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Title: Coloring graph neural networks for node disambiguation

Paper content:
In this paper, we show that a simple coloring scheme can improve, both theoretically and empirically, the expressive power of Message Passing Neural Networks (MPNNs).
More specifically, we introduce a graph neural network called Colored Local Iterative Procedure (CLIP) that uses colors to disambiguate identical node attributes, and show that this representation is a universal approximator of continuous functions on graphs with node attributes.
Our method relies on separability, a key topological characteristic that allows to extend well-chosen neural networks into universal representations.
Finally, we show experimentally that CLIP is capable of capturing structural characteristics that traditional MPNNs fail to distinguish, while being state-of-the-art on benchmark graph classification datasets.
Learning good representations is seen by many machine learning researchers as the main reason behind the tremendous successes of the field in recent years (Bengio et al., 2013) .
In image analysis (Krizhevsky et al., 2012) , natural language processing (Vaswani et al., 2017) or reinforcement learning (Mnih et al., 2015) , groundbreaking results rely on efficient and flexible deep learning architectures that are capable of transforming a complex input into a simple vector while retaining most of its valuable features.
The universal approximation theorem (Cybenko, 1989; Hornik et al., 1989; Hornik, 1991; Pinkus, 1999) provides a theoretical framework to analyze the expressive power of such architectures by proving that, under mild hypotheses, multi-layer perceptrons (MLPs) can uniformly approximate any continuous function on a compact set.
This result provided a first theoretical justification of the strong approximation capabilities of neural networks, and was the starting point of more refined analyses providing valuable insights into the generalization capabilities of these architectures (Baum and Haussler, 1989; Geman et al., 1992; Saxe et al., 2014; Bartlett et al., 2018) .
Despite a large literature and state-of-the-art performance on benchmark graph classification datasets, graph neural networks yet lack a similar theoretical foundation (Xu et al., 2019) .
Universality for these architectures is either hinted at via equivalence with approximate graph isomorphism tests (k-WL tests in Xu et al. 2019; Maron et al. 2019a ), or proved under restrictive assumptions (finite node attribute space in Murphy et al. 2019) .
In this paper, we introduce Colored Local Iterative Procedure 1 (CLIP), which tackles the limitations of current Message Passing Neural Networks (MPNNs) by showing, both theoretically and experimentally, that adding a simple coloring scheme can improve the flexibility and power of these graph representations.
More specifically, our contributions are:
1) we provide a precise mathematical definition for universal graph representations,
2) we present a general mechanism to design universal neural networks using separability,
3) we propose a novel node coloring scheme leading to CLIP, the first provably universal extension of MPNNs,
4) we show that CLIP achieves state of the art results on benchmark datasets while significantly outperforming traditional MPNNs as well as recent methods on graph property testing.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 gives an overview of the graph representation literature and related works.
Section 3 provides a precise definition for universal representations, as well as a generic method to design them using separable neural networks.
In Section 4, we show that most state-of-the-art representations are not sufficiently expressive to be universal.
Then, using the analysis of Section 3, Section 5 provides CLIP, a provably universal extension of MPNNs.
Finally, Section 6 shows that CLIP achieves state-of-the-art accuracies on benchmark graph classification taks, as well as outperforming its competitors on graph property testing problems.
In this paper, we showed that a simple coloring scheme can improve the expressive power of MPNNs.
Using such a coloring scheme, we extended MPNNs to create CLIP, the first universal graph representation.
Universality was proven using the novel concept of separable neural networks, and our experiments showed that CLIP is state-of-the-art on both graph classification datasets and property testing tasks.
The coloring scheme is especially well suited to hard classification tasks that require complex structural information to learn.
The framework is general and simple enough to extend to other data structures such as directed, weighted or labeled graphs.
Future work includes more detailed and quantitative approximation results depending on the parameters of the architecture such as the number of colors k, or number of hops of the iterative neighborhood aggregation.

assistant: text: This paper introduces a coloring scheme for node disambiguation in graph neural networks based on separability, proven to be a universal MPNN extension.