alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Sadness

Sadness is an emotion. It is the opposite of happiness. People feel sad when something bad has happened, for example, if their mother or father has died. 

In capital letters, SAD, or S.A.D. is short for "Seasonal affective disorder". SAD is a sickness that some people have in the winter. They feel depressed as the nights become longer and there is less daylight.

When people are very sad, and for a long time, the person could have a serious mental illness called depression or Bipolar disorder.

Notes 
It is normally thought of as the opposite of happiness, but you can feel both happy and sad at the same time.

Related pages
 Happiness
 Depression (mental illness)

Basic English 850 words
Emotions
Microeconomics

Microeconomics is the science of how people make decisions at the small scale. It is different from macroeconomics which looks at how the economy works as a whole ("on aggregate"). In microeconomics, we might look at how a person chooses what to buy at the store, or how many things a company will make. Some parts of microeconomics include Consumer Theory and Theory of the Firm, which study how people and businesses make decisions. Game theory looks at how people make decisions when the outcome (how something ends) depends on what decision another person makes; when agents are said to act "strategically".

References

Related pages
 Macroeconomics
Tuesday

Tuesday is the day of the week between Monday and Wednesday. In some countries, for example the United States of America, Tuesday is the third day of the week. In other parts of the world, Tuesday is the second day of the week.

History of the name 
The name Tuesday comes from a Middle English word, Tiwesday. This word came from the Old English word Tiwes dæg. This was named after the Nordic god Tyr. Tyr was the God of War, like the Roman war god Mars, and Greek god Ares.

In Latin, Tuesday is called Martis dies which means "Mars's Day". In French, Spanish, Italian and Romanian, the (Romance languages), the word for "Tuesday" is nearly the same as the Latin name. Tuesday is mardi in French, martes in Spanish, martedì in Italian, dimarts in Catalan, and marţi in Romanian. 

The Celtic languages still spoken use the Latin names, even though none of these languages came from Latin. Tuesday is dé máirt in Irish, Meurzh in Breton, dydd Mawrth in Welsh and Dimàirt in Scottish Gaelic. 

The English and Scandinavian names for Tuesday come from the Nordic god Tyr (Old English Tiw):

 Old Frisian: tîesdei
 Modern West Frisian: tiisdei
 Old English: tíwesdæg
 Anglo-Norman:
 Middle English: tíesdæi, tywesdai, twysday
 Early Modern English: towesday, Twesdaie, Tyisday, Tiseday,
 Modern English: Tuesday
 Old High German: zîestag
 Middle High German: zîstag
 Alemannic German: ziischtig
 Old Norse: týrsdagr
 Swedish: Tisdag
 Danish: Tirsdag
 Norwegian: Tirsdag or Tysdag
 Icelandic: Týsdagur

References 

02
Wednesday

In some countries, like the United States of America, Wednesday is the fourth day of the week. In other parts of the world Wednesday is said to be the third day of the week.

Wednesday is named after the Norse god Woden.

References 

03
Yes

Yes is an English word that shows acceptance or agreement, or making a positive response or exclamation. It is the opposite of no.

Yes may also mean:

In music:
 Yes (band), a progressive rock band from the United Kingdom
 Yes (album), their debut album
 The Yes Album, their third album
 Yes (Mika Nakashima album)
 Yes (Morphine album)
 Yes! (Chad Brock album)
 "Yes!" (song), a song from this album
 "Yes" (McAlmont and Butler song)

In other uses:
 Yes (movie), a movie by Sally Potter
 yes (Unix), a Unix shell command to print a string repetitively
 yes (Israel), an Israeli satellite television provider
 YES (Your Extraordinary Saturday), a children's program
 YES Network, the television home of the New York Yankees and New Jersey Nets
 YES! Magazine, an American magazine
 Yes! Roadster, a German sports car
 YES Prep Public Schools, a network of charter schools in Houston, Texas, United States
 Yale Entrepreneurial Society, an American non-profit organization
 Youth Empowerment Scheme, a children's charity in Belfast, Northern Ireland
 Young Epidemiology Scholars, a college scholarship program
 Yasuj Airport's IATA code

Basic English 850 words
Amaterasu

Amaterasu (), Amaterasu-ōmikami ( or ) or Ōhirume-no-muchi-no-kami (), is a goddess in Japanese mythology. She is the Sun Goddess, and the most sacred of all Shinto deities. Her name, Amaterasu, means "(that which) illuminates Heaven." Her shrine is at Ise.

Tradition 
Amaterasu is the sister of Susano'o, the god of the sea and storms, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were created from Izanagi, when he washed his face to clean the dirtiness of Yomi, the underworld. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susano'o from the washing of the nose.

Story 
The tales tell of great rivalry between Amaterasu and Susano'o. When he was to leave Heaven forever because Izanagi ordered him to, he went to say goodbye to his sister. Amaterasu, suspicious, proposed him a challenge: each of them was to turn an object of the other's into people. Amaterasu created three women from Susanoo's sword while he created five men from her necklace. Amaterasu said the men were hers because they were born of her necklace. Susano'o destroyed her rice fields, threw a dead pony into her loom, and killed one of her assistants in anger. For this, Amaterasu, sad, angry and scared, went to hide inside Ama-no-Iwato, the "heavenly rock cave", so the Sun was hidden and the world became dark for a long time. The Oni (devils of Japanese mythology) came out to the dark world, and the gods could not make Amaterasu come out of the cave.

The intelligent goddess of happiness, Ama-no-Uzume (天宇受売命), took a big bucket, turned it upside down near the cave entrance, and began a dance on it, tearing off her clothing in front of the other Kami. They thought this was so funny that they laughed happily.

Amaterasu heard them, and looked out to see why the gods were laughing. When she opened the cave, she saw her wonderful reflection in a mirror Uzume had put on a tree, and slowly came out of the cave.

At that moment, the god Ameno-Tajikarao (天手力男命) closed the cave behind her, so she could not go back in. Another god tied a magic rope across the entrance. The sun goddess was then asked by the Kami Ame-no-Koyane (天児屋根命) to go back with the gods. She agreed, and light came back to the earth, but Susanoo was punished by being banished from Heaven.

Other websites 
 Shinbutsudo: A Web Page for the Study of Japanese Religions 

Gods and goddesses of Japan
Shinto
National personifications
National symbols of Japan
Amatsukami
Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy that an object has because of its motion. This energy can be converted into other kinds, such as gravitational or electric potential energy, which is the energy that an object has because of its position in a gravitational or electric field.

Difference between Kinetic & Potential Energy 
Kinetic Energy is the maximum amount of work a moving body due to its motion can do, whereas Potential energy is the maximum amount of work a body can do due to its configuration or position in a field force.  Kinetic Energy is valid for all sorts of forces as seen from this derivation.

but Potential Energy is not as can be seen here

which clearly suggests that only conservative forces can have potential energy associated with them; see conservation of energy.

Translational kinetic energy
The translational kinetic energy of an object is:

where
  is the mass (resistance to linear acceleration or deceleration);
  is the linear velocity.

Rotational kinetic energy
The rotational kinetic energy of an object is:

where
  is the moment of inertia (resistance to angular acceleration or deceleration, equal to the product of the mass and the square of its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation);
  is the angular velocity.

Energy
Mechanics
Basic physics ideas
Boat

A boat is a vehicle used to travel on water. It is smaller than a ship and can be lifted out of the water and carried on a ship. Some boats have sails, some are powered by rowing with oars, and some use motors. Those that use steam engines are steamboats. There are some boats that can go underwater. They are called submarines. A narrowboat is a boat designed to be used on narrow canals. It is sometimes called a barge.

Historically, most boats have been constructed from wood. However, more recently built boats are often made of metals like steel and aluminium. Expensive boats may have parts made from fiberglass or composite materials and some even have helicopter pads.

History 
The Pesse Canoe is likely the oldest boat recovered to date as it was built sometime around 8,000 BCE

References
Navy

The navy is the part of a country's military that fights on water using boats. People in the navy are called sailors. The navy is mostly made up of warships. It may also have its own air force and soldiers. It may have special boats that can go underwater, called submarines, or another kind of special boat that is meant to carry airplanes, called aircraft carriers.

History 
Originally, Naval war was fought by ramming other ships and then jumping onto them to fight the crew. In Ancient Greece and Rome, the ships were usually powered by oars. During the Middle Ages, the cannon was invented. These could be shot at other ships from a great distance. Warships around this time also began to use sails instead of oars for power. In the middle 19th century, ships began to be plated in armor for protection. Steam engines allowed them move while carrying the armor, and better ones soon made them much faster. These early warships, called ironclads, are thought to have begun the type of Naval warfare used today. Ships and guns soon became much larger.

Related pages 

 Royal Navy
 United States Navy
 Royal Australian Navy
 Royal New Zealand Navy

Other websites 

 Navy -Citizendium
Air force

An air force is the branch of a country's military which fights in the air. The air force is made up of aircraft such as fighters, bombers, helicopters and transport aircraft. When a navy has its own air force it is called Naval Aviation. 

Air forces began in the early 20th century, usually as part of the army. Most countries separated their air forces in the 1930s and 1940s. 

Aircraft in an air force sometimes fly in a formation. Formations are when the aircraft fly in a pattern. Air forces is part of the military.

The biggest air force in the world is the United States Air Force (USAF). Second and third largest are the United States Navy and Russian Air Force.

References
List of words about computers



A
 Adobe
 Acrobat
 Algorithm
 AMD
 Android
 API
 Apple
 Application
 Analog

B

 Boot
 binary
 BIOS
 bitcoin
 byte
 bot
 Botnet
 Browser

C 
 C programming language
 Cable
 Configuration
 Cache memory
 Captcha
 Connection
 Control
 Cookie
 C++
 Computer

D
 data
 database
 datalake
 Debian
 decompress
 desktop
 dialer
 digital
 document
 disk operating system (redirect (or disambig) from DOS)
 download

E
 ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
 electricity
 email
 email attachment
 Encarta encyclopedia
 Epiphany web browser
 End User License Agreement (redirect from EULA)
 Explorer
 ext2 filesystem type
 ext3 filesystem type

F
 File allocation table (disambiguation from FAT or fat)
 FAT16 filesystem
 FAT32 filesystem
 file
 file types by ending
 filesharing
 filesystem
 firewall
 folder
 footnotes
 format
 FreeBSDK
 freeware
 FTP
 Facebook
 function
 font

G
 gigabyte (redir from gb)
 GIMP
 Gmail
 Gnome
 Google
 GNU
 GnuPG
 GPU
 Google Nest

H
 hacker
 hard disk (redirects from hard drive, hard disk drive, hard disk)
 hardware
 Hash function
 HDMI
 home page
 HTML
 HTTP
 HTTP Cookie

I
 Intel
 Icons
 Input device
 Internet
 Integrated circuit-IC

J

 Java
 JavaScript
 J#

K
 KDE*
 kernel
 keyboard
 key
 keyword

L
 laptop
 licensing examples for computer software
 link
 Linux
 Lavasoft
 Live CD
 LibreOffice

M
 Macintosh
 Mac OS
 Mac OS X
 Malware
Mainframe Computer 
 Mandrake Linux
 Martus
 md5
 media
 megabyte (redir or disamb from mb)
 Microsoft
 modify
 monitor
 Motherboard
 mouse
 Mozilla web browser
 Mozilla Firefox web browser
 Modem
 mp4
 mpeg-4

N 

 NTFS filesystem type
 Netscape
 Netscape Navigator web browser
 network
 NNTP
 non-commercial
 notebook computer
 notepad
 Nvidia

O
 ogg file format for multimedia
 OpenOffice.org
 Online
 Offline
 Open Site
 open source
 Opera web browser
 operating system
 operating systems, a list

P
 page
 Perl
 personal computer (PC)
 Petabyte
 pdf or more likely PDF
 peer to peer, P2P
 PGP
 PHP
 proprietary
 piracy
 pirate
 plug-in
 Python
 popup
 printer
 privacy
 program
 program release
 Python
 PRINT
 Pixel

Q
 QNX
 QuickBasic
 QuickTime.
 QWERTY

R
 Random_access_memory(redirect from RAM)
 ReactOS
 Read-only_memory(Redirect from ROM)
 RedHat
 Reiser FS filesystem type
 root
 RSA
 Recycle Bin
 Reboot
 RISC reduced instruction set computer

S
 scan
 search engine
 security
 server
 shared source
 shareware
 software
 spam
 spamming
 Spreadsheet
 spyware
 super computer
 super user
 surfing the internet
 Suse
 SDK
 SSD
 system
 synergy (synergistic)

T
 training for computers
 Trojan horse
 Terabyte (TB)
 Tablet

U
 Ubuntu
 undo
 UNIX
 update
 upload
 user
 USB

Vvv

 version
 virtual community
 Visual Studio
 Visual Basic
 virus
 Vulnerability
 VPN

W
 Windows
 Wine (software)
Wi-Fi

X
 Xine
 XML
 x86, x32(processor)
 x86-64, x64(processor architecture)

Y
 Yahoo!
 Yotabyte

Z
 Z (file format)
Zoom in - Zoom out
ZIP
Zettabyte(ZB)

Other websites 
 A Gnu Dictionary of Computing - downloadable

Computing
Computer-related lists
Computers
Adware

Adware is an advertising computer program that can be put there by other people on someone's computer, sometimes without their permission. It is controversial because sometimes businesses put the program there so they can see what people are doing or what web pages they are browsing. They then put an advertisement that is of the same subject as the web-page the person is looking at. This can be good if the person is trying to buy something, but many people do not want advertisements. Many people also do not want other people to find out what they are doing or what web pages they are looking at. An example is in the popular peer-to-peer file sharing program, Kazaa. When someone downloads it, it installs adware on their computer that then sends advertisements to the computer. Some people do not like this so they use an illegally changed version of this program called Kazaa Lite.

Removal tools 
Removal tools have been developed to assist users in clearing out these unwanted programs.
Like many programs that people use for security, the program must be changed often. Updating allows the removal tool to recognize new types of adware. This can be done by downloading files over the internet using the 'update' option in the program.

Software
Creative Commons licenses

The Creative Commons licenses relates to the name of several copyright licenses released on December 16, 2002. The licenses were released by Creative Commons, a United States nonprofit corporation. Everybody can put their own creations under these licenses.

There are four basic license conditions. A simple overview of these four:

 Attribution (BY): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved versions of it. They must give the original creator credit for the work. 
 Noncommercial (NC): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved version of it. They are not allowed to make money with it. 
 No Derivative Works (ND): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform  the work. They are not allowed to change the work into something else.
 Share Alike (SA): Allow others to distribute evolved works only when they use the same license. See also copyleft.

It is possible to combine the license elements to allow people to use a work under certain conditions. For example, a combination of the first and fourth is called "CC BY-SA". This stands for "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike". With this license other people can use the work for free, but they must give credit to the original creator, and when they make something new with the work they must give it the same "CC BY-SA" license.

Criticism 
The Free Software Foundation thinks that the Creative Commons system is confusing, because people often forget to tell which of the licenses they use. Instead they suggest to use the Free Art license.

Related pages
 Creative Commons
 Copyleft
 Free content

References 
 Portions of this article are taken from the Creative Commons website, published under the Creative Commons Attribution License v1.0

Other websites 
 The full selection of licenses
 Creative Commons web site

Software licences
Marshall Islands

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a Micronesian island nation in the western Pacific Ocean. As of 2018, about 58,000 people live there. The capital of Marshall Islands is Majuro. The official languages are Marshallese and English.

Roughly 10% of the population of the Marshall Islands can now be found in northwest Arkansas, U.S. Most live and work in the city of Springdale, a community of roughly 50,000. Each year, the Marshallese host a homecoming event so friends and relatives can get together to celebrate, stay in touch with politics at home, and spread their island culture. They meet at the Jones Center for Families in Springdale and have dancing, feasting, volleyball, and basketball. As a population, they are devoted to family and church and bring island dance and song to this corner of Arkansas.

References

Other websites
New York University

New York University, also known as NYU, is a research university in New York City. It is the largest private university in the United States, and is highly regarded in the nation as well as around the world.

Rankings
In 2020, it was ranked as the 11th best university in the United States by the QS World University Rankings: USA, and as the 28th best university in the world by U.S. News & World Report. In addition, NYU is highly ranked in the fields of Law, Medicine, Mathematics, Business, Psychology, Communications, Performing Arts, Film, Economics, and Philosophy.

History
The university was founded as University of the City of New York in 1831 by a prominent group of New York City residents led by then United States Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin. The school was officially renamed New York University in 1896.

37 Nobel Prize winners have been produced by NYU, the 12th most in the United States and 19th most in the world. Three heads of state attended NYU: Ma Ying-jeou of the Republic of China, Ephraim Katzir of Israel, and Guillermo Endara of Panama. Many American politicians also attended NYU, including Bill de Blasio, Carol Bellamy, and Rudy Giuliani. Many successful actors and movie directors attended NYU, including Martin Scorcese, Angelina Jolie, Alec Baldwin, Spike Lee, Ang Lee, Mahershala Ali, Woody Allen, and Adam Sandler. Other famous alumni include the creator of the polio vaccine Jonas Salk, singer Lady Gaga, Twitter founder Jack Dorsey, author Suzanne Collins, and former special counsel Robert Mueller.

NYU is one of the places where 5G was created, as well as where many of the foundations of modern electromagnetic theory were discovered.

Campus
In addition to its main campus in New York City, NYU also has degree-granting campuses in Abu Dhabi and Shanghai. NYU Abu Dhabi has produced more Rhodes Scholars per student than any other university in the world.

References

Association of American Universities
New York University
Vertebrate

A vertebrate is an animal with a spinal cord surrounded by cartilage or bone. The word comes from vertebrae, the bones that make up the spine. Animals that are not vertebrates are called invertebrates. Vertebrates include birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The parts of the vertebrate skeleton are:
Braincase: A braincase or cranium protects the brain.
Vertebrae: A series of short, stiff vertebrae are separated by joints. This internal backbone protects the spinal cord. The joints between the vertebrae let the backbone bend.
Bones: support and protect the body's soft tissues and provides points for muscle attachment.
Gill arches: Gill arches in the pharynx of fish and some amphibians support the gills. In the majority of vertebrates some of the arches have evolved into other organs, such as jaws.

Examples of vertebrates are mammals, birds, and fish. A few tens of thousands of species have been identified. The term "fish" is used to describe at least four different kinds of vertebrates.

Distinctions 
Vertebrates dominate amongst the animals in virtually all environments. They include the largest animals in each main ecosystem, though not the largest living things (because that would include trees). They are the only animals which have an adaptive immune system. These two facts may be connected.

Taxonomy and classification
 Subphylum Vertebrata
Agnatha (jawless vertebrates)
 Myxini
 Hyperoartia (lampreys)
 †Conodonta
 †Pteraspidomorphi
 †Thelodonti
 †Anaspida
 †Galeaspida
 †Pituriaspida
 †Osteostraci
  Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
 †Placodermi (Paleozoic armoured forms)
 Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
 †Acanthodii (Paleozoic "spiny sharks")
 Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
 Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)
 Coelacanthimorpha (coelacanths)
 Dipnoi (lungfish)
 Tetrapoda (four-limbed vertebrates)
 Amphibia (amphibians)
 Amniota (amniotic eggs)
 Sauropsida (reptiles and birds)
 Lepidosauria (lizards, snakes and tuatara)
 Testudines (turtles)
 Archosauria (archosaurs)
 Crocodilia (crocodilians)
 †Pterosauria (pterosaurs)
 Dinosauria (dinosaurs)
 Aves (birds)
 Synapsida (mammal-like tetrapods)
 Mammalia

Related pages
 Invertebrate 
 Vertebrate brain

References

Other websites

 Tree of Life 
 Tunicates and not cephalochordates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates
Alpha male

An alpha male is the top-ranking male in a mammalian social group.

Origin
Some animals live in a social structure where the most powerful male in the group is decided by either fights or very aggressive battles that sometimes end in death (in the wild). The current alpha male must defend his position from younger members. When he is too old or not strong enough to win, he loses his position in the group. Sometimes, he will die or be forced to leave the group.

The result of this is that the alpha male usually has more opportunity to mate with the available females. This system developed because strong males will produce young which have a better chance for survival.

Examples
Some animal groups which may have alpha males:
 Lions
 Apes: chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans
 Horses
 Deer

Humans
Alpha male can also refer to a high-ranked human in a group. This may be in a business setting or sometimes in other competitive areas, like sports. However, this is an extension by metaphor: humans do not have the same mating system as other social mammals. One reason is that the oestrous cycle in humans is different. This has the result that females may be sexually receptive at almost any time. Also, humans generally pair off, and alpha males do not have exclusive rights over all females in a group, except in rare circumstances.

Ethology
Johannesburg

Johannesburg is the  largest city in South Africa. It is the capital of the Gauteng Province. It was founded on October 4, 1886 and has the JSE Securities Exchange, which is the largest stock exchange in Africa.

Johannesburg houses the tallest office block in Africa, the Carlton Centre (50 stories) and the tallest tower, the Hillbrow Tower (270 metres, or 90 stories).  The city is nicknamed Egoli or Jozi, which means "place of gold", for the large gold deposit at Witwatersrand.   

 The Johannesburg Zoo was established in 1904, and historically, it has been owned and run by the city of Johannesburg. It houses the only two polar bears in Africa. Johannesburg is not seen as a tourist centre in South Africa, but rather as a commercial centre.

Johannesburg has a subtropical highland climate (Cwb in the Köppen climate classification). Snow is a very rare event. It only snows in Johannesburg once or twice in a century.

Nelson Mandela died there on 5 December 2013, aged 95. He was also given the "Freedom of the City" award.  In 2023, a fire started in the town. The fire killed more than 70 people and became one of the deadliest fires in the history of South Africa.

References 

 
1886 establishments
1880s establishments in South Africa
Breakfast

Breakfast is the first meal of the day. It is usually eaten in the morning. The word comes from two other words; "break" ("end") and fast ("not eating for a long time").

Definition: [1463] from break (v.) + fast (n.). Cf. Fr. déjeuner "to breakfast," from L. dis-jejunare "to break the fast."

People around the world eat different things for breakfast:

 In the United States, people usually eat pancakes, waffles, toast, eggs or bagels for breakfast.
 In Canada, people usually eat maple cured bacon, fried potatoes, maple-infused beans, eggs, toast, pancakes and maple syrup or hot oatmeal for breakfast.

 In the United Kingdom a large breakfast was often, and still is sometimes, served. Usually this would be bread, tea, egg, bacon, ham, fruits, baked beans on toast and sometimes vegetables. This pattern of heavy eating has greatly changed in recent years. Most people do not do manual work nowadays.
 In France, people usually eat a very light meal; often bread and coffee with milk. Again, this depends on what kind of work is done (usually by the father of the household).
 In Asia, most people eat rice instead of bread. They also sometimes eat porridge.

References

Related pages 
Bacon and eggs
Diet (nutrition)

Meals
Condensed matter physics

Condensed matter physics is a branch of physics which talks about matter that has its molecules packed together very closely. This usually means it deals with solids (solid matter).

Matter
Subfields of physics
Bag

A bag is a kind of soft container. It can hold or carry things. It may be made from cloth, leather, plastic, or paper. Many bags are disposable but some are made to use for a long time. A bag may have one or two handles or a shoulder strap. Bags come in different shapes and sizes depending on how they will be used. A small bag that can be carried with a single hand is sometimes called a handbag, purse, or pocketbook.  Children can suffocate, or stop breathing and die, when they put certain kinds of bags over their heads, due to having the supply of oxygen cut off.

Other websites

Basic English 850 words
Sapporo

is the capital city of Hokkaidō Prefecture in Japan. The port city is on the southwest part of the island of Hokkaidō and it is the island's largest city.

The city has a famous snow festival in winter, it has a growing population of about 1,800,000 people.  Its area is . There are a lot of fish markets in Sapporo. A beer brand named "Sapporo" was named after this city. Ramen is a very popular food in Sapporo. The city has a subway system. Some famous landmarks are the Sapporo TV Tower, and the clock tower that is in the center of the city. There are several universities here, including Hokkaido University. The nearby airport is called New Chitose Airport.

Events
1972 - The Winter Olympic Games were held in Sapporo.

Related pages
 Consadole Sapporo

References

Other websites

 City of Sapporo
 Sightseeing of Sapporo 
 Sightseeing of Sapporo

Olympic cities
 
Cities in Hokkaido
Hokkaidō Prefecture

is a special Japanese prefecture in Hokkaidō region on the island Hokkaidō.  It is the most northern prefecture of Japan.

Sapporo is the capital city of Hokkiado.

History

Until the Meiji Restoration, the island was called Ezo, Watari-shima, Yeddo, and Yezo.  Since 1869, it has been called Hokkaidō.

The population expanded in the late 19th century.

Timeline
 1947 (Shōwa 22): Hokkaidō Prefecture was established.

 2008 (Heisei 20): The 34th G8 summit was held in Toyako.

Geography
Hokkaidō is the 2nd largest island of Japan The island is between the Sea of Japan to the west, the Sea of Okhotsk to the northeast, the Pacific Ocean to the southeast, and the Tsugaru Strait to the south. 

Hokkaidō is separated from Honshu by the Tsugaru Strait; however, it is connected by the underwater Seikan tunnel.

Some of the Chishima Islands are occupied by Russia, but Japan still considers the islands to be Japanese.

National Parks
Natural Parks are established in about 10% of the total land area of the prefecture.

Shrines and Temples
Hokkaidō jingū was the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of Ezo, which was an ancient name for the Hokkaidō region.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan
 Consadole Sapporo

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
List of elements by symbol

This is a list of elements by atomic number with symbol.

Second list 

Chemistry lists
Periodic table (metals and non-metals)

Color coding for atomic numbers:
 Elements numbered in blue are liquids at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP);
 those in green are gases at STP;
 those in black are solid at STP;
 those in red are synthetic (all are predicted to be solid at STP).
 those in gray have not yet been discovered (they also have muted filled colors indicating the likely chemical series they would fall under).

Related pages 
 Periodic table

Periodic table
Bible study

Bible study is intensive reading of the Bible.

For Christians, study of the Bible is often part of daily life. A lot of other people are also interested in this piece of world literature.

In Europe before the 16th century it was not possible for most people to study the Bible.  Books were written using only the languages Latin and Greek.  Only people who had learned to read those languages could study the Bible. The Roman Catholic Church said people could not translate the Bible into other languages, for example Italian or English because many people could not read and it took the lifetime of a monk, by himself, to translate the Bible.  

When the Reformation started in 16th century Europe, the Bible was translated into several languages.  Many books were printed in these languages. People were then able to read the Bible in their own language.

Related pages
 Biblical study, the academic study of the Bible

Bible
Medlar

The medlar is a tree and the name of the fruit of this tree. Its Latin name is Crataegus germanica, or "German medlar", but it is not from Germany. It grows in the Near East and South-Eastern Europe, and the Romans took it to Germany. Near the Caspian Sea, people grew the medlar about three thousand years ago. It came to Greece in about 700 BC and to Rome in about 200 BC. It was an important fruit plant in Roman and medieval times. But by 1600-1700, people started eating other fruits and not the medlar. Today people do not grow it very often.

The medlar needs warm summers and mild (not too cold) winters and likes to grow in sunny, dry places. In the best places, the plant can grow up to eight metres tall. The medlar is deciduous: it is not green all year. Usually, it is shorter than a tree. It lives between thirty and fifty years. Medlar leaves are dark green, maximum fifteen centimetres long and three centimetres wide. The plant has flowers in late spring. The flowers are white. The red-brown medlar fruits are similar to apples and grow to two to three centimetres. They are very hard and acidic, and we can only eat them after the cold weather makes them soft.

Other websites

Fruits
Rosaceae
Hippocrates

Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) was a Greek doctor who is called the "father of medicine". He was the first person to teach that people got sick for scientific reasons. Previously, people believed that disease was caused by angry gods.

Many of Hippocrates' writings are still important to doctors. For example, patient confidentiality, meaning that doctors can only discuss a patient with the patient themselves. Another of his ideas is to never knowingly lead a patient to suffering or death. These kinds of ideas are part of medical ethics.

The Hippocratic Oath is named after him. This is a set of rules which doctors promise to obey. We don't exactly know what the original was, but this is an example of a modern Hippocratic Oath:I do solemnly swear by all I hold most sacred:
 that I will be loyal to the profession of medicine and just to its members
 that I will lead my life and practice my art with virtue and honor
 that into whatsoever home I shall enter it shall be for the good of the sick and the well by the utmost of my power and that I will hold myself aloof from wrong and from corruption and from the tempting of others to vice
 that I will exercise my art solely for the benefit of my patients, the relief of suffering, the prevention of disease and promotion of health, and I will give no drug and perform no act for an immoral purpose
 that in the treatment of the sick, I will consider their well-being to be of a greater importance than their ability to compensate my services
 that what I may see or hear in the course of treatment or even outside the treatment in regard to the lives of persons which is not fitting to be spoken, I will keep inviolably secret
 that I will commit myself to a lifetime of continued learning of the art and science of medicine
 these things I do promise and in proportion as I am faithful to this oath, may happiness and good repute be ever mine, but should I trespass and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot.

The oldest version we have is AD 275, and that is just fragments.

References 

460s BC births
4th-century BC deaths
Greek physicians
Ancient Greek philosophers
History of medicine
Commensurability

Commensurability is a concept in the philosophy of science. Scientific theories are described as commensurable if one can compare them to find out which is more accurate. If there is  no way  one can compare them to determine which is more accurate, they are incommensurable.

Behind this is the idea that it is possible to see the world in multiple ways, and that there is not one fair method to see which way is right. Some think that scientific traditions (or paradigms) can be incommensurable: it is not really possible to say which one is right. This idea has been defended by Thomas Kuhn. He wrote: when paradigms change, the world changes with them. Paul Feyerabend was another philosopher who said that incommensurability was possible in scientific topics. He wrote that it is important to remember this, because it means that it is possible to say things that are not scientific, but also not wrong. These ideas were mainly aimed at Karl Popper and his ideas on falsification.

Two theories may not be comparable if one cannot find a way to compare them and decide which is right.

In popular culture
The concept of incommensurability is dramatized in the 2006 movie Idiocracy, when U.S. Army scientist Joe Bauers attempts to explain before a full Cabinet meeting his theory that the nation's crops would be better irrigated with water rather than with a sports drink.

References

Philosophy of science
Harvest

Harvest means to collect what has been planted and grown in the ground. It is usually done by farmers, and in the fall season. This is also called picking crops. Crop failure (also known as harvest failure) is a loss or reduced crop yield due to plants being damaged, killed, or destroyed. Sometimes it brings famine.

"Harvest" can also mean to collect other things than plants such as cultivated bivalves including oysters, scallops, and other animals.

Agriculture
ELISPOT

ELISPOT stands for "Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Spot Assay".  It is a laboratory technique for detecting cells that make (or "secrete") various substances.  These substances include specific types of cytokines or antibodies.  The ELISPOT method is typically used with blood cells, and is a helpful tool in studying the human immune system and various treatments for disease (e.g. vaccines).

In the ELISPOT technique, tiny wells are used to contain the cells, with a variety of other substances.  The substances cause colored spots to form near the cells that secrete the substances in question. These spots can then be counted manually (using a microscope, for example) or automatically using specialized equipment with computer vision capabilities.

The ELISPOT technique is very sensitive, and can detect even a single substance-producing cell. It is also very versatile, since it can be tailored to detect a wide variety of very specific secretions.

Other websites 
A flash animation of the ELISpot procedure 
An animated illustration of the ELISPOT process
 Examples of spot patterns formed by the ELISPOT technique

Biochemistry
List of biochemistry topics

This is a list of all the articles related to biochemistry.



A 
abiogenesis - adenine - adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - albumin - allotrope - alpha helix - amino acid - amylase - antibiotic - antibody - antigen -

B 
B vitamin complex - base pair - bilirubin - benzene - biochemistry - bioluminescence - blood - blood type

C 
carbohydrate - carbon dioxide - catabolism - cell - cell membrane - cellobiose - cellular respiration - cellulose - chemoautotroph - chloroplast - choline - chromatography - citric acid - coenzyme A - cytoplasm - cytokine - cytosine - cytosol -

D 
deoxyribose - disaccharide - DNA - DNA replication -

E 
ELISA - ELISPOT - energy level - enkephalin - enzyme - epinephrine - erythropoietin -

F 
fat - formaldehyde -

G 
gel electrophoresis - glycolysis - glycoprotein -  granzyme - guanine -

H 
hemoglobin - hormone - hydrocarbon - hydrogen bond - hydrolysis -

I 
immunoglobulin - immunology - insulin - intermolecular force - ion channel - ionic bond - isomer -

K 
keratin - kinetic energy - Krebs cycle -

L 
Le Chatelier's principle - light-dependent reactions - light-independent reactions - Link reaction - lipid -

M 
macromolecule - membrane protein - metabolism - microbiology - molecular biology - molecule - monosaccharide -

N 
NADPH - neurotransmitter - niacin - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate - Nobel Prize in Chemistry - nucleic acid - nucleobase - nucleotide - nutrient - nutrition -

O 
organic chemistry - organic compound - osmosis - oxidation -

P 
peptide - pesticide - pH - photosynthesis -  physiology - polymer - polysaccharide - potential energy - prion - protein - protein biosynthesis -

R 
redox - respiration (physiology) - riboflavin - ribose - ribosome - RNA -

S 
saturated fat - scientific notation - sequence analysis - signal transduction -  solvation - starch - substrate (biochemistry) - sugar - synapse

T 
T cell - thymine - toxin - trans fat - transcription (genetics) - translation (genetics) -

U 
unsaturated fat - uracil -

V 
vaccine - virus - vitamin - Vitamin A - Vitamin C - Vitamin D - Vitamin E - Vitamin K -

Y 
yeast -

Chemistry lists
White blood cell

The job of white blood cells (also called leukocytes) is to fight infections and cancer. They also remove poison, waste and damaged cells from the body.

The number of white blood cells increases when a person is fighting infection or disease and decrease when a person is healthy.

Types of white blood cells

Lymphocytes 
Lymphocytes are round white blood cells a bit bigger than a red blood cell. Their center is round and they have little cytoplasm. Part of the lymphatic system, these target specific germs or poisons using their antibodies. There are three known types of lymphocytes, called T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells).

B-cells make antibodies, which are little molecules that attach to viruses or bad cells. These act like flags to tell other cells to destroy the viruses or bad cells.

T-cells can either help make more B-cells, or kill cells with antibodies.

Natural killer cells kill cells in the body that have been infected by a virus or that are part of a tumor. They are part of the innate immune system.

Monocytes 
Monocytes are reserve cells which turn into macrophages and dendritic cells, which work together in tissues to fight disease. Monocytes have a kidney bean shaped center and lots of cytoplasm. They may appear as macrophages in a non-round shape when they pass through tissue to eat germs, "junk" cells, and dead cells.

Granulocytes 
The next three types of white blood cells are referred to as granulocytes since they all contain rough, grain-like particles that assist in attacking viruses and bacteria. Granulocytes are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the shape of the nucleus, which has three segments.

Neutrophils 
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals, 70% of leukocytes. They are an essential part of the immune system. They get to the site of an injury within minutes, and make up much of the content of pus. They have a short life-span of a couple of days.

The nucleus, which looks like a string of beads, does not take up stain strongly. Like phagocytes, they actually eat the bacteria and dead cells. They also release a bunch of proteins which work to damage the bacteria.

Basophils 

Basophils, or basophil granulocytes, are rare granulocytes. If you collected 1000 white blood cells, only 13 of them would be basophils. Their nucleus is hidden by granules which turn dark blue in color when stained. Basophils carry histamine and heparin. They appear at the sites of ectoparasite infection, or allergies. We don't know exactly how they work.

Eosinophils 
Eosinophils, or acidophils, are leukocytes. They are one of the immune system components which combat parasites and certain infections. As with mast cells and basophils, they are sometimes causes of allergy and asthma. Eosinophils are round cells with a lobed nucleus and granules which turn red when stained. These granules are packed with proteins that can be poured out to help destroy invaders.

Cell testing 
A test called a differential count shows how many white blood cells there are in a person's blood, and how many of each type are there.

References 

Cell biology
Immunology
Author

An author is a person who makes an original piece of work. Most people use author to mean writer. While a writer is a type of author, authors often do more than write. Anyone who creates something original is an author. This could be written items such as books, stories or  poems. This could also be other types of art, such as sculpture or music. Any type of work can be made by an author.

Writer and author

The term author is commonly used to refer to a person who writes as a profession. It is also believed by many that the term is used for writers who are distinguished and who have had their works published. These explanations are common with people who work with those that write professionally.

An author does not always have to be a writer. If a person dictates a letter to a secretary, then the secretary is a writer but the person who dictated the letter is the author.

Examples 
Other examples of someone being called author:
In copyright law, the author is the first owner of copyright.  These laws also apply to other works of art such as pictures or music.
In biology, the first person to write an article that gives a name to and describes a type of living thing is the author of that name.
Someone who writes music may be called the author of that piece of music. Another name for an author of music is a composer.

French usage 
When talking about movies, the French word for author, auteur, is often used about someone who has been both the writer and director of a movie.

Related pages 
 Writer
 Journalist
 Genre of literature

References

Other websites 
 Networks of scientific papers

 
Writing occupations
Pedipalp

Pedipalps are the two appendages on the front of a spider's head. Other arachnids, and chelicerates that are not arachnids also have pedipalps. Some spiders seem to have ten legs and not eight, because these pedipalps look like an extra pair of legs. The pedipalps are used rather like arms.  Spiders often use them to hold insects (for example crickets) for them to eat.

Male spiders also use pedipalps for mating.  The male spiders make some silk, put sperm onto the silk, and then put their pedipalps into the sperm.  The pedipalps then hold the sperm, and the spider can use it to mate with a female by putting them inside her epigynum.

Diversity of pedipalps 
The pedipalps of all chelicerates vary: Ricinulei, Thelyphonida, Amblypygi, some Opiliones, Schizomida, scorpions and pseudoscorpions all have theirs as pincers, with the Amblypygi's being their entire pedipalps shaped like mantids. The Palpigradi's pedipalps have some of the strangest roles of arachnids as they use theirs for locomotion. The pedipalps of Solifugae act as antennae.

Other websites 
 Close-up view of pedipalps on a large spider 

Animal anatomy
Arachnids
Ionic compound

In chemistry, an ionic compound is a compound made of ions. They have strong ionic bonds between particles. Lots of energy (heat) is required to break the bond apart, resulting in high melting and boiling points. The ions join because they have different charges. Compounds of metals and non-metals are usually ionic. They are made when two or more atoms come close together and an electron goes from one atom to the other atom. The electron does this because both atoms want a full outer shell, similar to those of the noble gases.

Note 1: carbon and silicon in Group 4 usually form covalent bonds by sharing electrons.

Note 2: the elements in Group 0 do not react with other elements to form ions

Physical properties

Chemistry

sv:Jonförening
ELISA

The ELISA method (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay) is a technique used in biochemistry to determine if a certain substance--such as a specific cytokine or antigen--is present within a sample. It is sometimes abbreviated as "EIA."

This technique uses special antibodies that attach themselves to the substance. These antibodies generate a specific color. The amount of color indicates the amount of substance present. (Sometimes, the substance must be viewed under ultraviolet light for the antibodies to generate this color.)

Another set of antibodies are used to "capture" the substance. These antibodies adhere to both the substance and the testing container, thus holding the substance in place.

A more sophisticated and sensitive technique, the ELISPOT method, was derived from the ELISA techique.

Other websites 
 An animated illustration of an ELISA assay
 Image of a microtiter plate, such as is commonly used in ELISA tests

Biochemistry