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Title: Bandlimiting Neural Networks Against Adversarial Attacks

Paper content:
In this paper, we study the adversarial attack and defence problem in deep learning from the perspective of Fourier analysis.
We first explicitly compute the Fourier transform of deep ReLU neural networks and show that there exist decaying but non-zero high frequency components in the Fourier spectrum of neural networks.
We then demonstrate that the vulnerability of neural networks towards adversarial samples can be attributed to these insignificant but non-zero high frequency components.
Based on this analysis, we propose to use a simple post-averaging technique to smooth out these high frequency components to improve the robustness of neural networks against adversarial attacks.
Experimental results on the ImageNet and the CIFAR-10 datasets have shown that our proposed method is universally effective to defend many existing adversarial attacking methods proposed in the literature, including FGSM, PGD, DeepFool and C&W attacks.
Our post-averaging method is simple since it does not require any re-training, and meanwhile it can successfully defend over 80-96% of the adversarial samples generated by these methods without introducing significant performance degradation (less than 2%) on the original clean images.
Although deep neural networks (DNN) have shown to be powerful in many machine learning tasks, Szegedy et al. (2013) found that they are vulnerable to adversarial samples.
Adversarial samples are subtly altered inputs that can fool the trained model to produce erroneous outputs.
They are more commonly seen in image classification task and typically the perturbations to the original images are so small that they are imperceptible to human eye.
Research in adversarial attacks and defences is highly active in recent years.
In the attack side, many attacking methods have been proposed (Szegedy et al., 2013; Goodfellow et al., 2014; Papernot et al., 2016a; Moosavi-Dezfooli et al., 2016; Kurakin et al., 2016; Madry et al., 2017; Carlini and Wagner, 2017a; Chen et al., 2017; Alzantot et al., 2018; , with various ways to generate effective adversarial samples to circumvent new proposed defence methods.
However, since different attacks usually are effective to different defences or datasets, there is no consensus on which attack is the strongest.
Hence for the sake of simplicity, in this work, we will evaluate our proposed defence approach against four popular attacks for empirical analysis.
In the defence side, various defence mechanisms have also been proposed, including adversarial training (Rozsa et al., 2016; Kurakin et al., 2016; Tramèr et al., 2017; Madry et al., 2017) , network distillation (Papernot et al., 2016b) , gradient masking (Nguyen and Sinha, 2017) , adversarial detection (Feinman et al., 2017) and adding modifications to neural networks (Xie et al., 2017) .
Nonetheless, many of them were quickly defeated by new types of attacks (Carlini and Wagner, 2016; 2017b; c; a; Alzantot et al., 2018) .
Madry et al. (2017) tried to provide a theoretical security guarantee for adversarial training by a min-max loss formulation, but the difficulties in non-convex optimization and in finding the ultimate adversarial samples for training may loosen this robustness guarantee.
As a result, so far there is no defence that is universally robust to all adversarial attacks.
Along the line of researches, there were also investigations into the properties and existence of adversarial samples.
Szegedy et al. (2013) first observed the transferability of adversarial samples across models trained with different hyper-parameters and across different training sets.
They also attributed the adversarial samples to the low-probability blind spots in the manifold.
In (Goodfellow et al., 2014) , the authors explained adversarial samples as "a result of models being too linear, rather than too nonlinear."
In (Papernot et al., 2016) , the authors showed the transferability occurs across models with different structures and even different machine learning techniques in addition to neural networks.
In summary, the general existence and transferability of adversarial samples are well known but the reason of adversarial vulnerability still needs further investigation.
Generally speaking, when we view neural network as a multivariate function f (x) of input x, if a small imperceptible perturbation ∆x leads to a huge fluctuation ∆f (x), the large quantity ∆f (x)/∆x essentially corresponds to high frequency components in the Fourier spectrum of f (x).
In this paper, we will start with the Fourier analysis of neural networks and elucidate why there always exist some decaying but nonzero high frequency response components in neural networks.
Based on this analysis, we show that neural networks are inherently vulnerable to adversarial samples due to the underlying model structure.
Next, we propose a simple post-averaging method to tackle this problem.
Our proposed method is fairly simple since it works as a post-processing stage of any given neural network models and it does not require re-training the networks at all.
Furthermore, we have evaluated the post-averaging method against four popular adversarial attacking methods and our method is shown to be universally effective in defending all examined attacks.
Experimental results on the ImageNet and the CIFAR-10 datasets have shown that our simple post-averaging method can successfully defend over 80-96% of the adversarial samples generated by these attacks with little performance degradation (less than 2%) on the original clean images.

assistant: text: An insight into the reason of adversarial vulnerability, an effective defense method against adversarial attacks.