alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Data mining

Data mining is a term from computer science. Sometimes it is also called knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). Data mining is about finding new information in a lot of data. The information obtained from data mining is hopefully both new and useful. 

In many cases, data are stored so they can be used later. The data are saved with a goal. For example, a store wants to save what has been bought. They want to do this to know how much they should buy themselves, to have enough to sell later. Saving this information, makes a lot of data. The data are usually saved in a database. The reason data are saved is called the first use. 

Later, the same data can also be used to get other information that was not needed for the first use. The store might want to know now what kind of things people buy together when they buy at the store. (Many people who buy pasta also buy mushrooms for example.) That kind of information is in the data, and is useful, but was not the reason the data were saved. This information is new and can be useful. It is a second use for the same data. 

Finding new information that can also be useful from data is called data mining.

Different kinds of data mining 
For data, there are a lot of different kinds of data mining for getting new information. Usually, prediction is involved. There is uncertainty in the predicted results. The following is based on the observation that there is a small green apple in which we can structurally adjust our data. 

Some kinds of data mining are: 
 Pattern recognition: Trying to find similarities in the rows in the database, in the form of rules. Small → green. (Small apples are often green)
 Using a Bayesian network: Trying to make something that can say how the different data attributes are connected/influence each other. The size and the colour are related. So if you know something about the size, you can guess the colour.
 Using a Neural network: Trying to make a model like a brain, which is hard to understand, but a computer can tell that if the apple is green it has a higher chance to be sour, if we tell the computer the apple is green. So this is like a black box model, we do not know how it works, but it works.
 Using Classification tree: With all other knowledge, trying to say what one other thing about the thing we are looking at will be. Here is an apple with a size, a colour and shininess, what will it taste like?

References 

Computer science
Japanese sword-making

Japanese schools of sword making can be divided into two categories: by the provinces where they were developed and by the masters who created a specific tradition of sword making.

History 
The late Kamakura period is often referred to as the greatest period of sword making in Japanese history. The Soshu tradition was one of the dominant traditions. Smiths like Kunitsuna and Sukezane combined their knowledge with methods from Yamashiro and Bizen traditions. Finally, a group of famous sword smiths culminated with Masamune (1264-1343 AD) and his school.

Types of Sword 
The rare swords were made out of five separate pieces and heat-treated at high temperatures. The swords of the Masamune School were harder than any of the swords made before. Masamune trained a group of at least ten followers. Two of his students (Kanemitsu and Nagayoshi) were from the Bizen province. In this way, during the early 14th century, the Masamune school attracted many smiths from other schools. Kanemitsu is believed to be the one who created the Soden School, which combined Bizen and Soshu techniques. 

At the same time Chogi was developing his school. The Chogi works show a stronger influence of the Soshu tradition than Kanemitsu swords.

Divisions

The division by regions 
Yamato-Den – Derived from five big schools attached to different temples.
Bizen-Den – Considered the starting point for the manufacturing of the traditional Japanese sword.
Yamashiro-Den - Started in late Heian period. Thin and slender blades.
Soshu-Den - Started in late Kamakura period under the effect of Kamakura Shogunate. 
Mino-Den – The youngest of the five traditions.

The divisions by people 
There are several famous schools created by sword masters:

Nagayoshi made better products by using the best ideas from both the Bizen and Soshu schools. He was successful because of the softer Bizen steel which is made at higher temperatures than that of the Soshu school used to be. 

Kaneuji I - it is believed that he created the Mino school in the Shizuyama region.  In his creation of swords he used the Shoshu style and added his own methods. Later his tradition was known as the Shizu school.
   
Kanemichi I - he founded the Mishina school in Mino province. His swords were appreciated for their quality and sharpness. He was so famous that he received the honorable title of Mitsu-(no)-Kami.

Emperor Gotoba (1184 to 1198 A.D), the 82nd Emperor of Japan was one of the best known sword makers.

Miyairi Akihira School is a continuation of Soshu tradition. In 1953 he obtained a sword-making license. Then, in 1973, he changed his name to Yukihira and his school was named after him. His school was based on Soshu-den and Shizu Kaneuji traditions.

Related pages
Katana
Samurai

Other websites 
Japanese legendary sword 

Sword schools
Ornamental plant

An ornamental plant is decorative: it is grown for how it looks, and not for other values. The term is often shortened to ornamental, used as a noun

Ornamental plants are plants that are grown for decoration. They are on display in gardens, landscapes and inside houses. They can be used indoors as cut flowers or potted plants. The cultivation of ornamental plants comes under floriculture and tree nurseries, which is a major branch of horticulture.

Ornamental plants are usually grown in the flower garden, or as house plants. They are usually grown for the display of their flowers. Other common ornamental features include leaves, scent, fruit, stem and bark. In all cases, their purpose is for the enjoyment of gardeners and visitors. Ornamental plants may be used for landscaping, and for cut flowers. The cultivation, called floriculture, is a major branch of horticulture. 

Ornamental plants come in a range of shapes, sizes and colours suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and gardening needs. They are also often chosen for specialised looks or feels in landscape gardening.

Darwin was deeply interested in plants all his life. Several of his books are on plant physiology, and orchids were a passion for him.

Outstanding gardens can be an attraction for visitors. The white garden at Sissinghurst Castle was created by poet and writer Vita Sackville-West (18921962), and is still bringing in the paying visitors.

Related pages 
Cultivar
Domestication
List of garden plants

References 

Flowers
Gardens
Celts

The Celts were a large group of Caucasian tribes in Europe. They first appeared in the early Iron Age, around 1200 B.C. in Austria.  The name 'Celt' comes from the Greeks.  The Romans called them "Gauls".  They came from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Their culture and genes spread through much of Europe, and by the time the Greeks and later the Romans started emerging, the British Isles and parts of western, southern and eastern Europe were Celtic - the most prominent Celtic tribes were in Gaul. The Celts spoke Celtic languages. Today, the Celtic languages that remain are the Breton, Cornish, Welsh and Gaelic languages.

Celtic society and technology, although not as advanced as the Romans, was far from being primitive for its time. The Celts lived a way of life based on ethical codes and honor codes and had developed a culture of their own, full of unique drawings, sculptures, jewellery, folklore, and building designs and techniques. They were also skilled in blacksmithing, farming and diplomacy.

Celtic warriors would wear war paint and try to scare their enemies by shouting war cries.  Tribes had different dress standards for battle; some warriors wore chainmail and/or leather armor, some wore only clothes and some were known to fight fully naked.  They also had their own type of sword that was very strong and a shield that was very protective. 

When the Roman Republic started expanding, the Gauls and the Romans became very hostile towards each other and clashed on many occasions; however, the Romans were eventually able to defeat them and ended up conquering most of the Celtic tribes in Europe and ruled them until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.  Celtic tribes also fought among each other.  After winning a battle, the Celts would cut off the heads of their enemies and take them home.

During the fall of the Roman Empire most of the old Celtic land ended up being ruled by migrating Germanic tribes and they merged with Romano-Celtic stock (people with both Roman and Celtic ancestry) to eventually form several European nations of today e.g. Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg as well as Southern and Western Germany. Territories that are still considered Celtic are Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Isle of Man, Cornwall and Brittany.

References 

Celtic peoples
Free good

In economics free good means a good that is available without production, and therefore not scarce.  It is available in as much quantity as desired, with zero opportunity cost to society.

A good that is made available at zero price is not necessarily a free good.  For example, a shop might give away its stock in its promotion, but for the production of these goods, resources were needed, so this would not be a free good in an economic sense.

There are three main types of free goods:

Resources that are so abundant in nature that there is enough for everyone to have as much as they want.  An example of this is the air that we breathe.

Resources that are jointly produced.  This type of free good is produced as a by-product of something else that is more valuable.  Waste products from factories and homes, such as discarded packaging, are often free goods.

Ideas and works that can be copied at zero cost, or almost zero cost.  For example, if someone invents a new device, many people could copy this invention, with no danger of this "resource" running out.  Other examples include computer programs and web pages.

Intellectual property laws have the effect of converting some goods to scarce goods by law. 
Although these goods are free goods (in the economic sense) when they have been produced, they did require scarce resources, such as artistic skill, to create them in the first place.  Thus, intellectual property laws such as copyrights and patents are sometimes used to give exclusive rights to the creators of such "intellectual property", to make sure that people are interested in these activities.

Many futurists theorize that advanced nanotechnology with the ability to automatically turn any kind of material into any other combination of equal mass, will make all goods essentially free goods, since all raw materials and manufacturing time will become perfectly interchangeable.

Goods
Hoist

A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain, fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. The load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting hook.

A "hoist" normally is used for lifting (near vertical) and a winch is normally used for pulling (near horizontal).

Construction sites, especially for buildings of more than five floors in height, often employ hoists to lift workers and building materials.

Types of Hoist 
The basic hoist has two important characteristics to define it: Lifting medium and power type. The lifting medium is either wire rope, wrapped around a drum, or load-chain, raised by a gear-like wheel. The power type can be either electric motor or air motor. Both the wire rope hoist and chain hoist have been in common use since the 1800s.

Other websites 
 Using a two-post hoist (automotive)  Free video content from CDX eTextbook
 Using an engine hoist  CDX eTextbook

Tools
Basingstoke

Basingstoke is a large town in Hampshire, England. It is  southwest of London,  northeast of Southampton,  southwest of Reading and  northeast of Winchester. In 2008 it had an estimated population of 82,913. It is part of the borough of Basingstoke and Deane. Basingstoke is often nicknamed "Doughnut City" or "Roundabout City" due to the number of roundabouts.

Often mistaken for a "new town", Basingstoke is an old market town expanded in the 1960s as part of a plan of London County Council, Hampshire County Council and Basingstoke Borough Council. It was developed fast to accommodate part of the London 'overspill' as seen in the Greater London Plan, 1944.

References

Towns in Hampshire
Flerovium

Flerovium is a synthetic chemical element also known as eka-lead. It has the symbol Fl and has the atomic number 114. It is a radioactive superheavy element. 

Flerovium does not exist in nature. It is made from a nuclear reaction between plutonium and calcium. The reaction that happens is a fusion reaction.

Uses 
It currently has no use at the moment as it is being researched right now.

History 
The discovery of Flerovium in December 1998 was reported in January 1999 by scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia. The same team of scientists made another isotope of Fl three months later and made it again in 2004 and 2006.

In 2004 in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research checked it was made by another method.  They found the final products of radioactive decay.

After its discovery, the "new" element was named ununquadium. The named changed on May 30th, 2012 to "flerovium". It was named for the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, which was named for Russian physicist Georgy Flyorov. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry named it so.

Chemical properties 
Not enough Flerovium has been made to measure its physical or chemical properties.  It is thought that it would be a soft, dense metal that changes colour in air.  It may have a low melting point of about 200 °C.

Making it 
Flerovium can be made by bombarding a plutonium-244 target with calcium-48 as a beam of ions.

298Fl - An undiscovered neutron-rich nucleus 
According to the nuclear shell model, the undiscovered neutron-rich nucleus 298Fl may be a doubly magic nucleus, atop the shell closure at N=184. It is predicted that this atom, amid the closed nuclear shells, expected to have longer half-lives for alpha decay and spontaneous fission. However using the fusion-evaporation method to produce this nuclide is impractical, since more neutron-rich starting materials with low proton numbers are unstable due to beta decay.

Estimates for half-lives for this atom range from a few minutes to several billion years.

References

Other websites 

 WebElements.com - Uuq
 Apsidium - Flerovium 
 First postcard from the island of nuclear stability 
 Second postcard from the island of stability 

Post-transition metals
Synthetic elements
Brontosaurus

Brontosaurus  is a genus of sauropod dinosaur. 

Brontosaurus was originally named by its discoverer Othniel Charles Marsh in 1879. Brontosaurus had long been considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus. Its only species was reclassified as A. excelsus in 1903. 

However, an extensive study published in 2015 concluded that Brontosaurus was a valid genus of sauropod distinct from Apatosaurus.

Brontosaurus is a member of the family Diplodocidae, a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including Diplodocus, Supersaurus, and Barosaurus. Brontosaurus is closely related to Apatosaurus in the subfamily Apatosaurinae.

References 

Sauropods
Fate

Fate or destiny is the idea that the future is already planned even if people do not know what their fate is (what is going to happen to them).  Humans in nearly all cultures have had ideas about their fate being “predetermined” (fixed in advance).

People who live unhappy lives may believe that their misery is because of their fate and that they can do nothing about it.  This is called being “fatalistic”.  Other people may believe that they can control their fate by being brave and trying to “overcome”  fate by improving themselves and their lives.

In Greek mythology there were three Fates.  They were three goddesses who determined when every person was going to be born, how they would live and when and how they would die.  Human beings in many cultures had lots of ways in which they would try to “read” their fate (know what would happen to them).  Sometimes they would try to read their fate in the stars (this is called astrology).  In other cultures they might ask a person with powers of magic like a shaman.  The Ancient Greeks often went to Delphi to ask the oracle.

There are lots of references to fate in literature from almost every country and period, from Greek tragedy (e.g. Oedipus Rex) to Shakespeare (e.g. Macbeth) and Russian literature.

Composers may express fate in music.  Beethoven was thinking about Fate when he wrote his Fifth Symphony, and Tchaikovsky when he wrote his Sixth Symphony just before he committed suicide.

See also:
Ananke
Fatalism
Superstition
Moirae
Norns
Fate (opera)
Future
August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben

August Heinrich Hoffmann (April 2, 1798 - January 19, 1874), who used Hoffmann von Fallersleben as his pen name, was a German poet. He is best known for writing "Das Lied der Deutschen", which is now the national anthem of Germany, and a number of popular children's songs.

Fallersleben, Heinrich Hoffman von

1798 births
1874 deaths
Lake Peipus

Lake Peipus (Estonian: Peipsi-Pihkva järv, German: Peipussee, Russian: Чудско-Псковское озеро) is a large fresh water lake. It is between Estonia and Russia in Northern Europe. Lake Peipus is the fourth largest lake in Europe. The lake covers 3,500 square kilometres. It has an average depth of 7m. At its deepest point, Lake Peipus is 15m deep. The lake is used for fishing and recreation.

Peipus
Peipus
Geography of Estonia
Clint Dempsey

Clint Dempsey (born March 9, 1983) is an American footballer from Texas. He plays for Sounders F.C.and is number 2 and, has also played for Fulham F.C. and was number 8. He played for the New England Revolution in the United States before Fulham gave them money (a transfer fee) to get him to play for them, but then was put on Sounders F.C. Dempsey is a good player who is well liked by many people in the United States and England for his hard work and desire to win.

Clint also has taken an interest in rapping. Known as Deuce, he has produced compilations with Big Hawk and XO. He also once defeated Peter Crouch in a freestyle battle.

Other websites 
Official website of Clint Dempsey
Official Fulham FC profile of Clint Dempsey

References

1983 births
Living people
American soccer players
Sportspeople from Texas
Runaway Brain

Runaway Brain is an animated short movie released on September 22, 1934 by MGM/United Artists. It was produced by Walt Disney and directed by Burton Gillett. The movie is 7 minutes long. It has Peter Penguin, Polly Penguin, Gosalyn Mallard, Honker Muddlefoot, Bubba the Caveduck, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, Magica De Spell, and Poe De Spell.

Other websites 

Runaway Brain at The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts

1934 movies
Disney animated movies
English-language movies
Maltese language

Maltese is the language of Malta, and a language of the European Union.  Maltese sounds similar to the Phoenician language that was spoken in areas around the ancient Mediterranean.  It is written in the Latin alphabet like English. Maltese descends from a dialect of Arabic called Siculo-Arabic. The language has borrowed many words from Sicilian, Italian, and English.  Around 393,000 people speak Maltese. Most of them live in Malta.

History
Many people from Sicily settled in Malta after the Muslims conquered it in 870 AD. They spoke a Sicilian-Arabic language from the Maghreb. In later centuries their language changed into Maltese. The oldest known document in Maltese is "Il Cantilena," a poem from the 15th century written by Pietro Caxaro. For centuries, Maltese was mainly a spoken language.

Maltese became an official language of Malta in 1934, alongside English. Before that year, the only official language of Malta was Italian. Italian, however, is still used a lot in the media.

Today
Italian and English words are being taken in by the language more and more. This sometimes causes words to form that are not found in Maltese, Italian, or English, but instead are a mix of the three. At schools, English is taught as a second language. Maltese is usually used in the standardized jobs and when people talk to each other. Most of the television, radio, and literature in Malta is also in Maltese.

References 

Semitic languages
Persuasion

Persuasion is a form of influence.  It is the way to get people to agree with an idea, attitude, or action by rational and emotional means.  It is a problem-solving strategy and relies on "appeals" rather than force.

Dissuasion is the process of convincing someone not to believe or act on something.

Methods of persuasion
 Evidence
 Logic
 Rhetoric
 Scientific method
 Advertising
Moral Appeal
 Faith
 Presentation and Imagination
 Propaganda
 Tradition
Manipulation

Aids to persuasion:
 Body language
 Communication skill or Rhetoric

Other techniques, which may or may not work:
 Hypnosis

Coercive techniques, some of which are highly controversial and/or not scientifically proven to be effective:
 Brainwashing
 Torture

Psychology
Ögedei Khan

Ögedei (1186-1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, after his father. He continued to make his father's empire bigger. Like all of Genghis' sons, he helped to conquer Western China and Central Asia. 

 

Ögedei was thought to be his father's favorite son, ever since his childhood. As an adult, Ögedei was known to be persuasive in debates he was involved because he had a strong personality. Although less schooled than his father, and despite his drinking habits, he was intelligent and steady in character.

After Genghis Khan's Death 
He was selected as the supreme khan in 1229 because of the kuriltai, the meeting for important leaders, was held after Genghis' death, but it was never doubted that Genghis wanted Ögedei to rule after him. During his reign, the Mongols ended the Jin Dynasty (in 1234) and fought against the Southern Song Empire. In 1235, under the khan's direct command, the Mongols began a war of conquest that would not end for forty-five years, and would result in the addition of all of China. Mongol armies established permanent control of Persia (commanded by Chormagan) and expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan to take over Russia.

1186 births
1241 deaths
Mongol emperors
Heligoland

Heligoland (;  ) is a small German group of islands in the North Sea..

It has been controlled by Denmark and between 1807 and 1890 by the British. The islands have a population of 1,650. They are the only German islands not nearby to the mainland and are about two hours' sailing time from Cuxhaven at the mouth of the River Elbe.

Geography 
Heligoland is located 70 km (44 miles) from the German coast line and actually consists of two islands: the populated triangular-shaped 1 km² (0.4 sq mi) main island () to the west and the island of Düne (Heligolandic: de Halem) in the east. 

Düne is the smaller of the two islands(0.7 km²).  It is also lower, surrounded by sand beaches and no-one lives on the island throughout the year.

Often when people talk about "Heligoland" they only mean Hauptinsel.

References

Other websites 

Heligoland Tourist Board  — includes an aerial photograph of Heligoland (front) and Düne (back).
Site about planting palms on Heligoland 
Heligoland Web Cams

Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
Islands of Germany
Cooperation

Cooperation is when people work together to make their lives better, even though they are free to not work together, and receive little if any money for working together. Organizations made for cooperation are known as cooperatives.

Sociology
Robert F. Kennedy

Robert Francis "Bobby" Kennedy (November 20, 1925 – June 6, 1968), also called RFK, was an American politician. He is the brother of former U.S. President John F. Kennedy, who was killed during riding in a presidential motorcade through Dealey Plaza nearly five years ago.

Death 

Kennedy ran for president in 1968, but was shot multiple times by Sirhan Sirhan in California during the presidential primaries on June 5, 1968. He died during the operation to remove the bullet and bone fragments from his brain on the next day.

References

Other websites 
PBS video on RFK, with long quotes by historians
The Coalition on Political Assassinations

1925 births
1968 deaths
People from Brookline, Massachusetts
American Roman Catholics
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Harvard University alumni
Kennedy family
Murders by firearm in California
People murdered in California
Politicians from Massachusetts
 
United States Attorneys General
1968 United States presidential candidates
United States senators from New York (state)
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Lawyers from Massachusetts
Umbilical cord

The umbilical cord is the tube that connects the unborn child and the mother together. It allows the baby to get what it needs, for example, blood, oxygen and glucose.

Pregnancy and childbirth
Josef Mengele

Josef Mengele or better known as Doctor Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979) was a German Nazi SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz.  He worked at Auschwitz with Rudolf Höss, the Nazi Commandant of Auschwitz . 

During the first years of World War II Mengele served as a medical officer in the Waffen-SS. After being wounded and recovered in 1942, he went working at the Race and Resettlement Office in Berlin. In 1943 he volunteered for concentration camp Auschwitz.

He conducted cruel medical experiments on the people in the camps. Many people died as a consequence of these experiments. The experiments included freezing and placing subjects under heat lamps. 

Mengele was also known for his studies and fascination with twins. Mengele was known as the Angel of Death. 

After the war, he first hid in Germany, then escaped and lived in South America, until he drowned in Brazil.

Mengele wrote a thesis, which he finished in 1936. His advisor was Theodor Mollison. His assumption was that it was possible to determine the race of a human being by looking at the jawbone. He wrote another thesis, in a related area in 1938. In 1960 and 1961, his title was revoked, because of the crimes he had committed in Auschwitz.

Other websites 
 A short essay on Mengele at the Holocaust ,,.,history project 
 A short essay about Mengele by Robert Jay Lifton

1911 births
1979 deaths
Accidental deaths by drowning
German doctors
German war criminals
Holocaust perpetrators
People from Bavaria
SS officers
Waffen-SS people
Francis I of Austria

Francis I, Emperor of Austria (12 February 1768 – 2 March 1835) also was Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (in German language: Franz II, Heiliger Römischer Kaiser).

He was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until August 6, 1806, when the empire was no longer a unit. He then became Francis I, first Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary,Bohemia and Croatia from 1804 to 1835). He fought in the Napoleonic Wars .

Related pages
 Holy Roman Empire
 Germany

1768 births
1835 deaths
Holy Roman Emperors
Emperors of Austria
18th century in Germany‎
19th century in Germany
Wilhelm I of Germany

Kaiser Wilhelm I (Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig von Hohenzollern; 22 March 1797 – 9 March 1888) of the Hohenzollern family was a king of Prussia from January 2, 1861 – 9 March 1888. He was the first German Emperor (18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888). In English, his first name means "William", which is sometimes used instead.

Because his brother Frederick William IV of Prussia had a stroke in 1857, Wilhelm became Prince Regent and actual ruler. His brother died in 1861 and Wihelm became King. When Wilhelm was king of Prussia, he and his prime minister, Otto von Bismarck, worked on the unification of Germany, from a large group of smaller German countries. Winning the Franco-Prussian War allowed the start of the German Empire.

His grandson Wilhelm II ordered the Kaiser Wilhelm Gedächtniskirche to be built to honour his life and achievements.

Official titles 
His official title was German Emperor and King of Prussia; Margrave of Brandenburg; Burgrave of Nürnberg, Count of Hohenzollern; Sovereign and highest Duke of Silesia as of the county of Glatz; Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen; Duke of Saxony, Wesphalia, and Angaria, of Pomerania, Lüneburg, Holstein and Schleswig, of Magdeburg, Bremen, Gelders, Cleves, Jülich and Berg, as well as of the Wendes and Kaschubs, of Krossen, Lauenburg, Mecklenburg; Landgrave of Hesse and Thuringia, Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, Prince of Rügen, of East Frisia, of Paderborn and Pyrmont, of Halberstadt, Münster, Minden, Osnabrück, Hildesheim, of Verden, Kammin, Fulda, Nassau and Moers; Princely Count of Henneberg; Count of the Mark and of Ravensberg, of Hohnstein, Tecklenburg and Lingen, of Mansfeld, Sigmaringen and Veringen, Lord of Frankfurt", and Josseppi Longo. .

Titles and styles
22 March 1797 – 2 January 1861: His Royal Highness Prince William of Prussia
2 January 1861 – 18 January 1871: His Majesty The King of Prussia
18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888: His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor, King of Prussia

Related pages
 Germany
 German Empire
 Prussia

References 

1797 births
1888 deaths
Kings and Queens of Prussia
German emperors
House of Hohenzollern
Amami Islands

The  is a group of islands in Kagoshima prefecture in the Kyūshū region of Japan. It is also known as the .

History
The name of the islands comes from the mythological figure of Amamiko.

It was attacked by the Ryūkyū Kingdom in 1570, but was invaded by Satsuma Domain in 1609.

Amami was occupied by the United States from 1945 to 1953.

Demographics 
The native people of the Amami Islands are the Amami people, who are a subgroup of a larger Ryukyuan ethnicity.

Languages 
The Amami language belongs to the Ryukyuan languages, all of which are endangered because in the past, Japan suppressed them. This is also why most younger Amamians speak Japanese instead, as it was enforced in schools.

Geography
The largest island in the group is Amami Island.  Other islands include Kikai Island, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabu Island, Yorontou and some small islands make up the Amami Islands.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Ryukyu Islands
Formal

Formal is a word used to describe anything that has form or structure. So it is something which is used or done in accordance with rules or ceremonies.

Formal  events have rules. 'Formal clothes' or 'formal attire' is a way of dressing to meet the rules for an event, such as a party or wedding. 'Formal attire' can be a suit, a tuxedo or a dress. People from all over the world have their own ideas about 'formal attire'. Most of the time formal attire clothes are the most beautiful or the best clothes a person owns. The opposite of "formal" is informal.  Informal clothes are comfortable clothes for general use, e.g. T shirt and jeans.  An informal ceremony might be a ceremony which is very relaxed instead of following an exact plan.  An informal way to greet a friend might be: "Hi, John!"

Examples:
Formal can be the way a person speaks or acts. To act in a formal way a person will follow the social rules of their culture or country. For example, they might greet each other by bowing, and they might address one another by their family name and their title (e.g. "Professor Smith").

A formal agreement is one which is explicit (written down) and reached by a formal discussion or negotiation. That means the negotiation is also done by set rules or procedures.

In mathematics, formal logic is a way of thinking about mathematics questions using strict rules.

Characteristics
Kyūshū

is one of Japan's four main islands. It is the most southern of the main islands and the third largest.

Regions 
Kyūshū region is made up of the entire island.

The name Kyūshū literally means "nine countries" in Japanese. Kyūshū was made of nine old "countries" or provinces that are now prefectures. Each prefecture has a modern name and sometimes more than one old provincial name. The old names are still used sometimes, especially for foods, music, or art.

The original nine provinces in Kyushu were Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma.

Today, Kyushu is made up of seven of the prefectures of Japan. 
 Fukuoka Prefecture
 Kagoshima Prefecture
 Kumamoto Prefecture
 Miyazaki Prefecture
 Nagasaki Prefecture
 Oita Prefecture
 Saga Prefecture

Parts of Kyūshū have a warm climate, like the Miyazaki and Kagoshima regions. Major crops grown there are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; silk is also made. The island is known for many types of porcelain like Arita, Imari, Satsuma and Karatsu.

Under the Gokishichidō system, the island of Kyūshū was a part of the region known as Saikaidō. It was a part of this region from the 7th century until the middle of the 1800s. Around 1905, it was made into its own region. In the modern system, Kyūshū and the small islands around it are a part of the Kyūshū region.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
 Kyushu -Citizendium

Islands of Japan
Kyushu region
Presentation

Presentation is the process of presenting the content of a topic to an audience. Presentation software, such as LibreOffice Impress, Beamer, Apple Keynote or Microsoft PowerPoint, is often used to generate the presentation content. As a form of communication, a presentation is usually 10-30 minutes long, but can take longer in special cases.

Useful illustrations 

 BCG diagram: This diagram is extremely useful in marketing, to eat donuts

Other websites 
 Tips on making presentations 
 Tips for presentations in school
 Art of Speaking (A list of links related to speaking and presentation)  
 Example of Evaluating Student Presentations 
 RecruitIreland.com - Tips for an internal presentation 
 EServer TC Library: Presentations 

Marketing
Keynote (software)

Keynote is a presentation software application made by Apple for its Mac OS X operating system.

History
Keynote was a software program that Steve Jobs, the chief executive officer of Apple used for his own presentations only. It was later sold to everyone as Keynote 1.0, competing against other presentation software, especially Microsoft PowerPoint. Unlike PowerPoint, Keynote can use all image types, and the design uses more pictures, making it easier to use. Because Keynote uses Mac OS X's built-in graphics technologies, it can produce slides with many graphics very easily.

Version history

Trivia
Al Gore, a member of the board of directors for Apple as of 2006, uses Keynote for a lecture about Global Warming which he claims to have shown over a thousand times. The talk was made into a film, An Inconvenient Truth. During the film he can be seen using Keynote on a Powerbook to design a slide for his presentation.

Related pages
Microsoft PowerPoint
LibreOffice Impress
Presentation program

Other websites 
 Official website of Keynote

Discussion Groups
 Keynote Yahoo! Group — Help and advice for users of Keynote 
 iWork Yahoo! Group — Help and advice for users of Apple's iWork (Pages and Keynote)

IWork
Apple software
Claymore

The claymore is a Scottish sword. It has two sharp edges. The word claymore is from Gaelic. It means “great sword”. The sword is held with two hands. In some sources the broad claymore sword is called “claidheamh da lamh”, which means “two-hand sword”. It was very popular in the 16th century when Scottish warriors (highlanders) used it against the Englishmen.

The average claymore was about  long. The blade was about  long. It weighed around . It had a very wide blade. Many claymore blades had a small amount of metal cut out of them. This was done to make the sword weigh less.

There was also a type of claymore that had one sharp edge and a basket-shaped handle. The basket of the handle was used to protect the hands. The basket was also used to help with balance. This was because the blade was very long. Many claymores were made during the mid-1600s. 

People in Europe started using swords with two hands in the 14th century. The biggest European swords were made in the early 16th century. They were usually used by bodyguards or soldiers for defending from pikes and polearms. One example of these kinds of swords is the Germanic Zweihänder (two-handed) sword.

References

Other websites 
More on swords' component parts 

Swords

National symbols of Scotland
Tamahagane

Tamahagane {tah-mah-ha-ga-neh} is a high quality metal (steel) made in the Japanese tradition. The word tama  means "round and precious", like a gem or jewel. The word hagane means  "steel". On the market, it costs 50 times more than ordinary steel. Tamahagane steel is used to make Japanese swords, knives, and other kinds of tools.

Good tamahagane contains around 1% of carbon and should not go over 1.5%.

Production
Tamahagane is made of iron sand (called satetsu in Japanese). There are 2 main types of iron sands: akome satetsu and masa satetsu. Akome is of lower quality and masa is of better quality. The man who leads the team at the TATARA is called the murage. Depending on the desired result, the murage mixes one or more types of sands.

The iron sand is put in a clay tub (furnace) called a tatara. The clay tub measures about 4 feet tall, 12 feet long, and 4 feet wide. The tub is then dried and heated. The clay tub is heated to a high temperature, about 1000 ºC (1.832 ºF). Then, it is filled with charcoal and iron sand to start the direct reduction process. 

The process of making tamahagane continues for 36 to 72 hours, depending on how many people work and how much metal is to be obtained. The iron sand is added every 10 minutes, alternately with a regular amount of charcoal. 

When the liquid slag is drawn out and the process is finished, the clay tub is broken and the KERA (raw iron block) is removed. The best steel with highest carbon content is near the vents of the blower system, because this is the where the reduction process is strongest. The quality of tamahagane is determined by its breaking structure, but it is important to knowe that there are different types of TAMAHAGANE needed to forge a sword blade.

Related pages
Japanese sword schools
Katana

Metals
Japanese swords
Graviton

A graviton is a hypothetical particle that 'transfers' gravitation's force (particles like this are known as gauge bosons) from its field. Gravitons have never been observed, directly or indirectly, however, there have been several theories that use gravitons to explain certain phenomena. For example, a theory that describes black holes by combining quantum mechanics and gravity, has been advanced by Georgi Dvali and Cesar Gomez, which suggests a black hole is "an overpacked bucket of gravitons". There are some theories that suggest that gravitons would make up a new group of particles, "attraction particles". CERN is currently using the Large Hadron Collider to try to find this particle.
The graviton applies a tiny force as it impacts the nuclei of atoms.
All atoms themselves have these graviton particles in orbit around them. If you gather a lot of atoms together the population of orbiting gravitons increases proportionately. As a result, a large asteroid for example will have more gravity than a small one.
Because the graviton is a particle that has force (gravity), it is classed as a gauge boson. Other gauge bosons include the photon, the gluon, and the W and Z particles.

If someone found one, it could lead to a theory which would join the four main physical forces: electromagnetism, gravity, strong force and weak force.

References

String theory
Relativity
Subatomic particles
Presentation software

A presentation software is a computer software package used to show information, normally in the form of a slide show. It mostly includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to display the content.

The most commonly known presentation program is Microsoft PowerPoint, but there are alternatives such as LibreOffice Impress, Apple's Keynote, LaTeX Beamer and WPS Office (Free and complete office suite, includes writer, spreadsheet, presentations, enjoys the features of small-size, easy-to-use and compatible, covering multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, Android, iOS and Mac).

Originally these programs were used to generate 35 mm slides, to be presented using a slide projector. As these programs became more common in the late 1980s, several companies set up services that would accept the shows on floppy disk and create slides or print transparencies. In the 1990s, dedicated LCD-based screens that could be placed on the projectors started to replace the transparencies, and by the late 1990s they had almost all been replaced by video projectors.

Other websites 
Screen Presentation Tools 

Software
Liqueur

A liqueur is a sweet-tasting alcoholic drink. It is often flavored with fruits, herbs, spices, flowers, seeds, roots, plants, barks, and sometimes cream. The word liqueur comes from the Latin word liquifacere which means "to dissolve." This is because the flavors are dissolved to help make the liqueur. In some parts of the world, liqueurs are sometimes called cordials.

Liqueurs have been around for many centuries. They are related to the herbal medicines that monks used to make. Liqueurs were made in Italy as early as the 13th century, and were used during signings of treaties during the Middle Ages.

Varieties
Most liqueurs have 15 to 30% alcohol content but may have an alcohol content as high as 55%.

Types of liqueurs include: fruit liqueur, cream liqueur, coffee liqueur, chocolate liqueur, schnapps liqueur, brandy liqueur, anise liqueur, nut-flavoured liqueur, and herbal liqueur.

Liqueurs can be enjoyed many ways. They are commonly drank by themselves, poured over ice, with coffee, or mixed with cream or other mixers to create cocktails. They are often served with dessert or as a dessert. Liqueurs may also be used in cooking.

Reference

Other websites 
 Page about most types of liqueurs

Alcoholic spirits
Militarism

Militarism or militarist ideology is a view on society.
It says society should be like the military.
This means that society should follow concepts that can be found in the culture, system and people of the military. People that say militarism is good are called militarists.

Most important to militarists is discipline. Discipline means to follow a set of rules.
It also means training that follows such rules. A strong military is good for discipline.
There are many areas where moral goals and the culture of the military can be applied. Most notable are private business, government, education and entertainment.

Militarism is related to militarization, and militarist countries often have a strong military.  Thus Sparta in Ancient Greece, and Prussia in the 19th century were militarist and had more powerful armies than other states their size.  North Korea is a good example in modern times.  In militarist states the military either run the government, or greatly influence it.  Often the head of state is a military person, though that does not always mean the society is militarised.

Military
The Queen of Spades (opera)

The Queen of Spades (, pronounced Pi-KO-va-ya DA-ma) is an opera by Tchaikovsky.  It is based on a short story by Alexander Pushkin.  Sometimes it is known by its German title Pique Dame.  

When Tchaikovsky went to Paris in 1876, he saw Bizet’s opera Carmen.  He liked the story's themes of love and bad fate.  The idea of fate is important to the opera Carmen and also to Tchaikovsky’s The Queen of Spades.  Tchaikovsky wrote some of his greatest music in this opera.  Some of it is very graceful, and is similar to Mozart.  In other places it is very romantic, with harmonies that he had learned by studying the operas of Wagner.

The story of the opera

Hermann, a young officer, sees a beautiful girl in the park and falls in love with her even though  he does not know her.  His friend tells him that the girl’s name is Lisa, and that her grandmother is an old countess who used to gamble (play cards for money) when she was young.  He says that people used to call the grandmother the "Queen of Spades", and that she knows a secret: she knows about the three cards which will always win the card game.

Hermann can only think of one thing:  he wants to find out the secret of the three cards so that he can gamble and win lots of money.  Then he will be able to marry Lisa.  He hides himself in the grandmother’s bedroom.  When the grandmother goes to bed, he jumps out in front of her and tells her he wants to know the three cards.  She is so scared that she dies before she can speak.

Later, the ghost of the grandmother comes to Hermann and tells him the three secret cards: Three, Seven, Ace.  Hermann’s mind is now on one thing: he must go to casino and play cards and win.  Lisa drowns herself in  a river.  Hermann gambles all his money at the casino, saying "The life is only game and the sure is only death".  The first two cards are the Three and the Seven, but the third card is not the Ace, it is the Queen of Spades.  The old grandmother’s ghost comes again to Hermann.  Hermann kills himself.

The writing of the opera

Tchaikovsky’s brother Modest helped him to prepare the libretto (words) for the opera.  They changed some of Pushkin’s story, making the love scenes important because he thought they would be good with emotional music.  They also made it very dramatic by making Lisa drown herself in a canal and Hermann die at the gaming table.  This is different to what happens in Pushkin’s story.

Tchaikovsky wrote the opera very quickly.  It took him just six weeks to sketch it (write the basic ideas).  Then he spent a short time in Rome and when he returned, he wrote it out for orchestra in another six weeks.  

Some of the music is quite Classical (Rococo) in character.  At other times it can sound very Russian.  In the supernatural scenes, Tchaikovsky uses the whole-tone scale like Glinka did in his operas.

The opera was first performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg on 19 December 1890.

Compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
1890s operas
Growth-share matrix

The growth-share matrix (aka B.C.G. analysis, B.C.G.-matrix, Boston Consulting Group analysis) is a chart that had been created by Bruce Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1970 to help corporations with analyzing their business units or product lines. This helps the company allocate resources and is used as an analytical tool in brand marketing,  product management, strategic management and portfolio-analysis.

Related pages
marketing

Other websites 
Software that generates the Boston Matrix 
Compares and contrasts BCG with other 2 x 2 matrices like Ansoff and 3 x 3 matrices like GE Portfolio 

Marketing