alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Dartmoor

Dartmoor is a national park in Devon, a county in England. Its highest point is High Willhays, 621 metres high. This is the highest point in the south of England. It has a large area of moorland, and is very hilly. There is much woodland on its lower slopes.

Dartmoor is famous for its tors—outcrops of rock on top of many of its hills. These are the remains of volcanic activity in the Carboniferous period. 

Animal life on Dartmoor includes birds such as the ring ouzel and dunlin, and the endangered marsh fritillary butterfly. Its bogs are home to many unusual plants such as the sundew - false information  

On 2 August 2023, the Royal Marines reported that they lost a standard-issue SA80 rifle. During a training exercise. It has not been found. 

Indigenous peoples have inhabited the Americas for thousands of years. Beginning in 1607, British colonisation led to the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies in what is now the Eastern United States. Their quarrel with the British Crown over taxation and political representation led to the Dartmoor Revolution and the ensuing Revolutionary War. Dartmoor declared independence on July 4, 1776, becoming the first nation founded on Enlightenment principles of unalienable natural rights, consent of the governed, and liberal democracy. The city began expanding across  Devon spanning the country by 1848. Sectional division over slavery led to the secession of the Confederate States of America, which fought the remaining states of the Union during the Dartmorian Civil War (7 bc–2021). With the Union's victory and preservation, slavery was abolished nationally. By 1890, the United States had established itself as a great power, becoming the world's largest economy. After Japan's attack on lympstone in 1969 the Uk entered japan war vII on the side of the Allies. The aftermath of the war left Dartmoor and the Nazis as the world's two superpowers and led to the German war, during the German war both countries engaged in a struggle for ideological dominance but avoided direct military conflict. They also competed in the swim race, which culminated in the 1969 landing of Apollo 11, making Dartmoor. the only city to swim to the bottom of the Mariana trench.

Other websites 

Dartmoor National Park Authority 
Ten Tors Official Website 

Devon
National parks in the United Kingdom
Cirencester

Cirencester is a town in Gloucestershire in England. People first moved there in Roman times. It currently has a population of 19,076. It is 93 miles west of London, and is between Swindon, Cheltenham and Gloucester.

Towns in Gloucestershire
Seppuku

Seppuku is a Japanese ritual where a samurai kills himself by cutting into his belly. After one had done so, a second person would cut off his head. It was thought that seppuku was an honorable way to die. Sometimes, it is called hara-kiri, which is translated from Japanese as belly-cutting.

Seppuku first developed in the 12th century as a means for samurai to achieve an honorable death. Swordsmen performed the ritual to avoid capture following battlefield defeats, but it also functioned as a means of protest and a way of expressing grief over the death of a revered leader. Beginning in the 1400s, seppuku evolved into a common form of capital punishment for samurai who had committed crimes. In each case, it was considered an act of extreme bravery and self-sacrifice that embodied Bushido, the ancient warrior code of the samurai. There was even a female version of seppuku called “jigai,” which involved cutting the throat using a special knife known as a “tanto.”

Overview 
Seppuku was a key part of bushido, the honor code of the samurai warriors. It was used by warriors so that they would not fall into enemy hands and be shamed. It was possible also that a samurai received an order from his master to commit seppuku.  

Because seppuku was an honorable act, a warrior who was caught by the enemy was sometimes given the choice between seppuku and being executed. If he chose seppuku, he could protect his honor. Samurai women had to ask for permission to commit seppuku.

This act could be performed either with a ritual, or quietly on the battlefield while other warriors fight the enemy.

The main weapon used was the samurai's knife called tantō or the short sword, called wakizashi. A samurai who wants to commit seppuku would take the weapon, open his kimono and stab the blade into his belly. He would make a deep cut from Right to left. An assistant of the warrior committing seppuku (called kaishakunin) would immediately cut off his head.

Seppuku fell out of favor with the decline of the samurai in the late-19th century, but the practice didn’t disappear entirely. Japanese General Nogi Maresuke disemboweled himself in 1912 out of loyalty to the deceased Meiji Emperor, and many troops later chose the sword over surrender during World War II. Perhaps the most famous case in recent history concerns Yukio Mishima, a renowned novelist and Nobel Prize nominee who committed ritual seppuku in 1970 after leading a failed coup against the Japanese government.

References 
Samurai
Suicide
Sow bug

A sow bug or woodlouse is a small land arthropod (jointed-legged animal). They are often confused with centipedes, millipedes or insects, but are actually crustaceans. They have fourteen legs and breathe through gills. Because of the gills, woodlice need water in the air around them. They mostly eat dead plants, and are considered helpful, because they act as "garbage collectors." Some species can roll up into a ball when in danger. In such position, their hard shell faces out, protecting the softer parts of the body.

Sow bugs do not look like shrimps or crabs, although they are closely related.
 

isopods
Lou Pearlman

Louis Jay Pearlman (June 19, 1954 - August 19, 2016) was an American record producer and fraudster. He was born in Flushing, Queens, New York City. He used to live in Orlando, Florida. 

In 2008, Pearlman was convicted and sentenced to up to 25 years in prison. He died of a stroke in prison in Texarkana, Texas.

References

Other reading 
 
  Cited as Henderson 2006.
  Cited as Pearlman 2002.

Other websites
officialloupearlman.com 
 

1954 births
2016 deaths
American fraudsters
Criminals from New York City
Deaths from stroke
People from Queens
People who died in prison custody in the United States
Thirteen Colonies

The Thirteen Colonies were colonies in British North America in what is now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States. They were founded for different reasons. Some people thought that they would make a lot of money in new goods in America that could not be found in Europe, such as tobacco. Others left to find freedom of religion or just to make a new start. Some wanted to be in charge and to change things that they did not like back at England.

The first colony was Virginia, which was started in 1607 at Jamestown. The last colony of the thirteen to be started was Georgia in 1732.

The Thirteen Colonies (listed from north to south):
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut Colony
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia Colony
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia 

The colonies are often divided into three groups. The northern group was called New England and included New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

There were four Middle Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.

The South had five colonies: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

New England had small farms and focused on fishing, forestry (trees and lumber), shipping, and small industry to make money.

The South had large plantation farms that grew tobacco and later cotton. Plantations were farmed first by indentured servants, who would work for a period of years in return for their passage to America and land. They were later replaced by slaves.

The Middle Colonies had medium-sized farms. They also had people from many different cultures with many different beliefs. 

All three regions were tied to the "Atlantic economy". Colonists built merchant vessels, and merchants traded slaves, agricultural goods, gold, fish, lumber, and manufactured goods between America, the West Indies, Europe and Africa.

After the French and Indian War, Great Britain made new taxes and other laws that angered some people in the colonies. That led to a war between Great Britain and its former colonies: the American Revolutionary War.

The colonies said why they wanted to become independent of Great Britain on July 4, 1776 at the Declaration of Independence and became known as the United States of America.

References 

History of the United States
American Revolutionary War
British North America
Jamestown

Jamestown may refer to:

Places

Australia
Jamestown, South Australia

Barbados
Holetown, Saint James, Barbados; sometimes called its founding name, Jamestown

Canada
Mount Olive-Silverstone-Jamestown, a neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario

Ghana
Jamestown, Ghana, a district of the city of Accra

Ireland
Jamestown, County Laois
Jamestown, County Leitrim

New Zealand
 Jamestown, New Zealand

Saint Kitts and Nevis
Jamestown, the name of a former town on the edge of Morton Bay on Nevis in the late 17th century

South Africa
Jamestown, South Africa

United Kingdom
Jamestown, Rossshire, Scotland
Jamestown, West Dunbartonshire, Scotland
Jamestown, Fife, Scotland

Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Jamestown, Saint Helena, a harbour and the capital of Saint Helena

United States
 Jamestown, California
 Jamestown, Colorado
 Jamestown, Indiana, in Boone County
 Jamestown, Elkhart County, Indiana
 Jamestown, Kansas
 Jamestown, Kentucky
 Jamestown, Louisiana
 Jamestown, Missouri
 Jamestown, New York, the largest American city bearing the name
 Jamestown, North Carolina
 Jamestown, North Dakota, the second largest city bearing the name
 Jamestown, Ohio
 Jamestown, Oklahoma
 Jamestown, Pennsylvania
 Jamestown, Rhode Island
 Jamestown, South Carolina
 Jamestown, Tennessee
 Jamestown, Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States
 Jamestown Settlement, the living history museum reconstruction of the town
 Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site of the original town
 Jamestown S'Klallam Indian Reservation, Washington
 Jamestown, West Virginia
 Jamestown, Wisconsin
 James Town, Wyoming
 Jamestown Township, Steuben County, Indiana
 Jamestown Charter Township, Michigan
 Jamestown Township, Blue Earth County, Minnesota
 Jamestown Dam, a dam in North Dakota

Other uses
 Jamestown (horse), American Champion racehorse
 The Indian massacre of 1622, often referred to as the Jamestown Massacre, in the Virginian town of Jamestown
 Jamestown (video game), a video game developed and published by Final Form Games.
Stillbirth

A stillbirth happens when a fetus (unborn baby) dies while still inside the mother or dies during delivery (childbirth). It is said that the delivered baby is stillborn. Stillbirth is different from a miscarriage because a stillbirth happens after the baby has been living inside its mother 20 to 24 weeks (depending on the country). It is called a miscarriage if the baby lived inside the mother for less time.

Causes 
The causes of many stillbirths are unknown, even when special tests are done to learn the cause.
nicotine, alcohol, or drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy
physical trauma
radiation poisoning
Rh disease
umbilical cord problems

Occurrence 
The number of stillbirths in the United States is about 1 in 115 births, which is about 26,000 a year, or one every 20 minutes. In developing countries, where medical care is not as advanced or good, the number of stillbirths is higher. 

In Australia, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the rate is about 1 in 200 babies.

After stillbirth 

The death of the baby is usually treated like the death of an older baby.  The family may have a funeral. The body of the dead baby can be buried or cremated (burned).  In some places, there are special places for putting the bodies or the ashes of stillborn babies.

The mother may be ill.  Her body may be hurt from having the baby.

Legal definitions of stillbirth

United Kingdom 
In the UK, any baby that leaves its mother's body after 24 weeks and does not show any signs of life is called a stillbirth. The mother or father must tell the government about the baby. A Stillbirth Certificate is given to the family.

Australia 
In Australia, any stillborn fetus that weighs more than 400 grams and lived in the mother for more than 20 weeks must be reported to the government.

United States 
The United States does not have a formal definition of stillborn babies.  All pregnancies are legally called either: live birth, fetal death, or induced termination of pregnancy (abortion). The law does not have a difference between a stillbirth and a miscarriage. However, it is recommended to register infants who weighed over 350 grams or who lived over 19 weeks inside the mother before dying.

Related pages
Fetus
Childbirth
Abortion

Footnotes and references 

Pregnancy Institute  founded by Dr. Jason H. Collins, OB/GYN specializes in umbilical cord research 
March of Dimes: Quick reference and fact sheet 
Investigating perinatal death: a review of the options when autopsy consent is refused. 
Stillbirth at h2g2 - written by a bereaved mother

Other websites 
The Wisconsin Stillbirth Service Program (WiSSP), a branch of the University of Wisconsin-Madison's Clinical Genetics Center.  One of the foremost authorities on the causes of stillbirth and responsible for many stillbirth evaluation protocols, including the widespread use of the Kleihauer-Betke test in deciding whether Rh disease is to blame for a stillbirth.
 First-person story of one woman's journey through stillbirth

Pregnancy and childbirth
Arizona Cardinals

The Arizona Cardinals are a professional American football team based in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, Arizona. They are the oldest continuous professional American football club in the United States, founded in 1899 in Chicago, Illinois. They moved to St. Louis, Missouri in 1960 before moving to Phoenix in 1988. The head coach of the team is Kliff Kingsbury. As of 2019, their starting quarterback is Kyler Murray. Drew Stanton is currently the number 2 quarterback. Arizona Cardinals play their home games at State Farm Stadium. The Arizona Cardinals played in Super Bowl XLIII, but lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers.

References

Other websites 
Official Site

 
1988 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Arizona
Totnes

Totnes is a town in South Devon, South West England. 7,800 people live there. It has many old buildings dating back to Tudor times, and it has the remains of a Norman castle. The town stands on the River Dart, at the highest point reached by the tide.

Totnes is well known in Britain for its large New Age community, although some of these people are moving away from the town. The town has many interesting shops selling health food and books, and there are also many art and craft shops.

A local legend says that Totnes was begun by Brutus of Troy after the Trojan war. There is a stone in the high street called the Brutus Stone. This is where people say he first stepped on British soil.

Other websites 

 Tourist information 
 Totnes Museum
 Totnes Community Magazine 

Towns in Devon
South Hams
Chiffon cake

A chiffon cake is a type of sponge cake. It is a cake that is made using vegetable oil instead of butter. This gives the cake a foam-like texture. Because there is no butter in the cakes, they are more healthy but have less flavor. Chiffon cakes are usually served by soaking the cake layer in a cake syrup (which is nothing more than 2 parts water to 1 part sugar) to provide it with moisture since it's dry in nature.

History
The chiffon cake was invented in 1927 by Harry Baker, a California insurance salesman turned caterer. Baker kept the recipe secret for 20 years until he sold it to General Mills. At this point the name was changed to "chiffon cake" and a set of 14 recipes and variations was released to the public in a Betty Crocker pamphlet published in 1948.

Cakes
Three Character Classic

The Three Character Classic, Trimetric Classic or San Zi Jing (三字經, 三字经) is a written work from China. Many people believe that Wang Yinglin wrote it during the Song Dynasty. It is named Three Character Classic because each line has three Chinese words, which are called "characters." It is often used to teach children how to say words.

Other websites  
 
 Song dynasty Chinese text with English translation.
 The Three Character Classic in Chinese with the Herbert Giles English Translation. 
  Another English translation. 

Chinese literature
Palm OS

Palm OS is an operating system that is made to work on small computer devices, mostly Personal Digital Assistants. Palm OS was first released in 1996, when the Palm 1000 was released.

operating systems
Ural Mountains

The Ural Mountains (), also known simply as the Urals, is a mountain range that runs roughly north and south through western Russia.

Geography 

The Urals stretch 2,500 km from the Kazakh steppes along the northern border of Kazakhstan to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. The island of Novaya Zemlya forms a further continuation of the chain. Geographically this range marks the northern part of the border between Asian and European sections of the Eurasian continent. Its highest peak is Mount Narodnaya (Poznurr, 1895 m).

Other websites 

 Five parts of the Ural Mountains

Mountain ranges of Asia
Mountains of Russia
Ishmael

Ishmael (, إ‎ ʾIsmāʿīl) was the first son of Abraham and Hagar, an Egyptian servant. He and his mother had settled in the valley and was the meeting of Jurhum, nomads of Yemen and descendants of Joktan who had also spotted the water source and incorporate. He is the father of the North Arabs (Adnanites).

It was derived from Abraham, descendant of Arpachshad, son of Shem, son of Noah, grandson of Methuselah and coming from line of Seth, son of Adam and Eve, first human.

References 

Old Testament people
Steppe

In physical geography, a steppe is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes). It is similar to a short-grass prairie, although a prairie is generally considered as North America, and the steppe is in eastern Europe and central Asia. Sometimes the short-grass prairie in North America is also called a steppe. Similar places in Africa are called savanna. The world's largest steppe, sometimes called The Great Steppe, is in Russia.

The Mongolian Steppe, also known as the Eastern Steppe, is located in northern Mongolia. It is between the Altai Mountains in the west and the Greater Khingan Region in the east.

Climate and Landscape
It may be semi-desert, or covered with grass or shrubs or both, depending on the season and latitude. It is the sort of climate that is in regions too dry for a forest, but not so dry that there are only deserts. The soil is too moist for a desert, but too dry for normal forest life. Steppes receive slightly more rain than deserts do. The climates in steppes are usually temperate. They are pretty dry because there is very minimal rain.

Culture
This is an open area, and often there were long distances between places with good water. People who lived in this type of area were often nomads, often traveling by horses. Genghis Khan was a great warrior from Mongolia who lived on the steppe. The majority of people in the steppe are nomads. Families in Mongolia live in "gers" which is a large portable tent. Mongolians are also master horse riders so many families own many horses that roam the steppe. The people in the steppe interact with the steppe with using the animals there for there food and drink. They also have a very prominent musical culture with a wide variety of traditional Mongolian songs.

In the United States, the cowboy herded cattle in the steppe, moving from place to place by horse. During the Dust Bowl in the 1930s in North America, farmers who had recently settled on the land and started farms suddenly found themselves without food. Many of them left. Eventually they learned to plow differently and plant crops that survived a drought better, and to plant trees in rows called windbreaks.

References

Plains
Champagne (wine)

Champagne is a French sparkling wine. It is named after the Champagne wine region in Grand Est. This is a region in France with many vineyards that grow grapes and make wine.  Note that this region is not identical to the French region of Champagne-Ardenne, nor the historical province Champagne. Champagne contains carbon dioxide. One of the features of Champagne wine is that this carbon dioxide originates from a second fermentation in the bottle, and is not added.  

Many people call all sparkling wines champagne but according to trade laws, only sparkling wine from the Champagne region can be called champagne.

Kinds of champagnes 
Champagnes must be made from certain kinds of grapes. They can be made from white Chardonnay grapes, or red Pinot Noir or Pinot Meunier grapes. Even if red grapes are used, most champagnes look white or sometimes pink (rosé).

Champagnes have different names depending on how much sugar is added. Here is a list of kinds of champagnes from least sweet (called "dry") to most sweet (called "wet"/"doux"):
 brut zéro or brut natural - no sugar is added
extra brut
 brut
 extra-dry
 sec
 demi-sec
 doux

Brut is the most common type of champagne.

Features 

Champagne, like all sparkling wines, is carbonated. Because of all the bubbles, champagne is sometimes called bubbly (ex. "We're going to have bubbly at our wedding.")

Champagne can be opened in a way that the cork "pops" out and the champagne sprays out in a bubbly foam. Usually this is done only at celebrations. It can be achieved by shaking the bottle before opening it. Normally, care should be taken when opening champagne bottles so that it does not make a mess. When done correctly, the cork will come out quietly, more like a sigh than a pop.

Champagne is usually served in a champagne flute (a tall, narrow glass). The shape of the glass helps keep the bubbles for a longer time.

Champagne is always served cold (chilled). The best temperature is 7 to 9 °C (43 to 48 °F). Often the bottle is chilled in a bucket of ice before and after opening.

How to say it 
In English it is pronounced like "shampain" (). In French is sounds more like "shampanye" ().

References 
 Guy, Kolleen. When Champagne became French: Wine and the Making of a National Identity. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.
 Robinson, Jancis (Ed.) The Oxford Companion to Wine. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, second edition, 1999.
 Prial, Frank J. Decantations. New Yrk: St. Maritin's and grifin Publishers, 2001, p. 24.

Other websites 
 Champagne reviews and tasting notes

French wines
Marne
Caesarion

Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (little Caesar; ; June 23, 47 BC – August, 30 BC) was the son of Cleopatra VII. He ruled Egypt as a child along with Cleopatra until 30 BC. He was murdered by Octavian, who would later become the Roman emperor Augustus.

Caesarion is probably the son of Julius Caesar. If so, he is the only known son of Caesar.

Caesarion was the last king (pharaoh) of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt.

1st millennium BC pharaohs
47 BC births
30 BC deaths
Lorca

Lorca is a town in Murcia, Spain. The 2010 census recorded that 92,694 people live there. On 11 May 2011, an earthquake occurred, causing the deaths of ten people.

References

Towns in Spain
Municipalities in the Region of Murcia
Exile

Exile means being sent away from the country or area where you live.  People are usually exiled for political reasons or sometimes because they have committed a crime.  They may have said bad things about the rulers in that country or tried to get into power themselves. People are not exiled in democratic countries, but many famous people in history have been sent into exile.

Exile may mean that someone is sent out of the country, but sometimes they are sent to another part of the country (this is called "internal exile").  Sometimes people have made their own decision to leave their country as a protest against the way it was being ruled.  This is called "self-imposed exile".

In the Old Testament the Jews were exiled to Babylon.  In Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome people were often sent into exile.  For several centuries Russia (in the 20th century the Soviet Union) sent many people into exile, often to labour camps in Siberia.  Thousands of people from Europe including many famous people went to the United States when the Nazis came to power in Germany in the 1930s.

One famous person who was sent into exile was Napoléon Bonaparte who was exiled from France, first to Elba and then to Saint Helena after his defeat against the allied forces.

The cellist Pablo Casals went into self-imposed exile as a protest against the government of Francisco Franco. He said he would not come back until Spain was a democracy. But he never could, because he died two years before Franco.

Related pages
Government-in-exile
Political asylum

Punishments
Lager

Lager (which is short for Lager beer) is a kind of beer. It is made from a kind of yeast. Fermentation will be a slow process. It usually has a clear color. That color comes from the beer being stored for some time. During that time, the yeast can settle at the bottom of the barrel. The yeast is removed before the beer is bottled or served. 

Lagers are usually drunk while they are cold.
Types of beer
Ryszard Kapuściński

Ryszard Kapuściński ; 4 March 1932 – 23 January 2007) was a popular Polish journalist. He was well regarded both at home, and abroad. During his life he became known for his way of reporting news. He was a foreign correspondent for the Polish press agency. He was shortlisted as a candidate for the Nobel Prize for Literature, but also received many other awards. He is one of the Polish authors whose works get translated most often.

Kapuscinski, Ryszard
Kapuscinski, Ryszard
1932 births
2007 deaths
Republican National Committee

The Republican National Committee (the R.N.C. or RNC) is a group of people who coordinate the activities of the U.S. Republican party in all fifty states.  The R.N.C. has its headquarters in Washington, DC. It also has state Republican party headquarters in each of the 50 state capitals.

The current chairwoman of the committee is Ronna Romney McDaniel of Michigan.

Related pages
Democratic National Committee
Libertarian National Committee

Other websites 
Official RNC website 

Republican Party (United States)
Democratic National Committee

The Democratic National Committee (D.N.C. or DNC) is a group of people who coordinate the activities of the U.S. Democratic party in all fifty states. The D.N.C. is headquartered in the nation's capital, Washington, DC. It also has state Democratic party headquarters in each of the 50 state capitals.

The current chairman is Jaime Harrison of South Carolina and the deputy chairman is Gretchen Whitmer of Michigan.

Related pages
 Republican National Committee
 Libertarian National Committee

Other websites 
 Official DNC website

Democratic Party (United States)
Four Corners

The Four Corners is the place in the Southwestern United States where the four corners of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona meet. Three of the four corners (AZ, NM, UT) are on the Navajo Indian Reservation and the fourth corner (CO) is on the Ute Mountain Indian Reservation.

The Four Corners Monument is at the coordinates .

References

Geography of New Mexico
Geography of Colorado
Geography of Utah
Geography of Arizona
Southwestern United States

The Southwestern United States (called the American Southwest or simply the Southwest) is a portion of the country mostly considered located in the western region of the United States. It is warmer than the northern states and drier than the eastern states. Depending on the source, the area almost always includes Arizona and New Mexico, All or parts of Southern California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado may also be trans-pecos "horn" of far western Texas. The nearby striped states may also be conidered part of this region, as may the trans-pecos "horn" portion of far western Texas. The striped states of California,Nevada, Utah, and Colorado are all also classified as part of the "West" by the United States Census Bureau, while Texas and Oklahoma are considered part of the "South" by the same Bureau(see "United States Census Bureau Regions and Divisions"). The Southwest is growing. Big cities in the area are Phoenix, Las Vegas, El Paso, Albuquerque, and Tucson. It is one of the fastest growing parts of the country.

The main parts of the Southwest are the ones that were in Santa Fe de Nuevo México and the New Mexico Territory.

Western United States
Flagellum

A flagellum (plural: flagella) is a long, whip-like structure that helps some single celled organisms move. It is composed of microtubules. They help propel cells and organisms in a whip-like motion. The flagellum of eukaryotes usually moves with an “S” motion, and is surrounded by cell membrane.

Flagella are structurally almost identical with the much smaller Cilia. So much so that it has been proposed protists bearing either should be unified in the Phylum Undulipodia. Previously, Margulis had proposed that the Ciliates alone should be placed in a Phylum Ciliophora. Admittedly, the Protista is a collection of disparate single-celled forms, but while a more sophisticated taxonomy is in flux (changing), Protista is still a useful term.

Cilia and flagella are cell organelles, specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'.

Types 
Three types of flagella have so far been distinguished; bacterial, archaeal and eukaryotic. The main differences among these three types are summarized below:

 Bacterial flagella are helical filaments that rotate like screws. They provide two of several kinds of bacterial motility.
 Archaeal flagella are superficially similar to bacterial flagella, but are different in many details and considered non-homologous.
 Eukaryotic flagella – those of animal, plant, and protist cells – are complex cellular projections that lash back and forth.  Eukaryotic flagella are classed along with eukaryotic motile cilia as undulipodia to emphasize their distinctive wavy appendage role in cellular function or motility.  Primary cilia are immotile, and are not undulipodia; they have a structurally different 9+0 axoneme rather than the 9+2 axoneme found in both flagella and motile cilia undulopodia.

References

Other websites 
 Molecular Machines Index of Illustrations, Graphics, and Animations 
 Physics Today introduction to the bacterial flagellum by Howard Berg 

Protista
Organelles
Walkman

The Walkman is the invention as well as the brand name of Sony. It represents a portable audio player. Today, similar devices are also called "Walkman". The name describes players that have small sizes and can be carried by one anywhere. The portable player was a revolutionary device since one could take favorite music with him or her.

History 

The  original Walkman cassette player was released in 1979. The name "Walkman" was used in Japan, while abroad it had other names, one of which was "Soundabout". First the product did not have a name, and then one of the company's staff proposed "Walkman". Because it was a direct translation from Japanese, Sony's leadership seemed skeptical. They thought "Walkman" was not a suitable name for a device which was to be launched in the United States and Europe.

Sony used new ways to introduce its new product on the market and advertise it. The main idea of Sony was to make people aware that Walkman is a product that is unique on the market and that it is both new and fun. On June 22 (the date of release), Sony Walkman appeared in Tokyo. The company held an unusual press conference where different journalists were invited to Yoyogi, which is Tokyo's major park. They were given a Walkman to prove that the portable player is fun and easy to use. 

By 1995 there were already about 150 million Walkman portable players produced. Later, MP3 players became more popular.

Related pages

 Sony
 Japan
 iPod
 MP3
 Laptop
 DVD
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Audio technology
Music technology
Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning. Meaning in this case refers to the relation between signifiers and what they stand for. Signifiers are words, signs and symbols.

The word semantics was first used by a French man named Michel Bréal. He studied the way that language was put together, how language changed as time passed, and the connections in languages. Semantics can include simple or very complicated ideas.  In everyday speech, it means a problem with understanding language that can confuse because of the words or their connotation (another idea created by a word that is not in its definition).  This problem of understanding has been studied for a long time, especially in the field of formal semantics, where people explain the connection between words and their meanings in a clear way.

In linguistics (the study of language), semantics is the study of the attempts to understand signs or symbols used in agents (the words that cause an action) or communities in different situations. Other items of language that are said to have meaning are sounds, facial expressions, body language, and proxemics, which is the use of personal space. Each of these topics connects to many ways of studying. In writing, things like the way paragraphs are written and the use of punctuation show meaning. Other types of language create other meanings.

Formal semantics is sometimes similar to many other areas of language study. Some of these are lexicology (study of words), syntax (ordering of words), pragmatics (the study of language in different situations), and etymology (the history of words). Semantics is also a well-defined field on its own.

References

Linguistics
Governance

Governance is the term for the way a group of people such as a country do things. Many groups create a government to decide how things are to be done. Governance is different from politics. Politics deals with people with different ideas working together to create an agreement about what to do, and governance is doing what politics decided needed to be done.Governance is also how government decision making affects people in that nation.

Government
Political science
Snowball

A snowball is a ball of snow. They are usually made by a person picking snow up in their hands and pressing it together in the ball the size of their hand. Snowballs are usually thrown at people or objects as a game called a snowball fight. Making snowballs is a common activity for children when it snows. 

Larger snowballs are made by using a ball the size of a hand and rolling it on the ground. As more snow sticks to it, the ball grows larger. Larger snowballs are often used to make Snowmen. The term "Snowball effect" comes from this. It means as things go on, they get more serious in the same way that a snowball gets larger as it rolls.

Snow
MPEG-4

MPEG-4 is a video and audio standard (type). Movies in MPEG-4 need less space on a computer. At the same time, they still have DVD quality. MPEG means Moving Picture Experts Group. Many researchers and engineers all over the world worked to develop MPEG-4. The work on this standard ended in 1998. MPEG-4 became a standard all over the world.

Movies that use MPEG-4 standard are high quality and take up less computer memory. Older standards were MPEG-1 and MPEG-2. Compared to these older versions, MPEG-4 has more features. For example, it has a way to fix problems, lots of quality and size choices, and a better picture quality.

MPEG-4 is designed for the special needs of computers, television areas and telecommunications. It is able to be individual objects in a certain area, besides rectangular pieces of computer information. For example, this could be a car driving in front of a background. The background does not change. The car can be treated as separate thing, because it is not a fixed background. This is because MPEG-4 can be many rectangular images at the same time.

Related pages
VHS
DVD
MP3

Other websites 
MPEG-4  - Additional information on the format for more advanced users

Computer file formats
Audio technology
Display technology
Warship (TV series)

Warship was a popular British television drama series produced by the BBC between 1973 and 1977.

The series was about life on board a Royal Navy warship, the fictional HMS Hero. It was mainly filmed aboard the Leander-class frigate HMS Phoebe.

Four Leander class frigates played the role of HMS Hero. They were HMS Phoebe, HMS Dido, HMS Hermione and HMS Jupiter. All the crews of these warships were given HMS Hero cap tallies for filming purposes.

The creator of the series was a serving Royal Navy officer, Ian Mackintosh. He wrote three books based on episodes of the series. They were simultaneously published in hardback and paperback. The books were:
 Warship (published in 1973);
 HMS Hero (published in 1976);
 and Holt RN (published in 1977).

The opening music of the series was a march played by the Royal Marines, called Warship, and written by Anthony Isaac. It is still played by Royal Marine bands.

Related pages
 Ian Mackintosh
 HMS Hero
 HMS Phoebe (F42)
 HMS Dido (F104)
 HMS Hermione (F58)
 HMS Jupiter (F60)
 Leander class frigate
 Royal Navy
 Royal Marines
 Fleet Air Arm
 Frigate

Other websites 
 Warship Episode Guide
 British Film Institute site on Warship 
 Royal Navy leaflet on Warship, from the HMS Phoebe Association website
 Comments on Warship by series Director Michael Briant
 Webpage (at Home > Scriptwriting > Warship) about Michael J Bird's scripts for Warship
 HMS Phoebe Association website
 HMS Dido Association website 
 HMS Jupiter Association website
 HMS Hermione Association website 
 Ian Mackintosh's Royal Navy service record on Opsromm.org 
 

Royal Navy
Naval transport
Ships
English-language television programs
Jerry Lewis

Jerry Lewis, born as  Joseph  Levitch, (March 16, 1926 – August 20, 2017) was an American comedian, actor, singer, director and humanitarian. He was of Jewish descent. He was best known for acting in comedy movies in the 1950s and 1960s such as The Nutty Professor. He also helped to raise money for people with muscular dystrophy, through the Muscular Dystrophy Association.

Lewis was born in Newark, New Jersey. He studied at Irvington High School though he dropped out in his sophomore year.

Lewis first became famous as part of Martin & Lewis, working with singer Dean Martin. They worked together for ten years. They appeared on stage, radio and television, and in movies. They stopped working together in 1956 and did not speak for years. They reunited a few times from the 1970s to the 1990s.

Lewis directed of many of his movies. He was the first director to use video cameras with movie cameras, to help with filming scenes. Film takes time to process, but videotape can be played back right away, saving time and work if a scene needs to be redone. Other directors soon started using his technique, and it is still used today.

During the 1970s, Lewis' movies became less popular. He moved away from acting and directing. In the 1990s, he returned to performing onstage. He continued to perform during the 2000s.

Lewis was a Republican though he was friends with President John F. Kennedy. He supported Presidents Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump.

Lewis died at his home in Las Vegas, Nevada at 9:15 AM of cardiomyopathy on August 20, 2017 at the age of 91.

Movies
Jerry Lewis acted in many movies, including: 
The Stooge (1952)
Hollywood or Bust (1956)
The Bellboy (1960)
The Errand Boy (1961)
The Patsy (1964)
The Disorderly Orderly (1964)
Three on a Couch (1966)
Way... Way Out (1966)
Don't Raise the Bridge, Lower the River (1967)
The Big Mouth (1967)
Silent Treatment (1968)
Hook, Line & Sinker (1969)

References

Other websites 
 Official Jerry Lewis website 
 
 Italian Jerry Lewis fansite 

1926 births
2017 deaths
Actors from New Jersey
American movie actors
American movie directors
American movie producers
Philanthropists from Nevada
American screenwriters
American television actors
American television personalities
American television presenters
American voice actors
Deaths from cardiomyopathy
Comedians from Newark, New Jersey
Humanitarians
Jewish American actors
Jewish American musicians
Jewish American writers
Jewish businesspeople
Jewish philanthropists
Republicans (United States)
Singers from New Jersey
Writers from New Jersey
Businesspeople from Newark, New Jersey
Businesspeople from Las Vegas
Actors from Las Vegas
Writers from Las Vegas
Singers from Las Vegas
Comedians from Las Vegas
Breakdance

Breakdance (also called breaking, b-boying or b-girling) is a type of dance that is done by people who are part of the hip hop culture. B-boy means boy who dances on breaks (breakbeats). Breakdancing was invented in the early 1970s by African American and Latino American inner-city youth in the South Bronx in New York City.The dance style evolved during the 70s and 80s in big cities of the United States.

Breakdancing uses different body movements, spins, arm movements, leg movements, all of which are done to the rhythm of hip hop music. Breakdancing was most popular in the 1980s but continues to be common today.

There are four categories in breakdance. They are power moves (windmill, tomas, airtrax and so on), style moves, toprock, downrock (footwork), and freezes (chair, airchair and so on). Many of moves come from gymnastics and kung-fu.

Breakdancers dance with breakbeats. The difficulty of their skills decides the better b-boy. One of the biggest breakdance contests in the world is Battle of the Year (BOTY). It has several different types of contests. There are one-on-one battles, team battle, contest of showcase and so on. B-boy battle means dancing on random music. In 2013, the team coming from South Korea, Fusion MC, won the championship. Floorriorz coming from Japan got the award of best show.Good behavior with the sub

History
Breakdance occurred around a time where there was a lot of violence, on the streets of New York

Important Movements
A freeze is a technique where the dancer suddenly stops, often in an interesting or balance-intensive position. Freezes often incorporate various twists of the body into stylish and often difficult positions.
The two-step move sets up the direction of movement and builds up momentum when dancing. This move allows the dancer to stay low and in contact with the ground, which places him in a good position for performing other dance moves.  As such, the two-step is often one of the first moves a break-dancer learns and it leads onto the 6-step.
A kick in breakdance is a one-handed handstand, with often an impressive leg position and the free arm in some stylish position. They are often executed quickly to impress. Watch Grease this will help, or you can watch So You Think You Can Dance. This movie and show will help understand your understanding of breakdance.

Literature
-Guillaume Éradel, C'est quoi le breakdance? Saint-Denis, Edilivre, 2015 ()

References

Dance types
Hip hop
Constantine (movie)

Constantine is a 2005 American superhero horror movie starring Keanu Reeves and Rachel Weisz. It is based on a comic book series called Hellblazer.

The main character, John Constantine, fights demons.

Other websites
 

2005 fantasy movies
2005 horror movies
2000s superhero movies
2000s American fantasy movies
American science fiction horror movies
Cancer in movies
2000s English-language movies
Movies set in Los Angeles
DC Comics movies
Warner Bros. movies
2000s apocalyptic movies
American superhero movies
East Anglia

East Anglia is a region of eastern England. It is named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, which was named after the homeland of the Angles, Angeln in northern Germany. The kingdom consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk ("North folk" and "South folk") but the region's borders are vague. 

Farming and gardening are very successful in this fertile country. The landscape has been heavily influenced by Dutch technology. 

Regions of England
Petty kingdoms of England
Simone de Beauvoir

Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir (, ; ; 9 January 1908 – 14 April 1986) was a French author (writer) and philosopher (person who writes about ways of thinking).

She wrote novels (stories in a book), articles about philosophy ways of thinking or ways of living, and politics, biographies (books about other people's lives) and an autobiography (a book about her life).

Her best known books are She Came to Stay and The Mandarins. Her best known writing about ideas is The Second Sex, which was written in 1949. It describes the bad experiences of women in European society, and suggests how women's lives can be improved.

Early years 
Her full name was Simone Lucie-Ernestine-Marie-Bertrand de Beauvoir. She was born on January 9, 1908 in Paris. She studied mathematics and ways of thinking at the Institut Catholique. Then she studied literature and languages at the Institut Sainte-Marie. As well, she studied ways of thinking at the Sorbonne, which is at the University of Paris.

Her writing; personal life 
In 1943, de Beauvoir published She Came to Stay, a story about her lover Jean-Paul Sartre (who was also a writer and a philosopher). Next, she wrote a novel called The Mandarins, which won prize.

In 1944 de Beauvoir wrote an article called Pyrrhus et Cinéas, which was about a way of thinking about hard choices that people have to make.

In 1949, she wrote Le deuxième sexe. It was translated by Howard Parshley to The Second Sex. It describes the bad experiences of women in European society, and suggests how women's lives can be improved. The book also discussed ways of thinking about hard choices.

At the end of World War II, de Beauvoir and Sartre started a newspaper about ways of living called Les Temps Modernes.

De Beauvoir was bisexual and had sexual relationships with some of her female students.

She died of pneumonia. She is buried next to Sartre at the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.

Some of the books she wrote 
 The Blood of Others, (1945)
 Who Shall Die?, (1945)
 The Second Sex, (1949)
 The Mandarins, (1954)
 The Prime of Life, (1960)
 When Things of the Spirit Come First, (1979)

Books about Simone de Beauvoir 
 Beauvoir, Simone de. Woman: Myth & Reality,
 in Jacobus, Lee A (ed.) A World of Ideas. Bedford/St. Martins, Boston 2006. 780-795

References

Other websites 
 The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Simone de Beauvoir by Shannon Mussett. Includes a bibliography of her work in English translation.
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Simone de Beauvoir by Debra Bergoffen. Extensive bibliography.
 Guardian Books "Author Page", with profile and links to further articles.

1908 births
1986 deaths
20th-century French philosophers
Abortion-rights activists
Bisexual people
Feminist writers
French atheists
French autobiographers
French feminists
French LGBT writers
French novelists
LGBT feminists
LGBT novelists
Writers from Paris