alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia. The country is landlocked (has no coast) and mountainous. It has borders with China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Its capital is Bishkek. It was a socialist republic of the Soviet Union, but became independent in 1991. The country was peaceful in the 1990s. Its president, Askar Akayev showed an autocratic and authoritarian character. 

Russian is spoken as an official language at state level.

In 2005, there was an unexpected revolution after the elections of parliament (the legislature) in March. President Akayev resigned on April 4 of that year. Opposition leaders formed a coalition (a group from more than one party), and a new government was formed, led by President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Prime Minister Feliks Kulov.

At the moment, different political groups are fighting for power in the republic. Three of the 75 elected members of Parliament have been murdered. Kyrgyzstan’s main religion is Islam.

Geography

Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia. It is farther from the ocean than any other country in the world. It borders Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Mountains cover over 80% of the country.

The land area of Kyrgyzstan is just a little bigger than the state of Nebraska. 

Issyk-Kul Lake is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan.  It is the largest mountain lake in Asia and the second largest mountain lake in the world after Titicaca. Peak Jengish Chokusu, at 7,439 m (24,406 ft), is the highest point. The highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range.

Bishkek, the capital city, is in the north. It is largest city in Kyrgyzstan. The second largest is the ancient town of Osh.

Cities

Economy
Kyrgyzstan was the second poorest country in the former Soviet Union next to Tajikistan. Now it is the second poorest country in Central Asia.

Agriculture is an important part of the economy in Kyrgyzstan. Much farming is still being done by hand and by horse. Main crops include wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, cotton, tobacco, vegetables, and fruit.

Kyrgyzstan is rich in mineral resources. It has small petroleum and natural gas reserves. Among its mineral reserves are solid amount of coal, gold, uranium, antimony and other metals but not iron. Metallurgy is an important industry.

Imports include petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemicals, most machinery, wood and paper products, food and construction materials. Its trade partners are Germany, Russia, China, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan.

Related pages
Kyrgyzstan at the Olympics
Kyrgyzstan national football team
List of rivers of Kyrgyzstan

References

 
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Kebab

Kebab (kebap in Turkish, kabab in Iran, Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, also spelled kebob, kabob;  ) means "grilled (or broiled) meat" in Persian and Greek. Kebab is usually made of lamb and beef. Sometimes chicken and fish are used for some styles. Pork is never used by Muslims but is sometimes used by non-Muslim sellers. Muslims are not allowed to eat pork, for religious reasons.

There are many varieties of kebab and the term means different things in different countries. The generic term kebab usually refers to doner kebab or döner kebap in Europe and to Gyros in the United States, though its meaning can vary. In South Asia the term can refer to a whole range of items such as Chappali kabab, Shami kabab, Bihari kabab and so on.

History

There are evidence of hominin use of fire and cooking that was used in the Middle East around 790,000 years ago, and prehistoric hearths, earth ovens, and burnt animal bones were spread across Europe and the Middle East by at least 250,000 years ago. Excavations of the Minoan settlement of Akrotiri unearthed stone supports for skewers used before the 17th century BC. In Ancient Greek times, Homer in the Iliad (1.465) mentions pieces of meat roasted on spits (),

Variations
There are many types of kebab. Below are just a few.

Shish
Shish kebabs are derived from the Turkish şiş which means skewer. They are cooked or grilled on skewers, over hot coals or wood. These kababs originated in Iran and Afghanistan and then spread out to Turkey, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, India. They are also very popular now in Europe and the United States.

Döner

Döner kebap (which means "rotating kebab" in Turkish) is sliced lamb, beef, or chicken, that is slowly roasted on a vertical rotating spit.

Chappali
Chappali kabab or chappal kabab or chapli kebab is a type of fried kebab. It started in the North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of present Pakistan and in Afghanistan. The name comes from the Pashto (and also Urdu) word for 'slipper' or 'shoe'. The kebab is actually called a 'slipper/shoe kebab'. Its shape is like that of a slipper or shoe.

This kebab is basically made from ground or minced beef or mutton mixed with tomatoes, onions and chillies, and a variety of herbs and spices. It is given its unique shape. It is fried in a special big pan. It is eaten with big roti bread typical of the Pathan region. Often Qahwa or green tea, is drunk with it or after it, to help digestion. 

Chappali kabab is very popular throughout Pakistan. It has spread to major cities of the country such as Lahore and Karachi. According to gourmets, the best ones are still found in Peshawar city and Mardan. Today, the popularity of these kebabs is also gradually spreading to other parts of the world, including the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and the United States.

Related pages 
 Gyros (food)
 Souvlaki

References

Middle Eastern foods
Afghanistan
Pakistani food
Persian food
Turkish food
Azerbaijani food
Greek food
Halal

Halal (حلال, halāl, halaal) is an Islamic Arabic term meaning "permissible". The opposite is "haram", which means "forbidden".

Muslims have strict rules of what they can and cannot eat:
 Animals need to be killed in a special way. The animal must be slaughtered by a Muslim man, and the slaughter must be humane. (The animal should be slaughtered by hand so that all the blood could be drained from the slaughtered {dead} animal before they can eat the animal. It is called "Zabihah Halal" in Arabic language meaning "Permissible Slaughter".)
 Muslims cannot consume carcass animals even the animal slaughtered by knife not in its neck called Mari' and wajadan. Hunting animals can be eaten, but in a special manner.
 Muslims must not eat pork. "He has only forbidden you what dies of itself, and blood, and flesh of swine, and that over which any other (name) than (that of) Allah has been invoked; but whoever is driven to necessity, not desiring, nor exceeding the limit, no sin shall be upon him; surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful." (Quran 2:173)
 According to the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali branches of Islam, all fish and shellfish would be halal. All sea food is allowed to Muslims. 
 They should not drink alcohol or consume other intoxicating substances in the wrong way (for example, narcotics). All substances that takes away the minds - with no medical purpose- are forbidden. 
 Some sources even argue caffeine, like alcohol and drugs, to be haram, which is the full opposite of halal.

References

Food and drink
Islamic law
Surat

Surat is a city in the State of Gujarat, India. It is on the banks of the Tapti river. Surat used to be a large seaport. It is the eighth largest city in India. According to the 2020 reports on the ‘cleanest cities of India’, Surat ranked second out of 4,242 cities in India.

References

Cities in Gujarat
Kanpur

Kanpur is a city in Uttar Pradesh, India. Almost three million people live in Kanpur.
It was called the Manchester of India.

References

Cities in Uttar Pradesh
Web portal

An internet portal or web portal is a website used to enter the Internet. It can also be used to describe a website to enter certain parts of the Internet, like Wikipedia's Community Portal.

Many ISPs have their own portals, but there are many other portals by other companies, like Microsoft's MSN, Ask.com, and Yahoo!.

Internet
Humanism

Humanism is a philosophy or a way of thinking about the world. Humanism is a set of ethics or ideas about how people should live and act. People who hold this set of ethics are called humanists. Humanists prefer critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. 

In modern times, humanism is close to secularism. It refers to a non-theistic approach to life, looking to science instead of religious dogma in order to understand the world. The term was made widely known by scientists in the mid-20th century. Many wanted to recognise human values, but without depending on religion as the main source of values.

Views held by many humanists include:
 Humans deserve respect. Every human should be treated with respect and allowed to have dignity. If all people act with respect for others, then people will live in peace and trust.
 People should all be able to decide how they want to live their lives. They should use reasoning to make decisions and solve problems.
 Humanists decide what choices are good by whether those choices will help make human life better and the world around them.

History 
Humanist ideas were discussed in Ancient Greece, from Thales to Anaxagoras and Protagoras. The teachings of Zarathushtra and Lao Tzu had strong elements of humanism, and there are many other examples.

The writings of the ancient Greeks were studied in the 1400s during the Renaissance. However, in this period the term "humanism" came to mean educated in the humanities, a rather different kind of idea. Petrarch is often cited as the first modern humanist, but he pointed backwards to classical authors. The modern meaning of humanism is more to do with using science to make the world a better place. 
A comment by the English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead in 1925 was 
"The prophecy of Francis Bacon has now been fulfilled; and man, who at times dreamt of himself as a little lower than the angels, has submitted to become the servant and the minister of nature. It still remains to be seen whether the same actor can play both parts".

References 

Humanism
The Guardian

The Guardian is a British newspaper. It is published every day, except on Sunday. It is owned by the same company as The Observer, which only publishes on Sunday. The Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner.

History 

The newspaper was founded in 1821. It was founded by textile traders and merchants. The Guardian was seen as "an organ of the middle class", or, in the words of C.P. Scott's son Ted, "a paper that will remain bourgeois to the last". In 2005, Sir Max Hastings stated that he writes for The Guardian "because it is read by the new establishment", reflecting the paper's growing influence.

Until 1959 The Guardian was called The Manchester Guardian.

Three of the four people who wrote leaders for the Guardian joined the Social Democratic Party on its foundation in 1982.  The paper supported Tony Blair when he wanted to lead the Labour Party and to become Prime Minister.

In 1999 theguardian.com started. At the time it was a website called Guardian Unlimited.

Characteristics 
The Guardian describes itself as centre-left.

References

Other websites 

 
 History of the Guardian
 Founding of the Manchester Guardian
 

1821 establishments
Newspapers published in the United Kingdom
1820s establishments in the United Kingdom
 Guardian Newspaper (e-paper)
Alga (Korday district)

Alga (; ) is a hamlet in the Korday District of Kazakhstan.  It is one of several communities in Kazakhstan with this name.  The A-2 highway from Bishkek to Almaty runs through the town.  A significant architectural feature is its mosque.

Hamlets
Settlements in Kazakhstan
Al Ain

Al Ain (Arabic: العين) is a city in the United Arab Emirates. The city name literally means "the spring" or "the eye" in Arabic. This name come from the water sources in the area. The city is in the emirate of Abu Dhabi, right next to the border with Oman. It is often called the 'Garden City of the Persian Gulf' because of the many parks, tree-lined avenues and decorative roundabouts within the city. Al Ain, Abu Dhabi and Dubai form a kind of geographic triangle in the center of the country. Each city is around 150 kilometers from the other two.

Economy
Al Ain is the fourth largest metropolitan area by population in the Emirates, with a population of 348,000 (2003 census estimate). There are more Emirati nationals in Al Ain than other places in the country, but most who live there are people who left other countries, particularly from the Indian sub-continent. There are fewer Western people than in the larger centers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. This gives Al Ain a more 'Arabic' look and feel, compared to the larger cities of the Emirates.

History
People have lived in Al Ain for more than 4000 years, and the area is central to the cultural heritage of the country. There are many underground water springs in the area. This explains why people wanted to live there. Traces of its past remain, including camel racing and breeding. The ancient falaj system of irrigation is still in use in some areas. The system brings underground water to people by a network of tunnels that come out into open channels. The flow of water in the channels can be controlled.

Tourism
Al Ain is becoming a place that tourists visit, with attractions such as Jebel Hafeet, a 1340 metre high mountain that dominates the surrounding area. Many tourists like to visit the mineral springs at the base and drive to the top of this mountain for sunset. Al Ain regularly records the highest summer temperatures in the country, but the dry desert air makes it a welcome escape from the coastal humidity of the larger cities. Other attractions include the Al Ain Oasis in the city centre, and other oases around the area, cool places to escape the summer heat, a zoo, amusement park named "Fun City", many well kept parks, popular with families in the summer evenings, a heritage village, as well as malls and other modern sites. Important buildings include United Arab Emirates University, Higher Colleges of Technology, well-equipped medical facilities, including the teaching hospital at Tawam, military training areas and Al Ain International Airport.

Sports
The city is home to the successful association football (soccer) club, Al Ain FC.

Cities in the United Arab Emirates
Jutland

Jutland (Danish: Jylland; German: Jütland) is a peninsula in northern Europe. It forms the mainland part of Denmark and a northern part of Germany. It separates the North Sea from the Baltic Sea. Its terrain is relatively flat, with low hills and peat bogs. It has an area of 29,775 km² (11,496 square miles), and a population of 2,491,852 (2004).

The northern two thirds of the peninsula are occupied by the westernmost portion of the Kingdom of Denmark. There is no separate name for the Danish portion of the peninsula, so it is simply called the same name. 

The northernmost part of Jutland became an island following a flood in 1825; the Limfjord now separates it from the mainland. This island is called Vendsyssel-Thy or Nørrejyske Ø ("North Jutlandic Island") and is still commonly reckoned as part of the peninsula; it is also partly coterminous with the county and future region called North Jutland. 

The southern third is made up of the German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, with the duchies of Schleswig (also Sønderjylland/Southern Jutland) and Holstein. Both duchies have passed back and forth between the Danes and various German rulers. In the last border movement, Denmark regained North Schleswig (Nordslesvig in Danish) by plebiscite in 1920. Southern Schleswig remained German.

The River Elbe forms the southern border of Jutland with the city of Hamburg on its shore. The Danish Wadden Sea Islands and the North Frisian Islands stretch along the southwest coast of Jutland in the German Bight.

There are two bridges which link the central part ofJutland to the island of Funen to the east. They are the Little Belt Bridge and the New Little Belt Bridge. The roads which use these bridges are part of the European road network.

Cities
The largest cities on the Jutland Peninsula are:
 Århus, Denmark
 Kiel, Germany
 Lübeck, Germany
 Aalborg, Denmark
 Flensburg, Germany
 Esbjerg, Denmark
 Randers, Denmark
 Kolding, Denmark
 Vejle, Denmark
 Horsens, Denmark

References 

Peninsulas of Europe
Geography of Denmark
Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
Regions of Germany
Plebiscite

A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.

There are two types of result
 Mandatory - meaning the government must do what the result says
 Advisory - meaning the result of the vote is only to help the government make the final choice.

It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used.  In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling. 

In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It was legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.

An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled. 

Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made. 

The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.

Problems with referendums 
Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:

 It is feared that the electorate do not have sufficient political knowledge to truly understand what they are voting for

 Philosophers Plato and Madison thought voters are too easily persuaded by their own internal feelings of a matter instead of focusing on the good of the nation. That is to say they vote selfishly.

References 

Voting
Dubai

The city of Dubai is the largest and most populated city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital city of the emirate of Dubai, UAE. The city is sometimes called "Dubai City" to prevent it from being mixed up with the emirate.

Dubai is a city and emirate in the United Arab Emirates known for luxury shopping, ultramodern architecture and a lively nightlife scene. Burj Khalifa, an 830m-tall tower, dominates the skyscraper-filled skyline. At its foot lies Dubai Fountain, with jets and lights choreographed to music. On artificial islands just offshore is Atlantis, The Palm, a resort with water and marine-animal parks.

History 
There are records of the town of Dubai from 1799. The city was a dependent of Abu Dhabi until 1833. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen (chiefly Indians), who settled in the town. Until the 1930s, the town was known for its pearls.

Famous places 

 Burj Khalifa 
 Burj al-Arab
 Dubai International Airport, in the middle of the city
 Dubai Mall, one of the largest malls in the world
Global Village
Dubai park
TakaHisa Japanese Restaurant
IMG world of adventure
23 Marina
Wild Wadi water park
Dubai Desert Safari Experiences
Dubai Attractions

Climate 
Dubai has a hot desert climate. Summers are extremely hot, windy, and humid. The highest recorded temperature in the UAE is 52.1 °C (126 °F), recorded in July 2002. 

According to the UN, about 14 percent of the world population will face water scarcity by the year 2025. This shortage of water is expected to be worse in arid countries like the UAE. The UAE cloud seeding initiative is part of the government’s attempt to deal with the existing and future water needs of the country’s growing population.

Specific rules 
Dubai has strict rules like:

 The drinking age is 21. Drinking in public or being drunk in public are not tolerated.
 Offensive language, spitting, aggressive behavior and smoking outside designated areas are not tolerated.
 Public displays of affection such as holding hands or kissing are not tolerated.
 Men should avoid staring at local women or attempting to make eye contact.
 During Ramadan while Muslims are fasting from sunrise to sunset, non-Muslims can only eat and drink in screened-off areas.

References

Other websites 
 www.dubai.ae – Dubai Government portal
 www.dm.gov.ae – Dubai Municipality website
 dubijobs.com  – Dubai Job portal
 Dubaievisaonline

 
Settlements established in the 18th century
Enclave

In general use, an enclave can be any special area of a bigger area of land, such as a part of a city that has different taxes than the rest of the city.

In political geography, an enclave is a piece of land which has a different country totally around it. If another country has sovereignty over it, it is also called an exclave of that other country.  It is usually landlocked, meaning it is completely encased by the surrounding country

Exclaves can also exist within a country. This is when some administrative regions have holes (of other such regions) in them.

The word enclave is a relatively new word in the language of diplomacy: Diplomats are used to speaking French. The word comes from late Latin inclavatus, which can be translated as shut in, locked up (with a key, from Latin clavis, key). The word got in the English language in the year 1868. exclave (with a similar meaning) followed 3 decades later.

Enclaves may be created for a variety of historical, political or geographical reasons. Some areas have been left as enclaves simply because a river changed its course.

Since living in an enclave can be very inconvenient and many agreements have to be found by both countries over mail addresses, power supply or passage rights, enclaves tend to be eliminated and many cases that existed before have now been removed. Sometimes it is the case, that enclaves are traded for one another.

In English Church history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also Royal Peculiar).

Enclaved countries 

Some enclaves are countries that are not part of any other country, and therefore not exclaves. Three such countries exist:
 The republic of San Marino, enclaved within Italy
 Vatican City, within the city of Rome, in Italy
 The Kingdom of Lesotho, inside South Africa
Panhandle

A panhandle is a word used in geography. What people mean when they talk about panhandles is a narrow strip of land, that is surrounded on all sides except one, by one or more countries or regions. The strip of land is connected to the country or region it belongs to on one side only. This looks like the handle of a frying pan.

Panhandles include:
Florida Panhandle
Oklahoma Panhandle
Alaska Panhandle is the state's southeast

Landforms
New town

A new town, planned community, or planned city is a kind of city that is designed by architects and engineers before it is built. Most cities and towns just develop over the years, without a clear plan, and urban planning is used only for later expansion. 

Planned communities are designed with separate districts of the city for parks, stores, homes, and offices. Many planned communities have a transportation system for commuters.

There are many examples of capital cities being planned throughout history like Baghdad, Iraq; Washington D.C., United States; New Delhi, India; Canberra, Australia; Brasília, Brazil; and Naypyidaw, Myanmar.

Pictures

Related pages 

 City
 Urban planning

Other websites 

 The International New Town Institute, a research organization
Settlements
Urban planning
Pond

A pond is a body of water smaller than a lake.  Ponds support  wide range of wildlife: ducks, turtles, swans, small fish, and frogs can live in a pond. Usually, in most ponds sunlight can reach to bottom. In some cases ponds do not last all year round. This type of pond is called a vernal pond, or ephemeral, seasonal, or temporary wetlands. These types of ponds do not have any fish. Some ponds are now getting polluted because of humans.

 
	
 	
Biomes
Swan

A swan (Cygnini) is a kind of water bird, from the genera Cygnus and Coscoroba. They are in the subfamily Anserinae, in the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and ducks.

Many swans live in colder places, such as northern Europe, Asia and North America. They live on water. They swim on top of the water and eat plants off the bottom of ponds, lakes, or oceans. They also eat insects and other small animals. A baby swan is called a cygnet.

Swans are tough, strong birds who will stand no nonsense from dogs or cats. They may open their wings as a warning, but from then on a person is advised to keep clear. Swans are highly protective of their nests. They will attack anything they see as a threat to their chicks, including humans.

Description 
The swans are some of the largest flying birds. They are large in size and have large feet and long necks. The males are usually bigger and heavier than females. The mute swan, trumpeter swan, and whooper swan are the largest swans. They can be over 1.5m (60 inches) long. They can weigh over 15kg (33 pounds). Their wingspans (this means the length of both wings) can be almost 3m (10 ft). 

Most swans are white. They are found in the Northern Hemisphere. This means they are found in Europe, Asia and North America. However, the black swan is black with a red beak. It lives in Australia.  The black necked swan has white flight feathers, and black outer feathers. It lives in South America. They also have a small area of skin between the eyes and beak that has no feathers. This area can be different colors, such as yellow (for example, on a Bewick's swan) or orange (for example, on a mute swan).

Wild swans migrate.  They spend the cold part of the year eating and getting fat in one place and move to a warmer place to lay eggs and raise chicks, called cygnets.

The coscoroba swan is different to the other swans. Some scientists think it is more like a duck or a goose. It is the smaller than the other swans. This swan lives in South America.

Climate change

Bewick's swans used to spend a lot of time in Ireland and Britain and the Netherlands, but scientists say they have been moving east into Germany.  They spend less time in their winter feeding grounds than they did in 1970.  Scientists say they are following the changes in temperature in Europe.  The scientists found that individual swans do not change where they like to go during their own lifetimes.  Instead, different generations of swans go to different places from their parents and grandparents.

Taxonomy 
 Genus Cygnus
 Black swan (Cygnus atratus)
 New Zealand swan (Cygnus atratus sumnerensis) †
 Trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator)
 Bewick's swan (Cygnus bewickii)
 Whistling swan (Cygnus columbianus)
 Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)
 Black-necked swan (Cygnus melancoryphus)
 Mute swan (Cygnus olor)
 Genus Coscoroba

References
Pupa

A pupa (plural: pupae or pupas) is part of becoming an adult for some insects, like some butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and bees. The pupal stage comes after being a larva; the next stage is adulthood.

The pupa stage of a butterfly, called a chrysalis (plural "chrysalids"), is a well-known example of a pupa because they are often found in the open.

Insects
Developmental biology
Zoology
Paul

Paul might mean:

People

The name Paul [ pawl ] is a Latin name derived from the Roman family name Paulus, which is derived from the Latin word "paulus" meaning "small" or "humble". It is also associated with the Latin word "paullus" meaning "little".

The name Paul is a popular name in many countries around the world, including the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and many more. This name was ranked #257 on the US Popular Names in 2021.

The name Paul is often associated with the Biblical figure Saint Paul, who was an important figure in the early Christian Church. He was a missionary, theologian, and author of several books of the New Testament.
Paul the Apostle
Paul of Russia, a Russian Tsar
Prince Paul of Yugoslavia ("Pavle"), a prince of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the 1930s
Paul Hunter, English snooker player
Paul Vallas, American politician and school administrator
Paul McCartney, British rock musician, former member of The Beatles and Wings

Other
Paul (movie), a 2011 movie
Paul, Idaho, a city in the U.S. state of Idaho
Paul the Octopus, an octopus who seemed able to say who would win football matches

References
Goose

Goose (plural geese, family Anatidae) are birds.  There are three species groups of geese: the genus Anser, the genus Branta, and the genus Chen.

This family also includes the swans, which are mostly larger than geese, and the ducks, which are smaller and have short necks.

Geese are famously gregarious: they like to stick together. They can be moved in large herds because of this feature of their behaviour. Both as chicks and as adults, geese show collective animal behaviour. Geese migrate in groups in the spring and fall, flying together in a V-shape.

A male goose is called a "gander" and a baby goose is called a "gosling". A group of geese is called a "gaggle".

Related pages 
Bar-headed goose
Canada goose
Magellan goose
Barnacle goose
Pink-footed goose
Swan goose
Chinese goose

References

 
Poultry
Ovary

Ovaries (Singular: Ovary) are organs found in female organisms. Ovaries are part of the reproductive system needed to reproduce sexually. 

Most vertebrates have ovaries. Usually animals have two ovaries. Birds usually have only one working ovary; snakes have one ovary in front of the other. The ovaries are similar to testicles in men.

Anatomy 
Ovaries are shaped like eggs and are around 3 cm by 1.5 cm by 1.5 cm. The ovary is found in the side walls of the pelvis. 

Each ovary is attached to the Fallopian tube. Usually each ovary takes turns releasing eggs every month.

Uses 
Ovaries have two purposes:
 Produce female sex hormones resulting in puberty
 Produce ova (also called "egg cells"), which are the female reproductive cells.

Menstruation 

During menstruation, an ovum is released from the ovary and enters one of the Fallopian tubes. There, the ovum can be fertilised. Ovaries have a certain number of eggs in them, so when eggs stop being released, this is the start of the menopause. During this time, female hormones stop being produced.

Related pages
 Cervix
 Fallopian tube
 Menopause
 Ovum
 Vagina

Other websites 
 Merck Online Medical Library: Female Reproductive System

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
Axe

An axe (or ax) is an ancient tool. It is used to shape, split and cut wood.

The hand axe was probably the first tool in the Stone Age. It did not have a handle.

In the past, axes were used as weapons by soldiers. Today, axes are usually related to woodcutters and firemen.

Axes are simple machines. They are in the category of wedges. They are usually made of some sort of metal, mainly steel or iron. They can have a metal or wooden handle. 

Cutting tools
Blades
Woodworking tools
Rhinoceros

A rhinoceros (rhino for short) is any animal in the family Rhinocerotidae. They are in the order Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates. There are five living species. Two of these species are native to Africa.  Three of these species are also native to Southern parts of Asia.

Taxonomy 

 Family Rhinocerotidae
 Black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis
 White rhinoceros, or square-lipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum
 Javan rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sondaicus
 Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis
 Sumatran rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Habitat 
All five rhinoceros species are native to Africa or Asia. The two species in Africa are the White rhinoceros and the Black rhinoceros. The three species in Asia (including islands of Indonesia) are the Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian rhinoceros.

Life 

The rhinoceros is a herbivore. Its favourite food is plants, branches and bushes (if it is a browser species), or grass (if it is a grazer species).

Rhinoceroses have a large horn on the nose. Their horns are not like those of other horned mammals: the rhinoceros' horn is made of keratin packed together very tightly.  

The rhinoceroses can weigh up to  and be up to  tall.

Rhinoceros and humans 
Only the white rhinoceros is not in critical danger of becoming extinct.  They are protected, but hunted mainly by poachers, for their horns.  The horns are used in Asian medicine, similar to elephants and tigers, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman.  Loss of habitat is also a danger to rhinos.  Governments have made logging their habitat and poaching illegal.

Related pages 
Elasmotherium, a large extinct rhinoceros.

Other websites 

 Rhinoceros information from the International Rhino Foundation
Acetobacter

Acetobacter is a kind of bacteria. These bacteria are 
known by their ability to change alcohol to acetic acid in the presence of air. There are several species within this genus, and there are other bacteria that can form acetic acid under different conditions; but all of the Acetobacter are known by this ability.

Why Acetobacter is important 
Acetobacter are important to people, because:
 they are used to make vinegar (intentionally converting the ethanol in the wine to acetic acid)
 they can destroy wine which it infects by producing big amounts of acetic acid or ethyl acetate.

Sometimes, Acetobacter is not wanted. It can be killed by adding preservatives like Sulfur dioxides, or by getting rid of the air when the wine is stored. 

Gram-negative bacteria
Archbishop of Canterbury

The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual leader of the Church of England and in the Anglican Communion the leader of its mother church. He is the head of the Church, and lives in the English city of Canterbury. The Archbishop is chosen by the English monarch (the church's "supreme governor"), under guidance from senior bishops, acting in cooperation with the prime minister of the UK. 

The office of Archbishop of Canterbury was founded in the year 597. In that year, Saint Augustine came to England, to the area called Kent. He had been sent by the Pope to convince the local people to become Christians. The people accepted him and Christianity when their King (Ethelbert of Kent) became a Christian. Augustine became the first bishop in the kingdom of Kent and was later recognised as archbishop when a second diocese was created. Since then, there has been an Archbishop at Canterbury in Kent.

The Archbishop of Canterbury used to be head of the Roman Catholic Church in England, but in the early 16th century the English church broke away from the Roman church. The new church called itself the Church of England, and now the Archbishop is the leader of that church. The current Archbishop is Justin Welby (from 2013). 

The archbishop oversees the Province of Canterbury that is all the Church of England dioceses in the south and midlands of England. The dioceses of Wales were also within the Province of Canterbury until 1920 when the Church in Wales became independent. In the north of England another archbishop has the Diocese of York and other northern dioceses (including the diocese of Sodor and Man) to oversee. Both archbishops are members of the House of Lords and rank very high in the official English order of precedence. When a new monarch is crowned the placing of the crown on his head is done by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The principal home of the archbishops is at Lambeth Palace in the south of London rather than at Canterbury itself. Within the Diocese of Canterbury (which consists of eastern Kent and a small enclave in Surrey) the archbishop has at least two assistant bishops.

Justin Welby (formerly the Bishop of Durham) became Archbishop on 21 March 2013.

References

Other websites 
Official web site
Ethanol

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol or just alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound. Its chemical formula is C2H5OH, also written as C2H6O. It is the active part of alcoholic drinks, which are drunk in most cultures worldwide. It is also used as a solvent because it can dissolve many other chemicals and is not very toxic. Yeast makes most of the ethanol that people use.

Ethanol fuel 

Ethanol fuel can be used instead of gasoline in cars and other engines. Engines can use pure ethanol or ethanol mixed with gasoline.

In Brazil, ethanol fuel made from sugar cane provides 18 percent of the country's fuel for cars. Because of this, Brazil does not have to buy oil from other countries.
To do this, Brazil cut down much of the rain forests to grow more sugar cane, which is then fermented into Ethanol.

Most cars in the U.S. can run on fuels that have of up to 10% ethanol in them. Car makers like Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM also make vehicles specifically designed to run on higher ethanol blends. Some of their engines can run on up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were about six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.

References

Other websites 
 US E85 refueling map 
 International Chemical Safety Card 0044
 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk  See Ethanol in 3D (may take over a minute to load using a dial-up connection)

Fuel
2
Boiling point

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance boils, or enters a state of rapid evaporation.  For pure water this is 100° Celsius or 212° Fahrenheit, at standard pressure.  Standard pressure is 1.0 Atmosphere (unit)

Boiling points can be changed in several ways. The addition of solutes or other substances usually changes the boiling point. Additionally, changing the pressure on a liquid changes its boiling point. 

The boiling point of a liquid depends on the pressure of the surrounding air. An increase in air pressure increases the boiling point; a decrease decreases the boiling point. In the low pressure environment at the top of Mt Everest for example, water boils at only 69 °C. (156.2 °F).
It can also be defined in terms of vapour pressure as the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure

Sugar, salt or other non-volatile solutes in water will usually make the boiling point higher. Alcohol, in contrast, is a volatile chemical that lowers the boiling point of water. Even a large amount dissolved in the water will usually make only small changes in the boiling point.

Thermodynamics
Basic physics ideas
Platonic solid

A Platonic solid is a kind of polyhedron (a three-dimensional shape). It has the following traits:

 Each of their faces is built from the same type of polygons.
 All the edges are the same, and all of them join two faces at the same angle.
 There are the same polygons meeting at every corner of the shape.
 The shape is convex, meaning the faces do not go through each other (intersecting), or span the same range (coplanar).

The Platonic solids
The following Platonic solids exist; there are only 5:

Triangular pyramid, or Tetrahedron, has 4 sides, is made of triangles, and is the simplest kind of polyhedron.
Cube, or Hexahedron, has 6 sides, and is made of squares. It is a kind of prism.
Octahedron, has 8 sides, and is made of triangles. It is a kind of antiprism.
Dodecahedron, has 12 sides, and is made of pentagons. It has the most vertices.
Icosahedron, has 20 sides, and is made of triangles. It has the most faces.

Uses

There are a lot of uses for Platonic solids, but some of the main reasons are:the shapes are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair. 6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games. Such dice are commonly referred to as D followed by the number of faces (d8, d20 etc.).

The tetrahedron (4 sided), cube (6 sided), and octahedron (8 sided), are found naturally in crystal structures. The dodecahedron (12 sides) is combinatorially identical to the pyritohedron (in that both have twelve pentagonal faces), which is one of the possible crystal structures of pyrite. However, the pyritohedron is not a regular dodecahedron, but rather has the same symmetry as the cube.

In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which use grids that are based on an icosahedron (20 sides,refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of better spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.

Geometry of space frames is often based on Platonic solids.

Other websites 
Stella: Polyhedron Navigator Tool for exploring polyhedra
Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links
The Uniform Polyhedra
Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia o  Polyhedra
London South Bank University Water structure and behavior
Book XIII of Euclid's Elements.
Interactive 3D Polyhedra  in Java
Euclidean algorithm

The Euclidean algorithm is an algorithm. It can be used to find the biggest number that divides two other numbers (the greatest common divisor of two numbers).

What the algorithm looks like in words 
Euclid solved the problem graphically. He said
If you have two distances, AB and CD, and you always take away the smaller from the bigger, you will end up with a distance that measures both of them.

The algorithm as an enumerated list 
Start out with two positive integers m and n.
 If the value of m is less than the value of n, switch the values of m and n
 Find a number r equal to m modulo n
 Let m have the same value as n
 Let n have the same value as r
 If n does not have the value of 0, go to step 2
 The wanted value is in m.

The algorithm in pseudocode 
Note: This pseudocode uses modular arithmetic instead of subtraction. It does the same thing as above, but gets the answer faster.

Precondition: two positive integers m and n
Postcondition: the greatest common integer divisor of m and n
if m < n, swap(m,n)
while n does not equal 0
   r = m mod n
   m = n
   n = r
endwhile
output m

C/C++ source code 
Iterative (Non-recursive):
int euclid_gcd(int m, int n)
{
	int temp = 0;
	if(m < n)
	{
		temp = m;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	while(n != 0)
	{
		temp = m % n;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	return m;
}

Recursive:
int euclid_gcd_recur(int m, int n)
{
	if(n == 0)
		return m;
	
	return euclid_gcd_recur(n, m % n);
}

Algorithms
Number theory
Unicellular organism

Unicellular organisms are organisms that have one  cell. They are divided into two quite different types, from  different classification kingdoms. 

The prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, have cells with no nucleus and a simple cell structure.
Eukaryotes have a nucleus, and a more complex cell structure.

The differences between the prokaryota and eukaryota are significant. Eukaryotes possess a nucleus and various subcellular organs called organelles, and prokaryotes do not.

Observations 
Almost all unicellular organisms are microorganisms but you can observe eukaryotes and many prokaryotes by using a compound microscope. Bacteria just appear as dark dots. To gather unicellular organisms for observation, one can place a cover slip on the surface of pond water, and leave it overnight. By the next morning, numerous unicellular organisms will have grown entire colonies on the bottom of the slip. They multiply fast: colonies can double their size in between 30 minutes and a few hours.

Unicellular organisms can be found everywhere. The oldest forms of life existed 3.8 billion years ago, if not longer. They use a variety of strategies for survival: photosynthesis (cyanobacteria), chemotrophy (many archaea), and heterotrophy (amoeba). Some unicellular organisms have flagella, little tails they use for locomotion, or lobopods, extensions of the cellular skeleton (cytoskeleton), which appear as bloblike arms. The flagella of our unicellular ancestors occurs all the way up into the animals, where it makes an appearance as flagellated sperm.

Of all the six eukaryote supergroups, four are exclusively composed of unicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms vary in size, with the smallest bacteria measuring only a third of a micron (300 nanometers) across, ranging up to the titanic plasmodial slime molds, which can grow to 20 cm (8 in) across. The largest unicellular organisms may have millions of nuclei scattered throughout the cellular envelope. To observe some of the smallest unicellular organisms requires an electron microscope, while the very largest can be seen with a microscope or anything that enhances images.

Related pages
 Life timeline
 Multicellular organisms
 Microorganism

Other websites
About the kingdom Protista 

Microbiology
Multicellular organism

Multi-cellular organisms are  organisms with more than one cell. This is the case for animals, plants and most fungi. In such organisms, cells are usually specialised. All the cells with the same function work together. Such a group of cells is then called a tissue. 

Multi-cellular organisms have a set of cells that specialize in reproduction. Reproduction in such organisms is usually sexual. The sex cells are either sperm or ovum (also named "egg") cells. If they are sperm cells, the organism is male, if they are egg cells it is female. If both are present, the organism is a hermaphrodite.

Evolutionary history 
We know, from their cell structure, that multicellularity has evolved independently many times in Earth history, for example in plants and animals.
The earliest forms of life in the fossil record are cyanobacteria from the Archaean era at 3.5 billion years ago. They grew as single cells but lived in colonies as stromatolites. 
 
The first multicellular fossils have been found in 2.1 billion years old Palaeoproterozoic rocks from the Gabon in Africa. These are eukaryotic cells which live colonially. The fossils are visible to the naked eye, and hence much larger than bacteria. The authors comment that one advantage of  multicellularity is larger size, and that an adequate level of oxygen is required to support this kind of life.

Consequences of multicellularity 
To reproduce, multicellular organisms must solve the problem of regenerating a whole organism from germ cells (i.e. sperm and egg cells), an issue that is studied in developmental biology. 
   
Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, also face the challenge of cancer, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development.

Related pages 
 Life timeline
 Metazoa
 Unicellular organism

References 

Evolutionary biology
Cell biology
Hexahedron

A hexahedron (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces. A cube, for example, is a regular hexahedron with all its faces square, and three squares around each vertex.

There are seven topologically distinct convex hexahedra, one of which exists in two mirror image forms. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)

There are three further topologically distinct hexahedra that can only be realised as concave figures:

Related pages
Prismatoid

References

Other websites
Polyhedra with 4-7 Faces  by Steven Dutch

Polyhedra