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Title: Black-box Adversarial Attacks with Bayesian Optimization

Paper content:
We focus on the problem of black-box adversarial attacks, where the aim is to generate adversarial examples using information limited to loss function evaluations of input-output pairs.
We use Bayesian optimization (BO) to specifically
cater to scenarios involving low query budgets to develop query efficient adversarial attacks.
We alleviate the issues surrounding BO in regards to optimizing high dimensional deep learning models by effective dimension upsampling techniques.
Our proposed approach achieves performance comparable to the state of the art black-box adversarial attacks albeit with a much lower average query count.
In particular, in low query budget regimes, our proposed method reduces the query count up to 80% with respect to the state of the art methods.
Neural networks are now well-known to be vulnerable to adversarial examples: additive perturbations that, when applied to the input, change the network's output classification (Goodfellow et al., 2014) .
Work investigating this lack of robustness to adversarial examples often takes the form of a back-and-forth between newly proposed adversarial attacks, methods for quickly and efficiently crafting adversarial examples, and corresponding defenses that modify the classifier at either training or test time to improve robustness.
The most successful adversarial attacks use gradient-based optimization methods (Goodfellow et al., 2014; Madry et al., 2017) , which require complete knowledge of the architecture and parameters of the target network; this assumption is referred to as the white-box attack setting.
Conversely, the more realistic black-box setting requires an attacker to find an adversarial perturbation without such knowledge: information about the network can be obtained only through querying the target network, i.e., supplying an input to the network and receiving the corresponding output.
In real-world scenarios, it is extremely improbable for an attacker to have unlimited bandwidth to query a target classifier.
In evaluation of black box attacks, this constraint is usually formalized via the introduction of a query budget: a maximum number of queries allowed to the model per input, after which an attack is considered to be unsuccessful.
Several recent papers have proposed attacks specifically to operate in this query-limited context (Ilyas et al., 2019; 2018; Chen et al., 2017; Tu et al., 2019; Moon et al., 2019) ; nevertheless, these papers typically consider query budgets on the order of 10,000 or 100,000.
This leaves open questions as to whether black-box attacks can successfully attack a deep network based classifier in severely query limited settings, e.g., with a query budget of 100-200.
In such a query limited regime, it is natural for an attacker to use the entire query budget, so we ask the pertinent question: In a constrained query limited setting, can one design query efficient yet successful black box adversarial attacks?
This work proposes a black-box attack method grounded in Bayesian optimization (Jones et al., 1998; Frazier, 2018) , which has recently emerged as a state of the art black-box optimization technique in settings where minimizing the number of queries is of paramount importance.
Straightforward application of Bayesian optimization to the problem of finding adversarial examples is not feasible: the input dimension of even a small neural network-based image classifier is orders of magnitude larger than the standard use case for Bayesian optimization.
Rather, we show that we can bridge this gap by performing Bayesian optimization in a reduced-dimension setting and upsampling to obtain our final perturbation.
We explore several upsampling techniques and find that a relatively simple nearest-neighbor upsampling method allows us to sufficiently reduce the optimization prob-lem dimension such that Bayesian optimization can find adversarial perturbations with more success than existing black-box attacks in query-constrained settings.
We compare the efficacy of our adversarial attack with a set of experiments attacking three of the most commonly used pretrained ImageNet (Deng et al., 2009 ) classifiers: ResNet50 (He et al., 2015) , Inception-v3 (Szegedy et al., 2015) , and VGG16-bn (Simonyan & Zisserman, 2014) .
Results from these experiments show that with very small query budgets (under 200 queries), the proposed method BAYES-ATTACK achieves success rates comparable to or exceeding existing methods, and does so with far smaller average and median query counts.
Further experiments are performed on the MNIST dataset to compare how various upsampling techniques affect the attack accuracy of our method.
Given these results we argue that, despite being a simple approach (indeed, largely because it is such a simple and standard approach for black-box optimization), Bayesian Optimization should be a standard baseline for any black-box adversarial attack task in the future, especially in the small query budget regime.
We considered the problem of black-box adversarial attacks in settings involving constrained query budgets.
We employed Bayesian optimization based method to construct a query efficient attack strategy.
The proposed method searches for an adversarial perturbation in low dimensional latent space using Bayesian optimization and then maps the perturbation to the original input space using the nearest neighbor upsampling scheme.
We successfully demonstrated the efficacy of our method in attacking multiple deep learning architectures for high dimensional inputs.
Our work opens avenues regarding applying BO for adversarial attacks in high dimensional settings.

assistant: text: We show that a relatively simple black-box adversarial attack scheme using Bayesian optimization and dimension upsampling  is preferable to existing methods when the number of available queries is very low.