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Title: ReClor: A Reading Comprehension Dataset Requiring Logical Reasoning

Paper content:
Recent powerful pre-trained language models have achieved remarkable performance on most of the popular datasets for reading comprehension.
It is time to introduce more challenging datasets to push the development of this field towards more comprehensive reasoning of text.
In this paper, we introduce a new Reading Comprehension dataset requiring logical reasoning (ReClor) extracted from standardized graduate admission examinations.
As earlier studies suggest, human-annotated datasets usually contain biases, which are often exploited by models to achieve high accuracy without truly understanding the text.
In order to comprehensively evaluate the logical reasoning ability of models on ReClor, we propose to identify biased data points and separate them into EASY set while the rest as HARD set.
Empirical results show that the state-of-the-art models have an outstanding ability to capture biases contained in the dataset with high accuracy on EASY set.
However, they struggle on HARD set with poor performance near that of random guess, indicating more research is needed to essentially enhance the logical reasoning ability of current models.
Machine reading comprehension (MRC) is a fundamental task in Natural Language Processing, which requires models to understand a body of text and answer a particular question related to the context.
With success of unsupervised representation learning in NLP, language pre-training based models such as GPT-2 (Radford et al., 2019) , BERT (Devlin et al., 2019) , XLNet (Yang et al., 2019) and RoBERTa (Liu et al., 2019) have achieved nearly saturated performance on most of the popular MRC datasets (Rajpurkar et al., 2016; Lai et al., 2017; Rajpurkar et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018) .
It is time to challenge state-of-the-art models with more difficult reading comprehension tasks and move a step forward to more comprehensive analysis and reasoning over text (Dua et al., 2019) .
In natural language understanding, logical reasoning is an important ability to examine, analyze and critically evaluate arguments as they occur in ordinary language according to the definition from Law School Admission Council (2019a).
It is a significant component of human intelligence and is essential in negotiation, debate and writing etc.
However, existing reading comprehension datasets have none or merely a small amount of data requiring logical reasoning, e.g., 0% in MCTest dataset (Richardson et al., 2013 ) and 1.2% in SQuAD (Rajpurkar et al., 2016) according to Sugawara & Aizawa (2016) .
One related task is natural language inference, which requires models to label the logical relationships of sentence pairs.
However, this task only considers three types of simple logical relationships and only needs reasoning at sentence-level.
To push the development of models in logical reasoning from simple logical relationship classification to multiple complicated logical reasoning and from sentence-level to passage-level, it is necessary to introduce a reading comprehension dataset targeting logical reasoning.
A typical example of logical reasoning questions is shown in Table 1 .
Similar to the format of multiple-choice reading comprehension datasets (Richardson et al., 2013; Lai et al., 2017) , it contains a context, a question and four options with only one right answer.
To answer the question in this example, readers need to identify the logical connections between the lines to pinpoint the conflict, then understand each of the options and select an option that solves the conflict.
Human minds need extensive training and practice to get used to complex reasoning, and it will take immense efforts for crowdsourcing workers to design such logical reasoning questions.
Inspired by the datasets extracted from standardized examinations (Lai et al., 2017; Clark et al., 2018) , we build a dataset by selecting such logical reasoning questions from standardized exams such as GMAT 1 and LSAT 2 .
We finally collect 6,139 pieces of logical reasoning questions, which constitute a Reading Comprehension dataset requiring logical reasoning (ReClor).
Human-annotated datasets usually contain biases (Schwartz et al., 2017; Cai et al., 2017; Bugert et al., 2017; Poliak et al., 2018; Gururangan et al., 2018; Zellers et al., 2019) , which are often exploited by neural network models as shortcut solutions to achieve high testing accuracy.
For data points whose options can be selected correctly without knowing the contexts and questions, we classify them as biased ones.
In order to fully assess the logical reasoning ability of the models, we propose to identify the biased data points and group them as EASY set, and put the rest into HARD set.
Based on our experiments on these separate sets, we find that even the state-of-the-art models can only perform well on EASY set and struggle on HARD set as shown in Figure 1 .
This phenomenon shows that current models can well capture the biases in the dataset but lack the ability to understand the text and reason based on connections between the lines.
On the other hand, human beings perform similarly on both the EASY and HARD set.
It is thus observed that there is still a long way to go to equip models with true logical reasoning ability.
The contributions of our paper are two-fold.
First, we introduce ReClor, a new reading comprehension dataset requiring logical reasoning.
We use option-only-input baselines trained with different random seeds to identify the data points with biases in the testing set, and group them as EASY set, with the rest as HARD set to facilitate comprehensive evaluation.
Second, we evaluate several stateof-the-art models on ReClor and find these pre-trained language models can perform well on EASY set but struggle on the HARD set.
This indicates although current models are good at exploiting biases in the dataset, they are far from capable of performing real logical reasoning yet.
In this paper, we introduce ReClor, a reading comprehension dataset requiring logical reasoning, with the aim to push research progress on logical reasoning in NLP forward from sentence-level to passage-level and from simple logical reasoning to multiple complicated one.
We propose to identify biased data points and split the testing set into EASY and HARD group for biased and non-biased data separately.
We further empirically study the different behaviors of state-of-the-art models on these two testing sets, and find recent powerful transformer-based pre-trained language models have an excellent ability to exploit the biases in the dataset but have difficulty in understanding and reasoning given the non-biased data with low performance close to or slightly better than random guess.
These results show there is a long way to equip deep learning models with real logical reasoning abilities.
We hope this work would inspire more research in future to adopt similar split technique and evaluation scheme when reporting their model performance.
We also show by first fine-tuning on a large-scale dataset RACE then fine-tuning on ReClor, the models could obtain significant improvement, showing the potential of transfer learning to solve reasoning tasks.

assistant: text: We introduce ReClor, a reading comprehension dataset requiring logical reasoning, and find that current state-of-the-art models struggle with real logical reasoning with poor performance near that of random guess.