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Title: Resolving Lexical Ambiguity in English–Japanese Neural Machine Translation

Paper content:
Lexical ambiguity, i.e., the presence of two or more meanings for a single word, is an inherent and challenging problem for machine translation systems.
Even though the use of recurrent neural networks and attention mechanisms are expected to solve this problem, machine translation systems are not always able to correctly translate lexically ambiguous sentences.
In this work, I attempt to resolve the problem of lexical ambiguity in English--Japanese neural machine translation systems by combining a pretrained Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformer (BERT) language model that can produce contextualized word embeddings and a Transformer translation model, which is a state-of-the-art architecture for the machine translation task.
These two proposed architectures have been shown to be more effective in translating ambiguous sentences than a vanilla Transformer model and the Google Translate system.
Furthermore, one of the proposed models, the Transformer_BERT-WE, achieves a higher BLEU score compared to the vanilla Transformer model in terms of general translation, which is concrete proof that the use of contextualized word embeddings from BERT can not only solve the problem of lexical ambiguity, but also boost the translation quality in general.
Machine translation is one of the most important tasks in the field of natural language processing.
In 2014, Sutskever and his fellow researchers at Google introduced the sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) model (Sutskever et al., 2014) , marking the advent of neural machine translation (NMT) in a breakthrough in the field of machine translation.
Since then, seq2seq models have been growing rapidly, evolving from a purely recurrent neural network (RNN)-based encoder-decoder model to recurrence-free models that rely on convolution (Gehring et al., 2017) or attention mechanisms (Vaswani et al., 2017) .
The Transformer architecture (Vaswani et al., 2017) , which is based on attention mechanism, is currently the standard model for machine translation tasks because of its effectiveness and efficiency.
It also provides a foundation for the advent of state-of-the-art language models, such as Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformer (BERT) (Devlin et al., 2018) and GPT-2 (Radford et al., 2019) .
Section 2 shows how seq2seq models transformed from a purely RNN-based encoder-decoder model to a transformer model that relies entirely on attention mechanism.
Although many significant improvements have been made in the NMT field, lexical ambiguity is still a problem that causes difficulty for machine translation models.
Liu et al. (2017) (Liu et al., 2017) show that the performance of RNNbased seq2seq model decreases as the number of senses for each word increases.
Section 3 demonstrates that even modern translation models, such as Google Translate, cannot translate some lexically ambiguous sentences and forms hypotheses concerning some causes of this problem.
Section 4 describes the BERT language model and explains why BERT vector representations can help resolve the problem of lexical ambiguity.
Subsequently, two context-aware machine translation architectures that integrate pretrained BERT and Transformer models are proposed in section 5.
For comparison purposes, a vanilla Transformer was built with the same set of hyperparameters and trained with the same settings as the proposed models.
Finally, the three models were evaluated based on two criteria: i.e., the capability to produce good translations in general and the ability to translate lexically ambiguous sentences.
The evaluation results and sample translations are shown in section 6.3.
2 Neural machine translation 2.1 Sequence-to-sequence model NMT is an approach to machine translation, where a large neural network model learns to predict the likelihood of a sequence of words given a source sentence in an end-to-end fashion.
The neural network model used for machine translation is called a seq2seq model, which is composed of an encoder and a decoder.
RNN and its variants such as long short-term memory (LSTM) and gated recurrent unit (GRU) have been a common choice to build a seq2seq model.
The encoder, which is a multilayered RNN cell, encodes the input sequence x into a fixed-sized vector v, which is essentially the last hidden state of the encoder's RNN.
The decoder, which is another RNN, maps this context vector to the target sequence y.
In other words, a seq2seq model learns to maximize the conditional probability:
where T and S are the lengths of the input sentence of the source language and the output sentence of the target language, respectively.
In this work, we demonstrate that lexical ambiguity is an inherent problem that contemporary machine translation systems cannot completely address, hypothesize two causes of the problem, and prove that this issue can be addressed by using contextualized word embeddings that dynamically change based on the context of given words.
In addition, the BERT language model is demonstrated to be effective at generating contextualized word representations and two machine translation architectures that integrate pretrained BERT and Transformer translation models are proposed.
The two architectures are shown to be able to translate semantically ambiguous sentences effectively.
Furthermore, the Transformer BERT−WE model outperforms the vanilla Transformer model, proving that our approach can not only resolve the problem of lexical ambiguity, but also increases the translation quality in general.

assistant: text: The paper solves a lexical ambiguity problem caused from homonym in neural translation by BERT.