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Title: SpectralNet: Spectral Clustering using Deep Neural Networks

Paper content:
Spectral clustering is a leading and popular technique in unsupervised data analysis.
Two of its major limitations are scalability and generalization of the spectral embedding (i.e., out-of-sample-extension).
In this paper we introduce a deep learning approach to spectral clustering that overcomes the above shortcomings.
Our network, which we call SpectralNet, learns a map that embeds input data points into the eigenspace of their associated graph Laplacian matrix and subsequently clusters them.
We train SpectralNet using a procedure that involves constrained stochastic optimization.
Stochastic optimization allows it to scale to large datasets, while the constraints, which are implemented using a special purpose output layer, allow us to keep the network output orthogonal.
Moreover, the map learned by SpectralNet naturally generalizes the spectral embedding to unseen data points.
To further improve the quality of the clustering, we replace the standard pairwise Gaussian affinities with affinities leaned from unlabeled data using a Siamese network.
Additional improvement can be achieved by applying the network to code representations produced, e.g., by standard autoencoders.
Our end-to-end learning procedure is fully unsupervised.
In addition, we apply VC dimension theory to derive a lower bound on the size of  SpectralNet.
State-of-the-art clustering results are reported for both the MNIST and Reuters datasets.
Discovering clusters in unlabeled data is a task of significant scientific and practical value.
With technological progress images, texts, and other types of data are acquired in large numbers.
Their labeling, however, is often expensive, tedious, or requires expert knowledge.
Clustering techniques provide useful tools to analyze such data and to reveal its underlying structure.Spectral Clustering BID20 BID16 BID22 ) is a leading and highly popular clustering algorithm.
It works by embedding the data in the eigenspace of the Laplacian matrix, derived from the pairwise similarities between data points, and applying k-means to this representation to obtain the clusters.
Several properties make spectral clustering appealing: First, its embedding optimizes a natural cost function, minimizing pairwise distances between similar data points; moreover, this optimal embedding can be found analytically.
Second, spectral clustering variants arise as relaxations of graph balanced-cut problems BID22 .
Third, spectral clustering was shown to outperform other popular clustering algorithms such as k-means DCN, VaDE, DEPICT and IMSAT (bottom) on simulated datasets in 2D and 3D.
Our approach successfully finds these non-convex clusters, whereas the competing algorithms fail on all five examples.
(The full set of results for these algorithms is shown in FIG4 in Appendix A.)
BID22 , arguably due to its ability to handle non-convex clusters.
Finally, it has a solid probabilistic interpretation, since the Euclidean distance in the embedding space is equal to a diffusion distance, which, informally, measures the time it takes probability mass to transfer between points, via all the other points in the dataset BID15 BID5 .While
spectral embedding of data points can be achieved by a simple eigen-decomposition of their graph Laplacian matrix, with large datasets direct computation of eigenvectors may be prohibitive. Moreover
, generalizing a spectral embedding to unseen data points, a task commonly referred to as out-of-sample-extension (OOSE), is a non-trivial task; see, for example, BID1 BID2 BID9 BID6 ).In this
work we introduce SpectralNet, a deep learning approach to spectral clustering, which addresses the scalability and OOSE problems pointed above. Specifically
, SpectralNet is trained in a stochastic fashion, which allows it to scale. Moreover, once
trained, it provides a function, implemented as a feed-forward network, that maps each input data point to its spectral embedding coordinates. This map can easily
be applied to new test data. Unlike optimization
of standard deep learning models, SpectralNet is trained using constrained optimization, where the constraint (orthogonality of the net outputs) is enforced by adding a linear layer, whose weights are set by the QR decomposition of its inputs. In addition, as good
affinity functions are crucial for the success of spectral clustering, rather than using the common Euclidean distance to compute Gaussian affinity, we show how Siamese networks can be trained from the given unlabeled data to learn more informative pairwise distances and consequently significantly improve the quality of the clustering. Further improvement
can be achieved if our network is applied to transformed data obtained by an autoencoder (AE). On the theoretical
front, we utilize VC-dimension theory to derive a lower bound on the size of neural networks that compute spectral clustering. Our experiments indicate
that our network indeed approximates the Laplacian eigenvectors well, allowing the network to cluster challenging non-convex point sets, which recent deep network based methods fail to handle; see examples in Figure 1. Finally, SpetralNet achieves
competitive performance on MNIST handwritten digit dataset and state-of-the-art on the Reuters document dataset, whose size makes standard spectral clustering inapplicable.
We have introduced SpectralNet, a deep learning approach for approximate spectral clustering.
The stochastic training of SpectralNet allows us to scale to larger datasets than what vanilla spectral clustering can handle, and the parametric map obtained from the net enables straightforward out of sample extension.
In addition, we propose to use unsupervised Siamese networks to compute distances, and empirically show that this results in better performance, comparing to standard Euclidean distances.
Further improvement are achieved by applying our network to code representations produced with a standard stacked autoencoder.
We present a novel analysis of the VC dimension of spectral clustering, and derive a lower bound on the size of neural nets that compute it.
In addition, we report state of the art results on two benchmark datasets, and show that SpectralNet outperforms existing methods when the clusters cannot be contained in non overlapping convex shapes.
We believe the integration of spectral clustering with deep learning provides a useful tool for unsupervised deep learning.

assistant: text: Unsupervised spectral clustering using deep neural networks