A publication of the

National Wildfire

Coordinating Group

Guide to Preventing 

Aquatic Invasive Species 

Transport by Wildland 

Fire Operations

PMS 444 JANUARY 2017
Guide to Preventing 

Aquatic Invasive Species 

Transport by Wildland 

Fire Operations

January 2017 

PMS 444 

The Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species (AIS) Transport by Wildland Fire Operations is a 

product of, and maintained by, the Invasive Species Subcommittee (ISSC), a component of the 

Equipment Technology Committee of the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG). The ISSC 

provides national leadership in the prevention of invasive species transport by wildland fire mobile 

equipment and related vehicles, and its primary objectives are to: 

• Develop and disseminate practical standards, guidelines, best practices, and recommendations to

prevent the spread of invasive species.

• Integrate new and evolving information from the natural resource management community into the

invasive species control effort.

• Evaluate and recommend wildland fire and support vehicle utilization and/or decontamination

techniques, equipment, or products to minimize invasive species transport.

Questions and comments may be emailed to: BLM_FA_NWCG_Products@blm.gov. 

This publication is available electronically from the NWCG Web site at:

https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/444. 

Previous editions: First Edition

The National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) has approved the contents of this publication for the 

guidance of its member agencies and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by 

anyone else. 

NWCG’s intent is to specifically identify all copyrighted content used in NWCG publications. All other 

NWCG information is in the public domain. Use of public domain information, including copying, is 

permitted. Use of NWCG information within another document is permitted, if NWCG information is 

accurately credited to the NWCG. The NWCG logo may not be used except on NWCG authorized 

information. “National Wildfire Coordinating Group”, “NWCG”, and the NWCG logo are trademarks of 

the National Wildfire Coordinating Group. 

The use of trade, firm, or corporation names or trademarks in this publication is for the information and 

convenience of the reader and does not constitute an endorsement by the National Wildfire Coordinating 

Group or its member agencies of any publication or service to the exclusion of others that may be 

suitable. 
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. i 

Acknowledgements

The following members of the Invasive Species Subcommittee of the Equipment Technology Committee/ 

National Wildfire Coordination Group (NWCG) were instrumental in the development of this Guide:

Current Membership

Julie Laufmann – Chair; USDA Forest Service

Cynthia Tait – Co-chair; USDA Forest Service

Lou Ballard – Primary member; USDI Fish and Wildlife Service

Justin Boeck – Advisor; USDI Bureau of Land Management

Myron Chase – Primary member; USDI National Park Service

Matt Cnudde – Primary member; USDA Forest Service

Myron Hotinger – Primary member; previous chair; Bureau of Indian Affairs

Richard Schwab – Advisor; USDI National Park Service

Clint Sestrich – Advisor; USDA Forest Service

David Shy – CAL FIRE

Kristy Swartz – Primary member; USDI Bureau of Land Management

Previous Membership

Ryan Becker – Chair; USDA Forest Service 

Tate Fischer – USDI Bureau of Land Management 

Other Reviewers

NWCG National Interagency Aviation Committee (NIAC)

NWCG Equipment Technical Committee, Mobile Equipment Subcommittee

Sam Wu and Ralph Gonzales – USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Technology and Development Center

Todd Neel – USDA Forest Service

Cody Peel – USDA Forest Service

Terry Swinscoe – USDA Forest Service

Robert Button – SEI Industries Inc.

Thanks to San Dimas Technology and Development Center (SDTC) staff members Carl Schaefer and Armando 

Sanchez for their assistance in foot valve and engine tests. Also, thanks to Rocky Mountain and Redmond Cache 

staff Marcus Medina and Eve Ponder for providing footvalves for testing.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. ii

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 4

Chapter 2 Aquatic Invasive Species and Why We Care ......................................................................... 4

WHAT ARE THEY?................................................................................................................................................. 4

WHY DO WE CARE? .............................................................................................................................................. 4

WHERE DO AIS COME FROM? ............................................................................................................................ 4

HOW DO AIS GET MOVED AROUND? ............................................................................................................... 4

HOW IS FIRE EQUIPMENT AFFECTED BY AIS? .............................................................................................. 5

Chapter 3 Guidelines and Best Management Practices .......................................................................... 5

GENERAL PREVENTION ...................................................................................................................................... 5

Chapter 4 Ground Operations ................................................................................................................. 6

WATER HANDLING OPERATIONS..................................................................................................................... 6

DECONTAMINATING GROUND EQUIPMENT.................................................................................................. 7

Chapter 5 Aviation Operations ............................................................................................................... 8

GENERAL PREVENTION ...................................................................................................................................... 8

DECONTAMINATING AVIATION EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................... 8

DECONTAMINATING ACCESSIBLE INTERNAL TANKS ................................................................................ 9

Chapter 6 AIS Prevention for Resource Advisors .................................................................................. 9

LOCATING AQUATIC INVASIVE SPECIES ....................................................................................................... 9

IDENTIFYING HIGH PRIORITY AQUATIC RESOURCES AT RISK ..............................................................10

UNDERSTAND AIS AND HOW FIRE ACTIVITIES CAN SPREAD THEM ....................................................10

KNOW THE BMPS AND DECONTAMINATION PROTOCOLS ......................................................................11

INTERNAL ENGINE TANKS AND DRAFTING METHODS............................................................................11

PREPAREDNESS: DECONTAMINATION PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES ...........................12

Appendix A: Decontaminating with Chemical Disinfectants .................................................................... 13

TO DECONTAMINATE GEAR WITH QUAT DISINFECTANTS: ....................................................................13

TO DECONTAMINATE GEAR WITH CHLORINE BLEACH:..........................................................................14

CHEMICAL DISPOSAL........................................................................................................................................14

SUPPLY SOURCES ...............................................................................................................................................14

Appendix B: Field Testing Foot Valves for Leaks .................................................................................... 16

BACKGROUND INFORMATION........................................................................................................................16

EQUIPMENT LIST ................................................................................................................................................16

LOW PRESSURE TEST (3-5 PSI).........................................................................................................................17

HIGH PRESSURE TEST (130 PSI) .......................................................................................................................17

Appendix C: Job Safety Risk Assessment Templates for Disinfecting Field Gear ................................... 18

OPERATING HOT WATER PRESSURE WASHERS .........................................................................................19

DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS ...................................23

DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH CHLORINE BLEACH ............................................................................27
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. iii

Appendix D: AQUATIC INVASIVE SPECIES of Concern to Firefighters and Disinfection Methods .. 31

ZEBRA & QUAGGA MUSSELS...........................................................................................................................32

ASIAN CLAM ........................................................................................................................................................35

NEW ZEALAND MUDSNAIL..............................................................................................................................37

MALAYSIAN TRUMPET SNAIL.........................................................................................................................40

ORIENTAL MYSTERY SNAIL ............................................................................................................................42

FAUCET SNAIL.....................................................................................................................................................44

SPINY WATER FLEA ...........................................................................................................................................45

DIDYMO ................................................................................................................................................................47

CHYTRID FUNGUS ..............................................................................................................................................49

WHIRLING DISEASE ...........................................................................................................................................52

VIRAL HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA..............................................................................................................54

SPRING VIREMIA OF CARP ...............................................................................................................................56

PORT ORFORD CEDAR ROOT DISEASE AND SUDDEN OAK DEATH .......................................................58

AQUATIC INVASIVE PLANTS...........................................................................................................................60
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 4 

Chapter 1 Purpose 

The Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations is intended to 

help wildland firefighters avoid the spread of aquatic invasive species. The Guide includes: 

• Best management practices (BMPs) to prevent contact with and spread of invasive species,

• The best procedures for decontaminating ground and aviation equipment,

• AIS prevention recommendations for resource advisors, and

• AIS of concern to firefighters nationwide and disinfection methods.

Chapter 2 Aquatic Invasive Species and Why We Care

WHAT ARE THEY?

Aquatic invasive species are harmful, non-native plants, animals, and microorganisms living in aquatic 

habitats that damage ecosystems or threaten commercial, agricultural, and recreational activities. 

WHY DO WE CARE? 

Firefighter and public safety is our first priority, but aquatic invasive plants and animals pose a risk to

native species, hydropower facilities and water supplies, and to firefighting equipment. Avoidance and 

decontamination can prevent the spread of these organisms and help assure that firefighting equipment 

remains operational. See Appendix D: Aquatic Invasive Species of Concern to Firefighters for 

information on the species firefighting resources are most likely to encounter, including their 

distributions, disinfection methods, and references.

WHERE DO AIS COME FROM?

Aquatic invasive species can be found in the untreated water sources used in firefighting operations, 

either a natural source (a river or lake) or a human-made water body (a reservoir, canal, or stock tank) that 

has not been treated for municipal use or human consumption. Municipal water distributed via hydrants 

is not considered a reservoir of invasive species. Untreated water sources may harbor a variety of AIS, 

including quagga and zebra mussels, New Zealand mudsnails, whirling disease, didymo (or rock snot), 

and plants such as hydrilla, Eurasian watermilfoil, and giant salvinia, as well as many vertebrate species. 

In some cases, the occurrence of aquatic invasive species in a water body is well documented, but for 

many western waters such information is incomplete or nonexistent. 

HOW DO AIS GET MOVED AROUND?

In wildland fire management, AIS can be transported via firefighting equipment that contacts or 

transports untreated water, such as portable pumps (including floatable pumps), portable tanks, helicopter 

buckets, and internal tanks of fire engines, water tenders, helicopters, and fixed wing aircraft. Typically, 

components of the equipment that cannot be drained and dried completely are most likely to harbor 

invasive species and thus serve as vectors. Residual water left in incompletely drained tanks in 

equipment moved between fire incidents is of special concern: quagga mussel larvae are able to survive 5 

days in summer and 28 days in autumn in residual water contained within undrained boats (Appendix D, 

Choi et al. 2013), a time interval which is well within the re-deployment period for most firefighting 

equipment. 
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 5 

There are many possible invasion pathways for AIS within the context of wildland fire incident response. 

During an incident, untreated water is routinely moved between watersheds and sometimes between 

basins. Typically, large water bodies, such as reservoirs, serve as primary sources to fill various types of 

firefighting equipment, which then transport and disperse that water to other parts of the fire. In many 

fire incidents, helicopters equipped with snorkels and internal tanks or buckets draft or dip from untreated 

water sources, then may draft from a new source with contaminated gear. 

HOW IS FIRE EQUIPMENT AFFECTED BY AIS?

Invasives such as zebra mussels and New Zealand mudsnails may adhere to the surfaces of tanks, pumps, 

and hoses. They can be transmitted to uncontaminated water sources if this equipment is not drained and 

dried completely or decontaminated.

Chapter 3 Guidelines and Best Management Practices 

GENERAL PREVENTION

Preventing exposure to AIS through best management practices is the easiest and simplest way to control

their spread.

• Map the distribution of aquatic invasive organisms in watersheds where the operation will take

place (Figure 1). See Chapter 6 for sources for maps or GIS layers showing locations of AIS

infested waters. You can never be certain that invasives are NOT present, but at least you will

know ahead of time where they ARE known to be present.

• Fill tanks from municipal water sources whenever possible.

• When possible, avoid drafting from waterbodies with known infestations of aquatic

invasive species.

• Avoid transferring water between drainages or between

unconnected waters within the same drainage. Do not

dump water from one waterbody (e.g., stream, lake, or

reservoir) into another waterbody. Do not allow water

from fold-a-tanks or pumpkins to drain into nearby

waterways if the fold-a-tank was filled with water from

a different drainage. Dispose of excess water

over uplands.

• Avoid sucking organic and bottom material into water

intakes when drafting from shallow water. Use

screens. If collapsible tanks can be filled with

municipal water, draft from those tanks instead of

untreated water sources.

• Avoid entering (driving through) water bodies or wet

areas when possible.

• Remove all plant parts and mud from external surfaces

of gear and equipment after an operational period.

• Avoid obtaining water from multiple sources during a single operational period unless

drafting/dipping equipment is decontaminated or changed out with clean equipment

between sources.

Figure 1. Map the distribution of aquatic 

invasive species on your unit. Aquatic plants 

and whirling disease are present in this 

watershed on Fishlake National Forest.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 6 

• If contamination of equipment with untreated water or mud/plants is unavoidable, see

“Decontaminating Ground Equipment” and “Decontaminating Aviation Equipment”, below.

Chapter 4 Ground Operations

Of great concern for ground equipment is the possibility that residual tank water contaminated with AIS 

could be transferred to uncontaminated waterbodies during the drafting process. However, if proper 

drafting and water handling BMPs are used and foot valves are working correctly, there is low risk that 

contaminated tank water could "seep" into the drafting water source.

WATER HANDLING OPERATIONS

• When possible, fill engines from a municipal hydrant, a water tender, or from a pump assigned to

a single drafting source.

• When spraying water to suppress a fire, avoid application of untreated water into local water

bodies (ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, wetlands, seeps, or springs), especially if the water in the

tank came from a different watershed (Figure 2). Water delivery equipment and accessories

(e.g., fireline hoses, wye valves, nozzles) that do not transfer tank water to waterbodies do not

need to be decontaminated.

• To prevent leakage and to maintain the prime, be sure that

foot valves are screwed snugly onto drafting hoses and are

fully closing and not leaking before and during drafting

(Figure 3). If foot valves are leaking, refrain from drafting

and replace foot valve with one that is operating properly.

See Appendix B for methods to field test foot valves

for leakage.

Figure 2. Water delivery equipment is low 

risk if contaminated water is pumped onto a 

fire and not applied to another waterbody.

Figure 3. Be sure foot valves are not 

leaking before and during drafting.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 7 

• Priming the engine pump for drafting —

To minimize the potential for engine water leakage

through the foot valve, prime with water from the

drafting source rather than using water from the

engine tank (Figure 4). When priming by filling the

drafting hose with a bucket, first make sure that the

bucket is clean so that it does not transfer AIS.

Additionally, don’t leave draft hose full with foot

valve engaged and submerged in water source when

not pumping.

• Elevate foot valves above the bottom of the

waterbody for clean, sediment-free operation—for

example, duct tape foot valve to a shovel or place

the valve in a hard hat or bucket.

• Remove water drain plug/s from self-priming pumps

(e.g., trash pumps) to empty pump housing before moving to a new waterbody.

• When filling the engine tank, avoid tank overflow into the water source.

Figure 4. To minimize risk of engine water leakage 

through foot valve, prime with water from the drafting 

source rather than from the tank. 

DECONTAMINATING GROUND EQUIPMENT

• Before moving to a new water source (in a different watershed), decontaminate all external and

internal surfaces of foot valve and draft hose. Three options are:

o Power wash with hot water (140o F, allow spray to contact surfaces for 2 minutes) using a

hot pressure washer (e.g., a ‘Hotsy’).

OR

o Dry the gear in the hot sun until completely dry to the touch (sunlight intensifies the

decontamination process).

OR

o Use a chemical solution (see Appendix A: Decontaminating with Chemical

Disinfectants). Surfaces of the drafting hose and foot valve can be decontaminated by

coiling and submerging in a bucket filled with disinfectant (Figure 5) or by spray

application with a backpack pump or a large spray bottle.

• Consider carrying spare, clean, dry draft hoses and foot valves to switch out with used ones when

moving to a new water source.

Figure 5. If drying or hot water are not options, draft 

hoses with foot valves can be decontaminated by 

submerging in a bucket filled with disinfectant. 

Alternatively, disinfectant can be sprayed on.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 8 

Chapter 5 Aviation Operations

Aircraft such as air tankers and single engine air tankers, which use water from municipal sources, are 

unlikely to encounter AIS and are not addressed here. All other aircraft utilize untreated water and have

the potential to transfer AIS.

GENERAL PREVENTION

• Avoid dipping or scooping water from multiple water

sources within the same operational period to minimize

cross-contamination of water sources.

• If possible, use water dipped from the same drainage

that it will be dropped in. This can be accomplished by

setting up heliwells (portable tanks/pumpkins) filled

from small streams with Mark III pumps.

• Use deeper (blue) water whenever possible. Avoid

areas that will intake mud or plants.

• Switch out a contaminated helicopter bucket with a

clean bucket before moving to a new water source.

Alternating used (possibly contaminated) helicopter

buckets with spare (clean) buckets can save time and

increase efficiency, as the first bucket can be

decontaminated while the second bucket is

being used.

• Helicopter snorkels do not need to be primed with either source or tank water, so there is no risk

of residual tank water entering a water source during drafting operations (Figure 6). However,

snorkel ends and foot valves that encounter untreated water must be decontaminated between

drainages (see below).

Figure 6. Helicopter snorkels, such as on this 

Sky Crane, do not need priming so no risk of 

tank water leakage during drafting. However,

snorkel ends and foot valves that touch untreated 

water must still be decontaminated.

DECONTAMINATING AVIATION EQUIPMENT

Chemicals such as bleach and quaternary ammonium compounds do not meet corrosion requirements for 

aluminum and shall not be used on aircraft fuselages or water delivery components such as 

helicopter buckets and footvalves. 

• Visually inspect water handling equipment (snorkel hoses, pumps, foot valves, screens, buckets,

intakes and tanks) for mud, debris, or plant parts daily, during maintenance, and after every water

dropping mission, when possible. Remove plants and mud from external surfaces.

• When contact with untreated water has occurred or is suspected, decontamination is needed.

Thorough drying in the hot sun alone is an easy and effective decontaminating method, though

required drying times can vary with equipment materials (e.g., metal, rubber, fabric). Dry gear in

the sun until it’s completely dry to the touch. Drying may not be possible for a quick turnaround,

so carry spare, clean gear to switch out with wet gear.

• Alternatively, clean and decontaminate accessible, exposed surfaces by power washing with hot

water (140°F) for 2 minutes before moving to new, unconnected water sources or new incidents.

If a helicopter bucket has a butyl (rubber) valve seal, avoid prolonged application of hot water

spray to the seal to prevent softening of this vulnerable material. Power washing greatly reduces

the likelihood that any target aquatic invasives are present.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 9 

• When hot water (140°F) is not available or practical, use potable water to flush invasive species

from the system. Ensure that run-off cannot reach a water source.

DECONTAMINATING ACCESSIBLE INTERNAL TANKS 

Accessible tanks have doors or other openings that allow access 

for cleaning. Scooper aircraft (CL215 or CL415, and Fire Boss), 

Sky Crane helicopters (CH-54/S-64), and other tanked

helicopters are examples of aircraft with accessible tanks.

• Decontaminate internal tanks by spraying the internal

surface with hot water (140o

F) from a hot pressure

washer (e.g., a ‘Hotsy’). Allow spray to contact surface

for at least 2 minutes. This method is recommended for

scooper and Fire Boss aircraft (Figure 7). Tanked

helicopters have tank doors that open widely from

below for easy tank access and draining.

Hot water spray or thoroughly dry these surfaces.

Figure 7. A CL-415 scooper plane fills its 

belly tanks [inset]. Workers decontaminate 

belly tanks of CL-415 scooper plane by 

spraying hot water from a high pressure wand 

and a portable hot washer, or ‘Hotsy’.

Chapter 6 AIS Prevention for Resource Advisors

During fire events, Resource Advisors (READs) and Resource Advisors, Fireline (REAFs) play an 

integral part in guidance, facilitation of decontamination actions, acquisition of equipment, and education. 

Whether the READs have local knowledge or have been assigned to a fire from outside the area, they are

a critical factor in reducing the risk of AIS spread. 

LOCATING AQUATIC INVASIVE SPECIES

Maps of known AIS infestations are a valuable tool for READs to communicate which waterbodies to 

avoid for drafting (Figure 1, pg. 6). Currently there is no nationwide, central repository of maps or 

geospatial data identifying AIS infested waters, but regional or local information may be available. 

Ideally, mapping occurrence of AIS would be done as a preseason activity involving local aquatic 

specialists and fire staff. At that time, maps could be prepared and distributed to local fire staff who

could then provide a handoff packet (if needed) during large fire events or for incoming personnel 

unfamiliar with the area. Bear in mind that many waterways have not been surveyed and the presence of 

aquatic invasive species may be unknown, which is why any source of untreated water could 

harbor AIS. 

Maps or GIS layers showing locations of AIS infested waters for resource advising on a fire might be 

obtained from the following sources: 

• Local agency administrators or aquatic specialists may have information. Sometimes local land

management offices maintain AIS data and prepare maps as part of preseason planning.

• A number of agencies or States may also have AIS location data. These include:

o United States Geological Survey (USGS) Nonindigenous Aquatic Species database

(nationwide, does not include pathogens): https://nas.er.usgs.gov/
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 10 

o US Forest Service

 Intermountain Region (UT, NV, ID, western WY)

https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/r4/landmanagement/resourcemanagement/?cid=fs

bdev3_016100

 Pacific Northwest Region (OR, WA) https://www.fs.fed.us/r6/fire/aquaticinvasive-species/

o Individual States’ invasive species offices and Tribal fisheries offices

o IMapInvasives http://imapinvasives.org/ , a web-based, publicly accessible (but

password protected) database of invasive species location information. To date, only 10

states participate, mostly in the east.

Ideally, mapping of AIS sites (as spatial data, if possible, or as hard-copy maps) should be done 

preseason, and made available to air tanker bases or as a packet to Incident Commander and Fire Ops at 

the beginning of an incident.

Mapped AIS waterways are not currently included in the Wildland Fire Decision Support System 

(WFDSS). If preseason AIS mapping has not be completed, it is the responsibility of the READs to use 

their local knowledge of AIS occurrences to advise fire operations during a fire. 

IDENTIFYING HIGH PRIORITY AQUATIC RESOURCES AT RISK

In addition to locating known AIS infestations, READS should also take into consideration which waters 

have high resource values for protection from an unintended AIS transfer. These values include 

waterbodies with native fish populations, recreational fisheries, municipal and hydropower water sources, 

or pristine high elevation lakes. As with AIS positive waters, high priority aquatic resources should be 

mapped prior to the fire season, and included in AIS prevention communications to fire managers.

UNDERSTAND AIS AND HOW FIRE ACTIVITIES CAN SPREAD THEM

Educating yourself and others regarding AIS and their dangers is likely one of the best management tools 

available. AIS encompass many species, from mollusks to plants to pathogens, and can be transported 

and decontaminated in a variety of ways. (See Appendix D: Aquatic Invasive Species of Concern to 

Firefighters and Disinfection Methods for descriptions and disinfection methods for AIS that may be of 

concern during water handling fire operations.) In addition, AIS educational materials are available on 

State and federal agency invasive species websites. 

AIS are most likely to be transported via firefighting equipment that contacts or conveys untreated water, 

such as portable pumps (including floatable pumps), portable tanks, helicopter buckets, and internal tanks 

of fire engines, water tenders, helicopters, and fixed wing aircraft. Residual water left in incompletely 

drained tanks in equipment moved between fire incidents can harbor AIS, and quagga mussel larvae are 

able to survive for days in residual water contained within undrained boats. However, BMPs targeting 

drafting procedures greatly reduce AIS risk from residual tank water.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 11 

KNOW THE BMPS AND DECONTAMINATION PROTOCOLS 

Study the General Prevention best management practices, which are simple operational techniques to 

prevent contact with AIS at the outset. For example, prudent prevention practices would be avoiding 

transferring water between drainages, or not sucking organic and bottom material into water intakes when 

drafting. Also, educate yourself on methods of decontamination, and emphasize flushing with pressurized 

hot water, drying of equipment, and use of spare gear over using chemical disinfectants. Note that for hot 

water decontamination, the recommended temperature is 140o

F with a contact time of 2 minutes. 

According to research studies, this combination of temperature and contact duration will kill the majority 

of AIS of concern to fire operations (See Appendix D). For the hardier species, such as whirling disease, 

the flushing action of pressurized hot water greatly decreases the likelihood of retention on equipment. 

Refer people who do not know how to decontaminate their equipment to someone who can either do the 

work or train them how. Be knowledgeable of contract language associated with equipment cleaning and 

decontamination requirements (e.g., scooper aircraft and helicopters). Read the “Operational Guidelines 

for Aquatic Invasive Species” section of the Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations

(the Red Book) at: https://www.nifc.gov/policies/pol_ref_redbook.html. Talk to helicopter managers and 

air operations to see if they need additional information or equipment.

INTERNAL ENGINE TANKS AND DRAFTING METHODS

Of great concern in the past was the possibility that residual engine or helicopter tank water contaminated 

with AIS could be transferred to uncontaminated waterbodies during the drafting process. However, if 

proper drafting and water handling BMPs are used and foot valves are working correctly (see Appendix 

B), there is low risk that contaminated tank water could "seep" into the drafting water source. 

By focusing on drafting techniques rather than the difficult decontamination of internal tanks, which may 

or may not contain AIS, we can abolish the use of large volumes of chemical disinfectants and instead 

rely on procedure. Priming the engine pump with source water and not using tank water to initiate the 

prime eliminates the possibility of residual tank water entering a new waterbody through a leaky 

footvalve. Offer to provide information or assist engine operators on how to perform a foot valve test for 

leakage. Ask them if they are able to prime their pumps with source, or stream, water rather than from 

the engine tank. (See Appendix B for methods to field test foot valves for leakage.) 

Helicopter snorkels do not need to be primed with either source or tank water, so there is no risk of 

residual tank water entering a water source during helicopter drafting operations.

Minimal risk occurs when contaminated tank water is applied to fire and upland areas so long as it does 

not enter other waterbodies. Water delivery equipment and accessories (e.g., fireline hoses, wye valves, 

nozzles) that do not transfer tank water to waterbodies do not need to be disinfected.

Familiarize yourself with situations where risk of AIS transfer is highest, such as gear that contacts 

untreated water and later is moved to new watersheds or waterbodies. Or a helicopter bucket that has 

snagged water plants and mud. Be able to discuss these scenarios so that others understand that the 

objective is to reduce the possibility of moving AIS from one source to another.

Serve as a problem solver, not an enforcer of rules and practices! Use your expertise as a READ to 

explain the BMPs and why they are important for ecosystem health. 
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 12 

PREPAREDNESS: DECONTAMINATION PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES

There is typically a lag time between the onset of a fire incident and the arrival of decontamination 

equipment, such as heated pressure washers. Once equipment arrives, there may not be personnel 

available that are trained in its safe operation. The following measures are recommended to ensure your 

unit is properly prepared to prevent the spread of AIS during fire operations: 

• Secure heated pressure washing equipment for use on your unit or the larger area in which you

work. If you are unable to purchase equipment, have contact information at the ready for local

contractors, rental shops, and chemical supply houses.

• For ground operations, ensure access to disinfectants for instances where heated pressure washing

equipment is not available or there is insufficient time to thoroughly dry equipment. Know which

disinfectants to provide to engine operators (see Appendix A).

• Train personnel in the safe implementation of decontamination protocols and operation of

equipment. Develop Risk Assessments or Job Hazard Analyses for each specific

decontamination task or piece of equipment. See Appendix C for Risk Assessment templates for

disinfecting fire equipment: “Operating Hot Water Pressure Washers”; “Disinfecting Field Gear

With Quaternary Ammonium Compounds”; and “Disinfecting Field Gear With Chlorine Bleach”.

Modify these to fit your particular situation and field unit.

• Secure all necessary Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for pressure washing and use of

chemicals, if appropriate.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 13 

Appendix A: Decontaminating with Chemical Disinfectants 

Chemical disinfectants, though effective, can be hazardous, corrosive, and difficult to dispose of. 

However, when other decontamination methods, such as hot water or drying, are not options, chemicals 

can be used for small gear items ONLY (e.g., footvalves, draft hoses, or screens) in volumes appropriate 

for small buckets. Bleach and quaternary ammonium compounds do not meet corrosion requirements for 

aluminum and shall not be used on aircraft fuselages or aerial water delivery components such as 

helicopter buckets and snorkels.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (quats), common cleaning agents used in homes and hospitals, are 

safe for MOST gear and equipment when used at recommended concentrations and rinsed. Chlorine 

products are not emphasized for use in these guidelines because of their corrosiveness to fabrics, plastics, 

rubber, and metal and their limited effectiveness against snails. However, bleaches are extremely 

effective against certain invasive organisms (e.g., chytrid fungus, Port Orford cedar root disease) and are 

relatively inexpensive. (See Appendix D: Aquatic Invasive Species of Concern to Firefighters and 

Disinfection Methods.)

TO DECONTAMINATE GEAR WITH QUAT DISINFECTANTS: 

The quaternary ammonium formulations Super HDQ® and Green Solutions High Dilution256® (which 

replaces the discontinued Sparquat 256®) were recently (see Appendix D, Stout et al. 2016) found to be 

most effective against a variety of AIS. Green Solutions Neutral Disinfectant® is a less concentrated 

version of Green Solutions 256®. These formulations can be used at concentrations according to their

labels (see below). Soak gear in a bucket for 10 minutes. Alternatively, gear may be disinfected by 

spraying with quat from a backpack weed sprayer or spray bottle. Afterwards, rinse gear thoroughly in 

clean water. Quat compounds are highly toxic to aquatic organisms but are immobile in soil. Keep 

effluent, containing this product, at least 100 feet from lakes, ponds, streams or other waters. Do NOT 

allow product to enter storm drains, lakes, streams, or other waterbodies. 

Volume of Tap 

Water

Super 

HDQ®

Green Solutions 

Neutral 

Disinfectant High 

Dilution 256® 

Green Solutions 

Neutral 

Disinfectant®

(this product is a 

lower 

concentration)

Soak 

Time Spray Time

1 gallon 

water 1⁄2 oz 1⁄2 oz 2 oz 10 min 

5 sec spray; let 

stand 10 

minutes; rinse

1 gallon 

water

1 Tbsp. 1 Tbsp. 4 Tbsp. 10 min 

5 sec spray; let 

stand 10 

minutes; rinse
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 14 

TO DECONTAMINATE GEAR WITH CHLORINE BLEACH:

Bleaches are corrosive to canvas, gaskets, and metal and have limited effectiveness against snails. 

However, bleaches are extremely effective against other invasive organisms, especially pathogens, and 

the bleach concentration below has been found to be effective for chytrid fungus and other AIS 

(See Appendix D: Johnson et al. 2003). Soak gear in a bucket for 10 minutes. Afterwards, rinse gear 

thoroughly in clean water. 

Volume of Tap Water

“Regular Clorox® 

Bleach” (6% sodium 

hypochlorite) 

Soak Time

1 gallon water 9 oz 10 min

1 gallon water 1 1⁄8 Cup 10 min 

CHEMICAL DISPOSAL

Small quantities of diluted quaternary ammonium products or bleach which have been used to disinfect 

foot valves or other firefighting equipment may be disposed of in a sanitary sewer as allowed by the 

product label. Alternatively, used solutions of quaternary ammonium products or bleach may be 

disposed of by any application specified on product label direction, such as: 

• Cleaning vehicle exteriors and tires by spray application of diluted materials

• For the prevention of mildew on non-porous surfaces

• Disinfection of toilets (including portable)

Always consult the product label in determining the appropriate PPE necessary for the mixing and use of 

these chemicals, and for final direction on a given products use and disposal. Do NOT allow these 

products to enter storm drains, lakes, streams, or other waterbodies. 

SUPPLY SOURCES

These recommended chemicals are available through the U.S. Government Services Administration 

(GSA) https://www.gsaadvantage.gov or through local janitorial chemical suppliers. 

1) Green Solutions Neutral Disinfectant®

GSA (NSN# 3502-04) = $32 per case (4 gal) = $8 per gal = $.06 per oz = $0.12 per gallon of

mixed solution

(Spartan Chemical Company; EPA registration #1839-169-5741)

2) Green Solutions High Dilution 256® (replaced Sparquat 256®)

This formulation is 4X more concentrated than Green Solutions Neutral Disinfectant® (see above)
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 15 

Not carried by GSA, but can be purchased from local janitorial supply businesses. Distributor locations 

can be found at: http://www.spartanchemical.com/where-to-buy 

Cost = ~$140 per case (4 gal) = $35 per gal = $0.27 per oz = $0.13 per 1 gallon of mixed solution

(Spartan Chemical Company; EPA registration #1839-169-5741) 

3) Super HDQ® (twice as concentrated as Sanicare Quat 128®)

GSA (NSN# 1204-04) = $71 per case (4 gal) = $18 per gal = $0.14 per oz = $.07 per 1 gallon of

mixed solution

(Spartan Chemical Company; EPA registration # 10324-141-5741)

4) Liquid household bleach (6% sodium hypochlorite) (e.g., Regular Clorox® Bleach)

Grocery stores, prices vary
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 16 

Appendix B: Field Testing Foot Valves for Leaks

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

AIS can be found in the untreated water sources used in firefighting operations, either a natural source (a 

river or lake) or a human-made water body (a reservoir, canal, or stock tank). Untreated water sources 

may harbor a variety of AIS, including quagga and zebra mussels, New Zealand mudsnails, whirling 

disease, didymo (rock snot), and many others. 

Of great concern for ground equipment is the possibility that residual tank water contaminated with AIS 

could be transferred to uncontaminated waterbodies during the drafting process. 

Therefore, the following best management practices are recommended.

• Use a properly functioning and tested foot valve during drafting. Ensure the foot valve is

screwed on snugly and not leaking.

• To minimize the potential for engine and water tender tank water leakage through the foot valve,

prime with water from the drafting source rather than water from the engine tank. When priming

using a bucket, first make sure that the bucket is clean prior to priming so the bucket does not

transfer AIS. Additionally, during drafting and water tending operations don’t leave draft hose

full with foot valve engaged and submerged in water source when not pumping.

• Care should be taken when drafting to minimize any potential of tank water to come in contact

with drafting source; e.g., pump priming or overflow of engine tank when filling.

• Untreated tank water obtained in one location should never be directly discharged into a

waterbody at a different location.

In order to be prepared, foot valves on engines and water tenders should be tested monthly during the fire 

season and whenever an apparatus is moved between waterbodies. The following protocol outlines a 

simple test method that can be implemented in the field. Because foot valves can leak at either low or 

high pressures, testing at both pressure levels is required to evaluate the potential for leakage during 

operational drafting conditions. 

EQUIPMENT LIST

Some items may be part of an engine’s supplied equipment. Other items may need to be purchased but 

are easily found at fire equipment vendors. 

Items needed to perform the leak test include:

• Suction hose and ratchet straps

• Assorted male-to-female adapters, increasers, and reducers

If a pressure gauge is not present on equipment:

• 1 1⁄2” Pump Test Kit with Gauge – CFE (Cascade Fire Equipment) P/N: 11495 or similar

• 1 1⁄2” 90 Degree Elbow – CFE (Cascade Fire Equipment) P/N: 10251-90 or similar
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 17 

LOW PRESSURE TEST (3-5 PSI)

To perform the low pressure test fasten a length of suction hose to the engine or water tender (Figure 8). 

Use ratchet straps or another suitable method, as long as the suction hose is attached safely and securely 

to the ladder. 

To adjust for size of the foot valve (e.g., 11⁄2”, 3”, or other), use a combination of male-to-female adapters, 

increasers, and/or reducers to attach the foot valve to the suction hose (Figure 9). Fill the suction hose 

with 6 to 10 feet of water to obtain 3-5 psi (2’ of hose = 1 psi). The weight of the water provides the

pressure on the foot valve. Check the foot valve for 3 to 5 minutes. There should be no leakage. If 

leakage occurs, replace the foot valve with one that does not leak.

HIGH PRESSURE TEST (130 PSI)

Figure 8. Suction hose with foot valve attached 

to engine ladder. 

Figure 9. Foot valve attached to suction line with various 

adapters as needed to adjust for foot valve size.

To perform the high pressure test, first attach a wye or other 

suitable shut-off valve to the rear discharge (Figure 10). If a 

pressure gauge is not available on the equipment, attach a 

pressure gauge to the wye, then attach the 90 degree elbow and 

next attach the foot valve. The test set-up should resemble the 

one shown in Figure 10. Using the engine’s pump, increase the 

pressure to 130 psi. Check the foot valve for 3 to 5 minutes. 

There should be no leakage. If leakage occurs, replace the foot 

valve with one that does not leak.

Thanks to Carl Schaefer at U.S. Forest Service, San Dimas 

Technology and Development Center, for development of this 

test protocol. Figure 10. Pressure valve attached to the footvalve.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 18 

Appendix C: Job Safety Risk Assessment Templates for

Disinfecting Field Gear

► OPERATING HOT WATER PRESSURE WASHERS

► DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH QUATERNARY AMMONIUM

COMPOUNDS

► DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH CHLORINE BLEACH
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 19 

OPERATING HOT WATER PRESSURE WASHERS

07-09-2009 R4 RSC

Organizational and Operational Risk Assessment Worksheet 

Organizational Risk Management

Modified

215_A

1. Forest or Unit :

TEMPLATE EXAMPLE

Location: Prepared by (Name / Duty Position): 

2. Page of 

3. Work Project/ Activity

OPERATING HOT WATER PRESSURE WASHERS

4. Initial Assessment Date: 5. Date of this assessment

update:

6. Version of

7. Worksheet Instructions:

• For each hazard identified in box 8, the local district/unit is to complete boxes 12 and 13 with specific implementation controls and personnel assigned unique to the

activity and location.

• Additional hazards unique to this location or unit may need to be documented in box 8 by the local district/unit.

8. Identified Hazards 9. Assess the

Hazards:

Initial Risk

rating from

risk matrix.

10. Initial Proposed Control

Measures Developed for Identified

Hazards/Risks:

11. Assess

the Hazard’s

Residual

Risk:

12. How to

Implement the

Controls: (To be

completed on the

local unit)

13. Assigned to: (To be completed on the

local unit)

(Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) (Be Specific)

Unfamiliarity with Equipment X To reduce the risk of injury, read 

operating instructions carefully before 

using. Know how to stop the machine 

and bleed pressure quickly. Be 

thoroughly familiar with the controls.

X

Physical Protection X High pressure spray can cause debris

to become airborne and fly at high

speeds. To avoid personal injury,

wear eye, hand and foot safety

devices. Keep operating area clear of 

all persons.

X

Risk of fire X Do not add fuel when the product is 

operating or still hot. 

X

Handling Hazardous Fuels X Do not confuse gasoline and fuel oil 

tanks. Keep proper fuel in proper tank. 

Don’t use oil containing gasoline, 

solvents or alcohol. A mix up can 

result in fire and/or explosion. 

X
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 20 

CONTINUED

14. Identified Hazards 15. Assess the

Hazards: Initial

Risk from

matrix.

16. Control Measures Developed for

Identified Hazards: (Specific measures taken

to reduce the probability of a hazard/risks)

17. Assess the

Hazard’s

Residual Risk:

18. How to Implement the

Controls:

19. Assigned to:

(Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) (Be Specific)

Refueling X Allow engine to cool for 1-2 minutes before 

refueling. If fuel is spilled, make sure area is dry 

before testing the spark plug or starting the 

engine. (Fire and/or explosion may occur if this is 

not done.) Refuel gasoline engines: outdoors; with 

the engine stopped; with no source of ignition 

within 10 feet of dispensing point; and with 

allowance for fuel expansion in hot weather.

X

High Pressures X High pressure will cause personal injury or 

equipment damage. Keep clear of nozzle. Use 

caution when operating. Do not direct discharge 

stream at people, or severe injury or death will 

result.

Before disconnecting discharge hose from water 

outlet, turn burner off and open spray gun to allow 

water to cool below 100° before stopping the 

machine. Then open spray gun to relieve 

pressure. Failure to properly cool down or 

maintain the heating coil may result in a steam 

explosion.

Never run pump dry or leave spray gun closed 

longer than 1-2 minutes.

X

High Pressure Nozzle X Grip cleaning wand securely with both hands 

before starting. Failure to do this could result in 

injury from a whipping wand.

X

20. Remaining Risk Level After Control Measures Are

Implemented: (CIRCLE HIGHEST REMAINING RISK LEVEL)

LOW

(Supervisor)

MEDIUM

(Program Manager 

 

HIGH

(District Ranger)

EXTREME

(District Ranger or Forest Supervisor)

21. RISK DECISION AUTHORITY: (Approval/Authority Signature Block) (If Initial Risk Level is Medium, High or Extremely High, Brief Risk Decision Authority at that level on

Controls and Control Measures used to reduce risks) (Note: if the person preparing the form signs this block, the signature indicates only that the appropriate risk decision authority was notified of the initial risk level,

control measures taken and appropriate resources requested; and that the risk was accepted by the decision authority.)

(Signature)
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 21 

RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX

As we have learned, successful management of risk demands commitment and leadership from top management to the smart employees 

in the field. We must continue to work towards agreement on how we define and manage tolerable risk and discourage attitudes of 

apathy or fatalism. Clearly we cannot completely eliminate the risk. Moreover, sardonic remarks that the only way to avoid the danger 

is to stay out of the woods do not add value to the discussion. On the other hand, we must not engage full on with heads down and 

surrender our fate to so called luck, or simply dismiss the concern as an inherent, unavoidable part of a risky job. We have the 

experience and capability to safely manage hazards and are obligated to seize every opportunity to do better. 

A problem when you have a number of possible risks is to decide which ones are worthy of further attention. The Risk Assessment 

Matrix is a simple graphical tool widely used in many professions worldwide to help prioritize risks. 

There are two main dimensions to risk: (a) How likely it will occur (probability), and (b) The impact/effect (severity) that it would 

have, should it occur. One familiar model of quantifying risk is to assign a numeric value to these risks and to multiply these together. 

However, a problem with this quantitative approach is that high-probability/low-impact risks get the same score as high-impact/lowprobability risks. The following Risk Assessment Matrix is a widely recognized and more effective method to assess risk.

The Risk Assessment Matrix simply puts Probability (likelihood) and Severity (effect/impact) on two sides of an x-y chart and then the 

risk are placed within this two-dimensional space (see chart below). This gives several advantages:

 High-probability/low-impact and high-impact/low-probability risks are differentiated.

 You can visually compare risk, thus asking the question ‘is this one more or less likely than that one?’ This plays to the human

cognitive preference for paired comparison rather than absolute evaluation.

 Then the risks can be addressed from top right down to bottom left. High-probability/low-impact and high-impact/low-probability

risk of equal risk exposure score will tend to be evaluated at around the same time.

 The process can be done on the wall with flipchart-paper, on a paper or computer format, or in many cases in your head.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 22 

Risk Tolerance Rating Criteria

Extreme - 4 High - 3 Medium - 2 Low - 1

Unacceptable:

Likely harm from an event must not 

be accepted. Must be reduced with 

administrative barriers of protection 

and/or engineering controls. 

Eliminate or avoid risk to maintain 

sufficient safeguards.

Intolerable:

Should be reduced with 

administrative and/or 

engineering controls. Risk 

should not be tolerated save 

in special/limited 

circumstances.

Tolerable: 

Tolerable if further risk 

reduction (cost, time, effort) 

would be grossly 

disproportionate to 

improvement gained.

Acceptable: 

Negligible given common safe 

job procedures are applied. 

Continual vigilance necessary 

to maintain assurance that risk 

remains at this level.

Risk Assessment

Matrix

HAZARD PROBABILITY (Likelihood)

Frequent Likely Possible Seldom Unlikely

A B C D E

Severity

(Effect/impact) 

Catastrophic:

Fatal, life threatening or 

permanent disability 

I

Extreme

(4)

E H M 

Major:

Severe injury or illness. Long 

term disability and/or Lost 

time

II

H M 

L 

Moderate:

Medical treatment-no 

permanent injury or illness, 

and/or restricted duty

III

High

(3)

M 

L 

Minor: First aid - 

Minor cuts, bruises, or 

sickness. No lost 

time/restricted duty

IV

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 23 

DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

07-09-2009 R4 RSC

Organizational Risk Management

Organizational and Operational Risk Assessment Worksheet 

Modified

215_A

1. Forest or Unit :

EXAMPLE TEMPLATE

 Location: Prepared by (Name / Duty Position): 2. Page of 

3. Work Project/ Activity

DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH QUATERNARY 

AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS (e.g., HDQ, Green Solutions)

4. Initial Assessment Date: 5. Date of this assessment update: 6. Version of 

7. Worksheet Instructions:

• For each hazard identified in box 8, the local district/unit is to complete boxes 12 and 13 with specific implementation controls and personnel assigned unique to the activity and location.

• Additional hazards unique to this location or unit may need to be documented in box 8 by the local district/unit.

8. Identified Hazards 9.Assess the

Hazards: Initial

Risk rating from

risk matrix

10. Initial Proposed Control Measures Developed

for Identified Hazards/Risks:

11. Assess the

Hazard’s

Residual

Risk:

12. How to Implement the

Controls: (To be 

completed on the local unit)

13. Assigned to: (To be completed

on the local unit)

(Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) (Be Specific)

Chemical Contact X Concentrated quat compounds are corrosive and 

can cause irreversible eye damage and skin burns. 

Wear protective clothing including safety glasses 

or goggles and impervious gloves.

X

Swallowed Chemical X If chemical is swallowed, drink a glassful of water 

and call a physician. Do not induce vomiting. 

X

Eye Contact X Wear PPE. Remove contact lenses if present. 

Flush eyes with copious amounts of water for at 

least 15 minutes. If irritation persists, see a 

doctor. When preparing quat solutions in the field 

each crew member should carry 1 quart of water 

at a minimum for use as an eye flush. 

X

Storage and Transport X Store in an air tight container upright in a cool, 

dry area, and avoid heat above 110o F. In case of 

spill, flood areas with large quantities of water. 

Do not reuse empty container. Do NOT allow 

product to enter storm drains, lakes, streams, or 

other bodies of water.

X
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 24 

CONTINUED

14. Identified Hazards 15.Assess the

Hazards: Initial

Risk from matrix 

16.Control Measures Developed for Identified Hazards: 

(Specific measures taken to reduce the probability of

a hazard/risks)

17.Assess the 

Hazard’s

Residual Risk:

18. How to Implement the 

Controls: 

19. Assigned to:

(Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) (Be Specific)

Inhalation of Fumes X Avoid inhalation of vapor or mist; normal room

ventilation is adequate.

X

Physical or Chemical Hazards X Do not mix with chlorine bleach. The combination 

may release hazardous or explosive gases.

X

Environmental Hazards X Quat compounds are highly toxic to aquatic 

organisms but are immobile in soil. Keep effluent 

containing this product at least 100 ft from lakes, 

ponds, streams or other waters (EPA’s 

Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Aliphatic 

Alkyl Quaternaries

EPA739-R-06-008 at: 

https://archive.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/w

eb/pdf/ddac_red.pdf. Flush to sanitary sewers if 

possible, but notify treatment facility if large 

volumes are involved.

X

20. Remaining Risk Level After Control Measures Are

Implemented: (CIRCLE HIGHEST REMAINING RISK

LEVEL)

LOW

(Supervisor)

MEDIUM

(Program Manager 

Staff Officer )

HIGH

(District Ranger)

EXTREME

(District Ranger or Forest Supervisor)

21. RISK DECISION AUTHORITY: (Approval/Authority Signature Block) (If Initial Risk Level is Medium, High or Extremely High, Brief Risk Decision Authority at that level on Controls

and Control Measures used to reduce risks) (Note: if the person preparing the form signs this block, the signature indicates only that the appropriate risk decision authority was notified of the initial risk level, control 

measures taken and appropriate resources requested; and that the risk was accepted by the decision authority.)

(Signature)
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 25 

RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX

As we have learned, successful management of risk demands commitment and leadership from top management to the smart employees 

in the field. We must continue to work towards agreement on how we define and manage tolerable risk and discourage attitudes of 

apathy or fatalism. Clearly we cannot completely eliminate the risk. Moreover, sardonic remarks that the only way to avoid the danger 

is to stay out of the woods do not add value to the discussion. On the other hand, we must not engage full on with heads down and 

surrender our fate to so called luck, or simply dismiss the concern as an inherent, unavoidable part of a risky job. We have the 

experience and capability to safely manage hazards and are obligated to seize every opportunity to do better.

A problem when you have a number of possible risks is to decide which ones are worthy of further attention. The Risk Assessment 

Matrix is a simple graphical tool widely used in many professions worldwide to help prioritize risks. 

There are two main dimensions to risk: (a) How likely it will occur (probability), and (b) The impact/effect (severity) that it would

have, should it occur. One familiar model of quantifying risk is to assign a numeric value to these risks and to multiply these together. 

However, a problem with this quantitative approach is that high-probability/low-impact risks get the same score as high-impact/lowprobability risks. The following Risk Assessment Matrix is a widely recognized and more effective method to assess risk. 

The Risk Assessment Matrix simply puts Probability (likelihood) and Severity (effect/impact) on two sides of an x-y chart and then the 

risk are placed within this two-dimensional space (see chart below). This gives several advantages:

 High-probability/low-impact and high-impact/low-probability risks are differentiated.

 You can visually compare risk, thus asking the question ‘is this one more or less likely than that one?’ This plays to the human

cognitive preference for paired comparison rather than absolute evaluation.

 Then the risks can be addressed from top right down to bottom left. High-probability/low-impact and high-impact/low-probability

risk of equal risk exposure score will tend to be evaluated at around the same time.

 The process can be done on the wall with flipchart-paper, on a paper or computer format, or in many cases in your head.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 26 

Risk Tolerance Rating Criteria

Extreme - 4 High - 3 Medium - 2 Low - 1

Unacceptable:

Likely harm from an event must not be 

accepted. Must be reduced with 

administrative barriers of protection 

and/or engineering controls. Eliminate 

or avoid risk to maintain sufficient 

safeguards. 

Intolerable:

Should be reduced with 

administrative and/or 

engineering controls. Risk 

should not be tolerated save in 

special/limited circumstances.

Tolerable: 

Tolerable if further risk 

reduction (cost, time, effort) 

would be grossly 

disproportionate to improvement 

gained.

Acceptable: 

Negligible given common safe 

job procedures are applied. 

Continual vigilance necessary to 

maintain assurance that risk 

remains at this level.

Risk Assessment

Matrix

HAZARD PROBABILITY (Likelihood)

Frequent Likely Possible Seldom Unlikely

A B C D E

Severity

(Effect/impact) 

Catastrophic:

Fatal, life threatening or 

permanent disability 

I

Extreme

(4)

E H M 

Major:

Severe injury or illness. Long 

term disability and/or Lost 

time

II

H M 

L 

Moderate:

Medical treatment-no 

permanent injury or illness, 

and/or restricted duty

III

High

(3)

M 

L 

Minor: First aid - 

Minor cuts, bruises, or 

sickness. No lost 

time/restricted duty

IV

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 27 

DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH CHLORINE BLEACH

07-09-2009 R4 RSC

Organizational Risk Management

Organizational and Operational Risk Assessment Worksheet 

Modified 

215_A 

1. Forest or Unit :

EXAMPLE TEMPLATE

 Location: Prepared by (Name / Duty Position): 2. Page of 

3. Work Project/ Activity

DISINFECTING FIELD GEAR WITH CHLORINE

BLEACH

4. Initial Assessment Date: 5. Date of this assessment update: 6. Version of

7. Worksheet Instructions:

• For each hazard identified in box 8, the local district/unit is to complete boxes 12 and 13 with specific implementation controls and personnel assigned unique to the activity

and location.

• Additional hazards unique to this location or unit may need to be documented in box 8 by the local district/unit.

8. Identified Hazards 9. Assess the 

Hazards: Initial Risk 

rating from risk

matrix. 

10. Initial Proposed Control Measures Developed for

Identified Hazards/Risks: 

11. Assess the 

Hazard’s Residual 

Risk:

12. How to Implement the 

Controls: (To be completed on the 

local unit)

13. Assigned to: (To be completed on

the local unit)

(Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) (Be Specific)

Chemical Contact X Bleach can cause severe but temporary eye 

irritation and can be a skin irritant. Wear 

protective clothing including safety glasses or 

goggles and impervious gloves.

X

Swallowed Chemical X If chemical is swallowed, drink a glassful of water 

and call a physician. Do not induce vomiting.

X

Eye Contact X Wear PPE. Remove contact lenses if present. 

Flush eyes with copious amounts of water for at 

least 15 minutes. If irritation persists, see a 

doctor. When preparing bleach solutions in the 

field each crew member should carry 1 quart of 

water at a minimum for use as an eye flush.

X

Storage and Transport X Store in an air tight container upright in a cool, dry 

area, and away from direct sunlight and heat to 

avoid deterioration. In case of spill, flood areas with 

large quantities of water. Do not reuse empty 

container. Do NOT allow product to enter storm 

drains, lakes, streams, or other bodies of water.

X
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 28 

CONTINUED

14. Identified Hazards 15. Assess the 

Hazards: Initial

Risk from matrix 

16. Control Measures Developed for Identified

Hazards: (Specific measures taken to reduce the 

probability of a hazard/risks)

17. Assess the 

Hazard’s

Residual Risk:

18. How to Implement the 

Controls: 

19. Assigned to:

(Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) L M H E (Be Specific) (Be Specific)

Inhalation of Fumes X Avoid inhalation of vapor or mist and use 

only in a well-ventilated area. 

X

Physical or Chemical Hazards X Product contains a strong oxidizer. 

Prolonged contact with metal may cause 

pitting or discoloration. Will damage 

fabrics and rubber.

Do not add bleach directly to fire retardants 

containing ammonia, such as Phos-Chek, or 

with quaternary ammonium products. 

Mixing bleach with products containing 

ammonia may release hazardous or 

explosive gases.

X

Environmental Hazards X Bleach is toxic to aquatic organisms but 

degrades rapidly. Do not discharge effluent 

containing this product into lakes, ponds, 

streams or other waters.

X

20. Remaining Risk Level After Control Measures Are Implemented:

(CIRCLE HIGHEST REMAINING RISK LEVEL)

LOW

(Supervisor) 

MEDIUM

(Program Manager Staff 

Officer )

HIGH

(District Ranger)

EXTREME

(District Ranger or Forest Supervisor)

21. RISK DECISION AUTHORITY: (Approval/Authority Signature Block) (If Initial Risk Level is Medium, High or Extremely High, Brief Risk Decision Authority at that level on Controls

and Control Measures used to reduce risks.) (Note: if the person preparing the form signs this block, the signature indicates only that the appropriate risk decision authority was notified of the initial risk level, control measures

taken and appropriate resources requested; and that the risk was accepted by the decision authority.)

(Signature)
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 29 

RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX

As we have learned, successful management of risk demands commitment and leadership from top management to the smart employees 

in the field. We must continue to work towards agreement on how we define and manage tolerable risk and discourage attitudes of 

apathy or fatalism. Clearly we cannot completely eliminate the risk. Moreover, sardonic remarks that the only way to avoid the danger 

is to stay out of the woods do not add value to the discussion. On the other hand, we must not engage full on with heads down and 

surrender our fate to so called luck, or simply dismiss the concern as an inherent, unavoidable part of a risky job. We have the 

experience and capability to safely manage hazards and are obligated to seize every opportunity to do better.

A problem when you have a number of possible risks is to decide which ones are worthy of further attention. The Risk Assessment 

Matrix is a simple graphical tool widely used in many professions worldwide to help prioritize risks. 

There are two main dimensions to risk: (a) How likely it will occur (probability) and (b) The impact/effect (severity) that it would have, 

should it occur. One familiar model of quantifying risk is to assign a numeric value to these risks and to multiply these together. 

However, a problem with this quantitative approach is that high-probability/low-impact risks get the same score as high-impact/lowprobability risks. The following Risk Assessment Matrix is a widely recognized and more effective method to assess risk. 

The Risk Assessment Matrix simply puts Probability (likelihood) and Severity (effect/impact) on two sides of an x-y chart and then the 

risk are placed within this two-dimensional space (see chart below). This gives several advantages:

 High-probability/low-impact and high-impact/low-probability risks are differentiated.

 You can visually compare risk, thus asking the question ‘is this one more or less likely than that one?’ This plays to the human

cognitive preference for paired comparison rather than absolute evaluation.

 Then the risks can be addressed from top right down to bottom left. High-probability/low-impact and high-impact/low-probability

risk of equal risk exposure score will tend to be evaluated at around the same time.

 The process can be done on the wall with flipchart-paper, on a paper or computer format, or in many cases in your head.
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 30 

Risk Tolerance Rating Criteria

Extreme - 4 High - 3 Medium - 2 Low - 1

Unacceptable:

Likely harm from an event must not 

be accepted. Must be reduced with 

administrative barriers of protection 

and/or engineering controls. 

Eliminate or avoid risk to maintain 

sufficient safeguards.

Intolerable:

Should be reduced with 

administrative and/or 

engineering controls. Risk 

should not be tolerated save 

in special/limited 

circumstances.

Tolerable: 

Tolerable if further risk 

reduction (cost, time, effort) 

would be grossly 

disproportionate to 

improvement gained.

Acceptable: 

Negligible given common safe 

job procedures are applied. 

Continual vigilance necessary 

to maintain assurance that risk 

remains at this level.

Risk Assessment

Matrix

HAZARD PROBABILITY (Likelihood)

Frequent Likely Possible Seldom Unlikely

A B C D E

Severity

(Effect/impact) 

Catastrophic:

Fatal, life threatening or 

permanent disability 

I

Extreme

(4)

E H M 

Major:

Severe injury or illness. Long 

term disability and/or Lost 

time

II

H M 

L 

Moderate:

Medical treatment-no 

permanent injury or illness, 

and/or restricted duty

III

High

(3)

M 

L 

Minor: First aid - 

Minor cuts, bruises, or 

sickness. No lost 

time/restricted duty

IV

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 31 

Appendix D: AQUATIC INVASIVE SPECIES of Concern to Firefighters and

Disinfection Methods 

The species fire operations are most likely to encounter, their distributions, all 

disinfection methods, and references.
Zebra & Quagga Mussels

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 32 

Zebra & Quagga Mussels

Dreissena polymorpha &

Dreissena rostriformis bugensis

Photo credit: The Nature 

Conservancy

Photo credit: U.S. Geological Survey

ZEBRA & QUAGGA MUSSELS 

GENERAL INFORMATION:

• Quagga Mussel Distribution: CA, NV, UT, AZ, CO, NM, OK, TX, midwest, Great Lakes region and NE US. For most up-to-date

information on distribution, please see: https://nas.er.usgs.gov/taxgroup/mollusks/zebramussel/

• Zebra Mussel Distribution: CA, UT, CO, OK, KS, NE, SD, ND, LA, AR, MO, IA, MN, MS, TN, AL, KY, IN, other midwest and Great

Lakes regions and NE US. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

https://nas.er.usgs.gov/taxgroup/mollusks/zebramussel/

• Habitat: Both mussels attach to hard surfaces in temperate lakes and slow rivers. Microscopic mussel larvae are released into open water

where they swim about for several days before settling.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Most concern is with microscopic larvae present in water column. Larvae can survive for 5 days in internal

tanks with residual water (summer months). Risks include: contact with untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting

gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Impacts: Zebra and quagga mussels colonize water supply pipes and biofoul hydroelectric and nuclear power plants,

public water plants, and industrial facilities. These species remove nutrients in aquatic ecosystems and litter beaches with

sharp-edged shells.

DISINFECTION PROTOCOLS:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER SPRAY

To kill Quagga or Zebra mussel adults

≥ 140°F (60°C ) for 5 to 10 seconds

To kill Quagga/Zebra mussel free-swimming larvae

≥ 140°F (60°C) likely to be ‘instantly lethal’

Comeau et al. 2011 

(quagga adults); Morse 

2009 (zebra adults)

R. McMahon, pers. comm.

(2014)
Zebra & Quagga Mussels

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 33 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

HOT WATER IMMERSION:

To kill Quagga/Zebra mussel adults and free-swimming larvae

≥ 120°F (50°C) for 1 minute

FREEZING

≤ 32°F (0°C ) for 48 hours or more for adults 

Beyer et al. 2011

McMahon 1996

Drying In summer, 5 days survival time for larvae in internal tanks with 

residual water; in cooler months; 28 days 

Choi et al. 2013

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, hot water pressure washing to flush larvae Comeau et al. 2011 and 

multiple sources

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

Compounds 

(e.g., alkyl dimethyl 

benzylammonium

chloride [ADBAC]; diecyl 

dimethyl ammonium 

chloride [DDAC])

To kill Quagga mussel larvae:

3.1% Sparquat256® solution

Mixing instructions:

 4.3 oz per 1 gallon water

 3.4 gallons per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes 

 OR

1.8% Green Solutions High Dilution 256® solution 

Mixing instructions:

 2.5 oz per 1 gallon water

 1.9 gallons per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes 

Britton and Dingman 2011

Britton and Dingman 2011

Quat 

compounds 

methods are 

specifically for 

larvae likely 

found in the 

water column.

Quat 

Compounds 

can corrode 

aluminum; not 

for use on 

aircraft 

equipment.

Bleach (e.g., Clorox® ) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

0.5% bleach solution (250 ppm sodium hypochlorite)

Mixing instruction: 

 0.6 oz bleach per 1 gallon water

Modovski 2011 (Based on 

Cope et al. 2003 which 

cited Gatenby 2000 

Bleach is 

corrosive to 

gear and 

metals.
Zebra & Quagga Mussels

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 34 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

 1.1 Tablespoons of bleach per gallon water

 1⁄2 gallon bleach per 100 gallons water 

Contact time = rinse only, no time specified. 

Other Disinfectants To kill Quagga mussel adults & larvae:

2% Virkon Aquatic® solution 

Mixing instructions:

 20 g/liter

 76g per 1 gallon of water 

 760g per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes

To kill Quagga mussel larvae only: 

0.5% Virkon Aquatic® solution 

Mixing instructions:

 5 g/liter

 19g per 1 gallon of water 

 190g per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes 

Stockton 2011 Virkon is 

corrosive to 

soft metals. 

Although not 

specifically 

tested, may not 

be applicable 

for use on 

aircraft 

equipment.
Asian Clam

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 35 

Asian Clam 

Corbicula fluminea

Photo credit: Noel M. Burkhead-USGS Photo credit: Flyforums.co

ASIAN CLAM

General Information: 

• Distribution: Almost all US states except MT, ND and ME. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

https://nas.er.usgs.gov//queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=92.

• Habitat: Lakes and streams, buried in sediments or larvae and juveniles drifting in currents.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Most concern is with larvae and juvenile clams in swept into water column. Risks include: contact with

untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks

and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Impacts: Asian clams can biofoul power plant and industrial water systems. Juveniles secrete a mucousy dragline and

can be easily transported in currents. The clams also clog irrigation canals and drinking water pipes.

Disinfection Protocols:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature To kill Asian clam larvae and small juveniles:

HOT WATER

It is probable that a hot water spray ≥ 140°F (60°C) for a few 

seconds would be lethal. No scientific study reports 

effectiveness.

Flushing equipment with hot water would remove larvae and 

juveniles, which are easily entrained in flowing water.

To kill Asian clam adults:

≥ 109o F (43oC) for 30 minutes

R. McMahon, pers. comm. (2014)

McMahon and Williams 1986

Mattice and Dye 1975
Asian Clam

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 36 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Drying Dry gear in air for 14–27 days in cool weather; much shorter dry 

times in full sun

McMahon and Williams 1984

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, remove all plant material Multiple sources 

CHEMICALS Though chemicals are used in hydroelectric facilities, Asian 

clams are resistant to chemicals: decontamination times are 

lengthy and kill rates < 100%

For example, Barbour et al. 2013
New Zealand Mudsnails 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 37 

New Zealand Mudsnail 

Potamopyrgus antipodarum

Photo credit: Robyn Draheim (USFSW) 

NEW ZEALAND MUDSNAIL

General Information: 

• Distribution: WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, UT, NV, AZ, CO, MN, IL, OH, PA, NY, and Canada. For most up-to-date information on

distribution, please see: https://nas.er.usgs.gov/taxgroup/mollusks/newzealandmudsnaildistribution.aspx.

• Habitat: Streams and lakes, occurring on rocky substrates as well as aquatic plants.

• Fire Activities posing risk: Contact with untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom

sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental impacts: Mudsnails reproduce very quickly. It only takes a SINGLE snail can result in a colony of more than 40 million

snails in just one year. New Zealand mudsnails can smother a streambed, crowding out the native aquatic species that provide food for

fish.

Disinfection Protocols:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

≥ 122°F (50°C) for 15 seconds

FREEZING:

≤ 27°F (-3°C ) for 1 to 2 hours 

Dwyer et al. 2003

Richards et al. 2004

Drying Dry gear in full sunlight for ≥ 50 hours

Dry gear at 86°F (30°C ) for 24hours

Dry gear at ≥ 104°F (40°C ) for at least 2 hours

Alonso and Castro-Diez 2012 

Richards et al. 2004
New Zealand Mudsnails 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 38 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, washing and removing organics (e.g. mud) Multiple sources

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds 

(e.g., alkyl dimethyl 

benzylammonium 

chloride [ADBAC]; diecyl 

dimethyl ammonium 

chloride [DDAC])

0.8% Green Solutions High Dilution 256® solution

Mixing instructions:

- 1⁄2 liquid oz. per 1 gallon water

- 1 Tbsp. per 1 gallon water

Contact time = 10 minutes

0.33% Super HDQ®

Mixing instructions:

- 1⁄2 liquid oz. per 1 gallon water

- 1 Tbsp. per 1 gallon water

Contact time = 10 minutes

Stout et al. 2016 Quat 

Compounds 

can corrode 

aluminum; 

not for use 

on aircraft 

equipment .

Bleach (e.g., Clorox®) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

Not effective Hosea and Finlayson 2005
New Zealand Mudsnails 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 39 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Other Agents 2% Virkon Aquatic® solution

Mixing instructions:

 77g per 1 gallon of water 

 770 g per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 15-20 minutes 

Stockton and Moffitt 2013 Virkon is 

corrosive to 

soft metals. 

Although not 

specifically 

tested, may 

not be 

applicable for 

use on 

aircraft 

equipment.
Malaysian Trumpet Snail

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 40 

Malaysian Trumpet Snail

Melanoides tuberculata

Also called: Red Rimmed Melania, Red Lipped Melania

Photo credit: Alex Kawazaki Photo credit: Flickriver.com

MALAYSIAN TRUMPET SNAIL

General Information: 

• Distribution: AZ, CA, CO, FL, HI, LA, MT, NC, NV, OR, UT, TX (possible in SD, VA and WY). For most up-to-date information on

distribution, please see: https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1037.

• Habitat: Slow moving rivers and lakes, on mud and plants

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Risks include: helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or

aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water

• Environmental Impact: This trumpet snail can outcompete native snails and alter ecosystem functions

Disinfection Protocols:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

To kill snails of all sizes

122 °F (50°C) for 4-5 minutes 

FREEZING:

Freezing in Ice water for 12-24 hours

Freezing in salty ice water for 2 hours

Mitchell and Brandt 2005

Mitchell and Brandt 2009

Drying Very resistant to drying, >20 days Mitchell and Brandt 2005

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, hot water pressure washing Multiple sources 
Malaysian Trumpet Snail

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 41 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds 

No known studies

Bleach (e.g., Clorox® ) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

Not effective Mitchell et al. 2007
Oriental Mystery Snail

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 42 

Oriental Mystery Snail

Cipangopaludina spp.

Also called: Chinese Mystery Snail

Photo credit: Cornell University Photo credit: Oregon Dept of Fish and Wildlife 

ORIENTAL MYSTERY SNAIL

General Information: 

• Distribution: WA, OR, CA, ID, UT, AZ, CO TX, NE, MO, GA, FL, NC, Great Lakes region, and northeastern US. For most up-to-date

information on distribution, please see: https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1044.

• Habitat: Slow moving rivers and lakes, on mud and plants. Readily transported by equipment infested with snails hitchhiking on aquatic

plants.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants;

internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Impact: These snails form dense populations and outcompete native species for food and habitat. They are intermediate

hosts for parasitic worms and can transmit diseases that kill waterfowl. Some mystery snails prey on fish embryos. Snail shells often litter

shorelines and clog screens of water intakes.

Disinfection Protocols:

Method of Control for 

Firefighters 

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

122 °F (50°C) for 4-5 minutes 

J. Havel, pers. comm. (2014)

Drying 14 to ≥28 days, depending on snail size. Larger snails very resistant 

to drying 

Havel 2011 

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, clean off all plant material Multiple sources 
Oriental Mystery Snail

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 43 

Method of Control for 

Firefighters 

Details of Method References Notes

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds

No known studies

Bleach (e.g., Clorox® ) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

No known studies, but as with other snails with sealing flaps (e.g.,

New Zealand mudsnails, trumpet snails), likely not effective
Faucet Snail

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 44 

Faucet Snail

Bithynia tentaculata

Photo credit: Amy Benson-USGS

FAUCET SNAIL

General Information: 

• Distribution: Great Lakes Region, WI, PA, NY, VT, VA, MD, and MT. For most up-todate information on distribution, please see:

https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=987.

• Habitat: Slow moving rivers and lakes, on mud and plants. Readily transported by equipment infested with snails hitchhiking on aquatic

plants.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants;

internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Impact: These snails outcompete native species for food and habitat in lakes and streams. They are intermediate hosts

for parasitic worms and transmit diseases that kill waterfowl. Where abundant they infest municipal water supplies.

Disinfection Protocols:

Method of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

122 °F (50°C) for ≥1 minute 

Mitchell and Cole 2008

Drying Dry gear for 14 to 21 days Mitchell and Cole 2008

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, clean off all plant material Multiple sources 

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

Compounds 

No known studies

Bleach (e.g., Clorox®) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

Not effective Mitchell and Cole 2008

Other agents Virkon® Not effective Mitchell and Cole 2008
Spiny Water Flea

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 45 

Spiny Waterflea

Bythotrephes longimanus

Photo credit: Minnesota Department of Natural 

Resources 

Photo credit: Jeff Gunderson

SPINY WATER FLEA

General Information: 

• Distribution: Primarily in the Great Lakes Region of the US. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?SpeciesID=162.

• Habitat: Waterflea plankton (adults and juveniles) are free-swimming in water column of ponds and lakes; dormant (resting) eggs are in

mud or silt.

• Fire Activities posing risk: Contact with untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom

sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Impact: The rapidly reproducing spiny waterflea competes with small fish and fouls fishing gear. Larger fish that feed

on waterfleas may die due to punctures from spines.

Disinfection Protocols:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER 

To kill adults, juveniles, and resting eggs:

≥ 122°F (50°C) for 5 minutes

140°F (60°C) for 1 minute

Branstrator et al. 2013 

(resting eggs)

Beyer et al. 2011 (plankton)

Drying Dry gear for ≥6 hours (planktonic adults and juveniles, and resting 

eggs) 

Branstrator et al. 2013 

(resting eggs)

Branstrator, D.K., pers. 

comm. 2014; (plankton) 
Spiny Water Flea

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 46 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, removal of organic and plant materials. Multiple sources

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds 

No known studies

Bleach (e.g., Clorox®) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

Not effective Branstrator et al. 2013
Didymo 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 47 

Didymo 

Didymosphenia geminata

DIDYMO Photo credit: USGS Photo credit: Biosecurity New Zealand

General Information: 

• Distribution: WA, OR, CA, ID, MT, WY, CO SC, ND, AR, NC, VA WV PA, NY, NH, CT, AK, and Canada. For most up-to-date

information on distribution, please see: https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatics/didymo.shtml.

• Habitat: Didymo is a single cell alga that attaches to submerged rocks in cold streams and rivers.

• Fire Activities posing risk: Contact with untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom

sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water. Didymo can survive in residual tank water

for <2 days in summer but up to 45 days in autumn (Kilroy et al. 2007).

• Environmental Risk: Didymo forms dense mats that trail downstream and can completely cover the substrate, smothering native plants,

insects, and mollusks.

Disinfection Protocols:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

113°F (45°C) for 20 minutes

140°F (60°C) for 1 minute 

FREEZING:

28°F (-2°C) for 4 hours ; 5°F (-15°C) for 2hours 

Kilroy et al. 2007

Kilroy et al. 2007

Drying Dry external surfaces and internal tanks for 48 hours in summer Kilroy et al. 2007

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, removal of organic and plant materials 

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds 

(e.g., alkyl dimethyl 

2.0 % Sanicare Quat128® solution 

Mixing instructions:

 2.4 oz per 1 gallon water

Matthews 2007, derived 

from Kilroy et al. 2007 
Didymo 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 48 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

benzylammonium 

chloride [ADBAC]; diecyl 

dimethyl ammonium 

chloride [DDAC])

 1.9 gallons per 100 gallons water 

Contact time = 1 minute 

 OR

1.2% Sparquat256® solution

Mixing instructions:

 1.7 oz per 1 gallon water

 1.3 gallons per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 1 minute 

 OR

0.7% Green Solutions High Dilution 256® solution

Mixing instructions:

 1.0 oz per 1 gallon water

 0.8 gallons per 100 gallons water 

Contact time = 1 minute 

Bleach (e.g., Clorox®)

6% sodium hypochlorite

2.0% bleach solution (800 ppm sodium hypochlorite)

Mixing instructions: 

 1.8 oz bleach per 1 gallon water

 3.6 Tablespoons bleach per gallon water

 1.4 gallon bleach per 100 gallons water 

Contact time = 1 minute 

Root and O’Reilly 2012 ≥90% 

effective in 

killing didymo; 

corrosive to 

fabric and 

metals

Other Disinfectants 1% Virkon Aquatic®

 10 g/liter

Contact time = 10 minutes

Greenworks dish detergent:

5% solution for 1 minute

Dawn dish detergent:

5% solution for 1 minute

Root and O’Reilly 2012 ~80% 

effective

≥95% 

effective

≥95% 

effective
Chytrid Fungus 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 49 

Chytrid fungus

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

CHYTRID FUNGUS Photo credit: Microbiologybytes Photo credit: DPIW.tas.gov.au

General Information: 

• Distribution: Chytrid fungus occurs on most continents.

• Habitat: Zoospores are free-swimming in water column and can survive in wet mud or silt.

• Fire Activities posing risk: Contact with untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom

sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Effects: This aquatic fungus feeds on living vertebrates and primarily affects the skin of amphibians. Because

amphibians breathe and take up water through their skin, the disease causes widespread amphibian declines.

Disinfection Protocols:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HEAT

140°F (60°C) for 5 minutes (tested in incubators ) 

Johnson et al. 2003 

Drying Dry gear for ≥3 hours; in sunlight is best. Johnson et al. 2003 

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, removal of organic and plant materials. 

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds 

(e.g., alkyl dimethyl 

benzylammonium 

chloride [ADBAC]; diecyl 

dimethyl ammonium 

0.15% Sanicare Quat128® solution 

Mixing instructions:

 0.02 oz per 1 gallon water

 1⁄8 teaspoon per 1 gallon water

Contact time = 30 seconds

 OR

0.04% Sparquat256® solution

Johnson et al. 2003
Chytrid Fungus 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 50 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

chloride [DDAC]) Mixing instructions:

 0.06 oz per 1 gallon water

 0.36 teaspoon per gallon of water

Contact time = 30 seconds

 OR

0.02% Green Solutions High Dilution 256® solution

Mixing instructions:

- 0.03 oz per 1 gallon water

- 0.2 teaspoon per 1 gallon water

Contact Time = 30 seconds

“Regular Clorox® Bleach” 

6% sodium hypochlorite

22% bleach solution (1.2% sodium hypochlorite) 

Mixing instructions: 

 1 part bleach:4 parts water

 26 oz bleach per 1 gallon water

 20 gallons bleach per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 5 minutes 

 OR

7% bleach solution (0.4% sodium hypochlorite)

Mixing instructions: 

 9 oz bleach per 1 gallon water

7 gallons bleach per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes

Ultra Clorox® Label (EPA 

Reg #5813-50)

These mixing 

instructions 

are approved 

by EPA 

specifically for 

chytrid 

fungus.

Johnson et al. 

2003

“Clorox® Germicidal 

Bleach” 

8.25% sodium 

hypochlorite

22% bleach solution (1.2% sodium hypochlorite) 

Mixing instructions: 

 1 part bleach:5.5 parts water

 20 oz bleach per 1 gallon water

15.4 gallons bleach per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 5 minutes 

Germicidal Healthcare 

Clorox® label (EPA Reg. No. 

5813-100)

These mixing 

instructions 

are approved 

by EPA 

specifically for 

chytrid 

fungus.
Chytrid Fungus 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 51 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters

Details of Method References Notes

Other Disinfectants 0.1% Virkon®

1 g/liter 

Contact time = ≥ 2 seconds

Johnson et al. 2003
Whirling Disease

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 52 

Whirling Disease

Myxobolus cerebralis

Photo credit: Colorado Parks and 

Wildlife

Photo credit: Colorado Parks and 

Wildlife

WHIRLING DISEASE

General Information: 

• Distribution: WA, OR, CA, ID, NV,AZ, NM, UT, CO, NE, WY, ID, MT, MI, WI, OH, WV, VA, DE, MD, PA, NJ, CT, NY, MA, VT,

NH, AK. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see: https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/microbes/whirling.shtml.

• Habitat: Free-swimming microscopic larvae occur in water column, resistant spores in mud and bottom sediments. Spores can remain

viable in mud for 12 years.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Risks include: contact with untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that

capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Effects: Whirling disease afflicts trout species, causing spinal distortions and population declines.

Disinfection Protocols:

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

To kill spores

195°F (90°C) 10 minutes

To kill free-swimming larvae

≥ 167°F (75°C ) for 5 minutes

Hoffman and Markiw 

1977

Wagner et al. 2003

Drying Dry gear for 24hours, drying in sunlight is best to kill spores 

and larvae

Hedrick et al. 2008

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, washing and removing organics (e.g.,

mud)

Multiple sources
Whirling Disease

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 53 

Methods of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds 

(e.g., alkyl dimethyl 

benzylammonium chloride 

[ADBAC]; diecyl dimethyl 

ammonium chloride [DDAC])

4.6% Sanicare Quat128® solution 

Mixing instructions:

 6.4 oz per 1 gallon water

 5 gallons per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes.

 OR

3.1% Sparquat256® solution

Mixing instructions:

- 4.3 oz per 1 gallon water

- 3.4 gallons per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes

OR

1.8% Green Solutions High Dilution 256® solution

Mixing instructions:

 2.5 oz per 1 gallon water

 1.9 gallons per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes 

Hedrick et al. 2008 

Bleach (e.g., Clorox® ) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

1% bleach solution (500 ppm sodium hypochlorite)

Mixing instruction: 

 1.1 oz bleach per 1 gallon water

 2.2 Tablespoons bleach per gallon water

 0.9 gallon bleach per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 15 minutes

Hedrick et al. 2008 

(spores)

Wagner et al. 2003 

(larvae)
Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 54 

Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia

Novirhabdovirus sp.

VIRAL HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA Photo credit: Seagrant.suny.edu Photo credit: D. Kenyon Michigan DNR

General Information: 

• Distribution: Great Lakes and St. Lawence River. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/microbes/vhs.shtml.

• Habitat: Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia (VHS) is carried in the water column and in aquatic invertebrates, such as snails and crustaceans,

as well as fish parts.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Most concern is with virus free floating in the water column. Risks include: contact with untreated water;

helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that

retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Effects: Over 50 fish species are susceptible to this disease which causes significant fish die offs.

Disinfection Protocols:

Method of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

122°F (50°C) for 10 minutes

158°F (70°C) for 1 minute

Jørgensen 1974, 

cited in Bovo et al. 

2005

Drying Dry gear for 4 days at 70°F (21°C) Pietsch et al. 1977 

(for IHNH virus). 

(Bovo et al. 2005)

IHNV and VHSV are 

closely related viruses. 

It is presumed that 

inactivation studies on 

one virus may pertain to 

the other.
Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 55 

Method of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Mechanical Thoroughly wash and dry Multiple sources

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds 

(e.g., alkyl dimethyl 

benzylammonium chloride 

[ADBAC]; diecyl dimethyl 

ammonium chloride [DDAC])

0.4% Green Solutions High Dilution 256® solution

Mixing instructions:

 1⁄2 oz per 1 gallon water

 0.4 gallon per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes 

EPA label Reg. No.

1839-167 (2010)

These mixing 

instructions are 

approved by EPA for 

closely related viruses in 

the same family, but not 

specifically for VHS.

Bleach (e.g., Clorox® ) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

0.2% bleach solution (98 ppm sodium hypochlorite)

Mixing instructions: 

 0.26 oz/1 gallon water

 ~ 1⁄2 tablespoon/1 gallon water

 26 oz/100 gallons water

 0.2 gal/100 gallons water 

Contact time: 2 minutes

Ahne 1982, cited in 

Bovo et al. 2005

Other Agents 0.5% - 1% Virkon Aquatic® 

 5 g/liter to 10 g/liter 

Contact time = 10 minutes

Yanong and 

Erlacher-Reid 2012
Spring Viremia of Carp 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 56 

Spring Viremia of Carp

Rhabdovirus carpio

SPRING VIREMIA OF CARP Photo credit: ytponet Photo credit: USGS

General Information: 

• Distribution: NC, Il, WI OH,MN, MO, WA, Ontario. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Programs/glansis/nas_database.html.

• Habitat: Spring Viremia of Carp (SVC) is carried in the water column and survives long periods in wet mud.

• Fire Activities posing risk: Most concern is with virus free floating in the water column. Risks include: contact with untreated water;

helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that

retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Effects: This virus is a major cause of disease and death in carp and 50 other fish species.

Disinfection Protocols:

Method of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER:

122oF (50oC) for 5 minutes

Ahne 1976, cited in 

Bovo et al. 2005

Drying >28 days at 70°F (21°C) Ahne 1982

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, washing and removing organics (e.g.,

mud)

Multiple sources

CHEMICALS

Quaternary ammonium 

compounds (e.g., alkyl 

dimethyl benzylammonium 

chloride [ADBAC]; diecyl 

dimethyl ammonium chloride 

[DDAC])

0.4% Green Solutions High Dilution 256® solution

Mixing instructions:

 1⁄2 oz per 1 gallon water

 0.4 gallon per 100 gallons water

Contact time = 10 minutes 

EPA label Reg. No. 

1839-167 (2010)

These mixing instructions 

are approved by EPA for 

closely related viruses in 

the same family, but not 

specifically for SVC.
Spring Viremia of Carp 

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 57 

Method of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Bleach (e.g., Clorox®) 

6% sodium hypochlorite

0.1% bleach solution (55 ppm sodium hypochlorite)

Mixing instructions: 

 1⁄4 teaspoon per 1 gallon water

 11.5 oz per 100 gallons water

Contact time: 2 minutes

Ahne 1982, cited in 

Bovo et al. 2005 

Other Agents 0.5% to 1%Virkon Aquatic®

 5 g/liter to 10 g/liter for 10 minutes

0.1% Virkon Aquatic® 

 1 g/liter for 30 minutes 

Bowker et al. 2012 
Port Orford Cedar Root Disease and Sudden Oak Death

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 58 

Port Orford Cedar Root Disease 

(Phytophthora lateralis)

&

Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora ramorum)

Photo credit: USDA Forest Service Photo credit: phytophthoradb.org

PORT ORFORD CEDAR ROOT DISEASE AND SUDDEN OAK DEATH

General Information: 

• Port Orford Cedar Root Disease Distribution: WA, OR, CA. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/.

• Sudden Oak Death Distribution: CA, OR. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/.

• Habitat: Spores swim in standing water and can be carried large distances in flowing water; they also occur in soil.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Most concern is with spores carried in untreated water. Risks include: contact with untreated water;

helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that

retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Effects: Port Orford cedars of all sizes may be killed by the root disease. Sudden oak death affects other trees as well as

oaks, leading to widespread forest destruction.

Disinfection Protocols:

Method of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

“Regular Clorox® Bleach” 

6% sodium hypochlorite

Add 1 gallon bleach to 1000 gallons of drafted water (~50 

ppm sodium hypochlorite). 

Prepare the mixture at least 5 minutes prior to application 

for dust abatement, fire suppression, and cleaning vehicles 

and logging, road building, and maintenance equipment.

Ultra Clorox® Label 

(EPA Reg. No. 5813-

50)

 AND 

Southwest Oregon 

Interagency Fire 

Management Plan 

(USDA Forest 

Service 2013)

1

See note below for 

application.
Port Orford Cedar Root Disease and Sudden Oak Death

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 59 

Method of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

“Clorox® Germicidal Bleach” 

8.25% sodium hypochlorite

Add 3⁄4 gallon bleach to 1000 gallons of drafted water (~50 

ppm sodium hypochlorite). 

Prepare the mixture at least 5 minutes prior to application 

for dust abatement, fire suppression, and cleaning vehicles 

and logging, road building, and maintenance equipment.

Germicidal 

Healthcare Clorox® 

label (EPA Reg. No. 

5813-100)

1 Locate vehicle washing stations (with chlorinated water) where water will not run into streams. When refilling tenders/engines, fill 

with water first, pull 150’ away from the stream (or where overland flow will not run back into the stream), and then add the chlorine. 

Avoid dropping buckets of or directly releasing chlorine-treated water into streams or wetlands. Don’t treat water from streams that 

are uninfected with the root rot disease, unless it is for use at washing stations (to avoid unnecessary use of chlorine). (Southwest 

Oregon Interagency Fire Management Plan 2013) 
Aquatic Invasive Plants

Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 60 

Aquatic Invasive 

Plants

Purple Loosestrife Photo credit:universityofconn.com Parrot feather. Photo credit: Aquariussystems.com Hydrilla. Photo credit: nwdistrict.ufl.edu

AQUATIC INVASIVE PLANTS

General Information: 

• Distribution: Varies based on species. For most up-to-date information on distribution, please see:

https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatics/main.shtml.

• Habitat: Aquatic plants are usually confined to shorelines and relatively shallow portions of waterbodies, though plant pieces can float

throughout.

• Fire Activities Posing Risk: Contact with untreated water; helicopter buckets, snorkels, and other drafting gear that capture bottom

sediments, mud, or aquatic plants; internal tanks and hoses that retain residual untreated water.

• Environmental Effects: Non-native aquatic plants clog waterways and threaten the diversity and survival of native species.

Disinfection Protocols:

Method of Control for 

Firefighters Details of Method References Notes

Temperature HOT WATER PRESSURE WASH:

≥140°F (60°C) for 2 minutes; inspect and re-treat as 

needed. 

Blumer et al. 2009 This study is specific to 

Eurasian watermilfoil, 

but lethal temperatures 

likely comparable for 

other submerged 

species.

Mechanical Scraping, brushing, high pressure washing and mud 

removal. Some seeds may remain viable after washing, so 

disposal or filtration of treated water is recommended.

Multiple sources
Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations pg. 61 

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