alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
California wine

People have made wine in the American state of California for a long time. California has become recognized as making some of the world's best wine. California makes most of the wine that is made in America.

History
People first made wine in California in 1769. Missionaries from Mexico brought their wine plants to produce wine for the mass. Later, people coming from Europe improved the making of wine. They had brought their own kinds of wine plants.

Before 1920, there was more wine made every year. Then Prohibition began. During Prohibition, it was not allowed to sell alcoholic drinks in the United States. It almost ended the making of wine in California. Californian wine-making took a long time to recover.

In 1990, the USA sent less than five percent of its wine to other countries. After that, exports of wine from California increased. Today, the USA is one of the big wine industries.

Wines 

Wine comes in different colors. Most wines are called "red" or "white". White wine is not really white, it just has a very light color.  54 percent of the Californian wines are white wines. Some examples of white wines are Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc. Some examples of red wines are Zinfandel, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir.

Cool climate viticulture 
Grapes for wine used to need warm weather. People wanted to grow more grapes, so they learned how to grow them where the weather was not as warm. That way of growing grapes is called "cool climate viticulture". Vines are now planted in colder places, up to  above sea level. Monterey County was the first place where that was done.

Wine regions 

In California, there are more than 800 wine cellars. Wine cellars are big rooms were wine is stored. They are part of a winery, the place where wine is produced.

Two of the most famous growing areas for wine in California are Napa County and Sonoma County. The wines from those places are some of the best in the world. Some examples of the wines made there are Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Other known wineries are in Mendocino, in the Lake Counties, Santa Maria and Santa Barbara.

References

Other websites 
3000 word report - Comprehensive overview Pinot Noir Wine 

Wine
Wine
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is a 1969 American movie from 20th Century Fox. George Roy Hill directed it, and John Foreman produced it. It stars Paul Newman and Robert Redford as two robbers in Wyoming who go to Bolivia to escape the law.

The movie was loosely based on the real story of the two title characters (Butch Cassidy and his friend Harry Longabaugh, also called "Sundance"). But it made the legends of the two more popular.

It won four Academy Awards: for Best Cinematography (shooting work on a movie), Best Original Score, Best Song (Burt Bacharach's "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head") and Best Original Screenplay (William Goldman). It was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Director (Hill) and Best Sound. Goldman won the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.

It was one of the largest-grossing movies of the 1960s (with $102.3 million in the United States). It was number fifty on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

At first, Warren Beatty and Steve McQueen (even Marlon Brando) were called upon to play the title roles. When Newman and Redford took their place, the roles were switched, with Newman as Sundance, and Redford as Cassidy. The studio, 20th Century Fox, did not like Redford's role. But the movie's director, Hill, wanted it that way.

As a result, Redford has said that the movie made him a more famous actor.

The Sundance Film Festival is named after Redford's role, as well his Utah ski resort.

References

Other websites 

 Movie 

1969 movies
1969 crime movies
1960s Western (genre) movies
20th Century Fox movies
BAFTA Award winners
English-language movies
United States National Film Registry movies
American crime movies
American Western (genre) movies
American buddy movies
Movies set in Wyoming
Multilingual movies
Movies that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
Movies directed by George Roy Hill
1480s

The 1480s was a decade that began on 1 January 1480 and ended on 31 December 1489.

Events 
 War of the Roses in England.
 Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal sails around Africa and on to India.
 Spanish Inquisition begins.

Births 
 Martin Luther, German monk and reformer 
 Raphael, Italian painter and architect 
 Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss religious reformer 
 Catherine of Aragon, queen of Henry VIII of England

Deaths 
 Mehmed II, Ottoman Sultan 
 King Christian I of Denmark and Norway 
 Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan
Mehmed II

Mehmed II  (; , ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror (; ), was an Ottoman sultan who ruled from August 1444 to September 1446, and then later from February 1451 to May 1481. In Mehmed II's first reign, he defeated the crusade led by John Hunyadi after the Hungarian incursions into his country broke the conditions of the Peace of Szeged. When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he strengthened the Ottoman navy and made preparations to attack Constantinople. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, permanently cementing its destruction.

After the conquest Mehmed claimed the title Caesar of the Roman Empire (), based on the fact that Constantinople had been the seat and capital of the surviving Eastern Roman Empire since its consecration in 330 AD by Emperor Constantine I. The claim was only recognized by the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Nonetheless, Mehmed II viewed the Ottoman state as a continuation of the Roman Empire for the remainder of his life, seeing himself as "continuing" the Empire rather than "replacing" it.

Mehmed continued his conquests in Anatolia with its reunification and in Southeast Europe as far west as Bosnia. After conquering Constantinople and getting the Byzantines out of the way, he started making more conquests in the Balkans and focused on his Balkan campaigns, even unsuccessfully laying siege to Belgrade in 1456 at one point. He was also known for his rivalry with Vlad the Impaler, who grew up at his father's court alongside him. Vlad the Impaler had taken control over Wallachia and rebelled against the Ottoman Empire, thus Mehmed II sent an Ottoman army, resulting in a war between the two. The war ended when Vlad was killed by an Ottoman patrol in Wallachia. He was then beheaded with some saying his head was sent to Mehmed II himself at the capital city Constantinople (modern Istanbul) by the Ottoman soldiers. He was also known for his campaigns against Albanian rebel leader Skanderbeg. For most of his reign, Mehmed II was on campaign against either John Hunyadi, Vlad the Impaler or Skanderbeg. Domestically, he made many political and social reforms, encouraged the arts and sciences, and by the end of his reign, his rebuilding program had changed Constantinople into a thriving imperial capital. He is considered a hero in modern-day Turkey and parts of the wider Muslim world. Among other things, Istanbul's Fatih district, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge and Fatih Mosque are named after him.

Related pages
Byzantine Empire
Sultan
Turkey

References

Other websites

Biography page at OttomanOnline 

Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
History of the Middle East
1481 deaths
The Bold and the Beautiful

The Bold and the Beautiful is a popular American soap opera. After The Young and the Restless, it is the highest-rated soap opera there.

The series is shown in over 100 countries. About 300 million people watch it every day. This makes The Bold and the Beautiful the most watched television series in the world. The first episode was shown on March 23, 1987 on the CBS network. The series was created by the soap opera writer William J. Bell and his wife, Lee Phillip Bell. It is the only American soap opera to have its daily episodes translated into Spanish for the Hispanic viewers in the United States.

The series is set in Los Angeles, California. It tells the story of the Forrester family, who owns a fashion empire called Forrester Creations. The major members of the family are Eric Forrester (played by John McCook), the president of Forrester Creations, his wife Stephanie (Susan Flannery), their eldest son Ridge (Ronn Moss) and Brooke Logan (Katherine Kelly Lang), who was married to both the father and the son. She owns most of Forrester Creations. This is because she created BeLieF, a formula which earned much money for the company. There used to be a second fashion company called Spectra Fashions. It was Forrester’s main competitor. The conflicts between the Forrester and the Spectra families was one of the major themes of the story.

List of actors/characters on the show

Other websites 
 
 Official site
 The Bold and The Beautiful
 The Bold and The Beautiful CBS Website

1987 American television series debuts
1980s American drama television series
1990s American drama television series
2000s American drama television series
2010s American drama television series
American soap operas
CBS network shows
Television series set in Los Angeles
English-language television programs
Umbilicus

The umbilicus (also called navel or bellybutton) is a place on the body of mammals that is left after a baby loses its umbilical cord. The umbilicus of humans is in the middle of the abdomen. It is usually only easy to see on humans, and is a thin line on many other mammals. In humans, they can be split into two different kinds, the kind that goes in (innie) and the kind that goes out (outie). Different people have different navels that can be different in size, shape, and looks, but these differences are not genetic (you do not get them from looks passed down in your family). The hepatic portal vein passes from the umbilical vein to the liver. When a person becomes fat, the fat usually goes around the umbilicus.

It marks the water shed line of the body. The venus blood & lymph do not cross the umbilical plane.

Gallery

See also
 Navel piercing

Other websites

Torso
James Cook

Captain James Cook, FRS (27 October 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer. He sailed through the Pacific Ocean three times, mapped many areas and recorded several islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He was the first British sailor to visit both the east coast of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands. He made the first European maps of Newfoundland and New Zealand.   

He sailed twice around the world. He crossed the Antarctic Circle and visited islands and landscapes in North America and the South Pacific. During his trips, he spent a lot of time on science experiments and improving maps. He also wrote many books about what he found.

Life 
Cook was born on 27 November 1728 in Marton, Yorkshire, England. He was a son of a Scottish farmer. He was educated at the school in Great Ayton and at 17 he began work in a shop at Staithes. At 18, Cook became a sailor and an apprentice to John Walker of Whitby. Walker's business was transporting coal. Cook learned mathematics and navigation from Walker. He studied as much as he could about navigation and science.

In 1755, he joined the Royal Navy. During the Seven Years' War, he participated in the conquest of Canada. After the war, he was sent on three expeditions that all over the world with the ship Endeavour.

His goals on these missions were:
 to find the unknown southern continent (Terra australis incognita)
 to make astronomical measures of Venus
 to map new lands
 to take over the land for King George III
 to watch for good places for new military bases
 to find new routes between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean
to establish an observatory in Tahiti

Cook was killed in the Hawaiian Islands in a dispute about a stolen boat.

Cook's Family 
He had four sons and one daughter. Their names were Elizabeth Cook, Hugh Cook, George Cook, Nathaniel Cook and Joseph Cook.

His father, James Cook, had three sisters and two brothers. Their names were Mary Cook, who died at four; Margaret Cook; William Cook; Jane Cook and John Cook.

References 

1728 births
1779 deaths
English explorers
English murder victims
Exploration of Australia
Murders by blade weapons
People from Middlesbrough
British sailors
Offside rule

The offside rule is one of the oldest football rules, but is still a much discussed rule. This is probably because of the relatively complicated set of provisions provided by the sport's law-making body, the IFAB for deciding if a player in an offside position is actually guilty of an offside offence by becoming involved in active play.  It can also be a difficult decision for the referee or assistant referee to make as they need to watch the ball, the player playing the ball and also the attacker who is seeking to receive the ball at the same time. 

Offside is an offence committed by the team which has the ball and is punished with an indirect free kick.
It is a common misconception that the ball must be played forward for an offside offence to be committed. This is incorrect however, as an offside offence is related to the position of the player in relation to the last two opponents, the ball and the opponent's goal line rather than the direction the ball is played. If the player is closer to the opponent's goal line than both the ball and the second-last opponent when it is played by a team mate, she or he is in an offside position. 

But there are some exceptions:
 Players cannot be offside in their own half of the field.
 It is not possible to be offside from a throw-in, corner kick or goal kick.
 If the ball is deliberately played by a member of the opposing team, an attacker cannot be offside.
 A player who is behind the other team's goal line is considered to be on the goal line for the purposes of offside. It is an offence to leave or re-enter the field of play without permission but not if it is part of a natural playing movement.
 If the player is behind the ball when it is played, he or she cannot be offside.
 An attacker who is exactly in line with the 2nd last defender or the ball is not considered to be offside.
 If a player does not become involved in active play, then it is not an offside offence even if that player is in an offside position (the concept of passive offside introduced in 1924). A player can become involved in active play by touching the ball (either directly from a team mate's touch or after it rebounds off the goal frame or an opponent) or interfering with another player's ability to play the ball.

References

Football (soccer) terminology
Canary Islands

The Canary Islands are a group of islands off the coast of Morocco. They are an autonomous community of Spain (they make their own laws). There are seven main islands. The people who live there speak Spanish. The autonomous community has two capital cities, of equal status: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Like the other islands of Macaronesia, they were created by volcanoes on the bottom of the sea. Those volcanoes slowly rose above the water and became islands. This process lasted many thousands of years.

The islands have a very long and interesting history. When Europeans first came to the Canary Islands, they found people already living there. These people were called the Guanches.  Many of the Guanches were killed in 15th-century battles with the Spanish, and the ones who remained adopted the Spanish way of life.  After the Spanish conquest, many battles were also fought against pirates.  Most recently Morocco was interested in them. 

After the Spanish conquest, many Europeans settled there. Portuguese and Spaniards, and also Belgians and Maltese were among the early settlers. Recently many people from all over Europe, America, India, and Africa have also become citizens or permanent residents.

The seven islands are: La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura. People from La Gomera have a whistle language that children there learn at school. Tenerife has the highest mountain in the Canary Islands and Spain too, the Teide. The Teide is actually a volcano, but it has not been active in more than 300 years. 

The islands are popular with tourists because of their warm climate and nice beaches. The local farmers grow lots of exotic fruits including papayas and bananas.

The Canary Islands' main exports include bananas and tobacco.

References

Other websites
 
 

Archipelagos
 
North Africa
Edinburgh Airport

Edinburgh Airport (IATA EDI, ICAO: EGPH) is an airport in Scotland. It is one of seven airports in the United Kingdom owned by the company BAA, which also owns Glasgow Airport and Aberdeen Airport in Scotland.
 It is served by many different airlines including Scot Airways, British Airways, EasyJet, BMI, Continental Airlines, Air France, and Lufthansa. The airport has good road links to the city centre with a bus running every 10 minutes from the airport to the centre of Edinburgh, a number of taxis are always available. Just over 9 million people a year use the airport, but there are plans to make the airport bigger in the future.

On 19th October 2011, BAA Limited said that it is going to sell Edinburgh Airport. This was done following a decision by the UK's Competition Commission which said that BAA needs to sell either Glasgow or Edinburgh Airport.

Accidents
In February 2001 a Shorts 360 crashed shortly after taking off from Edinburgh Airport. Both pilots were killed but there were no passengers on board as it was a mail-carrying flight.

References

Other websites 
 Edinburgh Airport official website
Airports in Scotland

Buildings and structures in Edinburgh
Lufthansa

Lufthansa is the largest airline in Germany, and the second-largest in Europe. Some of Lufthansa's hubs are Frankfurt am Main and Munich, Germany. A hub is an airport where people who fly from one city to a second city can transfer or change airplanes.

Lufthansa buys airplanes from Boeing and Airbus. Lufthansa has big airplanes for flights to North America, Asia, and Africa. These flights are called long-haul flights because they are between cities that are far apart from each other. Lufthansa also has small airplanes for flights in Europe. These flights are called short-haul flights.

Lufthansa is a member of the Star Alliance, which means it is a partner with other airlines like United Airlines and Air Canada. Members of the Star Alliance cooperate or work together to schedule their flights better so that travelling is easier for passengers or people.

The name of Lufthansa's frequent flyer program is Miles and More. People earn points for flights they travel on. When they have enough points, they can get a free flight. Lufthansa has "Miles and More" to encourage people to fly with Lufthansa.

Many regional flights are operated Lufthansa Regional with Lufthansa CityLine, Eurowings and Air Dolomiti.

Fleet 

Lufthansa uses these airplanes:

Gallery

References

Other websites 

 Lufthansa website 

Article has been lengthened.

Star Alliance
Airlines of Germany
IATA members
1950s establishments in Germany
Transport in Germany
Orlando Bloom

Orlando Jonathan Blanchard Bloom (born 13 January 1977, in Canterbury, Kent, England) is an English actor. He is most known for his first major movie role as the elf Legolas Greenleaf in The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy.

In 1993, he moved to London to improve his career, doing bit parts in TV series like Casualty. Then he played some theatres like The Seagull, Twelfth Night, and Trojan Women. This is a role that he received some days before graduating the drama school in London.

Movies 
Here are some movies, in which he played an important character:
 Wilde (1997)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 Black Hawk Down (2002)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002)
 Ned Kelly (2003)
 The Calcium Kid (2003)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003)
 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
 Troy (2004)
 Haven (2004)
 Kingdom of Heaven (2005)
 Elizabethtown (2005)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (2007)
 The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug (2013)
 The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies (2014)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales (2017)

Other websites 

 

1977 births
Living people
Actors from Kent
English movie actors
English television actors
Canterbury
871

871 was a common year.

Events 
Somerton becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Wessex.
Alfred the Great succeeds as king of Wessex after Ethelred of Wessex's death.
1084

Year 1084 (MLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 May – Sack of Rome by the Normans of Robert Guiscard.

Births 
 David I of Scotland
Neon

Neon is a chemical element on the periodic table.  It is part of the noble gas group and it has an atomic number of 10. It is an odorless and tasteless gas.  Neon does not react with other elements, so it is found by itself. There is not much neon in the air, and it is clear, so we do not see it.

It was previously thought that Neon could not bond with any other elements, creating compounds. However, there have been a few compounds that have been made with neon, such as NeAuF and NeBeS.

History 
Two British scientists, Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers, discovered neon, argon, krypton, and xenon.  Together they discovered a brand new gas element in 1898.  Four years before, Ramsay, a physical chemist, had found argon and was the first person to isolate helium in 1895.  The scientists froze argon, using liquid air, and then evaporated this to collect the gas that is produced.  Using a high voltage, they collected the first sample of the gas.  To their surprise, the gas illuminated the glass tubes and glowed with bright crimson light.

Upon discovery, the two scientists decided to name the new gas Neon, after the Greek word Neos, meaning the new one. While Ramsay and Travers discovered neon gas, they didn’t invent neon lamps. It wasn’t until 1902 when French engineer and inventor Georges Claude showcased the first neon light.

Uses 
Neon gas is used in gas discharge lamps. When electricity goes through the neon, it lights up red. Due to this quality, it is used in light up signs. Similar signs use other gases to make other colors, but they are also often called "neon signs". Neon is also a term referring to a type of color that is very bright, such as lime green.

Related pages
List of common elements
 Neon lamp

References

Noble gases
Silicon

Silicon is a chemical element. Its atomic number is 14 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Si. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid. It is a tetravalent metalloid and semiconductor. It is a member of group 14 in the periodic table.

Silicon looks like a metal, but cannot do everything that a metal can, like conduct electricity well. Silicon is used a lot in today's computers and nearly every other electronic device as well. Germanium can also be used in computers, but silicon is much easier to find. 

For example, all of the sand found at the beach is made of small cubes of  silicon dioxide also known as  silica. Glass is made by heating sand hot enough until it melts. Glass made from silicon can be made in different colours by adding colouring compounds. Many rocks and minerals are composed of compounds of silicon and oxygen called silicates.

Silicon in computers 
Silicon is a semiconductor, and much used in computers. A super-pure isotope of silicon, silicon-28, can now be made 40 times more pure than before. It is very important for the next big development in computers. This stores "qubits" in atoms of another element, like phosphorous, embedded in a tiny layer of ultra-pure silicon-28. These qubits can simultaneously encode a one and a zero, for incredibly fast and complex calculations.

Related pages
 List of common elements

References 

Semimetals
Krypton

Krypton is a stable noble gas. It has an atomic number of 36. The name krypton comes from the Greek word kryptos meaning hidden. It is used in fluorescent lamps, flashbulbs, and as a wavelength standard. The metre used to be defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of krypton gas.

Chemistry 
Because it is a gas, it does not react with many elements. It is clear and has no taste or smell. The atmosphere is only about one millionth part krypton. Krypton has very few compounds.

Uses
The main use for krypton is to make light. There is one main type of krypton light bulbs. This is called a gas discharge lamp. There are three main types of these. First is a low energy gas discharge lamp or "neon light". Low energy gas discharge lights made from krypton are near white to green. Second is a high energy short length of time gas discharge light or "flash bulb". These are mostly used for photography. They are bright blue-white. Third is a high energy gas discharge light. This third kind is mostly used to light airport runways. They are also bright blue-white.

History
Krypton was found by Sir William Ramsay and Morris Travers in Great Britain in 1898. Ramsay was given the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on noble gases. It was a difficult gas to discover; Ramsay suspected it existed but only found it by removing other gases. This is why he gave it the name Krypton. There is no mineral called Kryptonite or planet called Krypton, which both feature in the Superman comics by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. The fictional planet is probably better known than the real chemical element called Krypton.

Related pages
List of common elements
Periodic table

References

Noble gases
Noble gas

The noble gases are a group of elements that are all gases. These elements are all in group 18 of the periodic table. All of them are monoatomic, meaning each molecule is a single atom. They almost never react with other elements. This is because they have a full 8 electrons outer electron shell. There are six noble gases:

 helium
 neon
 argon
 krypton
 xenon
 radon

All of these gases are found in air. They make up around 0.96% of the atmosphere. Noble gas compounds can be formed from noble gases.

When the noble gases are used in cold cathode tubes to produce light, each of them has a different colour. Since Radon is radioactive, it is usually not used for lighting. Here are pictures of what the others look like:

Oganesson (element 118) is probably the next noble gas after Radon because it is the next box down in the same group. However it has a half life of 0.89 ms, after which it decays to Livermorium (Element 116). This means its use is probably limited.

Noble gases were discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay. Rayleigh won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1904 for his work on noble gas. Ramsay won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1904 for his work with noble gas.

References
Polonium

Polonium is a rare radioactive metalloid. It is chemical element 84 on the periodic table and its symbol is Po. It was discovered in 1898 by Marie and Pierre Curie.

Polonium is highly unstable, radioactive and toxic. This makes it difficult to handle. It can be dangerous, even in very small amounts. One gram of Po will self-heat to a temperature of about . It also vaporizes easily.

Polonium has 33 isotopes, and all of them are radioactive. It is a very rare element in nature because of its short half-life. It is a breakdown product of uranium, so it is found in uranium ores. 

Polonium is also very important because it the main element of nuclear bombs.

References 

Post-transition metals
Iridium

Iridium is the 77th element on the periodic table. Its symbol is Ir and its atomic number is 77.

Chemistry 
Iridium is a metal. Like other metals in the platinum group, Iridium is a rare and expensive "noble metal" and is a transition metal. It looks like platinum and is found in asteroids and comets. It is exceptionally hard-wearing. 

Iridium deposits are used to identify relative dates of collisions of foreign bodies. Iridium can fold and bend just like aluminum, and remains very shiny. Most iridium is found in the Americas, though some is mined in Myanmar, South Africa, and Russia. Iridium melts at 2410 °C, and boils at 4130 °C. It is the most corrosion-resistant metal.

Iridium is not needed in the body. It is used for the tips of pens. The main uses of iridium are the metal itself and its alloys.

History 
A man named Smithson Tennant first found it in the year 1803 and is was named after Iris in Greek mythology. Smithson Tennant found it in the remains when he left crude platinum in a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid.

Transition metals
Transition metal

The transition metals are a group of metals that are found in the middle of the periodic table. The alkaline earth metals, beginning with beryllium are to the left and the boron group elements are to the right. The term "transition element" was invented for them in 1921.

The atomic numbers of these metals are from 21 to 30, 39-48, 57, 72-80, 89 and 104-112. Many elements like Zn, Cd, Hg, La and Ac have a highly debatable position in the transition series of elements. La and Ac are also classed in the lanthanide series and actinide series respectively.

Transition metals have several general properties. They are harder and less reactive than the alkaline earth metals. They are also harder than the post transition metals. They make colorful chemical compounds with other elements. Most of them have more than one oxidation state. Like other metals, they are electrical conductors.

Some of the transition metals are necessary to keep humans healthy, such as iron, zinc, and chromium. Other elements in the transition metals can be harmful to our body, like cadmium and mercury. Other elements like gold or silver do not harm or help us. There are more transition metals than any other groups in the periodic table.

Only a few of the transition metals are colored; most of them are silver-gray or silver-bluish.
Osmium

Osmium is a chemical element. It is element number 76 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Os.

There is not much osmium on earth. There is actually such a small amount that osmium is very expensive.

Osmium is a metal and it does not react very much, and such a metal is known as a "noble metal".

Osmium is the densest (heaviest for the same amount) element on the periodic table.

It was discovered in 1804 by Smithson Tennant in London, England. He found it together with Iridium in a bit of Platinum, which he had dissolved in Aqua regia.

Characteristics 
Osmium has a blue-grey hue and is the densest stable element; it is about twice as dense as lead and slightly denser than iridium. Osmium is a hard but brittle metal that stays shiny even at high temperatures. It has a very low squeezability. Accordingly, its size module is extremely high, reported between 395 and 462 GPa, which is comparable to that of diamond (443 GPa). The hardness of osmium is moderately high at 4 GPa.  Because of its hardness, brittleness, low vapour pressure, and very high melting point, solid osmium is difficult to machine, form, or work.

Transition metals
Radon

Radon'' is a chemical element in the periodic table. It is element 86 on the periodic table and its symbol is Rn'''. It is an odorless, tasteless noble gas. It is quite radioactive and can decay very quickly. 27 isotopes of Radon is known today. The most stable of them has a half life of about 3.8 days.

Chemistry 
Radon is a gas and is part of the group known as the noble gases.  It does not react with other elements, so it is found pure. Radon is radioactive, meaning that it can give off harmful rays.  Some people have high levels of radon in their houses, and this can be very dangerous.  A lot of radon can get stuck in the basement of old houses, and so people end up breathing it in.  It gets stuck in the lungs and has been known to cause cancer.  There are groups that try to make sure there is no dangerous radon in houses.

It can occur naturally on the Earth but is a very small amount. As elements like Thorium and Uranium decay, some of that gets turned into Radon.

Radon can cause lung cancer and is the second most popular cause of lung cancer straight after smoking.

History 
Radon was the fifth radioactive element to be discovered, in 1899 by Ernest Rutherford and Robert B. Owens at McGill University in Montreal, after uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium. In 1899, Pierre and Marie Curie saw that the gas given off by radium remained radioactive for a month. Later that year, Rutherford and Owens noticed different types of them when trying to measure radiation from thorium oxide.

Uses 
It is sometimes used in radiation therapy. However, it is very dangerous to use.

Related pages
List of common elements
Periodic table

References 

Noble gases
Carcinogens
Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (usually abbreviated to HTTP) is a communications protocol. It is used to send and receive webpages and files on the internet. It was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and is now coordinated by the W3C. HTTP version 1.1 is the most common used version today. It is defined in RFC 2616.

About half of websites already use its successor HTTP/2 (which almost all web browsers support), and 25% of websites already support its much faster successor HTTP/3, which is the latest version of the protocol, published in 2022. HTTP/3 has lower latency for real-world web pages, if enabled on the server, load faster than with HTTP/2, and even faster than HTTP/1.1, in some cases over 3× faster than HTTP/1.1 

The secure variant of HTTP is called HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure), and is used by more than 79% of websites, such as payment websites (if it's not used, then it's a clear signal that the payment site is a scam).

HTTPS is used by default by most web browsers (even if not requested by the user), assuming the web server supports it. If browsing to a website, and the web browser shows it starting with http: without an s before the colon (or an unlocked icon is seen), then that website is not secure, then passwords or other data sent to them can be stolen. HTTPS encrypts all the information that is sent and received. This can stop malicious users such as hackers from stealing the information. HTTPS uses port 443 for communication instead of port 80.

HTTP works as such, a user agent, usually meaning the web browser, connects to a (web) server. A user agent could also be a web crawler, or so-called "spider", but most users do not use such tools (they are used by search engines, such as Google). The server must be located using a URL or URI. It normally connects to port 80 on a computer.

Request message 

The request message (for HTTP/1.1 and older) contains the following (i.e. it's in plain text; no longer used with HTTP/2 and later):

 Request line, such as GET /images/logo.gif HTTP/1.1, which requests the file logo.gif from the /images directory
 Headers, such as Accept-Language: en
 An empty line
 An optional message body

The request line and headers must all end with two characters: a carriage return followed by a line feed, often written <CR><LF>. The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace. In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all headers except Host: are optional.

A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 standard.

References

Internet
Computer protocols
Ethernet

Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together in a local area network or LAN. It has been the most widely used method of linking computers together in LANs since the 1990s. The basic idea of its design is that multiple computers have access to it and can send data at any time. This is comparatively easy to engineer. 

If two computers send data at the same time, a collision will occur. When this happens, the data sent is not usable. In general, both computers will stop sending, and wait a random amount of time, before they try again. A special protocol was developed to deal with such problems. It is called Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection or CSMA/CD.

Different cable types
There are different Ethernet standards.  Today, Ethernet cables look like thick telephone cables.  They connect to boxes called hubs or switches. Each cable runs from a computer's network interface card (NIC) to such a box. This cable is called 10BaseT or 100BaseT, or 1000BaseT Cable.

All cable types:
 10Base2 and 10Base5: These coaxial cables are like those used in television, but thinner.  They are also called "thinnet" or "coax". Each computer has a "T" plugged into it, and cables plug into each side of the "T". Sometimes, instead of a "T", a vampire tap is used. It supports 10MBits per second transfer speed. It was the first to be adopted, and became rare during the 21st century.
 10BaseT: Cables look like thick phone cables, but with 8 copper wires instead of 2 or 4, and they go from each computer' to a Hub or a Switch. Supported speed is 10 MBit/second.
 10BaseF: Same as 10BaseT, but cables transmit light pulses, instead of electrical signals.
 100BaseT:  Cables look the same as 10BaseT, but can run at up to  100 MBits per second
 1000BaseT: Cables look the same as 10BaseT, but can run at up to 1GBit (1000MBit) per second.

Today, the cables for 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT are the same. Their transmission medium is unshielded twisted pair for Category 5 (UTP-Cat5) or 5e. Shielded cable (STP-Cat5 or Cat5e) can be used when there is a lot of electrical noise, and Category 6 (UTP-Cat6 or STP-Cat6) works better with faster signals such as 1GBit or 10GBit.

Different devices
Other devices, such as video game consoles, can also be connected using the same kind of cabling. Certain computer peripherals, for example printers and certain hard disks can be directly connected to the network with such cables.

Different speeds
Ethernet can go at different speeds. In the beginning, Ethernet was at 10 MBits per second. The Ethernet most often used today is at 100 MBits per second.  Most new computers now have the NIC built in, and can go at 1GBit per second. There are also standards for 1GBit per second and 10 GBit per second.  100 MBit can usually talk to 10 MBit, and 1 GBit can talk to 100 MBit and usually to 10 MBit (both full and half duplex).

Computer hardware
Computer networking
Phillips Academy

Phillips Academy (also called Andover, Phillips Andover, or  PA) is a high school for boys and girls in Andover, Massachusetts, near Boston, USA.  The school is a boarding school.  75% of the students live there.

Phillips Academy is one of the oldest private boarding schools in the United States.  Two American Presidents, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, went to school there.

Phillips Academy was founded during the American Revolution as an all-boys school in 1778.  The great seal of the school was designed by Paul Revere. George Washington's nephews went to the school, and he once spoke at an assembly while visiting. John Hancock, the famous signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, signed the articles of incorporation.

Phillips Exeter Academy was made three years later in Exeter, New Hampshire by Samuel Phillips' uncle John.  The football teams have played against each other almost every year since 1878.  This makes their rilvalry one of the oldest high school rivalries in the country.

Paul Revere put bees, a beehive, and the sun into the school's great seal.  The school's main motto, Finis Origine Pendet, means "the end depends upon the beginning." It is written at the bottom of the seal. The school's second motto, Non Sibi means "not for self."  

Schools in Massachusetts
1778 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in Massachusetts
Gluttony

Gluttony is a wasting of resources. Usually it is food that is wasted. Either one person eats too much, or the person does something so the food (or the resources) do not reach those who need it.

In Christianity, this is considered to be one of the Seven deadly sins.

Seven deadly sins
Greed

Greed is a desire to have more goods, or more wealth than is needed. Christianity says that greed is one of the Seven deadly sins. There it is listed as avarice, or in Latin avaritia.

Emotions
Seven deadly sins

nl:Hoofdzonde#Avaritia
Mazurek Dąbrowskiego

"Mazurek Dąbrowskiego" (, meaning "Dąbrowski's Mazurka") is the national anthem of Poland. It is commonly called "Poland is Not Yet Lost" in English. The words of the song were written in 1797 by a Polish nobleman named Józef Wybicki. Kazimierz Sikorski rearranged the song's music, though the original composer is not known. It was officially adopted as the country's national anthem in 1927.

Lyrics

Current version

Original version

Other websites 
  "Mazurek Dąbrowskiego" in Mp3 format  (Full version)
  "Mazurek Dąbrowskiego" in Mp3 format  (Instrumental version)

References 

 
1797 establishments
1790s songs
National symbols of Poland
Fornication

Fornication is a word that means having sex with someone who is not your spouse. Many Christians and Muslims believe it is sinful.

Sexual acts
Religious ethics
Profit

Profit is how much money somebody (normally a company) makes. This is found by subtracting how much money they have spent (expenditure) from how much money they have brought in (revenue).

An example
If John spends $15 on some ice cream cones, and then sells them for $20, he has made a profit of $5. This is because he made $20 but when the $15 he used to buy the ice cream cones is subtracted, what is left is $5. In the end, he has $5 more than he had before he bought and sold the ice cream cones.

Money
Income
Roasting

Roasting is a way of cooking. Something gets roasted if it is put over a fire, and some is burnt. The same effect can also be attained with a grill at a barbecue.

Meat 

In different countries people like to roast different things.  People usually roast meats such as pork, beef, chicken, lamb, and duck. The roasted meat, along with its accompanying vegetables, is often called a roast.

Most meat being roasted has to cook for a relatively long time, to ensure that it is cooked through.  Variations to this include lamb and beef, which may be left "pink" or partially uncooked towards the centre.

Other 
Other things can be roasted too. For example, vegetables, coffee and chocolate. Coffee and chocolate are always roasted.

Cooking methods
Pancreas

The pancreas is an organ that makes hormones and enzymes to help digestion. The pancreas helps break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The pancreas is behind the stomach and is on the left side of the human body.

The part of the pancreas that makes hormones is called the Islets of Langerhans. The Islets of Langerhans are a small part (2%) of the total cells in the pancreas.  The Islets of Langerhans change which chemical they make depending on how much of other chemicals are already in the blood.  So, the pancreas works to keep the level of chemicals in balance in the body.  If the Islets of Langerhans stop working, a person will suffer from a disease called diabetes. Doctors are experimenting with taking the Islets of Langerhans cells from a donor body and putting them into the pancreas of a person with diabetes to make that person well.

The pancreas belongs to two systems of the body: the digestive system for its role in breaking down nutrients, and the endocrine system for producing hormones.

Hormones 
The pancreas releases these hormones:
 Insulin (which decreases the amount of glucose or sugar in the blood)
 Glucagon (which increases the amount of glucose in the blood)
 Somatostatin (which reduces production of insulin and glucagon)

Digestive enzymes 
The pancreas releases many different enzymes to help digestion:
 Lipase (which breaks down fats)
 Amylase (which breaks down carbohydrates)
 Trypsinogen and Chymotrypsin (which break down proteins)
 Erepsin, which digests peptones into amino acids.

References

Other websites 

 Pancreatic Cancer Info 

Anatomy of the digestive system
Chloroplast

A chloroplast is a small organelle inside the cells of plants and algae. They absorb light to make sugar in a process called photosynthesis. The sugar can be stored in the form of starch. 

Chloroplasts contain the molecule chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis. In addition to chlorophyll, a chloroplast uses carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to form sugar and gives off oxygen (O2). 

Chlorophyll is what gives green plants their green colour. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow and orange pigments to assist in photon capture for photosynthesis.

Structure 
Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double walled semi-permeable membrane. These are collectively known as peristromia. In the layered stacks are flat disk-shaped thylakoids. They contain light-absorbing pigments, including chlorophyll and carotenoids, as well as proteins which bind the pigments. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also contain their own DNA and ribosomes.

Evolution 
Chloroplasts are one of the many different types of organelles in the cell. They may have originated as endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This was suggested by Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905, after an observation by Schimper in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resembled cyanobacteria. 

Almost all chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event. 

Mitochondria also had a similar origin, but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protists. In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes. They may be the outer and inner membranes of the ancestral cyanobacterium. Chloroplasts have their own genome, much smaller than that of free-living cyanobacteria. The DNA which remains shows clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. 

Plastids may contain 60–100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often contain more than 1500 genes. Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the host. 

In some algae (such as the heterokonts), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts. This formed chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary endosymbionts may have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, so forming tertiary endosymbionts. In the alga Chlorella, there is only one chloroplast, which is bell-shaped.

In some groups of mixotrophic protists such as the dinoflagellates and some sea slugs, chloroplasts are separated from a captured alga or diatom and used temporarily. These klepto (stolen) chloroplasts may only have a lifetime of a few days and are then replaced.

References 

Organelles