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Title: Local and global model interpretability via backward selection and clustering

Paper content:
Local explanation frameworks aim to rationalize particular decisions made by a black-box prediction model.
Existing techniques are often restricted to a specific type of predictor or based on input saliency, which may be undesirably sensitive to factors unrelated to the model's decision making process.
We instead propose sufficient input subsets that identify minimal subsets of features whose observed values alone suffice for the same decision to be reached, even if all other input feature values are missing.
General principles that globally govern a model's decision-making can also be revealed by searching for clusters of such input patterns across many data points.
Our approach is conceptually straightforward, entirely model-agnostic, simply implemented using instance-wise backward selection, and able to produce more concise rationales than existing techniques.
We demonstrate the utility of our interpretation method on neural network models trained on text and image data.
The rise of neural networks and nonparametric methods in machine learning (ML) has driven significant improvements in prediction capabilities, while simultaneously earning the field a reputation of producing complex black-box models.
Vital applications, which could benefit most from improved prediction, are often deemed too sensitive for opaque learning systems.
Consider the widespread use of ML for screening people, including models that deny defendants' bail [1] or reject loan applicants [2] .
It is imperative that such decisions can be interpretably rationalized.
Interpretability is also crucial in scientific applications, where it is hoped that general principles may be extracted from accurate predictive models [3, 4, 5].One
simple explanation for why a particular black-box decision is reached may be obtained via a sparse subset of the input features whose values form the basis for the model's decision -a rationale. For
text (or image) data, a rationale might consist of a subset of positions in the document (or image) together with the words (or pixel-values) occurring at these positions (see FIG0 . To
ensure interpretations remain fully faithful to an arbitrary model, our rationales do not attempt to summarize the (potentially complex) operations carried out within the model, and instead merely point to the relevant information it uses to arrive at a decision [6] . For
high-dimensional inputs, sparsity of the rationale is imperative for greater interpretability.Here, we propose a local explanation framework to produce rationales for a learned model that has been trained to map inputs x P X via some arbitrary learned function f : X Ñ R. Unlike many other interpretability techniques, our approach is not restricted to vector-valued data and does not require gradients of f . Rather
, each input example is solely presumed to have a set of indexable features x " rx 1 , . . . , x p s, where each x i P R d for i P rps " t1, . . . , pu. We allow
for features that are unordered (set-valued input) and whose number p may vary from input to input. A rationale
corresponds to a sparse subset of these indices S Ď rps together with the specific values of the features in this subset.To understand why a certain decision was made for a given input example x, we propose a particular rationale called a sufficient input subset (SIS). Each SIS consists
of a minimal input pattern present in x that alone suffices for f to produce the same decision, even if provided no other information about the rest of x. Presuming the decision
is based on f pxq exceeding some pre-specified threshold τ P R, we specifically seek a minimal-cardinality subset S of the input features such that f px S q ě τ . Throughout, we use x S
P X to denote a modified input example in which all information about the values of features outside subset S has been masked with features in S remaining at their original values. Thus, each SIS characterizes
a particular standalone input pattern that drives the model toward this decision, providing sufficient justification for this choice from the model's perspective, even without any information on the values of the other features in x.In classification settings, f might represent the predicted probability of class C where we decide to assign the input to class C if f pxq ě τ , chosen based on precision/recall considerations. Each SIS in such an application
corresponds to a small input pattern that on its own is highly indicative of class C, according to our model. Note that by suitably defining
f and τ with respect to the predictor outputs, any particular decision for input x can be precisely identified with the occurrence of f pxq ě τ , where higher values of f are associated with greater confidence in this decision.For a given input x where f pxq ě τ , this work presents a simple method to find a complete collection of sufficient input subsets, each satisfying f px S q ě τ , such that there exists no additional SIS outside of this collection. Each SIS may be understood as
a disjoint piece of evidence that would lead the model to the same decision, and why this decision was reached for x can be unequivocally attributed to the SIS-collection. Furthermore, global insight on
the general principles underlying the model's decision-making process may be gleaned by clustering the types of SIS extracted across different data points (see FIG4 and TAB0 ). Such insights allow us to compare
models based not only on their accuracy, but also on human-determined relevance of the concepts they target. Our method's simplicity facilitates
its utilization by non-experts who may know very little about the models they wish to interrogate.
This work introduced the idea of interpreting black-box decisions on the basis of sufficient input subsets -minimal input patterns that alone provide sufficient evidence to justify a particular decision.
Our methodology is easy to understand for non-experts, applicable to all ML models without any additional training steps, and remains fully faithful to the underlying model without making approximations.
While we focus on local explanations of a single decision, clustering the SISpatterns extracted from many data points reveals insights about a model's general decision-making process.
Given multiple models of comparable accuracy, SIS-clustering can uncover critical operating differences, such as which model is more susceptible to spurious training data correlations or will generalize worse to counterfactual inputs that lie outside the data distribution.

assistant: text: We present a method for interpreting black-box models by using instance-wise backward selection to identify minimal subsets of features that alone suffice to justify a particular decision made by the model.