user: text: Write a concise one-sentence TLDR summary of the scientific paper content below.

Title: Controlling generative models with continuous factors of variations

Paper content:
Recent deep generative models can provide photo-realistic images as well as visual or textual content embeddings useful to address various tasks of computer vision and natural language processing.
Their usefulness is nevertheless often limited by the lack of control over the generative process or the poor understanding of the learned representation.
To overcome these major issues, very recent works have shown the interest of studying the semantics of the latent space of generative models.
In this paper, we propose to advance on the interpretability of the latent space of generative models by introducing a new method to find meaningful directions in the latent space of any generative model along which we can move to control precisely specific properties of the generated image like position or scale of the object in the image.
Our method is weakly supervised and particularly well suited for the search of directions encoding simple transformations of the generated image, such as translation, zoom or color variations.
We demonstrate the effectiveness of our method qualitatively and quantitatively, both for GANs and variational auto-encoders.
With the success of recent generative models to produce high-resolution photo-realistic images (Karras et al., 2018; Brock et al., 2018; Razavi et al., 2019) , an increasing number of applications are emerging, such as image in-painting, dataset-synthesis, and deep-fakes.
However, the use of generative models is often limited by the lack of control over the generated images.
Indeed, more control could, for instance, be used to improve existing approaches which aim at generating new training examples (Bowles et al., 2018) by allowing the user to choose more specific properties of the generated images.
First attempts in this direction showed that one can modify an attribute of a generated image by adding a learned vector on its latent code (Radford et al., 2015) or by combining the latent code of two images (Karras et al., 2018) .
Moreover, the study of the latent space of generative models provides insights about its structure which is of particular interest as generative models are also powerful tools to learn unsupervised data representations.
For example, Radford et al. (2015) observed on auto-encoders trained on datasets with labels for some factors of variations, that their latent spaces exhibit a vector space structure where some directions encode the said factors of variations.
We suppose that images result from underlying factors of variation such as the presence of objects, their relative positions or the lighting of the scene.
We distinguish two categories of factors of variations.
Modal factors of variation are discrete values that correspond to isolated clusters in the data distribution, such as the category of the generated object.
On the other hand, the size of an object or its position are described by Continuous factors of variations, expressed in a range of possible values.
As humans, we naturally describe images by using factors of variations suggesting that they are an efficient representation of natural images.
For example, to describe a scene, one likely enumerates the objects seen, their relative positions and relations and their characteristics (Berg et al., 2012) .
This way of characterizing images is also described in Krishna et al. (2016) .
Thus, explaining the latent space of generative models through the lens of factors of variation is promising.
However, the control over the image generation is often limited to discrete factors and requires both labels and an encoder model.
Moreover, for continuous factors of variations described by a real parameter t, previous works do not provide a way to get precise control over t.
In this paper, we propose a method to find meaningful directions in the latent space of generative models that can be used to control precisely specific continuous factors of variations while the literature has mainly tackled semantic labeled attributes like gender, emotion or object category (Radford et al., 2015; Odena et al., 2016) .
We test our method on image generative models for three factors of variation of an object in an image: vertical position, horizontal position and scale.
Our method has the advantage of not requiring a labeled dataset nor a model with an encoder.
It could be adapted to other factors of variations such as rotations, change of brightness, contrast, color or more sophisticated transformations like local deformations.
However, we focused on the position and scale as these are quantities that can be evaluated, allowing us to measure quantitatively the effectiveness of our method.
We demonstrate both qualitatively and quantitatively that such directions can be used to control precisely the generative process and show that our method can reveal interesting insights about the structure of the latent space.
Our main contributions are:
• We propose a method to find interpretable directions in the latent space of generative models, corresponding to parametrizable continuous factors of variations of the generated image.
• We show that properties of generated images can be controlled precisely by sampling latent representations along linear directions.
• We propose a novel reconstruction loss for inverting generative models with gradient descent.
• We give insights of why inverting generative models with optimization can be difficult by reasoning about the geometry of the natural image manifold.
• We study the impacts of disentanglement on the ability to control the generative models.
Generative models are increasingly more powerful but suffer from little control over the generative process and the lack of interpretability in their latent representations.
In this context, we propose a method to extract meaningful directions in the latent space of such models and use them to control precisely some properties of the generated images.
We show that a linear subspace of the latent space of BigGAN can be interpreted in term of intuitive factors of variation (namely translation and scale).
It is an important step toward the understanding of the representations learned by generative models.

assistant: text: A model to control the generation of images with GAN and beta-VAE with regard to scale and position of the objects