(1393)

APPENDIX K. SPENDING FOR INCOME-TESTED

BENEFITS, FISCAL YEARS 1968–98

CONTENTS

Overview

Participation in Income-Tested Programs

Trends in Spending

Spending Trends by Level of Government

Federal Government

State and Local Governments

Total Spending

Share of Federal Budget Used for Income-Tested Benefits

List of Income-Tested Programs

Medical Aid

Cash Aid

Food Aid

Housing Aid

Education Aid

Other Services

Jobs and Training Aid

Energy Aid

References

OVERVIEW

The Congressional Research Service (CRS) has found that almost

80 benefit programs (the programs are listed at the end of this

chapter) provide cash and noncash aid that is directed primarily to

persons with limited income (Burke, 1999). Such programs constitute the public ‘‘welfare’’ system, if welfare is defined as incometested or needs-based benefits. This definition excludes social insurance programs, such as Social Security and Medicare.

These income-tested benefit programs in fiscal year 1998 cost

$391.7 billion: $277.3 billion in Federal funds and $114.3 billion in

State and local funds. Total welfare spending rose by 3.1 percent

from its fiscal year 1997 level. Higher medical spending accounted

for $10.3 billion of the year’s net increase of $11.8 billion and, for

the first time, medical benefits accounted for half of all incometested spending. Expressed in constant fiscal year 1998 dollars,

total welfare spending increased by $5.8 billion (1.5 percent); medical benefits increased by $7.4 billion (3.9 percent); services by $0.6

billion (5.4 percent); education by $0.3 billion (1.8 percent); and

housing by $0.2 billion (0.6 percent). In real terms, cash benefit

outlays held steady, but spending for food aid, jobs and training,

and energy assistance declined. Welfare consumed the same share

of the Federal budget (16.8 percent) as in fiscal year 1997, but acVerDate 20-JUL-2000 13:14 Sep 29, 2000 Jkt 061710 PO 00000 Frm 01393 Fmt 6601 Sfmt 6601 J:\SKAYNE\GB96\61710.026 WAYS3 PsN: WAYS3
1394

counted for a slightly smaller share of gross domestic product (4.6

percent compared to 4.7 percent in 1997).

In fiscal year 1998, medical services represented 50.1 percent of

total welfare spending; cash benefits, 24.1 percent; food and housing benefits, 16.6 percent. Services, energy aid, education, and jobs

and training accounted for the remainder. The composition of welfare spending differed by level of government. Medical aid consumed 72 percent of State and local welfare funds, but only 41 percent of Federal welfare dollars.

Most income-tested programs provide benefits in the form of

cash, goods, or services, to persons who make no payment and

render no service in return. However, in the case of the job and

training programs and some educational benefits, recipients must

work or study. Further, the block grant program of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) requires adults to start work

after a period of enrollment, the Food Stamp Program imposes

work and training requirements, and public housing requires residents to engage in self-sufficiency activities or perform community

service. Finally, the earned income credit (EIC) is available only to

workers.

PARTICIPATION IN INCOME-TESTED PROGRAMS

An unduplicated count of welfare beneficiaries is not available.

Enrollment in Medicaid, Aid to Families with Dependent Children

(AFDC) or TANF, and food stamps has declined from 1994 to 1995

peak levels, but the number of recipients of EIC and Supplemental

Security Income (SSI) continues to grow. Average 1998 monthly

numbers are: Food stamps, 21 million; TANF, 8.8 million; and SSI,

7.2 million. In 1998, EIC payments went to an estimated 58.2 million persons, and in fiscal year 1998, 40.7 million persons received

Medicaid services. The U.S. Census Bureau (1999a) classified 34.5

million persons as poor on the basis of pretax money income in

1998. Of these persons, 69.2 percent were in households that received some income-tested aid other than the EIC. Among malepresent families with children who were poor before transfers, the

EIC was the main form of aid.

The U.S. Census Bureau (1999b) examined participation in major

means-tested government programs in 1993–94 before enactment of

the 1996 welfare reform law (Public Law 104–193). On the basis

of data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation, a

longitudinal survey, the Bureau estimated that about 40 million

persons participated in an average month during both 1993 and

1994 in at least one of these major welfare programs: AFDC, food

stamps, SSI, Medicaid, housing, or general assistance (GA). Participation rates were highest for Medicaid. Here are the 1994 average

monthly participation rates by program: Medicaid, 11.3 percent of

the population; food stamps, 9.7 percent; AFDC/GA, 5.5 percent;

housing assistance, 4.7 percent; and SSI, 2 percent. The median

monthly value of cash benefits (AFDC/GA and SSI) and food

stamps was $485 per family in 1993, $476 in 1994. No valuation

is available for housing assistance and Medicaid.

1395

1 Current dollars were translated into fiscal year 1998 constant value dollars by use of the

Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers.

TRENDS IN SPENDING

The CRS data series provides annual spending figures for 26 fiscal years (1968, 1973, and 1975–98). Total expenditures on cash

and noncash welfare programs were 24 times as great in 1998 as

in 1968 (table K–1). Even after allowance for price inflation, spending quintupled (rising 419 percent) over the 30 years, a period

when the U.S. population rose 35 percent. Measured in constant

1998 dollars,1 the annual rate of growth in spending over the whole

period was 5.6 percent. However, the growth pattern was uneven.

During the first 8 years (1968–76), spending climbed at an annual

rate of 12.9 percent; in the next 8 years (1976–84),

TABLE K–1.—EXPENDITURES FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS BY FEDERAL AND STATE/

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968–98

[In millions of dollars]

Fiscal year

Level of government Total spending

Federal State/local Current dollars Constant 1998

dollars 1

1968 .................................. $11,406 $4,710 $16,116 $75,546

1973 .................................. 26,876 10,054 36,930 135,684

1975 .................................. 39,461 14,753 54,214 164,385

1976 .................................. 49,954 16,990 66,944 191,926

1977 .................................. 55,113 18,892 74,005 199,215

1978 .................................. 63,964 20,151 84,115 210,455

1979 .................................. 70,172 21,304 91,476 205,544

1980 .................................. 80,043 24,633 104,676 207,231

1981 .................................. 87,936 29,045 116,981 209,935

1982 .................................. 88,977 31,706 120,683 204,011

1983 .................................. 93,830 33,982 127,812 209,337

1984 .................................. 99,151 36,191 135,342 212,496

1985 .................................. 105,064 38,230 143,294 217,245

1986 .................................. 107,775 40,811 148,586 221,157

1987 .................................. 114,835 43,364 158,199 227,174

1988 .................................. 125,061 46,580 171,641 236,685

1989 .................................. 134,730 51,587 186,317 245,112

1990 .................................. 151,514 61,064 212,578 265,405

1991 .................................. 177,953 73,943 251,896 301,724

1992 .................................. 208,273 88,130 296,403 344,585

1993 .................................. 223,595 88,736 312,331 352,697

1994 .................................. 246,374 102,396 348,770 383,854

1995 .................................. 258,457 108,212 366,669 392,253

1996 .................................. 263,550 107,219 370,769 385,319

1997 .................................. 269,756 110,216 379,972 385,910

1998 .................................. 277,330 114,399 391,729 391,729

1 Current dollars have been translated into fiscal year 1998 constant dollars by use of the Consumer

Price Index for All Urban Consumers.

Source: Burke, 1999.

1396

the annual rate of increase dropped to 1.7 percent (in 1 year, 1982,

real spending declined, and it remained below the 1981 level until

1985). From 1985 to 1995, growth resumed and averaged 6 percent

per year. This lifted 1995 spending to a new record high. However,

real spending declined in 1996; thereafter, it turned upward and by

1998 it almost regained its 1995 peak.

Total per capita welfare spending grew in real terms (constant fiscal year 1998 dollars) from $376 in fiscal year 1968 to a peak of

$1,491 in fiscal year 1995 and $1,451 in fiscal year 1998.

The CRS data series shown in table K–1 differs somewhat from

one presented in a study by Rector and Lauber (1995) of the Heritage Foundation. The list of 80 major programs included in their

analysis (see their appendix 1, pp. 45ff) is similar to the CRS list.

However, the Rector and Lauber list includes some programs

(grants to local education authorities for educationally deprived

children and programs of community development aid) not in the

CRS series, which is restricted to programs that provide benefits

to individuals or families who meet a needs test. Moreover, the

Rector and Lauber study provides estimates for years (1965–67;

1969–72; and 1974) that are not covered in the CRS study.

Even so, results from the two studies are similar. The most recent year for comparison of results is 1993. In that year, Rector

and Lauber estimated total (Federal and State) welfare spending at

$324.4 billion, as compared with $312.3 billion in the CRS analysis.

Almost all of the difference between the two estimates is accounted

for by the education and community development programs included in the Rector and Lauber analysis. For the period 1965–93,

the Rector and Lauber study estimated that a total of $5.4 trillion

in constant 1993 dollars was spent by Federal and State governments on the programs included in their analysis. For fiscal years

1968, 1973, and 1975–94, total spending in the CRS series was

$4.5 trillion in fiscal year 1994 dollars.

The rise in overall needs-tested spending is sharper than the increase in spending reported by the Social Security Administration

(SSA) for a smaller group of needs-tested programs. The SSA data

series, called ‘‘public aid,’’ is a category within SSA reports on social welfare expenditures, and it excludes numerous income-tested

programs that are in the CRS series. Not counted as public aid in

the SSA series are the EIC, child nutrition, subsidized housing,

educational benefits, adoption assistance, foster care, some job

training programs, and others. Some of these programs did not

exist 30 years ago, and many have grown rapidly. Adjusted for

price inflation, public aid outlays in the SSA series rose 268 percent between 1968 and 1995 (the most recent year for which SSA

data are available; Bixby, 1999). SSA also has published data on

private social welfare expenditures (Kerns, 1997).

1397

SPENDING TRENDS BY LEVEL OF GOVERNMENT

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Table K–2 presents Federal income-tested spending for selected

fiscal years between 1968 and 1998. The spending figures are presented by form of benefit in constant 1998 dollars. Federal spending for income-tested benefits climbed from $53.5 billion in fiscal

year 1968 to $277.3 billion in fiscal year 1998, an increase of 419

percent. Cash aid was the leading form of Federal welfare until

1980, when it was overtaken in value by medical benefits. Two

years later, in 1982, Federal welfare spending declined for all forms

of aid except subsidized housing, in which case outlays reflected

earlier commitments, and education benefits. In 1983, Federal

spending declined further for medical benefits. For the next 12

years, aggregate real Federal welfare outlays climbed steadily,

from $155.7 billion in fiscal year 1984 to $276.5 billion in fiscal

year 1995. However, in fiscal year 1996, real Federal welfare

spending declined, but thereafter it turned upward. In fiscal year

1998 it set a new historic record of $277.3 billion.

STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

Table K–3 shows that State and local spending for income-tested

benefits, measured in fiscal year 1998 dollars, climbed from $22.1

billion in fiscal year 1968 to $114.4 billion in fiscal year 1998, an

increase of 418 percent. Cash aid was overtaken by medical benefits as the dominant form of State and local welfare spending in

1976. State and local spending rose steadily in all years after 1979

except for 1993 and 1996, although increases in 1997 and 1998 had

still not returned total spending to its 1995 high point.

TOTAL SPENDING

Table K–4 shows total (Federal plus State and local) spending on

income-tested benefits in 1998 dollars. Total spending rose from

$75.5 billion in 1968 to $392.3 billion in 1995, a rise of 419 percent,

before declining to about $385 billion in both 1996 and 1997. By

1998, total spending was still slightly below its 1995 peak. The rise

in spending after 1968 was led by spending on medical programs,

primarily Medicaid. As early as 1980, medical spending was greater than any other form; by 1998 it was greater than all the other

forms combined.

TABLE K–2.—FEDERAL SPENDING FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS BY FORM OF BENEFIT, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968–98

[In millions of constant fiscal year 1998 dollars]

Fiscal year Medical benefits Cash aid Food benefits Housing benefits Education benefits Jobs/ training Services Energy aid 

1968 .............................................. $12,849 $23,612 $4,186 $3,670 $4,031 $3,324 $1,795 0 1973 .............................................. 24,466 31,505 14,164 12,338 6,691 3,391 6,191 0 1975 .............................................. 29,063 38,627 19,524 13,141 6,610 6,516 6,170 0 1977 .............................................. 35,479 42,255 20,878 16,259 9,360 14,598 8,716 $813 1979 .............................................. 36,875 38,046 23,317 19,007 10,810 20,820 8,208 591 1980 .............................................. 38,405 37,571 25,913 19,017 9,681 17,075 7,394 3,407 1982 .............................................. 38,948 36,472 26,496 19,919 13,160 6,743 5,246 3,428 1983 .............................................. 38,611 36,690 29,639 20,439 12,158 7,382 5,411 3,351 1984 .............................................. 39,007 37,341 29,385 20,152 12,578 8,442 5,399 3,369 1985 .............................................. 42,268 37,123 29,354 21,396 14,427 5,905 5,384 3,428 1986 .............................................. 44,316 39,187 28,491 19,744 14,966 5,397 5,046 3,267 1987 .............................................. 50,467 39,431 28,566 18,971 14,027 5,431 5,180 2,830 1988 .............................................. 53,258 41,802 27,877 20,272 15,371 5,168 6,190 2,515 1989 .............................................. 55,790 43,628 27,410 20,950 16,424 5,019 5,882 2,143 1990 .............................................. 62,708 45,502 29,803 21,909 17,181 4,963 5,099 2,003 1991 .............................................. 74,805 50,634 33,545 22,712 17,803 5,257 6,236 2,163 1992 .............................................. 91,470 56,635 38,142 25,486 15,813 5,834 6,790 1,959 1993 .............................................. 96,044 60,245 39,266 27,051 16,163 5,388 6,604 1,732 1994 .............................................. 103,112 69,774 39,739 26,574 16,109 5,350 8,389 2,110 1995 .............................................. 108,489 72,662 39,365 26,689 16,193 4,949 6,431 1,713 1996 .............................................. 108,003 72,758 38,622 26,497 16,028 4,199 6,560 1,225 1997 .............................................. 109,471 72,971 35,927 26,853 16,767 3,855 6,764 1,363 1998 .............................................. 113,779 73,872 33,451 26,897 16,989 3,785 7,300 1,257 

1 Rows may not add to total shown because of rounding.

Source: Burke, 1999.

TABLE K–3.—STATE AND LOCAL SPENDING FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS BY FORM OF BENEFIT, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968–98

[In millions of constant fiscal year 1998 dollars]

Fiscal year Medical benefits Cash aid Food benefits 1 Housing benefits 2 Education benefits Jobs/ training Services Energy aid 

1968 .............................................. $9,661 $11,672000 $202 $544 0 

1973 .............................................. 15,303 19,462 0 0 0 206 1,969 0 

1975 .............................................. 20,046 20,470 $1,695 0 $434 118 1,971 0 1978 .............................................. 24,422 21,022 2,184 0 593 158 2,039 0 1980 .............................................. 26,132 19,294 905 0 566 160 1,709 0 1982 .............................................. 29,678 18,886 1,215 0 455 127 3,212 $25 1984 .............................................. 32,235 19,448 1,492 0 474 122 2,983 68 1985 .............................................. 32,687 19,936 1,560 0 688 123 2,918 47 1986 .............................................. 34,335 21,019 1,642 0 737 109 2,828 74 1987 .............................................. 35,336 21,282 1,676 0 734 102 2,843 299 1988 .............................................. 37,445 21,226 1,571 0 750 99 2,896 244 1989 .............................................. 40,801 21,692 1,529 0 717 128 2,763 237 1990 .............................................. 45,689 22,236 1,542 0 785 333 5,498 155 1991 .............................................. 56,847 23,179 1,572 0 655 526 5,656 135 1992 .............................................. 66,449 24,538 1,678 $2,674 714 553 5,748 102 1993 .............................................. 65,502 24,223 1,768 1,502 865 635 5,629 80 1994 .............................................. 74,542 25,228 1,948 1,777 994 720 7,403 85 1995 .............................................. 78,327 25,327 1,958 2,487 1,022 868 5,688 87 1996 .............................................. 76,920 23,325 1,995 2,555 992 669 4,894 76 1997 .............................................. 79,537 21,566 2,005 2,494 1,042 181 5,049 65 1998 .............................................. 82,610 20,690 2,060 2,614 1,137 71 5,153 64 

1 Beginning in 1979, estimates of State and local funds used for free and reduced price school lunches could not be made.2 Housing data represent the Home Investment Partnerships Program (HOME) and the Home Ownership and Opportunity for People Everywhere Program (HOPE). HOME 

some private funds (amount not available).

Source: Burke, 1999.

TABLE K–4.—TOTAL SPENDING FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS BY FORM OF BENEFIT, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968–98

[In millions of constant fiscal year 1998 dollars]

Fiscal year Medical benefits Cash aid Food benefits Housing benefits Education benefits Jobs/ training Services Energy aid 

1968 .............................................. $22,510 $35,284 $4,186 $3,670 $4,031 $3,525 $2,339 0 1973 .............................................. 39,768 50,967 14,164 12,338 6,691 3,597 8,160 0 1975 .............................................. 49,109 59,097 21,219 13,141 7,044 6,634 8,141 0 1978 .............................................. 60,866 61,171 23,474 18,367 10,769 24,427 10,699 $683 1980 .............................................. 64,537 56,866 26,817 19,017 10,247 17,236 9,103 3,407 1981 .............................................. 67,985 57,350 29,197 19,488 9,115 13,639 9,556 3,605 1982 .............................................. 68,626 55,358 27,712 19,919 13,615 6,870 8,457 3,454 1983 .............................................. 69,538 56,033 30,921 20,439 12,652 7,511 8,851 3,392 1984 .............................................. 71,242 56,789 30,877 20,152 13,052 8,565 8,383 3,437 1985 .............................................. 74,955 57,059 30,914 21,396 15,115 6,028 8,302 3,475 1986 .............................................. 78,651 60,206 30,133 19,744 15,703 5,506 7,874 3,341 1987 .............................................. 85,803 60,713 30,242 18,971 14,761 5,533 8,023 3,129 1988 .............................................. 90,703 63,028 29,448 20,272 16,121 5,268 9,086 2,759 1989 .............................................. 96,591 65,320 28,938 20,950 17,140 5,146 8,645 2,380 1990 .............................................. 108,397 67,738 31,345 21,909 17,966 5,296 10,597 2,157 1991 .............................................. 131,652 73,813 35,116 22,712 18,458 5,783 11,892 2,299 1992 .............................................. 157,919 81,173 39,820 28,159 16,527 6,387 12,538 2,061 1993 .............................................. 161,546 84,468 41,034 28,553 17,028 6,022 12,233 1,812 1994 .............................................. 177,655 95,002 41,687 28,351 17,103 6,070 15,791 2,194 1995 .............................................. 186,816 97,989 41,322 29,176 17,215 5,816 12,119 1,799 1996 .............................................. 184,923 96,083 40,618 29,052 17,021 4,868 11,453 1,301 1997 .............................................. 189,008 94,537 37,932 29,348 17,809 4,036 11,813 1,428 1998 .............................................. 196,389 94,562 35,511 29,511 18,126 3,856 12,453 1,321 

1 Rows may not add to total shown because of rounding.

Source: Burke, 1999.

1401

SHARE OF FEDERAL BUDGET USED FOR INCOMETESTED BENEFITS

The share of the Federal budget used for income-tested benefits

climbed from 6.4 percent in fiscal year 1968 to 17.1 percent in fiscal year 1995, then declined slightly to 16.8 percent in fiscal year

1997 and 1998 (table K–5). Most of the 1968–98 increase of 10.4

percentage points was accounted for by medical benefits (5.4 percentage point gain). Measured in percentage points, increases for

other forms of aid were: cash, 1.6; food, 1.5; housing, 1.2; education,

0.5; services, 0.2; energy, 0.1. Federal spending for income-tested

jobs/training benefits declined by 0.2 percentage points as a percent

of the budget.

TABLE K–5.—SHARE OF FEDERAL BUDGET USED FOR INCOME-TESTED AID, BY FORM

OF AID, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968–98

[In percent]

Fiscal

year

Medical

aid

Cash

aid

Food

aid

Housing

aid

Education

aid

Jobs/

training Energy Services Total

1968 1.54 2.83 0.50 0.44 0.48 0.40 0.00 0.22 6.4

1973 2.71 3.49 1.57 1.37 0.74 0.38 0.00 0.69 10.9

1978 3.18 3.50 1.86 1.60 0.89 1 2.11 0.06 0.75 13.9

1983 2.92 2.77 2.24 1.54 0.92 0.56 0.25 0.41 11.6

1988 3.63 2.85 1.90 1.38 1.05 0.35 0.17 0.42 11.7

1990 4.01 2.91 1.90 1.40 1.10 0.32 0.13 0.33 12.1

1992 5.69 3.53 2.37 1.59 0.98 0.36 0.12 0.42 15.1

1994 6.41 4.34 2.47 1.65 1.00 0.33 0.13 0.52 16.9

1996 6.66 4.49 2.38 1.63 0.99 0.26 0.08 0.40 16.9

1997 6.73 4.49 2.21 1.65 1.03 0.24 0.08 0.42 16.8

1998 6.88 4.47 2.02 1.63 1.03 0.23 0.08 0.44 16.8

1 In fiscal year 1978, jobs and training benefit outlays were $9.7 billion. Of this total, $5.8 billion

represented public service employment and $2 billion, employment and training services.

Source: Burke, 1999.

LIST OF INCOME-TESTED PROGRAMS

Below is the list of programs providing income-tested benefits included in this appendix. Within each category, the programs are

listed in the order of their total cost in fiscal year 1998 to Federal

and State and local governments. Amounts shown are millions of

dollars.

MEDICAL AID

1. Medicaid ($177,364)

2. Medical care for veterans without service-connected disability

($9,603)

3. General assistance (medical care component), no Federal dollars ($4,956)

4. Indian health services ($2,099)

5. Maternal and Child Health Services Block Grant ($1,102)

1402

2Dropped from the fiscal year 1998 list of income-tested benefit programs was Emergency Assistance to Needy Families (EA), which was ended by the 1996 welfare reform law. Base level

EA funding was included in the TANF Block Grant.

6. Consolidated health centers ($825)

7. Title X family planning services ($204)

8. State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) ($145)

9. Medical assistance to refugees and Cuban/Haitian entrants ($93)

CASH AID 2

10. Supplemental Security Income (SSI) ($33,601)

11. Earned income credit (EIC) ($25,300)

12. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)/Aid to Fami- lies with Dependent Children (AFDC) ($21,513) 13. Foster care ($7,033)

14. Pensions for needy veterans, their dependents, and survivors, ($3,071)

15. General assistance (nonmedical care component), no Federal dollars ($2,625)

16. Adoption assistance ($1,285)

17. General assistance to Indians ($61)

18. Cash assistance to refugees and Cuban/Haitian entrants ($44)

19. Dependency and indemnity compensation (DIC) and death compensation for parents of veterans ($30)

FOOD AID

20. Food stamps ($22,384)

21. School Lunch Program (free and reduced price segments) ($5,196)

22. Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) ($3,896)

23. Child and Adult Care Food Program ($1,404)

24. School Breakfast Program (free and reduced price segments) ($1,266)

25. Nutrition Program for the Elderly ($700)

26. The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP) ($255)

27. Summer Food Service Program for Children ($252)

28. Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP) ($89)

29. Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations ($68)

30. Special Milk Program (free segment) ($1)

HOUSING AID

31. Section 8 Low-Income Housing Assistance ($16,114)

32. Home Investment Partnerships Program (HOME) ($4,062)

33. Low-rent public housing ($3,899)

34. Rural housing loans (section 502) ($3,830)

35. Section 236 interest reduction payments ($618)

36. Rural rental assistance payments (section 521) ($541)

37. Rural rental housing loans (section 515) ($149)

38. Home Ownership and Opportunity for People Everywhere (HOPE) Programs ($64) 39. Rural housing repair loans and grants (section 504) ($56)

40. Section 101 rent supplements ($55)

1403

3Dropped from the fiscal year 1998 list of income-tested benefit programs were AFDC-related

child care and at-risk child care, which were ended by the 1996 welfare reform law. A new child

care block grant replaced these programs.

41. Section 235 home ownership assistance for low-income families ($45)

42. Rural housing self-help technical assistance grants (section 523) and rural housing site loans (sections 523 and 524) ($27)

43. Farm labor housing loans (section 514) and grants (section 516) ($25)

44. Indian housing improvement grants ($16)

45. Rural housing preservation grants (section 533) ($11)

EDUCATION AID

46. Federal Pell grants ($6,274)

47. Head Start ($5,434)

48. Subsidized Federal Stafford loans and Stafford/Ford loans

($3,770)

49. Federal work-study program ($830)

50. Supplemental educational opportunity grants ($583)

51. Federal Trio Programs ($500)

52. Chapter 1 Migrant Education Program ($305)

53. Perkins loans ($158)

54. Health professions student loans and scholarships ($133)

55. Leveraging Educational Assistance Partnerships (LEAP) ($100)

56. Fellowships for graduate and professional study ($30)

57. Migrant High School Equivalency Program (HEP) ($7)

58. College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP) ($2)

59. Ellender fellowships ($2)

OTHER SERVICES 3

60. Social Services Block Grant (title XX) ($5,885)

61. Child Care and Development Block Grant ($4,690)

62. Homeless assistance ($823)

63. Community Services Block Grant ($542)

64. Legal services ($283)

65. Social services for refugees and Cuban/Haitian entrants ($130)

66. Emergency Food and Shelter Program ($100)

JOBS AND TRAINING AID

67. Job Corps ($1,246)

68. Adult training ($955)

69. Summer Youth Employment and Training Program ($871)

70. Senior Community Service Employment Program ($489)

71. Youth training ($130)

72. Foster grandparents ($97)

73. Senior companions ($35)

74. Welfare-to-work grants ($26)

75. Native Employment Works ($8)

ENERGY AID

76. Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP)

($1,132)

1404

4 Available on the U.S. Census Bureau’s Website: http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html

77. Weatherization assistance ($189)

REFERENCES

Bixby, A.K. (1999). Public social welfare expenditures, fiscal year

1995. Social Security Bulletin, 62(2), pp. 86–94.

Burke, V. (1999). Cash and noncash benefits for persons with limited income: Eligibility rules, recipient and expenditure data,

fiscal years 1996–98 (RL30401). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Kerns, W.L. (1997). Private social welfare expenditures, 1972–94.

Social Security Bulletin, 60(1), pp. 54–60.

Rector, R., & Lauber, W.F. (1995). America’s failed $5.4 trillion war

on poverty. Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation.

U.S. Census Bureau. (1999a). Poverty in the United States. Current Population Reports, Series P–60–207.4 Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Census Bureau. (1999b). Dynamics of economic well-being:

Program participation, who gets assistance? Current Population Reports, Series P–70–69.4 Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.