alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Canberra

Canberra is the capital city of Australia. There are 403,468 people who live there. It does not belong to a state but it is in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).

Canberra was started in 1913 and in the middle of the city is Lake Burley-Griffin. This lake was created especially for the city. There was a competition to design the new capital city of Australia. The competition was won by an architect from Chicago in the United States of America. His name was Walter Burley Griffin. Griffin designed his triangular town as a garden town, so its size expanded over a big area. But as Canberra grew larger and larger, the lake was no longer in the middle of the town, but the people who are in charge of planning the city make sure Canberra is as close to Griffin's original plan as possible. Canberra has a size in area nearly as big as Berlin, but the number of people who live there is much smaller.

Before Canberra was founded, Australia’s two most important cities, Sydney and Melbourne, were arguing which city should be the capital of the continent. First, Melbourne was elected the capital, but in 1908 there was a vote. The result: an area of 2400 square kilometers was given to the country by New South Wales to build Canberra in. This was the place, 300 kilometers away from Sydney and with a distance of 650 kilometers to Melbourne, where a few years later Canberra was built.

The name Canberra is pronounced in various ways and most commonly now as "CAN-brugh" making it sound almost an English name - Canborough !  Some say "CAN-buh-ruh" ; a small number of people may pronounce it "can-BEAR-ruh" ; at an earlier time "can-BERR-a" was very common and that form is still heard although often looked down upon as ignorant and incorrect. But while now an uncommon pronunciation it may be closest to the original name and pronunciation. In the 19th century a farming property on the Limestone Plains was named "Canberry" (or "Camberry") and some think this name is derived in turn from the name of the local tribe - the Ngambri or Kamberra or Camberri people.  (Others have suggested the name is derived from an Aboriginal word meaning "meeting place").

Canberra has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification). Due to Canberra's inland location and fairly high altitude, summers are warm to hot with frequent heat waves and droughts and winters are fairly cold with frequent frosts during the nights. Snow is only common on the mountains.

Tourists who visit Canberra come to see the many national monuments and other famous sights. Some places to visit are the Government House, Parliament House, the High Court of Australia, the Australian War Memorial, the National Gallery of Australia, the Royal Australian Mint, Telstra Tower, the National Library of Australia, and the National Museum of Australia.

References 

 
1913 establishments
1910s establishments in Australia
Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere                                                        (the air around the Earth) trap infrared radiation. This makes the planet become warmer, similar to the way a greenhouse becomes warmer. 

The most important greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are: water vapor, carbon dioxide(CO2), and methane. When there is more greenhouse gas in the air, the air holds more heat. This is why more greenhouse gases cause climate change and global warming.

The greenhouse effect is natural. It is important for life on Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average temperature would be around 18 or –19 degrees Celsius (0 or 1 degree Fahrenheit). Earth would be locked in an ice age. Because of the greenhouse effect, the Earth's actual average temperature is 14 degrees Celsius (57 degrees Fahrenheit). 

The problem is that recently, the greenhouse effect has become stronger. This is because humans have been burning large amounts of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, it has caused the planet to warm over the past 150 years.

About 10,000 years ago, before people started burning large amounts of fossil fuels, there were 260 to 280 parts per million (ppm) of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, but now there is over 400 ppm. Most scientists say that having 350 ppm or less is safe for the environment and that species on the planet can adapt to this level.  Higher levels can make severe problems for animal and marine life that are already being seen today, such as ocean acidification.

The greenhouse effect was first proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824. Mars, Venus and other planets with atmospheres also have greenhouse effects. The effect on Venus is especially strong because Venus has so much CO2. This is why Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though Mercury is closer to the sun. The first person to predict that carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels (and other combustion processes) could cause global warming was Nobel Prize winner Svante Arrhenius.

Related pages
 Greenhouse gas
 Greenhouse gas emissions
Global warming

References

Other websites 
 The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on the greenhouse effect
 Study of Ice Age bolsters carbon and warming link February 28, 2013 The New York Times
 Rutgers University: Earth Radiation Budget 
 Greenhouse effect -Citizendium

Weather
Greenhouse gases
Ecology
World War

A World War is a war in which most of the countries in the world fight or help. 

There have been 2 World Wars so far, World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945).  The long Cold War between the Soviet Union and NATO has sometimes been considered to be World War III, as has the Ukraine War that started in 2022.  Several earlier wars such as the Seven Years' War were fought in many places around the world, but they were wars among European countries.

After World War II, many people were scared that a World War III might start, probably between the United States and Western Europe on one side and the Soviet Union and maybe China on the other.  After World War II, countries had many powerful weapons, including jet bomber airplanes, which could carry many powerful bombs fast and far; nuclear weapons which could destroy many buildings and kill many people instantly; and missiles which could carry nuclear weapons to other countries very fast.  

Many people were afraid that World War III might start during the Cold War.  After the end of the Soviet Union, people were less afraid that World War III would begin.  However, many countries still have powerful weapons and can still use them. 

Albert Einstein is supposed to have said, "I don't know what weapons countries might use to fight World War III, but wars after that will be fought with sticks and stones". That is because World War III would probably be so large that it would destroy civilization.

References

War
European

European may mean:
A person or attribute of the continent of Europe 
A person or attribute of the European Union 
A person descended from a European ethnic group 
A Citizen of the European Union
European windstorm, an extratropical cyclone that affects Europe

Biology 
European ash, a tree. It is a kind of ash. It can be found throughout Europe. It is a deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20–35 metres
European magpie, a bird that lives in Europe, much of Asia, and Northwest Africa. It is one of several birds in the crow family named as magpies
European robin, a small bird that is found in many parts of Europe

European badger, a species of badger. Its genus is Meles. It is native to almost all of Europe. 
European honey bee, a species of bee
European sprat, a kind of fish
Click

Click is an onomatopoeia.
 Some languages, such as Xhosa language use click consonants.
 Pressing the button on a computer mouse sometimes is called a "mouse click".

Computing
Buzz Aldrin

Dr. Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr., retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut. He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.

Early life
Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951. After postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Aeronautics and Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963.From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he won several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.

Apollo 11 mission
Aldrin was the second person in history to set foot on the Moon (after Neil Armstrong, during the Apollo 11 mission).

The Lunar Lander Module landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969.

He was 39 when he set foot on the moon.

He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.

Later life 
Aldrin left NASA in March 1972. He has been married four times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, and to Lois Driggs Cannon and to Anca V Faur. He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice and Andrew. He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988. He is the oldest contestant on the television series Dancing with the Stars. He competed in 2010.

References 

1930 births
Living people
American astronauts
American aviators
Apollo astronauts
People from Glen Ridge, New Jersey
Scientists from New Jersey
Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. In the past, people called it consumption.

TB is caused by several types of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease usually attacks the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body.

How it spreads 
The bacteria can travel through the air and spread from one person to the next. This happens when infected people cough, sneeze, or spit.

Of every 100 people with TB, between five and ten people show symptoms.  In these people, the disease is called active.  Tuberculosis kills more than half of the people who are infected if they do not get treatment.

Detection and treatment

Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology. Doctors often look at an X-ray of the chest. In addition, they check body fluids. These fluids have microbes in them, which are grown in cell cultures. The cell cultures are then analysed to see if the person is infected with TB.

If the patient has TB, but does not show symptoms, the disease is 'latent'. Doctors use a skin test, called the Mantoux test, to detect latent TB. They often do blood tests too.

There is a vaccine against some forms of tuberculosis. It is called the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccine.

TB used to be easily treated and cured with antibiotics. However, the bacterium is now highly resistant to most antibiotics. This resistance makes treatment difficult. Many different kinds of antibiotics need to be given over a long period of time. There is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to all drugs.

Symptoms 
Tuberculosis can have many symptoms.  The most common include:
 A cough that does not go away, especially if the person is coughing up blood (this is called hemoptysis)
 Chest pain
 Not having any appetite
 Weakness
 Weight loss
 Chills
 Very pale skin
 Listless eyes 
 Fever
 Sweating a lot at night
 Difficulty breathing
 Feeling very tired
 People are also more likely to get tuberculosis if they live close to other people who have TB.  For example, TB can spread easily in homeless shelters, prisons, and immigrant communities.

How common is TB?

Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with M. tuberculosis.  New infections occur at a rate of one per second. In 2007, about 13.7 million chronic cases were active globally. In 2010, about 8.8 million new cases developed and nearly 1.5 million people died from the disease, most of them  in developing countries. The number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since 2002.

Tuberculosis does not happen at the same rate around the world. About eighty percent of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive for TB, but only five to ten percent of people in the United States do.

People usually get tuberculosis because of a weakened immune system. Many people with HIV and AIDS can also get tuberculosis.

References

Other websites 
 Frequently asked Questions about TB at CDC.gov
 ExplainTB: Multilingual audiovisual information on tuberculosis

Diseases caused by bacteria
Pulmonology
American (word)

The word American is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States.

Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word "American" for people or things from these islands.

Due to the ambiguity of the word, some languages avoid using the word to refer to someone and/or thing from the United States and use more specific demonyms instead, such as Spanish estadounidense, Esperanto usonano, Finnish yhdysvaltalainen and German US-Amerikaner, for example. Yankee is sometimes used within the English language too (though the word historically refers specifically to an inhabitant of New England). Usonian (from Usonia) is an alternative demonym to "American" proposed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright.

A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and Indians.

There is no language "American." Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest.

North America
South America
Grain

Grain is the seeds of some special kinds of grass. The main types of commercial grain crops are cereals. People grow different kinds of grain as food. The different kinds of grain are perhaps one of the most important foods in the world. 

Some kinds of grain are:
Barley
Maize or Indian corn (or simply as "corn")
Millet
Oats
Rice
Wheat

87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize. Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat. In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply. In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries. Growing grain uses a lot of water. About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.

Many different foods are made from different types of grain. The part of the grain that people can eat is called the grist, and the part they can not eat is called chaff. The grist is often ground into a powder called flour. Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.

Different kinds of beer are made from barley malt, wheat, and other grains.

Tortillas are made from a special flour of dried maize (corn) called masa.

References

Basic English 850 words
Clause

A clause is a part of a sentence. Each clause is made up of a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what happens in a sentence). Each predicate has only one main verb. I love you is a sentence which has only one clause. I love you and I will always love you is a sentence which has two clauses. The two clauses are I love you and I will always love you. These clauses are joined together by the word and, which is a conjunction. Clauses may be independent or dependent.

In use 
Two clauses can be joined with a pronoun. For example: I live in London, which is in England. Here, I live in London is the first clause, and which is in England is the second clause. The word which is a pronoun which takes the place of London. It joins the two clauses. A sentence can contain many clauses. But sentences with fewer clauses are easier to understand.

Dependent and independent clauses 
A simple sentence may also be called an independent clause. It may be a part of a compound or complex sentence, but it can also stand on its own as a simple sentence (or independent clause). 
A subordinate clause also called a dependent clause is one which cannot stand by itself. This is because it does not express a complete thought. It contains both a subject and a verb. A subordinate clause always depends on a main clause. The main clause is almost always an independent clause, therefore the main clause by itself makes sense and can stand on its own. However, the subordinate clause does not. For example, I love you makes perfect sense left on its own. However, and always will, does not. The only time a sentence can be made up of only dependent clauses is when they are joined by correlative conjunctions: conjunction pairs like "either/or", "neither/nor", and "not only/but also".

References

Other websites 
 Clauses: the Essential Building-Blocks 
 Purdue Owl: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

Grammar
Sacred

The words sacred or holy are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special"  instead of "set apart" and "pure."

According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy." Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense. Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections. Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."

Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion. These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion. There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.  

For Christians this book is called the Bible.  Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an. Jews call their book the Torah. Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism. 

Some religious people deem specific places sacred because of their mention in the sacred books. Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto. In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.

Related pages
Pilgrimage
Icon

Other websites
Holiness in the Bible

Religious terminology
Translation

Translation means to copy writing or speech from one language into a different language.

The people who do translation are called translators. A translator who is copying a book into another language may use a language dictionary to find out how a word is written in another language. A translator who works with the spoken word is also called an interpreter. Translators can work independently as freelancers or by being hired by translation agencies. People who translate poetry, novels, drama, or short stories are called literary translators. 

In computer technology, translation from a programming language to a machine language is called compiling.

There are free translators on the internet. A notable example of this is Google Translate.

Related pages 
Bible translations
Concept
Compiler
Machine translation

Useful resources related to the subject:

 The Impact of Translation in New York City 
 Choosing the Perfect Translation Agency for your Company 
 Adapt your Translation for a better Understanding of Inter-culture
Astronaut

An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person who goes into outer space. The Soviet Union and countries that it was friends with used the word cosmonaut. Western countries including the United States said astronaut. Astronauts are also called "taikonauts" in China or "spationaute" in France.

The first person to go into space was a Russian from the Soviet Union. His name was Yuri Gagarin. This happened on April 12, 1961. The first and second people to walk on the Moon were the Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. This happened on July 20, 1969. No astronauts have gone to the moon since 1972. No people have visited any other planets yet.

Astronauts used to go into space using many different ways, but now they only go on the American SpaceX Crew-1, the Russian Soyuz, or the Chinese Shenzhou. Several countries have worked together to build an International Space Station where people stay and work in space for long periods of time.

A few countries and companies are trying to make more ways to get people into space. The United States is building a very big rocket called the Space Launch System. Some American companies, for example Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and SpaceX, are being paid by the United States to make ways for people to go to space.

Related pages 
 Spaceflight
Hacker

A hacker is someone who tries to get into another person's computer using computer software. The computer software could be Trojan horse programs, computer viruses, and worms. It used to mean someone who likes to do new things with computers.  The correct name for a person doing these illegal things was cracker, but many news stories used the word hacker even though it was in error. Another meaning of hacker is someone who can change or program something, like how people can change or program a Furby to say something insulting or humorous.

A person doing something illegal with a computer belonging to someone else without asking for permission from the owner is also called a hacker.

In the recent years computers were becoming increasingly more complex. This also means that people with bad intentions have more opportunities to use them for criminal purposes. Computer engineers aren't always able to find vulnerable places in the computer code. Hackers find such places, and use them.

There are also hackers who use the same skills for good purposes. Such hackers are called white hat hackers. They help computer engineers to find vulnerable places and correct problems.

A lot of skills are often required to be a hacker. A hacker should be able to find problems or solutions that most other people cannot find.

References
Leninism

Leninism is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (the working class holds the power). It is thought to be one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories, etc.). It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.

Beliefs
Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as Leninism. These ideas include:

 Democratic Centralism, also known as an idea of the vanguard party.  Like other communists,  Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class.  But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism.  Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution.  He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail.
 The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building). He thought that imperialism was the "highest stage" of capitalism.
 Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have Nationalism and decide how they should be governed.
 Teaching the proletariat (working class) about politics, especially Marxism.

References

Other websites 
 Books by Vladimir Lenin
 What Is To Be Done?.
 Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism.
 The State and Revolution.
 "The Lenin Archive".
 "First Conference of the Communist International".

 Other similar links
 "Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy" .
 "An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
 Rosa Luxemburg. "Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
 Karl Korsch. "Lenin's Philosophy".
 "Cyber Leninism".
 "Leninist Ebooks" .
 Anton Pannekoek. "Lenin as a Philosopher".
 Paul Mattick. "The Lenin Legend".
 Paul Craig Roberts. "Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered".

Communism
Marxism
Bolshevik

A Bolshevik was a Russian communist in the early 20th century. They are also called the Bolshevik Communists. The majority of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist political party.
 

At the party congress in 1903, members disagreed with each other. The party divided into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. They were called Bolsheviks because it means "those who are more." Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik group. The more moderate group, the Mensheviks (meaning "those of the minority") were led by Julius Martov. Although the Bolsheviks were called "those who are more", before 1917 there were more Mensheviks. Many of Lenin's opponents were afraid that he liked to control things too much.

In 1905 the Bolshevik group became a separate political party, the RSDLP(B) the 'b' in brackets standing for 'Bolshevik'.

Revolution 
After the February Revolution, some of the Mensheviks took positions in the Russian Provisional Government. Lenin said socialists must oppose the Provisional Government. The government began to weaken and Lenin started to have more authority. Because of this, many Mensheviks joined the Bolsheviks.

The Bolsheviks led the October Revolution in Russia in 1917. They said they created the world's first Workers' State. The Mensheviks opposed the government led by the Bolsheviks. Many ended up in prison or were killed. After that, they opposed the Bolsheviks from outside Russia, in exile. 

After the Revolution, the Bolshevik Party was called the Russian Communist Party.

Russian Revolution
List of traditional star names

This is a list of traditional names for stars, mostly from Arabic and Latin.

To find out more about any of these stars, look them up in the SIMBAD international database:
 SIMBAD online



A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

P

R

S

T

U

V

W

Y

Z

Related pages
 List of stars

Other websites 
 Jim Kaler's star page 

Lists of stars
List of tectonic plates

This is a list of the biggest tectonic plates on Earth. Including small ones, there are about a hundred  tectonic plates. These are only the

Primary plates 
These seven plates make up most of the seven continents, and the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

 African plate
 Antarctic plate
 Indo-Australian plate 
 North American plate
 Pacific plate
 South American plate
 Eurasian plate

Secondary plates 
These plates are generally shown on major plate maps, with the exception of the Arabian and Indian plates, which are smaller than the others.

Arabian plate
Caribbean plate
Cocos plate
Juan de Fuca plate
Indian plate
Nazca plate
Philippine Sea plate ( also known as the Filipino plate)
Scotia plate
 Somali plate
Panama Plate

Tertiary plates 
These are parts of major plates, and bits and pieces of ancient plates that became broken up. 

 Agean plate

Related pages
Plate tectonics

Other websites 
Bird, P. (2003) An updated digital model of plate boundaries  also available as a large (13 mb) PDF file 

Science-related lists
List of oil fields

This list of oil fields includes major fields of the past and present.

(Amounts in parentheses are estimated reserves, in barrels.)

 China
 Daqing Field, Heilongjiang (40 billion)
 Brazil
 Campos Basin
 Iran
 Aghajari Field (14 billion)
 Ahwaz Field (17 billion)
 Gachsaran Field (15 billion)
 Marun Field (16 billion)
 Iraq
 Kirkuk Field (16 billion)
 Rumaila Field (20 billion)
 Kazakhstan
 Tengiz Field (15-26 billion)
 Kashagan Field, Caspian (~50 billion)
 Kuwait
 Burgan Field (66-72 billion)
 Mexico
 Cantarell Field
 Chicontepec Field
 Nigeria
 Niger Delta Field (34 billion)
 Russia
 Samotlor Field (20 billion)
 Romashkino Field (16-17 billion)
 Saudi Arabia
 Abqaiq Field (12 billion)
 Berri Field (12 billion)
 Faroozan-Marjan Field (10 billion)
 Ghawar Field (75-83 billion)
 Manifa Field (11 billion)
 Safaniya-Khafji Field, Neutral Zone (30 billion)
 United Arab Emirates
 Zakum Field, Abu Dhabi (12 billion)
 United States
 Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (10 billion)
 Wilmington Oil Field, California (0.3 billion)
 Venezuela
 Bolivar Coastal Field

Geography-related lists
Petroleum
Anarchism

Anarchism is a radically revolutionary idea that says no one should be forced into any kind of hierarchy. For example, anarchism says that the government is harmful and not needed. However, that does not mean no form of order should not exist. Municipalities and autonomy are familiar terms in Anarchism It also says that people's actions should never be forced by other people. Anarchism is also a  and is called a libertarian type of socialism. It is not a political stance.

The word "anarchism" is from the Greek word "αναρχία", which means "no rulers" or "no government". But that doesn't have to mean no rules at all. People often use the word "anarchy" to mean chaos and crime. But anarchists usually do not want this. They say anarchy is just a way of relations between people. They believe that, once put into place, these relations work on their own. Anarchists are usually opposed by the systems they wish to remove.

Principles 

Individual freedom, voluntary association, and being against the state are important beliefs of anarchism. There are also big differences between anarchist philosophies on things like whether violence can be used to bring about anarchy; the best type of economy; the relationship between technology and hierarchy; the idea of equality; and the usefulness of some organization. The word "authority" is not clear, but anarchists are not against some types of authority (e.g. the authority of someone skilled in self-defence over someone that wants to learn self-defence), they are only against control by force.

Examples

Related pages 
 Anti-capitalism
 Anti-fascism

References
List of countries by area

This is a list of countries by total area. The total area is the sum of all land and Inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers). Data is taken from the United Nations Statistics Division.

Sovereign states and dependent territories by area

References

Notes

Area
List of countries and dependencies by population

This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population.  The number shows how many people live in each country. Countries with the most people are at the top of the list. Countries with the fewest people are at the bottom.

Also see: List of countries, List of countries by area, List of countries by population density.

Method
Autonomous regions that form integral parts of countries are literally part of them. 

Not included in the list are other entities that are not sovereign states, such as the European Union or African Union.

Other territories that are rarely marked with an asterisk are territories that do not have permanent population, such as the British Indian Ocean Territory or United States Minor Outlying Islands.

Sovereign states and dependencies by population

Note: All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are shown in italics and not assigned a numbered rank.

References 
e
 CIA, 9 August, 2005.
Notes

Population
List of oil-producing nations

This is a partial list of states that extract crude oil from oil wells.

Africa
Nigeria
Sudan
Equatorial Guinea

Asia
China
Russia
Indonesia
Malaysia

 Europe
Bulgaria
 North Sea oil:
United Kingdom
Norway
Denmark
Ireland

 North America
United States of America
Texas
Alaska
California
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Kansas
New York
Michigan
Pennsylvania (the birthplace of the U.S. oil industry)
Illinois
Canada
Alberta
Saskatchewan
Ontario (the birthplace of the Canadian oil industry)
Newfoundland
Mexico

 Persian Gulf
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Syria
United Arab Emirates
Yemen

 South America
Argentina
Barbados
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Guatemala
Peru
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Venezuela

Other websites 
 Table of oil producers
 http://www.ott.doe.gov/facts/archives/fotw125.shtml 
 http://www.ott.doe.gov/facts/archives/fotw117.shtml 
 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html

Lists of countries
Forests in the United Kingdom

This is a list of forests in the United Kingdom.

England

Cumbria 
Whinfell Forest - Center Parcs

Derbyshire 
Darwin Forest

Hampshire 
New Forest

Norfolk 
Thetford Forest

Nottinghamshire 
Sherwood Forest

Staffordshire 
Cannock Chase

Sussex 
Ashdown Forest

Warwickshire 
Forest of Arden

Worcestershire 
Wyre Forest (part in Shropshire)

West Midlands 
Black Country Urban Forest

To be classified 
Bracknell Forest
Epping Forest
Forest of Avon
Forest of Mercia
Kielder Forest
Mersey Forest
National Forest
Royal Forest of Dean

Scotland

Dumfries and Galloway 
Forest of Ae

Fife 
Tentsmuir Forest

To be classified 
Arecleoch Forest
Argyll Forest Park
Carrick Forest
Carsphairn Forest
Changue Forest
Corriedoo Forest
Craik Forest
Dalbeattie Forest
Dundeugh Forest
Fleet Forest
Laurieston Forest
Mabie Forest
Penninghame Forest
Rowardennan Forest
Queen Elizabeth Forest Park
Strathyre Forest
Tairlaw Forest
Wauchope Forest

Wales 
Clocaenog Forest

Northern Ireland 
Ballypatrick Forest Drive
Castlewellan Forest Park
Drum Manor Forest Park
Ely Lodge Forest
Florence Court Forest Park
Glenariff Forest Park
Gortin Glen Forest Park
Gosford Forest Park
Lough Navar Forest Drive
Tollymore Forest Park
List of publishers

This is a list of publishers in English.

A 
Anvil Press Poetry
Arcade Publishing
Ardis Books Homepage
Athlone Books
Atlas Press

B 
Basic Books
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
Bison Books
Black Sparrow Books
Bloodaxe Books
Bloomsbury.com - Home page
Borzoi Reader Classics

C 
Calder Publications
Cambridge University Press
Carcanet
Carroll and Graf
Catbird Press
Central European University Press
City Lights Publishers
Columbia University Press
CompanionGuides.com
Continuum - Athlone
Copper Canyon Press
Counterpoint Press
Creation Books

D 
Da Capo Press
Dalkey Archive Press
Dedalus Books
Detritus.com
Dover Publications
Duckworth Online

E 
Ediciones Altovolta
Exact Change

F 
Farrar

G 
Glas New Russian Writing
Godine Publishing
Grove Press / Atlantic Monthly Press

H 
Hackett
HarperCollins Publishers
Harvard University Press
Harvill Press at Random House
Hesperus press

I 
iBooks, Inc.
Indiana University Press
Inpress Books UK
Intellect 
Interlink Publishing Online
Ivan R. Dee

J 
Johns Hopkins University Press

K 
Kessinger Publishing
Kodansha

M 
Malton House Press
Marion Boyars Online
Methuen
MIT Press
Modern Library

N 
New Directions Publishing
Northwestern University Press
NYRB Classics

O 
Oomf, Inc.
Open Court
Open Court Book
Overlook Press
Oxford University Press - UK
Oxford University Press - US

P 
Pan Macmillan
Pantheon Books at Random House
Pathfinder Books
Paulist Press
Penguin Classics
Penguin Group (USA)
Penguin UK
Peter Owen Publishers
Phaidon Press
Phoenix Press history reprints
Picador UK
Picador USA
Pimlico Books at Random House
Princeton University Press
Prometheus Books

R 
Random House UK
randomhouse.com (US)
Routledge

S 
Schocken Books
Scholastic Inc.
Shambhala Publications
Shanti Sadan Publications
Smith and Kraus Publishers
Stanford University Press
Station Hill Press
Steerforth Press
Stone Bridge Press
Sun & Moon
SUNY Press

T 
TASCHEN Books
Thames & Hudson (UK)
Thames & Hudson (USA)
The New Press
Tuttle Publishing
Twisted Spoon Press

U 
University of California Press Books
University of Chicago Press
University of Minnesota Press
University of Nebraska Press
University of Toronto Medieval Texts

V 
Vedanta Press and Catalog
Verso Books
Vintage (US)
Vintage Books at Random House (UK)

W 
W.W. Norton & Company
Welcome to Random House
Wisdom Publications
Wordsworth Editions Website

Y 
Yale University Press

Z 
Zephyr Press

Lists of companies
Publishing
Signature

A signature is a special way that people write their name to let others know that they understand or approve of something that was written. A signature is often used to sign a contract, a cheque, or a petition.

There are many ways to write a signature, and signatures may look different depending on your location. In the United States, many people have a signature which is made from writing their name in their own handwriting, often in cursive. Some signatures may be written in a different style than normal writing, which may make it difficult to read. Some people practice autographs, or fancy signatures that are hard to copy.

Hundreds of years ago some people used sealing wax to make a copy of their signet rings next to or instead of a signature. This was called their "seal. This is where the term "seal of approval" comes from. Some formal documents still use an official wax seal, such as a coat of arms.

Types of signatures 
Wet signature:- A wet signature, ink signature, or wet ink signature is the physical marking a person makes to sign their name on a physical document, usually with a pen.

Wet signatures are the most common kind of signatures and have been used for centuries as a unique marking to indicate agreement and prevent fraud. Physical signatures have been used since 3500 B.C. in the form of seals, but it was in the 1600s when signatures written on paper became widely used and legally valid.

Although wet signatures can be forged by skilled people, they were the norm until the beginning of the 21st century, when online signatures started to become legally binding.

Electronic signature or E-signature:- Software programmes allow an electronic representation of a signature to be used that's been created by the software.

Digital signature:- A digital signature is a signature created by the authoriser such as copying, pasting and embedding a copy of their signature or a signature created using a stylus pen.

References 

Writing
Authentication methods
Ivory Coast

Ivory Coast or Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country in West Africa.

The capital of Côte d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro but its biggest city is Abidjan. Other cities can be found at List of cities in Côte d'Ivoire.

Geography
It borders the Gulf of Guinea to the south and five other African nations. Liberia is to the southwest, Guinea to the northwest, Mali to the north-northwest, Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east.

Districts 

Ivory Coast is divided into 12 districts and 2 district-level cities. The districts were created in 2011.

Related pages
Côte d'Ivoire at the Olympics
Côte d'Ivoire national football team
List of rivers of Côte d'Ivoire

References 

Notes

 
French-speaking countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
1960 establishments in Africa
Luke McCormick

Luke McCormick (b. 15 August 1983) is an English football player. He was born August 15, 1983 in Coventry, England. He is a goalkeeper. He plays for the English football team Swindon Town.

In the 2003/04 season, McCormick played when Romain Larrieu could not. Larrieu injured his knee. McCormick played instead. Plymouth Argyle beat Stockport County on 24 January 2004. The score was 2-0. In this match McCormick set a new club record of seven clean sheets in a row. A clean sheet is a game where the other side gets no goals.

McCormick was voted the most promising player of the 2003/04 season by Plymouth Argyle fans.

On 7 June 2008. McCormick was arrested on suspicion for killing two people by dangerous driving. Subsequently, he was released by Plymouth Arygle and was jailed for seven years on 6 October 2008 but could be out in three and a half years.

Club career statistics

|-
|2000-01||rowspan="5"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="2"|Third Division||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|-
|2001-02||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|2002-03||rowspan="2"|Second Division||3||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|-
|2003-04||40||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||41||0
|-
|2004-05||League Championship||23||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0||24||0
|-
|2004-05||Boston United||League Two||2||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|2005-06||rowspan="3"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="3"|League Championship||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0||3||0
|-
|2006-07||40||0||5||0||1||0||46||0
|-
|2007-08||30||0||2||0||3||0||35||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
|}

References

British criminals
English association football goalkeepers
People from Coventry
1983 births
Living people
Auction

An auction is a method by which goods or services can be sold and bought. In an auction, the price of an item is not fixed in advance. People wanting to buy the item say how much they are willing to pay for it. This is called their bid. In each round, the bids are evaluated. If certain criteria are met, the auction is stopped and one bidder will buy the item at the specified price. Alternatively, the auction can continue for another round. If certain conditions are met, the auction will stop, and the item will not be sold. There are different kinds of auctions, with different rules.

Auctions usually happen within a given timeframe. When the time expires, the bid that best matches will win, or the item will not be sold.

There are companies that specialize in doing auctions. These companies will charge fees for doing the auction; they may also get a commission that depends on the price the item is sold at.

Auctions can be done online, or they can be done offline. Sometimes, bids are placed by telephone, or over the internet.

Most common kinds of auction 
The most common kinds of auction are:
 English auction: the highest bidder wins. The auction starts at the lowest price the seller is willing to sell at, and the price goes up as long as someone is willing to pay a higher price.
 A Dutch auction goes the other way round: The auction starts at a high price, and goes down until someone is willing to buy. Before the auction, the seller sets the lowest price they'll sell the item for, and if the auction reaches that price without anyone buying, the auction is stopped without selling the item.
 Sealed first-bid auction: All the bids are submitted at the same time, without any of the bidders knowing each other's bids. The bidder with the highest bid wins.
 Vickrey auction (or sealed-bid second-price auction) : This kind of auction works the same as the sealed first-bid auction, but the bidder only pays the second-highest price. This kind of auction is very important in economic theory, but isn't used as much in real life.

The mechanisms why auctions work 
Auctions work because of information asymmetry: The seller wants to sell at the highest possible price, and the buyers want to pay as little as possible.But the seller does not know the prices the buyers are willing to pay: Setting a price that is too hight means that there will be no sale, setting a price that is too low means that there will be less profit. Each buyer knows how much he is willing to pay, but does not know the price the other buyers are willing to pay. So buyers influence each other. The theory that models these phenomena is called auction theory. It is based on game theory and microeconomics.

Commerce
Blitzkrieg

Blitzkrieg is a German word, which means "lightning war" and refers to the high speed of a lightning bolt.

In blitzkrieg, the attacking motorized infantry armies move quickly, and are helped by tanks and aircraft. Slower-moving enemy units are overrun or surrounded and are often captured with little fighting. The slower units often become disorganized and are not yet ready to fight when they are captured.

The strategy of was developed in the 1930s, but the Wehrmacht seldom called it blitzkrieg.

This method worked well early in World War II during the invasions of Poland and France. It was mostly successful in Operation Barbarossa. Later in the war, the Allies learned to defeat German blitzkrieg attacks by defence in depth and by attacking the flanks of the attackers with reserve forces.

The Blitz refers to the German bombing of Britain, particularly London, during World War II, which destroyed over a million homes and killed over 40,000 people. It was supposed to quickly destroy industry and morale to make the British pressure the government to end the war. The Blitz was in response to the British bombing of German cities by the Royal Air Force. The Blitz began in September 1940 and continued until May 1941.

References

Military of Germany
World War II
Tank

A tank is an armored fighting vehicle, typically armed with a large cannon mounted on a turret and a few machine guns.

A tank is covered in thick armour to protect it from enemy weapons. Tanks have tracks that wrap around its wheels to spread out its weight and let it cross rough terrain. Most tanks have a powerful gun and one or more machine guns. 

A tank normally has 3-5 crew members with at least a driver, commander and gunner.  There may also be a loader, who handles the ammunition for the main gun (so the gunner doesn't have to take eyes off the target).  Some WWII tanks also had a separate soldier responsible for the radio.  Since then, tank crews have evolved to have each person do one of these things, but in their early stages, the commander was often the loader and radio operator, and in a few tanks was also the driver.

Using 

The first tanks were made by the British Royal Navy and French car manufacturers during World War I as a way of attacking enemy trenches. They were called tanks to trick the Germans into thinking they were water carriers for the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Their use in a surprise attack in the Battle of the Somme caused fear among the German soldiers but their small numbers and poor reliability prevented them from making much difference.

Tanks became a main weapon during World War II, when the German Army introduced a way of using them called Blitzkrieg.  Battles between great numbers of tanks were fought, especially between the Germans and the Soviet Union. The Battle of Kursk was the biggest. Well-known World War II tanks were the German Panzer IV, Panther and Tiger I, Soviet T-34 (made in the largest numbers of any tank of the war and second most ever), the British Matilda, Churchill and Cromwell, and the American M4 sherman (second most produced tank of the war) and Stuart tanks.  There were plans for much larger and more heavily armoured tanks such as the Maus but they were determined to be of little use.  Their huge weight would have made moving them very difficult, and their huge size would have made them easy targets for heavy artillery.

Old tanks are often modified for other uses like carrying soldiers or equipment. Combat engineers use special tank-based vehicles, for example minesweeper tanks or bridge-layer tanks.

The tank is a major part of all large armies today. Tanks have replaced the cavalry everywhere and do the things that soldiers on horseback did in the past. Most modern tanks are of the heavy or Main Battle Tank type, able to fight other tanks. Compared to older types MBTs are very heavy (Russian MBTS being about 40 tons and Western around 60 tons) with a 120 mm (Western) and 125 mm (Russian) calibre cannon and 2-3 machine guns. Marines and other specialized forces also use some light tanks.

Related pages 
 Anti-tank gun
 Military vehicle#Combat vehicles

Other websites 

 
Army