IN THE CASE OF 

UNITED STATES, Appellee 

v. 

Matthew S. KAHMANN, Private 

U.S. Marine Corps, Appellant 

No. 03-0522 

Crim. App. No. 200200355 

United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces 

Argued January 14, 2004 

Decided March 23, 2004 

EFFRON, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which 

GIERKE, BAKER, and ERDMANN, JJ., joined. CRAWFORD, C.J., filed 

an opinion concurring in the result. 

Counsel

For Appellant: Lieutenant M. Eric Eversole, JAGC, USNR 

(argued); Commander George F. Reilly, JAGC, USN. 

 

For Appellee: Major Raymond E. Beal II, USMC (argued); 

Commander Robert P. Taishoff, JAGC, USN (on brief); 

Lieutenant Lars C. Johnson, JAGC, USNR. 

 

 

Military Judge: F. A. Delzompo 

 

THIS OPINION IS SUBJECT TO EDITORIAL CORRECTION BEFORE FINAL PUBLICATION. 

Judge EFFRON delivered the opinion of the Court. 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

2

Judge EFFRON delivered the opinion of the Court. 

At a special court-martial composed of a military judge 

sitting alone, Appellant was convicted, pursuant to his pleas, 

of unauthorized absence, in violation of Article 86, Uniform 

Code of Military Justice [hereinafter UCMJ], 10 U.S.C. § 886 

(2000). He was sentenced to a bad-conduct discharge, 

confinement for 90 days, and forfeiture of $695 of pay per month 

for three months. The convening authority approved the sentence 

as adjudged, and suspended all confinement in excess of 30 days 

pursuant to the pre-trial agreement. The Court of Criminal 

Appeals initially affirmed the findings while modifying the 

sentence in an unpublished opinion. The court subsequently 

vacated that decision and issued a new opinion that affirmed the 

findings and affirmed the sentence as approved by the convening 

authority. United States v. Kahmann, 58 M.J. 667 (N-M. Ct. 

Crim. App. 2003)(en banc). 

On Appellant’s petition, we granted review of the following 

issue: 

WHETHER THE MILITARY JUDGE COMMITTED PLAIN 

ERROR BY ADMITTING EVIDENCE OF A PRIOR 

SUMMARY COURT-MARTIAL CONVICTION DURING 

PRESENTENCING WHEN THERE WAS NO SHOWING THAT 

ACCUSED HAD AN OPPORTUNITY TO SPEAK WITH 

COUNSEL BEFORE THE SUMMARY COURT-MARTIAL AND 

NO EVIDENCE SHOWING COMPLIANCE WITH THE 

REVIEW REQUIREMENTS UNDER ARTICLE 64, UCMJ. 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

3

For the reasons set forth below, we hold that admission of the 

prior summary court-martial conviction into evidence during the 

sentencing proceeding did not constitute plain error. 

I. BACKGROUND 

A. RECORDS OF NONJUDICIAL PUNISHMENT 

AND CONVICTIONS BY SUMMARY COURTS-MARTIAL 

1. The statutory right to object to nonjudicial punishment 

proceedings and summary courts-martial

 General and special courts-martial serve as the primary 

venues for the trial of criminal offenses in the military 

justice system. See Articles 18-19, UCMJ, 10 U.S.C. §§ 818-819 

(2000). Military judges preside over these courts and qualified 

counsel represent the parties, subject to narrowly drawn 

exceptions for certain special courts-martial. See Articles 18- 

19, 26, 27 UCMJ, 10 U.S.C. §§ 818-819, 826-827 (2000). Rule for 

Courts-Martial 201(f)(1)-(2) [hereinafter R.C.M.]. The rules of 

evidence and procedure in general and special courts-martial are 

in many respects quite similar to those applicable to criminal 

trials in federal civilian courts. See, e.g., Article 36, UCMJ, 

10 U.S.C. § 836 (2000); David A. Schlueter, Military Criminal 

Justice § 1-7, at 37; § 15-18, at 694 (5th ed. 1999). 

The UCMJ also authorizes two expedited procedures for the 

disposition of minor offenses. First, commanding officers may 

use nonjudicial procedures to impose disciplinary punishments 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

4

upon their subordinates for minor infractions. Article 15, 

UCMJ, 10 U.S.C. § 815 (2000). Under Article 15, service members 

may receive a variety of minor punishments, such as forfeiture 

of pay, reduction in rank, imposition of extra duties, 

restriction to specified limits, and correctional custody for 

not more than 30 days. Article 15 procedures are relatively 

informal, and the service member is not entitled to 

representation by qualified counsel. See Manual for CourtsMartial, United States (2002 ed.), Part V. A service member has 

the right to demand trial by court-martial in lieu of 

nonjudicial punishment proceedings, unless the member is 

attached to or embarked in a vessel. Article 15(a); see United 

States v. Edwards, 46 M.J. 41 (C.A.A.F. 1997). 

Second, certain commanders may refer charges against 

enlisted personnel to a summary court-martial for expedited 

consideration of minor offenses. Article 20, UCMJ, 10 U.S.C. 

820 (2000); R.C.M. 1301(b). A summary court-martial consists of 

a single officer, who conducts a simplified, non-adversarial 

examination of the charges. The accused is not entitled to be 

represented by counsel. See R.C.M. 1301(e); Middendorf v. 

Henry, 425 U.S. 25 (1976). The limitations on the sentencing 

power of a summary court-martial include a prohibition against 

adjudging a punitive discharge or confinement in excess of 30 

days. Article 20; R.C.M. 1301(d). Prior to arraignment, an 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

5

accused, including a person assigned to or embarked in a vessel, 

may object to trial by summary court-martial. Article 20; 

R.C.M. 1303. Upon such objection, an appropriate convening 

authority may refer the case to a special or general courtmartial. 

Subject to the limited exceptions outlined above, the 

effect of these provisions is that any service member facing a 

nonjudicial punishment proceeding or summary court-martial is 

entitled to object and insist that any further proceedings take 

place under formal judicial procedures. Through such 

objections, a service member may ensure that any further 

proceedings will take place before a special or general courtmartial where a military judge will preside over any further 

proceedings, the Rules for Courts-Martial and Military Rules of 

Evidence will apply, and the service member will be represented 

by qualified legal counsel. 

The point at which a service member must decide whether to 

object to an informal proceeding is an important stage in the 

military justice process. In recognition of the key role that 

counsel can play in advising a service member at that point, our 

Court has limited the admissibility of such records when the 

accused has not had the opportunity to consult with counsel. 

See, e.g., United States v. Edwards, 46 M.J. 41, 43 (C.A.A.F. 

1997)(citing United States v. Booker, 5 M.J. 238 (C.M.A. 1977)); 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

6

United States v. Kelly, 45 M.J. 259, 263-65 (C.A.A.F. 1996) 

(plurality opinion citing United States v. Mack, 9 M.J. 300 

(C.M.A. 1980), and Cox, C.J., concurring in part and in the 

result)). 

2. Sentencing proceedings: nonjudicial punishment records and 

convictions by a summary courts-martial 

In a sentencing proceeding, the prosecution may introduce 

certain personnel records of the accused, including records of 

punishment under Article 15. R.C.M. 1001(b)(2). The defense 

may object to the admission of a record on the grounds that it 

is inaccurate, incomplete, not made or maintained in accord with 

departmental regulations, or that the record otherwise contains 

inadmissible evidence. Id. The accused also may object on the 

grounds that he or she was not provided with the opportunity to 

confer with counsel before deciding whether to demand trial by 

court-martial. See Edwards, 46 M.J. at 43. 

During sentencing, the prosecution also may introduce prior 

convictions of the accused, including convictions by summary 

court-martial. R.C.M. 1001(b)(3). Among the objections that 

may be made to the admissibility of a summary court-martial 

conviction, the accused may cite the absence of proof of review 

under Article 64, 10 U.S.C. § 864 (2000). R.C.M. 1001(b)(3)(B). 

In addition, the accused may object to the admissibility of a 

summary court-martial conviction on the grounds that the accused 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

7

was not provided with the opportunity to consult with counsel 

prior to deciding whether to object to the proceeding. See

Kelly, 45 M.J. at 264. 

B. CONSIDERATION OF A PRIOR SUMMARY COURT-MARTIAL CONVICTION 

DURING APPELLANT’S SENTENCING PROCEEDING 

 At a special court-martial where he was represented by 

counsel, Appellant was convicted of unauthorized absence, 

pursuant to his pleas. During the sentencing proceeding, trial 

counsel introduced a document from Appellant’s personnel records 

entitled “Record of Conviction by Court-Martial (1070).” The 

document contained the following entries: (1) the name of the 

organization conducting the summary court-martial; (2) the date 

of trial and a block with a check mark noting that the trial was 

conducted by summary court-martial; (3) a summary of the charges 

and specifications, including unauthorized absence, willful 

disobedience of an order, assault, and communicating a threat; 

(4) a statement that findings of guilty were returned as to 

three of the four charged offenses; (5) a block with a check 

mark noting that Appellant waived representation by counsel; (6) 

a summary of the sentence; (7) the date of the convening 

authority’s action; (8) a signature block containing a signature 

of a noncommissioned officer with the title of administrative 

chief; and (9) Appellant’s name. The check block designed to 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

8

reflect notification of the disbursing officer was not 

completed. 

 Defense counsel did not object to the admissibility of the 

document. Counsel objected to consideration by the military 

judge of that portion of the document describing the offenses 

that did not involve absence on the grounds that such 

information was irrelevant, and that it was more prejudicial 

than probative. Counsel expressly stated that the defense 

objection did not preclude consideration of the summary courtmartial conviction for unauthorized absence. The military judge 

overruled the defense objection. The ruling by the military 

judge on Appellant’s specific objection is not at issue in the 

present appeal. 

 The Court of Criminal Appeals affirmed, relying on 

Appellant’s failure to object to the admissibility of the 

document. Kahmann, 58 M.J. at 668. The court expressly stated 

that “we are not attempting to abrogate, by this decision, the 

mandate of Booker/Mack that a servicemember must be afforded an 

opportunity to consult with counsel prior to accepting 

nonjudicial punishment (NJP) or a summary court-martial in order 

for that disciplinary action to be admissible in aggravation at 

a summary court-martial.” Id. Likewise, in this appeal, the 

Government does not seek to deny servicemembers the right to 

consult with counsel in such circumstances. 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

9

II. DISCUSSION 

 The granted issue raises two questions concerning the 

admissibility of the record of Appellant’s summary court-martial 

conviction despite the absence of an objection at trial. First, 

whether the record is inadmissible because it does not state 

expressly that Appellant was provided with the opportunity to 

consult with counsel prior to electing to proceed with a summary 

court-martial. Second, whether the record is inadmissible 

because it does not state expressly that the required legal 

review was completed under Article 64. 

 Under Military Rules of Evidence 103 [hereinafter M.R.E.], 

a ruling admitting evidence will not be overturned on appeal 

unless there was an appropriate objection at trial, subject to 

consideration of plain error. In a case decided prior to the 

adoption of M.R.E. 103 that involved the admissibility of a 

prior summary court-martial conviction, our Court indicated that 

the military judge had an affirmative duty to ensure that the 

accused had been afforded an opportunity to consult with counsel 

and had affirmatively waived the right to object to trial by 

summary court-martial. United States v. Booker, 5 M.J. 238, 

243-44 (C.M.A. 1977). 

 In subsequent cases, we have suggested that M.R.E. 103 

governs the admissibility of records reflecting summary court-
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

10

martial convictions and nonjudicial punishment, see, e.g., 

United States v. Dyke, 16 M.J. 426, 427 (C.M.A. 1983), although 

we have not expressly based a decision on that position. We do 

so today. A document that summarizes a summary court-martial 

conviction or nonjudicial punishment does not differ in 

significant respects from other records that are subject to 

M.R.E. 103. Recognition of the importance of the opportunity to 

consult with counsel prior to an election concerning a 

nonjudicial punishment proceeding or a summary court-martial, 

see Kelly, 45 M.J. at 264, does not require differential 

treatment with respect to plain error analysis. Accordingly, we 

hold that admissibility of the record from such a proceeding is 

governed by the objection and plain error provisions of M.R.E. 

103. 

 We analyze a claim of plain error under the three-part 

standard of United States v. Powell, 49 M.J. 460, 464-65 

(C.A.A.F. 1998); that is, (1) whether there was an error; (2) if 

so, whether the error was plain or obvious; and (3) if the error 

was plain or obvious error, whether it was prejudicial. See

Article 59(a), UCMJ, 10 U.S.C. § 859(a)(2000). 

 Appellant contends that the military judge erred in 

admitting the record of summary court-martial conviction because 

the document did not state on its face that Appellant had been 

afforded an opportunity to consult with counsel prior to 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

11

electing to proceed with the summary court-martial. The 

placement of such a statement on the document may be desirable 

as a matter of policy, particularly in view of the fact that an 

objection to the document requires the Government to prove that 

the accused was afforded the opportunity to consult with 

counsel, and the Government must do so without compelling the 

accused to provide such evidence. See United States v. Cowles, 

16 M.J. 467 (C.M.A. 1983). The admissibility of such a record, 

however, does not depend upon the placement of such a statement 

on the face of the document, and the prosecution may prove that 

Appellant was afforded the opportunity to consult with counsel 

through other evidence. See Mack, 9 M.J. at 322-23. Absent 

objection by the defense, the prosecution is under no obligation 

to introduce such evidence. 

 Appellant cites our opinion in Dyke, 16 M.J. at 427, for 

the proposition that plain error may be predicated upon 

irregularities in the document. In support of this argument, 

Appellant relies on section 4008 of the Marine Corps Individual 

Records Administration Manual (IRAM) as the basis for suggesting 

various irregularities in the document at issue. 

 Absent timely objection, irregularities do not provide a 

basis for relief without a showing that any errors were plain or 

obvious, or that they were prejudicial. As we noted in Dyke, a 

document that has “illegible signatures or where some blanks 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

12

remain unfilled” would usually not provide the basis for relief 

in the absence of a trial objection. 16 M.J. at 427. In Dyke, 

the errors were apparent on the face of the document. The 

document contained four places where the signature of Appellant 

or his commander should have appeared, and each was blank. We 

concluded that the document “was so incomplete on its face that 

the judge should have excluded it on his own motion.” Id. 

 Appellant has identified three regulatory errors in the 

document at issue in the present case: (1) failure to include 

language regarding consultation with counsel prior to the 

summary court-martial; (2) failure to check the block indicating 

that the disbursing officer has been informed of the sentence; 

and (3) failure to include either the signature of the 

Appellant’s commanding officer or an indication that the person 

signing the form has done so by direction of the commanding 

officer. Each of these matters is distinguishable from the 

significant facial defects of the document at issue in Dyke. 

 As noted by Appellant, section 4008 of the IRAM summarizes 

our case law regarding admissibility of the record of a summary 

court-martial conviction, and provides a model paragraph that 

“may” be inserted on the reverse side of the document to reflect 

consultation with counsel. This provision, however, does not 

establish a mandatory requirement. Use of the term “may” in 

this context reflects non-binding guidance. The absence of the 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

13

model paragraph on the face of the document introduced at 

Appellant’s trial does not establish a plain or obvious error, 

particularly in light of our case law, which does not require 

such a notation on the document. See Mack, 9 M.J. at 322-23. 

 With respect to the fact that the document was signed by a 

noncommissioned officer rather than an officer acting “by 

direction” of the commander as provided in the IRAM, we note 

that no such requirement appears on the face of the document 

introduced at Appellant’s trial. The document at issue contains 

a signature by a noncommissioned officer with the title of 

administrative chief. It is not unusual in the armed forces for 

noncommissioned officers in administrative positions to sign 

official documents that summarize actions taken by officers. To 

the extent that there was a failure to follow an administrative 

requirement in the personnel manual, the defect was not manifest 

on the face of the document. While there may be some records in 

which the absence of an officer’s signature might constitute a 

plain or obvious error, this is not such a case. There is one 

obvious error on the face of the document -- the absence of a 

check mark in the block indicating notification to the 

disbursing officer. In the present case, however, Appellant 

does not claim any prejudice that might have resulted from the 

absence of the check mark, such as an error in computing or 

applying the adjudged forfeiture of pay. Under these 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

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circumstances, any error by the military judge in admitting the 

document without inquiring into the missing check mark did not 

constitute prejudicial plain error. 

 Similar considerations apply to Appellant’s contention that 

the military judge erred by admitting the record of a summary 

court-martial conviction when the document did not contain a 

notation that review had been completed under Article 64. See

R.C.M. 1001(b)(3)(B). Appellant has not identified any 

statutory, regulatory, or judicial requirement to place such a 

notation on a document summarizing a conviction by summary 

court-martial. If the defense objects to the admissibility of a 

document summarizing a summary court-martial conviction on the 

grounds that there is no evidence of review under Article 64, 

the burden is on the prosecution to demonstrate that such review 

has been completed. The opportunity to object is sufficient to 

protect Appellant’s rights under R.C.M. 1001(b)(3)(B), and the 

military judge is not required to inquire on his or her own 

motion whether such review has been completed. 

III. CONCLUSION 

 The decision of the United States Navy-Marine Corps Court 

of Criminal Appeals is affirmed. 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

 CRAWFORD, Chief Judge (concurring in the result): 

 While I agree with the majority that there was a waiver in 

this case, I write separately because I believe this Court has a 

judicial obligation to follow Supreme Court precedent regarding 

the right to counsel, absent a provision in the Manual for 

Courts-Martial, United States (2002 ed.) or military necessity 

for doing otherwise. The Court is not an ombudsman which can 

decide the result it wants, and then pick and choose from the 

Superior Court’s precedents to suit that result. Nor may it act 

as a policy maker or legislator. By arbitrarily deciding when 

and whether to follow the constitutional precedents of the 

Supreme Court, this Court not only undermines the legitimacy of 

its adjudication, but also undermines public confidence in the 

stability and predictability of military justice. 

 When the Supreme Court interprets the Bill of Rights, this 

Court is bound by those rulings and their rationales unless they 

can be distinguished. By the same token, when the Supreme Court 

specifically holds that the right to counsel does not apply, 

this Court is not at liberty to reject that decision. As to the 

right to counsel, this Court applied the rationale of 

Argersinger v. Hamlin, 407 U.S. 25 (1972), in holding that, 

absent representation by counsel, or waiver of the right to 

counsel, a summary-courts martial would not be admissible during 

the sentencing procedures or for any other purpose. United 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

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States v. Alderman, 22 C.M.A. 298, 46 C.M.R. 298 (1973). 

However, when the Supreme Court was specifically faced with that 

issue, it held that the right to counsel did not apply at 

summary courts-martial. Middendorf v. Henry, 425 U.S. 25 

(1976). This Court is not at liberty to disregard that holding. 

 It is important to describe in detail this Court’s history 

of selectively applying Supreme Court precedent as to the right 

to counsel. First, in Alderman, this Court adopted the Supreme 

Court rationale in Argersinger, 22 C.M.A. at 299-300, 46 C.M.R. 

at 299-300. Although Argersinger was a civilian habeas action 

and did not address summary courts-martial, this Court, in 

Alderman, extrapolated from Argersinger a requirement for a 

waiver of counsel or representation by counsel at summary 

courts-martial for its results to be admissible at a subsequent 

court-martial. Four years later, the Supreme Court in 

Middendorf held that Argersinger did not apply to summary 

courts-martial. Nevertheless, the very next year this Court 

refused to follow the Supreme Court and rejected the Middendorf

holding and rationale in United States v. Booker, 5 M.J. 238 

(C.M.A. 1977)(Booker I). In so doing, this Court in Booker I

implicitly created a right to counsel at a summary courtsmartial by holding 

 that absent waiver of counsel or representation by 

 counsel: 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

3

 (1) the escalator clause would not apply to 

summary courts-martial; 

 (2) a summary courts-martial conviction was not 

admissible for sentencing; 

 (3) Article 15s were not admissible for 

sentencing; and 

 (4) Article 15s and summary courts-martial were 

limited to military-type offenses. 

United States v. Kelly, 45 M.J. 259, 266 (C.A.A.F. 1996) 

(Crawford, J., dissenting). 

In United States v. Booker, 5 M.J. 246 (C.M.A. 1978)(Booker 

II), the Court reconsidered Booker I and held that Article 15s 

and summary courts-martial were not limited to military-type 

offenses. In United States v. Mack, 9 M.J. 300, 311 (C.M.A. 

1980), the Court revisited the Booker I rationale and, in a 1-1-

1 opinion, sought to justify its rejection of Middendorf by 

applying the escalator clause based on Baldasar v. Illinois, 446 

U.S. 222 (1980). When the Supreme Court later removed the 

Baldasar underpinnings in Nichols v. United States, 511 U.S. 738 

(1994), this Court was once again faced with the opportunity to 

apply current Supreme Court precedent with respect to the right 

to counsel. Yet, it refused to do so in Kelly, 45 M.J. at 264, 

and continued this Court’s selective application of 

constitutional precedents of the Supreme Court. 

Now, once again this Court has the opportunity to correct 

its prior misapplication of Supreme Court decisions. Sadly, 

however, not only does the majority continue this Court’s 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

4

selective application of constitutional precedents established 

by the Supreme Court, but now the majority also seeks to justify 

its position by creating a new “important stage” analysis. It 

is unclear what this “important stage” analysis means to 

practitioners. In the future it might be compared with the 

“critical stage” analysis which has been employed by the Supreme 

Court in numerous cases. Neither the “critical stage” analysis 

nor its possible new military analog was mentioned or cited in 

the Middendorf case. At the time of adopting the Uniform Code 

of Military Justice, Congress knew the import of various 

decisions and the rights available to the accused at a summary 

court-martial, and the duties and responsibilities of the 

summary court-martial officer. And at the time of Middendorf, 

the Supreme Court knew the consequences that could result from a 

summary court-martial and the potential for greater punishment 

if the accused opted to object to the summary court-martial. 

Yet, the Supreme Court still held that the right to counsel does 

not apply at the summary court-martial. 

The accused’s option to obtain greater rights at a 

proceeding is not unique to the military, but is also present in 

both the state and federal systems. For example, the defendant 

who appears before a United States federal magistrate judge in a 

misdemeanor case has the right to be tried before a United 

States district court judge, including a jury panel. But there 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

5

is no requirement that because this option is available, there 

must be an advisement of the right to consult with counsel 

before opting for a trial before a district court. In the 

magistrate court versus district court arena, the defendant may 

opt for a district court judge or a jury subjecting him or her 

to a potential greater punishment. Even so, it was not the 

potential greater punishment, but rather the punishment that may 

be imposed at the magistrate judge court level or misdemeanor 

court level on which the Supreme Court relied in determining 

when an individual is entitled to counsel. 

 In addition to the legal reasons already mentioned, there 

are practical reasons for why we should reexamine Booker I and 

Mack. The majority undermines truth in sentencing by denying 

the sentencing authority a true picture of the Appellant’s 

record. The military employs very comprehensive sentencing 

procedures which allow the defense to introduce extensive 

evidence in extenuation and mitigation, as well as grant the 

accused expansive allocution rights. The Government should 

likewise be able to present a full picture and not be undercut 

by this Court’s refusal to apply Supreme Court decisions. 

 Furthermore, our forces are deployed worldwide fighting the 

war on terrorism, and as a result, judge advocates are fully 

engaged not only in the military justice arena, but also in 

operational law, legal assistance, and numerous other complex 
United States v. Kahmann, No. 03-0522/MC 

6

legal fields, at camps, bases, and fleets serving by their side. 

The number of lawyers available is limited. Many of these are 

in resident training, or serving in non-legal billets, and thus 

unavailable for varying periods of time to discharge legal 

duties. 54 M.J. CXXXII, at CXLV. By continuing implicitly to 

impose on the services by judicial decree a right to counsel 

prior to accepting Article 15s and summary courts-martial, this 

Court usurps the legislative and executive powers and does what 

both Congress and the President have elected not to do: further 

burden commanders and senior legal officers in their resolution 

of operational matters. As the Supreme Court stated in Orloff 

v. Willoughby, 345 U.S. 83, 93-94 (1953): 

[J]udges are not given the task of running the 

Army.... Orderly government requires that the 

judiciary be as scrupulous not to interfere with 

legitimate Army matters as the Army must be 

scrupulous not to interfere in judicial matters. 

 

 For these reasons, I must respectfully decline to join the 

majority opinion.