9 8
contrary, as has been seen in the

case of the Naval Affairs Committee room (S–127) and as will

be seen in this chapter, Brumidi

made designs for these areas;

they were left unexecuted only

because of financial and time

constraints. The artist struggled

for decades to convince those in

charge to allow him to finish his

planned decorations.

Brumidi’s role in decorating

the Senate Chamber was limited, for Walter stopped the

gilding that he had started

there. The senators preferred a meeting chamber much

more sober in design than that of the House, but they apparently appreciated Brumidi’s elaborate designs for other

rooms in their new wing (figs. 8–1 and 8–2). Walter’s

November 1859 cost estimate, “made in consultation

with Mr. Brumidi,” and his February 1860 notes for the

United States Art Commission listing all expenditures on

“works of art and art decoration,” are valuable documentation of the murals in progress at the time.2 They show

that Brumidi was working on an impressive number of

projects, including making a design for bronze stair railings, advising on furniture colors for the Senate Chamber, and designing a never-realized sculptural clock for

the Senate Chamber (fig. 8–3). He was designing or executing frescoes in the Stationery Room (S–210) (see fig.

6–14), the Senate Post Office (S–211), the President’s

Room (S–216), the committee room for Military Affairs

(S–128), and the Senate Reception Room (S–213). He

was also involved in never-executed designs for the Post

Despite the atmosphere

of political controversy

and disruptions, the

years between 1857 and 1860

were among Brumidi’s most

productive, in terms of both design and execution. He painted

frescoes in several important

rooms and completed the decoration of the President’s Room,

which has always been considered “one of the gems of the

Capitol.”1 During this period

he and Meigs laid out the plan

for all of the Capitol murals. By

1859, Brumidi had designed virtually all of the murals he

would paint at the Capitol through the end of his life.

Under the direction of Thomas U. Walter and W. B.

Franklin, work moved forward as funds were available.

Brumidi continued to work in a number of rooms at

once. The execution of the designs proceeded with stops

and starts, at some points because of lack of money for

supplies. Sometimes there were long intervals between

campaigns. Given the many interruptions in carrying out

these projects, it is surprising how great a sense of unity

Brumidi was able to create.

A long-standing misconception to be dispelled about

Brumidi’s working methods is that he deliberately left

blank areas so that future events could be depicted. On the

99

CHAPTER 8

“Gems of the Capitol”

Fig. 8–2. Design for Ceiling of Senate Library. Brumidi worked out the details for the ceiling room, now

S–211, in his 1857 pencil sketch. However, before the

fresco was completed, the room had changed function,

and “Print” and “Philosophy” were not used. Library of

Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. 

Photo: Library of Congress.

D

Fig. 8–1. Room intended for the Senate Library. On the ceiling,

Brumidi depicted fields of knowledge set in an illusionistic frame,

with life-like groups of figures on pedestals in the corners. S–211.
Office Committee room (S–117), the Indian Affairs

Committee room (S–132), and the Ladies Waiting

Room, now part of the third-floor Senate Press

Gallery (S–313A). In 1859, the work remaining for

the Senate first-floor corridors was so extensive that

an estimate of $20,000 was given to finish them, including the frescoes.

S–211 

For the decoration of the room intended for the Senate

Library, now the Lyndon B. Johnson Room, Captain

Meigs envisioned “groups of history, legislation, etc.,”

commenting in 1857, “I hope to make this a beautiful

room.”3 Brumidi completed the rich and harmonious

decorative scheme representing fields of knowledge only

after ten years and several interruptions (see fig. 8–1).

Brumidi submitted a design for the ceiling to Meigs on

February 16, 1857, which depicted Print and Philosophy

along with the Geography and History that he later executed (see fig. 8–2). He later painted detailed oil sketches

for the lunettes. He decided to create semicircular fields

imitating framed paintings, with groups of figures in the

corners that appear to support the weight of the ceiling.4

Meigs asked Johannes Oertel to prepare designs for the

room, but judged his figures too large for the space, and

diverted him to another assignment. Oertel was later dismayed to find that Brumidi had begun his own frescoes.

By the spring of 1858, Brumidi had finished the lunette

Geography and one corner group, and Camillo Bisco, one

of his Italian assistants, had painted the decorative borders.5 By the time the Senate moved into the new extension in 1859 the room had become the Senate Post Office, containing a glass-and-walnut post office with a box

for each senator.6

In 1862, Brumidi submitted estimates for completing

the still unfinished room, but no action was taken. In

1866, at the urging of the chairman of the Committee on

Public Buildings and Grounds, Architect of the Capitol

Edward Clark asked the artist to submit new estimates.

Clark thought that Brumidi’s figure of $2,000 per ceiling

panel was “unreasonably high,” and the artist agreed to

perform the work at his earlier rate of $1,500. He also

agreed to paint the remaining three-quarters of the ceiling for a total of $4,989 under protest, claiming that his

proposed fees were very reasonable in comparison with

the $20,000 paid in 1862 to Emanuel Leutze for his

mural Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way in the

House stairway. With the help of Alberto Peruchi and

Urban Geier in preparing cartoons and mixing colors,

Brumidi finally completed the ceiling in 1867.7

The center of the ceiling contains a trompe l’oeil

medallion of acanthus leaves with striped shields in the

corners. Borders of morning glories on dark red fields encircle the four lunettes. In the corners are groups of three

figures, the central one a canephore, a figure holding a

basket of flowers on its head (fig. 8–4). Visually, they

function as caryatids, figures used as columns supporting

architectural weight. Although Brumidi once described

them as the “months of the year,” significant differences

among the individual figures are not apparent, with the

exception of the group of three males wearing wreaths of

laurel, flowers, and wheat.8 The male group was undoubtedly the one painted in 1858; the style is more delicate, the musculature more detailed, and the modeling of

light and dark more subtle than in the figures in the other

corners. The three female groups vary in their poses.

With their arms intertwined, gazing out to the viewer,

they recall the classical Three Graces. Overall, they express abundance and growth. Eagles rest at the feet of

each group, flanking the elaborately decorated pedestal

on which the figures stand.

The four ceiling lunettes contain scenes focusing on female allegorical figures. Each is composed within the

lunette like an easel painting; the figures do not project

illusionistically into the viewer’s space. 

Geography, sitting on clouds, leans over as if to look

out over the world (fig. 8–5). She wears a richly brocaded

100

Fig. 8–3. Proposal for a clock for the Senate Chamber, c.

1859. Brumidi’s unrealized design included bronze figures

of Vulcan, representing, in the artist’s words, “the industry

and the mechanism of the northern States,” and Ceres, “with

cornucopia and cotton flowers caracterizing [sic] the Southern States.” Montgomery C. Meigs Photo Album, Architect

of the Capitol.
101

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–4. Corner figure groups. The group of three male figures

undoubtedly dates from 1858 because it is next to the first lunette

Brumidi completed and is painted in more detail than the female

groups in the other corners. S–211.

Fig. 8–5. Geography. The central figure points to a globe with a

pair of dividers. One of her winged assistants spreads out a map of

the New World, while the other holds a protractor and a miniature

locomotive. S–211.
skirt and a headdress with a strap around her forehead

and under her chin. A similar figure appears in an engraving that belonged to Brumidi of a ceiling at Versailles (see

fig. 1–14). History is depicted with an oil lamp, inkpot

and quills, and documents on a pedestal table; a framed

picture, a cylindrical box with scrolls, and a printing press

are on the ground beside her (fig. 8–6). By her knees sits

Father Time, an old man with wings who holds an hour

glass; next to him is his sickle. The chipped empty stone

pedestal behind him also suggests the passage of time, as

well as the transitory nature of fame.

The fresco Telegraph may relate to the function of the

room as the Senate Post Office (fig. 8–7). It closely follows Brumidi’s oil sketch, Telegraph [America Welcoming

Europe: The Completion of the Laying of the Transatlantic

Cable] (fig. 8–8).9 Europa, at the left, sits astride a bull

(the form in which Jupiter, the king of the gods, disguised himself). She shakes hands with America, who sits

at the edge of the sea, while a cherub holds the telegraph

cable laid between England and America in 1866. America wears a phrygian, or liberty, cap wreathed with the

oak leaves of strength, and chest armor for protection.

She holds the caduceus, the symbol of Mercury, god of

commerce, and leans on an anchor. Next to her are an

eagle bearing an olive branch of peace, a flag, ramrods,

and a cannon, on which lies a cornucopia of fruit. The

objects amassed around the symbol of the New World on

the shore give her greater weight and importance in the

composition than the figure of Europa in the water.

In the scene entitled Physics (fig. 8–9), Brumidi shows

how the science has been applied to creating new modes

of transportation. Physics is seated, resting one elbow on

a pedestal, examining a chart; to her right stands a boy in

a sailor suit. Next to her is a plane table, an instrument on

a tripod used for plotting survey lines. Behind the group

are a paddle-wheel steamboat and steam locomotive

crossing a bridge, as seen in Brumidi’s 1853 painting

Progress (see fig. 5–4). A blacksmith, whose muscular

back is turned to the viewer, holds a hammer; beside him

are an anvil and iron locomotive wheels he has made. 

The wall lunettes are decorated with shields and

rinceaux. The lower wall panels, defined by illusionistic

moldings, were originally decorated with a damask pattern of shields and trompe l’oeil marble relief. The lower

walls are finished with scagliola. 

The room served as the Senate Post Office until 1869,

when it became the meeting place for the District of Columbia Committee. In 1958 it was assigned to Majority

102

Fig. 8–6. History. The figure representing History, crowned with

the laurel wreath of fame, records the story of the Revolutionary

War battle raging in the distance. Her book is propped against

Father Time. S–211.
103

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–7. Telegraph. Figures symbolizing Europe and America

shake hands, representing the bringing together of the continents by

telegraphic communication after the laying of the transatlantic

cable. S–211.

Fig. 8–8. Sketch for Telegraph, c. 1862. Brumidi followed

this oil sketch when he painted the fresco Telegraph, changing

only minor details. United States Senate Collection. 

Photo: Senate Curator.

Fig. 8–9. Physics. Wearing a wreath and a cape trimmed with

stars, Physics studies a long scroll, at which a boy dressed as a sailor

points. One of Vulcan’s blacksmiths sits on the right; a steamship and

steam locomotive appear prominently in the background. S–211.
104

Fig. 8–10. Room designed for the Senate Military Affairs

Committee. The theme of the decoration is the American

Revolution. Brumidi contributed the overall design and the

frescoes, and James Leslie painted the trophy panels. S–128.
In 1871, Senator Henry Wilson, who had been chairman of the committee during the Civil War, requested

that the decoration of the room be completed while

Brumidi was still alive. He wrote to Edward Clark, “It

has occurred to me that it is quite desirable to employ

the same artist. . . . Mr. Brumidi is getting old.”15 Wilson was consulted about the subjects for the last three

lunettes, and two new subjects were executed: The

Boston Massacre, 1770 and Washington at Valley Forge,

1778; oil sketches for these have not been located. Brumidi, then in New York, heard that there would be a

congressional recess and expressed eagerness to get to

work. In October 1871 he was paid $1,000 for each

lunette plus $100 for each of three groups of children

over the doorways.16 Other small paintings on the ceiling were added later.

As completed, the room is ornately decorated with

scenes and details related to the Revolutionary War. The

ceiling contains shields; emblems of war and peace, such

as wreaths of victory, weapons, and fasces; and small grisaille illusionistic sculptural groups with historic scenes

depicting subjects such as the “Death of General Montgomery” (fig. 8–12), the “Boston Tea Party,” and the

“Surrender of Cornwallis.” Several of the compositions

were derived from unused lunette designs or from scenes

sketched for the frieze, including “Colonel Johnson and

Tecumseh.” Gold leaf applied under intricate rinceaux

and diamond patterns in the pendentives creates a rich,

mosaic-like effect.

Brumidi’s five frescoed lunettes are the focal points of

the room. His compositions work effectively in the

lunette shape, with the main figures at the center, balanced by landscapes or groups of figures in the corners.

On the south wall, over the door into S–129, is one of

the lunettes painted in 1858, The Battle of Lexington (fig.

8–13). Brumidi created a sense of the tumult and noise

of the battle by effective use of diagonal lines and

swirling smoke, closely following his oil sketch (see fig.

8–11).

To the left of the door is Washington at Valley Forge,

1778 (fig. 8–14). This scene, one of those Brumidi

painted in 1871, is the most quietly dramatic; only the

blowing capes and scarf appear to be in motion. Brumidi’s technique of using thick paint, or impasto, is very

visible in the snow.

The west wall is filled with ornate gilded valances and

the mirror over the marble mantel. The mirror frame,

specially made for this room in 1859, contains images of

military equipment such as drums and muskets.17

Over the north wall is The Boston Massacre, 1770 (fig.

8–15). Brumidi based the scene on Paul Revere’s famous

engraving of the event in which British soldiers fired on a

mob of citizens in front of the Old State House (fig.

Leader and later Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, after

whom it was named in 1964. In recent years, the room

has been used for Senate meetings such as party caucuses

and conferences.

Repairs to the decoration were made in 1900 and

1901. In 1947, the frescoes may have been cleaned and

coated with “mastic, a type of varnish.”10 The wall panels

have been painted over in solid color. Some features, such

as the gilded mirror and valances, were renovated in

1988. The murals have not yet received conservation

treatment because they are in relatively good condition. 

S–128 

The room originally designed for the Senate Committee

on Military Affairs and Militia was decorated over a span

of fifteen years (fig. 8–10). In 1856, Meigs was advised

by the illustrator Felix O. C. Darley: “The best subjects

for the room of the Committee on Military Affairs would

be scenes from the Revolution when Washington or his

principal generals could be introduced, such as the

Storming of Stony Point, the Battle of Trenton, &c.” Although Darley expressed willingness to prepare designs

in ink, he said that Meigs needed a fresco painter to execute them.11 There is no evidence that Darley actually

sent sketches to Meigs. In late 1857, Emmerich Carstens

wrote to Meigs that “the work to be done on the walls

of the Military Committee room can only be done by

Mr. Brumidi himself and by Mr. Leslie who is at work

now on the pannels [sic] to paint the arms. . . .”12 Leslie

finished the trophies by the end of 1857.13 Brumidi apparently began working after Leslie had completed his

part. Early in the next year, before Brumidi started his

frescoes, Camillo Bisco painted the perspective frames

around the lunettes.14

Brumidi first prepared small oil sketches for the frescoed lunettes (fig. 8–11). In 1858, he frescoed two

scenes, Battle of Lexington and Death of General

Wooster, 1777, but because the committee, then under

the chairmanship of Jefferson Davis, wanted to use the

room, he was not able to complete the other three. He

had prepared oil sketches for four additional scenes, of

which only Storming of Stony Point, 1779 was executed

later. In the frescoes he executed, he closely followed

the oil sketches, making only slight compositional adjustments. The three scenes that were not executed are

entitled on the oil sketches “General Mercer’s death by

bayonet stroke,” “Death of General Montgomery,”

and “The Americans at Sagg [sic] Harbour, burned

twelve brigs and sloops and [illegible] with him many

prisoners.”

105

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”
8–16). He changed the composition, however, and depicted an earlier point in the event to emphasize the

heroism of Crispus Attucks, an escaped slave, by making

him the central figure. This may be because Brumidi

painted this lunette during the Reconstruction period. As

in Renaissance altarpieces, the curved pediment over the

doorway of the Old State House suggests a halo over the

martyr’s head. At the left, closely based on Revere’s print,

are two of the other victims. Brumidi also included men

throwing snowballs, representing the Boston boys who

taunted the British soldiers. Brumidi’s symmetrical composition is more static and stiff than those he had designed earlier for the room.

Death of General Wooster, 1777 (fig. 8–17) is inscribed

on the oil sketch, “General Wooster at Ridgefield mortally wounded is carried out of the field.” Brumidi composed the dying general, whose shoulder and arm are

bare, like the body of Christ in a Renaissance Pietà. In

this scene, Brumidi created a dramatic contrast between

foreground and background spaces and a sense of a quiet,

reverent moment in the midst of the battle.

Finally, over the door to the corridor is Storming of

Stony Point, 1779 (fig. 8–18). Brumidi inscribed his sketch

“Storming at Stonypoint, General Wayne wounded in the

head carried to the fort.” The battle at which “Mad Anthony” Wayne was wounded revived the spirits of the

106

Fig. 8–11. Oil sketches for Death of General Montgomery

and The Battle of Lexington. Brumidi created these compositions

for lunettes in the Military Affairs Committee room. Only the

lower scene was executed in fresco. Collection of Edna W. Macomb.

Photo: Diplomatic Reception Rooms, U.S. Department of State.
107

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–12. “Death of General Montgomery.” One of eight

small scenes painted on the ceiling to look like stone reliefs, this

one is based on Brumidi’s unused oil sketch for a lunette. S–128.

Fig. 8–13. The Battle of Lexington. At the center of the composition is a British officer on a rearing white horse, firing on the

Minutemen to the left; this event on April 19, 1775, marked the

beginning of the War of American Independence. S–128.

Fig. 8–14. Washington

at Valley Forge, 1778.

General Washington is

shown with his officers

standing on a snowy incline, while his troops

huddle around a fire at

the left. The bare

branches emphasize the

sense of cold and suffering. S–128.
Continental Army and prevented the British from dividing

New England from the rest of the colonies. The composition is tripartite, with the fort on the left, and the British

and American flags used to add color and drama.

Under four of the lunettes are illusionistic plaques holding the title of the scene, flanked by cherubs with garlands

of flowers. Plain panels, probably originally blue but now

dark green, framed with leafy designs fill the walls.

On the pilasters are six intricately detailed trophies of

arms painted by James Leslie, with specific military implements of various historical periods, shields of the United

States, and military medals. Each trophy contains different objects, among them George Washington’s sword in

the panel on the north central pilaster (fig. 8–19).

This room did not receive the negative criticism that its

neighbor, the Naval Affairs Committee room (S–127),

did, since its themes are so clearly American. In his eulogy for Brumidi, Senator Daniel Voorhees praised the

decorations, asking the rhetorical question: “Who ever

passed through the room of the Committee on Military

Affairs without feeling that the very genius of heroism

had left there its immortal aspirations?”18

108

Fig. 8–15. The Boston Massacre, 1770. Brumidi depicted Crispus Attucks in the moment just before he was fatally shot by the

British Captain Thomas Preston. Attucks is shown raising his only

weapon, a piece of firewood, and grasping the barrel of a soldier’s

musket. S–128.

Fig. 8–16. Paul Revere, The Bloody Massacre perpetrated in

King Street Boston on March 5th 1770, by a party of the 29th

Regt

. Brumidi used many engravings in creating images for the

Capitol. As in this case, he often rearranged the compositions. Library of Congress.
109

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–17. Death of General Wooster, 1777. This event followed

the burning of the unprotected town of Danbury, Connecticut, by

British troops. The American leader of the Continental Army,

General David Wooster, was mortally wounded during the

counterattack. S–128.

Fig. 8–18. Storming of Stony Point, 1779. General “Mad Anthony” Wayne had made a daring midnight raid on the British

garrison overlooking the Hudson River and captured enemy ammunition and supplies. He is shown with his head bandaged,

being carried victoriously by his soldiers. S–128.

Fig. 8–19. Trophy panel by

James Leslie. This is one of six

different illusionistic groupings of

weapons and accoutrements of war

painted by the English artist in

convincing detail. S–128.

The room was used by the Military Affairs Committee until it was assigned to the Appropriations Committee in 1911. Recorded alterations to the decoration

of the room include a cleaning and touching up by

Charles Moberly in 1919, the channeling for air-conditioning ducts and addition of bookcases around 1936,

and the dividing of the room in half with a wooden

partition in the 1940s. In 1979 the room was returned to more of its original appearance by the removal of the partition and bookshelves, the camouflaging of the ducts, Cliff Young’s cleaning and

repair of the lunettes, and the retouching of the ceiling. The murals await more extensive professional

cleaning and conservation.
110

Fig. 8–20. North end of the Senate Reception Room. This

end of the room, dominated by the allegorical figures in the vaults,

has been cleaned of the dark coatings and overpaint that obscured

Brumidi’s delicate color scheme. S–213.
gram for the room in French in late 1855 or early 1856.

He described the subjects of the allegorical figures as well

as five complex historical scenes, including the first meeting of Congress and the proclamation of independence to

the American people.20 By the end of July 1856, he had

prepared oil sketches for three of the five historical

scenes. Meigs also had him design an impressive mantel

with a bronze figure.21 Little of this first comprehensive

plan, approved by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, was

executed.22 However, early in 1857 Ernest Thomas, foreman of ornamental plasterers, began the elaborate decorative plaster work, which was covered with burnished

gilding by François Hugot; it was less than half done by

the end of the year.23 In 1858, Brumidi painted the frescoes in the four pendentives and the center of the dome

and designed those for the groin vaults in the north part

of the room.24

In the 1860s, attention was again focused on the room.

In 1862, Brumidi gave estimates to architect Thomas U.

Walter for completing the decoration with five panels of

S–213

The Senate Reception Room is one of the rooms decorated

by Brumidi that still serves its original purpose, that is, as a

place where senators meet constituents; this was an especially useful function in the decades before senators had offices (fig. 8–20). The room was first called “the antechamber of the Senate,” the “Receiving Room of the Senate,”

and later in the ninteenth century, the “Ladies Reception

Room.” The history of this room is unusual because of the

way the iconographical program for the wall lunettes

changed over time (although only one was ever completed), while the subjects of the allegorical figures, including the Virtues in the ceiling, were modified only slightly.

Brumidi began preparing designs for this room even

before the House Committee on Agriculture room was

finished. In December 1855, Meigs reported: “Brumidi

brought me a design sketch in pencil for the decoration

of the Senate anteroom. It is beautiful. He is full of innovation, and this, if worked up with skill, will make a beautiful room.”19 Brumidi wrote a detailed outline of his pro111

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–21. Sketch for Senate Reception Room. Brumidi eventually painted three of the vaults as he planned in this oil sketch,

changing only the figure of Peace. Estate of Edna W. Macomb. 

Photo: Diplomatic Reception Rooms, U.S. Department of State.
historical scenes; four groin vaults with figures of War,

Peace, Freedom, and Plenty, for which he had made oil

sketches (fig. 8–21); and five portraits of illustrious men;

however, no action was taken. In 1866 Senator B. Gratz

Brown, chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings

and Grounds, wrote to the secretary of the interior, who

had been given responsibility for the construction, to

point out that the completion of rooms had been covered

in the 1859 appropriation, and recommending that the

reception room be finished; Brumidi then submitted new

estimates. Not until 1869 did Brumidi paint the allegorical images in the four triangular fields of the north groinvaulted ceiling.25

Finally, in June 1870, Brumidi created new designs for

the lunettes, with figures rendered in chiaroscuro, using

darks and lights, in imitation of sculpture and portraits in

color. Two extant pencil sketches for the lunettes, apparently dating from this time, show that Brumidi had

changed the configuration and the subjects. Instead of

multifigured scenes of historical events, he planned to incorporate portraits of the first sixteen presidents. One

sketch shows Washington, Adams, and Jefferson seated together, flanked by rondels with portraits of Madison and

Monroe (fig. 8–22). The other includes a seated John

Quincy Adams, a rondel of Jackson, and a seated Van

Buren (fig. 8–23). The portraits are framed by red curtains

and illusionistic sculpture of maidens and cherubs. Brumidi

sent the designs to Clark for the inspection of Senator

Charles Sumner, chairman of the powerful Foreign Relations Committee. In November 1870, Brumidi was paid

for painting the chiaroscuro figures in the lunette of the

south wall; he painted these in oil on dry plaster rather

than in true fresco. A second lunette on the south end was

finished by July, and the remaining three “panels with figures and medallions” were completed by November 1871.

Clark reported that year: “The lunettes of the walls of the

reception room of the Senate are being decorated in such a

manner as to leave spaces for portraits. It is proposed to fill

these with the portraits of men most conspicuous in our

legislative history, and to have them painted by our most

skillful artists, so as to have in the Capitol a specimen of the

styles of the principal painters.”26

In August 1872, the subject of the scene on the south

wall was changed. Clark wrote to Brumidi that the committee had authorized him to have the murals painted

and had ordered Brumidi to substitute Alexander Hamilton for Adams; “Then the picture would represent Washington and his two principal Cabinet Officers—Jefferson

and Hamilton—whom he most consulted.” Brumidi prepared an oil sketch of this changed composition, and followed it closely when he executed it on the wall that

year.27 As late as 1876, Brumidi petitioned to be allowed

to fill the remaining spaces, but to no avail, and the blank

spaces remain today.

112

Fig. 8–22. Washington, Adams, Jefferson. This pencil sketch

documents Brumidi’s intention to include portraits of all the

early presidents in the Senate Reception Room. When this plan

was dropped, Adams was replaced by Hamilton and the figures

were rearranged. Arthur J. Phelan Collection.
113

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–23. Adams, Jackson, Vanburn,

c. 1870. The sketch, with Van Buren’s

name misspelled, shows that the sixth,

seventh, and eighth presidents were to

have appeared over the door leading 

to the Senate Chamber. Architect of 

the Capitol.

Fig. 8–24. South end of the Senate

Reception Room. The domed ceiling is

decorated with gilded coffers and rosettes,

with flying cherubs at the center. This

photograph, taken before restoration was

begun, shows the brownish coating that

covered the murals. S–213.
The ceiling nearest the entrance from the corridor is a

dome filled with elaborate rosettes set in gilded coffers,

which are graduated in size to enhance the three-dimensional illusion (fig. 8–24). In the central rondel, which

originally held a gas chandelier, seven cherubs dance in

the air as if seen from below, trailing draperies of red,

blue, and gold. Brumidi in French called these nude babies genies or geniuses, spirits symbolizing various ideas

through the objects they hold. In Italian, he might have

called them putti, or little boys.

114

Fig. 8–25. Strength, after and before restoration.

The attributes of the Virtues are reinforced by objects

held by the cherubs. Here, for example, the oak leaves

represent strength and the fasces is a symbol of

authority. S–213.

Fig. 8–26. War, one of the north ceiling vaults. War is

portrayed by Minerva, goddess of wisdom and battle, flying across

a landscape, brandishing a shield and sword, accompanied by a

cherub riding on an eagle and holding the fasces. S–213.
In the pendentives of the dome Brumidi depicted the

four cardinal virtues. Strength (or Fortitude) wears the

lion’s skin and holds the club of Hercules (fig. 8–25).

Prudence gazes into a mirror, while cherubs hold a snake,

her other attribute, and a clay jar. Justice (or Jurisprudence) holds a tablet; she is being crowned with a laurel

wreath by one winged cupid, while another holds out the

scales of justice. Temperance touches a bridle, her signature attribute, and holds a palm frond; a winged cherub

pours water from a pitcher into a jug of wine.28

In the groin vault of the ceiling at the north end of the

room are four frescoes by Brumidi, conceived as easel

paintings bordered with gilded frames applied to the ceiling. War (fig. 8–26) wears a helmet encircled with stars

and sprouting white and blue feathers, possibly a reflection of the headdress on Thomas Crawford’s Statue of

Freedom. The figure nearest the window is Liberty in a

red cap and robe; she holds the fasces and a scroll with

the Constitution, supported by a cherub. Another cherub

flies in from the left with olive branches of peace, and a

third, to the right, holds the shield of the United States

and one end of a banner inscribed “E Pluribus Unum;”

the other end is held by the beak of an eagle. Underneath

Liberty’s foot are the crown and scepter of royal power.

Peace holds an olive branch in her right hand and instruments of art and architecture in her left hand: a triangle,

compass, and paintbrushes. A cherub holds a lyre and

trumpet on the left, and to the right another prepares to

cast a shield of war down atop a discarded helmet and

broken sword. Plenty holds a cornucopia and touches a

plow, which is grouped with other agricultural implements. To the left are a locomotive and a cherub holding

a caduceus, the symbol of Mercury and of Commerce.

The cherub to the right flies in with blossoming

branches. Many of the symbols depicted here can also be

seen in the canopy in the Rotunda and in other rooms,

such as the President’s Room.

The pilasters and archways near the entrance and at the

center of the room hold illusionistic relief panels of classical and Native American heads, cherubs holding various

symbolic implements, and birds (fig. 8–27). 

In the four large lunettes over the doorways on the side

walls, Brumidi created the illusion of classical maidens and

cherubs sculpted in marble flanking a central rondel. The

maidens pull back red curtains, but the portraits they were

designed to frame were, unfortunately, never executed. In

the south wall, however, Brumidi was allowed to paint a

scene showing President Washington with his Secretary of

115

“GEMS OF THE

CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–27. Wall panel after restoration. The panels painted in

tempera appear to be made of carved stone, inset with medallions

of alternating colors. Each cherub is a different infant god, here

Mars, Neptune, and Mercury. S–213.
State Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of the Treasury

Alexander Hamilton (fig. 8–28). Washington is shown

seated, in profile, across from Jefferson, while Hamilton

stands behind, one hand on a stack of bills, the other resting on the turned chair back. The north wall is dominated

by a lavishly carved marble mantel and magnificent gilded

mirror and cornices, dating from the 1880s, which obscure

a head of Liberty and red curtains, probably painted later. 

The Senate Reception Room is one of the most heavily

and ornately decorated of the rooms in the Capitol. The

elaborate gilded plaster relief decorations include stags with

projecting antlers and eagles in addition to leaves and fruit;

these attract almost as much attention as the murals. The

lower walls are covered with scagliola to simulate marble.

The room was damaged in an explosion in 1915,

after which the murals were retouched by Charles

Moberly. In 1930, George Matthews signed and dated

his “restoration” of the frescoes, and the plaster work

was regilded.

That year, curator Charles Fairman proposed subjects

for the vacant spaces, but nothing was carried out until

legislation was passed in 1955 to authorize five portraits

of senators. These portraits, added in 1959, include

Henry Clay by Allyn Cox, Daniel Webster by Adrian

Lamb, Robert M. LaFollette by Chester La Follette,

Robert A. Taft by Deane Keller, and John C. Calhoun by

Arthur Conrad. The portraits fulfill Brumidi’s original

plan for including “illustrious men” in these spaces.

Until conservation began on the north section of the

room in late 1994, the murals appeared relatively dark

because the walls and ceiling were coated with a brownish-yellow varnish as well as layers of grime and nicotine.

Conservators have removed extensive overpaint as well as

layers of coating. Unexpected soft mauves and greens

were uncovered in the borders and panels, which harmonize with the colors in the cleaned frescoes. The work was

divided into phases over two years to accommodate the

schedule of the Senate.

S–216

The President’s Room is among the most completely decorated and best-preserved rooms in the building (fig.

8–29). It also, at times, fulfills its original function as a

place for the president during his visits to the Capitol.

Presidents, probably beginning with James Buchanan,

and certainly with Abraham Lincoln, signed legislation

here at the end of sessions of Congress, just before their

terms ended on March 4, a date changed by the Twentieth Amendment.29 The room has been used much less

frequently by presidents in the twentieth century, although most have signed special bills here, and the room

is now used primarily by senators for press conferences

and meetings.

It is not certain when the decision was made to have a

room for the president in the new extension. A signed

but undated Brumidi drawing for a ceiling similar to the

one in this room, labeled “Ceiling of the Vice President’s

Room,” was approved by Meigs (fig. 8–30), and it is possible that the function of the room was changed afterwards. The groin-vaulted ceiling on Walter’s floor plan

116

Fig. 8–28. Lunette on south wall. Brumidi’s depiction of President Washington with Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton

is the only historical scene he completed in the Senate Reception

Room. S-213.
117

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–29. The President’s Room. This richly decorated room,

which Brumidi covered from floor to ceiling with murals celebrating the men and ideals fundamental to the country, is shown after

its recent restoration. S–216.
was probably changed to accommodate Brumidi’s design,

which was closely modeled on that of one of Raphael’s

rooms in the Vatican (fig. 8–31).30 Brumidi and his assistants decorated this room in 1859 and early 1860; “C.

Brumidi 1860” appears on the spine of a book next to a

cherub on the west wall. 

For this unique room, Brumidi developed a scheme

even more elaborate than the one he devised for the

House Committee on Agriculture. The ceiling contains

several levels of illusionistic space: projecting moldings,

thirty-six trompe l’oeil copper relief medallions with the

seals of the states and territories, gilded borders decorated with arabesques, and the actively engaged, lifelike

cherubs. Every detail is carefully thought out; for example, the seals of the states and territories are arranged

chronologically, with those of the first states of the Union

at the center and those of the territories at the outer

edges. The corner frescoes contain figures seated in

niches, while the four frescoed tondos hold seated female

figures shown against the sky as if looking down into the

room, two with their toes pushing out past the frame toward the viewer. The walls below are completely covered

with framed portraits, still lifes, and more cherubs and

arabesques. The whole room conveys a sense of exuberance and energy and Brumidi’s pride in his new country.

Brumidi expertly combined multiple painting media

to achieve the effect he desired. The tondos, corner figures, and cherubs and eagles on the ceiling are in true

fresco, surrounded by architectural moldings and

medallions in tempera (fig. 8–32). The lunettes and

portraits are in oil on plaster, while the lower walls are

primarily fresco in scialbatura. The delicately painted

motifs on the gilded borders and panels also appear to

be in that medium. However, the viewer is aware only of

the harmony of the whole.

The four framed circular tondos on the ceiling hold

Madonna-like allegorical figures representing the foundations of the government. Executive [Authority] holding a

scepter, rules with the aid of “Wisdom” inscribed on her

brooch, books entitled US Law and Philosophy, and the

torch of Knowledge. Religion (fig. 8–33), on the north,

seems to greet all who enter the room, while the other

figures look down at their work or up to heaven for inspiration. Legislation, soberly dressed in warm brown Renaissance-style robes, holds an upraised sword and reads

the Constitution. Liberty (fig. 8–34), looking upward,

wears a red liberty cap and robe and is surrounded by

thirteen stars in the sky. Pairs of cherubs in front of

striped shields of the United States and eagles alternate

with the tondos. The cherubs hold objects related to the

118

Fig. 8–30. Drawing adapted for the President’s Room ceiling. Known only from this photograph, the drawing includes the

same overall plan and the same corner figures that Brumidi

painted in S–216. Here the female figures in the tondos are labeled

Eloquence, Cosmology, Philosophy, and Religion, and stars appear

instead of the state seals. Fig. 8–31. Raphael, Ceiling of the Stanza della Segnatura

in the Vatican Palace. Brumidi would have been familiar with

this ceiling in Rome, and Meigs could have known it from color

reproductions such as this one. 

From Lewis Gruner’s Specimens of Ornamental Art, 1850.
119

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–32. Ceiling of the President’s Room. The complex design contains figures in various illusionistic architectural compartments, while the four circles seem to be open to the sky. S–216.

Fig. 8–33. Religion. Her face covered by a transparent veil, the

figure symbolizing religion wears a cross and brocaded lace robe

and holds a Bible. S–216.

Fig. 8–34. Liberty. The figure symbolizing liberty wears a sword

and is pulling the axe out of the fasces. S–216.
adjacent scenes; for example, the figures next to Liberty

hold the fasces and a scroll inscribed “E Pluribus Unum.”

Because they overlap the frames, the cherubs appear to

project toward us in three dimensions.

In the corners, as if seated in curved niches, with feet

or knees projecting toward the viewer, are four historical

figures representing fundamental aspects of the development of the nation: Amerigo Vespucci, with maps and

spyglass, for Exploration; Christopher Columbus, with

nautical instruments, for Discovery (fig. 8–35); Benjamin

Franklin, reading a sheet inscribed Buon Uomo Ricardo

(“Poor Richard” in Italian), referring to his almanac, and

surrounded by books, newspapers, and a printing press,

for History; and Pilgrim leader William Brewster holding

a Bible for Religion. Early guidebooks note that Brumidi

based his depictions on known portraits.31

Filling the pendentives under each portrait are varying

numbers of squirming cherubs (fig. 8–36); the three in

the northeast corner replace Brumidi’s, which were damaged by leaks.32

On the south wall is a lunette with a portrait of George

Washington (fig. 8–37), modeled on the Rembrandt

Peale porthole portrait then hanging in the Vice President’s Room.33 On the walls below, members of Washington’s first cabinet are depicted in oval frames: Secretary of

State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Treasury Alexander

Hamilton, Secretary of War Henry Knox, Attorney General Edmund Randolph, and Samuel Osgood, the first

postmaster general.34 The walls around and below them

are embellished with trellis-like arabesques with cherubs

and classical heads over gold backgrounds, illusionistic

moldings, and still lifes of fruit.

Overall, the President’s Room today presents much of

its original appearance. The elaborate bronze chandelier,

cast by Cornelius and Baker, is the only one made for the

extensions remaining in the Capitol. It holds figures of

Native Americans, pioneers, and different ethnic types.35

The Minton floor tiles are in nearly original condition

and the Tennessee marble mantel is the one designed by

Walter. The Turkish sofa and chairs were purchased in

1875 and were re-covered in gold-embossed red leather

by the Senate Commission on Art during its 1991–1992

refurbishment of drapery and furnishings. 36

However, some changes have been made to the room

over the years. Brumidi himself made estimates for repairs as early as 1862; painting, probably of door frames,

was carried out in 1868. Elaborate mirror frames, consoles, and valances were installed about 1883 to replace

simpler frames designed for the room in 1860; they

cover the illusionistic painted frames created by Brumidi.

Brumidi’s three cherubs with an American flag, which

originally flew around the chandelier, were destroyed

when the plaster around the fixture fell to the floor in

120

Fig. 8–35. Christopher Columbus. The explorer examines a globe

and chart on a pedestal, at the base of which are an octant, mercury barometer, and magnetic compass. S–216.

Fig. 8–36. Cherub with eagle. Beneath the portrait of Franklin

is one of the most beautifully painted figures in the room, a cherub

pulling the arrow of war out of an eagle’s beak. Note the seal for

the territory of Utah. S-216.
1921.37 The decorative borders and moldings on the

walls and ceiling have been overpainted, with some modification of the original design. These borders and lower

walls were painted in fresco in scialbatura in the color of

stone, from which yellowed varnish has now been removed.38 Annual reports note that the room was retouched in 1912 and 1916, and that restorations were

performed in 1918 by Charles Moberly. In 1928, Brumidi’s decoration was threatened with destruction or removal when plans for the enlargement of the Senate

Chamber were being discussed. In 1931, after the enlargement project was dropped, the corner cherubs were

replaced and the room was given an extensive cleaning

and restoration, with “colors freshened” and the gold

leaf replaced and reburnished.39 The ceiling murals were

professionally conserved in 1994, when extensive overpaint was removed from Brumidi’s frescoes, restoring his

vibrant colors and the illusion of figures able to move in

space. The walls were given conservation treatment the

next year (figs. 8–38 and 8–39).40

121

“GEMS OF THE CAPITOL”

Fig. 8–37. Portrait of Washington on south wall. The portrait of Washington is flanked by figures representing Peace and

Victory (whose shield is inscribed with the names of Revolutionary

War battle victories). S–216. 

Fig. 8–38. Newly conserved west wall. Cleaned of overpaint

and yellowed varnish, the jewel-like tones of the portraits of Randolph and Osgood and of the decorative elements enliven the room.

Brumidi’s signature appears near the cherub at the upper right.

S–216.

Fig. 8–39. Conservator Christiana Cunningham-Adams at

work. The removal of discolored varnish has made a dramatic difference in the overall appearance of the President’s Room. S–216.
Notes to Chapter 8

1 Dr. John B. Ellis, The Sights and Secrets of the National Capital

(Chicago: Jones, Junkin & Co., 1869), p. 89.

2. TUW cost estimate to complete the extensions, November 26,

1859, TUW/PA (AAA reel 4146). TUW, “Notes for the Art Commission,” February 2, 1860, AOC/LB. 

3. MCMJ, February 21, 1857 (B–464).

4. Feb. 16, 1857, Pocket Diary, MCM Papers, LC. Photograph of

pencil sketch for ceiling signed by Brumidi and Meigs, LC (Prints and

Photographs Division). In addition to the sketch for Telegraph, ones for

History, Physics, and three groups of Graces were owned by Mrs. Ashmun Brown, according to Myrtle Cheney Murdock, Constantino Brumidi: Michelangelo of the United States Capitol (Washington, D.C.:

Monumental Press, 1950), p. 79. 

5. On February 10, 1858, Bisco wrote to Meigs that he had completed “la presque totalité de la peinture de la voûte dans la Chambre

dît Book Room [nearly all of the painting of the vault in the chamber

called the Book Room]”, AOC/CO. MCMJ, February 26, 1857

(B–473) and May 24, 1858 (C–193). Oertel to MCM, April 17, 1858,

AOC/CO.

6. Annual Report of Captain Meigs, 36th Cong., 1st sess., October 27,

1859, Sen. Exec. Doc. 2, vol.2, p. 561. John B. Ellis, The Sights and Secrets of the National Capital (Chicago: Jones, Junkin & Co., 1869), p. 87.

7. CB to TUW, October 10, 1862; Chairman B. Gratz Brown to

Secretary of the Interior James Harlan, July 17, 1866; EC to CB, July

19, 1866; CB to EC, July 20, 1866; EC to Harlan, July 21, 1866; Harlan to EC, August 8, 1866; EC to CB, August 9, 1866; CB to EC, August 12, 1866; EC to Harlan, August 13, 1866; Harlan authorized the

work the same day. On August 14, 1866, Clark asked Brumidi to begin

work; Brumidi replied to him the next day. NARA/RG 48, Series 290

and 291; AOC/CO.

8. Brumidi sent Walter an estimate for painting in the Post Office

Room “Three groups of figures representing the months of the year in

the corners” CB to TUW, October 10, 1862, TUW/PA (AAA roll

4149). The oil sketch for the three groups of female figures was reproduced in Murdock, Brumidi, p. 79.

9. The oil sketch was published in “Brumidi Paintings Found in

Washington After a Search of Forty Years,” Washington Star, November

2, 1919.

10. 1900, AOC/AR, p. 4. “Soap-and-Brush Brigade Cleans Up the

Capitol,” Times-Herald, August 26, 1947.

11. Copy of letter from F.O.C. Darley sent by J. Durand to MCM,

October 30, 1856, AOC/CO.

12. E. Carstens to MCM, November 6, 1857, AOC/CO.

13. J. Leslie to MCM, December 7, 1858, AOC/CO.

14. C. Bisco to MCM, February 10, 1858, AOC/CO.

15. Henry Wilson to EC, March 8, 1871, AOC/CO.

16. Voucher, October 19, 1871, AOC/CO.

17. A medallion with the head of Liberty, flanked by flags, weapons,

and fasces, was visible in the area now covered by the top of the mirror

frame. DeB Randolph Keim, Keim’s Capitol Interior and Diagrams

(Washington, D.C.: n.p., 1875), p. 54.

18. Congressional Record, 46th Cong., 2d sess., February 24, 1880,

p. 1075.

19. MCMJ, December 17, 1855 (A–772.)

20. The other proposed historical subjects were the election of Washington as commander of the American army, the first formal audience

given by the Congress to a representative of France, and the peace

treaty between the United States and Britain. CB, undated proposal for

the Senate Reception Room, written in French, c. 1855, AOC/CO.

21. MCMJ, January 15, 1856 (B–21.)

22. Meigs recorded the subjects as “Washington thanking Congress

for the election as Commander-in-Chief, the signature of the Treaty of

Paris, the representation of the French Ambassador, Gerard, in Congress” MCMJ, July 28, 1856 (B–240). Brumidi may have used the

scene of the Treaty of Paris later in the first-floor Senate corridor.

23. Thomas was appointed superintendent of ornamental plasterers,

Aug. 28, 1856, MCM Pocket Diary, MCM Papers, LC. The drawings

may be by Thomas; the gilding was done by a Frenchman, Hugot,

“peintre doreux,” Hugot to MCM, March 20, 1859, AOC/CO, MCM

to Ernest Thomas, Jan. 21, 1857, and TUW to John Floyd, Dec. 21,

1857, AOC/LB.

24. Only the four spandrels and the center of the dome were finished

in early 1859. “The New Senate Hall,” New York Times, January 5,

1859, p. 1.

25. B. Gratz Brown to James Harlan, secretary of the interior, July

17, 1866, NARA/RG 48, series 291, box 2. CB to EC, July 20, 1866,

and EC to James Harlan, July 21, 1866, NARA/RG 48, series 290, box

2. Report of the Architect of the Capitol Extension, Nov. 1, 1869, p. 3,

and Voucher, November 22, 1869, AOC/CO. 

26. CB to EC, June 9, 1870, AOC/CO. 1870, AOC/AR, p. 1.

Voucher issued to CB “for South Wall of Senate Reception Room,”

Nov. 22, 1870, AOC Voucher Book, Works of Art, v. 1. CB to EC, May

1, 1871, and CB to EC, April 22, 1871, AOC/CO. 1871, AOC/AR, p.

3. Voucher issued to CB for “three panels consisting of figures and

medallions,” Nov. 23, 1871, AOC/Voucher Book. 

27. EC to CB, August 15, 1872, AOC/LB. The sketch is known

from a photograph. William C. Allen has suggested that the change in

theme from the presidents to the cabinet may have been related to the

impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson and the Senate’s role in affirming

the president’s right to control the cabinet.

28. Julie Aronson discovered that the subjects of these frescoes were

previously misidentified in Art in the United States Capitol based on

CB’s undated proposal in French describing the figures as “la Jurisprudence . . . la Force . . . la Sapience . . . la Prudence.” He apparently intended to represent the four virtues and later corrected his mistake. The

figures were correctly identified in early guidebooks, such as Keim’s

Capitol Interior and Diagrams, 1875, p. 26. 

29. President Lincoln was described using the room on the day of his

inauguration in the Evening Star (Washington), March 4, 1861.

30. The present Vice President’s Room, S–214, is similar in shape to

S–216. Documents dating from 1858 describe a plan of ceiling decoration for the Vice President’s Room with plasterwork by Ernest Thomas

and painted “boys” by Brumidi, which, if executed in S–214, is no

longer extant. The decoration was expected to be finished by December

1859 (Annual Report of Captain M. C. Meigs, Oct 27, 1859).

31. DeB. Randolph Keim, Keim’s Illustrated Hand-Book Washington

and Environs (Washington: n.p., 1874), p. 31 reports that Columbus

was painted from a portrait in Mexico. Ben Franklin’s pose and features

are related to an engraved portrait in National Portrait Gallery of Eminent Americans (New York: Johnson, Fry & Company), vol. 1. The

profile of Vespucci was copied from a 16th-century portrait, now in the

National Portrait Gallery, owned by the son of Robert Fulton [thanks to

Christiana Cunningham-Adams for this discovery].

32. Eben F. Comins (b. 1875) inserted the new figures in true fresco.

He wrote Architect David Lynn about the project on May 16, 1931,

AOC/CO, and was paid on July 16, 1931, AOC/Voucher Books. The

122
Cong., 1st sess., Sen. Mis. Doc. 1, p. 54. Tradition holds that the large

mahogany table in the center of the room was used by President Lincoln;

however, inventories of the furniture in the room in the 1870s do not include it. The mahogany grandfather’s clock was purchased in 1887.

37. Keim’s Capitol Interior, 1875, p. 32. The Book of Washington,

Washington Board of Trade, 1926–27, p. 93. Non-original cherubs

painted in oil on canvas glued to the ceiling some time in the 1920s

were removed during the 1994 conservation of the ceiling.

38. William D. Haley, in Philip’s Washington Described (New York:

Rudd & Carleton, 1861), describes the walls as being “in secco,” p.

138. A recent scientific analysis by Christiana Cunningham-Adams

shows that the lower decoration was first painted in fresco in scialbatura.

39. 1931, AOC/AR, pp. 20–21. 

40. A detailed condition report of the room was made by Bernard

Rabin in 1991. Christy Cunningham-Adams conserved the ceiling in

1994 and the walls in 1995. 

records of the AOC also contain a photograph of him at work as well as

one of the original cherubs, AOC/CO. Also see 1931, AOC/AR, p. 20.

33. Meigs asked for the portrait to be brought to the President’s

Room for Brumidi on October 28, 1859, as indicated on a note on a

drawing for mirrors for the room. AOC/CO.

34. Actually, the Postmaster General did not officially become part of

the Cabinet until 1829. On April 3, 1860, Brumidi is documented to

have been copying a portrait of Randolph, in a letter from W.B. Franklin

to Joseph Blank, the Attorney General, AOC/LB. The Knox portrait

may be based on the one then in Faneuil Hall and later transferred to

the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.

35. The chandelier was made by the Philadelphia firm in 1864 for

$900. The eighteen gas lights were electrified in 1896, and in 1915 six

arms and the twenty-four shades etched with designs were added. The

crystal prisms that were added at that time have recently been removed.

36. The voucher for the leather-covered chairs is dated June 30, 1875,

Secretary of the Senate, Receipts and Expenditures of the Senate, 44th

123

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