alibayram/wikipedia-40-langs huggingface dataset:
Danelaw

The Danelaw (from the Old English Dena lagu, Danish: Danelagen ) is an 11th-century name for an area of northern and eastern England. This area was under the administrative control of the Danish Viking empire (or Danes, or Norsemen) from the late 9th century until the early 11th century.

As can be seen from the map, Danelaw at its height was about a third the territory of England. Textbooks say correctly that the history left us with place-names which reflect the old languages.

References 

9th century in England
History of Denmark
11th century in England
Jorvik

Jórvík was the Viking name for the English city of York and the kingdom centred there.

York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic. It was first captured in November 866 by a large army of Danish Vikings.

Other websites 
 Brenda Ralph Lewis & David Nash Ford, "York: Viking Times" 
Timeline of Anglo-Saxon England 
 Jorvik Viking Centre 
 York Archaeological Trust
 Welcome to Jorvik : links on on-line resources

9th century in England‎
York
Mutton

The terms lamb, mutton  or hoggett are used to describe the meat of a domestic sheep.  The meat of a sheep a year old or younger is generally known as lamb, whereas the meat of an older sheep is either hoggett or mutton depending on its age and characteristics.  In some countries all such meat is referred to as lamb.  All of these are known as sheepmeats.

The meat of a lamb is taken from the animal between one month and one year old, with a weight of between 5.5 and 30 kilograms.  This meat generally is more tender than that from older sheep and is often eaten more often in some western countries, most often on Easter.

Hoggett and mutton can taste more flavorful than lamb because they contain a higher concentration of species-characteristic fatty acids; many therefore prefer the stronger flavour of older animals.

References

Meat
Prion

A prion (pronounced pree-on) is an infectious protein. The word is short for "proteinaceous infectious particles". 

All known prion diseases in mammals affect the structure of the brain or other neural tissue. Right now, they cannot be treated and always end in death.

Prions cause many forms of encephalitis, or brain disease, such as scrapie, chronic wasting disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, bovine spongiform encephalopathy and kuru. Prions work by changing the shape of proteins in infected animals. While normal proteins have lots of alpha helices, or twisted parts, changed proteins have lots of beta sheets, or flat parts. It has also been suggested that Alzheimer's disease causes damage to the prions. 

Because prions are proteins, and proteins cannot reproduce themselves, it is a mystery how prions work. A lot of molecular biology research is going on to find out how they reproduce themselves, with no clear result so far.

Related pages
 Prion disease

References 

Proteins
William Pitt the Younger

William Pitt the Younger (28 May 1759 – 23 January 1806) was a British politician of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. He was Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1782 to 1783, 1783 to 1801 and 1804 to 1806. He was prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1783 to 1801, and again from 1804 until his death. He is known as "William Pitt the Younger" to distinguish him from his father, William Pitt the Elder, who also served as prime minister. He became the youngest prime minister in 1783 at the age of 24. During his time as prime minister, the kingdom of Ireland joined with Great Britain and both kingdoms became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801. Pitt continued to be prime minister in the new Parliament of the United Kingdom. Known as "William Pitt Jr.", unlike his father and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, William Pitt Sr.

The period of William Pitt Jr.'s presidency was during the reign of King George III and was accompanied by significant events in Europe, such as the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

Pitt is often considered a Conservative party, but he considered himself non-partisan and generally opposed a strict party political system.

Value 
William Pitt was the youngest Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and died at the age of 46, leaving no children or wife. He was an influential and talented politician of the country, enjoyed the support of voters and especially the support of the monarch. In the then political system of Great Britain, the king still played a significant role in the political life of the country, and the king's commitment to Pitt allowed him to remain at the head of government for a long time. Pitt's main credit is his financial reforms, reduction of government debt after the war with the United States, and changes in the tax system. Despite some setbacks, especially with regard to parliamentary reform, William Pitt is considered one of the country's great prime ministers, primarily for his political acumen and ability to pursue his own policies despite opposition protests.

References

Notes

Other websites 
 1791 Caricature of William Pitt by James Gillray

1759 births
1806 deaths
Chancellors of the Exchequer
People buried in Westminster Abbey
Politicians from Kent
Prime Ministers of Great Britain
Jean-Paul Sartre

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, novelist, playwright, screenwriter,  and critic. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1964, but refused it, saying "a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution". He was a Marxist and an atheist.

Sartre's life 
Sartre was born in Paris, France. He studied philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure, an élite (high quality) education establishment. In 1929, Sartre graduated with a doctorate in philosophy. Sartre served in the French Army from 1929 to 1931.

In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne. She went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions. In 1938, Sartre wrote the novel called La Nausée (Nausea). This story explains the way of thinking of existentialism. Existentialism is a way of thinking about human freedom.

Draft to the army
In 1939 Sartre was drafted into the French army. France was at war with Germany, because Germany had invaded France (World War II) Sartre was captured by German troops in 1940, and Sartre spent nine months as a prisoner of war in a camp. Sartre was released from the prison camp (jail) in 1941. He then began working as a teacher again. He made friends with other writers and thinkers such as Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint and Dominique Desanti, and Jean Kanapa.

1940s
In 1943, Sartre wrote a book about philosophy (ways of thinking) called L'Être et le Néant, which means Being and Nothingness. In this book, Sartre said that when people tried too hard to conform to the rules of society (or of their country), then people did not really make their own decisions. And he concluded that life is useless disaster.

In 1945, Sartre started a newspaper called Les Temps Modernes (Modern Times), which had articles about politics, art and literature. He also began writing a group of novels (stories) called Les Chemins de la Liberté (The Roads to Freedom). In 1946 Sartre wrote a book about philosophy (ways of thinking) called Existentialism is a Humanism, which explains existentialism.

After 1950s
In the 1950s and 1960s, Sartre became involved in politics. Sartre said that France should leave Algeria, a country where France had many soldiers. In the 1960s, Sartre said that the Vietnam War was bad. In 1960, he wrote the Critique de la raison dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason). In the 1960s, Sartre had many arguments with Louis Althusser, a man who also believed in communism.

Death
Sartre died of oedema of the lung in 1980 in Paris. His body is buried in Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. His funeral was attended by 50,000 people.

References 

1905 births
1980 deaths
20th-century French philosophers
Continental philosophers
French atheists
French Nobel Prize winners
French novelists
French playwrights
Marxists
Writers from Paris
Akira Kurosawa

Akira Kurosawa (March 23, 1910 – September 6, 1998) was a Japanese movie director. Kurosawa's movies are liked in Japan. Kurosawa's movies are also liked by people in other countries. He made 30 movies in 50 years. He is thought to be one of the most important movie directors.

In many of his famous movies, including Rashomon and The Seven Samurai, he worked with the actor Toshiro Mifune.

Kurosawa started in the Japanese movie industry in 1936.  Before he worked a little bit as a painter. After years of working on many movies as an assistant director and scriptwriter, he became a director in 1943.  This was during World War II with the popular action movie Sanshiro Sugata (a.k.a. Judo Saga). 

Rashomon, was first shown in Tokyo in August 1950.  On September 10, 1951 it was the surprise winner of the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.  It then was shown in Europe and North America. Because the movie was so well liked, it made people in the western world want to see more Japanese movies.  This helped make other Japanese movie makers become successful. In the 1950s and early 1960s, Kurosawa directed about one movie each year.

In 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement. After he died, he was named "Asian of the Century" in the "Arts, Literature, and Culture" category by AsianWeek magazine and CNN.

Akira Kurosawa known for influential, character-rich films exploring morality, often collaborating with Toshiro Mifune. His work blends Japanese tradition with dynamic visuals, symbolism, and humanism.

Related pages 
 Mikio Naruse

References

Other websites 

 Akira Kurosawa's grave 

1910 births
1998 deaths
Japanese screenwriters
Movie directors from Tokyo
Movie editors
Japanese movie producers
Science fiction movie

Science fiction movies are movies which tell stories about the future, outer space, robots, or aliens. Science fiction movies often use special effects to show images of alien worlds or other planets far away.

Science fiction movies are related to science fiction books. Some science fiction movies tell stories about strange or different ways of thinking or ways of living. Other science fiction movies tell stories about the survival.

Important science fiction novels and films 
All written as books, most later filmed.
 The Time Machine (1895), a book by H.G. Wells
 A Trip to the Moon (French: Le Voyage dans la lune) was made by Georges Méliès in 1902. It was one of the first SF films.
 The Lost World by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in 1912. Dinosaurs still alive on large plateau in South America.
 Metropolis is a silent film about a society in the future. That society has two groups: rich thinkers and poor workers. Fritz Lang made the film in 1927.
 I, Robot by Isaac Asimov. 1950.
 The Foundation series: 1951 to 1986.
 Jurassic Park was originally a novel by Michael Crichton in 1990.
 2001: A Space Odyssey is a film by Stanley Kubrick. The film shows ideas about human evolution and artificial intelligence. It was released in 1968.
 Star Wars movies are amongst the highest grossing science fantasy movies of all time.
 Many works in print by Isaac Asimov are science fiction rather than fantasy.

Science fiction movies and other genres
Some SF movies can also be another kind of movie, too.
 Alien is also a horror movie.
 The Road Warrior is both a science fiction movie and an action movie.
 Men in Black is comedy and science fiction.

References

 

nl:Sciencefiction#Film en televisie
Reading, Pennsylvania

Reading is a city in the American state of Pennsylvania. It is the fifth largest city in Pennsylvania with 95,112 at the 2020 count. It is located in Berks County.  There were more jobs when it was more populated.  Yuengling is available as well.

References

Cities in Pennsylvania
County seats in Pennsylvania
Swanage

Swanage is a seaside town on the east-south coast of England. The town in Dorset that has a population of around 10,001 people. The town has a wide range of tourist attractions: a steam Railway, Durlston Country Park (Nature reserve), Victorian Pier, two public swimming pools, tennis courts, Indoor & Outdoor bowling greens, and Corfe Castle.

Towns in Dorset
Old English

The Old English language, often called Anglo-Saxon, was spoken in Anglo-Saxon England from 450 AD to 1100 AD. It was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, who came to Great Britain from what is now Germany and Denmark. Different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms spoke different dialects, but a western dialect became the main literary version. Both modern languages of England and Scotland (English and Scots) came from the language of the Anglo-Saxons.

Old English is very different from Modern English and has many more Germanic words. In early centuries, it was rarely written down and even then was in runes. After the 9th century, the Latin alphabet was used more often. Old English grammar is difficult, with complex inflections, and close to Old German. Latin was used by churchmen like the venerable Bede. Old English gradually turned into Middle English after the Norman Conquest of 1066.

Beowulf is written in Old English in an alphabetic script.

Other websites 

 Old English -Citizendium

English language
West Germanic languages
Scottish people

Scottish people or Scots are people native to Scotland or who are descended from a native of Scotland.  They almost all speak Scottish English, but some of those living in the Highlands and the islands may speak the Scottish Gaelic (a Gaelic language) as well.

Robert Burns is the national poet of Scotland.

References 

Celtic peoples
Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom
Hungen

Hungen is a town in the district of Gießen, in the state of Hesse, Germany. It is  southeast of Gießen. It is  northeast of Friedberg. Other towns near Hungen are Laubach Nidda, Wölfersheim and Münzenberg.

The first documented mention of Hungen is in the year 782. In 1806 it became part of the Grand Duchy of Hessen.

Interesting buildings in Hungen are the Hungen Castle, the Evangelical Church, and the Hauptbahnhof, (the main railroad station). Also in Hungen can be seen parts of the town's medieval boundary wall.

Hungen in the media
My Opposition: The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner: The railroad station of Hungen can be seen in this 2007 Canadian documentary. Robert Scott Kellner came to Hungen in 1960 to search for his grandfather, Friedrich Kellner. Friedrich Kellner was the chief justice inspector of Laubach. He wrote the Friedrich Kellner Diary. Robert Scott Kellner is the English translator of the diary.

References

Other websites

Giessen (district)
Towns in Hesse
Bremerhaven Hauptbahnhof

Bremerhaven Hauptbahnhof is the central railway station in the German city of Bremerhaven, Bremen.

The station lies on the line from Bremen to Cuxhaven. The line from Bremen was built in 1862, and a station for that was built in Geestemünde. At the time, Geestemünde did not belong to Bremerhaven, but was a separate town. The line from Geestemünde to Cuxhaven was then built in 1896. 

Because there were too many trains in the old station and it is connected only with single-track, it was decided to knock down the old station. The new station, which is now Bremerhaven Central railway station, was opened in 1914. Because it still was in Geestemünde, but not as far away as the old station, it was called Geestemünde-Bremerhaven. 
In 1924, some other towns joined Bremerhaven, and the city got a new name, Wesermünde. The station got a new name, Wesermünde-Bremerhaven, because of that.

In 1944, in the middle of World War II, the hall over the railway tracks was destroyed by a bomb that was thrown from an American plane. The hall was not built again after the war.

Wesermünde received another name and was called Bremerhaven from 1947, and the station received the new name too and was now called Bremerhaven Hauptbahnhof. That means "Bremerhaven Central railway station", and it was called that way because it was now in the middle of the new, large city.
Electric cables were put in the station in 1966, so that electric trains could run. Trains that were carrying soldiers of the US Army often ran to Bremerhaven in the 1970s, because the US Army had large barracks in the city.

1914 establishments in Europe
1910s establishments in Germany
Bremen (state)
Railway stations in Germany
Duchy

A duchy is a territory or domain ruled by a duke or duchess.  Historically, some duchies in Continental Europe were sovereign, while others (especially in France and Britain) were subordinate districts of a kingdom. 

Traditionally, a grand duchy, such as Luxembourg, was generally independent and sovereign. Sovereign duchies were common in the Holy Roman Empire and German-speaking areas. In France, a number of duchies existed in the medieval period. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom still holds the medieval French title of Duke of Normandy; the only lands still attached to the Duchy of Normandy are the Channel Islands. 

In medieval England, the territories of Lancashire and Cornwall were made duchies, with certain powers given to their Dukes. 

Today, duchies aren't very common in Europe, primarily because a lot of former monarchies such as France and Russia had their revolutions. However, duchies will always be remembered - in our history textbooks.

Other websites 
The Duchy of Cornwall - On the Prince of Wales' official web-site
Tyr Gwyr Gweryn  The Duchy charters, Cornish foreshore case and much more in full

Forms of government
Bam Bam Bigelow

Scott Charles Bigelow (September 1, 1961 - January 19, 2007) was an American professional wrestler. He was more commonly known as Bam Bam Bigelow. He was famous for his time in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) (now World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) ) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Death
On the morning of January 19, 2007, Bigelow was found dead in his home at about 10:00 A.M. in Hudson, Florida. He was 45 years old. At the time of his death, Bigelow had been suffering from an infection and diabetes. He was 45 years old. The autopsy results showed that Bigelow's death was due to multiple drugs found in his system including toxic levels of cocaine and an anti-anxiety drug. Bigelow was also suffering from a heart problem.

References

Other websites 

1961 births
2007 deaths
American professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from New Jersey
Drug-related deaths
Former WWE wrestlers
Anglo-Norman language

The Anglo-Norman language is the name given to the special sort of the Norman language spoken by the Anglo-Normans, the descendants of the Normans who ruled the Kingdom of England following the conquest by William of Normandy in 1066. This langue d'oïl became the official language of England and later developed into the unique insular dialect now known as the Anglo-Norman language. It was much like Old French.

Anglo-Norman was the spoken language of the Norman nobility and was also used in the courts.

Other websites 
 The Anglo-Norman hub - a project to produce an Anglo-Norman dictionary. Contains articles and corpus texts.

Romance languages
Langues d'oïl

Langues d'oïl (which literally means in English: "languages of yes") is the linguistic and historical name for the Gallo-Romance languages which developed from Latin in the northern territories of Roman Gaul that now are occupied by northern France, part of Belgium and the Channel Islands.

 Romance languages
 Gallo-Romance languages
 Langue d'oïl or Oïl languages
 Langue d'oc or Occitan language

Langue d'oïl (in the singular),  Oïl dialects and Oïl languages (in the plural) refer to all the ancient northern Gallo-Romance languages as well as their modern-day descendants.  The most widely spoken modern Oïl language is French, but others include Norman, Walloon, Picard, Gallo, Poitevin-Saintongeais, and Champenois.

They share many common linguistic features.  One of them is that Oïl (pronounced [wil], or [wi] as in modern French oui), was the ancestor of the word for yes that is used in all of the Oïl languages.  Oc is the word used in territories to the south and so the Occitan language is also called langue d'oc (literal English translation: "language of yes").
Romance languages
Ring

For the article about a mathematical concept, see Ring (mathematics)

A ring is a piece of jewelry that is usually worn on the finger.

It is usually made of metal such as gold, silver, platinum, but can be made of other things, for example, bone or glass. Many rings have gemstones on them, for beauty and decoration on your finger. It is a fashion accessory and sometimes a sign of importance (status). The Lord Chancellors of England were given a ring when taking office, and returned it when leaving the position. The ring identified them as the second most important person in the kingdom.
In most religions, senior clergy have rings of their office. It is standard practice for members of a church to kneel and kiss the ring as a sign of faith and obedience.

Engagement and wedding rings 
Rings have been used for engagements and weddings since prehistoric times.The engagement ring is meant to be a sign of luck and happiness. Both men and women used to wear an engagement ring to show that they were going to be married, but more recently only women have worn them. A diamond ring is seen as being especially lucky, as the sparkle of the diamond is said to come from the fires of love. A pearl in a ring is unlucky, as the pearl is a sign of tears. Because the ring is round and does not have an end, it is seen as a symbol of love which never ends. These are, of course, superstitions. However, a wedding ring is a public symbol of a legal relationship, and in many societies rings have that kind of function.

References

Gallery

Basic English 850 words
Jewelry
Gallo-Romance languages

The Gallo-Romance are a branch of Romance languages. It includes French and several other languages spoken in modern France and northern Italy and Spain. According to some linguists, it also includes Occitan and Catalan. Others group biyhy together as a separate Occitano-Romance branch or place Catalan within the Ibero-Romance group.  The Gallo-Romance languages, along with the Ibero-Romance and Rhaeto-Romance groups, form Western Romance.

Examples of Gallo-Romance languages 
Lombard
Piedmontese
Emilian-Romagnol  
Venetian
Ligurian  
Franco-Provençal
Capital accumulation

Capital accumulation means the gathering of objects of value; the increase in wealth; or the creation of wealth. In this context capital can be understood as assets used for profit.

In economics capital accumulation is often seen as the same as investment.

But capital accumulation can refer as well to 

real investment in tangible means of production.
financial investment in paper assets.
investment in non-productive physical assets such as residential real estate that appreciate in value.
"human capital accumulation," i.e., new education and training increasing the skills of the (potential) labour force.

Non-financial capital accumulation is an essential factor for economic growth, since additional investment is essential to enlarge the scale of production and increase employment opportunities.

Rosa Luxemburg insisted that capital accumulation is the cause of the imperialism on her essay ""The Accumulation of Capital".

Related pages
 Constitution
 Constitutional economics
 Imperialism

Other websites 
 Growth, Accumulation, Crisis: With New Macroeconomic Data for Sweden 1800-2000 by Rodney Edvinsson
 The Crises caused by Capital Accumulation  - Oxford University publication
 The Accumulation of Capital

Economics
Investment

In finance, Investment or investing means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it. Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company. In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.

It is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. Literally, the word means the "action of putting something in to somewhere else" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').

Types of investment
There are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field. Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset. Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it.  Instead, wait for the situation to improve. This is a risk for each person to decide.

Business management 
The investment decision (also known as capital budgeting) is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.

Related pages
Gold coin
Fixed assets investment
Social Investment
Speculation

Other websites 

Financial Times
Wall Street Journal
NASDAQ
Good books on investing and value investing 

Business
Finance
Matchbook

A matchbook is a small cardboard container that holds a quantity of matches inside and has a coarse striking surface on the exterior. 

A flap on the front is lifted to access the matches, which are attached to the interior base in a comb-like pattern and must be torn away before use. (In the matchbox, by contrast, the matches are arranged loosely in the interior tray.)

Matchbooks are often covered with advertising logos or various artistic decorations, and they have served as collector's items and free souvenirs. 

Tools
My Opposition: The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner

My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner is a 2007 documentary movie by Abella Entertainment Ltd. of Toronto, Canada.  It is produced and directed by Fern Levitt and Arnie Zipursky.  Leonard Asper is an executive producer.  The movie is distributed by CCI Entertainment.

Subject matter

The documentary tells the story of Chief Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner  ( ) who wrote a secret diary during World War II.  The diary records the crimes of the Nazis. The movie uses interviews, historical footage, and re-enactments of events to tell how Friedrich Kellner risked his life to write the diary.  The story is also about Kellner’s American grandson, Robert Scott Kellner, who was abandoned as a child but later found his grandfather in Germany.  Part of the movie is about the grandson’s attempt to bring the Friedrich Kellner diary to the attention of the public.

The movie begins with Friedrich Kellner as a political activist for the Social Democratic Party of Germany before the war.  He campaigns against Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.  The re-enactments show Kellner trying to stop the riots against the Jews during Kristallnacht.  Kellner is brought before a tribunal, and he is threatened with imprisonment in a concentration camp.  The movie shows Kellner’s active and passive resistance against the Third Reich.  One scene shows him distributing leaflets that had been dropped from American planes.  When World War II comes to an end, Kellner helps to restore the SPD.  He  becomes the chairman of the party in his region.  Interwoven in the story about Friedrich Kellner is the story of his grandson.

The documentary was filmed on location in Mainz and in  Laubach, Germany, and in Texas.

Background information
 The Kellner diary was on exhibit at the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas.
 It was also exhibited in Germany.
 The University of Giessen is the home of the Kellner Project.

Other websites 

 My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner  at Telefilm Canada movie catalog.
 Diary Entries in German and English
 George Bush Presidential Library - Kellner exhibit
 Justus Liebig University - Kellner Project
 University of Massachusetts, A Promise To Keep 
 Holocaust Museum Houston - Kellner exhibit 
 Heimat Museum, Laubach, Germany - Kellner exhibit 
 

2007 documentary movies
2000s biographical movies
Canadian movies
World War II movies
Multilingual movies
List of Nobel Prize winners in Economics

The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, commonly called the Nobel Prize in Economics, is a prize awarded each year for outstanding contributions in the field of economics. The prize was not one of the awards set out in the will of Alfred Nobel. The winners of the prize receive their diploma and gold medal from the Swedish monarch at the same December 10 ceremony in Stockholm as the Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature. The amount of money awarded to the economics laureates is also equal to that of the other prizes.

Winners

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Literature
 List of Nobel Peace Prize winners

References

Other websites 
 Laureates  at the Nobel foundation
 Winners of the Prize in Economics
 History of the prize and its controversy 

Economics
Lindsey Jacobellis

Lindsey Jacobellis (born August 19, 1985 in Danbury, Connecticut) is an American snowboarder.  She competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics and won the silver medal.

References

Other websites
 
 Lindsey Jacobellis  at NBC Olympics
 Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames
 
 Lindsey Jacobellis  at ESPN XGames

1985 births
Living people
American Olympic silver medalists
Sportspeople from Connecticut
American snowboarders
Axis of Evil

Axis of Evil, often correlated with the Axis of Resistance, is a term first used by US President George W. Bush in his State of the Union speech on January 29, 2002 to describe the governments of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea and later Cuba, Libya, and Syria. He used this term because he believed that they backed terrorism and were trying to buy weapons of mass destruction.

References

Politics of the United States
George W. Bush
State of the Union Address

The State of the Union Address is a speech the president of the United States of America gives every year, usually in January. In the speech the president talks about how the country is doing and what plans he will be proposing for that year.

According to tradition, president speaks with its appeal annual. The US Constitution it does not set clear terms such appeals. Article II, Section 3 of the US Constitution reads «He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient».

Before the president enters the congressional chamber of the United States Capitol, the Sergeant at Arms always yells: "Mister/Madam Speaker, the President of the United States".

Presidency of the United States
USS Arizona Memorial

The USS Arizona Memorial is in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It is to remember the sailors killed when Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Japanese. During the attack 1,177 sailors were killed on the USS Arizona. The memorial is located on top of the sunken USS Arizona. People can walk over the ship to look at it.

United States Navy
Buildings and structures in Hawaii
Military monuments and memorials in the United States
National Memorials of the United States
Honolulu
USS Arizona (BB-39)

The USS Arizona (BB-39) was an American battleship from the Pennsylvania Class. The building of the ship was started in 1913 and it was commissioned in 1916. It fought in World War I. The USS Arizona is best known for its sinking during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The attack was the event that caused the United States to join the fighting in World War II. The wreck is still at the floor of the harbor. It is the site of a memorial to those who died that day.

Other ships 
USS Arizona (BB-39) was one of three ships in the history of the United States Navy to be named USS Arizona. It was the only one of the three to be named that after Arizona became a U.S. state. 

The first Arizona was built in 1858. It was made of iron. It served in the American Civil War. The ship was destroyed when it caught on fire in 1865.
The second USS Arizona was a 3850 ton frigate. It was built in 1865 and originally named the USS Neshamny. The ship was renamed twice. It used the name USS Arizona for less than three months during 1869 before becoming USS Nevada. The Navy stopped using the ship in 1874.

Arizona (BB-39)
Senate

In a modern democracy, a senate is a group of people who are part of a legislature. A legislature passes or changes laws for their country, state, or other area. Members of a senate are called senators. Some legislatures are bicameral, meaning they have two groups of people (working in separate places) called houses. A senate can be called a House of Senators. 

The senate of some such legislatures is weaker than the other house. The other house is called a House of Representatives, House of Commons, or Assembly. In bicameral legislatures, both houses must pass the same bill to make it a law. Modern democratic systems having legislatures with senates include the United States of America (U. S.), Canada, Australia and many states in the United States.

The first ever senate was the Roman Senate. The name comes from their word for "elder".

Senate is also the name of the ruling body of some universities.

Senate chambers 
Sometimes, the senators are split into different groups, who then have different responsibilities. These groups  meet in different rooms; each group is called a chamber.
Kano

Kano is a city in Nigeria. It is the center of the Kano State. Kano is the third largest city in Nigeria, after Ibadan and Lagos. About 3,626,204 people live in Kano.

It has long been the economic centre of northern Nigeria, and a centre for the sale of groundnuts. Kano is known for the Bayero University and a railway station with trains to Lagos, moving through Kaduna, while Kano International Airport can be found nearby. Kano has long been a centre for Nigeria's Islamic culture; one of the country's finest mosques lies in the city.

It is also the site where the Kano river project was developed.  This is a large irrigation scheme.

History
The city of Kano was founded around A.D. 1000 as an Hausa city of its own. Kano remained a big emirate, or Muslim kingdom, until the making of the country, Nigeria, in 1903. Kano became known for its trade in gold, leather, ivory, salt and slaves within the area. This perhaps is the reason for the city's wealth and power in the 14th century, when Islam gained a growing following. By the 15th century, the first Central Mosque had been built in the city.

References

Other websites 
 Kano Online

Cities in Nigeria
10th-century establishments in Africa
Establishments in Nigeria
1000 establishments
Kano State
Battle of Bosworth Field

The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field was an important battle during the Wars of the Roses in 15th century England. It was fought on 22 August 1485 between the Yorkist King Richard III, the last of the Plantagenet dynasty, and the Lancastrian [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor], who wanted to become king. It ended in the defeat and death of Richard and the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. Historically, the battle is thought to have marked the end of the Wars of the Roses, although smaller battles were fought in the years that followed as Yorkists unsuccessfully tried to become king again.

The place of the battle is not precisely known. Memorials have been built in some of the possible locations.

Shakespearian dramatization 

The Battle of Bosworth is an important part of William Shakespeare's play Richard III. The action of the play ends with this battle.

Notes

Further reading 
 Bosworth 1485: A Battlefield Rediscovered by Glenn Foard and Anne Curry (2013:  forthcoming) - The archaeology of the battle
 Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors by Chris Skidmore (2013) - Overview of the battle in its historical context
 Battle Story: Bosworth 1485 by Mike Ingram (2011) - Analysis of the battle by a military expert

Other websites 
 Bosworth Battlefield visitor info
 Richard III Society, American Branch  with maps, photos, articles presenting several competing theories situating the battle
 The Battle of Bosworth 
 Bosworth Roll Call  Officers there on the day.

Bosworth
Bosworth
House of Tudor
1485
August events
1480s in England
Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli or E. coli is a bacterium that lives in the intestines of people and other warm-blooded animals. Scientists have studied E. coli a lot, and know more about how E. coli cells work than any other organism. E. coli is usually not harmful. In fact, the only known harmful strain is O156. E.coli is a prokaryotic organism.

E. coli normally grow in soil and in the large intestines of many mammals, including humans. Most strains of E. coli do not cause disease, but instead help animals get vitamins and digest food. Some strains of E. coli cause sickness in people. E. coli are not usually in food or water. When food has not been prepared with clean equipment, E. coli can grow in the food. When E. coli are found in water, this may mean that the water has touched sewage. 

It is named after Theodor Escherich, who discovered it in 1885. It was officially named after him in 1919.

Signs and symptoms of E. coli infection
The following signs and symptoms of an E. coli infection normally happen within three days; however, some people may carry the infection and show no signs at all.
 Pain in the abdomen
 Diarrhea
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Fever
 Fatigue

The best treatment for E. coli is plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration.

References

Gram-negative bacteria
Model organisms
Borg

The Borg are a fictional race of organic cyborgs in the Star Trek universe which have formed over thousands of years. The Borg use nanoprobes to assimilate others, like humans or vulcans, into their group consciousness. The only execption to assimilation are races either too primitve to assimilate (who are ignored) or races too dangerous to assimilate (who are destroyed). The Borg's group consciousness is led by the Borg queen, who's role is similar to that of a queen bee in a bee hive.

Defeating the Borg
Despite their ability to adapt to various attempts to destroy them, the Borg can be defeated several ways:
Commander Data linked with the assimilated "Loctus of Borg" (Jean-Luc Picard) and sends a command that starts the Borg regeneration sequence and effectively put them all to sleep;the command caused the Borg power net to feed back on itself and has triggered a self-destruct sequence in The Best of Both Worlds, 	
Data and La Forge came up with an invasive program designed as a geometric form that could not actually exist in physical space; the result of it in the Borg collective memory-which would continue to attempt to analyze the shape. Each step taken by the Borg to understand the program would spawn a series of anomalous solutions that would interact with each other, resulting in an endless, unsolvable puzzle. Eventually, the Borg neural network would collapse under the strain of attempting to solve the paradox, resulting in a total systems failure across the entire Collective in I Borg, 
A Borg experiences being an individual; this is so dangerous that the Borg Queen will destroy an entire Borg Square/or Sphere if even a hint of individualty is about to form in one Borg."I Borg" and "Endgame".
Species 6339 developed a synthetic pathogen so that when they were assimilated by the Borg, so that it would be spread to the Borg vinculum. From there, it caused all drones within range to experience the Borg equivalent of multiple personality disorder, eventually leading to their self-destruction. The process would be repeated when another Borg vessel retrieved the vinculum, and so on in "Infinate Regress",
Future Admiral Kathryn Janeway had herself injected with a neurolytic pathogen and allowed herself to be assimilated by the Borg Queen who in turn selfdestruted " along with The Borg transwarp complex and many Borg Spheres. "Endgame",

How many species assimiliated?
By the time of Voyager, the Borg have assimilated 10,026 species

Related pages 
 Seven of Nine
 Star Trek: First Contact

Star Trek
Fictional races

de:Völker und Gruppierungen im Star-Trek-Universum#Borg
sv:Lista över utomjordiska raser i Star Trek#Borgerna
House of Plantagenet

The House of Plantagenet ruled England in some form or another from the reign of Henry II, beginning in 1154, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.

It goes back to the Angevin counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou. Three dynasties belong to it: Angevins, House of Lancaster (Lancastrians) and House of York (Yorkists). Lancastrians and Yorkists fought against each other the Wars of the Roses to get the crown for their dynasty alone.

Plantagenets

Angevins
 Empress Matilda (1141)
 Henry II (1154-1189)
 Richard I, the Lionheart (1189-1199)
 John (1199-1216)
 Henry III (1216-1272)
 Edward I (1272-1307)
 Edward II (1307-1327) (deposed, died 1327)
 Edward III (1327-1377)
 Richard II (1377-1399) (deposed, died 1400)

Lancastrians
 Henry IV (1399-1413)
 Henry V (1413-1422)
 Henry VI (1422-1461 and 1470-1471)

Yorkists
 Edward IV (1461-1470 and 1471-1483)
 Edward V (uncrowned) (1483) (deposed 1483, most likely assassinated)
 Richard III (1483-1485)
Angevin

Angevin is the name of the residents of Anjou, a former province of the Kingdom of France, as well as to the residents of Angers. It is also used for three different medieval dynasties which go back to counts (from 1360, dukes) of the western French province of Anjou (of which angevin is the adjectival form), but later came to rule far greater areas including England, Ireland, Hungary, Croatia, Poland, Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and Kingdom of Jerusalem (see Angevin Empire).  

The first of these Angevin dynasties, the House of Plantagenet, ruled England in some form or another from the reign of Henry II, beginning in 1154, until the House of Tudor came to power when Richard III fell at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. 

History of France
Count

A count is a nobleman in most of European countries, equivalent in rank to a British earl, whose wife is also still a "countess" (for lack of an Anglo-Saxon term). The word count comes from French comte which in turn comes from the Latin comitas, "companion" (of the emperor). In feudalism the territory ruled by a count was a county.

A woman having this title or the wife of a count is called countess.

Other websites 

Heraldica.org - here the French peerage
Italian Titles of Nobility 
Webster's 1828 Dictionary 

Royalty and nobility
Titles
Budgerigar

The budgerigar (nicknamed budgie, binomial name Melopsittacus undulatus) is a small parrot. It belongs to the family of Old World parakeets (Psittaculidae). Budgerigars are often called parakeets, especially in American English. The term Parakeet refers to many types of small parrots with long flat tails. The budgerigar is found in drier parts of Australia. It has lived there for over 5 million years. It is commonly kept as a pet. Budgies are intelligent birds and can be taught to mimic human speech.

Other websites 
 A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar  Referenced article on budgerigars
 List of Plants & Branches Hazardous to Birds Referenced list oriented toward pet birds
 Budgies Information about the budgerigar as a pet supplies

References

Other websites

Birds of Australia
Pets
Parakeets
Endocarditis

Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart. Endocarditis most often affects the heart valves. The heart valves are a part of the human body that does not get blood. This is odd because they are a part of the heart itself. Because of this, if one of the valves gets infected with bacteria or protozoa, the body can not defend itself against those bacteria. This can cause the valve to not work the way it should.

Heart disease
Tetracycline

Tetracycline is a family of antibiotics discovered as natural products  in 1945. It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic because it works against a range of bacteria.

Tetracyclines was first prescribed in 1948. It is produced naturally by the Streptomyces genus of Actinobacteria. It is a protein synthesis inhibitor.

In 1950, Harvard University professor Robert Burns Woodward worked out the chemical structure of the related  oxytetracycline (Terramycin). The patent protection for its production was also first issued in 1950.

Tetracycline is an antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections. It is commonly used to treat acne and rosacea. Historically it was important in reducing the number of deaths from cholera. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

References 

Antibiotics
Organonitrogen compounds
Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin (or haemoglobin) is a protein in red blood cells which contains iron. It is used to transport oxygen around the human body. 

Hemoglobin is found in the red blood cells of almost all vertebrates. The exceptions are the fish family Channichthyidae, and the tissues of some invertebrates. It does occur in some invertebrates, but most invertebrates use other chemicals, such as hemocyanin.

Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases. It carries some of the body's respiratory carbon dioxide (about 20-25% of the total).

Red blood cells get their colour from hemoglobin, which is red. There are millions of hemoglobin molecules in each red blood cell and millions of red blood cells in the human body. When hemoglobin has oxygen attached, it is called oxyhemoglobin.

Structure
The most common type of hemoglobin in mammals contains four such subunits. Each subunit of hemoglobin is a globular protein (globin) with a heme group inside it. Each heme group has one iron atom. This binds one oxygen molecule. So the complete hemoglobin molecule has four globin chains, four heme molecules, and four iron atoms. When hemoglobin is in the lungs, it picks up oxygen in its hemes, and carries it to the rest of the body.

Its structure took years to work out. Max Perutz and John Kendrew worked out the structure of myoglobin first. That muscle globin is smaller, with only one heme group.

References

Proteins
Iron compounds
Blood
Cornea

The cornea is the front part of the eye. It is the clear transparent section of the eye. The cornea covers the iris, pupil, and the eye chamber. It is a special form of tissue. The cornea is clear and has no blood vessels. It has nerves, but with no myelin sheaths on them.

The cornea, with the lens, refracts light. The cornea and the lens bend light so the image strikes the retina. The cornea does about two-thirds of this refraction.

Dua's layer is a newly discovered layer of the cornea. It was described in June 2013. It is the sixth layer of the cornea to be discovered. Despite its thinness, the layer is very strong, and air does not get through it.

References 

Eye anatomy
WASSCE

The West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) is a type of exam in West Africa. It is made by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC). It is only given to students who live in the five English-speaking West African countries: Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, The Gambia and Liberia

The exams 
There are two different types of the exam:

The WASSCE (November/December): students from government and private schools are able to take this exam. Uniforms are not needed, but other rules must be obeyed by the students. This exam is only taken in the fall season(November/December), and the grades are available by December. Its old name is the G.C.E. (General Certificate Examinations).

The WASSCE (May/June): This exam is ideally made for students who go to government schools. Students from private schools, that are well known in the country, can only sit for this exam in any government schools. They must also wear a type of uniforms as the teachers want them to wear. This exam is only taken in the spring season, and the grades are usually  available on or before August of the same year. Its old name is the S.S.C.E. (Senior School Certificate Examinations).

The grades
The grades below are given on the WASSCE certificates for the students who finished their exams. They also depend on how well the students did in their exams.

 

Qualifications