IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

No. 09-20871

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff- Appellee

v.

JAMES BROOKS, WESLEY C. WALTON, JAMES PATRICK PHILLIPS,

Defendants - Appellants

Appeals from the United States District Court 

for the Southern District of Texas

Before KING, BENAVIDES, and DENNIS, Circuit Judges

BENAVIDES, Circuit Judge:

Defendants-Appellants James Patrick Phillips, Wesley C. Walton, and

James Brooks (collectively, the “Defendants-Appellants”) appeal their conviction

of and sentencing for false reporting of natural gas trades in violation of the

Commodities Exchange Act and the federal wire fraud statute. We AFFIRM. 

FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

The Defendants-Appellants are former employees of El Paso Merchant

Energy Corporation (“EPME”), a subsidiary of the El Paso Corporation (“El

Paso”). The government alleges that the Defendants-Appellants violated the

Commodities Exchange Act (“CEA”) and the wire fraud statute by sending false

information about natural gas prices to trade magazines that report natural gas

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

F I L E D

May 18, 2012

Lyle W. Cayce

Clerk

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 1 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

prices in indexes, in an effort to affect and manipulate those indexes, which, in

turn, would affect the market for natural gas futures and benefit the company’s

financial positions.

Some background on the natural gas industry is necessary for

understanding this case. Natural gas is transported throughout North America

via a network of pipelines. The gas transportation network is centered around

“hubs,” which are geographical locations where major pipeline systems interlink. 

These hubs act as separate markets, at which supply and demand dictate prices

that may differ between the hubs. 

Gas trades are divided into different types. Most basically, physical gas

is traded, whereby one company agrees to purchase a quantity of gas to be

physically delivered to a particular location. In addition to the sale of physical

gas, financial trades are made based on gas prices. One particular financial

trade, a gas contract for future delivery, is traded on the New York Mercantile

Exchange (“NYMEX”). NYMEX contracts are based on the price of gas trading

at Henry Hub, Louisiana. Other financial trades, termed “swaps,” are

transactions where two traders agree to buy a volume of gas from each other at

the same time, but at different prices. In one common format, called a “basis”

trade, one party agrees to pay a first-of-the-month index price and the

counterparty agrees to pay based on the last day NYMEX settle. Another

common financial transaction is an exchange for physical futures (“EFP”), which

is a swap with one end priced off the NYMEX futures market and the other

prices off an index plus or minus a differential. Financial trades generally do 1

not result in the transfer of physical gas, but are resolved financially. 

In these various futures transactions, the parties discuss financial traders holding 1

“short” or “long” positions. In a “short” position, a trader benefits from a lower index price,

and in a “long” position, the trader benefits from a higher index price.

2

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 2 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

The market index prices for physical gas are most prominently published

in two privately owned newsletters: Inside FERC Gas Market Report (“Inside

FERC”) and Natural Gas Intelligence (“NGI”). Both ofthese publications publish

the natural gas price marketing indicators at the major pipeline hubs and

market centers in the United States, and it is undisputed that both publications

are highly influential to market price for physical gas. The indexes also are used

to determine royalties and public gas contracts, among other things. The

publications gather pricing information about the various markets and pipeline

hubs by requesting data about physical gas transactions from natural gas

traders. After receiving data from the gas traders, and taking a variety of other

factors into account, the publications release indexes that purport to represent

the price of natural gas at different delivery points. In requesting data, Inside

FERC and NGI requested that traders report fixed-price, baseload deals

negotiated during bidweek, and it also instructed that basis or EFP trades not

be reported.2

The Defendants-Appellants were all employees at EPME. EPME traded

in both physical and financial transactions of the sort previously mentioned. In

2000, Defendant-Appellant Brooks was EPME’s Senior Vice President for Risk

Management, and he was responsible for overseeing physical traders. In 2001,

Brooks became the Managing Director for Natural Gas, and he oversaw both

physical and basis traders. At the time, EPME was divided into various trading

“desks,” which were then split between physical gas trading and finance trading. 

The desks were based on pipeline network regions. During the time in question,

Defendant-Appellant Phillips was a senior physical trader and was manager of

the Texas Desk at EPME. Defendant-Appellant Walton was a basis trader on

the financial side for both the Texas Desk and the Gulf Coast Region of the

As will be explained, the parties dispute the extent to which these terms have 2

accepted meanings in the natural gas industry.

3

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 3 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Northeast Desk. As a market participant, Inside FERC and NGI would request

physical trade information from EPME. EPME would report the information to

the trade publications via spreadsheets sent by the physical traders responsible

for each of EPME’s desks.

From summer 2002 to fall 2002, El Paso received inquires from various

federal agencies and a United States Attorney’s Office grand jury subpoena

seeking information on the reports EPME sent to the trade publications.3

Around that time, El Paso hired Haynes & Boone, a law firm, to conduct an

internal investigation into allegations that El Paso employees had submitted

false trades to trade publications. Defendants-Appellants Brooks, Walton, and

Phillips were interviewed as part of that investigation, and each employee was

subsequently terminated. Nonetheless, at least at the beginning of this

investigation, El Paso paid the legal fees for both Walton and Brooks.

Starting in March 2003, an Assistant U.S. Attorney began a course of

correspondence with El Paso’s legal counsel about El Paso’s payment of legalfees

for former employees. El Paso informed the Assistant U.S. Attorney about the

company by-laws, according to which EPME was required to indemnify any

employee for legal fees if the employee was found not to have engaged in wrongdoing, but EPME was left with discretion about whether to advance payment of

legal fees prior to such determination. El Paso stated that, based in part on 4

Prior to the United States Attorney’s investigation, in 2000, the California Public 3

Utilities Commission started an investigation of El Paso, during which Southern California

Edison also requested documents related to EPME’s reporting. Moreover, at about the time

of the United States Attorney subpoena, El Paso received similar requests for information

from the Commodities Futures Trading Commission and the Federal Energy Regulatory

Commission. 

El Paso and EPME had slightly different policies. El Paso’s by-laws required it to 4

both indemnify and to advance legal fees for any of its employees. El Paso would then have

the right to seek a refund of payments if the employee was found to have engaged in wrongdoing. EPME was only required to indemnify its employees, however, and the defendants here

were all EPME employees. 

4

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 4 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

“the limited results of the Haynes & Boone interviews,” it had decided not to

advance legal fees for Brooks, but that it was inclined to advance Walton’s legal

fees. El Paso stressed, however, that it would consider the employee’s

cooperation with the federal investigation in deciding whether to continue

advancing legal fees. After additional correspondence regarding Delaware law

and its application to El Paso’s indemnification policy, the government, in

response to El Paso’s request for the identities of any individual who was not

cooperating, identified Walton, as well as four other employees, who are not

defendants here, as non-cooperating employees. Sometime thereafter, El Paso

terminated Walton’s legal fees, but it did not inform the government.

Defendant-Appellant Phillips, who had not been discussed in the

correspondence, subsequently requested indemnification. On August 12, 2004,

El Paso declined Phillips’s request, noting that indemnification was made only

after an ultimate determination of the legal proceedings, and that it would not

advance his legal fees. El Paso also noted that it was not obliged to advance fees,

and that EPME was cooperating with the government and so it would not

advance legal fees to “potential subjects or targets of their investigations.”5

On September 25, 2006, the government filed a second superseding

indictment, charging the Defendants-Appellants with forty-nine counts: 

specifically, twenty-four counts of false reporting in violation of the CEA, 7

U.S.C. § 13(a)(2), twenty-four counts of wire fraud in violation of 18 U.S.C.

§ 1343, and one count of conspiracy to commit false reporting and wire fraud in

violation of 18 U.S.C. § 371. The government alleged that the DefendantsAppellants were involved in a conspiracy, lasting from about April 2000 through

Phillips subsequently filed a civil suit to force EPME to advance his legal fees, in 5

which he sought discovery. See Phillips v. El Paso Corp., no. 2005-00645 (Texas Dist. Ct. Jan.

5, 2005). The government filed a successful motion to stay that civil suit, pending the criminal

investigation.

5

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 5 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

May 2002, whereby the Defendants-Appellants reported false information

related to natural gas prices to Inside FERC and NGI to manipulate the index

prices reported in those magazines. Specifically, the government alleged that

Defendant-Appellant Brooks would direct the physical gas traders at EPME to

report false data to the publications, such as trades that did not occur, false

prices, or false gas volumes, in a manner that would benefit EPME’s financial

positions. Defendant-Appellant Walton, a basis trader on the Texas and

Northeast Desks, would allegedly tell the physical traders his financial positions

for the upcoming month, such as whether he wanted the index price of gas to

increase or decrease in certain areas, so the physical traders could report data

manipulating the published indexes in his favor. The second superseding

indictment also alleged that Defendant-AppellantPhillips and the other physical

gas traders sent fictitious information and reports to Inside FERC and NGI. The

government alleged that twenty-four misleading reports were transmitted to

these publications, either personally by the Defendants-Appellants or based on

their instructions.6

The trial lasted from December 4, 2007 to February 7, 2008. During the

trial, the government submitted over 1,000 exhibits, including the bidweek

surveys sent to Inside FERC and NGI, internal worksheet versions of those

surveys, internal EPME emails, EPME trade tickets recording physical and

basis deals, summaries of basis positions, and hundreds of taped telephone calls. 

During trial, the jury heard testimony from fourteen government witnesses,

including Matthew O’Loughlin, an expert, and five defense witnesses, including

Defendant-Appellant Brooks. 

The government’s two primary witnesses were physical traders Dallas

Dean and Sharon O’Toole. Dean was a physical trader on the Northeast Desk

A number of other members of the alleged conspiracy have already pled guilty to 6

charges of false reporting, wire fraud, or conspiracy.

6

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 6 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

and O’Toole was a physical trader on the Texas Desk. Both testified about the

conspiracy and stated that Defendant-Appellant Brooks instructed them to

submit false data to Inside FERC based on information given to them by

Defendant-Appellant Walton. O’Toole also testified about Defendant-Appellant

Phillips’s involvement in the conspiracy. The government also admitted a large

number of incriminating emails between the various traders—often between

Phillips and other physical traders—about the content of the reports sent to

Inside FERC and NGI or requesting information from basis traders about their

financial positions. Similarly, the government played recordings of telephone

calls, many recorded on Walton’s line. In some of these conversations, Walton

discussed price targets for certain trading regions, the submission of reports that

would or had affected published indexes, and whether certain reported trades

were too low to be credible. He also thanked the physical traders when the

published index prices were favorable to his financial positions.

In one particularly important email chain, various EPME employees,

including Brooks, Phillips, and Walton, discussed the reports sent to the

publications. Starting this chain, Brooks emailed the physical and financial

traders on October 23, 2000, writing:

There has [sic] been several discussions on how IF [Inside FERC]

price should be reported in the month of November. Most of you are

aware that we reported only verifiable fixed price transactions to IF

for October. It is the opinion of some, that the reason for doing so

made no difference, and only eliminated us as an active price setting

participant. In an effort to get everyone’s opinion on this, reply as

to the following: 1. Report according to our book bias (as in the

past). 2. Report verifiable fixed price trades only.

In response, various traders, including Walton and Phillips, chose the first

option. Several other traders discussed the options, emailing with Brooks and

discussing how Inside FERC had a standardized format for reporting data, but

that the “integrity of the data . . . is not verified.” Another trader replied that

7

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 7 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

they should “avoid discussing this is on e-mail” due to ongoing investigations,

and O’Toole replied, “GOOD point!”

Also testifying for the government was Ronald Clay Sanders, an employee

at EPME, who worked as the manager of the risk operations group during the

time of the alleged conspiracy. Sanders testified whether the trades reported to

Inside FERC or NGI by the physical traders were real and whether they

matched any trades in the EPME electronic database. Overall, Sanders testified

that only 3.6% of the 6,213 trades reported to Inside FERC and NGI during the

course of the conspiracy matched actual trades, and that if the trades reported

by the West Desk are excluded—which allegedly stopped participating in the

conspiracy in fall 2002—only 1.9% of the 5,687 trades match actual trades.

Finally, the government presented O’Loughlin, an expert who testified about the

effect of EPME’s false reports on the published indexes at Inside FERC and NGI.

The primary defense witness was Defendant-Appellant Brooks. In part,

Brooks testified about the incriminating October 2000 email chain where the

traders discuss reporting based on “book bias.” Brooks testified that “book bias”

did not mean that the physical traders would submit numbers favoring the basis

traders’ positions; rather, Brooks stated that the term meant that EPME would

report data to the publications based on their perception of where gas was

actually trading.

A potential defense witness, Don Guilbault, invoked his Fifth Amendment

privilege against self-incrimination on the day he was scheduled to testify. 

Guilbault was a physical trader at EPME and he had admitted to submitting

false reports to Inside FERC and NGI. According to the Defendants-Appellants,

however, Guilbault would have testified that Walton did not provide him with

basis positions to shape his reports. Although Guilbault pled guilty prior to the

Defendant-Appellants’ trial, he was still awaiting sentencing at the time of the

currenttrialto ensure cooperation. The Defendants-Appellants moved to compel

8

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 8 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

testimony; after a hearing, the district court denied the motion, finding no

government misconduct and a valid purpose for the invocation of privilege. 

After closing arguments, the jury deliberated for three days. The jury sent

several notes during deliberations, one of which asked a question about the

phrase “ignorance of the law is no excuse.” Ultimately, the jury found: all

Defendants-Appellants guilty of the conspiracy count; Phillips guilty of false

reporting and wire fraud on counts 5, 9–10, 14, 19–21, 23–25, 29, 33–34, 38,

43–45, 47–49, and not guilty on all other charged counts; Walton guilty of false

reporting and wire fraud on counts 3–5, 9–10, 19–24, 27–29, 33–34, 43–48, and

not guilty on all other charged counts; and Brooks guilty on counts 2–5, 8–29,

32–49, and not guilty on all other charged counts.

On December 17, 2009, the district court sentenced the DefendantsAppellants. The district court calculated, for Phillips and Walton, that the

proper offense level was thirty-three (with criminal history category 1), with a

recommended sentencing range of 135 to 168 months. For Brooks, the district

court calculated that the offense level was thirty-five (with a criminal history

category 1), with a recommended sentencing range of 168 to 210 months. The

district court sentenced Phillips and Walton to 135 months of imprisonment and

sentenced Brooks to 168 months of imprisonment. 

The Defendants-Appellants filed a timely notice of appeal, and they now

assert ten separate grounds for error. They argue that the indictment must be

dismissed, and that their convictions and sentences must also be reversed.

ANALYSIS

A. Government Interference with Payment of Legal Fees

The Defendants-Appellants first argue that the government pressured

EPME to cut off its payment of legal fees for their attorneys, violating their Fifth

and Sixth Amendment rights, and consequently, requiring dismissal of the

indictment against them, relying on 2003 correspondence between the Assistant

9

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 9 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

U.S. Attorney and El Paso’s legal counsel. The district court found no such

pressure by the government, and the Defendants-Appellants do not show clear

error in that determination.

We review a district court’s denial of a motion to dismiss an indictment de

novo. United States v. McNealy, 625 F.3d 858, 868 (5th Cir. 2010). We review

the district court’s underlying factual findings for clear error. Id. “Under the

clear error standard, we defer to the findings of the district court unless we are

left with a definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed.” 

United States v. Avants, 367 F.3d 433, 441 (5th Cir. 2004) (citation and internal

quotation omitted).

The record creates no “firm conviction” that the district court erred in

finding the government did not coerce El Paso into deciding not to advance the

Defendants-Appellants’ legal fees. While the correspondence shows El Paso

possessed an intense desire to be seen as cooperative by the government, the

government never demanded or suggested to El Paso that it cease paying the

legal fees of the Defendants-Appellants. Indeed, rather than create a “firm

conviction” that El Paso was coerced into not paying the Defendants-Appellants’

attorney fees, the correspondence shows El Paso, through EPME, exercised its

own discretion whether to pay the Defendants-Appellants’ legal fees. The

correspondence shows that EPME had the discretion, under its by-laws, not to

advance legal fees to its employees. Further, as to Brooks, the correspondence

shows El Paso had exercised that discretion prior to the government’s

correspondence due to the company’s conclusion that he was involved in wrongdoing.

Nor do Defendants-Appellants fair better in relying on the 2003 Justice

Department Memorandum, “Principles of Federal Prosecution of Business

10

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 10 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Organizations,” also known as the “Thompson Memorandum.” That 7

memorandum provided guidance on how the government should decide whether

a corporate entity is cooperating with an investigation, and it suggested that

investigators consider whether a corporation was advancing legal fees to

culpable agents. Admittedly, that memorandum has been subject to criticism,

and the Department of Justice has subsequently revised its policies. 

Nevertheless, the mere existence of the memorandum could not have compelled

El Paso.

This case is distinguishable from the facts that the Second Circuit

confronted in United States v. Stein, 541 F.3d 130 (2d Cir. 2008). There, the

district court found that the government had “forced” KPMG to cease paying

legal fees on behalf of the defendants, the payment of which had been KPMG’s

long-standing policy, based on threats from the government and the

government’s involvement in crafting internal KPMG memos dissuading

employees from obtaining counsel. Id. at 147–50. The district court’s factual

findings bound the Second Circuit, and on such findings, the Second Circuit held

KPMG’s actions were state actions that violated the defendants’ right to counsel

of their choice. Id.

Here, as noted above, no such factual findings were made, and reasonably

so. Whereas in Stein, where the government specifically threatened to take into

account KPMG’s payment of legalfees, referring to theThompson Memorandum,

the correspondence here does not refer to that memorandum and it includes no

threat to indict El Paso if it continued to pay fees. Moreover, the government did

not meddle in El Paso’s internal discussion with employees in an attempt to

dissuade the retention of counsel. Lastly, whereas KPMG’s long-standing policy

 Mem. from Larry D. Thompson, Deputy Att’y Gen., U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Principles 7

of Federal Prosecution of Business Organizations (Jan. 20, 2003), available at

http://www.justice.gov/dag/cftf/corporate_guidelines.htm.

11

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 11 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

of paying legal fees demonstrated that the fees would have been paid but for the

government’s actions, EPME’s policy was discretionary, and had been

independently exercised to not advance legal fees to Brooks. 

Accordingly, the Defendants-Appellants fail to show clear error in the

district court’s factual findings, and under those facts, we find that denial of the

motion to dismiss the indictment was proper.

B. Applicability and Constitutionality of CEA

The Defendants-Appellants raise a number of challenges to the

applicability and constitutionality of the CEA. First, they argue that 7 U.S.C.

§ 13(a)(2)’s reference to “false . . . reports” does not cover the false reports they

sent to industry newsletters. Second, they argue that trades of physical natural

gas are exempted from the CEA and/or do not meet the Act’s definition of

“commodity.” Third, the Defendants-Appellants argue that various terms in

§ 13(a)(2) are vague, and thus the CEA is unconstitutionally vague as applied to

them. Fourth, they argue that the CEA is overbroad. While the DefendantAppellants’ arguments are sweeping, they are, ultimately, unavailing.

1. “Report”

The Defendants-Appellants first argue that their communications with

Inside FERC and NGI do not qualify as “reports” under §13(a)(2). They state

that other portions of the CEA, as well as the CFTC’s regulations promulgated

thereunder, distinguish between “statements” and “reports,” and generally use

“report” to refer to “a formal record or document the Commission requires

regulated futures professionals or traders to file, maintain or provide to the

Commission or costumers.” 

The CEA states that it shall be unlawful for:

[a]ny person . . . knowingly to deliver or cause to be delivered for

transmission through the mails or interstate commerce by

telegraph, telephone, wireless, or other means of communication

false or misleading or knowingly inaccurate reports concerning . . .

12

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 12 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

market information or conditions that affect or tend to affect the

price of any commodity of interstate commerce . . . .

7 U.S.C. § 13(a)(2). The term “reports” is not defined in the CEA or CFTC

regulations. See 7 U.S.C. § 1a; 17 C.F.R. § 1.3. Neither the Supreme Court nor

any circuit court has considered the definition. Consequently, the applicability 8

of the term “reports” appears to be an issue of first impression.

“In construing the United States Code our task must begin with the words

provided by Congress and the plain meaning of those words.” United States v.

Valencia, 394 F.3d 352, 355 (5th Cir. 2004). Thus, we begin with the plain

meaning of “report[],” which the dictionary defines as any statement of fact, or

at least a detailed statement of fact. See Merriam-Webster, report, available at

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/report(defining report as “a usually

detailed account or statement); Oxford English Dictionary, report, available at

http://www.oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=report(defining report as

“[i]nformation provided or conveyed, and related senses,” “[a]n account of a

situation, event, etc., brought by one person to another . . . , a notification of

something observed,” “[a] descriptive account or statement”); see also CBC, Inc.

v. Bd. of Governors of Federal Reserve Sys., 855 F.2d 688, 690–91 (10th Cir.

1988) (applying dictionary definition of “report” to interpret word in Bank

Holding Act). The Defendants-Appellants’ statements to Inside FERC and NGI 9

would satisfy such a definition. They were not expressions of opinion, or casual

communications, but were lengthy documents outlining detailed information

A district court has considered the definition of “report” and found it covers electronic 8

communications such as the Defendants-Appellants’. See CFTC v. Atha, 420 F. Supp. 2d 1373,

1380–81 (N.D. Ga. 2006) (finding § 13(a)(2) false reporting provision applies to false trade

reports sent electronically to Inside FERC).

The Defendants-Appellants provide the court with no reason to believe “report,” first 9

included in the Grain Futures Act of 1922, had a meaning other than that used today. See

Grain Futures Act, 42 State 998, 1003 (1922). 

13

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 13 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

about natural gas trades, sent to established industry publications with the

intent to inform those publications about the state of the natural gas markets. 

The Defendants-Appellants argue that “reports,” when used in the CEA,

refers only to formal reports required under the statute to be submitted by

traders to the CFTC or to customers, and that other portions of the CEA

differentiate between “reports” and mere “statements.” While it is true that

various parts of the CEA specify reports that are to be kept and submitted, such

fact cuts against the Defendants-Appellants. Where the CEA discusses reports

to be sent to the CFTC or to customers, the CEA specifies the kind of report. See

7 U.S.C. § 6g (providing “[e]very person registered hereunder . . . shall make

such reports as are required by the Commission . . .” (emphasis added)); 7 U.S.C.

§ 6i(2) (providing certain trades unlawful “unless such person files . . . with . . .

the Commission such reports regarding any transaction . . . as the Commission

may by rule . . . require” (emphasis added)); 17 C.F.R. § 16.00 (providing “[e]ach

reporting market shall submit to the commission . . . a report . . . showing”

specified information); 17 C.F.R. § 17.00 (providing “[e]ach futures commission

merchant . . . shall submit a report to the Commission . . .”; requiring report to

provide specified information). Such specifics would be unnecessary if every use

of “report” implied the same type of report. The fact that the CEA specifies the

kind of report when discussing reports to be made to the CFTC or to customers

implies that when the CEA uses “report,” without such limits, it does so in a

more general fashion.

Indeed, reading § 13(a)(2) in the manner suggested by DefendantsAppellants would render other sections of the CEA superfluous. The next two

subsections of the CEA make it unlawful for “[a]ny person knowingly to make

. . . any statement in any application, report, or document required to be filed

under this chapter . . . which statement was false or misleading with respect to

a material fact,” and for “[a]ny person willfully to falsify . . . a material fact,

14

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 14 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

make any false . . . statements or representations . . . to a registered entity,

board of trade, of futures associations . . . .” 7 U.S.C. §§ 13(a)(3), (4) (emphasis

added). Similarly, 7 U.S.C. § 6b(a)(2) renders it unlawful for “any person, in or

in connection with any order to make . . . any contract of sale of any commodity

for future delivery . . . , (B) willfully to make or cause to be made to the other

person any false report or statement or willfully to enter or cause to be entered

for the other person any false record.” If § 13(a)(2) was intended to cover only

false reports sent to the CFTC or to customers, these other sections would be

superfluous. 

Moreover, if § 13(a)(2) concerned only false reports submitted to the CFTC,

or false reports submitted from traders to customers, there would be no need to

limit the provision to communications “in interstate commerce,” and that “affect

or tend to affect the price of any commodity.” See 7 U.S.C. § 13(a)(2). These

jurisdictional “hooks” would not be needed for Congress to regulate false

communications to a government agency, or false communications by federally

registered traders. See M’Culloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 417 (1819). The

fact is apparent when one looks at the CEA’s provisions that specifically deal

with false reports to the CEA or customers. Those sections are not limited to

communications in interstate commerce or to those that affect commodity prices. 

Instead, they render all false statements to the CFTC or customers by registered

traders unlawful. See 7 U.S.C. §§ 6b(a)(2)(B), 13(a)(3)–(4). 

Further,the language in § 13(a)(2) indicates that covered “reports” include

more than formal communications to the CFTC or customers. As the Northern

District of Georgia pointed out, § 13(a)(2) covers reports communicated “through

the mails or interstate commere by telegraph, telephone, wireless or other means

of communication.” See CFTC v. Atha, 420 F. Supp. 2d 1373, 1380–81 (N.D. Ga.

2006). As the section clearly contemplates reports sent by telephone, it is

unlikely it is intended to cover only the official reports. 

15

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 15 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Finally, the CFTC has consistently interpreted § 13(a)(2) to apply to trade

reports sent to Insider FERC and/or NGI, like those sent by the DefendantsAppellants. Although not promulgated in notice-and-comment rulemaking, the

CFTC has sued various defendants for behavior identical or similar to that at

issue here. See CFTC v. Dizona, 594 F.3d 408, 411–13 (5th Cir. 2010) (alleging

defendants sent false reports to Inside FERC and NGI; affirming district court’s

refusal to overturn jury verdict on false reporting because no evidence that

reports were false); CFTC v. Reed, 481 F. Supp. 2d 1190, 1193 (D. Colo. 2007)

(alleging defendants sent false trade reports to “industry reporting firm”); Atha,

420 F. Supp. 2d at 1377–78 (alleging defendants sent false reports to Insider

FERC, NGI, and Gas Daily). The CFTC’s consistent interpretation is afforded

at least some deference. See generally Skidmore v. Swift & Co., 323 U.S. 134

(1944). 

Accordingly, we find thatthe Defendant-Appellants’ communications with

Inside FERC and NGI qualified as “reports” under 7 U.S.C. § 13(a)(2). 

2. Covered Commodities

The Defendants-Appellants next argue that the CEA does not apply to

their conduct, making two arguments. First, they argue that natural gas is an

exempt commodity under the CEA, and thus, the types of contracts they

allegedly falsely reported—natural gas contracts—are exempt. Second, they

argue that because the CEA only regulates natural gas futures contracts, which

are traded on NYMEX, any false reporting related to index prices at hubs other

than Henry Hub are not covered by the CEA. These arguments will be

considered in turn.

a. Exemptions

In 1993, the CFTC issued a final rule which “exempt[ed] from all

provisions of the [CEA], [except certain provisions to the extent they prohibit

manipulation] . . . [c]ontracts for the purchase and sale of . . . natural gas, [and]

16

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 16 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

natural gas liquids.” See 58 Fed. Reg. 21,286, 21,294 (1993). Thereafter, 7

U.S.C. § 2(g)–(h) was amended in 2000, as part of the Commodity Futures

Modernization Act, to exclude all trades between individual qualified

participants that are not “executed or traded on” or “entered into on” a “trading

facility,” which, defendants argue, covers the physical natural gas trades. The

Defendants-Appellants contend that because natural gas is exempted under both

the 1993 CFTC rule and the 2000 amendment to the CEA, their false reporting

practices are also exempted from the CEA’s coverage. 

The Defendants-Appellants’ argument, however, has been uniformly

rejected by the courts that have considered it—this Court included. In United

States v. Futch, an unpublished decision, this Court found that the various

exemptions only cover actual contracts for natural gas, and do not cover false

reports about non-existent contracts. See 278 F. App’x 387, 392 (5th Cir. 2008). 

In reaching this holding, this Court stated that “§ 13(a)(2)’s false reporting

offense . . . extends to ‘any commodity in interstate commerce’ and is not limited

to futures contracts regulated by the CFTC . . . [;] ‘false reporting of market

information concerning natural gas and attempted manipulation of natural gas

price indices does not implicate an agreement, contract or transaction’ and thus

does not come under the exceptions in 7 U.S.C. § 2(g)–(h).” See id. (citations and

quotations omitted). As in Futch, the charges against the DefendantsAppellants do not arise from their execution of contracts for purchase of natural

gas, or contracts entered into outside of a trading facility, but rather, for filing

false reports about contracts that they claimed to have executed. 

This reading has been uniformly adopted by courts, and the DefendantsAppellants do not cite any contrary case law to support their argument. See,

e.g., Reed, 481 F. Supp.2d at 1197–98 (holding that false reporting not

exempted); Atha, 420 F. Supp.2d at 1379–80 (same); CFTC v. Bradley, 408 F.

Supp. 2d 1214, 1218–19 (N.D. Okla. 2005) (same); United States v. Valencia, No.

17

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 17 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Civ. A. H-03-024, 2003 WL 23174749, at *10 (S.D. Tex. Aug. 25, 2003) (same),

rev’d on other grounds, 394 F.3d 352 (5th Cir. 2004); see also CFTC v. Johnson,

408 F. Supp. 2d 259, 266–67 (S.D. Tex. 2005) (not expressly addressing issue but

finding that CEA covers nearly identical false reporting practices). Moreover, 10

other decisions by this Court have implicitly found that the CEA covers false

reports about natural gas markets, even if it would not cover the falsely reported

contracts (if they existed). See Dizona, 594 F.3d at 418 (dismissing false

reporting count for lack of evidence, but assuming CEA covered similar false

reporting of natural gas); Valencia, 394 F.3d at 353–57 (assuming but not

expressly deciding that the CEA covers false reporting of natural gas); see also

58 Fed. Reg. at 21,291 (approving exemption of natural gas; noting conduct

“otherwise subject to the Act would not be exempt for such activity, even if it

were connected to their exempted . . . (Energy Contract) activity”). In sum,

given that we agree with the previously cited decisions that squarely rejected the

Defendants-Appellants’ argument, we hold that the exemptions in the CEA and

the CFTC do not cover their reporting activities.

b. “Commodity”

The Defendants-Appellants next contend that the false reports they

submitted did not concern a “commodity” subject to the CEA. They argue that

only natural gas traded at Henry Hub is a commodity under the CEA because

only natural gas traded at Henry Hub underlies the natural gas futures

contracts traded on NYMEX. Consequently, because the government proved

only that their false reports affected or could have affected the price of natural

Cf. United States v. Radley, 632 F.3d 177, 182–83 (5th Cir. 2011) (holding § 2(g)’s 10

“contract, agreement, or transaction” not limited to legally enforceable agreements, but also

covers “conducting business,” thus including, and exempting from CEA, defendants’ allegedly

manipulative actions; distinguishing Futch, stating falsely reporting trades is not “conducting

business”).

18

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 18 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

gas generally, and not at Henry Hub, the Defendants-Appellants argue their

convictions must be vacated. We do not agree. 

The CEA defines “commodity” as “wheat, cotton, rice, corn, oats, barley,

rye . . . , and all other goods and articles, except onions . . . , and all services,

rights, and interests . . . in which contracts for future delivery are presently or

in the future dealt with.” See 7 U.S.C. § 1a(4). Natural gas is plainly a “good”

or “article.” The questions thus turns on whether it is a good “in which contracts

for future delivery are presently or in the future dealt with.”

As mentioned above, futures contracts for natural gas are traded on

NYMEX, and those futures are derivative of natural gas traded at Henry Hub.

Nonetheless, the record shows that natural gas may be moved from any location

to Henry Hub through the national pipeline system. Thus, it would be peculiar

that natural gas at another hub is not a commodity, but suddenly becomes a

commodity solely on the basis that it passes through Henry Hub, and ceases to

be a commodity once it moves onto some other locale. While the price of that

commodity may fluctuate with its location, and the forces of supply and demand

at that location, the actual nature of the “good” does not change.11

Although, as discussed above, the Defendants-Appellants conduct did not

fall within the regulatory exemption, the existence of that exemption bolsters

our reading of the definition of “commodity.” The CFTC exempted from the

CEA’s coverage “[c]ontracts for the purchase or sale of . . . natural gas.” See 58

 Indeed, it is at least open to question whether the CEA requires a commodity to be 11

the subject of a currently existing futures market, or merely that it be such a good for which

a futures market could come into being. The CEA defines, as a commodity, all “goods . . . in

which contracts for future delivery are presently or in the future dealt with.” See § 1a(4).

Assuming only natural gas at Henry Hub was a covered commodity, the DefendantsAppellants present no reason why gas at other hubs could never serve as the basis for other

futures markets. See United States v. Reliant Energy Servs., Inc., 420 F. Supp. 2d 1043, 1062

(N.D. Cal. 2006) (holding “criminal manipulation provision of § [13(a)(2)] is not limited to

futures contracts”; “[r]ather, according to the plain meaning of the text, the criminal

manipulation provision also applies to ‘any commodity in interstate commerce’”).

19

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 19 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Fed. Reg. at 21,294. Such an exemption would be unnecessary if natural gas

was not a commodity under the act.12

Case law supports such a reading. Although no court has squarely

confronted the question presented by the Defendants-Appellants, neither has

any court suggested that natural gas at hubs other than Henry Hub is outside

the purview of the CEA. See Futch, 278 F. App’x at 390 (stating “natural gas is

a commodity under the Commodity Exchange Act”); Valencia, 394 F.3d at353

(considering allegations defendant manipulated natural gas market, by

reporting false trades, in violation of § 13(a)(2)); United States v. Radley, 659 F.

Supp. 2d 803, 806 (S.D. Tex. 2009) (stating “natural gas” was “the commodity at

issue in the case”); Reed, 481 F. Supp.2d at 1196 (finding allegations “Defendant

attempted to manipulate the price of natural gas, a commodity that travels in

interstate commerce” covered by CEA); Atha, 420 F. Supp.2d at 1377–78 (stating

“[n]atural gas is a commodity”); Bradley, 408 F. Supp.2d at 1220 (“It is

undisputed that natural gas constitutes a ‘commodity’ under the CEA.”);

Johnson, 408 F. Supp.2d at 264–65 (finding allegations defendants falsely

reported natural gas trades stated a claim under § 13(a)(2)).

Hershey v. Energy Tranfers Partners, L.P., 610 F.3d 239 (5th Cir. 2010),

does not contradict this reading. In that case, the Court considered whether

private plaintiffs had a cause of action based on allegations that the defendants

were manipulating the price of natural gas at hubs other than Henry Hub. Id.

at 243–49. The private plaintiffs’ standing to sue was premised on their holding

NYMEX futures contracts. Id. at 240. The CEA, however, provides a right of

action for holders of a futures contract for manipulation of that contract or “the

price of the commodity underlying such contract.” See 7 U.S.C. § 25(a)(1)(D). 

Consequently, as the plaintiffs had not alleged manipulation of the Henry Hub

The CFTC gave no indication that it believed the exemption covered only natural gas 12

at Henry Hub. 

20

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 20 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

natural gas price, which price underlay their security, they had no cause of

action against manipulation of the price of natural gas which had no affect on

their security. See Hershey, 610 F.3d at 241, 247 (stating “[t]he modifier

‘underlying’ has an important effect on ‘commodity’—the ‘underlying commodity’

of a futures contract is a specific good, governed by the terms of the futures

contract”; holding “the underlying commodity of a NYMEX natural gas futures

contract is not natural gas wherever bought and sold, but the specific natural

gas delivered at Henry Hub”). Hershey, however, never questioned whether

natural gas was a commodity subject to § 13(a)(2). 

Accordingly, we find that natural gas, whether at Henry Hub or at some

other location, is a “commodity” within the meaning of the CEA.

3. Vagueness

The Defendants-Appellants next argue § 13(a)(2) is unconstitutionally

vague because it fails to give fair notice that the CEA, an act whose primary

purpose is to regulate futures and options, covers false reporting of physical

trades. In particular, they argue that terms “report,” “false or misleading,”

“market information,” “conditions that tend to affect the price of any commodity

in interstate commerce,” and “price” are all vague.

“It is a basic principal of due process that an enactment is void for

vagueness if its prohibitions are not clearly defined.” Grayned v. City of

Rockford, 408 U.S. 104, 108 (1972). “[T]he void-for-vagueness doctrine requires

that a penal statute define the criminal offense with sufficient definiteness that

ordinary people can understand what conduct is prohibited and in a manner that

does not encourage arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.” Kolender v.

Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 357 (1983). Nonetheless, it is also “well established that

vagueness challenges to statutes which do not involve First Amendment

freedoms must be examined in light of the facts of the case at hand.” United

States v. Mazurie, 419 U.S. 544, 550 (1975).

21

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 21 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Here, the Defendants-Appellants do not argue that their speech is

protected by the First Amendment. Indeed, this Circuit has held that

“intentional or reckless falsehood, even political falsehood, enjoys no First

Amendment protection[.]” Colson v. Grohman, 174 F.3d 498, 507 (5th Cir. 1999)

(finding first amendment did not protect defamation and libel made with

knowledge of or reckless disregard to falsity).13

Consequently, the Defendants-Appellants’ vagueness challenge must be

evaluated in light of the proven conduct. As discussed below, the evidence shows

the Defendants-Appellants reported knowingly false trades to Inside FERC and

NGI, that they did so with the intent that it affect those publications’ reported

indexes, and with the intent that it would affect EPME’s financial positions, to

their personal benefit. Simply put, it is incredulous to believe that a person of

average intelligence could not understand the CEA as potentially applying to

that type of conduct. See Futch, 278 F. App’x at 393–95 (holding CEA was not

vague in application to false trade reports submitted to Inside FERC).

In particular, “report,” as discussed above, clearly covers the DefendantsAppellants’ emails and faxes to the publications. Similarly, “false and

misleading” has a clear and well defined meaning. “[M]arket information”

clearly covers reports of quantity and price of trades. See id. at 393 (holding the

term “‘market information’ is not vague because [defendant’s] false statements

about time, place, price, and volume of . . . natural gas trades clearly qualified

as ‘market information’ under almost any definition of the term”). Similarly, the

term “price” is also clear. See Merriam-Webster, price, available at

Moreover, as discussed below, the jury found each violation of the CEA was

13

accompanied by an act of wire fraud, and fraud has long been recognized to be outside the

protection of the First Amendment. See United States v. Stevens, 130 S.Ct. 1577, 1584 (2010)

(finding “[f]rom 1791 to the present . . . , the First Amendment has permitted restrictions upon

the content of speech,”including “fraud” (quotation and citations omitted)). Here, as discussed

below, sufficient evidence was introduced that the Defendants-Appellants possessed a

fraudulent intent.

22

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 22 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/price (defining “price” as “the

amount of money given or set as consideration for the sale of a specified thing”). 

Even if the Defendants-Appellants are correct that there are a number of prices

in natural gas trading, each one of the referenced prices is a “price,” and thus

manipulation of it would create a violation of § 13(a)(2). Finally, the term “affect

or tend to affect” clearly covers a situation, such as the Defendants-Appellants’,

where the false reports served as the basis for the industry publication’s price

reports. See Futch, F. App’x at 394 (noting “even if the phrase ‘tends to affect’

were found to be vague in some factual contexts, it is sufficiently clear to have

put [defendant] on notice that providing false sales data to Inside FERC’s

monthly reporting index survey violated the law”).

Accordingly, the CEA is not unconstitutionally vague as applied to the

Defendants-Appellants’ conduct.

4. Overbreadth

The Defendants-Appellants also challenge the CEA as being

unconstitutionally overbroad. The Defendants-Appellants argue that the CEA,

while directed at constitutionally unprotected speech, nevertheless covers

constitutionally protected speech because it requires no mens rea proof with

regard to the element that the speech “affect or tend to affect” commodity prices. 

A statute is overbroad if in “banning unprotected speech,” a “substantial

amount of protected speech is prohibited or chilled in the process.” Ashcroft v.

Free Speech Coalition, 535 U.S. 234, 237 (2002). Nevertheless, by its express

language, the CEA only covers “knowingly . . . false or misleading or knowingly

inaccurate” speech. Such speech is not constitutionally protected. See Colson

v. Grohman, 174 F.3d 498, 507 (5th Cir. 1999). Accordingly, the CEA covers no

constitutionally protected speech. 

23

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 23 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

C. Jury Instructions

The Defendants-Appellants next argue that the district court’s jury

instructions were erroneous on several grounds. We review “preserved error in

jury instructions under an abuse of discretion standard and ask whether the

court’s charge, as a whole, is a correct statement of the law and whether it

clearly instructs jurors as to the principles of the law applicable to the factual

issues confronting them.” United States v. Kay, 513 F.3d 432, 446 (5th Cir. 2007)

(quotation and footnote omitted). Under this standard, district courts “enjoy

substantial latitude in formulating a jury charge.” United States v. Davis, 609

F.3d 663, 689 (5th Cir. 2010); see also United States v. Williams, 610 F.3d 271,

285 (5th Cir. 2010). Similarly, the district court is afforded “great discretion in

responding to jury questions.” United States v. Wilcox, 631 F.3d 740, 752 (5th

Cir. 2011) (quotation marks omitted). However, when a jury instruction “hinges

on a question of statutory construction, [our] review is de novo.” United States

v. Wright, 634 F.3d 770, 774 (5th Cir. 2011).

1. Conspiracy Instructions

First, the Defendants-Appellants argue that the district court incorrectly

instructed the jury on the mens rea of conspiracy and conspiracy to commit wire

fraud in a response to a jury note. In its jury instructions, based on the Fifth

Circuit Pattern Criminal Instructions, the district court instructed that to

convict for conspiracy under 18 U.S.C. § 371, the jury must find:14

First: That two or more persons made an agreement to commit the

crime of false reporting or wire fraud as charged in the indictment;

 18 U.S.C. § 371 provides:

14

If two or more persons conspire either to commit any offense against the United

States, or to defraud the United States, or any agency thereof in any manner or

for any purpose, and one or more of such persons do any act to effect the object

of the conspiracy, each shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more

than five years, or both.

24

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 24 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Second: That the defendant knew the unlawful purpose of the

agreement and joined in it willfully, that is, with the intent to

further the unlawful purpose; and 

Third: That one of the conspirators during the existence of the

conspiracy knowingly committed at least one of the overt acts

described in the indictment, in order to accomplish some object or

purpose of the conspiracy.

The district court also explained that under the first element the jurors need to

“agree that the government proved beyond a reasonable doubt that the

defendants conspired to commit false reporting; or, all of you must agree that the

government proved beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendants conspired to

commit wire fraud.” The district court instructed that to convict someone of wire

fraud under 18 U.S.C. § 1343, the jury must find: 15

First: That the defendant knowingly created a scheme or artifice to

defraud or to obtain money, property or other things of value by

means of material false or fraudulent pretenses, representations or

promises as set out in the indictment; 

Second: That the defendant acted with a specific intent to defraud;

Third: That the defendant used interstate wire communications

facilities or caused another person to use interstate wire

communications facilities for the purpose of carrying out the

scheme; and

Fourth: That the scheme to defraud employed false material

representations.

The district court explained that “‘specific intent to defraud’ means an intent to

specifically deceive or cheat someone.”

During its deliberations, the jury sent the district court a note asking:

 18 U.S.C. § 1343 provides: 15

Whoever, having devised or intending to devise any scheme or artifice to

defraud, or for obtaining money or property by means of false or fraudulent

pretenses, representations, or promises, transmits or causes to be transmitted

by means of wire, radio, or television communication in interstate or foreign

commerce, any writings, signs, signals, pictures, or sounds for the purpose of

executing such scheme or artifice, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned

not more than 20 years, or both.

25

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 25 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

In the second part of Count 1 it states, “that the Defendant knew

the unlawful purpose.” Doesn’t this contradict the idea that

“ignorance of the law is no excuse.” 

After a conference with the parties, the district court replied to the note, writing:

There is no contradiction. The government is not required to prove

that a defendant knew the purpose of the agreement was in fact

unlawful, that is, in violation of a statute, but the government must

prove the defendant knew the purpose of the agreement, and the

government must prove that the purpose was in fact unlawful.

The Defendants-Appellants argue that this answer misstates the mens rea

required to prove conspiracy and conspiracy to commit wire fraud.

A conviction for conspiracy under Section 371 requires that the

government prove: “(1) an agreement between two or more persons to pursue an

unlawful objective; (2) the defendant’s knowledge of the unlawful objective and

voluntary agreement to join the conspiracy; and (3) an overt act by one or more

of the members of the conspiracy in furtherance of the objective of the

conspiracy.” United States v. Coleman, 609 F.3d 699, 704 (5th Cir. 2010); see

also United States v. Curtis, 635 F.3d 704, 719 n.53 (5th Cir. 2011). Conspiracy

actually has two intent elements—intent to further the unlawful purpose and

the level of intent required for proving the underlying substantive offense. See 

2 Wayne R. LaFave & Austin W. Scott, Jr., Substantive Criminal Law §

12.2(c)(1) (2003); United States v. Alvarez, 610 F.2d 1250, 1255 (5th Cir. 1980)

(“Conspiracy is, however, more complex because it involves two elements of

intent that shade into each other: each party must have intended to enter into

the agreement and the schemers must have had a common intent to commit an

unlawful act.”).16

Although the two intents are separate, they often functionally collapse into a single 16

intent. United States v. Chagra, 807 F.2d 398, 401 (5th Cir. 1986). Thus, oftentimes, it is only

necessary for the government to prove the level of intent required for proving the underlying

substantive offense. United States v. Feola, 420 U.S. 671, 686 (1975); United States v. Dadi,

235 F.3d 945, 950 (5th Cir. 2000).

26

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 26 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

The Defendants-Appellants first seem to argue that proving conspiracy

always requires proof the defendant knew his conduct was unlawful, regardless

of the mens rea of the underlying substantive offense. This argument is

inconsistent, however, with the Supreme Court’s opinion in Ingram v. United

States, 360 U.S. 672 (1959). In that decision, the Supreme Court stated that to

convict for conspiracy, “[t]here need not, of course, be proof that the conspirators

were aware of the criminality of their objective,” but rather, there must only be

proof of knowledge of the unlawful conduct. Id. at 678. This holding was

reaffirmed in United States v. Feola. 420 U.S. 671 (1975). In Feola, the

Supreme Court again stated that the government need not prove anything more

than the degree of criminal intent necessary for the substantive offense in order

to convict a defendant of conspiracy. Id. at 686–87. Thus, to the extent that the

Defendants-Appellants argue that conspiracy always requires proof that the

defendant knew his conduct was unlawful, we reject their argument. See United

States v. Blair, 54 F.3d 639, 642–43 (10th Cir. 1995) (rejecting same argument

and stating that since “‘one can violate a criminal statute simply by engaging in

the forbidden conduct, a conspiracy to commit that offense is nothing more than

an agreement to engage in the prohibited conduct’” (quoting Feola, 420 U.S. at

687)).17

More specific to the wire fraud offense, the Defendants-Appellants argue

that the answer to the jury’s question was erroneous because it improperly

lowered the intent required to prove conspiracy to commit wire fraud. They

argue that the response improperly led the jury to believe that the DefendantsSee also United States v. Ramiscal, 99 F.3d 1148 (9th Cir. Oct. 18, 1996) 17

(unpublished) (rejecting argument that proof of conspiracy always requires proof of knowledge

of illegality of conduct); United States v. Jo, 99 F.3d 1147 (9th Cir. Oct. 18, 1996) (unpublished)

(same);United States v. Sclamo, 578 F.2d 888, 891 (1st Cir. 1978) (rejecting similar argument

and stating, “[t]he underlying substantive statute does not require a showing of specific Mens

rea; the conspiracy count requires no greater degree of scienter than the substantive count”).

27

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 27 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Appellants could be convicted even if they lacked specific intent to defraud. This

is closer, but again, we do not find the Defendants-Appellants’ argument

persuasive.

To prove wire fraud, the government must prove: (1) a scheme or artifice

to defraud; (2) material falsehoods; and (3) the use of interstate wires in

furtherance of the scheme. See Curtis, 635 F.3d at 718 n.49; United States v.

McMillan, 600 F.3d 434, 447 n.24 (5th Cir. 2010). Violation of the wire-fraud

statute requires the specific intent to defraud, i.e., a “conscious knowing intent

to defraud.” United States v. Reyes, 239 F.3d 722, 736 (5th Cir. 2001). Thus,

proving conspiracy to commit wire fraud requires proof that the DefendantsAppellants joined the conspiracy with the specific intent to defraud. See Curtis,

635 F.3d at 719 n.53. The district court’s response to the jury’s note accurately

describes this intent requirement.

The jury note states that as to the conspiracy statute itself, ignorance of

the law is no excuse, because “[t]he government is not required to prove that a

defendant knew the purpose of the agreement was in fact unlawful, that is, in

violation of a statute, but the government must prove the defendant knew the

purpose of the agreement.” See Ingram, 360 U.S. at 678. The note also

accurately states that the government must prove that the purpose was in fact

unlawful, which requires proof that the Defendants-Appellants acted with the

requisite mens rea to commit wire fraud. Coleman, 609 F.3d at 704–06

(analyzing whether elements of target offense also met when determining if

conspiracy to commit that offense proven); United States v. Bedford, 536 F.3d

1148, 1155 (10th Cir. 2008) (stating government must prove degree of criminal

intent necessary to prove underlying crime). Although the district court’s

response possibly could have spelled outthe relationship between conspiracy and

the underlying substantive offenses more clearly, it is not an incorrect statement

of the law, particularly in light of the rest of the jury charge. See United States

28

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 28 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

v. Chavis, 772 F.2d 100, 108 (5th Cir. 1985) (“The jury charge must . . . be

considered as a whole, in the full context of the trial.”).18

Therefore, we conclude that the district court’s instructions and the note

to the jury were an accurate statement of the mens rea required to convict for

conspiracy to commit wire fraud.

2. Deliberate Ignorance Instruction

Next, the Defendants-Appellants argue that the district court’s jury

instruction on deliberate ignorance impermissibly lowered the mens rea of both

offenses. The district used the Pattern Fifth Circuit instruction, and instructed:

You may find that a defendant had knowledge of a fact if you find

that the defendant deliberately closed his eyes to what would

otherwise have been obvious to him. While knowledge on the part

of the defendant cannot be established merely by demonstrating

that the defendant was negligent, careless, or foolish, knowledge can

be inferred if the defendant deliberately blinded himself to the

existence of a fact.

Fifth Circuit Pattern Criminal Jury Instructions, § 1.37. The DefendantsAppellants argue that these instructions were incorrect on two grounds: first,

The Defendants-Appellants also argue that the note gave the jury the impression

18

that the maxim “ignorance of the law is no excuse” was officially a jury instruction. Whether

or not it was proper for the district court to implicitly adoptthis statement, the note accurately

stated that this case did not fall within the narrow exception to the traditional rule that

“ignorance of the law is no excuse,” as laid out by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court

stated that “the traditional rule that ignorance of the law is no excuse” does not apply only in

cases involving highly technical statutes that criminalize otherwise “innocent conduct.”

Bryan v. United States, 524 U.S. 184, 194–96 (1998); see also Ratzlaf v. United States, 510 U.S.

135, 149 (1994); Cheek v. United States, 498 U.S. 192, 199–200 (1991). Although wire fraud

is a specific intent crime, it would not fall into this narrow exception to the general rule. See

Kay, 513 F.3d at 447–51 (describing narrow exception to traditional rule that ignorance of the

law is no excuse). Further, to the extent that the Defendants-Appellants argue that this

instruction gave the jury the impression that it could not acquit, even if it found that the

Defendants-Appellants believed they were giving accurate answers to the publications, the

instruction on specific intent to defraud made clear to the jury that it could not convict unless

it found a “conscious knowing intent to defraud.” See United States v. Cavin, 39 F.3d 1299,

1310 (5th Cir. 1994) (a finding of intent to defraud and good faith are mutually exclusive).

Taken in context with the rest of the instructions, and the remainder of the note, we do not

think that the statement regarding “ignorance of the law” was in error.

29

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 29 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

that the evidence did not support the instruction; and second, that the

instruction was legally incorrect.

On the first argument, a deliberate ignorance instruction is warranted

“when a defendant claims a lack of guilty knowledge and the proof at trial

supports an inference of deliberate indifference.” United States v. Moreno, 185

F.3d 465, 476 (5th Cir. 1999) (quotation omitted). “The evidence at trial must

raise two inferences: (1) the defendant was subjectively aware of a high

probability of the existence of the illegal conduct; and (2) the defendant

purposely contrived to avoid learning of the illegal conduct.” United States v.

Lara–Velasquez, 919 F.2d 946, 951 (5th Cir. 1990). In assessing whether

evidence sufficiently supports the instruction, we “view the evidence and all

reasonable inferences that may be drawn from the evidence in the light most

favorable to the [g]overnment.” United States v. Mendoza-Medina, 346 F.3d 121,

132 (5th Cir. 2003) (quotation omitted); United States v. Gray, 105 F.3d 956, 967

(5th Cir. 1997).

The first requirement for using the instruction—the defendant claims a

lack of guilty knowledge—is not disputed by the parties. The second

requirement—the defendant purposely contrived to avoid learning of the illegal

conduct—is satisfied if the evidence at trial raises an inference that: (1) the

defendant was subjectively aware of a high probability of the existence of the

illegal conduct; and (2) the defendant purposely contrived to avoid learning of

the illegal conduct. Lara-Velasquez, 919 F.2d at 951. Here, taking all

reasonable inference in the government’s favor, there is more than sufficient

evidence to find that the Defendants-Appellants were subjectively aware of a

high probably of the existence of illegal conduct and that they purposely

contrived to avoid learning of the illegal conduct.

On this first prong, a review of the record shows that there was a great

deal of evidence admitted at trial showing that the Defendants-Appellants

30

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 30 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

believed that their conduct was illegal, or were aware of a high probability that

it was illegal. For example, testimony at trial revealed that Brooks told coworkers that they would “be toast” if the government looked into their index

reporting practices, and later, Brooks ordered traders to delete all copies of the

reports that had been sent to the trade publications. Similarly, all of the

Defendants-Appellants were involved in the email communication where the

traders decided to continue reporting based on “book bias.” In that email

exchange, the traders discussed how they should not discuss this topic over

email—an obvious inference from these comments is that the traders were aware

their “book bias” method of reporting was likely illegal. Finally, taking a step

back, it is simply unbelievable to think that sophisticated gas traders, such as

the Defendants-Appellants, did not realize that falsely reporting data to steal

money from basis trading partners was, in all likelihood, criminalized under

some statute.

On the second prong, the Defendants-Appellants argue that there is no

evidence that they “purposefully contrived to avoid learning of illegal conduct.” 

Specifically, the Defendants-Appellants claim that they did not know the actual

instructions sent by the publications, and that they thought they were sending

the correct information. There is evidence in the record, however, showing that

the Defendants-Appellants purposely avoided learning of the illegal nature of

the conduct. For example, both Brooks and Phillips repeatedly ignored the

reporting instructions, and they both also had conversations with Kelley Doolan,

an editor at Inside FERC, about the reporting requirements. Similarly, other

evidence indicated that Walton had been forwarded a spreadsheet with fake

trades, and that he was included in the “book bias” email, in which the traders

made statements indicating that their reporting practices were not in line with

Inside FERC’s instructions. Based on this evidence, we hold that it was not an

31

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 31 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

abuse of discretion for the district court to instruct the jury on deliberate

ignorance.

Second, the Defendants-Appellants argue that the instruction on

deliberate ignorance was an improper statement of the law in light of the

Supreme Court’s recent decision in Global-Tech Appliances, Inc. v. SEB S.A., 131

S. Ct. 2060 (2011). In Global-Tech, the Supreme Court considered willful

blindness in the civil context, stating that willful blindness requires proof that:

“(1) the defendant [ ] subjectively believe[d] that there [was] a high probability

that a fact exists and (2) the defendant [took] deliberate actions to avoid learning

of that fact.” Id. at 2070. The Court continued, stating that willful blindness

“surpasses recklessness and negligence,” and that “a willfully blind defendant

is one who takes deliberate actions to avoid confirming a high probability of

wrongdoing and who can almost be said to have actually known the critical

facts.” Id. at 2070–71. 

The Fifth Circuit Pattern Instruction meets the standard set forth by the

Supreme Court in Global-Tech. The instructions do not have the same failings 19

as the Federal Circuit standard reversed in Global Tech, which allowed for a

finding of willful blindness where there is only a “known risk,” and where the

defendant did not make an active effort to avoid knowledge. Global-Tech, 131

S. Ct. at 2071. As to Global Tech’s first prong—the defendant “must subjectively

believe that there is a high probability that a fact exists”—the jury instruction

provided that the defendant needed to have “deliberately closed his eyes” to a

fact that “would otherwise have been obvious to him.” As to the second

prong—the defendant “must take deliberate actions to avoid learning of that

Although Global-Tech was a civil case, the standard seems to apply equally to 19

criminal deliberate ignorance cases. See United States v. Ferguson, --- F.3d ----, 2011 WL

6351862, at *10 n.16 (2d Cir. Dec. 19, 2011) (applying standard in criminal case and noting

slight differences in terminology); United States v. Butler, 646 F.3d 1038, 1041 (8th Cir. 2011)

(same).

32

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 32 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

fact”—the instruction provided that the defendant needed to have “deliberately

closed his eyes,” and “deliberately blinded himself to the existence of a fact.” The

instruction also stated that merely finding the defendants were “negligent,

careless, or foolish” was insufficient. Thus, although this instruction obviously

does not use the same language as Global-Tech, the same meaning is conveyed. 

Accordingly, not only was the deliberate ignorance instruction justified, the

instruction itself was legally correct.

3. False Reporting Instruction

The Defendants-Appellants also argue that the jury instructions were in

error because the district court incorrectly stated the elements of false reporting

under the CEA, 7 U.S.C. § 13(a)(2). 

In relevant part, the CEA provides that “[i]t shall be a felony . . . for . . .

[a]ny person . . . knowingly to deliver or cause to be delivered for transmission

through the mails or interstate commerce by telegraph, telephone, wireless, or

other means of communication false or misleading or knowingly inaccurate

reports concerning crop or market information or conditions that affect or tend

to affect the price of any commodity in interstate commerce . . . .” 7 U.S.C.

§ 13(a)(2). The district court instructed the jury that to convict it must find that

the Defendants-Appellants: (1) “knowingly delivered, or caused to be delivered,

for transmission through interstate commerce by telephone or other means of

communication a material false or misleading or inaccurate report”; (2) “knew

the report was false or misleading or inaccurate; and (3) “[t]hat the report

concerned market information or conditions that affected or tended to affected

the price of a commodity in interstate commerce.” The Defendants-Appellants

argue that the mens rea of false reporting—knowingly—requires that a

defendant must “know” his reports would “affect or tend to affect the price of any

commodity in interstate commerce.”

33

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 33 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

In Valencia, the Court found that “knowingly” in this section of the CEA

applies both to the transmission and falsity of the report (elements one and two),

but that decision did not reach whether it applied to the final element of the

offense. 394 F.3d at 354–56. It is not clear whether “knowingly” applies to all 20

of the elements of the offense. As a matter of natural reading and grammar,

there is not an interpretation of the language that clearly makes the most sense. 

See generally Flores-Figueroa v. United States, 556 U.S. 646 (2009) (applying

“ordinary English grammar” to construe statute’s knowledge requirement); see

also United States v. Betancourt, 586 F.3d 303, 308–09 (5th Cir. 2009)

(determining whether mens rea applies to elements of an offense after FloresFigueroa). The Defendants-Appellants argue that the mens rea should be

applied to the final element of the offense based on the Supreme Court’s decision

in United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc., 513 U.S. 64 (1994). In X-Citement

Video, the Supreme Court read the term “knowingly” as applying to each

element of a child pornography offense, even though the “most natural

grammatical reading” of the statute did not suggest this result. See id. at 68. 

In reaching this conclusion, the Supreme Court set forth a general rule that a

“scienter requirement should apply to each of the statutory elements that

criminalize otherwise innocent conduct.” See id. at 72 (citing Staples v. United

States, 511 U.S. 600, 619 (1994)); see also Carter v. United States, 530 U.S. 255,

269 (2000) (reaffirming X-Citement Video rule); Valencia, 394 F.3d at 354–56

(applying the X-Citement Video rule to the CEA). Here though, the first two

elements of the offense already require that a defendant knowingly transmit a

knowingly false statement, largely taking the criminalized conduct out of the

Although obviously not dispositive, our decision in Valencia has been interpreted by 20

other courts as only requiring knowledge as to the first two elements of the offense. See, e.g.,

Atha, 420 F. Supp. 2d at 1380; CFTC v. Johnson, 408 F. Supp. 2d at 267. This Court also

adopted that interpretation in Futch, 278 F. App’x at 391, although that is an unpublished and

non-precedential decision.

34

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 34 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

realm of innocent activity. See United States v. Butler, 637 F.3d 519, 524 (5th

Cir. 2011) (stating that Staples and X-Citement Video presumption does not

apply where statute “does not entail the risk of subjecting ordinary citizens to

criminal prosecution for otherwise innocent conduct”).21

Overall, it is not clear whether knowledge applies to the requirement that

the false report affect or tend to affect the price of a commodity. However, even

assuming that the Defendants-Appellants are correct in their interpretation of

the statute, we need not reverse their convictions. Where a trial court misstates

or omits an element of an offense, the conviction is reviewed for harmless error. 

See Neder v. United States, 527 U.S. 1, 9–10 (1999); Pope v. Illinois, 481 U.S.

497, 501–04 (1987); United States v. Bohuchot, 625 F.3d 892, 903 (5th Cir. 2010);

United States v. Delgado, 256 F.3d 264, 280–81 (5th Cir. 2001). Under this plain

error standard, the conviction should be affirmed if it is “clear beyond a

reasonable doubt that a rational jury would have found the defendant guilty

absent the error.” Neder, 527 U.S. at 18; accord United States v. Skilling, 638

F.3d 480, 481–82 (5th Cir. 2011).

Here, there was a great deal of evidence admitted at trial showing that the

Defendants-Appellants knew their price reports would or had affected natural

gas indexes. For example, according to Dean, Brooks told him that they “gamed

the system” and that Dean needed to report trades that would favorably affect

the index prices. Additionally, in the October 2000 “book bias” email, Brooks

wrote to the other traders that “we reported only verifiable fixed price

See also United States v. Velte, 331 F.3d 673, 680 (9th Cir. 2003) (holding mens rea 21

did not apply to “without authority” language in statute because setting a fire in a national

park not generally considered an innocent act); United States v. Quarrell, 310 F.3d 664, 672

(10th Cir. 2002) (statute prohibiting excavating for artifacts on federal lands did not require

knowledge that one was on federal land because “[o]ne would anticipate that excavating for

archaeological resources on another person’s land, whether private or public, would not be

viewed as an innocent act”); United States v. Sablan, 92 F.3d 865, 868 (9th Cir. 1996) (federal

statute barring unauthorized computer access did not require knowledge access would cause

damage because unauthorized access not an innocent act).

35

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 35 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

transactions to IF for October” and “[it] only eliminated us as an active price

setting participant.” O’Toole and Dean both also testified that they were

instructed by Phillips or Brooks to coordinate their reports with Walton, and

that Walton would give them target prices for the indexes. Additionally, there

were numerous recorded conversations and emails entered into evidence, during

which Walton and Phillips discussed the manner certain reports would or had

affected index prices. Moreover, the jury convicted the Defendants-Appellants

for wire fraud on every count that it convicted them for false reporting. In doing

so, the jury found that the Defendants-Appellants had specific intent to defraud

when submitting these false reports, which indicates that the jury also believed

that the Defendants-Appellants had knowledge that their reporting would affect

index prices.

Given this evidence, it is “clear beyond a reasonable doubt that a rational

jury” would have found that the Defendants-Appellants had knowledge that

their reports affected or tended to affect the price of natural gas. Accordingly,

we decline to decide whether the mens rea applies to the final element of false

reporting, because even assuming that it does, the error would be harmless.

4. Cumulative Error

Finally, the Defendants-Appellants argue that the cumulative error of the

jury instructions errors requires reversal. “[T]he cumulative error doctrine . . .

provides that an aggregation of non-reversible errors (i.e., plain errors failing to

necessitate reversal and harmless errors) can yield a denial of the constitutional

right to a fair trial, which calls for reversal.” United States v. Munoz, 150 F.3d

401, 418 (5th Cir. 1998). Beyond the issue of whether the mens rea applied to

the final element of the false reporting offense—which we are confident was

36

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 36 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

harmless if it was erroneous—we found no errors in the jury instructions. 

Therefore, we hold that the cumulative error doctrine does not require reversal.22

D. Fundamental and Arguable Ambiguity

The Defendants-Appellants also argue that the questions on the Inside

FERC and NGI surveys were fundamentally ambiguous—requiring a judgment

of acquittal—or that the district court should have given the jury an arguable

ambiguity instruction.

First, the Defendants-Appellants argue that the district court erred by

denying their motion for acquittal because they were convicted for answering

fundamentally ambiguous questions. Specifically, they argue that there are not

universally accepted definitions for the terms “trading location,” “bidweek,”

“baseload,” or “fixed price.” This court reviews the district court’s denial of a

motion for acquittal de novo. United States v. Bennett, 664 F.3d 997, 1011–12

(5th Cir. 2011).

The Defendants-Appellants also briefly challenge the district court’s denial of a good 22

faith instruction and an instruction thatfailure to follow Inside FERC’s instructions, standing

alone, is not a crime. As to the good faith instruction, the district court did not abuse its

discretion in denying it. “The district court will not abuse its discretion when it denies a

proffered instruction unless this instruction (1) was a correct statement of the law, (2) was not

substantially covered in the charge as a whole, and (3) concerned an important point in the

trial such that the failure to instruct the jury on the issue seriously impaired the defendant’s

ability to present a given defense.” United States v. Jobe, 101 F.3d 1046, 1059 (5th Cir. 1996)

(citation and quotation marks omitted). A district court may “refuse to submit an instruction

regarding a good faith defense if the defense is substantially covered by the charge given and

the defendant has had the opportunity to argue good faith to the jury.” United States v. Upton,

91 F.3d 677, 683 (5th Cir. 1996) (quotation omitted). Here, the Defendants-Appellants were

permitted to argue that they acted in good faith and had no intent to defraud, and the jury

instructions accurately conveyed the specific intent required to both commit fraud and

conspiracy. See United States v. Storm, 36 F.3d 1289, 1294–95 (5th Cir. 1994) (refusing to find

error where “defense of good faith was substantially covered by charge to the jury” on the

terms “‘knowingly’ and ‘willfully’”).

Second, the Defendants-Appellants proposed instruction that a failure to follow Inside

FERC’s instructions, by itself, is not evidence of a crime, is confusing and the instruction likely

would have misled the jury. Further, the instruction seems to be inaccurate, given that a

failure to follow Inside FERC’s instructions alone, with the proper intent, could constitute

false reporting or wire fraud. Thus, denying this instruction was also not an abuse of

discretion. See Jobe, 101 F.3d at 1059.

37

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 37 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

To be fundamentally ambiguous, a “question must lack ‘a meaning about

which men of ordinary intellect could agree, nor one which could be used with

mutual understanding by a questioner and answerer unless it were defined at

the time it were sought and offered as testimony.’” United States v. Strohm, 671

F.3d 1173, 1179 (10th Cir. 2011) (quoting United States v. Farmer, 137 F.3d

1265, 1269 (10th Cir. 1998)); accord United States v. Culliton, 328 F.3d 1074,

1078 (9th Cir. 2003). The question must be so vague that it is impossible to have

intended to answer it untruthfully. United States v. Richardson, 421 F.3d 17,

33 (1st Cir. 2005). Where a question is found to be fundamentally ambiguous,

a defendant’s answer to it is insufficient as a matter of law to sustain a

conviction. Richardson, 421 F.3d at 33. A question is fundamentally ambiguous,

however, in only very “narrow circumstances.” Strohm, 671 F.3d at 1179; United

States v. Damrah, 412 F.3d 618, 627 (6th Cir. 2005) (stating that doctrine

applies only in “exceptional” cases). If a witness “knowingly made a false

statement, based on his or her understanding of the question,” the doctrine does

not apply, Strohm, 671 F.3d at 1180, and a witness cannot “twist the meaning

of a question in his own mind into some totally unrecognizable shape and then

hide behind it by alleging its fundamental ambiguity,” Richardson, 421 F.3d at

35 (quotation omitted).

Given the context in which the fundamental ambiguity defense has been

applied previously, we hold that it does not apply under the facts of this case. 

It is completely implausible to think that the Defendants-Appellants reported

fabricated trades based on a misinterpretation of the instructions. The

fundamental ambiguity defense does not apply where a defendant “twist[s] the

meaning of a question in his own mind into some totally unrecognizable shape

and then hide[s] behind it by alleging its fundamental ambiguity.” Richardson,

421 F.3d at 35 (quotation omitted); see also Farmer, 137 F.3d at 1269 (stating

that a question cannot be isolated from context to engineer ambiguity); United

38

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 38 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

States v. Carey, 152 F. Supp. 2d 415, 427 (S.D.N.Y. 2001) (defense does not apply

where an “answer to an ambiguous question is false under any reasonable

interpretation”). There is no reasonable interpretation of the instructions that

would allow reporting invented and fabricated trades. Indeed, the DefendantsAppellants are unable to cite any actual trade that was mistakenly reported due

to specific ambiguities in the survey instructions.23

Additionally, as to the only Defendant-Appellant who testified, Brooks

stated at trial that he either (1) did not ever read Inside FERC’s instructions, or

(2) consciously disregarded the instructions and submitted invented data as a

means of reporting “fair market value” (or “book bias”) to make the indexes more

accurate, even though he knew the publications only wanted actual trades. In

either case, Brooks admits that the instructions did not cause the type of false

reporting that occurred. See United States v. Mubayyid, 658 F.3d 35, 63 (1st Cir.

2011) (holding that, if the defendant gave a false response based on how he

understood the question, his conviction would not be invalidated due to

ambiguity in question); Culliton, 328 F.2d at 1079 (“[The defendant] points to no

case, and indeed we have found none, that justifies an applicant’s unilateral

reinterpretation of questions . . . to comport with his own particular goals.”);

United States v. Bollin, 264 F.3d 391, 411 (4th Cir. 2001) (holding defense not

available where defendant testified in a manner that he knew was false, even if

question open to multiple interpretations). Accordingly, we hold that the district

court did not err in denying the motion for acquittal based on the ambiguity of

the terminology in the reporting instructions.

At oral argument and in their briefing, the Defendants-Appellants state that Inside

23

FERC survey question, given the ambiguous terms, functionally was: “What undefined type

of trades that may or may not call for delivery of gas for an unspecified time did you conduct

during some time frame and that occurred in an area without geographic boundaries.”

However, even based on the Defendants-Appellants’ characterization of the instructions, they

gave false responses because the question only requests trades that were actually conducted.

39

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 39 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Second, the Defendants-Appellants argue that even if Inside FERC’s

instructions were not fundamentally ambiguous, the district court abused its

discretion by denying a jury instruction on arguable ambiguity. As we noted

earlier, “[d]istrict courts enjoy substantial latitude in formulating a jury charge,

and hence we review all challenges to, and refusals to give, jury instructions for

abuse of discretion.” United States v. Carrillo, 660 F.3d 914, 925–26 (5th Cir.

2011) (quotation omitted). “We consider whether the instruction, taken as a

whole, ‘is a correct statement of the law and whether it clearly instructs jurors

as to the principles of law applicable to the factual issues confronting them.’”

United States v. Freeman, 434 F.3d 369, 377 (5th Cir. 2005) (quoting United

States v. Daniels, 281 F.3d 168, 183 (5th Cir. 2002)). It is “reversible error to

refuse a charge on a defense theory for which there is an evidentiary foundation

and which, if believed by the jury, would be legally sufficient to support a verdict

of not guilty.” United States v. Barnett, 197 F.3d 138, 142 (5th Cir. 1999)

(quotation omitted). An instruction on a defense theory, however, only need be

given where “there exists evidence sufficient for a reasonable jury to find in [the

defendant’s] favor.” United States v. Mata, 491 F.3d 237, 241 (5th Cir. 2007).

During the jury charge conference, the Defendants-Appellants requested

that the following jury instruction be given, which was adapted from the Fifth

Circuit Pattern Jury Instruction Section 2.69, on perjury:

If you should find that a particular question was ambiguous and

that the defendant truthfully answered one reasonable

interpretation of the question under the circumstances presented,

then such answer would not be false. Similarly, if you should find

that the question was clear, but the answer was ambiguous, and one

reasonable interpretation of such answer would be truthful, then

such answer would not be false.

Fifth Circuit Pattern Criminal Jury Instructions § 2.69. The district court

denied this instruction. The Defendants-Appellants argue that their defense

40

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 40 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

revolved around showing that the instructions from Inside FERC were

ambiguous and that not allowing the instruction prevented them from

presenting their theory to the jury.

A determination of whether a question or statement is arguably

ambiguous is generally left to the jury. See, e.g., United States v. Posada

Carilles, 541 F.3d 344, 362–63 (5th Cir. 2008) (stating that jury resolves

ambiguities where they are not fundamental); United States v. Bell, 623 F.2d

1132, 1136 (5th Cir. 1980) (same). It is not clear whether an arguable ambiguity

instruction is appropriate in cases charging false reporting and wire fraud. In 24

support of their argument, the Defendants-Appellants rely upon a Tenth Circuit

case, United States v. Migliaccio, 34 F.3d 1517 (10th Cir. 1994), in which the

doctrine was applied to a charge of fraud under facts somewhat similar to the

current suit. In that case, the Tenth Circuit held that not allowing an arguable

ambiguity instruction was reversible error where the defendants were charged

with fraudulent billing of medical procedures. Id. at 1520–25. The defendants

argued that the terminology was ambiguous and that their answers were

truthful under their interpretation of the terms. Id.

Here, in making their argument, the Defendants-Appellants ignore the

fact that such an ambiguity instruction is only appropriate in cases where the

defendant’s claimed interpretation of the ambiguous terms is reasonable and is

supported by the record. Migliaccio, 34 F.3d at 1525. In United States v.

Lawrence, the Tenth Circuit discussed Migliaccio and affirmed a district court’s

denial of an ambiguity instruction in a wire fraud case. 405 F.3d 888, 896–900

(10th Cir. 2005). In doing so, the court stated that an ambiguity instruction “is

only necessary where there is evidence supporting the defendant’s interpretation

as reasonable.” Id. at 898. Indeed, it is accepted law that a defendant is only

See United States v. Munoz, 233 F.3d 1117, 1130–32 (9th Cir. 2000) (stating that 24

ambiguity instruction not appropriate in fraud case due to broad nature of statute).

41

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 41 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

entitled to an instruction on a defense theory where there is sufficient evidence

such that a reasonable jury could find in his favor on that theory. See United

States v. Branch, 91 F.3d 699, 712–13 (5th Cir. 1996).

As explained previously, there is no reasonable interpretation of the

instructions that allows the reporting of completely fabricated data. This

interpretation is divorced from the language of the instructions, and it has no

relationship to the allegedly ambiguous terminology. The district court,

therefore, appropriately denied the ambiguity instruction. See Lawrence, 405 25

F.3d at 898; Migliaccio, 34 F.3d at 1525.26

E. Evidentiary Rulings

The Defendants-Appellants also appeal several of the district court’s

evidentiary rulings. Specifically, the Defendants-Appellants challenge: (1) the

district court’s exclusion of their industry practice evidence; (2) the district

court’s admission of the testimony of Matthew O’Loughlin, the government’s 

Because the arguable ambiguity instruction is not supported by the record, we 25

decline to decide whether such an instruction is ever appropriate in cases charging fraud or

false reporting.

 Additionally, it is not an abuse of discretion for a district court to deny a proposed 26

jury instruction where the defense theory was adequately presented to the jury. See United

States v. Gray, 751 F.2d 733, 736–37 (5th Cir. 1985). For example, in the case of a proposed

good faith defense, we have held that denial of a specific instruction is not an abuse of

discretion where the content of the defense is raised during argument and the jury is

accurately instructed on specific intent to defraud. See United States v. Bilotto, 245 F. App’x

410, 413–14 (5th Cir. 2007) (per curiam); United States v. Manges, 110 F.3d 1162, 1177 (5th

Cir. 1997); Daniel, 957 F.2d at 170; United States v. St. Gelais, 952 F.2d 90, 94 (5th Cir. 1992);

Gray, 751 F.2d at 736–37. Here, even though the district court denied the specific instruction

on ambiguity,the Defendants-Appellants were permitted to present this argument to the jury,

and in fact, Phillips’s lawyer discussed how the ambiguous terms negated the intent elements

of the charged offenses during closing arguments at length. Further, the district court

accurately instructed the jury on how both offenses require knowledge of the falsity of the

statement, which prevented the jury from convicting if it found that the DefendantsAppellants actually believed thatthey were complying with the instructions. Thus,the district

court’s charge “enabled the jury to recognize and understand the defense theory, [to] test it

against the evidence presented at trial, and then [to] make a definitive decision whether,

based on that evidence and in light of the defense theory, the defendant was guilty or not

guilty.” Gray, 751 F.2d at 736–37 (quotation omitted).

42

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 42 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

expert witness; and (3) the district court’s decision not to immunize Don

Guilbault, a potential defense witness. We will consider these rulings in turn.

First, the Defendants-Appellants argue that the district court erred by

excluding evidence related to industry practice. Specifically, the DefendantsAppellants argue that they were prevented from proving their good faith defense

because they were barred from presenting evidence showing that other energy

companies were also submitting similarly false data to Inside FERC and NGI.

We review evidentiary rulings for abuse of discretion, subject to harmless

error analysis. United States v. Isiwele, 635 F.3d 196, 199 (5th Cir. 2011);

United States v. Cantu, 167 F.3d 198, 203 (5th Cir. 1999). This Court has

previously held that it was not an abuse of discretion to exclude evidence offered

on a very similar theory. See United States v. Arledge, 553 F.3d 881, 894 (5th

Cir. 2008) (excluding evidence in fraud case showing that similarly situated

third parties committed similar acts because it had little or no bearing on

whether defendant acted with fraudulent intent). The industry practice

evidence offered here has little or no bearing on whether the DefendantsAppellants acted with fraudulent intent. See United States v. Kahn, 711 F.

Supp. 2d 9, 12 (D.D.C. 2010) (testimony about beliefs of third parties on validity

of tax code irrelevant to determination of whether defendant acted in good faith). 

Indeed, this unrelated information posed a threat of confusing the jury and

detracting from relevant information about the conduct of the actual parties. 

See Fed. R. Evid. 403 (stating “relevant evidence” may be excluded “if its

probative value is substantially outweighed by a danger of . . . unfair prejudice,

confusing the issues, [or] misleading the jury . . .”). Thus, we hold that it was not

an abuse of discretion to exclude this testimony.

Second,the Defendants-Appellants challenge the district court’s admission

of the government’s expert, Matthew O’Loughlin. The admission of expert

evidence is also reviewed “for abuse of discretion; however, evidentiary rulings

43

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 43 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

are subjected to heightened scrutiny in criminal cases.” United States v. John,

597 F.3d 263, 274 (5th Cir. 2010). “Federal Rule of Evidence 702 provides that

testimony by a qualified expert is admissible if (1) it will assist the trier of fact;

(2) it is based upon sufficient facts or data; (3) the testimony is a product of

reliable methods; and (4) the witness has applied those principles reliably to the

facts.” Id.

The Fifth Circuit has already upheld the admission of O’Loughlin’s expert

testimony in nearly identical circumstances. See Valencia, 600 F.3d at 401,

420–29. The Defendants-Appellants’ attempts to distinguish Valencia are

unavailing. The Defendants-Appellants argue that here, unlike in Valencia,

O’Loughlin expressly “rejected” the publishers’ testimony about their editorial

process. Valencia, however, upheld O’Loughlin’s testimony because it was not

simply an attack on the credibility of the publishers; his testimony also provided

a conclusion grounded in analysis. See 600 F.3d at 427. The DefendantsAppellants do not argue O’Loughlin’s testimony was not so grounded here, and

his disagreement with the publishers did not render his testimony inadmissable. 

Cf. United States v. Whitted, 11 F.3d 782, 786–87 (8th Cir. 1993) (holding experts

could not testify about credibility of fact witnesses). Accordingly, the

Defendants-Appellants fail to show the district court abused its discretion when

it admitted the testimony of O’Loughlin.27

Third, Defendant-Appellant Walton argues that the district court erred by

failing to order the government to immunize Don Guilbault, a physical gas

trader on the same desk as Dean. In particular, Walton argues, first, that the

The Defendants-Appellants’ half-hearted attack on O’Loughlin’s qualification is also

27

unavailing. The Defendants-Appellants, along with failing to raise this objection to the district

court, cite no authority to show that work in the relevant field is a necessary qualification for

expert testimony. Presumably, their failure stems from the fact that any such authority would

contradict the terms of Rule 702, which allows an expert to be qualified by “knowledge, skill

experience, training or education.” See Fed. R. Evid. 702 (emphasis added).

44

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 44 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

district court should have denied Guilbault’s invocation of his Fifth Amendment

right because he had already plead guilty to the relevant crimes and the statute

of limitations had expired on any others, and, second, that the district court

should have either granted Guilbault immunity or compelled the government to

do so. As Walton shows error on neither ground, his argument fails. 

Guilbault worked on El Paso during the relevant times, and, on October

5, 2004, he plead guilty to violating the CEA by submitting false reports to

Inside FERC and NGI. At the time of the Defendants-Appellants’ trial,

Guilbault had not been sentenced because the government had sought to delay

sentencing to ensure Guilbault’s continued corporation in its prosecutions. On

June 2, 2005, Guilbault was interviewed by government agents. According to a

summary of the interview, Guilbault stated that, while Brooks told Guilbault to

“get with” Walton, Walton told Guilbault that he did not need to show Walton

his trades, and that Walton did not otherwise tell Guilbault what to report. 

Walton subpoenaed Guilbault to appear at trial, and informed the

government of the subpoena the day before Guilbault was to appear. That night,

one of the members of the prosecution called Guibault’s attorney to ask if

Guilbault would indeed testify. The next morning at trial, Guilbault’s attorney

informed the court that Guilbault would invoke his Fifth Amendment right

against self-incrimination. Guilbault’s attorney told the court that the decision

has been Guilbault’s alone to make. Guilbault’s attorney further explained that,

while Guilbault had been on a list of possible government witnesses, no decision

had been made previously about whether he would be called. Prosecutors then

informed the court that they did not intend to call Guilbault because they had

concerns about Guilbault’s truthfulness, and pointed to inconsistences between

Guilbault’s 2005 interview and previous statements, as well as other instances

that cast doubt on his credibility. Walton thereafter moved to compel Guilbault

45

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 45 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

to testify, to compel the government to grant Guilbault immunity, or to admit a

summary of the 2005 interview. The district court denied each request. 

“A district court’s decision to exclude a witnesses’s testimony based on an

invocation of the witnesses’s Fifth Amendment privilege is reviewed for an abuse

of discretion.” United States v. Mares, 402 F.3d 511, 514 (5th Cir. 2005). 

“Although the trial court’s discretion is not unlimited, it must enjoy wide

discretion in resolving a self-incrimination claim.” United States v. Van Deveer,

577 F.2d 1016, 1017 (5th Cir. 1978) (per curiam). “Generally, an abuse of

discretion only occurs where no reasonable person could take the view adopted

by the trial court.” Whitehead v. Food Max of Miss., Inc., 332 F.3d 796, 803 (5th

Cir. 2003) (quotation omitted & emphasis in original).

Here, although Guilbault had plead guilty to violating the CEA, he had not

yet been sentenced, and Walton’s questions sought information related to those

crimes. TheFifth Amendment right against self-incrimination only extinguishes

once “the sentence has been fixed and the judgment of conviction has become

final.” Mitchell v. United States, 526 U.S. 314, 326 (1999) (“Where the sentence

has not yet been imposed a defendant may have a legitimate fear of adverse

consequences from further testimony.”). Accordingly, the district court did not

err in finding Guilbault had a legitimate fear of self-incrimination, and could be

excused from testifying. 

With regard to immunity, this Court has held that “[d]istrict [c]ourts have

no inherent power to grant immunity.” United States v. Follin, 979 F.2d 369,

374 (5th Cir. 1992). “A district court may not grant immunity simply because

a witness has essential exculpatory evidence unavailable from other sources.” 

Id. (citing United States v. Thevis, 665 F.2d 616, 638–41 (5th Cir. 1982)). At

most, this Court has left open the possibility that immunity may be necessary

46

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 46 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

to stem government abuse. See Thevis, 665 F.2d at 641. Here, however, the 28

district court found no abuse, and Walton has failed to show error in that

determination. 

Walton’s sole evidence showing an abuse by the government is the

government’s continuances of Guilbault’s sentencing, a single call by a

prosecutor to Guilbault after Walton subpoenaed him to testify, and the

purported inconsistency in the government’s maintaining Guilbault as a possible

witness and its statements on January 24, 2008 that it had concerns about

Guilbault’s truthfulness. Guilbault’s attorney, however, informed the court that

Guilbault’s decision to invoke the Fifth Amendment was his own. Further, the

prosecutor’s call the night before was explained as an inquiry to determine

whether the government would need to prepare to cross-examine Guilbault, a

task that would be need to be completed that night as Walton only informed the

government about the subpoena that day. And the government’s proffer

demonstrated a reasonable basis for it to doubt Guilbault’s veracity. In light of

such facts, Walton fails to show the district court erred in accepting the

prosecution’s, and Guilbault’s attorney’s, view of the facts.29

Walton’s citation to out-of-circuit precedent to argue that government misconduct is 28

not a necessary prerequisite is unavailing in light of Thevis. See Thevis, 665 F.2d at 639–41

(declining to follow Gov’t of Virgin Islands v. Smith, 615 F.2d 964, 974 (3d Cir. 1980)). 

Moreover, even if this Court could consider such authority, Walton fails to show immunity was

justified under it. Walton fails to show that Guilbault’s exclusion skewed the evidence in the

government’s favor. Although Guilbault could have testified that Walton never asked him to

send false trades, such testimony hardly contradicts O’Toole’s and Dean’s testimony that

Walton provided them with his positions. See United States v. Straub, 538 F.3d 1147, 1156–57

(9th Cir. 2008) (finding exculpatory evidence must “directly contradict[]” admitted evidence

to warrant immunity). Further, in cross-examination of O’Toole, Walton introduced his theory

that he did not always provide the traders with his positions, and that he did not ask to review

their submissions to the publications. See United States v. Ebbers, 458 F.3d 110, 119 (2d Cir.

2006) (finding exculpatory evidence must not be “cumulative”). Guilbault’s testimony would

not have been materially more exculpatory. 

 Waltons’ argument, made only in passing and citing no support, that the interview 29

memorandum should have been introduced as evidence is also unavailing. The memorandum

47

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 47 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

F. Sentencing

Lastly, the Defendants-Appellants raise a number of challenges to the

calculation of their Sentencing Guidelines’ sentences. In particular, the

Defendants-Appellants challenge the burden of proof born by the government

and the calculation of their Guidelines range. 

We review the district court’s legal interpretation of the Sentencing

Guidelines de novo and factual findings for clear error. See United States v.

Murray, 648 F.3d 251, 254 (5th Cir. 2011). A factual finding is clearly erroneous

only if, based on the entirety of the evidence, the reviewing court is left with the

definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been made. United States v.

Valdez, 453 F.3d 252, 262 (5th Cir. 2006). A factual finding is not clearly

erroneous if it is plausible in light of the entire record. Id. Because the Court

finds Defendants-Appellants’ arguments unavailing, we affirm the sentence.

1. Burden of Proof

The Defendants-Appellants first argue that the government should have

been required to prove the loss caused by their fraud with clear and convincing

evidence. The Presentence Report(“PSR”) provided for increases of eighteen and

twenty-levels for the Defendants-Appellants due to the calculated loss, which

was the largest contributing factor to theDefendants-Appellants’ offense levels.30

is hearsay. See United States v. Moore, 651 F.3d 30, 83 (D.C. Cir. 2011) (finding witness’s

prior confessions hearsay under Federal Rule of Evidence 804(b)(3)). Guilbault’s invocation

of the Fifth Amendment rendered him unavailable. See id. However, none of the exceptions

to hearsay apply. The portion of the statement Walton sought to introduce was not against

Guilbault’s interest because it was exculpatory. See Fed. R. Evid. 804(b)(3). And the fact that

it was contradicted by an earlier statement by Guilbault tends to show it does not “ha[ve]

equivalent circumstantial guarantees of trustworthiness.” See Fed. R. Evid. 807; Moore, 651

F.3d at 83 (finding witness’s prior contradictions rendered hearsay statementsuntrustworthy).

Accordingly, Walton showed no error in the district court’s decision to exclude the interview

summary. 

The calculated loss resulted in a twenty-level increase for Brooks, increasing his 30

offense level from fifteen to thirty-five, and resulted in an eighteen-level increase for Walton

and Phillips, increasing their offense levels from fifteen to thirty-three. 

48

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 48 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

They argue that, because of the significant effect of the loss, due process requires

that the government prove the loss by more than a mere preponderance. 

“[A]s a general matter, the burden of proof at sentencing is by a

preponderance of the evidence.” United States v. Mergerson, 4 F.3d 337, 343 (5th

Cir. 1993). The Fifth Circuit has stated in dicta, however, that “there may be

certain cases where a sentencing fact is a ‘tail that wags the dog of the

substantive offense,’ and might arguably require a finding beyond a reasonable

doubt.” Id. at 344 (quoting McMillan v. Pennsylvania, 477 U.S. 79, 88 (1986)

(rejecting petitioner’s argument that visible possession of firearm enhancement

was element of crime required to be proved beyond a reasonable doubt)). 

Nevertheless the Fifth Circuit has never required such a heightened burden. 

See id. at 344–45 (finding a preponderance standard was sufficient where life

sentence was within range both prior to and after enhancement); United States

v. Coleman, 290 F. App’x 684, 685 (5th Cir. 2008) (per curiam) (finding

sentencing judge did not commit plain error where judge applied preponderance

standard to sentencing). Indeed, nearly all of our fellow circuits have rejected

the need to apply a heightened standard in light of the advisory nature of the

Guidelines.31

See United States v. Villareal-Amarillas, 562 F.3d 892, 894–98 & n.3 (8th Cir. 2009) 31

(holding sentencing factors may be proven by preponderance; finding dicta in United States

v. Archuleta, 412 F.3d 1003, 1007 (8th Cir. 2005), expressing otherwise was erroneous);

United States v. Fisher, 502 F.3d 293, 308 (3d Cir. 2007) (holding preponderance sole standard

of proof in sentencing; stating “because the Guidelines are now advisory and district judges

are empowered to discharge their duties fully in the first instance, it is a logical impossibility

for the ‘tail to wag the dog,’ as could occur when the Guidelines were mandatory”); United

States v. Brika, 487 F.3d 450, 460–62 (6th Cir. 2007) (holding preponderance standard applies,

even where judge sentenced defendant for conduct underlying charge on which jury hung);

United States v. Reuter, 463 F.3d 792, 793 (7th Cir. 2006) (finding tail-wagging-dog concern

rendered “academic” after Booker); but see United States v. Staten, 466 F.3d 708, 717–20 (9th

Cir. 2008) (finding due process required proof by clear and convincing evidence where

enhancement increased offense level fifteen levels and effectively doubled defendant’s

sentence; holding United States v. Booker, 543 U.S. 220 (2005), which rendered Sentencing

Guidelines advisory, did not require departure from earlier precedent).

49

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 49 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

We need not decide at this time that a heightened burden is never 

required. While the Defendants-Appellants’ enhancements are significant,

accounting for more than fifty percent of their offense levels, and increasing

their recommended sentence range from 18-to-24 months to 135-to-168 or 168-

to-210 months, this Court has held a similar enhancement did not require a

heightened burden of proof. See United States v. Carreon, 11 F.3d 1225, 1240

(5th Cir. 1994) (holding enhancement in recommended sentence from six years

to twenty years did not require proof beyond a preponderance). Accordingly, 32

we find that a heightened burden or proof, even if required by due process in

certain situations, is not appropriate here, and the district court did not err in

refusing to apply one.

2. Calculation of Guidelines Range

The Defendants-Appellants assert a number of errors in the calculation of

their SentencingGuidelines. In particular,the Defendants-Appellants challenge

the district court’s calculation of loss, its calculation of the number of victims of

that loss, and its finding that the Defendant-Appellants obstructed justice. 

Turning first to the calculation of loss, “[w]e review de novo the district

court’s method for determining loss, while clear error applies to the background

factual findings that determine whether or not a particular method is

appropriate.” Isiwele, 635 F.3d at 202. “[A] district court need only make a

reasonable estimate of loss, and, ‘because the sentencing judge is in a unique

position to assess the evidence and estimate the loss . . . the court’s loss

determination is entitled to appropriate deference.’” Murray, 648 F.3d at 254

(ellipsis in original) (quoting United States v. Goss, 549 F.3d 1013 (5th Cir.

2008)). 

See also United States v. Vittek, 228 F. App’x 469, 475–76 & n. 23 (5th Cir. 2007) (per 32

curiam) (finding increase in recommend sentencing range from 51-to-63 months to sentence

of 168 months did not require heightened standard of proof). 

50

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 50 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

The Defendants-Appellants fail to show that the district court’s method for

determining loss was erroneous. The district court, adopting the method used

in the PSRs, relied on O’Loughlin’s calculations about the effect of the false

reports on the published index prices, and El Paso’s own calculations, in its

“Basis Summaries,” about its “exposure” to changes in those index prices. The

various losses were then attributed to each Defendant-Appellant based on his

responsibility for the various reports. The method provided a “reasonable

estimate,” and, indeed, a conservative estimate, of the loss caused by the

Defendants-Appellants’ fraudulent scheme. Although the editors of the

33

industry publications used some editorial discretion to determine what index

price to publish, and did not rotely publish the volume-weighted average of the

reported trades, O’Loughlin demonstrated that the published price and the

volume-weighted average of the reported trades was identical eighty percent of

the time, and a strong correlation between the two was observable for the

remainder of the trades. Admittedly, as Hume observed over 250 years ago, 34

one can never know with certainty that one event is caused by another.35

Unfortunately for the Defendants-Appellants, the law does not require such

absolute certainty. 

36

The estimate did not include any loss caused to counterparties who purchased 33

natural gas from El Paso at index price, or those parties who did not contract with El Paso,

but nevertheless payed an inflated price for natural gas due to Defendants-Appellants actions. 

Indeed, the PSRs excluded gains where the published index prices was different than 34

the volume weighted average would have dictated. 

See David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748). 

35

Moreover, loss may be measured not only by the actual loss caused by a defendants’

36

actions, but by the loss the defendants intended to cause. See U.S. Sentencing Guidelines

Manual § 2B1.1 cmt. n.2(A) (2001). Loss is the “greater of the actual loss or intended loss.” 

See id. Thus, even if the Court were to conclude O’Loughlin’s testimony was insufficient to

demonstrate the actual influence the VWA had on the published indexes, such difference was

a fair approximation of the change the Defendants-Appellants intended to have on the

published indexes.

51

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 51 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

Nor does the Defendants-Appellants’ challenge to the use of the use of El

Paso’s Basis Summaries fare better. As the record shows, the summaries were

created so that El Paso could determine its exposure to changes in the various

index prices. El Paso entered into a trade to buy or sell natural gas at some

price at a certain hub. That contract had value so long as there was some

difference between the specified price and the market price for natural gas at the

hub at the time of the contract’s execution. For example, a contract to buy a unit

of natural gas at $5 next month would gain value if the price of natural gas at

the hub increased to $6: the contract would allow the holder to net a $1 profit by

buying the gas at $5 and selling it at $6. Conversely, the contract would

37

negatively impact the company if the price of natural gas fell to $4, as the

company would be required to spend $5 on the natural gas and then could only

sell it at a $1 loss. El Paso’s basis summary charts aggregated these various 38

risks, and thus reflected the inflation or deflation in value of El Paso’s futures

contracts. 

While the Defendants-Appellants are correct that these charts did not

necessarily reflect the flow of cash, they identify no legal authority suggesting 39

that the Sentencing Guidelines are incapable of taking into account the losses

and gains described above. The Sentencing Guidelines state that “fair market

value of the property unlawfully taken” shall be used to determine the value of

loss. See U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual § 2B1.1 cmt. n. 2(C)(i) (2001). 

Here, the Defendants-Appellants’ scheme drove up the market price of their

As discussed above, these transactions rarely resulted in the actual transfer of 37

physical gas, but were instead resolved financially. 

This also explains why trades that specified the price to be paid as the published 38

index price did not create this type of risk: any variations in the market price would be

reflected in the price at which El Paso would have to buy or sell. 

Although it is difficult to believe that the value of these contracts were not converted 39

to cash, or some other asset, at any point during the Defendants-Appellants’ two-year scheme.

52

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 52 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

contracts, which necessarily drove down the market price of their counterparties’

contracts. Thus, the basis summaries’ calculation of the increase in the value 40

of El Paso’s futures contracts provides a reasonable basis from which to infer the

counterparties’ loss in market value to their contracts.

Moreover, in contrast to the Defendants-Appellants’ protests, the method

employed by the district court provided a “realistic, economic approach” to

determining the loss caused by their fraud. See United States v. Olis, 429 F.3d

540, 546 (5th Cir. 2005) (quotation omitted). Unlike the typical valuation of

damages in a securities fraud scheme, where the effect of the fraud must be

inferred from the changes in the market price of the security and where,

consequently, external forces on that price must be accounted, see, e.g., id. at

546–48, the method employed by the district court directly measured the loss. 

As described above, the district court relied on the government’s expert’s

conclusion that the false trades move the various index prices by definite

amounts, and the company’s calculations about the effect of such moves on the

value of its assets. With such a method, there is no need to account for external

factors that may have also increased or decreased the value of the futures

contracts.

Next, the Defendants-Appellants challenge the calculation used to

determine the number of victims of their fraud. Each of the DefendantsAppellants received a four-point enhancement to their offense level due to the

district court’s finding that their scheme involved fifty or more victims. See U.S.

Sentencing Guideline § 2B1.1(b)(2)(B). In light of the entire record, the district

This can be seen from the example above. If El Paso has a contract to buy gas at $5, 40

then the counterparty has a contract to sell gas at $5. If the Defendants-Appellants could

fraudulent raise the market price to $6, their contract would be worth $1, while the

counterparty’s contract would have a negative value of $1. In essence, the DefendantsAppellants would have stolen $1 from their counterparty by fraudulently shifting the market

value of the trade. Further, if the counterparty was hedged, it would merely shift the loss to

yet another third party. 

53

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 53 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

court’s finding is not clearly erroneous. The record includes backup for the Basis

Summaries reports that list the details of the various financial trades that went

into those calculations. Just one of those backup spreadsheets, showing the

trades for a single hub in a single month, shows in excess of fifty counterparties

to El Paso’s futures trades—the counterparties who would have seen the value

of their contracts artificially lowered by the Defendants-Appellants’ false

statements. Accordingly, Defendants-Appellants failto show error in the district

court’s finding that their scheme, which occurred over at least two years and

covered multiple hubs, involved more than fifty victims. 

Lastly, the Defendants-Appellants challenge the two-point enhancement

they received as a result of the district court’s finding that they obstructed

justice. In particular, the Defendants-Appellants argue that the district court

improperly found that they provided materially false information to the

investigating government officials because they mislead the individuals involved

in El Paso’s internal investigation. The Defendants-Appellants argue they

cannot be found to have obstructed the investigation because, (1) their

statements occurred before any government investigation started, (2) their false

statements were not made directly to government agents, and (3) their false

statements did not actually impede the investigation. 

The relevant Sentencing Guidelines allow for an enhancement where:

(A) the defendant willfully obstructed or impeded, or attempted to

obstruct or impede, the administration of justice during the course

of an investigation, prosecution, or sentencing of the instant offense

of conviction, and (B) the obstructive conduct related to (i) the

defendant’s offense of conviction and any relevant conduct; or (ii) a

closely related offense . . . .

See U.S. Sentencing Guideline § 3C1.1 (2001).41

The Guidelines provide a non-exhaustive list of examples of such conduct, including 41

“destroying or concealing or directing or procuring another to destroy or conceal evidence that

54

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 54 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

First, with regard to Brooks, the district court found, in addition to his

false statements, that in or about May of 2002 he destroyed or ordered another

person to destroy material evidence when he ordered an El Paso employee to

shred records related to reports to an industry newsletter. As noted in the PSR,

and unchallenged by the Defendants-Appellants, such conduct occurred during 42

the course of a state investigation into false reporting at El Paso of which Brooks

had knowledge. Brooks’ sole challenge to the district court’s finding of 43

obstruction for his destruction of documents was his conduct was innocent. 

Looking to the record as a whole, the district court’s finding to the contrary was

not implausible. Accordingly, Brooks fails to show such a finding is clearly

is material to an official investigation or judicial proceeding,” and “providing a materially false

statement to a law enforcement officer that significantly obstructed or impeded the official

investigation or prosecution of the instant offense.” See id. at cmt. n.4 (d), (g). The Guidelines

further provide examples of non-covered conduct, such as “making false statements, not under

oath, to law enforcement officers, unless Application Note 3(g) above applies,” and “providing

incomplete or misleading information, not amounting to a material falsehood in respect to a

presentence investigation.” See id. at cmt. n. 5(b), (c). A 2006 amendment to the Guidelines

allows consideration of pre-investigation conduct. See United States v. Alexander, 602 F.3d

639, 642 n.3 (5th Cir. 2010). 

The district court adopted the factual findings of the PSR. “[I]f no relevant affidavits

42

or other evidence is submitted to rebut the information contained in the [presentence report],

the court is free to adopt its findings without further inquiry or explanation.” United States

v. Vital, 68 F.3d 114, 121 (5th Cir. 1995).

While the pre-2007 Guidelines required conduct to occur during the course of an 43

investigation into the conduct at issue, they did not require the investigation to be led by the

federal government, or to be a criminal investigation, so long as it was led by government

officials. See United States v. Fiore, 381 F.3d 89, 94 (2d Cir. 2004) (finding SEC civil

investigation into conduct giving rise to later criminal charge sufficient to render obstructive

conduct relevant for sentencing enhancement); United States v. McGovern, 329 F.3d 247, 252

(1st Cir. 2003) (finding Medicaid & Medicare civil investigation sufficient to allow for

obstruction enhancement); see also United States v. Upchurch, 88 F. App’x 794, 795–96 (5th

Cir. 2004) (per curiam) (finding state investigation into conduct at issue sufficient to trigger

obstruction enhancement). While the Defendants-Appellants assert the earlier investigation

was into wash trading,the record indicates the investigation also covered false reporting, and,

accordingly, the district court’s conclusion was not implausible.

55

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 55 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

erroneous, and, in light of such a finding, the district court did not err in

providing a two-point enhancement. 

With regard to Phillips and Walton, the PSRs found obstruction based on

their statements to El Paso’s legal counsel and independent investigators during

the company’s investigation arising from inquiries by the CFTC, the Federal

Energy Regulatory Commission, and the U.S. Attorney’s Office. The 44

Defendants-Appellants show no error in the district court’s finding that they

made their false statements during the course of the investigations. Similarly,

they show no error in the district court’s finding the Phillips’s and Walton’s

statements were not made in ignorance of the investigations and were not “the

result of a spur of the moment decision.” See United States v. Greer, 158 F.3d

228, 235 (5th Cir. 1998) (finding obstruction limited to “egregiously wrongful

behavior whose execution requires a significant amount of planning and

presents an inherently high risk that justice will in fact be obstructed”). 

Further, although the statements were not made directly to government officials,

the district court’s finding that they were made with intent to be communicated

to government officials, and thus to impede the investigation into their wrongdoing, was not implausible. See U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual §3C1.1 cmt.

n.9 (providing obstruction may be “induced, procured, or willfully caused”); see

also United States v. Aguilar, 515 US 593, 601 (1995) (holding, to secure

conviction for obstruction of justice charge, government must show defendant

“knew that his false statement would be provided to the grand jury”). 

Finally, the Defendants-Appellants fail to show error in the district court’s

adoption of the PSRs’ finding that their false statements significantly impeded

The PSR also found Brooks obstructed the investigation based on his statements to 44

El Paso’s legal counsel and internal investigation. Nonetheless, because the district court’s

finding of obstruction was supported by Brooks’s destruction of evidence, the Court does not

address Brooks’s false statements. 

56

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 56 Date Filed: 05/18/2012
No. 09-20871

the investigation. False statements which significantly delay an investigation

and prosecution, even if not successful in preventing it, may provide a sufficient

basis for an obstruction enhancement. See United States v. Phipps, 319 F.3d

177, 191–92 (5th Cir. 2003) (holding defendant’s false identification of

accomplice, delaying investigation, constituted obstruction). While DefendantsAppellants objected to the PSRs’ finding, they presented no evidence to rebut

that finding. See Vital, 68 F.3d at 121. Consequently, the district court could

rely on the PSRs, see id., and the Defendants-Appellants fail to show that the

district court’s finding was implausible based on the record. Thus, they fail to

show error in the obstruction enhancement. 

Accordingly, the Defendants-Appellants fail to show any error in their

sentences.45

CONCLUSION

For the reasons stated above, Defendants-Appellants’ convictions and

sentences are AFFIRMED.

The Defendants-Appellants’ additional purported error, that the district court

45

erroneously treated the guidelines as presumptively reasonable, see Gall v. United States, 552

U.S. 38, 50 (2007), is without any support in the record. Indeed, the district court’s statement

of reasons indicates that it made “an individualized assessment based on the facts presented.” 

See id.

57

Case: 09-20871 Document: 00511861304 Page: 57 Date Filed: 05/18/2012