alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Arab Christians

Arab Christians are people who speak Arabic or of Arabic-speaking origin and have the religion of Christianity.

Most Christian Arabs live in the Middle East, where Islam is the biggest religion. The largest number of Arab Christians are in Egypt (around 8 millions). Many Arabs have emigrated from the Middle East in modern times. In some places such as the Americas, a big number of these Arabs are Christians. In Brazil, there are more than 12 million Arabs, and most of these people are Christian.

History 
Arab Christians faced significant persecution with the Muslim conquests of Christian countries after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Conversion was often required for those who could not pay a substantial tax known as the 'jizya'. Furthermore, during various periods in the history of the Islamic world, Arab Christians were subject to at times brutal and humiliating persecution. Despite this, many Christians chose not to change their religion to Islam. Instead, they kept Christianity as their belief. Muslims call them the "People of the Book" (with Jews).

In the early 21st century, persecution of Christians area increased.  In most countries they are required to obey Islamic "Shari'ah" law.  In some countries, notably Egypt, political approval is required for the construction or renovation of a church - such restrictions are not present in the construction of Mosques. Countries in the Arabian Gulf, most notably Saudi Arabia, do not allow for the construction of churches or the public practice of Christianity - although that is slowly changing in progressive areas like the UAE. Coptic Christians in Egypt continue to face significant discrimination in the workplace and have a hard time reaching to the upper echelons in universities, corporations, and government offices.

Arab Christians have been around before Arab Muslims. This is because there were many Arab tribes that became Christians since the first century. They were the Nabateans (whose ancestors were Aramean) and the Ghassanids (who were of Qahtani origin and spoke Yemeni-Arabic and Greek). They protected the south-eastern parts of the Byzantine Empire in north Arabia.

Arab Christians made important contributions to the Arab world, and they still do. Some of the best poem writers at certain times were Arab Christians, and many Arab Christians were doctors, writers, government staff, and people who knew a lot about literature.

Notes 

Arab people
Synthesizer

A musical synthesizer is an instrument that uses electricity to make musical sounds. They are the main instrument for making electronic music. Many synthesizers have a keyboard like that of a piano. When playing a piano keyboard, sounds are made by hitting soft hammers against strings pulled very tight. When playing a synthesizer keyboard, sounds are made by turning electrical oscillators on and off. Since "synthesizer" is such a big word, the word is usually shortened to "synth".

How synthesizers work 

An oscillator is something that "vibrates", or repeats the same pattern. The pendulum of a clock, for example, is a very slow oscillator. A piano string "oscillates" when struck by a hammer.

Electric oscillators might be made using transistors. They turn electricity into electrical patterns, or signals, that repeat over and over. When different keys are pressed, different notes are heard. This is done by making the signal from the oscillator repeat at different rates. 

The signal can be boosted in strength and sent straight to a loudspeaker. But the sound of a simple signal can be boring after a while. Sounds can be made more interesting in many ways.

For example
 Signals are often shaped by changing how fast they get loud and then soft again. This method, called "ADSR", helps synthesizers to sound more like older instruments — pianos, trumpets, flutes, and so on.
 The signals from several different oscillators may be combined. This helps to make a richer sound.
 The signal can then be sent to one or more filters. Filters are used to take away parts of the signal. For example, they might make the signal sound "brighter" or "duller", "soft" or "harsh".
 Many synthesizers use special oscillators called "LFOs". For example, an LFO might control how loud and soft the signal is, or control the pitch of the signal. An LFO might even control the actions of the filters.

By combining many of these methods, synths can now sound very much like older instruments. For one example, special synths called "drum synths" are used just to make the sounds a drummer might make. Synths can also make many new sounds never heard before.

In the early 2000s, computers got fast enough so "software synths" could be made. These are computer programs designed to look and work like a synth. They tend to be less expensive, so more can be used. Most of these programs can be downloaded for free, however this may be illegal.

There are special tools available to play synths. For example, a thing called a "wind controller" lets players of wind instruments use their special skills. But there is still a need for more ways to control synths to make them more expressive.

Other websites 
 Sonic State describing 3000 models of Synthesizers
 Analog & Digital Synthesizers museum  - Synthesizers database, resources, user reviews, pictures
 Vintage Synth Explorer - facts and photos of hundreds of old and new synths
 The history of Electronic Music
 120 years of Electronic Music 

Electronic musical instruments
Audio technology
John Foxe

John Foxe (1516/1517 – 18 April 1587), is remembered as the author of Foxe's Book of Martyrs.

Education and Resignation from Oxford 
Foxe was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, England into a prominent family. In 1535 Foxe was admitted to Magdalen College School. He became a fellow in July 1539.
Foxe resigned from his college in 1545, after referring to it as "a prison." During his time at Oxford he became an evangelical, meaning that he converted to Protestant beliefs not accepted by the Church of England under Henry VIII. As he wanted to leave Oxford, Foxe looked to other evangelicals for help but received only advice and a little money. Foxe married Agnes Randall on February 3, 1547.

Life in London under Edward VI 
With the death of Henry VIII in January 1547 Foxe's prospects (and those of the evangelical cause generally) changed for the better. Foxe was ordained deacon by Nicholas Ridley on June 24, 1550.

Marian Exile 
In the fall of 1554 Foxe moved to Frankfurt, where he lived with Anthony Gilby in the English colony of Protestant refugees.
Foxe then removed to Basel where he lived and worked with John Bale and Lawrence Humphrey.

Return to England 
In 1559, when Mary I had died Foxe returned to England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, in the house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard. Foxe started publishing works of religious controversy and worked on a new martyrology, which would become the Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
Foxe was ordained priest by Edmund Grindal, now Bishop of London, on January 25, 1560, and he moved to Norwich to live with its bishop, John Parkhurst. On March 23 of the following year the first edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs was published.

Foxe was one of the earliest students of Anglo-Saxon, and he and Day published an edition of the Saxon gospels with the help of Archbishop Parker.

Foxe died on 8 April 1587 and was buried at St. Giles's, Cripplegate.

References

Other websites 

 Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Actes and Monuments) Variorum Edition Online , from the Humanities Research Institute of The University of Sheffield
 Thomas Freeman, John Foxe: A Biography 

1516 births
1587 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Boston, Lincolnshire
English historians
British Protestants
Christian ministers
Writers from Lincolnshire
Evangelicalism



The word evangelicalism refers to a type of Christian belief and practice in conservative Protestant Christianity, although some Catholic Christians would also call themselves evangelicals.

Evangelicals believe in spreading their faith, (evangelism), the need to be converted, also called being born again, believing what is in the Bible and the need to live a moral life both personally and in society.  In the past 200 years, people, churches and social movements have often been called evangelical.  This is different from Protestant liberalism although they may share some of the same goals.

Outside the United States, the word evangelical can mean different things. In Europe and Latin America the word evangelical is often used to simply mean Protestant, as different from Roman Catholic religion. Some Christian denominations have the word evangelical as part of their official name.  This may indicate that they are more conservative than other denominations with a similar name.

In 2016, there were thought to be about 619 million evangelicals in the world, meaning that one in four Christians would be an evangelical. The United States has many evangelicals. American evangelicals are about one fourth of the nation's population and its largest religious group. There are also many evangelicals in Latin America, Africa, China and Korea. Evangelicals make up most of the  Baptist churches, Pentecostals, a portion of Methodists, Presbyterians and other older denominations, and many independent Christian churches that do not belong to any larger group.

Billy Graham was probably the best known evangelical of the last 100 years. He preached all around the world.

References

Other websites 

 World Evangelical Alliance - list of evangelical organizations from various nations 
 Barna Research Group
920s



Births 
 925: Ferdowsi حکیم ابوالقاسم فردوسی توسی (died 1020), Persian poet
910s

The 910s was a decade that began on 1 January 910 and ended on 31 December 919.

Events
 construction begins on the first church at the monastery of Cluny
Canopic jar

Canopic jars were used to store the internal organs of a mummy in Ancient Egypt. The lid had the head of a baboon, human, falcon or a jackal—representing the sons of Horus. These jars were used to store organs which were removed from a dead person, these were the stomach, the intestine, the liver and the lungs, because they were thought to be use less in the afterlife.They only did the mummyfication process to important people. The jars were placed in the tombs with the bodies.

Names: imesty the (human), Duamutef (Jackal), Hapi (Baboon), Qebehsenuf (Falcon) .

Death customs
Ancient Egypt
Containers
Fellow

A fellow is a member of a group of learned people who work together at university or other academic institutions.  However, there are no precise rules for how the title is used, and each academic institution grants the title as it sees fit.

Other websites 

 Nationally Coveted College Scholarships, Graduate Fellowships and Postdoctoral Awards

Colleges and universities
Millipede

Millipedes are a very long type of arthropod. Millipedes are segmented. Most have between 20 and over 100 segments, and have flattened bodies. Except for the first few segments, each segment has 2 pairs of legs, as a result of each segment being the fusing (coming together) of two.

So far, about 12,000 different species of millipedes have been described. with 10,000 identified, and there is an estimated 80,000 total species of millipede on Earth. The animals are detrivores, they eat what is left over from plants.

Most of the time, their food is decaying leaves and other dead plant matter. Millipedes are not poisonous, but many species have glands capable of producing irritating fluids that may cause allergic reactions in some individuals. This protects them from being constantly eaten because of their slow movement. Generally, they are not a pest, although young seedlings in greenhouses can be sometimes eaten by these creatures. Xenobolus carnifex is known for its common infestation of thatched roofs in India. Several species swarm houses and farms, causing damage.

Some millipedes have fangs that allow them to directly prey on plants.

The primary defense mechanism of millipedes is to roll up into a spiral-shaped circle, protecting their more delicate organs from being hurt by an armor-like skin. Millipedes can secrete liquids that can burn their predators for protection.

Bristly millipedes lack armor-like skin, and instead have bristles (small spiky hairs) that protect them from insects, like detaching a bristle when it goes through the body of an ant.

They can easily be told apart from centipedes because centipedes move faster, have only have one pair of legs per segment, and eat animals instead of just plants, although a very small amount of millipede species are omnivores, feeding on insects, earthworms, or snails.

Scientists who study millipedes are called diplopodologists, and the scientific study (like astronomy or biology) of millipedes is known as diplopodology.

A millipede species, Pneumodesmus newmani, was the first animal species to live constantly on land that lived 428 million years ago.

Habitat 
Millipedes are the most common in temperate, wet deciduous forests, but are also often found in coniferous forests and high-altitude alpine environments, some species live in deserts, and even fewer in caves. Many live under stones, fallen leaves, and in woodpiles, plus other dark damp locations in forests.

Some species of bristly millipedes have been known to live in the common small cracks of tree bark.

Millipedes and People 
Millipedes, due to their herbivore (plant-eating) and, with some species, limited omnivore capabilities, do not bite humans, although some of the defensive liquids that they give out might cause minor irritation and burns on human skin. On the eyes, these can be much worse, and direct exposure can lead to very bad problems.

They also appear in various folklore, remedies, and traditional usages around the world.

References

Gallery

Other websites
 

Millipedes
Edwy of England

Edwy All-Fair or Eadwig (940/941 – 1 October 959) was the King of England from 955 until his death. Edwy was the eldest son of King Edmund I and Saint Elgiva. Edwy was chosen in 955 to succeed his uncle Edred as King.

His short reign as King was marked by conflict. He had problems within his family, the Thanes, and the Roman Catholic Church, under the leadership of  Saint Dunstan and Archbishop Odo. Edwy died at the age of eighteen or nineteen, and was succeeded by his rival brother, Edgar, who re-unified the kingdom.

941 births
959 deaths
House of Wessex
People buried in Winchester Cathedral
Oda of Canterbury

Saint Oda or Odo, called the Good or the Severe (d. 958) was a 10th century Archbishop of Canterbury in England.

950s deaths
Archbishops of Canterbury
Christian saints
Magdalen College School, Oxford

Magdalen College School is an independent school for boys. It is on the edge of central Oxford, England. It was founded as part of Magdalen College, Oxford by Thomas Becket in 1480

The school was originally founded by William Waynflete to educate the sixteen boy choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford University who sang in the college's chapel. Important Old Waynfletes include William Tyndale, Sam Mendes, Alex Lennox, Tim Hunt, and Ben Goldacre.

Other websites 
 Magdalen College School website
 ISI inspection report 
 A history of the choristers of Magdalen College School, Oxford 

Schools in England
1480 establishments
15th-century establishments in England
Edward V of England

Edward V (2 November 1470 – 1483) was the King of England from 9 April 1483 until he was removed two months later, on 25 June 1483.

He was believed to have been murdered in 1483, possibly in August or September.

Early life
Edward was born at Westminster while his father, King Edward IV of England, was in exile in Burgundy. The King, Henry VI, said his mother and his sisters would be safe if they stayed at the abbey.  When Edward IV came back and took over the throne again, Edward became his heir and was given the title "Prince of Wales".  Edward IV thought it would be right for the Prince of Wales to rule Wales, so he sent little Prince Edward to live in Ludlow Castle, where the Council of Wales met.  The prince was helped by his uncle, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, and began to learn how to be a ruler. His mother, Queen Elizabeth, was often with him, and his father, the king, also visited.

The prince spent most of his time at Ludlow until he was twelve, when his father the king suddenly died. The prince had to go straight to London to take the throne, and his uncle, Earl Rivers, went with him.  On the way, they were met by another of his uncles, Richard, Duke of Gloucester.  The Duke was a younger brother of King Edward IV, and the king had given him the title of "Lord Protector" in the hope that he would look after Prince Edward until he was old enough to be the real king.

Prisoner
Instead of arranging a coronation for the new king, Duke Richard decided to take the throne for himself, and became King Richard III. He sent Prince Edward to live in the Tower of London and wait for his coronation. He also got Edward's younger brother, Prince Richard, Duke of York, to come and live at the Tower. Earl Rivers was executed by Richard. Gloucester was able to convince people that the two young princes were not the legal heirs to the throne. On 25 June 1483, the Parliament said that Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was the legal king. 
This was because Edward and his other brothers and sisters was declared illegitimate. After Edward IV had died, it was revealed that he had been engaged to a woman named Eleanor Butler, so Edward IV's marriage to his mother Elizabeth Woodville was seen as bigamy.

Missing
After a few months, the two boys disappeared, and what happened to them is still a mystery today.  Most people think that the two boys were murdered. They became known as the Princes in the Tower. It is most likely they were killed by their uncle, Richard III. It is also possible that they were killed by Henry VII, who became king two years later.

In 1674, during building work at the Tower, a wooden chest was found under a staircase in the White Tower. It contained the bones of two young boys. It has never been proved that these are the missing princes, but King Charles II had the bones buried in Westminster Abbey. In 1933 the bones were looked at again by scientists who believed that they were the two princes.

References

1470 births
1483 deaths
House of York
15th century in England
Missing people
Lincolnshire

Lincolnshire  ( or ; abbreviated Lincs) is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Rutland, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, South Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, and (for just 19 metres or 20 yards, England's shortest county boundary) Northamptonshire. Its county town is the ancient city of Lincoln.

Related pages
Grantham
Lincoln

Other websites 
 Lincolnshire County Council website
 Visitlincolnshire.com
 Official Lincolnshire Flag site 
 Lincolnshire Life magazine
 Extremehorizon a local resource for surfing in Lincolnshire
 Lincolnshire Show official website
 History of the Royal Air Force in Lincolnshire

Ceremonial counties of England
Norfolk

Norfolk is a low-lying county in East Anglia in the east of southern England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and with Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast, including The Wash. The county town is Norwich. Norfolk is home to the Norfolk Broads, a famous tourist and wildlife spot.

People from Norfolk 
 Horatio Nelson (1758—1805), the English naval commander, was born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk. 
 Steve Flint (born 1961) in Thetford, at age 19 became, the first Norfolk athlete to run under four minutes for the mile. He did this at the Inter-County Championships in Birmingham on May 26 1980.

References

Other websites 

 Norfolk County Council
 BBC Norfolk
 NorfolkBroads.com
 Guide to Norfolk businesses 
 Norfolk Guide
 Norfolk And Norwich Online 
 Long Stratton Community Forum 
 Wymondham YFC 
 Norfolk Federation of Young Farmers Clubs
 An online guided tour of Norfolk in pictures
 
 Norfolk Photos
 Norfolk Watermills & Windmills

 
Ceremonial counties of England
1974 establishments in England
ISO 3166-2

ISO 3166-2 is part of the ISO 3166 standard. It was made by the International Organization for Standardization. For each country listed in ISO 3166-1, ISO 3166-2 defines its provinces with two or three letter codes, or numbers.

Current codes
Below is a full table of the ISO 3166-2 codes for each country, with three columns:
 Entry — ISO 3166-2 entry for the country, indexed by its ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code
 Country name — English short country name used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA)
 Subdivisions assigned codes — Subdivisions currently given codes in ISO 3166-2; if there are more than one level of subdivisions, the first-level subdivisions are shown in italics

References

Political geography
ISO 3166
Leicestershire

Leicestershire (abbreviated Leics) is a county in central England. It takes its name from the heavily populated City of Leicester, its traditional administrative centre, although the City of Leicester is today administered separately from the rest of Leicestershire. The county borders onto Lincolnshire, Rutland, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire.

Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book.

Other websites 
 Leicester Mercury
 Wartime Leicestershire 
 Official tourism website for Leicester & Leicestershire
 The Jitty, an information site for young people in Leicestershire
 Leicestershire Bands website

 
East Midlands
Ceremonial counties of England
Northamptonshire

Northamptonshire (abbreviated Northants or N'hants) is a county in central England with a population of 629,676 (2001 census). It has borders with Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Cambridgeshire, Peterborough, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire (including the Borough of Milton Keynes), Oxfordshire, and Lincolnshire (England's shortest county boundary: 19 metres). The county town is Northampton.

Northamptonshire has often been called the county of "squires and spires" due to its wide variety of historic buildings and country houses.

Northampton is by far the largest town in the county, with a population of 194,122. This is followed by Corby (53,174), Wellingborough (48,428), Kettering (47,000), Rushden (25,849) and Daventry (22,367). Most of the county's population is concentrated in a central north-south.

Cherwell Edge in Northamptonshire () is near the River Cherwell, north-west of Banbury, England. The once heavily wooded hill and valley was mostly cleared many years ago. The area now also covers the nearby Cherwell Edge Golf Club that was recently built by it too. The golf club is used by various local residents.

Places 

These are the main settlements in Northamptonshire with a town charter, a population over 5,000, or otherwise notable.
 Brackley
 Braunston
 Brixworth
 Corby
 Daventry
 Kettering
 Long Buckby
 Naseby
 Northampton
 Oundle
 Pitsford
 Raunds
 Rothwell
 Rushden
 Silverstone
 Towcester
 Thrapston
 Weedon Bec
 Wellingborough

Two major canals - the Oxford and the Grand Union — join in the county at Braunston.
A branch of the Grand Union Canal connects to the River Nene in Northampton.
Two trunk railway routes, the West Coast Main Line and the Midland Main Line traverse the county.
Before nationalisation of the railways in 1948 and the creation of British Railways, Northamptonshire was home to three of the "Big Four" railway companies; the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, London and North Eastern Railway and Great Western Railway. Only the Southern Railway was not represented.

Related pages
 Aynho
 Aynho House
 King's Sutton
 King's Sutton Railway Station

References

Other websites 

 1894/5 description 
 Northants Forum

 
Ceremonial counties of England
Earl

An Earl (or Jarl) was a title for nobility used by Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians. It originally meant "chieftain" and it referred especially to chieftains set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it stopped being used in the Middle Ages, whereas, in Britain, it became synonymous with the continental count.
In Anglo-Saxon times the title was similar to that of Ealdorman.

Today, an earl is a member of the British peerage, and is below a Marquess, but above a Viscount. A British Earl is the same as a continental Count. Since there is no feminine form of Earl, the wife of an Earl has the rank of Countess (the continental equivalent).

 
Peerages
Spiny lobster

Spiny lobsters, also known as rock lobsters are a family (Palinuridae) of about 45 species of   crustaceans, in the Decapoda Reptantia. Spiny lobsters are also called crayfish, sea crayfish or crawfish.

Although they superficially resemble true lobsters in terms of overall shape, and that they also have a hard carapace and exoskeleton, the two groups are not closely related. Spiny lobsters can be easily distinguished from true lobsters by their very long, thick, spiny antennae, and by their complete lack of claws (chelae); true lobsters have much smaller antennae and claws on the first three pairs of legs, with the first being particularly enlarged. Like true lobsters, however, spiny lobsters are edible and are an economically significant food source; they are the biggest food export of the Bahamas .

Spiny lobsters are found in almost all warm seas, including the Caribbean and the Mediterranean Sea, but are particularly common in Australasia, where they are referred to commonly as crayfish or sea crayfish (Jasus novaehollandiae and Jasus edwardsii), and South Africa (Jasus lalandii). A new species, Palinurus barbarae was described in 2006.

The largest spiny lobster on record was over 1 m (3 ft) long and weighed over 11.8 kg (26 lb).

Spiny lobsters tend to live in crevices of rocks and coral reefs, only occasionally venturing out at night to seek snails, clams, crabs, sea urchins or carrion to eat. Sometimes, they migrate en masse, in long files of lobsters across the sea floor. Potential predators may be deterred from eating spiny lobsters by a loud screech made by the antennae of the spiny lobsters rubbing against a smooth part of the exoskeleton . Spiny lobsters usually exhibit social habit by being together. However recent studies indicate that healthy lobsters move away from infected ones and leaving the diseased lobsters to fend for itself .

The furry lobsters (e.g. Palinurellus) are sometimes separated into a family of their own, the Synaxidae, but are usually considered members of the Palinuridae. The slipper lobsters (Scyllaridae) are their next closest relatives, and these two or three families make up the Achelata. Genera of spiny lobsters include Palinurus and a number of anagrams thereof: Panulirus, Linuparus, etc. (Palinurus was also a helmsman in Virgil's Æneid.)

Related pages
 American lobster

References

Decapods
Bromeliad

Bromeliads are a family of tropical plants which includes the pineapple and several colourful houseplants. They are nearly all from Latin America and the Caribbean islands, except for Spanish moss from the southern United States, and a single kind from Africa.

Well-known kinds of bromeliad
Pineapples (Latin name: Ananas). See Pineapple.

Air plants (Latin name: Tillandsia) are very curious because they do not need any roots to stay alive. Instead they soak up moisture from the air around them through tiny, silvery scales on their leaves. They have so many of these scales that the whole plant can look grey. In the wild they grow on tree banches in rainy and misty areas. In the Caribbean there is a kind that grows on telephone wires!

Urn plants (Latin name: Aechmea) are easy to keep. They grow to about 60 cm across, but because the stiff, green-and-grey leaves have spiny edges, they need to be out of the way. Urn plants got their name because they have a hole in the middle made by the ring-shaped arrangement of their leaves. This central urn fills up with rainwater in the wild and is often home to insects and frogs. Its flowers are held high on a single stem, and protected by a globe of small, pink leaves which lasts for several months.

Vriesias (Latin names: Vriesia and Guzmania) are like urn plants, but they have no spines and their leaves are softer. They are often sold in flower shops (and sometimes in supermarkets) and are very easy to look after. Their flowers grow on a single stem, protected by flattened, colourful leaves. It is better not to fill the central space with water, as these soft-leaved plants might rot. instead their soil should be watered.

Spanish moss
Spanish moss (Latin name: Tillandsia usneoides) is a grey plant found hanging from trees in the swamps of the southern United States, especially in Louisiana but as far east as coastal Virginia. To the south it spreads as far as Chile and Argentina. It gained its current name from Spanish and French colonisers in the Gulf of Mexico. The French called it Barbe Espagnole ("Spanish beard") to insult their rivals, and the Spanish in turn called it Cabello francés ("French hair"). Today "Spanish moss" survives as a mild version of the French taunt, although some call the plant "Graybeard".

Other kinds of bromeliads
Bromelia, the plant which gives its name to the family, is the only other bromeliad with edible fruit. Its berries taste a bit like pineapple, but are less tasty, and there are not very many on each plant.

Fascicularia is the only bromeliad that can be grown in frosty areas. It is not killed by frost if it is kept dry in the winter.

Pitcairnia is the only wild bromeliad outside the Americas. One species, Pitcairnia feliciana,  was discoved living in West Africa. It is probably descended from seeds carried by migrating birds.

Puya is the largest bromeliad. It can grow up to nine metres tall. It lives in the Andes mountains, and is sometimes eaten by bears for its nectar. In Chile the young leaves of some puyas are eaten in salads.

References

Poales
Plant families
Cell theory

Cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and the basic unit of reproduction.

History 
With many improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery was made by Robert Hooke and began cell biology, the scientific study of cells. Cell theory was eventually made in 1838. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.

References

Cell biology
Silicone

Silicones () are polymers that include any inert, synthetic compound made up of repeating units of siloxane. This is a functional group of two silicon atoms and one oxygen atom frequently combined with carbon and/ or hydrogen.  They are typically heat-resistant and rubber-like. Silicones are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medicine, cooking utensils, and thermal and electrical insulation. Some common forms include silicone oil, silicone grease, silicone rubber, silicone resin, and silicone caulk. Silicone is also used for cosmetics. Silicone has very little to do with the element silicon ().

References 

Cosmetics
Thermoplastics
Oxfordshire

Oxfordshire (short Oxon, from the Latinised form Oxonia) is a county in the South East of England, bordering on Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, and Warwickshire.

It is divided into five local government districts: Oxford, Cherwell, Vale of the White Horse (after the Uffington White Horse), West Oxfordshire and South Oxfordshire.

The county has a major tourism industry. The area is known for the concentration of motorsport companies and facilities. Oxford University Press has headed a concentration of print and publishing firms; the university is also linked to the concentration of local biotechnology companies.

The main centre of population is the city of Oxford. Other significant settlements are Bicester, Banbury, and Chipping Norton to the north of Oxford; Witney to the west; Thame and Chinnor to the east; and Abingdon, Wantage, Didcot and Henley-on-Thames to the south. Future population growth in the county is hoped to be concentrated around Banbury, Bicester, Didcot and Witney, near the South Midlands growth area.

The highest point of the county is Whitehorse Hill, in the Vale of White Horse, reaching 856 feet (261m).

History
The county of Oxfordshire was formed in the early years of the 10th century.

Historically the area has always had some importance, it has been good agricultural land resting between the main southern cities and Oxford (whose name came from Anglo-Saxon Oxenaford = "ford for oxen"). The area was part of the Cotswolds wool trade from the 13th century. The Great Western Railway reached Didcot in 1839. Morris Motors was founded in Oxford in 1912 and MG in Abingdon in 1929. The importance of agriculture as an employer has gone down in the 20th century; today less than one percent of the county's population are involved.

The Vale of the White Horse and parts of South Oxfordshire south of the River Thames were historically part of Berkshire, but were added to the administrative county in 1974.

Towns and cities
 Abingdon (In Berkshire until 1974)
 Banbury
 Bicester
 Burford
 Carterton
 Chipping Norton
 Didcot (In Berkshire until 1974)
 Faringdon (In Berkshire until 1974)
 Henley-on-Thames
 Oxford
 Thame
 Wallingford (In Berkshire until 1974)
 Wantage (In Berkshire until 1974)
 Witney
 Woodstock

Places of interest

  Blenheim Palace — UNESCO World Heritage Site
  Chinnor & Princes Risborough Railway — A heritage railway operated with steam and diesel locomotives
  Cholsey and Wallingford Railway
 Cotswold Wildlife Park and Gardens
  Didcot Railway Centre — Museum of the Great Western Railway

  Kelmscott Manor — Home of William Morris
   Oxford
  River and Rowing Museum
  River Thames
  Rousham House and Gardens
  Wallingford Museum

Related pages
 University of Oxford (including links to the individual colleges).
 Oxford Canal
 Blewbury

Other websites 

 Oxfordshire County Council
 Results of the 2005 county council election 
 Thisisoxfordshire Oxfordshire news, sport & information
 Flags of Oxfordshire

Ceremonial counties of England
Notostraca

The order Notostraca has just two living genera in it. Triops and Lepidura. The two genera are considered 'living fossils', as they have not changed in outward form since the Triassic.

Notostracans, or tadpole shrimps, are omnivores living on the bottom of temporary pools and shallow lakes. They live in pools of water on every continent except Antarctica. They grow very quickly, and can reach adulthood in a week. Triops only live for a short time; a record-breaking female only lived to be 100 days. When their pools dry up,adult tadpole shrimp die. Their eggs, however, stop developing for a time. When they are in water again, they come to life, and new Triops are hatched. This is because of a state known as diapause, where eggs can lie dormant for up to twenty years before hatching again.

Evolution and fossil record
The fossil record of Notostraca is extensive. They occur in a wide range of geological deposits, reaching back to the Carboniferous. The lack of major morphological change since 250 million years ago has led to Notostraca being described as living fossils.

The Notostraca abandoned filter feeding in open water, and took up a benthic lifestyle in muddy waters, taking up food from particles of sediment and preying on small animals.

Notostracans keep the ancient condition of having two separate compound eyes. These touch but do not become united, as does happens in other groups of Branchiopods.

References 

Branchiopods
Living fossils
Porphyria

Porphyria is the name for certain medical conditions or diseases, which have been known since the days of Hippocrates. Those who suffer from the disease can not make certain substances in the blood. They have disorders of certain enzymes which normally work in the production of porphyrins and heme. 

The condition is usually caused by a genetic deficiency, but chemicals which affect metabolism may also cause it. Arsenic is an example. It can be triggered by various drugs or by some environmental conditions. The disease causes skin problems, or some diseases of the nervous system, or both. Severe pain is often present. Drugs are available that can at least treat the symptoms. This disease is most common in European countries and often affects the skin. When someone is affected by porphyria they will start to lose their hair about two weeks after having an attack. There is no cure for the hair loss. However, there is medication available to help prevent attacks.

Genetic disorders
Diatom

Diatoms are tiny eukaryotic algae. They are a common type of phytoplankton. Most are single cells, but some form chains or simple colonies. 

Diatom cells have a unique cell wall made of silica (SiO2). These walls (called "frustules") take many forms, some quite beautiful and ornate. They usually have two asymmetrical sides with a split between them (hence "diatom").

They are one of two great groups of single-celled organisms in the sea. The other is the coccoliths. Since diatoms are made of silica, and coccoliths are made of calcium carbonate, they do not grow in the same places in the sea. This was first discovered by T.H. Huxley in his voyage on HMS Rattlesnake, 18461850. Diatoms are also found in some soils and in some waterways on land.

Living diatoms make about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year. They take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of silicon each year from the waters in which they live.

Diatom chloroplasts were probably derived from those of red algae. The fossil record of diatoms starts in strata of the Lower Jurassic, ~185 million years ago. Molecular clock evidence suggests an earlier date for their origin. The entire genomes of two species of diatom have been analysed. The analysis reveals that hundreds of genes in both species came from bacteria.

Diatoms have some practical uses. Diatom communities are a popular tool for monitoring environmental conditions, past and present. They are commonly used in studies of water quality. They are also of interest to nanotechnology.

References 

Protista
Algae
Decapitation

Decapitation or beheading is the act of cutting off the head from the rest of the body of a living thing. Beheading usually means that the removal of the head is deliberate. It is generally done during an execution with an axe, sword, or guillotine. If the removal of the head is an accident or unintentional, it is called decapitation. It can happen because of an auto accident, explosion, factory accident, a mistake during a hanging or some other violent accident.

Decapitation is always fatal, that is, the result is always death. This is because it causes all other organs to stop receiving nervous signals from the brain that are needed to function, while the supply of blood, and therefore oxygen, to the brain itself is also cut off.

Decapitation can also describe the removal of a head from a body that is already dead. In these situations, the head is usually a trophy or a public display of warning.

Beheading was the usual means of death penalty in Scandinavian countries in the past. Noblemen were beheaded with a sword, commoners with an axe. The last execution by beheading in Finland occurred in 1822, when a farmhand Tahvo Putkonen was beheaded for murder. The last beheading in Sweden occurred in 1910, when Johan Andersson-Ander was guillotined for murder. Also Germany, France and Belgium favoured beheading in the past. In those countries was carried out by guillotine.

Last beheading in Europe occurred 1977, when a Tunisian murderer Hamida Djandoubi was guillotined in France. 

Some countries, especially Arab countries or former French colonies, still use beheading as the means of execution. In Saudi Arabia, the convicts are beheaded with a sword.

The executioner who performs beheadings is called a headsman.

History
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia has had centuries of public beheadings, but in 2013 is considering firing squads as an alternative means of execution.

Famous people who have been beheaded

Biblical 
Goliath
John the Baptist in the Gospels
Holofernes in the Book of Judith
Apostle James, traditionally
Apostle Paul, traditionally

China 
Guan Yu

England 
Anne Boleyn (1536)
Catherine Howard (1542)
Lady Jane Grey (1554)
Mary, Queen of Scots (1587) 
Sir Walter Raleigh (1618)
Charles I, King of England and Scotland (1649)
Blackbeard (1718)

The Colonial Americas 
Panama: Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1519)

Frisia 
Wijerd Jelckama

French Revolution 
Marie Antoinette
Louis XVI of France
Madame du Barry
Maximilien Robespierre

Iraq 
Shosei Koda
Kim Sun-il
Kenneth Bigley
Nick Berg
Eugene Armstrong
Jack Hensley
Maher Kemal
Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti

Switzerland 
Wildhans von Breitenlandenberg and 61 companions following the siege of Greifensee during the Old Zürich War (1444).

Saudi Arabia 
Paul Marshall Johnson, Jr.

Related pages
Execution
Guillotine

References

Capital punishment
Dmitri Mendeleev

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (born 8 February  (O.S. 27 January) 1834 near Tobolsk – 2 February (O.S. 20 January 20) 1907 in Saint Petersburg) was a Russian chemist who created the periodic table of elements. Many of the predictions made in his periodic table (such as the properties of elements undiscovered at the time) were later proved correct by experiments. Chemical element 101 was named Mendelevium.

Life 
Mendeleev was born in the village of Verkhnie Aremzyani, near Tobolsk in Siberia,to Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev and Maria Dmitrievna Mendeleeva (née Kornilieva). His grandfather was Pavel Maximovich Sokolov, a priest of Russian Orthodox Church from the Tver region. Ivan, with his brothers and sisters, got new family names while attending theological seminary. Later in life, he invented the periodic table of elements.

Mendeleev is thought to be the youngest of 14 siblings, but the exact number differs between sources. At the age of 13, after the death of his father and the destruction of his mother's factory by fire, Mendeleev attended the Gymnasium in Tobolsk.

In 1849, the now poor Mendeleev family went to Saint Petersburg, where he entered the Main Pedagogical Institute in 1850. After graduation, tuberculosis caused him to move to the Crimean Peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea in 1855. While there he became a science master of the Simferopol gymnasium №1. He returned with fully restored health to Saint Petersburg in 1857.

Periodic Table 

Others in the 1860s suggested that elements group together. For example, John Newlands, published his Law of Octaves in 1865. The lack of spaces for undiscovered elements and the placing of two elements in one box were criticized and his ideas were not accepted. Another was Lothar Meyer, who published a work in 1864, describing 28 elements. Neither attempted to predict new elements. In 1863 there were 56 known elements with a new element being discovered at a rate of approximately one each year.

Other achievements 

Mendeleev made other important contributions to chemistry. The Russian chemist and science historian L.A. Tchugayev called him "a chemist of genius, first-class physicist, a fruitful researcher in the fields of hydrodynamics, meteorology, geology, certain branches of chemical technology (explosives, petroleum, and fuels, for example) and other disciplines adjacent to chemistry and physics, a thorough expert of chemical industry and industry in general, and an original thinker in the field of economy". Mendeleev was one of the founders, in 1869, of the Russian Chemical Society. He worked on the theory and practice of protectionist trade and on agriculture.

References 

1834 births
1907 deaths
Russian chemists
Angevin Empire

The Angevin Empire was a collection of states ruled by the Angevin Plantagenet dynasty. The Plantagenets, Henry II of England, Richard I of England, and John of England, ruled over an area from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries. Their empire was roughly half of medieval France as well as all of England and Ireland. The name Angevin came from the French region and town of Anjou which was the home of the Plantagenet family.

References

13th century in France
History of the British Isles
Former empires
12th century in France
Former countries in Europe
Spine

The spine is a column of vertebrae in the back part of the torso (upper body). It is also called the backbone or vertebral column. There is a spinal canal that runs through the length of the spine. Inside this canal is the spinal cord. Animals that have a spine are called vertebrates, and animals that do not have one are called invertebrates. Humans have a spine, so we are vertebrates. Many vertebrates, including mammals, have intervertebral discs separating the vertebrae.

Regions 
The vertebral column has five regions. These regions from top to bottom are:
 Cervical - Shown in red, this region supports the head. It is made up of 7 vertebrae. The first two, called the atlas and axis, connect the spine to the skull.
 Thoracic - Shown in blue, this region supports the ribs. It is made up of 12 vertebrae.
 Lumbar - Shown in yellow, this region is located in the lower back. It is made up of 5 vertebrae.
Sacral - Shown in green. It is made up of 5 vertebrae that are fused together.
Coccygeal - Shown in purple. It is made up of 3 to 5 vertebrae.

Spinal canal 
The spinal column has an opening called spinal canal and this opening is used for nerves. The part of the central nervous system in the spinal column is called spinal cord.

References 
 Gray's Anatomy: The Vertebral Column - The 1917 Gray's Anatomy is available via the Bartleby project. It is available with full colour diagrams. The initial version of this article was copied and pasted from the 1917 Gray's anatomy, which is in the public domain.

Other websites 

 North American Spine Society is a multidisciplinary medical organization that advances quality spine care through education, research and advocacy.
 Spinal anatomy and back pain
 Spine anatomy illustrations
 Spine anatomy 
 Vertebral column basics 

Bones
Pyrenees

The Pyrenees (; ; ; ; ; ) are a range of mountains in southwest Europe that form a natural border between France and Spain. They separate the Iberian Peninsula from France, and extend for about 430 km (267 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) to the Mediterranean Sea (Cap de Creus).

Other websites 

Great Routes: Pirineos , from a website of the Instituto de Turismo de España
 Official website  of France's Pyrenees National Park
 Cycling the French High Pyrenees and Ariege Pyrenees photos and video by steephill.tv bike travelogue
 The Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales  Online resource for the Aude & Pyrénées-Orientales departments of the Languedoc-Roussillon.

Mountain ranges of Europe
 
Geography of Andorra
Aragon
Basque Country
Catalonia
Navarre
Nouvelle-Aquitaine
Occitanie