user: text: Write a concise one-sentence TLDR summary of the scientific paper content below.

Title: Probabilistic Binary Neural Networks

Paper content:
Low bit-width weights and activations are an effective way of combating the increasing need for both memory and compute power of Deep Neural Networks.
In this work, we present a probabilistic training method for Neural Network with both binary weights and activations, called PBNet.
By embracing stochasticity during training, we circumvent the need to approximate the gradient of functions for which the derivative is zero almost always, such as $\textrm{sign}(\cdot)$, while still obtaining a fully Binary Neural Network at test time.
Moreover, it allows for anytime ensemble predictions for improved performance and uncertainty estimates by sampling from the weight distribution.
Since all operations in a layer of the PBNet operate on random variables, we introduce stochastic versions of Batch Normalization and max pooling, which transfer well to a deterministic network at test time.
We evaluate two related training methods for the PBNet: one in which activation distributions are propagated throughout the network, and one in which binary activations are sampled in each layer.
Our experiments indicate that sampling the binary activations is an important element for stochastic training of binary Neural Networks.
Deep Neural Networks are notorious for having vast memory and computation requirements, both during training and test/prediction time.
As such, Deep Neural Networks may be unfeasible in various environments such as battery powered devices, embedded devices (because of memory requirement), on body devices (due to heat dissipation), or environments in which constrains may be imposed by a limited economical budget.
Hence, there is a clear need for Neural Networks that can operate in these resource limited environments.One method for reducing the memory and computational requirements for Neural Networks is to reduce the bit-width of the parameters and activations of the Neural Network.
This can be achieved either during training (e.g., BID15 ; BID0 ) or using post-training mechanisms (e.g., BID15 , BID5 ).
By taking the reduction of the bit-width for weights and activations to the extreme, i.e., a single bit, one obtains a Binary Neural Network.
Binary Neural Networks have several advantageous properties, i.e., a 32× reduction in memory requirements and the forward pass can be implemented using XNOR operations and bit-counting, which results in a 58× speedup on CPU BID20 .
Moreover, Binary Neural Networks are more robust to adversarial examples BID2 .
BID21 introduced a probabilistic training method for Neural Networks with binary weights, but allow for full precision activations.
In this paper, we propose a probabilistic training method for Neural Networks with both binary weights and binary activations, which are even more memory and computation efficient.
In short, obtain a closed form forward pass for probabilistic neural networks if we constrain the input and weights to binary (random) variables.
The output of the Multiply and Accumulate (MAC) operations, or pre-activation, is approximated using a factorized Normal distribution.
Subsequently, we introduce stochastic versions of Max-Pooling and Batch Normalization that allow us to propagate the pre-activatoins throughout a single layer.
By applying the sign(·) activation function to the random pre-activation, we not only obtain a distribution over binary activations, it also allows for backpropagation through the sign(·) operation.
This is especially convenient as this in a deterministic Neural Network all gradient information is zeroed out when using sign as activation.
We explore two different methods for training this probabilistic binary neural network: In the first method the activation distribution of layer l is propagated to layer (l + 1), which means the MAC operation is performed on two binary random variables.
In the second method the binary activation is sampled as the last operation in a layer using the concrete relaxation BID16 .
This can be thought of as a form of local reparametrization BID11 .
We call the networks obtained using these methods PBNet and PBNet-S, respectively.At test time, we obtain a single deterministic Binary Neural Network, an ensemble of Binary Neural Networks by sampling from the parameter distribution, or a Ternary Neural Network based on the Binary weight distribution.
An advantage of our method is that we can take samples from the parameter distribution indefinitely-without retraining.
Hence, this method allows for anytime ensemble predictions and uncertainty estimates.
Note that while in this work we only consider the binary case, our method supports any discrete distribution over weights and activations.
We have presented a stochastic method for training Binary Neural Networks.
The method is evaluated on multiple standardized benchmarks and reached competitive results.
The PBNet has various advantageous properties as a result of the training method.
The weight distribution allows one to generate ensembles online which results in improved accuracy and better uncertainty estimations.
Moreover, the Bayesian formulation of the PBNet allows for further pruning of the network, which we leave as future work.
A BINARY DISTRIBUTION For convenience, we have introduced the Binary distribution in this paper.
In this appendix we list some of the properties used in the paper, which all follow direcly from the properties of the Bernoulli distribution.
The Binary distribution is a reparametrization of the Bernoulli distribution such that: DISPLAYFORM0 This gives the following probability mass function: DISPLAYFORM1 where a ∈ {−1, +1} and θ ∈ [−1, 1].
From this, the mean and variance are easily computed: DISPLAYFORM2 Finally, let b ∼ Binary(φ), then ab ∼ Binary(θφ).

assistant: text: We introduce a stochastic training method for training Binary Neural Network with both binary weights and activations.