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Title: Sample Efficient Adaptive Text-to-Speech

Paper content:
We present a meta-learning approach for adaptive text-to-speech (TTS) with few data.
During training, we learn a multi-speaker model using a shared conditional WaveNet core and independent learned embeddings for each speaker.
The aim of training is not to produce a neural network with fixed weights, which is then deployed as a TTS system.
Instead, the aim is to produce a network that requires few data at deployment time to rapidly adapt to new speakers.
We introduce and benchmark three strategies:
(i) learning the speaker embedding while keeping the WaveNet core fixed,
(ii) fine-tuning the entire architecture with stochastic gradient descent, and
(iii) predicting the speaker embedding with a trained neural network encoder.
The experiments show that these approaches are successful at adapting the multi-speaker neural network to new speakers, obtaining state-of-the-art results in both sample naturalness and voice similarity with merely a few minutes of audio data from new speakers.
Training a large model with lots of data and subsequently deploying this model to carry out classification or regression is an important and common methodology in machine learning.
It has been particularly successful in speech recognition , machine translation BID1 and image recognition BID2 BID3 .
In this textto-speech (TTS) work, we are instead interested in few-shot meta-learning.
Here the objective of training with many data is not to learn a fixed-parameter classifier, but rather to learn a "prior" neural network.
This prior TTS network can be adapted rapidly, using few data, to produce TTS systems for new speakers at deployment time.
That is, the intention is not to learn a fixed final model, but rather to learn a model prior that harnesses few data at deployment time to learn new behaviours rapidly.
The output of training is not longer a fixed model, but rather a fast learner.Biology provides motivation for this line of research.
It may be argued that evolution is a slow adaptation process that has resulted in biological machines with the ability to adapt rapidly to new data during their lifetimes.
These machines are born with strong priors that facilitate rapid learning.We consider a meta-learning approach where the model has two types of parameters: task-dependent parameters and task-independent parameters.
During training, we learn all of these parameters but discard the task-dependent parameters for deployment.
The goal is to use few data to learn the task-dependent parameters for new tasks rapidly.Task-dependent parameters play a similar role to latent variables in classical probabilistic graphical models.
Intuitively, these variables introduce flexibility, thus making it easier to learn the taskindependent parameters.
For example, in classical HMMs, knowing the latent variables results in a simple learning problem of estimating the parameters of an exponential-family distribution.
In neural networks, this approach also facilitates learning when there is clear data diversity and categorization.
We show this for adaptive TTS BID4 BID5 .
In this setting, speakers correspond to tasks.
During training we have many speakers, and it is therefore helpful to have task-dependent parameters to capture speaker-specific voice styles.
At the same time, it is useful to have a large model with shared parameters to capture the generic process of mapping text to speech.
To this end, we employ the WaveNet model.WaveNet BID6 is an autoregressive generative model for audio waveforms that has yielded state-of-art performance in speech synthesis.
This model was later modified for real-time speech generation via probability density distillation into a feed-forward model BID7 .
A fundamental limitation of WaveNet is the need for hours of training data for each speaker.
In this paper we describe a new WaveNet training procedure that facilitates adaptation to new speakers, allowing the synthesis of new voices from no more than 10 minutes of data with high sample quality.We propose several extensions of WaveNet for sample-efficient adaptive TTS.
First, we present two non-parametric adaptation methods that involve fine-tuning either the speaker embeddings only or all the model parameters given few data from a new speaker.
Second, we present a parametric textindependent approach whereby an auxiliary network is trained to predict new speaker embeddings.The experiments will show that all the proposed approaches, when provided with just a few seconds or minutes of recording, can generate high-fidelity utterances that closely resemble the vocal tract characteristics of a demonstration speaker, particularly when the entire model is fine-tuned end-to-end.
When fine-tuning by first estimating the speaker embedding and subsequently fine-tuning the entire model, we achieve state-of-the-art results in terms of sample naturalness and voice similarity to target speakers.
These results are robust across speech datasets recorded under different conditions and, moreover, we demonstrate that the generated samples are capable of confusing the state-of-the-art text-independent speaker verification system BID8 .TTS
techniques require hours of high-quality recordings, collected in controlled environments, for each new voice style. Given
this high cost, reducing the length of the training dataset could be valuable. For example
, it is likely to be very beneficial when attempting to restore the voices of patients who suffer from voice-impairing medical conditions. In these cases
, long high quality recordings are scarce.
This paper studied three variants of meta-learning for sample efficient adaptive TTS.
The adaptation method that fine-tunes the entire model, with the speaker embedding vector first optimized, shows impressive performance even with only 10 seconds of audio from new speakers.
When adapted with a few minutes of data, our model matches the state-of-the-art performance in sample naturalness.
Moreover, it outperforms other recent works in matching the new speaker's voice.
We also demon- : ROC curve for real versus generated utterance detection.
The utterances were generated using models with 5 and 10 minutes of training data per speaker from LibriSpeech and VCTK respectively.
Lower curve indicate that the verification system is having a harder time distinguishing real from generated samples.strated that the generated samples achieved a similar level of voice similarity to real utterances from the same speaker, when measured by a text independent speaker verification model.Our paper considers the adaptation to new voices with clean, high-quality training data collected in a controlled environment.
The few-shot learning of voices with noisy data is beyond the scope of this paper and remains a challenging open research problem.A requirement for less training data to adapt the model, however, increases the potential for both beneficial and harmful applications of text-to-speech technologies such as the creation of synthesized media.
While the requirements for this particular model (including the high-quality training data collected in a controlled environment and equally high quality data from the speakers to which we adapt, as described in Section 5.1) present barriers to misuse, more research must be conducted to mitigate and detect instances of misuse of text-to-speech technologies in general.

assistant: text: Sample efficient algorithms to adapt a text-to-speech model to a new voice style with the state-of-the-art performance.