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When machine learning models are used for high-stakes decisions, they should predict accurately, fairly, and responsibly.
To fulfill these three requirements, a model must be able to output a reject option (i.e. say "``I Don't Know") when it is not qualified to make a prediction.
In this work, we propose learning to defer, a method by which a model can defer judgment to a downstream decision-maker such as a human user.
We show that learning to defer generalizes the rejection learning framework in two ways: by considering the effect of other agents in the decision-making process, and by allowing for optimization of complex objectives.
We propose a learning algorithm which accounts for potential biases held by decision-makerslater in a pipeline.
Experiments on real-world datasets demonstrate that learning
to defer can make a model not only more accurate but also less biased.
Even when
operated by highly biased users, we show that
deferring models can still greatly improve the fairness of the entire pipeline.
Recent machine learning advances have increased our reliance on learned automated systems in complex, high-stakes domains such as loan approvals BID6 , medical diagnosis BID12 , and criminal justice BID22 .
This growing use of automated decisionmaking has raised questions about the obligations of classification systems.
In many high-stakes situations, machine learning systems should satisfy (at least) three objectives: predict accurately (predictions should be broadly effective indicators of ground truth), predict fairly (predictions should be unbiased with respect to different types of input), and predict responsibly (predictions should not be made if the model cannot confidently satisfy the previous two objectives).Given these requirements, we propose learning to defer.
When deferring, the algorithm does not output a prediction; rather it says "I Don't Know" (IDK), indicating it has insufficient information to make a responsible prediction, and that a more qualified external decision-maker (DM) is required.
For example, in medical diagnosis, the deferred cases would lead to more medical tests, and a second expert opinion.
Learning to defer extends the common rejection learning framework (Chow, 1957; BID9 in two ways.
Firstly, it considers the expected output of the DM on each example, more accurately optimizing the output of the joint DM-model system.
Furthermore, it can be used with a variety of training objectives, whereas most rejection learning research focuses solely on classification accuracy.
We believe that algorithms that can defer, i.e., yield to more informed decision-makers when they cannot predict responsibly, are an essential component to accountable and reliable automated systems.
In this work, we show that the standard rejection learning paradigm (learning to punt) is inadequate, if these models are intended to work as part of a larger system.
We propose an alternative decision making framework (learning to defer) to learn and evaluate these models.
We find that embedding a deferring model in a pipeline can improve the accuracy and fairness of the pipeline as a whole, particularly if the model has insight into decision makers later in the pipeline.
We simulate such a pipeline where our model can defer judgment to a better-informed decision maker, echoing real-world situations where downstream decision makers have more resources or information.
We propose different formulations of these models along with a learning algorithm for training a model that can work optimally with such a decision-maker.
Our experimental results on two real-world datasets, from the legal and health domains, show that this algorithm learns models which, through deferring, can work with users to make fairer, more responsible decisions.
Notions of Fairness.
One of the most challenging aspect of machine learning approaches to fairness is formulating an operational definition.
Several works have focused on the goal of treating similar people similarly (individual fairness) and the resulting necessity of fair-awareness -showing that it may be essential to give the algorithm knowledge of the sensitive variable BID10 Zemel et al., 2013; BID11 .Some definitions of fairness center around statistical parity BID19 BID20 , calibration BID14 BID14 or disparate impact/equalized odds BID7 BID16 BID23 BID13 .
It has been shown that disparate impact and calibration cannot be simultaneously satisfied BID7 BID23 .
BID16 present the related notion of "equal opportunity".
In a subsequent paper, Woodworth et al. (2017) argue that in practice fairness criteria should be part of the learning algorithm, not post-hoc.
BID13 and BID3 develop and implement learning algorithms that integrate equalized odds into learning via regularization.
Incorporating IDK.
While we are the first to propose learning to defer, some works have examined the "I don't know" (IDK) option (cf.
rejection learning, see BID9 for a thorough survey), beginning with Chow (1957; BID8 who studies the tradeoff between error-rate and rejection rate.
BID9 develop a framework for integrating IDK directly into learning.
KWIK (Knows-What-It-Knows) learning is proposed in BID25 as a theoretical framework.
BID0 discuss the difficulty of a model learning what it doesn't know (particularly rare cases), and analyzes how human users can audit such models.
Wang et al. (2017) propose a cascading model, which can be learned from end-to-end; higher levels can say IDK and pass the decision on to lower levels.
Similarly, BID24 ; BID9 ; BID2 provide algorithms for saying IDK in classification and Ripley (2007) provides a statistical overview of the problem, including both "don't know" and "outlier" options.
However, none of these works look at the fairness impact of this procedure.
A few papers have addressed topics related to both fairness and IDK.
BID5 describe fair sequential decision making but do not have an IDK concept, nor do they provide a learning procedure.
In BID18 , the authors show theoretical connections between KWIK-learning and a proposed method for fair bandit learning.
BID13 discuss fairness that can arise out of a mixture of classifiers.
However, they do not provide a learning procedure, nor do they address sequential decision making, which we believe is of great practical importance.
Varshney & Alemzadeh (2017) propose "safety reserves" and "safe fail" options which combine learning with rejection and fairness/safety, but do not suggest how such options may be learned or analyze the effect of a larger decision-making framework.
AI Safety.
Finally, our work also touches on aspects of the AI safety literature -we provide a method by which a machine learns to work optimally with a human.
This is conceptually similar to work such as Milli et al. (2017); Soares et al. (2015) , which discuss the situations in which a robot should be compliant/cooperative with a human.
The idea of a machine and human jointly producing a fair classifier also relates to BID15 , which describes algorithms for machines to align with human values.
Previous works in rejection learning (see Sec. 2) have proposed models that can choose to not classify (say IDK/reject).
In these works, the standard method is to optimize the accuracy-IDK tradeoff: how much can a model improve its accuracy on the cases it does classify by saying IDK to some cases?We find this paradigm inadequate.
In many of the high-stakes applications this type of work is aimed at, an IDK is not the end of the story.
Rather, a decision must be made eventually on every example, whether the model chooses to classify it or not.
When the model predicts, the system outputs the model's prediction; when the model says IDK, the system outputs the decision-maker's (DM's) prediction.
Rejection learning considers the "IDK Model" to be the system output.
Say our model is trained to detect melanoma, and when it says IDK, a human doctor can run an extra suite of medical tests.
The model learns that it is very inaccurate at detecting amelanocytic (non-pigmented) melanoma, and says IDK if this might be the case.
However, suppose that the doctor is even less accurate at detecting amelanocytic melanoma than the model is.
Then, we may prefer the model to make a prediction despite its uncertainty.
Conversely, if there are some patients that the doctor knows well, then they may have a more informed, nuanced opinion than the model.
Then, we may prefer the model to say IDK more frequently relative to its internal uncertainty.
Saying IDK on the wrong examples can also have fairness consequences.
If the doctor's decisions bias against a certain group, then it is probably preferable for our model (if it is less biased) to defer less frequently on the cases of that group.
In short, the model we train is part of a larger pipeline, and we should be training and evaluating the performance of the pipeline with this model included, rather than solely focusing on the model itself.
To enable this, we define a general two-step framework for decision-making FIG0 .
The first step is an automated model whose parameters we want to learn.
The second step is some external decision maker (DM) which we do not have control over; this could be a human user or a more resourceintensive tool.
The decision-making flow is done as a cascade, where the first-step model can either predict (positive/negative) or say IDK.
If it predicts, the DM trusts the model completely, and outputs that prediction.
However, if it says IDK, the DM makes its own decision.
We assume that the DM is more powerful than the model we train -reflecting a number of practical scenarios where decision makers later in the chain have more resources for efficiency, security, or contextual reasons. .
In Appendix A, we prove that learning to defer is equivalent to rejection learning for a broad class of loss functions, including classification error, if the DM is an oracle.
Since our DM is rarely an oracle, learning to defer therefore yields a modeling advantage over rejection learning.
Furthermore, learning to defer allows us to optimize a variety of objectives L(Y, Y sys ), whereas most rejection learning research focuses on classification error.
In the rest of this work, we show how to learn fair IDK models in this framework.
The paper proceeds as follows: in Sec. 4 we give some background on the fairness setup; in Sec. 5 we describe two methods of learning IDK models and how we may learn them in a fair way; and in Sec. 6 we give a learning algorithm for optimizing models to succeed in this framework.
In Sec. 7 we show results on two real-world datasets.
In fair binary classification, we have data X, labels Y , predictionsŶ , and sensitive attribute A, assuming for simplicity that Y,Ŷ , A ∈ {0, 1}. In this work we assume that A is known (fair-aware) and that it is a single binary attribute (e.g., gender, race, age, etc.); extensions to more general settings are straightforward.
The aim is twofold: firstly, that the classifier is accurate i.e., Y i =Ŷ i ; and secondly, that the classifier is fair with respect to A i.e.,Ŷ does not discriminate unfairly against examples with a particular value of A. Classifiers with fairness constraints provably achieve worse error rates (cf.
Chouldechova FORMULA0 ; BID23 ).
We thus define a loss function which trades off between these two objectives, relaxing the hard constraint proposed by models like BID16 and yielding a regularizer, similar to BID20 BID3 .
We use disparate impact (DI) as our fairness metric BID7 , as it is becoming widely used and also forms the legal basis for discrimination judgements in the U.S. BID1 .
Here we define a continuous relaxation of DI, using probabilistic output DISPLAYFORM0 Note that constraining DI = 0 is equivalent to equalized odds BID16 .
If we constrain p ∈ {0, 1}, we say we are using hard thresholds; allowing p ∈ [0, 1] is soft thresholds.
We include a hyperparameter α to balance accuracy and fairness; there is no "correct" way to weight these.
When we learn such a model, p is a function of X parametrized by θ.
Our regularized fair loss function (L F air , or L F ) combines cross-entropy for accuracy with this fairness metric: DISPLAYFORM1 5 SAYING IDK: LEARNING TO PUNTWe now discuss two model formulations that can output IDK: ordinal regression, and neural networks with weight uncertainty.
Both of these models build on binary classifiers by allowing them to express some kind of uncertainty.
In this section, we discuss these IDK models and how to train them to be fair; in the following section we address how to train them to take into account the downstream decision-maker.
We extend binary classifiers to include a third option, yielding a model that can classify examples as "positive", "negative" or "IDK".
This allows the model to punt, i.e., to output IDK when it prefers not to commit to a positive or negative prediction.
We base our IDK models on ordinal regression with three categories (positive, IDK, and negative).
These models involve learning two thresholds τ = (t 0 , t 1 ) (see FIG8 ).
We can train with either hard or soft thresholds.
If soft, each threshold t i , i ∈ {0, 1} is associated with a sigmoid function σ i , where DISPLAYFORM0 1+e −x .
These thresholds yield an ordinal regression, which produces three values for every score x: DISPLAYFORM1 Using hard thresholds simply restricts P, I, N ∈ {0, 1} 3 (one-hot vector).
We can also calculate a score p(x) ∈ [0, 1], which we interpret as the model's prediction disregarding uncertainty.
These values are: DISPLAYFORM2 P represents the model's bet that x is "positive", N the bet that x is "negative", and I is the model hedging its bets; this rises with uncertainty.
Note that p is minimized at P = N ; this is also where I is maximized.
At test time, we use the thresholds to partition the examples.
On each example, the model outputs a score x ∈ R (the logit for the ordinal regression), and a prediction p. If t 0 < x < t 1 , then we replace the model's prediction p with IDK.
If x ≤ t 0 or x ≥ t 1 , we leave p as is.
To encourage fairness, we can learn a separate set of thresholds for each group: (t 0,A=0 , t 1,A=0 ) and (t 0,A=1 , t 1,A=1 ); then apply the appropriate set of thresholds to each example.
We can also regularize IDK classifiers for fairness.
When training this model, P , I, and N are parametrized functions, with model parameters θ and thresholds τ .
Using soft thresholds, the regularized loss DISPLAYFORM3 Note that we add a term penalizing I(X), to prevent the trivial solution of always outputting IDK.
In addition, we regularize the disparate impact for P (X) and N (X) separately.
This was not necessary in the binary case, since these two probabilities would have always summed to 1.
We learn soft thresholds end-to-end; for hard thresholds we use a post-hoc thresholding scheme (see Appendix D).
We can also take a Bayesian approach to uncertainty by learning a distribution over the weights of a neural network BID4 .
In this method, we use variational inference to approximate the posterior distribution of the model weights given the data.
When sampling from this distribution, we can obtain an estimate of the uncertainty.
If sampling several times yields widely varying results, we can state the model is uncertain on that example..
The reciprocal of this (π = 1/S) allows high values to be more uncertain, while π = σ(log(1/S)) (where σ is the logistic function) yields uncertainty values in a [0, 1] range.
At test time, the system can threshold this uncertainty; any example with uncertainty beyond a threshold is punted to the DM.We can regularize this Bayesian model to improve fairness as in the standard binary classifier.
In the likelihood term for the variational inference, we can simply add the disparate impact regularizer (Eq. 1), making solutions of low disparate impact more likely.
With weights w and variational parameters θ, our variational lower bound L V is then: DISPLAYFORM0 6 LEARNING TO DEFER IDK models come with a consequence: when a model punts, the prediction is made instead by some external, possibly biased decision maker (DM) e.g., a human expert.
In this work we assume that this DM is possibly biased, but is more accurate than the model; perhaps the DM is a judge with detailed information on repeat offenders, and with more information about the defendant than the model has, or a doctor who can conduct a suite of complex medical tests.
Here we introduce a distinction between learning to punt and learning to defer.
In learning to punt, the goal is absolute: the model's aim is to identify the examples where it has a low chance of being correct.
In learning to defer, the model has some information about the DM and takes this into account in its IDK decisions.
Hence the goal is relative: the model's aim is to identify the examples where the DM's chance of being correct is much higher than its own.
If the model punts mostly on cases where the DM is very inaccurate or unfair, then the joint predictions made by the model-DM pair may be poor, even if the model's own predictions are good.
We can think of learning to punt as DM-unaware learning, and learning to defer as DM-aware learning.
To conduct DM-aware learning, we can modify the model presented in Section 5 to take an extra input: the DM's scores on every case in the training set.
The model is then optimized for some loss function L(Y, A, X); for our purposes, this loss will be a combination of accuracy and fairness.
We propose the following general method, drawing inspiration from mixture-of-experts BID17 .
We introduce a mixing parameter π for each example x, which is the probability of deferral; that is, the probability that the DM makes the final decision on the example x, rather than the model.
Then, 1 − π is the probability that the model's decision becomes the final output of the system.
Let s ∼ Ber(π).
Our mixing parameter π corresponds to our model's uncertainty estimate -I(x) in ordinal regression, σ(log( 1 S )) in the Bayesian neural network.
Let p be the first stage model's predictions andỸ be the DM's predictions.
We can express the joint system's predictionsp aŝ DISPLAYFORM1 In learning this model, we can parametrize p and π by θ = (θ p , θ π ), which may be shared parameters.
We can then define our loss function (L Def er , or L D ) as an expectation over the Bernoulli variables DISPLAYFORM2 We call this learning to defer.
When optimizing this function, the model learns to recognize when there is relevant information that is not present in the data it has been given by comparing its own predictions to the DM's predictions.
Full details of how this loss function is calculated are provided in Appendix E.
Experimental Setup.
To evaluate our models, we measure three quantities: classification error, disparate impact, and deferral rate.
We train an independent model to simulate predictions made by an external DM.
This DM is trained on a version of the dataset with extra attributes, simulating the extra knowledge/accuracy that the DM may have.
However, the DM is not trained to be fair.
When our model outputs IDK we take the output of the DM instead (see FIG0 ).Datasets and Experiment Details.
We show results on two datasets: the COMPAS dataset BID22 , where we predict a defendant's recidivism (committing a crime while on bail) without discriminating by race, and the Heritage Health dataset, where we predict a patient's Charlson Index (a comorbidity indicator related to likelihood of death) without discriminating by age.
For COMPAS, we give the DM the ground truth for a defendant's violent recidivism; for Health, we give the DM the patient's primary condition group.
Appendix C contains additional details on both datasets.
We trained all models using a one-hidden-layer fully connected neural network with a logistic or ordinal regression on the output, where appropriate.
We used 5 sigmoid hidden units for COMPAS and 20 sigmoid hidden units for Health.
We used ADAM BID21 for gradient descent.
We split the training data into 80% training, 20% validation, and stopped training after 50 consecutive epochs without achieving a new minimum loss on the validation set.
In the ordinal regression model, we trained with soft thresholds since we needed the model to be differentiable end to end.
In the post-hoc model, we searched threshold space in a manner which did not require differentiability, so we used hard thresholds.
This is equivalent to an ordinal regression which produces one-hot vectors i.e. P, I, N ∈ {0, 1}. See Appendices D and E for additional details on both of these cases.
Displaying Results.
Each model contains hyperparameters, such as the coefficients (α, γ) for training and/or post-hoc optimization.
We show the results of several models, with various hyperparameter settings, to illustrate how they mediate the tradeoff of accuracy and fairness.
Each plotted point is a median of 5 runs at a given hyperparameter setting.
We only show points on the Pareto front of Bottom left hand corner is optimal.
The purple star is a baseline model, trained only to optimize accuracy; green squares is a model also optimizing fairness; the red diamond optimizes accuracy while allowing IDK; and blue circles are the full model with all three terms.
Yellow star shows the second stage model DM alone.
Each point is the median of 5 runs on the test set at a given hyperparameter setting.
FIG1 ; the new results here show the performance of a DM-aware model (defer-fair), depicted by the green triangles.
Of particular note is the improvement of this model relative to the punting model (the blue circles).the results, i.e., those for which no other point had both better error and DI.
Finally, all results are calculated on a held-out test set.
In FIG1 , we compare punting models to binary models, with and without fairness regularization.
These IDK models have not learned to defer, i.e. they did not receive access to the DM scores during training (see FIG2 ).
The results show that, on both datasets, the IDK models achieve a stronger combination of fairness and accuracy than the binary models.
Graphically, we observe this by noting that the line of points representing IDK model results are closer to the lower left hand corner of the plot than the line of points representing binary model results.
Some of this improvement is driven by the extra accuracy in the DM.
However, we note that the model-DM combination achieves a more effective accuracy-fairness tradeoff than any of the three baselines: the accurate but unfair DM; the fair but inaccurate binary model with DI regularization; and the unfair and inaccurate unregularized binary model.
Learning to punt can therefore be a valuable tool for anyone who designs or oversees a many-part system -a simple first stage capable of expressing uncertainty can improve the fairness of a more accurate DM.
FIG2 demonstrates a clear improvement over the punting models (DM-unaware, Sec. 5).
If we have access to examples of past DM behavior, learning to defer provides an effective way to improve the fairness of the entire system.
For insight here, we can inspect the different roles IDK plays in their respective loss functions.
In the DM-unaware IDK model, punting is penalized at a constant rate, determined by γ.
However, in the DM-aware model, deferring penalized in a way which is dependent on the output of the DM on that example.
We can consider the unaware model to be optimizing the expected DM-aware loss function for a DM with constant expected loss on each examples, such as an oracle (see Appendix A).
Then, we can see any improvement by the DM-aware model as effective identification of the examples on which the expected loss of the DM is unusually high; in other words, identifying the inconsistencies or biases of the DM.
One advantage of deferring is that it can account for specific characteristics of a DM.
To test this, we considered the case of a DM which is extremely biased FIG3 .
We find that the advantage of a deferring model holds in this case, as it compensates for the DM's extreme bias.
We can further analyze where the model chooses to defer.
Recall that the DM is given extra information; in this case the violent recidivism of the defendant (true for about 7% of the dataset), which is difficult to predict from the other attributes.
FIG4 compares the IDKs predicted by a punting model and a deferring model -split by group (race) on the left, and by group and violent recidivism on the right.
Both models achieved roughly 27% error; the deferring model had 2% DI and the punting model had 4%.
On the left, we see that the deferring model says IDK to more black people (the pink bar).
On the right however, we see that the deferring model says IDK to a higher percentage of violently recidivating non-black people, and a lower percentage of violently recidivating black people.
This improves DI -the extra information the DM has received is more fully used on the non-protected group.
The punting model cannot adjust this way; the deferring model can, since it receives noisy access to this information through the DM scores in training.
In this work, we propose the idea of learning to defer.
We propose a model which learns to defer fairly, and show that these models can better navigate the accuracy-fairness tradeoff.
We also consider deferring models as one part of a decision pipeline.
To this end, we provide a framework for evaluating deferring models by incorporating other decision makers' output into learning.
We give an algorithm for learning to defer in the context of a larger system, and show how to train a deferring model to optimize the performance of the pipeline as a whole.
This is a powerful, general framework, with ramifications for many complex domains where automated models interact with other decision-making agents.
A model with a low deferral rate could be used to cull a large pool of examples, with all deferrals requiring further examination.
Conversely, a model with a high deferral rate can be thought of as flagging the most troublesome, incorrect, or biased decisions by a DM, with all non-deferrals requiring further investigation.
Automated models often operate within larger systems, with many moving parts.
Through deferring, we show how models can learn to predict responsibly within their surrounding systems.
Automated models often operate within larger systems, with many moving parts.
Through deferring, we show how models can learn to predict responsibly within their surrounding systems.
Building models which can defer to more capable decision makers is an essential step towards fairer, more responsible machine learning.
In Section 7.1, we discuss that DM-unaware IDK training is similar to DM-aware training, except with a training DM who treats all examples similarly, in some sense.
Here we show experimental evidence.
The plots in FIG5 compare these two models: DM-unaware, and DM-aware with an oracle at training time, and the standard DM at test time.
We can see that these models trade off between error rate and DI in almost an identical manner.
We can show that when for a broad class of objective functions (including classification error and cross entropy), these are provably equivalent.
Note that this class does not include our fairness regularizer; for that we show the experimental evidence in FIG5 .Let Y be the ground truth label, Y DM be the DM output, Y model be the model output, s be the IDK decision indicator (s = 0 for predict, s = 1 for IDK), and Y sys be the output of the joint DM-model system.
Suppose these are all binary variables.
The standard rejection learning (DM-unaware) loss (which has no concept of Y DM ) is BID9 : DISPLAYFORM0 We can describe the learning-to-defer system output as DISPLAYFORM1 If we wish to train the system output Y sys to optimize some loss function L(Y, Y sys ), we can simply train s and DISPLAYFORM2 .
This deferring framework is strictly more expressive than the rejection learning model, as it can be used on many different objectives L, while rejection learning is mostly used with classification accuracy.
We now show that if we take the DM to be an oracle (always outputs ground truth), learning to defer reduces to rejection learning for a broad class of objective functions, including classification error, cross entropy, and mean squared error.
DISPLAYFORM3 ) be the objective we aim to minimize, where Y i = arg min DISPLAYFORM4 the DM is an oracle, the learning-to-defer and learning-to-punt objectives are equivalent.
Proof.
As in Eq. 8, the standard rejection learning objective is DISPLAYFORM5 where the first term encourages a low loss for non-IDK examples and the second term penalizes IDK at a constant rate, with γ punt ≥ 0.
In rejection learning, is usually classification error (cf.
BID9 Chow (1957) ).
Note that this objective has no notion of DM output (Y DM ).If we include a similar γ def er penalty, the deferring loss function is DISPLAYFORM6 Now, if the DM is an oracle, then DISPLAYFORM7 if we set γ def er = γ punt .
The results in Figures 8 and 9 roughly replicate the results from BID3 , who also test on the COMPAS dataset.
Their results are slightly different for two reasons: 1) we use a 1-layer NN and they use logistic regression; and 2) our training/test splits are different from theirswe have more examples in our training set.
However, the main takeaway is similar: regularization with a disparate impact term is a good way to reduce DI without making too many more errors.
We show results on two datasets.
The first is the COMPAS recidivism dataset, made available by ProPublica BID22 1 .
This dataset concerns recidivism: whether or not a criminal defendant will commit a crime while on bail.
The goal is to predict whether or not the person will recidivate, and the sensitive variable is race (split into black and non-black).
We used information about counts of prior charges, charge degree, sex, age, and charge type (e.g., robbery, drug possession).
We provide one extra bit of information to our DM -whether or not the defendant violently recidivated.
This clearly delineates between two groups in the data -one where the DM knows the correct answer (those who violently recidivated) and one where the DM has no extra information (those who did not recidivate, and those who recidivated non-violently).
This simulates a real-world scenario where a DM, unbeknownst to the model, may have extra information on a subset of the data.
The simulated DM had a 24% error rate, better than the baseline model's 29% error rate.
We split the dataset into 7718 training examples and 3309 test examples.
The second dataset is the Heritage Health dataset 2 .
This dataset concerns health and hospitalization, particularly with respect to insurance.
For this dataset, we chose the goal of predicting the Charlson Index, a comorbidity indicator, related to someone's chances of death in the next several years.
We binarize the Charlson Index of a patient as 0/greater than 0.
We take the sensitive variable to be age and binarize by over/under 70 years old.
This dataset contains information on sex, age, lab test, prescription, and claim details.
The extra information available to the DM is the primary condition group of the patient (given in the form of a code e.g., 'SEIZURE', 'STROKE', 'PNEUM').
Again, this simulates the situation where a DM may have extra information on the patient's health that the algorithm does not have access to.
The simulated DM had a 16% error rate, better than the baseline model's 21% error rate.
We split the dataset into 46769 training examples and 20044 test examples.
We now explain the post-hoc threshold optimization search procedure we used.
In theory, any procedure can work.
Since it is a very small space (one dimension per threshold = 4 dimensions), we used a random search.
We sampled 1000 combinations of thresholds, picked the thresholds which minimized the loss on one half of the test set, and evaluated these thresholds on the other half of the test set.
We do this for several values of α, γ in thresholding, as well as several values of α for the original binary model.
We did not sample thresholds from the [0, 1] interval uniformly.
Rather we used the following procedure.
We sampled our lower thresholds from the scores in the training set which were below 0.5, and our upper thresholds from the scores in the training set which were above 0.5.
Our sampling scheme was guided by two principles: this forced 0.5 to always be in the IDK region; and this allowed us to sample more thresholds where the scores were more dense.
If only choosing one threshold per class, we sampled from the entire training set distribution, without dividing into above 0.5 and below 0.5.
This random search was significantly faster than grid search, and no less effective.
It was also faster and more effective than gradient-based optimization methods for thresholds -the loss landscape seemed to have many local minima.
We go into more detail regarding the regularization term for expected disparate impact in Equation 7.
When using soft thresholds, it is not trivial to calculate the expected disparate impact regularizer: DISPLAYFORM0 due to the difficulties involved in taking the expected value of an absolute value.
We instead chose to calculate a version of the regularizer with squared underlying terms: DISPLAYFORM1 DISPLAYFORM2 Then, we can expandŶ i asŶ DISPLAYFORM3 whereỸ i ∈ [0, 1] and S(x i ) ∈ [0, 1] are the DM and machine predictions respectively.
For brevity we will not show the rest of the calculation, but with some algebra we can obtain a closed form expression for DI sof t (Y, A,Ŷ ) in terms of Y, A,Ỹ and S.F RESULTS: LEARNING TO DEFER, BY DEFERRAL RATE Models which rarely defer behave very differently from those which frequently defer.
In FIG0 , we break down the results from Section 7.1 by deferral (or punting) rate.
First, we note that even for models with similar deferral rates, we see a similar fairness/accuracy win for the DM-aware models.
Next, we can look separately at the low and high deferral rate models.
We note that the benefit of DM-aware training is much larger for high deferral rate models.
This suggests that the largest benefit of learning to defer comes from a win in fairness, rather than accuracy.
Figure 10: Comparison of DM-aware and -unaware learning.
Split into 3 bins, low, medium, and high deferral rate for each dataset.
Bins are different between datasets due to the differing distributions of deferral rate observed during hyperparameter search.

assistant: text: Incorporating the ability to say I-don't-know can improve the fairness of a classifier without sacrificing too much accuracy, and this improvement magnifies when the classifier has insight into downstream decision-making.