alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Silicate

In chemistry, a silicate is a chemical compound consisting of one or more central silicon atoms that are surrounded by electronegative anions.

The most common silicate species consist of silicon with oxygen as the anion. Silicate anions, with a negative net electrical charge, must have that charge balanced by other cations to make an electrically neutral compound.

Silicate rock
In geology and planetary science, the term silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals.

On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form and re-work the crust. These processes include partial melting, crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism, weathering and diagenesis. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle near the Earth's surface. A type of plankton known as diatoms construct their exoskeletons, known as tests, from silica. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep ocean sediment

Chemical compounds
Geology
Ions
Newton metre

The Newton metre is the unit of moment in the SI system Standard International.  It is abbreviated N·m, and sometimes written with hyphen newton-metre. It is a compound unit of torque  corresponding to the torque from a force of one newton applied over a distance arm of one metre.

A newton metre is dimensionally equivalent to a joule.

Conversion factors
1 metre kilogram-force = 9.8065 R/N·m
1 centimetre kilogram-force = 98.0665 mR/mN·m
1 foot-pound force (often "foot-pounds") = 1 pound-force foot (often "pound-feet") = 1.3558179 R/N·m
1 inch ounce-force = 7.0615518 mR/mN·m

SI derived units
Gamma ray

Gamma radiation (γ-radiation) is a type of electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays (γ-rays) are waves of gamma radiation with the smallest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. They were discovered in 1900 by Paul Villard, and named in 1903 by Ernest Rutherford.

Gamma rays are like x-rays, but the waves are smaller in wavelength. Both gamma rays and x-rays are photons with very high energies, and gamma have even more energy. They are also a type of ionizing radiation. Gamma rays can travel through thicker materials than x-rays can.

Gamma rays are produced by some types of radioactive atoms.  Cobalt-60 and potassium-40 are two isotopes that emit gamma rays. Cobalt-60 is created in accelerators and is used in hospitals. Potassium-40 occurs naturally. Small amounts of potassium-40 are in all plants and animals. Gamma rays from potassium-40 each have an energy of 1460 thousand electron volts (keV).

Gamma rays and X-rays can also be distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.

Gamma rays in medicine 
Gamma rays can also go through the skin to kill cells, such as cancerous cells. 
Doctors can use radiation therapy machines which produce gamma rays in hospitals to treat people with some types of cancer.

Doctors also use gamma rays to find disease. In hospitals, doctors can give patients radioactive medicine which emits gamma rays. Doctors can find some types of disease by measuring gamma rays which come from a patient afterward. Hospitals can also use gamma rays to sterilise (clean)  things as disinfectants do.

References 

Nuclear physics
Electromagnetic radiation
Cynicism

Cynicism is a philosophy started by the Cynics, Ancient Greek philosophers. It was started by Antisthenes in the 5th century BC. The main points the cynics wanted to make was that man had no needs. At the same time, they were against possessing material goods. They also were against prejudices such as being ashamed of being naked. Diogenes of Sinope made the cynics extend their views and combine them with that of other schools of philosophy, like the stoa. They also integrated elements of Greek mythology.

Today, the word 'cynicism' generally describes the opinions and actions of those who believe that self-interest is the primary motive of human behavior. These persons, called cynics, shy away from relying upon sincerity, human virtue, or altruism as motivations.

Related pages 
Nihilism

Philosophical movements and positions
Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)

Sonic the Hedgehog is the name of a cartoon series, starring Sonic the Hedgehog. It is more popularly known as "SatAM Sonic", especially to distinguish itself from other similarly named animated shows that also star Sonic.

This series was made by DiC Entertainment, and originally ran on ABC from September 18, 1993 to June 3, 1995, and had a total of 26 episodes, at 13 episodes per season.

The show starred Sonic the Hedgehog, and the Knothole Freedom Fighters, a group of woodland animals united to fight the evil Doctor Robotnik, who has taken over the entire planet.

References

Animated television series
English-language television programs
Plutarch

Mestrius Plutarchus (; c. AD 46 – after AD 119), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, and writer of biographies and essays.

Plutarch was born into a well-known family in Chaeronea, Boeotia Greece, a town about twenty miles east of Delphi. His works are Parallel Lives and Moralia.

Other websites 

 
 A biography of Plutarch is included in: , 18th century English translation under the editorship of Dryden (further edited by Arthur Hugh Clough).
 Works of Plutarch in etext at the University of Adelaide Library .
 Plutarch page at LacusCurtius (20th century English translation of most of the Lives, On the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander, On the Fortune of the Romans, Roman Questions, and other excerpts of the Moralia)
 Plutarch's Isis and Osiris 

40s births
120s deaths
Ancient Greek historians
Ancient Greek writers
Biographers
Crassus

Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115 BC – 53 BC) was a Roman general and politician.

He commanded the left wing of Sulla's army at the Battle of the Colline Gate. It was he who finally  suppressed the slave revolt led by Spartacus. The Third Servile War began with three defeats of Roman armies against Spartacus and his followers. The revolt was finally destroyed by the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus.

The last stage of his career was as a triumvir, one of the First Triumvirate, with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Gaius Julius Caesar. One of the richest men of the era, he was killed after a defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. His death led to the civil wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey, the other two triumvirs.

Brutal discipline 
Crassus formed an army to meet the Parthians. In addition to six new legions, he was given other legions which had been beaten by Spartacus. He decimated them. This was the brutal method of executing one man in ten to encourage the others to fight harder. Each group of ten men drew lots to decide who would die. This punishment had not been used since the early days of Rome.

Crassus's punishment of Spartacus's surviving men was just as brutal. They were crucified. But his army was beaten by the Parthians, with many Roman deaths, including that of Crassus.

Battle of Carrhae 
Crassus arranged to govern the Roman province of Syria, with the transparent intention of going to war with Parthia. In fact, he set out on a war against Parthia, using his own money, and without the Senate's official approval.

After being informed of the presence of the Parthian army, Crassus panicked. His general Cassius recommended that the army be deployed in the traditional Roman fashion, with infantry forming the center and cavalry on the wings. At first Crassus agreed, but he soon changed his mind and redeployed his men into a hollow square, each side formed by twelve cohorts. This formation would protect his forces from being outflanked, but at the cost of mobility.

The day went badly for the Romans, who were repeatedly outflanked by the Parthian cavalry. The next day they received a message, offering to negotiate with Crassus. A truce was proposed, allowing the Roman army to return to Syria safely, in exchange for Rome giving up all territory east of the Euphrates. Crassus was reluctant to meet with the Parthians, but his troops threatened to mutiny if he did not. At the meeting, a Parthian pulled at Crassus' reins, sparking violence. Crassus and his generals were murdered. After his death, the Parthians allegedly poured molten gold down his throat, in a symbolic gesture mocking Crassus' renowned greed. The remaining Romans at Carrhae attempted to flee, but most were captured or killed. Roman casualties amounted to about 20,000 killed and 10,000 captured, making the battle one of the costliest defeats in Roman history. Parthian casualties were minimal.

References 

110s BC births
53 BC deaths
Roman generals
Roman Italy

Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula.

Italia was the home of the capital of the Roman Empire - Rome itself.

400 years later the Empire was much larger, but on the point of collapse. In the last period the Empire was governed from Byzantium (Constantinople), not Rome.

Places of Ancient Rome
Shift key

The shift key is a key on a computer keyboard. It is used to type capital letters (like this: "ABC") instead of lowercase ("abc").

The shift key is also used to type with keys that have more than one symbol on them, such as the number keys and those for punctuation marks. In this case it is used to type the "upper" characters, that is, the symbol that appear above the other. The symbol below does not need the shift key to be pressed. On an English keyboard, these are some of the characters that need the shift key to be pressed down in order to type them:
the parentheses "(" and ")" are on the same keys as the numbers 9 and 0
the question mark "?" is on the same key as the slash "/"
the exclamation point "!" is on the same key as the number 1
the colon ":" is on the same key as the semicolon ";"

The way the shift key works is that it needs to be held down while the other key is pressed. Because of this, there are usually two shift keys, on the left and right sides of the keyboard, and they are held down using one of the little fingers while the other finger presses the other key.

Instead of using the shift key, one can also use the caps lock or shift lock keys. This lets one type many uppercase letters at once without having to hold down the shift key all the time.

Computer keyboard
2000 United States Census

The Twenty-Second United States Census, known as Census 2000 was a count of the population of the United States. It was done by the Census Bureau. It found that the population of the United States on April 1, 2000 was 281,421,906. This was an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 people counted during the 1990 Census. This was the twenty-second federal census. It was the largest single administrative effort in the history of the United States that was not done during wartime.

About 16 percent of households received a "long form" of the 2000 census. It had over 100 questions.

Other websites 

 Census 2000 gateway
 Population Profile of the United States: 2000
 Population Profile Introductory slide show, in MS Powerpoint format
 State and County QuickFacts , the most requested information
 American FactFinder, for population, housing, economic, and geographic data
 How the Census Works via Howstuffworks.com

Census
United States Census
Police procedural

A police procedural is a type of crime story. In a police procedural, the main characters are police officers. The story usually shows how they solve crimes with teamwork, using their specialised knowledge of criminals and the city or other area where they are.

Police procedurals have always been popular on television. Some of the best-known TV shows of this type are Dragnet, Law & Order, Hill Street Blues, NYPD Blue, Criminal Minds and The Shield.

Movie terminology
Television programs
Crime fiction
List of U.S. states by population density



Population density - showing population and land area per square miles

Related pages
 List of U.S. states by population

Other websites 
 States by population -- JULY 2005 . United States Census Bureau. September 29, 2006.
 GCT-PH1-R. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2000 . United States Census Bureau. Last accessed September 29, 2006.

Population density, List of U.S. states by
Girth

Girth is the circumference of a cylindrical object, such as a tree trunk.

Girth is sometimes used by postal services and delivery companies as basis for pricing. For example, (for at least one delivery company), if one has a box to ship, it has three sides: length (the longest side) and height and width. The girth in this case is 2 * (height + width).

Geometry
Circumference

In geometry, circumference is the distance around a closed curve; for example, a circle. It is a special kind of perimeter. The length of the circumference of a circle is often written as , with:

where d is the diameter of the circle.

Related pages 

 Radius
 Pi

References

Other websites 

 Numericana - Circumference of an ellipse
Circumference of a circle With interactive applet and animation

Geometry
Girth (tack)

A girth is a piece of equipment for riding a horse, used to keep the saddle in place.
 

Horse riding

ru:Конская упряжь
Lusatian Neisse

The Lusatian Neisse is a river in the Czech Republic (Lužická Nisa), Germany (Lausitzer Neiße) and Poland (Nysa Łużycka). It flows into the Oder and is part of the Oder-Neisse line.

Other websites

Geography of Brandenburg
Geography of Saxony
Rivers of the Czech Republic
Rivers of Germany
Rivers of Poland
Anton Rubinstein

Anton Rubinstein (born Vikhvatinets 28 November 1829; died Petershof 20 November 1894) was a Russian pianist and composer.  Rubinstein and Franz Liszt were thought to be the greatest pianists of the 19th century.  He was very important as a teacher and influenced many Russian musicians.  He composed lots of music, although hardly any of it is heard nowadays.  As a composer he is best remembered today by a little piece of piano music called “Melody in F”.

History

First concert 
Rubinstein gave his first piano concert when he was ten.  Between 1840 and 1843 his piano teacher took him on long concert tours of Europe.  He met Chopin and Liszt and was received in London by Queen Victoria.   Between 1844 and 1846 the family lived in Berlin.  His friends there included Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer.

Lessons 
In 1846 his father died and Anton went to Vienna where he gave piano lessons to try to earn some money.  When he returned to Russia in 1848 the tsar’s sister-in-law let him live in her palace.  He played for lots of parties.  Often the tsar came.

Tours 
In 1854 he toured Europe again.  Then he returned to Russia.  He wanted to improve music education in Russia so he started the Russian Musical Society and then he started the St Petersburg Conservatory.  During his long career he spent many years as director of the Conservatory as well as conducting concerts.

Compositions 
He wrote a lot of music, but although his compositions often started off with good ideas they often become rather boring.  His opera Tom the fool was not a success.  He was annoyed and wrote an article in a music magazine saying that it was not possible to write operas using Russian stories.  He criticized several composers who were writing music which used Russian folktunes.  This included the composer Mily Balakirev and his friends who were called The Mighty Handful.  He said that they had not learned how to compose properly.

Rubinstein very much wanted to be famous as a composer as well as a teacher, but this made him very narrow-minded.  However, it was as a pianist and conductor that he was important.  He helped to improve the standard of music making in Russia by teaching and performing, and by starting the conservatory in St Petersburg.

1829 births
1894 deaths
Romantic composers
Russian composers
Russian pianists
Classical pianists
Lumber

Lumber (or timber) is wood that has been cut for use in building.

Dimensional lumber
Dimensional lumber is a term used in North America for lumber that is finished/planed and cut to standardized width and depth specified in inches.

Softwoods

Examples of common sizes are 2×4 (also two-by-four and other variants), 2×6, and 4×4.  The length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth. It is thus possible to find 2×4s that are four, eight, or twelve feet in length. In the United States the standard lengths of lumber are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet.

Non-North American sizes

Outside North America sizes of timber vary slightly. Sizes are, in some cases, based on the imperial measurement and referred to as such; in other cases the sizes are too far removed from the imperial size to be referred to by imperial measurement. Lengths can be sold at every 300 mm (a metric approximation of 1'). Common sizes are similar to the North American equivalent; 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.6, 4.2, 4.8, 5.4, 6.0.  But also in running lengths, where each plank in a given packet is different, from  2500mm to 5500mm, though shorter and longer may be present.

Hardwoods

In North America sizes for dimensional lumber made from hardwoods varies from the sizes for softwoods. Boards are usually supplied in random widths and lengths of a specified thickness, and sold by the board-foot (144 cubic inches).

Engineered Lumber
Engineered lumber is lumber created by a manufacturer and designed for a certain structural purpose.

Related pages
 Forestry
 Wood
 Woodworking

Other websites 
 Timber Development Association of NSW - Australia
 CPSC Test coatings to reduce arsenic emissions from pressure treated wood
 TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association
 The Forest Products Laboratory. US main wood products research lab. Madison, WI (E) 
 International Wood Collectors Society
 Xiloteca Manuel Soler (One of the largest private collection of wood samples)

Wood
Forestry
El Puerto de Santa María

El Puerto de Santa María (commonly called El Puerto) is a city on the banks of the Guadalete River in the province of Cádiz, Spain. As of the 2005 census, the city has 82,306 people. 50,000 of these people live in the urban center. The others live in the area around the urban center.

The city of El Puerto de Santa Maria is  northeast of Cadiz across the Bay of Cadiz. It is  best known for its ferry, El Vaporcito, which has been used for 76 years. It takes passengers to and from Cadiz to El Puerto.

History 
In the Odyssey of Homer, legend says that, after the Trojan War, a Greek official named Menestheus escaped with his troops through the Straits of Gibraltar. They got to the Guadalete River and created a port. They called the port Menestheus's port.

In 711, Arab (Moors) from the North of Africa invaded southern Spain. They changed the name to Alcante or Alcanatif. The name means Port of Salt. They chose that name because of the old salt industry of Phoenicians and Romans.

In 1260, Alfonso X of Castile took the city from the Moors. He renamed it Santa María del Puerto. 

Columbus began his second voyage to the New World from El Puerto. His pilot, Juan de la Cosa, created the first map of the world to include the coast of the New World in El Puerto in 1500. In the nineteenth century, the city became the General Headquarters for the French Army during the Spanish War of Independence under the reign of Joseph Bonaparte (1808–1813). The city is has much history, museums and monuments. It is also near the very historical cities of Seville and Cádiz.

Tourism 

El Puerto has a famous bull ring. It dates back to 1880. The bull ring has space for 15,000 to watch. Bull fighting is still enjoyed during the Feria season, which is during the month of August, and during the Feria de la Primavera, which is in early May. This Feria is dedicated to sherry. 180,0000 half bottles of sherry get drunk in 4 days. There are several bodegas in the town centre. All of these can be visited by the public. The most famous bodega is the Osborne and Terry Bodegas. They export sherry and brandy worldwide . In the cellars in El Puerto, sherry is made using the traditional method called “solera”. This method makes the pale dry sherries to the sweet Muscatel sherry, Amontillados and the older Olorosos.

Local food 
El Puerto is a very good place to taste local tapas and seafood, for which it is famous. Food is an important reason why many tourists go to El Puerto de Santa Maria. The Bay of Cadiz is famous for its fresh fish. The fish and plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables lead to very good restaurant menus. There are many different types of places to eat all in walking distance in the town centre.

Other websites 

Cultural Information of the Monuments and Museums of El Puerto de Santa María
360º Panoramic walk of El Puerto de Santa Maria 

Province of Cádiz
Municipalities in Andalusia
Bearing (mechanical)

A bearing is a device to permit fixed direction motion between two parts, typically rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be broadly grouped by the way they work. The most common of the many types are plain bearings and rolling-element bearings. 

The two main types of rolling-element bearings are ball bearings and roller bearings. In ball bearings, the rolling elements are spherical balls. In roller bearings, the rolling elements are cylindrical, taper or spherical rollers. Ball bearings are shown in the pictures.

Other websites 

 Comprehensive article on bearings   
How Bearings Work - Animations and functioning
 How Bearings Work -  - Animations on www.mechanismen.be
 Early Bearing Failure Detection  - Case study
 Catalogs, CAD files and more Bearings information from Bosch Rexroth

Mechanical engineering
Bush (mechanical)

A bush is a mechanical fixing between two, possibly moving, parts, or a strengthened fixing point where one mechanical assembly is attached to another.

In a car or other vehicle's suspension, bushes are used to connect the various moving arms and pivot points to the chassis and other parts of the suspension. In machines, bushes provide mechanical strength to the rotor.

Other websites 
 Catalogs, CAD files and more Linear Bushings information from Bosch Rexroth

Hardware (mechanical)
Suspension (vehicle)

Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages.  The suspension acts as an intermediate between the car and the road and solves several problems:  

 Transfer to the frame or body of forces and moments arising from the interaction of wheels with the road surface;  
 Link wheels with body or frame;
 Provides the necessary for the normal movement of the position of the wheels relative to the frame or body and the road;
 Ensures acceptable running smoothness, compensates for uneven pavement.

So a car suspension is not just a set of components for connecting wheels and body or frame, but a complex system that makes normal and comfortable movement on car driving.

Springs 
Springs are elastic elements of a car suspension that work in conjunction with shock absorbers. The main functions of the springs are:
maintaining vehicle clearance under increased loads;
ensuring reliable tire contact with the road surface;
supporting and even distribution of vehicle weight;
exclude transmission of vibrations and other effects on the car body.

Shock absorbers  
Shock absorbers, as a damping element of a modern suspension, convert vibrational energy into heat. The amount of energy absorbed depends on the mass of the car, the stiffness of the spring and the vibration frequency.
The principle of operation of dampers is based on the displacement of fluid by a piston through special holes. In various modes, fluid is displaced through openings of different diameters. Due to this, the oscillations are absorbed both during compression and during rebound. As a result, these car suspension parts provide:
vehicle traffic safety;
control of the movement of the spring and suspension;
efficient car control;
axial braking force balance;
prevention of early tire wear;
monitoring of tire contact with the road surface;
control of swinging and oscillations about the vertical axis;
decrease in wearing of knots and units of the car.

Linkages 
Using these elements, the suspension parts are fastened together, and also the suspension is attached to the body or frame of the car. The fasteners can be either a regular bolted connection (like other types of rigid joints), or a connection using special elastic elements - rubber-metal hinges (or silent-blocks).

References

Other websites 
 Shock Absorbers
 The Suspension Bible 

Engineering
Suzuki method

The Suzuki method, (or Talent Education, or the Mother Tongue method, or the Suzuki movement) is a way of teaching. It teaches people to be morally better through a caring environment. It normally uses a musical instrument such as the violin or piano to do this. It can also use other musical instruments like the flute, recorder, piano, guitar, cello, viola, bass, organ, harp and voice. The Suzuki method uses the same environment that people have when they learn their mother-tongue. This means that each student sees and hears music and good moral character all of the time. Other people tell them that they will do well. The students learn one thing at a time. They learn new things when they are ready. The term "Suzuki method" is also used to mean only the Suzuki sheet music books and songs.

It was created in Japan in the mid-20th century by Dr. Shin'ichi Suzuki. He was a violinist who wanted to bring some beauty to the lives of children in his country after World War II. Dr. Suzuki saw that all children learn their own language very quickly. Even dialects which adults thought were hard to learn are spoken with ease by 5 or 6-year-old children. He thought that if a person can speak their mother tongue, then they can learn to play a musical instrument. He came up with the idea that any pre-school age child could begin to play the violin.

Just as a child learns to speak before reading, Suzuki students learn by ear and generally only learn to read sheet music at a much later age.

Suzuki students will always play with a "beautiful tone and a beautiful heart".

Other websites 
 International Suzuki Association
 Suzuki Association of the Americas

Music education
Constituent (linguistics)

In syntactic analysis, a constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as one unit within a hierarchical structure.

Phrases (noun phrases, verbal phrases, etc.) are usually constituents of a clause, but clauses may also be combined into a bigger structure.  For example, in the phrase "I didn't hear what you said," the subordinate clause "what you said" is combined into the main clause and is syntactically its object; this can be demonstrated by substituting the pronoun "it" for the subordinate clause "I didn't hear it."

Linguistics
Spindle (textiles)

A spindle (sometimes called a drop spindle) is a wooden spike (or shaft) that has at one end a weight, mostly a circular whorl.

Sometimes it has a hook at either end of the spike. It is used for spinning wool and other fibres into thread. Spindles or parts of them have been found in very, very old archaeological sites; they may represent one of the earliest pieces of technology available to humankind.

Other websites 
 Directions for making a handspindle using CDs 
 How to spin with a handspindle 

Tools
Fibers
Textile arts
Flywheel

A flywheel is a heavy disk or wheel that is attached to a rotating shaft. Flywheels are used for storage of kinetic energy. The momentum of the flywheel causes it to not change its rotational speed easily. Because of this, flywheels help to keep the shaft rotating at the same speed. This helps when the torque applied to the shaft changes often. Uneven torque can change the speed of rotation. Because the flywheel resists changes in speed, it decreases the effects of uneven torque. Engines which use pistons to provide power usually have uneven torque and use flywheels to fix this problem.

It takes energy to get a wheel (any wheel) to rotate. If there is little friction (good bearings) then it will keep rotating a long time. When energy is needed, it can be taken from the wheel again. So it is a simple mechanical means of storing energy. The amount of energy stored is a function of the weight and the speed of rotation - making a heavier wheel rotate faster takes more energy. Another factor is the radius (size) because the farther from the axis a part of the wheel is, the more energy it takes to make is rotate. These three factors can be represented by M (mass),  (angular velocity), and R (radius). Combining the two equations below gives 2MR2/4. A fly-wheel is not just any wheel, but specifically designed to store energy. So it should be heavy and/or rotate fast. For example, some buses have a fly-wheel that is used for stopping and starting. When the bus stops (e.g. for a traffic light), the fly-wheel is connected to the wheels, so the rotational energy is transferred to it, so the bus will slow down while the fly-wheel speeds up. Then, when the bus has to start driving again, it is connected again and the energy is transferred back. Of course, you wouldn't want to lug a heavy wheel around on a bus, so it is made of a lighter material that can withstand extremely fast rotation.

Mathematics of flywheels 
The kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel is

Where the moment of inertia of center mass is equal to

where  is the moment of inertia of the mass about the center of rotation and  (omega) is the angular velocity in radian units.

History 
The flywheel has been used since ancient times, the most common traditional example being the potter's wheel. In the Industrial Revolution, James Watt contributed to the development of the flywheel in the steam engine, and his contemporary James Pickard used a flywheel.

Other meanings 
In the world of venture capital, the term "flywheel" is used to represent the recurrent, margin-generating heart of a business.

Energy
Engineering
Potter's wheel

The potter's wheel, also known as the potter's lathe, is a machine used in the shaping of round ceramic wares. 

However, the name potter's lathe is also used for the machine used for another shaping process, turning, which is similar to that used for the shaping of metal and wood articles. The wheel may also be used during the process of trimming excess body from dried wares and for applying incised decoration or rings of colour.

History 
Many early ceramics were hand-built using a simple coiling technique in which clay body was rolled into long threads that were then pinched and beaten together to form the body of a vessel. In the coiling method of construction, all of the energy required to form the main part of a piece is supplied directly by the hands of the potter. This changed with the introduction of the fast-wheel, early forms of which used energy stored in the rotating mass of the heavy stone wheel itself.

The potter's wheel in myth and legend 
In Ancient Egyptian mythology, the god Chnum was said to have formed the first humans on a potter's wheel.

The potter's wheel in literature 
The way in which clay is shaped on a potter's wheel seems, even today, to have a magical quality to it; the clay body has the appearance of being a living thing that is being created or shaped by the potter. The potter and clay have long served as a metaphor for creation, and for the relationship of God to humankind:

But now, O LORD, thou art our father; we are the clay, and thou our potter; and we all are the work of thy hand.
–Isaiah 64:8

The "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam" make sustained use of this metaphor. In FitzGerald's translation, a number of quatrains are collected into a Book of Pots, in which the pots engage in theological speculation:

  And, strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot
      Some could articulate, while others not:
  And suddenly one more impatient cried–
      “Who is the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?”
 
  Another said–“Why, ne'er a peevish Boy,
       “Would break the Bowl from which he drank in Joy;
  “Shall He that made the vessel in pure Love
      “And Fancy, in an after Rage destroy?”
    
  None answer'd this; but after Silence spake
      A Vessel of a more ungainly Make:
  “They sneer at me for leaning all awry;
      “What! did the Hand then of the Potter shake?”

Related pages
Pottery

Other websites 
 The Origins of the Potter's Wheel  multi-page article on Ceramics Today site
 Video of a potter on a potter's wheel shaping clay to form a bottle 

Pottery
Metaphors
Nikolai Rubinstein

Nikolai Grigoryevich Rubinstein (born Moscow, 2 June 1835; died Paris, 23 March 1881) was a Russian pianist and composer. He was the younger brother of Anton Rubinstein and a close friend of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky.

The Rubinstein family were middle-class Jewish people. Like his brother Anton, Nikolai soon showed great talent as a pianist. The family spent some time in Europe including three years in Berlin where they made friends with Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer.

Anton founded (started) the famous Conservatoire in St Petersburg where students could study music. Nikolai co-founded the Conservatoire in Moscow with Prince Nikolai Petrovitch Troubetzkoy. Both brothers were directors of the Conservatoires they had founded.

During his lifetime Nikolai Rubinstein was thought of as one of the greatest pianists of his time. As pianists the two brothers were very different. Anton was very fiery like Franz Liszt. Nikolai was quieter and more thoughtful, preferring lyrical Romantic music.

Anton liked to compose in the same way as composers from Western Europe. He was critical of Russian composers like Mily Balakirev and others from the group called The Mighty Handful who tried to make their music very Russian. Nikolai was much more broad-minded. He supported Balakirev and his group. He was a great friend of Tchaikovsky and encouraged him much more than his brother Anton had done. Nevertheless, he still criticised Tchaikovsky’s First Piano Concerto. He said he would not play it until Tchaikovsky had changed it. Tchaikovsky refused to change it. Years later Nikolai decided he liked it after all.

Although Nikolai wanted to be a successful composer he was aware that he was not a great one. When asked why he did not compose more he once replied that his brother “composed enough music for three”.

Nikolai died in Paris while on his way to Nice where he had wanted to improve his health. He always liked his food and on his deathbed he ate twelve oysters. Tchaikovsky wrote his Piano Trio in A minor in Rubinstein's memory.

Among his most popular works are his Tarantella in G minor and the Fantasia on a Theme by Schumann, both for piano solo.

Russian composers
Romantic composers
Russian pianists
1835 births
1881 deaths
Okinawan language

The Okinawan language (沖縄口, Uchināguchi) is a Ryukyuan language that is spoken in the Okinawa Islands of Japan.

Most linguists say that it branched off from Proto-Japonic, which is the ancestor of Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages. The Japanese government says Okinawan is a dialect of Japanese because of politics.

History 
When a group of people called the Yayoi came into the Ryukyu Islands, they brought over a language called Proto-Japonic. This language over time turned into the modern Ryukyuan languages. Proto-Japonic was also spoken in mainland Japan, which turned into Japanese, meaning Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages are related/have the same origin.

Okinawan and other Ryukyuan languages were discriminated by Japan during the Meiji period, making the number of speakers go down. Before that, Okinawan was the official language of the Ryukyu Kingdom.

Classification 
Okinawan belongs to the Ryukyuan languages. It is in the northern group with both Kunigami and Amami. Sometimes, Kunigami is listed as a dialect of Okinawan but that view is rare.

Speakers 
Most older Okinawans speak Okinawan while younger Okinawans speak Japanese. This is why UNESCO lists Okinawan and the other Ryukyuan languages as “endangered”, meaning it’s possible for the language to die out in the future.

Sound Changes (Japanese vs. Okinawan) 
There are many sound changes between Japanese (Standard) and Okinawan (Shuri-Naha variety):

Japanese “o” - Okinawan “u” (Okinawa = Uchinaa)

Japanese “k” - Okinawan “ch” (Okinawa = Uchinaa)

Japanese “mi” - Okinawan “nn” (minato = nnatu)

Similar sound changes are in other Ryukyuan languages. Kunigami also uses “u” instead of Japanese “o”.

Sample words

Mensooree () - Welcome, Hello (when receiving)
Hai (はい) - Hello (gender neutral)
Haisai () - Hello (male only)
Haitai () - Hello (female only)
Ganjyuu () - Fine health (in greeting)
Uchinaaguchi () - Okinawan language
Uchinaanchu (沖縄人/うちなーんちゅ) - Okinawan person
Yamatunchu () - Japanese person
Yuntaku ()  - Talking
Waa () - Informal me or I
Wan () - Formal me or I
Iyaa () - Informal You
Unjyoo () - Formal you
Un, uu () - Yes
Aibiran () - No
Furaa () - Foolish
Yinagu () - Woman
Yikiga () - Man
Warabaa, Warabi () - Children
Uya () - Parents
Kwa () - A child ( as opposed to Parents)
Niisee () - A young man
Boujya () - A baby
In () - A dog    
In-gwa () - Puppy
Mayaa () - A cat
Mayaa-gwa () - Kitty
Hiijyaa (ひーじゃー) - A goat
Uchinaa (うちなー) - Okinawa
Yamatu (やまとっ) - Japan
Too (とー) - China
Chooshin (ちょーしん) - Korea
Uranda (うらんだ) - Europe
Dake (岳) - Mountain

References

Japonic languages
Languages of Asia
Ryukyu Islands

Ryukyuan languages
Imbolc

Imbolc is a festival belonging to Brigid, the Celtic goddess who, in later times, became famous as a Christian saint. At first, her festival on February 1 was known as "Imbolc" or "Oimelc", two Gaelic names which refer to the lactation of the ewes. Lactation is the flow of milk that happens when the baby lambs are born in the spring, and Gaelic languages are those spoken in countries like Ireland and Scotland.

Imbolc was, and still is, a time to celebrate that winter would soon be over. Sometimes in Ireland, the first flowers are coming up at the time of this festival, even when there is still snow on the ground.

Later, the Roman Catholic Church replaced this festival with Candlemas Day on February 2, a day that now belongs to the Virgin Mary. On this day, people may have ceremonies or processions  by candlelight - walking together in the dark, with the only light coming from candles they carry. The may also sing songs to Brigid, or say poems or prayers to her.

In both Pagan and Christian celebrations, Brigid is celebrated as a powerful female figure, who brings light, inspiration, and healing to the world.

Scotland
Festivals in the United Kingdom
Festivals in Ireland
Religious festivals
Baseball (ball)

A baseball is a ball used in the sport of the same name, baseball. It is between 9 inches (22.9 cm) and 9¼ inches (23.5 cm) in circumference (around). The ball weighs 8 ounces. Different size balls may be used in children's leagues. 

The balls can be made in many different, but similar ways. The center of most balls is cork, rubber, or a mixture of the two. It is sometimes layered. Yarn and twine and sometimes wool are wrapped around the center core. A leather cover is put on, in two pieces, and stitched together using 108 stitches of waxed red cotton thread. Official Major League balls sold by Rawlings are made to the exact MLB specifications (5 ounces, 108 stitches).

Baseball equipment
Battle of Worcester

The Battle of Worcester was the final battle of the English Civil War. Oliver Cromwell and the Parliamentarians defeated the Royalist, mainly Scottish, forces of King Charles II on September 3, 1651 at Worcester, England. The 16,000 Royalist forces were defeated by the 28,000 strong "New Model Army" of Cromwell.

Other websites 
Battleground pictures
 Worcestershire CC: Historic Environment and Archaeology Service: The Battle of Worcester 
http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/military/1651-worcester.htm 
http://www.clangarra.com/battle%20-%20worcester.htm 

Worcester
Worcester
1651
17th century in England
September events
1650s in Europe
Worcester
James Marsters

James Marsters (born August 20, 1962) is an American guitarist, singer, comic book writer, audiobook narrator, and actor. He is known for playing the part of Spike on Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

Other websites 

 
 James Marsters Official Site 

1962 births
Living people
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American television actors
Whedonverse
Actors from California
Musicians from California
American blues musicians
Country musicians
Singers from California
Emma Caulfield

Emma Caulfield (born Emma Chukker in San Diego, California on April 8, 1973) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as ex-demon Anya on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

Selected filmography
In her mother's footsteps (2006) (Television movie)
Bandwagon  (2004)
I Want To Marry Ryan Banks  (2004)
Darkness Falls (2003)
Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series) (1999–2003)
General Hospital (TV series) (1996–1997)

Other websites 

1973 births
Living people
American television actors
Whedonverse
Actors from San Diego, California
Michelle Trachtenberg

Michelle Christine Trachtenberg (born October 11, 1985) is an American television and movie actress. She is best known for her role as Dawn Summers from the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Trachtenberg was born in New York City, New York. She is of Russian Jewish descent on her mother's side of the family.

Career 
Trachtenberg has been acting since 1988 at the age of three. She has acted in several television shows and many movies.

Movies

Television

Other websites 

 

1985 births
Living people
Trachtenberg, Michelle
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Actors from New York City
Trachtenberg, Michelle
Summer Glau

Summer Glau (born July 24, 1981 in San Antonio, Texas) is an American dancer and actress. She is best known for playing as River Tam in the science fiction television series Firefly and movie Serenity.

Career 
Glau has appeared in several other series and movies including:
Television
 Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles
 Angel
 The 4400
 The Unit
 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
 The Cape
Movies
 Sleepover
 Mammoth

In February 2007, it was announced that Glau would be playing a role of Cameron Phillips in The Sarah Connor Chronicles, a spin-off of the Terminator series of movies. This character is a Terminator infiltration unit sent back to protect John Connor and Sarah Connor from Skynet.

Personal life 
Summer Glau has been in a relationship with Cooper Gross. She is currently married to Val Morrison and has two children.

Related pages 
 Firefly
 Serenity

References

Other websites 

 Fansite - Summer Glau Wiki

1981 births
Living people
American movie actors
American dancers
Whedonverse
American television actors
Actors from San Antonio, Texas
Band (anthropology)

In anthropology, bands are the tiniest societies, consisting typically of 5-80 people, most or all of them close relatives by birth or by marriage. In effect, a band is an extended family or several related extended families. Today, autonomous bands are almost confined to the most remote parts of New Guinea and Amazonia, but there were many others that have only recently fallen under state control or been assimilated or exterminated. They include many or most African Pygmies, southern African San hunter-gatherers (so-called Bushmen), Aboriginal Australians, Eskimos (Inuit), and Native Americans of some resource-poor areas of the Americas such as Tierra del Fuego and the northern boreal forests; all these modern bands are or were nomadic hunter-gatherers rather than settled food producers.  Until at least 40,000 years ago, probably all humans lived in bands, and most still did as recently as 11,000 years ago. 

Bands have no permanent single base of residence, instead land is used jointly by the whole group, as opposed to being partitioned among subgroups or individuals. There is no regular economic specialization, except by age and sex: all able-bodied individuals forage for food. There are no formal institutions, such as laws, police, and treaties, to resolve conflicts within and between bands. Organization is often described as "egalitarian" in the sense that there is no formalized social stratification into upper and lower classes, no formalized or hereditary leadership, and no formalized monopolies of information and decision making. However, this definition of egalitarian should not be taken to mean that there is equality in prestige and the decision-making process among band members. Instead "leadership" should be thought of as informal and acquired through qualities such as personality, strength, intelligence, and fighting skills.

Our closest biological relatives, the gorillas and chimpanzees and bonobos of Africa, also live in bands. All humans presumably did so too, until improved technology for extracting food allowed some hunter-gatherers to settle in permanent dwellings in some resource-rich areas. The band is the political, economic, and social organization that we inherited from our millions of years of evolutionary history. Our developments beyond it took place within the last few tens of thousands of years.

relationships
Infertility

Infertile means not able to have children or other offspring. Humans can be infertile, but animals and plants can too. When a human couple is infertile, they sometimes have fertility treatment to have children. This can be insemination or IVF. They also sometimes adopt a child.

Related pages
Fertility
Sexual reproduction
Pregnancy

Other websites 
 SexInfo's Assisted Reproductive Technology  This article discusses Artificial Insemination, In Vitro Fertilization, and other options for couples who are having trouble conceiving.

Biological reproduction
Betrayal

Betrayal is when a person breaks the trust and faith of others that trust them. 

In an article made by Rodger L. Jackson, it says that "there is not much definition for this word". In psychology, they say betrayal is the breaking of a social (friendship) related things. But for some people, for example, philosophers called Judith Shklar and Peter Johnson, a person can understand the word better by literature (writings).

Betrayal trauma
Betrayal trauma happens when someone that a person trusts betrays their trust, and it messes up their memory because of anger. An example of betrayal trauma is childhood physical or childhood problems. Betrayal trauma is similar to post traumatic stress disorder. The difference is that post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is made by fear. Betrayal trauma makes a person fight, and also get into serious crimes for example, discrimination or bullying.
ethics
Destruction

Destruction may refer to:

 The act of destroying something.
Slighting, the act of damaging an important building
 Destruction (band), a German thrash metal band
 Destruction (DC Comics), one of the Endless in Neil Gaiman's comic book series The Sandman
 Destruction Bay, Yukon, Canada
 a magic art in the computer role-playing game series The Elder Scrolls
 Appetite for Destruction, the breakthrough debut album of rock n' roll band Guns N' Roses

Basic English 850 words
Crane (machine)

A crane is a lifting machine that has hoists, wire ropes and sheaves on it.  It can be used both to raise and lower things or to move them left and right. Cranes are often used in the construction industry (building houses or buildings) and in creating or moving heavy things.

Other websites 
Knots, hitches and bends 
VRML Simulation of an Excavator, Tower Crane, and Dumptruck 

Machines