alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Cardboard

Cardboard is a heavy type of paper, notable for its stiffness and durability. It was first invented in China some time in the 15th century, and is used for a wide variety of purposes. One of its more common uses is as a packaging material.

Cardboard boxes were first produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated (also called pleated) paper was patented in England in 1856, used as a liner for tall hats, but corrugated cardboard would not be patented and used as a shipping material until 20 December 1871. The patent was issued to Albert Jones of New York City, New York for single-sided corrugated cardboard. Jones used the corrugated cardboard for wrapping bottles and glass lantern chimneys. The first machine for producing large quantities of corrugated cardboard was built in 1874 by G. Smyth, and in the same year Oliver Long improved upon Jones' design by inventing corrugated cardboard with liner sheets on both sides. This was now cardboard as we know it today.

American Robert Gair was a Brooklyn printer and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, and while he was printing an order of seed bags a metal ruler normally used to crease bags shifted in position and cut the bag. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing cardboard in one operation he could make prefabricated cartons. Extending this to corrugated cardboard was a straightforward development when the material became available. By the start of the 20th century, corrugated cardboard boxes began replacing the custom-made wooden crates and boxes previously used for trade.

The Kellogg brothers first used cardboard cartons to hold their flaked corn cereal, and later when they began marketing it to the general public a heat-sealed waxed bag of Waxtite was wrapped around the outside of the box and printed with their brand name. This marked the origin of the cereal box, though in modern times the sealed bag is plastic and is kept inside the box rather than outside.

Cardboard packaging has undergone minor changes in recent times due to the trend towards environmentalism. It is now common for cardboard to be manufactured with a large percentage of recycled fibers.

Paper
Trier

Trier is a city at the Moselle River in Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. The population is about 100,000.

Trier is famous for some Roman buildings like the Porta Nigra and others. It is famous as the birthplace of Karl Marx. Trier is also famous for the wine of the wine-growing-region Mosel-Saar-Ruwer.

Districts 

The districts of Trier with area and inhabitants (July 2007):

References

Other websites 

 www.trier.de 
 History of Trier  (German and English)
 Another Trier Daily Photo

Trier
Thomm

Thomm is a village near Trier (at the Moselle River) in Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany.

Thomm is famous for an old Celtic stone, called Hinkelstein near the village and a big Celtic grave.

In further times there was a slate minor industry near Thomm.

Thomm is also famous for its cider, an apple-wine.

The FIA European Hill Climb Championship came to Thomm until 2011 and the FIA World Rally Championship until 2015.

Other websites 

Gemeinde Thomm bei Trier an der Mosel - Willkommen - Welcome - Bienvenue - Welkom

Villages in Rhineland-Palatinate
Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate
Trier-Saarburg
Moselle

The Moselle River (German: Mosel)  is a river which flows through  France and Luxembourg, then becomes part of the Rhine River after it flows into Germany. It is  long.

Important cities at the Moselle river are Metz, Thionville, Trier, Bernkastel-Kues and Koblenz.

The valley of the Moselle river is famous for the wine of Elbling, Riesling, and Müller-Thurgau - grapes in the wine growing region Moselle-Saar-Ruwer.

Tributaries 
From the left:
Madon,
Terrouin,
Esch,
Rupt de Mad,
Orne,
Fensch,
Gander,
Syre,
Sauer,
Kyll,
Salm,
Lieser,
Alf,
Endert,
Brohlbach,
Elz.

From the right:
Moselotte,
Vologne,
Meurthe,
Seille,
Saar,
Olewiger Bach,
Avelsbach,
Ruwer,
Feller Bach,
Dhron,
Ahringsbach,
Kautenbach,
Lützbach,
Flaumbach,
Altlayer Bach,
Baybach,
Ehrbach.

Other websites 
 German page 

Geography of Rhineland-Palatinate
Geography of Saarland
Rivers of Germany
Rivers of Luxembourg
Rivers of Grand Est
Bavaria

Bavaria (; , ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (, ; ), is a State (Bundesland) of Germany. The territory of this state is the largest of the 16 German states. The state capital is Munich with 1.5 million people. About 13.1 million people live in Bavaria.  

Like many German states, Bavaria was once independent. Ludwig II of Bavaria was its last independent king. Bavaria joined the German Empire in 1871.

Structure 
Bavaria has seven parts: Oberbayern (Upper Bavaria), Niederbayern (Lower Bavaria), Schwaben (Swabia), Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia), Unterfranken (Lower Franconia), Oberfranken (Upper Franconia) and Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate). Bavaria has 71 districts and 25 free cities.

The highest point is the Zugspitze, which is also the highest mountain in Germany. Munich is the largest city, the second biggest city is Nuremberg (Nürnberg), which is famous for its gingerbread, a kind of Christmas bread that is often shaped like a Christmas tree, a snowman or Santa Claus.

Pope Benedict XVI was born in Bavaria.

Administrative divisions

Administrative regions

Bavaria is divided into seven administrative regions called  (singular ). For every Administrative region there is a state agency called  (district government).
Altbayern:
 Upper Palatinate
 Upper Bavaria
 Lower Bavaria
Franconia:
 Upper Franconia
 Middle Franconia
 Lower Franconia
Swabia:
 Swabia

Districts (Bezirke)
Bavaria has "Bezirke" or districts; the others are the  and the  or . The  in Bavaria are identical with the . In the other larger states of Germany, there are only  as administrative divisions and no self-governing entities at the level of the  as the  in Bavaria.

Population and area

Districts
Bavaria is made up of 71 rural districts that are comparable to counties, as well as the 25 independent cities, both of which share the same administrative responsibilities and duties.

Rural districts:

Independent cities:

Municipalities
The 71 rural districts are on the lowest level divided into 2,031 regular municipalities. Together with the 25 independent cities, there are a total of 2,056 municipalities in Bavaria.

 

In 44 of the 71 rural districts, there are a total of 215 unincorporated areas (as of 1 January 2005), not belonging to any municipality, all unsettled and unpopulated, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes (-without islands, -without islands, , , which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, and ).

Major cities and towns

Source: Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung

Notes

References

Sources

Other websites

 Official government website
 Official website of Bayern Tourismus Marketing GmbH
 Bavarian Studies in History and Culture
 Außenwirtschaftsportal Bayern
 Statistics
Carnivore

A carnivore is an animal which eats only meat.  Predators commonly hunt and kill their own prey. Scavengers are carnivores which eat animals they did not kill themselves. Carnivores which eat mainly or only insects are called insectivores. Carnivores which eat mainly or only fish are called piscivores.

The word "carnivore" describes more than just the scientific order Carnivora. However, almost all animals in the Carnivora do eat meat, though a few do not.

List of living carnivores 

Mammals
 All feliforms, such as domestic cats, big cats, hyenas, mongooses, civets
 Almost all caniforms, such as the dogs, wolves, foxes, ferrets, seals and walruses
 All cetaceans, such as dolphins, whales and porpoises
 All bats except fruitbats
 The carnivorous marsupials, such as the Tasmanian devil

Birds
 All birds of prey, such as hawks, eagles, falcons and owls
 All vultures, both old world and new
 Most waterfowl, such as gulls, penguins, pelicans, storks, and herons

Reptiles
 All crocodilians, such as alligators, crocodiles, gharials and caimans
 All snakes, such as cobras, vipers, pythons and boas
 Some lizards, such as most skinks and all monitor lizards
 Some turtles, including the snapping turtle and most sea turtles

Fish and amphibians
 All frogs and toads
 Almost all sharks, such as tiger, great white, nurse and reef sharks
 Most teleosts, such as tuna, marlin, salmon, and bass

Invertebrates
 Most crustaceans, such as the coconut crab are mainly omnivorous, but eat some prey and carrion
 Many molluscs, such as octopus and squid, and some gastropods
 All arachnids, such as spiders and scorpions
 Many insects, such as mantises, dragonflies and most wasps
 All jellyfish and sea stars

Related pages 
 Theropod
 Insectivore
 Herbivore
 Omnivore

References
Cologne

Cologne (, ) is a city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It is on the Rhine River. About 1,060,000 people live there, making Cologne the biggest city in North Rhine-Westphalia. It is in the southern part of the 'Rhine-Ruhr agglomeration' of cities with a combined total population of about 10 million people. This is one of the most densely populated areas of the world.

Cologne has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).

History
The city was founded by the Romans in the year 50 AD. Before that, it was a Roman castle ("castellum") and a town inhabited by a local German tribe named Ubier at least for 100 years. Archaeologists have found out that the surrounding area was populated already during the Stone Age.

Traditionally, the city was always Roman Catholic. That changed only recently after the Second World War, as a result of massive immigration of Protestants from the East of Germany. Still the largest number of people, 41.6%, are Roman Catholic, compared to 17% Protestant. 10% of the people are Muslim.

Sights
The most interesting thing to see there is Cologne Cathedral. This church was built from about 1248 to about 1550, but completed only in 1880. The United Nations list it as 'World Cultural Heritage'. Cologne's archbishop Rainald von Dassel brought the relics of the biblical Three Wise Men there in 1164. They are kept in a very beautiful golden shrine in the cathedral. Three golden crowns in the coat of arms of the city symbolize them. They made Cologne a major place of pilgrimage.

The University of Cologne alone has more than 50,000 students. It was founded 1919 and is one of the biggest universities in Germany. There are several specialized Schools in addition to the university. The Hochschule für Musik is the biggest academy of music in Europe. Cologne has two colleges of arts and the sports college again is one of the biggest institutions of its kind worldwide.

Cologne has 31 museums. It has one of the busiest train stations in Europe. It is the only train station next to a big cathedral.

Culture
People in Cologne and nearby have their own dialect. They call it Kölsch. During Carnival time it even appears on nationwide broadcasts.

Cologne has a handful of broadcasting stations. The Westdeutscher Rundfunk, part of the network ARD, is the biggest producer of television and radio programs in Germany.

Cologne is also famous for Eau de Cologne (Kölnisch Wasser).

Related pages
 Berlin
 Bonn (nearby city)
 Düsseldorf (nearby city)
 Frankfurt/Main
 Hamburg
 Leverkusen (nearby city)
 Munich

References

Other websites 

 German page on the city
 German page of the University
 German page of the cathedral
 German page of the broadcasting station Westdeutscher Rundfunk

Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia
 
1st-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Germany
50 establishments
Senegal

The Republic of Senegal (French République da Sénégal) is a country in West Africa. The capital is Dakar. 
Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres. It has population of about 13 million. The climate is tropical with two seasons: the dry season and the rainy cold  season. Senegal was given independence by France in 1960.

Major industries are fish processing, phosphate mining, fertilizer production, petroleum refining, construction materials, ship construction and repair. Peanuts, sugarcane, cotton, green beans, industrial tomato, cherry tomato, melon, and mango are important cash crops.

French is the official language. Since April 2012, Senegal's president has been Macky Sall.

History
In the 15th century, Portuguese people came to Gorée Island off the coast of Dakar. In the 17th century, French people and Dutch people came there, too. These European countries used the island as a trading post in slaves from the mainland, and was controlled by the Muslim Wolof Empires. Slavery was later made illegal by France, but soon after, around 1850, the French started to conquer the Wolof. By 1902 Senegal was a part of the French colony French West Africa.

In January 1959, Senegal and the French Sudan became one to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent on June 20, 1960, as a result of the independence and transfer of power agreement signed with France on April 4, 1960. This did not last long and Senegal and Mali broke apart into separate nations. Between 1982 and 1989, Senegal and The Gambia joined together to make Senegambia.

Geography
In the north of Senegal is the Senegal River. To the north of the river is Mauritania. The nation borders Mali in the east, Guinea-Bissau in the south, and Guinea in the south-east. The Gambia is another country inside of Senegal, along the Gambia River. It is about 300 km long.

The north of Senegal is part of the Sahel. The highest mountain is 581 m high. The rainy season is between June and October. The average temperature on the coast is about 24° C, and inland about 27° C.

Regions

 Dakar
 Diourbel
 Fatick
 Kaffrine
 Kaolack
 Kédougou
 Kolda
 Louga
 Matam
 Saint-Louis
 Sédhiou
 Tambacounda
 Thiès
 Ziguinchor

References

 
French-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Developmental biology

Developmental biology is the study of how organisms grow and develop. 

Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and morphogenesis. These are the processes which turn a zygote into an adult animal.

Cell differentiation 
Differentiation is the formation of cell types, from what is originally one cell – the zygote or spore. The formation of cell types like nerve cells occurs with a number of intermediary, less differentiated cell types. A cell stays a certain cell type by maintaining a particular pattern of gene expression.293-5 This depends on regulatory genes.

Embryonic development 

Embryogenesis is the step in the life cycle after fertilisation – the development of the embryo, starting from the zygote (fertilised egg). Organisms can differ drastically in the how embryo develops, especially when they belong to different phyla.

Growth 
Growth is the enlargement of a tissue or organism. Growth continues after the embryonic stage, and occurs through cell division, enlargement of cells or accumulation of extracellular material. In plants, growth results in an adult organism that is strikingly different from the embryo. The dividing cells tend to be distinct from differentiated cells (see stem cell). 

In some tissues dividing cells are restricted to special areas, such as the growth plates of bones.467-482 But some stem cells move to where they are needed, from the bone marrow to form muscle, bone or adipose (fat) tissue.

Metamorphosis 

Many animals have a larval stage, with a body plan different from that of the adult organism. The larva abrubtly develops into an adult in a process called metamorphosis. For example, caterpillars (butterfly larvae) are specialized for feeding whereas adult butterflies (imagos) are specialised for flight and reproduction. When the caterpillar has grown enough, it turns into an immobile pupa. Here, the imago develops from imaginal discs found inside the larva.575-585

Regeneration 
Regeneration is the reactivation of development so that a missing body part grows back. This phenomenon has been studied particularly in salamanders, where the adults can reconstruct a whole limb after it has been amputated. Researchers hope to one day be able to induce regeneration in humans. There is little spontaneous regeneration in adult humans, although the liver is a notable exception. Like for salamanders, the regeneration of the liver involves reversing some cells to an earlier state.592-601

Related pages 
Evolutionary developmental biology

References
1920s

The 1920s was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 1920 and ended on December 31, 1929. It is distinct from the decade known as the 193rd decade which began on January 1, 1921 and ended on December 31, 1930. This decade was known as the Roaring Twenties or the Jazz Age.

The most important events 

 1920 – Prohibition began in the United States. Criminal activity associated with alcohol.
 1922 – The Soviet Union was founded as a dictatorship.
 1922 – Howard Carter discovered the tomb of the Egyptian King Tutankhamun.
 1922 – Southern Ireland gained independence from the United Kingdom.
 1929 – Black Tuesday, which lead to the Great Depression. 
Role of the depression in stimulating the career of Adolf Hitler in Germany

Important people

World leaders 
 Prime Minister Stanley Bruce (Australia)
 Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King (Canada)
 President Sun Yat-sen (Republic of China)
 President Chiang Kai-shek (Republic of China)
 President Friedrich Ebert (Germany)
 President Paul von Hindenburg (Germany), later replaced by Adolf Hitler.
 Ahmad Shah Qajar of Qajar dynasty (Persia/Iran)
 Reza Shah Pahlavi of Pahlavi Dynasty (Iran)
 King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy)
 Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (Italy)
 President W.T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State)
 President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk) (Turkey)
 Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
 Pope Pius XI
 Józef Piłsudski (Poland)
 Vladimir Lenin (Soviet Union)
 Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
 King Alfonso XIII (Spain)
 King George V (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister David Lloyd George (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Andrew Bonar Law (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (United Kingdom)
 President Woodrow Wilson (United States)
 President Warren G. Harding (United States)
 President Calvin Coolidge (United States)
 President Herbert Hoover (United States)
 Albert Einstein (German physicist)
 Paul von Hindenburg (president of Germany)
 King George V (King of the United Kingdom)
 Vladimir Lenin (leader of the USSR)
 Pope Pius XI (Pope in the 1920s)
 Joseph Stalin (leader of the USSR)
 King Victor Emmanuel III (king of Italy)
Centripetal force

Centripetal acceleration is a force that acts on a body that revolves around a centre of a circular path. This force keeps the body in circular motion.  Newton's first law is that a moving object will continue in its motion in a straight path unless acted on by an external force.  

When you hold a rope with an object attached to it, and spin it in a circular motion around the hand of the person holding the rope, the rope becomes tight and keeps the body from flying away. This force acts towards the center of motion, not away from it. 

An object changes direction, but may maintain a constant speed, if acted upon by a centripetal acceleration.  In such a case, we know from its  angular frequency that . From Newton's second law we know that force equals mass times acceleration. Here acceleration is the negative of the radius coming from the centre of the circular motion.  

In this formula, think that the centripetal force and the centripetal momentum are the same thing because they are both measured in Newtons. 

If, however, the angular frequency is not constant (as might be the case in a roller-coaster ride) then  does vary with respect to time. Here 

 

Thus 

 

as  and  , which we know from the angular frequency.

Geometric proof for uniform circular motion

In the figure to the right we define the displacement vector  to represent motion in a circle.  The magnitude of  is denoted as  and represents the radius of the particle's orbit.
 

Force
Mechanics
Treaty

A treaty is a written agreement between two or more parties. International treaties are covered by international law. The parties may be countries or other important groups. A treaty may be about any subject.

Two countries might agree to stop a war, or declare war on a common enemy. Very common are treaties where a country promises to come to the aid of another country if the other country is attacked. Treaties about trade are also common. They may allow allow each other's citizens or merchandise to cross borders freely. For example, the European Union is set up by treaties between most of the European nations. It arranges that trade of products and services is free between the member states of the European Union.

In general, treaties are usually used to settle disputes, or to avoid disputes.

Famous treaties 
 1494 - Treaty of Tordesillas
 1783 - Treaty of Paris (1783)
 1814 - Congress of Vienna
 1840 - Treaty of Waitangi
 1919 - Treaty of Versailles
 1928 - Kellogg-Briand Pact
 1935 - Roerich Pact
 1938 - Munich Agreement
 1944 - Bretton Woods Agreement
 1945 - United Nations Charter (not strictly a treaty)
 1947 - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
 1949 - North Atlantic Treaty
 1955 - Warsaw Pact
 1957 - Treaty of Rome
 1968 - Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
 1992 - Treaty of Maastricht
 1993 - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
 1998 - Good Friday Agreement

Related pages
 Peace treaty
 Ratification
 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
Luxembourg

Luxembourg (official name is the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (, , ) is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is a small country by land area. 

In 2023, its population was 660,809, making it one of Europe's most densely populated countries. It was one of the first countries in the European Union. It is also a member of the Benelux. The countries next to Luxembourg are Belgium, Germany, and France. The main language is Luxembourgish.

History timeline
 963 - Luxembourg was founded. Sigefroid, Count of Ardennes, came to own the ruins of an old Roman fort called "Castellum Lucilinburhuc" ("Little Castle") from the monks of the Abbey of St. Maximin in Trier.
 1354 - The emperor Charles IV made Luxembourg a duchy.
 1437 - There were no people in the ruling family alive. The castle was given to the Habsburgs.
 1443 - Luxembourg was captured by Philip of Burgundy.
 1482 - Mary of Burgundy died. Luxembourg was ruled by the Habsburgs again.
 1795 - After the French revolution Luxembourg was taken over by France. It became a département of France.
 1815 - Luxembourg became a grand duchy. It was ruled by the king of the Netherlands.
 1815-1866 - Luxembourg became a member of the German Confederation.
 1890 - After the death of William III, Luxembourg passed to the House of Nassau-Weilburg.
 1914-1918 - Luxembourg was conquered by Germany during World War I.
 1940 - The Germans returned during World War II, and in 1942 Luxembourg became part of the Third Reich.
 1944 - Luxembourg became independent in September because the United States Army arrived.
 1945 - Luxembourg joined the United Nations
 1957 - Luxembourg became one of the first six members of the European Economic Community. That is now called the European Union.
 2020 - Luxembourg became the first country in the world to make all public transport free to use.

Politics
Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy lead by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is in the hands of the Governor and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers.

Climate

Luxembourg has a continental climate. 

The highest temperature ever recorded in Luxembourg was , on 25 July 2019 in Steinsel.

The lowest temperature ever recorded in Luxembourg was  on 2 February 1956 in Wiltz.

Top 5 warmest days

Districts, cantons, and communes
Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 102 communes. Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest.

Districts
The districts are
Diekirch
Grevenmacher
Luxembourg

Related pages
List of rivers of Luxembourg
Luxembourg at the Olympics
Luxembourg national football team

References

 
European Union member states
Benelux
Current monarchies
French-speaking countries
German-speaking countries
Baden-Württemberg

Baden-Württemberg (, ; Alemannic German: Baade-Wiirdebäärg) is a federal state (Bundesland) in the southwestern region of Germany. It is the third largest German state by total area (after Bavaria and Lower Saxony) with a size of nearly 35,752 km² and population (after North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria) with over 11 million people as of 2017. It shares borders to the east with the state of Bavaria, to the north with the states of Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate, to the west with the country of France (along the river Rhine), and to the south with the countries of Switzerland and Austria. Its biggest cities are Stuttgart, the capital, Mannheim, and Karlsruhe. The Minister President is Winfried Kretschmann of the party Alliance '90/The Greens.

In 2017, Baden-Württemberg ranked 2 on the Human Development Index (HDI) among all states in Germany.

History 
In 1952, the three states of Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern joined to found Baden-Württemberg.

Politics 
The Minister President is the chief of the government of Baden-Württemberg. The government is made up of ministers and state secretaries.

The CDU was the main political party in the state between 1953 and 2011, the Ministers President have all been members of the CDU. Between the years 1972 and 1992, the members of the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg were mostly members of the CDU. But the state is also a stronghold of the "Grünen" which were founded in the early 1980s in Karlsruhe. The election results of the Grünen in Baden-Württemberg have always been above the election average for the party in Germany.

Since 2016 there have been 5 parties represented in the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg:
 Greens
 Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 Free Democratic Party (FDP/DVP)

List of Ministers President since 1952:

Tourism 

The Black forest, the Swabian Alb and the Lake Constance are world famous holiday regions. The highest mountain is the Feldberg (1492m).

Other important cities for tourism in Baden-Württemberg besides the capital city of Stuttgart are: Freiburg, Heidelberg, Rastatt, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Ulm, Ravensburg and Heilbronn.

The Danube, the Neckar and the Rhine are important rivers which are in the state.

Economy 
Baden-Württemberg has the third largest economy in Germany after the economies of North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria. It had a gross regional product (GRP) of €524.33 billion in 2019.

Religion 
In the northern part of Württemberg and the Kurpfalz the majority are Protestants. But the other parts of the state, especially the south, the majority are Roman Catholics.

Statistics for Baden-Württemberg:

Sports 
Football is the most popular sport in Baden-Württemberg. The best clubs are the VfB Stuttgart and the Karlsruher SC (Karlsruher SC or KSC). Another popular sport is handball.

References

Other websites 
 www.baden-württemberg.de
 www.baden-württemberg.de/en/home
 Webportal Baden-Württemberg. .
Telescope

A telescope (from the Ancient Greek τῆλε, tele "far" and σκοπεῖν, skopein "to look or see"; τηλεσκόπος, teleskopos) makes astronomical objects appear closer to the naked eye. It is an important tool for astronomy that gathers light and directs it to a single point. Some do this with curved mirrors, some with curved lenses, and some with both. Telescopes make distant things look bigger, brighter and closer. Galileo was the first person to use a telescope for astronomy, but he did not invent them. The first telescope was invented in the Netherlands in 1608. Some telescopes, not mainly used for astronomy, are binoculars, camera lenses, or spyglasses.

When telescopes are used with just your eye, an eyepiece has to be used. These use two or more smaller lenses to magnify an image. Without an eyepiece, an eye cannot focus the image. When a telescope is used with a camera or other special scientific tools, eyepiece lenses are not needed. The bigger the aperture (mirror) the more light the telescope collects. It makes faint objects appear clearer.

Most big telescopes for astronomy are made to study very carefully things that are already known.  A few are made for searching, such as for unknown asteroids or extrasolar planets.  Most big telescopes are made to be used with a CCD (Charge-Coupled Devices) camera instead of just the eye.  This is called "Astrophotography".  A Go-to telescope is needed to track Deep Sky objects and is placed on an Equatorial Mount for the axis to point towards Polaris, this is called polar alignment.

Telescopes can be used by normal people too, not just scientists.  These are amateur telescopes, and they are usually smaller, and they don't cost too much for an amateur to buy.  Some of the most popular amateur telescopes are Dobsonians, a type of Newtonian telescope.

The word telescope is usually used for light human eyes can see, but there are telescopes for wavelengths we cannot see. Infrared telescopes look like normal telescopes, but have to be kept cold since all warm things give off infrared light. Radio telescopes are like radio antennas, usually shaped like large dishes.

X-ray and Gamma ray telescopes have a problem because the rays go through most metals and glasses.  To solve this problem, the mirrors are shaped as many rings inside each other so the rays strike them at a shallow angle and are reflected.  These telescopes are space telescopes because little of this radiation reaches the Earth.  Other space telescopes are put in orbit so the Earth's atmosphere does not interfere.

Telescopes are mostly used for looking at celestial objects such as, the stars, planets, moons, exoplanets, etc.

Related pages
 List of telescope types

Other websites 

 European Southern Observatory - OWL
 The Resolution of a Telescope 
 Image of a Telescope
 Telescope -Citizendium
Homonym

A homonym is a word that has more than one meaning. For example, right means moral, the opposite of left, and a personal freedom.

Definition: one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings.

The point is that homonyms are both homophones (they sound the same) and homographs (they look the same).

Related pages
 Synonym

References 

Words
Principal

Not to be confused with principle.

A principal is a person who is in charge of something.  The person is usually in charge of a school, or a research project, or a business.

see also headmaster
Occupations
States of Germany

The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) has 16 states (). The biggest is Bavaria and the smallest is Bremen. Most of them were created after the Second World War. Some states have historical roots from the early Middle Ages.

State creation since 1949:
 1952: Three small states (Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern, part of Germany since 1949) joined to form Baden-Württemberg.
 1957: The Saar, which was put under French administration after World War II, joined the Federal Republic of Germany as the Saarland.
 1990: On German reunification, the reunited city of Berlin and the territory of the former German Democratic Republic joined the Federal Republic as six new states.

Population and area in km² as of November 2014:
1930s

The 1930s was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 1930 and ended on December 31, 1939. It is distinct from the decade known as the 194th decade which began on January 1, 1931 and ended on December 31, 1940.

Events 
 Great Depression
 Dust Bowl
 1930-1933 famine in Soviet Union kills millions 
 1933 – Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany
 1933 – Prohibition ends in the United States
 1939 – The start of World War II
 Nancy Drew books debut

Important people

Actor 
 Actor Cary Grant (United States)
 Actor Charles Boyer (France)
 Actor Fred Astaire (United States)
 Actor Fred MacMurray (United States)
 Actor Gene Reynolds (United States)
 Actor Humphrey Bogart (United States)
 Actor James Stewart (United States)
 Actor Lionel Barrymore (United States)
 Actor Melvyn Douglas (United States)
 Actor Robert Taylor (United States)
 Actor Spencer Tracy (United States)
 Actor William Holden (United States)

Actress 
 Actress Barbara Stanwyck (United States)
 Actress Deborah Kerr (United States)
 Actress Doris Day (United States)
 Actress Fay McKenzie (United States)
 Actress Gene Tierney (United States)
 Actress Ginger Rogers (United States)
 Actress Gloria Swanson (United States)
 Actress Greta Garbo (United States)
 Actress Peggy Stewart (United States)

World Leaders 
 President Paul von Hindenburg (Germany)
 Führer Adolf Hitler (Germany)
 King Faisal I (Iraq)
 President of the Executive Council W. T. Cosgrave (Ireland)
 President of the Executive Council Éamon de Valera (Ireland)
 Taoiseach Éamon de Valera (Ireland)
 King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy)
 Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (Italy)
 Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
 Sultan Mohammed V (Morocco)
 President Manuel L. Quezon (Philippines)
 Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar (Portugal)
 King Ananda Mahidol (Siam)
 General Secretary Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
 President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Turkey)
 King George V (United Kingdom)
 King Edward VIII (United Kingdom)
 King George VI (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (United Kingdom)
 President Herbert Hoover (United States)
 Vice President Charles Curtis (United States)
 President Franklin D. Roosevelt (United States)
 Vice President John Nance Garner (United States)
 Holy Father Pope Pius XI (Vatican)
 Holy Father Pope Pius XII (Vatican)
1950s

The 1950s was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 1950 and ended on December 31, 1959. It is distinct from the decade known as the 196th decade which began on January 1, 1951 and ended on December 31, 1960.

Events 
 1950–1953 Korean War.
 1953 – Structure of DNA published by James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins.
 1953 – Edmund Hillary is the first man on Mount Everest.
 1954 – Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends France's colonization of Vietnam and leads to division of Vietnam into North and South.
 1956 – Hungarian Revolution of 1956
 1956 – Suez Crisis
 1958 – Treaty of Rome
 1959 – Fidel Castro becomes the Prime Minister of Cuba.
 1957 – Sputnik launched.

Important people

Actor 
 Cary Grant, British-American actor
 Charles Boyer, French actor
 Dana Andrews, American actor
 Fred Astaire, American actor
 Fred MacMurray, American actor
 Gene Reynolds, American actor
 Humphrey Bogart, American actor
 James Dean, American actor
 James Stewart, American actor
 Kirk Douglas, American actor
 Lionel Barrymore, American actor
 Melvyn Douglas, American actor
 Paul Newman, American actor
 Robert Taylor, American actor
 Spencer Tracy, American actor
 Toshirō Mifune, Japanese actor
 William Holden, American actor

Actress 
 Anita Ekberg, Swedish actress
 Audrey Hepburn, British-Belgian actress
 Ava Gardner, American Actress
 Barbara Stanwyck, American actress
 Bibi Ferreira, Brazilian actress
 Deborah Kerr, British actress
 Donna Reed, American actress
 Gene Tierney, American actress
 Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress
 Marilyn Monroe, American actress
 Monica Vitti, Italian actress

Director 
 Alfred Hitchcock, British movie director

Musician 
 Chuck Berry, American rock & roll musician
 Bo Diddley, American rock & roll musician
 Elvis Presley, American singer
 Buddy Holly, American singer

World Leader 
 Juan Perón, President of Argentina
 U Nu, Prime Minister of Burma
 Ne Win, Prime Minister of Burma
 Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
 Fidel Castro, President of Cuba
 Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt
 René Coty, President of France
 Charles de Gaulle, President of France
 Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor of Germany
 Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor of Germany
 Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
 David Ben-Gurion, Prime Minister of Israel
 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
 Shigeru Yoshida, Prime Minister of Japan
 Ichirō Hatoyama, Prime Minister of Japan
 Tanzan Ishibashi, Prime Minister of Japan
 Nobusuke Kishi, Prime Minister of Japan
 Kim Il-Sung, Supreme Leader of North Korea
 Pope Pius XII, Pope (until 1958)
 Pope John XXIII, Pope from 1958
 Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Soviet Union (until 1953)
 Nikita Khrushchev, General Secretary of the Soviet Union
 Francisco Franco, Caudillo of Spain
 Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand
 George VI, British king (until 1952)
 Elizabeth II, British queen (since 1952)
 Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Harry S. Truman, President of the United States (until 1953)
 Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States
 Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia
Hamburg

Hamburg, or in full Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (, Low German: Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg), is a city in the north of Germany on the banks of the River Elbe, 18 km away from the North Sea. It is also one of the States of Germany.

With a population of about 1.85 million (1850000), it is the biggest German city after Berlin and the sixth largest city of the European Union. The religion is about 37% Protestant, 10% Catholic, 8% Muslim, 38% agnostic, 2% Pagan.

Since it was an important member of the Hanseatic League, the city's official name still includes Hansestadt (Hanseatic city). Other German cities that do the same today are: Lübeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, Bremen, Greifswald and Demmin. The membership in this trade alliance has influenced the architecture of the city to a great extent. It has also left some marks in the region around the city. Strategic bombing in World War II devastated the city.

In 2017 a consulting company ranked it 17th for best place to live in the world.

The area of Hamburg is . It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Economy 
Hamburg's harbour is, by shipments, the second largest harbour in Europe (after Rotterdam) and among the ten largest in the world. It is a very important gate to the countries along the Baltic Sea and Eastern Europe.

There are about 120,000 businesses in Hamburg. The company Airbus has an assembly plant for large civil aircraft in Hamburg. 30,000 people are employed in Hamburg's aircraft industries.  Only two other places in the world have so many:  Seattle in the United States and Toulouse in France.

About half of Germany's nationwide newspapers and magazines are made in Hamburg. Germany's most-viewed television news Tagesschau is broadcast from Hamburg.

Hamburg's red-light district (in Sankt Pauli) is the largest in Europe.

Sister cities 
 , Saint Petersburg, since 1957
 , Marseille, since 1958
 , Shanghai, since 1986
 , Dresden, since 1987
 , León, since 1989
 , Ōsaka, since 1989
 , Prague, since 1990
 , Chicago, since 1994

Related pages
 Berlin
 Munich
 Cologne
 Frankfurt/Main
 Düsseldorf

References

Other websites

 
Imperial free cities
Emphysema

Emphysema is a disease of the lungs. 

It is one of the diseases that make up chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This is a set of diseases where the flow of air in the lungs is obstructed. Emphysema is most often caused by smoking but can be caused by other diseases or have no known cause at all.

It occurs when the very small air sacs (called the alveoli) at the ends of the airways in the lungs start to break down from many sacs to form much bigger sacs. The alveoli are the areas of the lung where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged into and out of the blood. Emphysema makes it hard for people to blow air out of the lungs because air gets trapped inside the broken alveoli due to the collapse of the walls. The trapped air in the lungs creates the characteristic "barrel chest" of emphysema.

There is no cure for emphysema. Treatment includes stopping smoking and taking medicines ('broncho-dilators' and sometimes corticosteroids). Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest. It decreases the risk of heart failure and death if used 15 hours per day, and may improve people's ability to exercise. In those with normal or mildly low oxygen levels, oxygen supplementation may improve shortness of breath. There is a risk of fires and little benefit when those on oxygen continue to smoke.

Associations
Emphysema is commonly associated with chronic bronchitis. As it is rather difficult to delineate "pure" cases of emphysema or chronic bronchitis they are classed together into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Other websites 
 Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease 

Breathing problems
Pulmonology
1970s

The 1970s was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 1970 and ended on December 31, 1979. It is distinct from the decade known as the 198th decade which began on January 1, 1971 and ended on December 31, 1980.

Events 
 Throughout the decade: decolonization continued: Angola, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Oman, the Bahamas, and many other countries gained independence. Also, metrication in many English speaking countries.
 1970, December 15 – spaceship Venera 7 lands on Venus.
 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
 December 16 – Partition of Pakistan of East and West Pakistans into Bangladesh and Pakistan.
 1972, March 2 – Pioneer 10 is launched (sent into space). It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Jupiter and the asteroid belt.
 1972 – Munich massacre
 1973, April 6 – Pioneer 11 is launched. It becomes the first the first spaceship to fly near Saturn.
 1974 – August 9 Richard Nixon resigned as President of the United States due to the Watergate scandal. 
 1973 – 1973 Arab-Israeli War
 1975 – end of the Vietnam War
 1975 – communists take power in Cambodia.
 1976, July 20 – spaceship Viking 1 lands on Mars.
 1977, August 20 – Voyager 2 is launched. It becomes the first spaceship to fly near Uranus and Neptune.
 1977, September 5 – Voyager 1 is launched. It is now the farthest spaceship from the Earth.
 1977: The last cases of smallpox of the world.
 1978 – year with three popes
 1978, October 1 – Vietnam invades Cambodia.
 1979 – the World Health Organization says it has eliminated smallpox.

People

Actor 
 John Travolta, American actor

Actress

Footballer 
 Pelé, Brazilian football player

World Leader 
 Edward Heath, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 James Callaghan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Fidel Castro, President of Cuba
 Augusto Pinochet, President of Chile
 Willy Brandt, Chancellor of Germany (until 1974)
 Leonid Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Union beginning in 1964
Richard Nixon, President of the United States (until 1974)
Gerald Ford, President of the United States (until 1977)
 Jimmy Carter, President of the United States
 Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
 Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel until 1977
 Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India until 1977
 Golda Meir, Prime Minister of Israel (until 1974)
 Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
 Pope John Paul I, pope
 Pope John Paul II, pope
 Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain (until 1975)
 Deng Xiaoping, leader in China
 Mao Zedong, leader in China (until 1976)
 Pope Paul VI, pope (until 1978)
 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran until 1979
 Ayatollah Khomeini
 Juan Perón, President of Argentina (until 1974)
 Jorge Rafael Videla, dictator of Argentina
 Muammar al-Gaddafi, dictator Libyan
 Pol Pot, Prime Minister of Cambodia
 Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt
 Helmut Schmidt, Chancellor of Germany
 Georges Pompidou, President of France
 Bhumibol Adulyadej,  King of Thailand
 Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, President of France
 Pierre Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada (until 1979)
North Rhine-Westphalia

North Rhine-Westphalia (, Low Franconian: Noordrien-Wesfale, Low German: Noordrhien-Westfalen, Kölsch: Noodrhing-Wäßßfaale) is the federal state (Bundesland) with the highest population in Germany. It is in the western part of Germany and has 18,033,000 inhabitants. The capital is Düsseldorf, while the city with the most inhabitants is Cologne.

Districts 
North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five government regions:
 Arnsberg
 Cologne
 Detmold
 Düsseldorf
 Münster

History 
 1807-1813 — Westphalia is a kingdom.
 1817 — Westphalia became a province of Prussia.
 1824 — Jülich, Kleve, Berg and Niederrhein united to Rhine Province.
 1919 — Belgium took Eupen and Malmedy.
 1946 — Rhine Province, Westphalia and Lippe-Detmold united to North Rhine-Westphalia.

Cities 
 Aachen
 Bergisch Gladbach
 Bielefeld
 Bocholt
 Bochum
 Bonn
 Bottrop
 Castrop-Rauxel
 Cologne
 Dinslaken
 Dortmund
 Düren
 Düsseldorf
 Duisburg
 Essen
 Geldern
 Gelsenkirchen
 Gütersloh
 Hagen
 Hamm
 Hattingen
 Heinsberg
 Herne
 Iserlohn
 Köln
 Krefeld
 Leverkusen
 Lippstadt
 Lünen
 Marl
 Moers
 Mönchengladbach
 Mülheim an der Ruhr
 Münster
 Neuss
 Oberhausen
 Paderborn
 Ratingen
 Recklinghausen
 Remscheid
 Siegen
 Solingen
 Unna
 Velbert
 Wesel
 Wuppertal
 Witten
 Xanten
Computer program

A computer program is a list of instructions that tell a computer what to do. Everything a computer does is done by the instructions of a program. The first computers were made with only one built-in program, but today's computers have memory, which can be used to store many different programs. John von Neumann, a mathematician born in Hungary, came up with this idea in the late 1940s. 

Some common examples of computer programs:
 Web browsers, like Mozilla Firefox or Chrome
 Word processors, like Microsoft Word or Google Docs
 Video games
 Operating systems, like Microsoft Windows or iOS

A computer program is usually stored as a file on the computer's hard drive. The file contains a list of instructions. When the user runs the program, the computer reads the file does what the instructions tell it to do. These instructions can be very simple, like "add these numbers together" or "save these letters". A computer program is written by a programmer, who combines many of these simple instructions to do complicated things, like talking to the computer's screen and telling it to show a video.

The main part of the computer, the processor, is built to understand instructions written in machine code, meaning very long patterns of ones and zeroes. This is hard for humans to understand, so computer programmers write in a programming language, such as BASIC, C, or Java. Once the program is written, the programmer uses a compiler to turn it into machine code so the computer can read it.

There are also bad programs, called malware, written by people who want to do bad things to a computer. Some are spyware, trying to steal information from the computer. Some try to damage the data stored on the hard drive. Some others send users to web sites that offer to sell them things. Some are computer viruses or ransomware.

Related pages 
 Software
 Operating system
 Programming language
 Utility software

Other websites 
 Computer program Citizendium
Data

The word data means "known facts". Data especially refers to numbers, but can mean words, sounds, and images. Metadata is data about data. It is used to find data.

Originally, data is the plural of the Latin word datum, from dare, meaning "give". Datum is rarely used in English. So data often gets used as if it were a singular word. Some people like to say "data are", not "data is".

References 

Knowledge
Computing
Statistics