a leap year.

Events 
 Dogen Zenji establishes the Eiheiji temple in Japan, in doing so founding the Soto sect of Zen Buddhism.
 Sultan Malik al-Muattam razes city walls.
 James I of Aragon reconquers Altea, Spain.
1253



Events 
 July 6 – Mindaugas is crowned as King of Lithuania.
 July – William II, Count of Holland defeats the Flemish army at Westkapelle.
 A series of naval wars begins between the Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice, which will continue sporadically until 1371.
 King Henry III of England meets with English nobles and church leaders to reaffirm the validity of the Magna Carta.
 Pope Innocent IV returns to Rome, having left nine years earlier in 1244 to depose Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and being unable to return until after Frederick's death due to the agitation throughout Europe caused by that action.
 Having rebuffed the armed forces of Conrad IV of Germany, Pope Innocent IV offers Sicily to Edmund, son of King Henry III of England.
 Galicia becomes a vassal state to the expanding Mongol Empire.

Deaths 
 January 19 – Dogen, Japanese founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism
 August 11 – Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (born 1194)
 October 9 – Robert Grosseteste, English statesman and theologian
 Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia
 Theobald IV of Champagne (born 1201)
 Saint Richard of Chichester
 King Henry I of Cyprus (born 1217)
 Amadeus IV of Savoy (born 1197)
1627



Events
 July 22 – English under the Duke of Buckingham invade the Ré Island in support of the Huguenots in La Rochelle. The invasion does not go well.
 A Dutch ship makes the first recorded sighting of the coast of South Australia.

 The aurochs are hunted to extinction, the last being killed by poachers in Poland.
 England places the first European settlers on Barbados.
 Siege of La Rochelle begins
 Korea becomes a tributary state of China