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Title: GLUE: A Multi-Task Benchmark and Analysis Platform for Natural Language Understanding

Paper content:
For natural language understanding (NLU) technology to be maximally useful, it must be able to process language in a way that is not exclusive to a single task, genre, or dataset.
In pursuit of this objective, we introduce the General Language Understanding Evaluation (GLUE) benchmark, a collection of tools for evaluating the performance of models across a diverse set of existing NLU tasks.
By including tasks with limited training data, GLUE is designed to favor and encourage models that share general linguistic knowledge across tasks.
GLUE also includes a hand-crafted diagnostic test suite that enables detailed linguistic analysis of models.
We evaluate baselines based on current methods for transfer and representation learning and find that multi-task training on all tasks performs better than training a separate model per task.
However, the low absolute performance of our best model indicates the need for improved general NLU systems.
The human ability to understand language is general, flexible, and robust.
In contrast, most NLU models above the word level are designed for a specific task and struggle with out-of-domain data.
If we aspire to develop models with understanding beyond the detection of superficial correspondences between inputs and outputs, then it is critical to develop a more unified model that can learn to execute a range of different linguistic tasks in different domains.To facilitate research in this direction, we present the General Language Understanding Evaluation (GLUE) benchmark: a collection of NLU tasks including question answering, sentiment analysis, and textual entailment, and an associated online platform for model evaluation, comparison, and analysis.
GLUE does not place any constraints on model architecture beyond the ability to process single-sentence and sentence-pair inputs and to make corresponding predictions.
For some GLUE tasks, training data is plentiful, but for others it is limited or fails to match the genre of the test set.
GLUE therefore favors models that can learn to represent linguistic knowledge in a way that facilitates sample-efficient learning and effective knowledge-transfer across tasks.
None of the datasets in GLUE were created from scratch for the benchmark; we rely on preexisting datasets because they have been implicitly agreed upon by the NLP community as challenging and interesting.
Four of the datasets feature privately-held test data, which will be used to ensure that the benchmark is used fairly.
Table 1 : Task descriptions and statistics.
All tasks are single sentence or sentence pair classification, except STS-B, which is a regression task.
MNLI has three classes; all other classification tasks have two.
Test sets shown in bold use labels that have never been made public in any form.To better understand the challenged posed by GLUE, we conduct experiments with simple baselines and state-of-the-art sentence representation models.
We find that unified multi-task trained models slightly outperform comparable models trained on each task separately.
Our best multi-task model makes use of ELMo BID2 , a recently proposed pre-training technique.
However, this model still achieves a fairly low absolute score.
Analysis with our diagnostic dataset reveals that our baseline models deal well with strong lexical signals but struggle with deeper logical structure.In summary, we offer:
(i) A suite of nine sentence or sentence-pair NLU tasks, built on established annotated datasets and selected to cover a diverse range of text genres, dataset sizes, and degrees of difficulty.(ii
) An online evaluation platform and leaderboard, based primarily on privately-held test data. The
platform is model-agnostic, and can evaluate any method capable of producing results on all nine tasks. (iii
) An expert-constructed diagnostic evaluation dataset. (iv
) Baseline results for several major existing approaches to sentence representation learning.
We introduce GLUE, a platform and collection of resources for evaluating and analyzing natural language understanding systems.
We find that, in aggregate, models trained jointly on our tasks see better performance than the combined performance of models trained for each task separately.
We confirm the utility of attention mechanisms and transfer learning methods such as ELMo in NLU systems, which combine to outperform the best sentence representation models on the GLUE benchmark, but still leave room for improvement.
When evaluating these models on our diagnostic dataset, we find that they fail (often spectacularly) on many linguistic phenomena, suggesting possible avenues for future work.
In sum, the question of how to design general-purpose NLU models remains unanswered, and we believe that GLUE can provide fertile soil for addressing this challenge.
A ADDITIONAL BENCHMARK DETAILS QNLI To construct a balanced dataset, we select all pairs in which the most similar sentence to the question was not the answer sentence, as well as an equal amount of cases in which the correct sentence was the most similar to the question, but another distracting sentence was a close second.
Our similarity metric is based on CBoW representations with pre-trained GloVe embeddings.
This approach to converting pre-existing datasets into NLI format is closely related to recent work by BID16 , as well as to the original motivation for textual entailment presented by Dagan et al. (2006) .
Both argue that many NLP tasks can be productively reduced to textual entailment.

assistant: text: We present a multi-task benchmark and analysis platform for evaluating generalization in natural language understanding systems.