SECOND DI VI SI ON

BA RNES, P. J.

, BOGGS and RI CKM A N, JJ.

N O T IC E : M otions for r e c ons i de r a tion m us t be ph y sic a l ly r e ce iv ed i n our c le r k ’s offic e w ithin te n da y s of the da te of de c is ion to be de e m ed tim e ly file d.

http://w w w .ga a ppe a l s .us /r ule s

Nov em ber 1, 2016



# I n th e Co u r t o f

A p p eals o f

G eo r g ia

A1 6 A0 79 2 . THE STATE v . VICKERS et al

.

B O G G S , J u d g e.

T r e l an d J o n es , Lad ai ri u s Vi ck ers , an d Deo n t e Si m s were ch ar ge d by a c c usa tion

wi t h t wo co u n ts o f v io l at i o n o f t h e Geo rg i a Co n t ro l l ed Su b s tan ces Act

. 1 T h e S t a t e

a p p e a l s fro m t he t ri al co u rt ’ s gran t o f t h e ap p el l ees ’ m o t i o n s t o s u pp res s ev i d e n c e

o b t ai n ed i n a warran t l es s s earch o f a v eh i cl e p ark ed i n th e d ri v eway of Si m s ’ h o m e.

Becau s e t h e ev id en ce s u p p o r t s t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s co n cl u s i o n t h at o ffi cers fai l ed to

o b t ai n a warran t an d s h owed n o co ns en t or ex i g en t ci rcu m s t an ces t o su p po rt a s earch

o r arres t i n t he cu rt il ag e o f t h e res i d en ce, we affi rm

.

1 A fo u rt h d efen dan t

, Tak h i y ra Tu rn er, p l ed g u i lt y an d i s n o t a p art y t o t h i s

ap p eal

.“ A t ri al ju dg e’ s fi n d i n g s of fact o n a m o ti o n t o s u p p res s sh o ul d n o t b e d i s t u rb ed

i f t h ere i s an y ev i d en ce t o s up p o rt t h em ; d et erm i n at i o n s o f fact an d cred i b il i t y m u s t

b e a c c e p t ed u n les s cl earl y erro n eo u s ; an d t h e ev i d en ce m us t b e co n st ru ed m o s t

fav o rab l y t o t h e u p h o l d i n g o f t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s fi nd i n g s an d ju dg m en t

. [Ci ts .] ” Ki r s ch e

v. St a t e , 2 7 1 G a. Ap p

. 7 2 9 (6 1 1 SE2 d 6 4 ) (2 0 0 5). An d “ [w] h et h er ev i d en ce i s fo u n d

wi t h i n t h e cu rt i l ag e o f a res i d en ce i s a m i x ed q u es t io n of fact an d l aw. On ap p eal

, we

accep t th e tri al co u rt ’ s fi n d i n g s o f fact u nl es s cl earl y erro n eo us , b u t owe no d eferen ce

t o t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s co n cl u si o ns o f l aw. In s t e a d

, we a r e free t o ap p l y an ew t h e l eg al

p ri n ci p l es t o t h e facts. ” ( C i t at io ns , p u n ct uat i o n , an d fo o t n o t e om i t t ed .) Ri ver s v. S t a t e ,

2 8 7 Ga. Ap p . 6 3 2 , 6 3 3 (1 ) (b ) (6 5 3 SE2 d 7 8 ) (2 0 0 7 ).

So v i ewed

, t h e ev i d e n c e s h o ws t h at Gwi n n et t Co u n t y p o l i ce o ffi cers were

ex ecu t i n g an u n rel at ed arres t warran t wh en t h ey n o t i ced a car p ark ed i n t h e d ri v eway

o f th e h o u s e n ex t d o o r. T h e car was wh o l l y in s i d e t h e b o un d ari es o f t h e p ri v at e

p ro p ert y , “ fai rl y cl os el y park ed t o t h e act u al g arag e o f t h e h o m e” as sh o wn i n a

p h o t o g rap h i d en ti fi ed by a po l i ce wi t n es s

. 2 A p l ai n cl o th es o ffi cer t es t i fi ed t h at as h e

2 W h il e t h e St at e as s ert s th at “ t h e car p u l led u p ,” t hi s was n o t s u pp o rt ed b y t h e

ev i d en ce. On d i rect e x a m i n at i o n , an o ffi cer t es t i fi ed t h at he was “ n ot 1 0 0 p ercen t

s u re, b u t I w an t to recal l ” t h at th e v eh i cl e arri v ed d u ri n g t h e po l i ce s urv ei l l an ce. On

cro s s -ex am i n at i o n, h o wev er, h e ack n o wl ed g ed t h at was “ a g u es s” an d he d i d n o t s ee i t p u l l up as h e was no t p res en t ; h e s u g g es t ed t h at t h e o t h er o ffi cer m i g ht k n ow. T h at

2wal k ed th ro u gh t h e s i d e y ard o f t h e n ei g h b o ri n g h ou s e, ab o u t 10 o r 1 5 feet fro m t h e

car, h e s m el l ed a s t ro n g od o r o f m ari ju an a an d o bs erv ed h eav y s m o k e i n s i d e t h e

v eh icl e. He al s o t es t i fi ed t h at h e s aw i n d i v i d u al s i n t he car p as s in g “ s o m et h i n g ” b ack

an d fo rt h

, b u t t hat h e d i d n o t k n o w w h at i t was

. A s k ed

, “ Yo u n ev er s aw t h em p as s i n g

a m ari ju an a ci garet t e or jo in t? ” h e res p o n d ed

, “ No ,” an d t h at “ as far as wh at t h ey

were p as s i ng , I d on ’ t k n o w.” He t es t i fi ed t h at h e “ a s s u med th at i t was m ari ju an a,”

(em p h as i s s u p pl i ed ), an d th e t ri al co u rt s o fo u nd

. An d th e t ri al co u rt al so fo u n d t h at

,

o t h er th an t h e od o r of m ari ju an a, ev en aft er ap p ro ach i n g t h e v eh i cl e “ t h e o ffi cers s t i l l

co u ld n o t s ee an y

co n t rab an d i n p l ai n v i ew t o s ei ze wi t h i n t h e car.”

Th e p l ai n cl o t h es o ffi cer i n fo rm ed o t h er o ffi cers v i a rad i o of t h e o ccu p an t s o f

t h e car an d t h at h e “ b el i ev e[d ] t h ey were s m o k i n g m ari

ju an a. Th ey n eed ed t o co m e

an d m ak e co n tact wi t h t h em .” A p o l i ce s erg ean t t es t i fi ed t h at h e o b s erv ed th e car fo r

o v er an h o u r. As h e wal k ed u p t h e d ri v eway , h e co ul d s m el l th e od o r o f m ari ju an a,

b u t di d n o t s ee an y o n e i n t h e v eh i cl e s m o k i n g an d d i d n o t s ee an y m ari j u an a i n p l ai n

v i ew. H e fu rt h er t es t i fi ed th at h e d i d n o t o b s erv e an y traffi c o ffen s e an d d i d n ot

o ffi cer, h o wev er, t es t i fi ed th at h e fi rs t no t iced t h e car wh en i t w as p ark ed i n t h e d ri v e wa y o f t h e ad

jo i n i n g h ou s e, an d t h at h e d i d no t s ee i t arri v e. Th e t ri al co u rt
fo u n d “ i ns u ffi ci en t ev i d en ce t h at t h e v e h i cl e w as ev en o p erat i o n al ,” an d we m u s t

co n st ru e t h e ev i d en ce t o u p h ol d t h at fi n di ng

.

3“ wi t n es s [] an y cri m i n al act i v i t y o u t o f t h e car o r t h e occu p an ts o f t h e car p ri o r to

ap p ro ach i n g t h e d ri v eway .” He co u l d no t ev en see h o w m an y peo p l e w ere i n s i d e u n t i l

h e was “ act u al l y

ri g h t at t h e v eh i cl e” an d “ co u ld act u al l y t o u ch i t .”

Th e s erg ean t d et erm i ned t h at fo u r i n d i v i d ual s were i n t h e car an d “ d eci d ed to

ju s t d et ai n t h e i n d iv i d u al s in t he car u n t i l I co ul d g et m y offi cers b ack

. Becau s e at t h at

p o i n t we were o u t n u m

b ered

, an d i t b ecam e a s afet y i s s ue fo r m e.” H e tes t i fi ed

, “ I

d i d n ’ t d o an in v e s t i g at i o n. I deci d ed t o d et ai n an d ho l d wh at I’ v e g o t .” Po l i ce

rem o v ed t h e fo u r o ccu p an ts o f t h e v eh icl e b u t saw n o i l l eg al su b st an ces o r o t h er

ev i d en ce “ i n p l ai n v i ew.” No s earch w arran t was ev er o b t ai n e d

, a s t h e o ffi cers

t es t i fi ed t h at t h ey rel i ed u p o n t h e “ au t o m o b i l e ex cep t i o n .” On ce th e o ccu p an t s were

rem o v ed

, o ffi cers s earch ed t h e v eh i cl e an d fo u n d 1

. 4 g ram s o f s u s p ect ed m ari ju an a

an d al p razo l am un d er t h e fro nt p as s en g er s eat

. No ev i den ce o f b urn t m ari ju an a was

f o u n d

. T h e St at e d i d n o t el i ci t an d th e o ffi cers d i d n o t t es ti fy t o an y ex i g en t

ci rcu m s t an ces o r co n sen t t o s earch , an d t h e t ri al co u rt fo u n d t h at n ei t h er ex i s t ed

.

[ E ]v en if t h e offi cers had p ro b ab le cau s e t o i n v es t i g at e a cri m e , t h e

Fo u rt h A m en d m en t pro hi b i t ed t h em fro m en teri n g [t h e] h om e o r i t s

cu rt i l ag e w i t ho u t a warran t ab s e n t co n s en t o r a sh o w i n g o f ex i g en t

ci rcu m s t an ces

. Ca r r a n z a v. St a t e , 2 6 6 Ga. 26 3

, 2 64 -2 6 5 (1 ) (4 6 7 SE2 d

3 1 5 ) (1 9 9 6 ); Bu n n v. S t a t e , 1 5 3 G a

. A p p

. 27 0

, 2 7 4 (2 6 5 SE2 d 8 8 )

(1 9 8 0 ). See al so S t a t e v. Ga l l u p , 23 6 Ga

. A p p

. 3 2 1

, 3 2 3 (1 ) (b ) (5 1 2

4S E 2 d 6 6 ) (1 9 9 9 ) (co ns t i t u t i o n al p ro t ect i o n ex t en d s t o cu rt il ag e o f

h o m e).

(Fo o tn o te o m i t t ed .) Ki rs ch e , s u p ra, 2 7 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 7 3 1 ; s ee al so Bo wma n v. S t a t e ,

3 3 2 Ga. Ap p

. 40 7

, 4 0 8 (1 ) (7 7 3 SE2 d 3 3 ) (2 0 15 ) (“ y ard i m m ed i at el y s u rro u n d i n g a

d wel l i n g fal ls wi th in t h e cu rt i l ag e o f a h o m e. [Ci t .] ”)

M o reo v er, we h av e h el d s p eci fi cal l y t h at a d efen dan t has a reas o n ab l e

ex p ect at i o n o f p ri v acy

i n a v eh i cl e p ark ed wi th i n t h e cu rt i l ag e o f h i s h o m e. S t a t e v.

O’Br y a n t

, 2 1 9 G a. Ap p. 8 6 2

, 86 4 (4 6 7 SE2 d 3 4 2 ) (1 9 9 6 ). T h ere, d ru g ag en t s wen t

wi t h o u t a w arra n t t o O ’B r yan t ’ s res i den ce fo r a “ k n o ck an d t al k ” b as ed o n “ an

an o ny m o u s t i p o f p os s i b l e d ru g d eal i n g.” Id

. at 8 6 2

. A ft er t h ey k no ck ed on t wo d o o rs

wi t h o u t res u l t

, on e ag en t wal k ed o v er to a t ru ck p ark ed i n t h e d ri veway b e s i d e t h e

h o u s e. “ W h i l e l o o k i n g i n si d e t h e cl o s ed an d t i n ted wi n d ows , h e cl ai m ed he was ab l e

t o d i s cern w h at ap p eared t o b e a p las t i c b ag o f m ari j u an a, p art i al l y h i d d en u n d er t h e

d ri v er’ s s eat .” Id

. W e h el d t hat t h e o ffi cers “ h ad fi ni s h ed t h ei r offi ci al b u s i n es s ” an d

“ h ad n o v al i d reas o n t o l o o k in t o t h e tru ck .” Id

. at 8 6 3 -8 64

. “ At t h e p o in t w here [t h e

ag en t] el ect ed t o peer i n s i d e t h e t ru ck

, h is act io n s b ecam e in v es t i g at iv e i n n a t u r e.

Fu rt h erm o re, t h e v eh i cl e was wi t h i n t h e cu rt il ag e o f t h e h o m e, an d O ’B r ya n t h ad a

reas on ab l e ex p ect at i on o f p ri v acy i n h i s d ri veway . [Ci t.] ” Id . at 8 6 4

.

5In t h i s cas e, as i n O’Br ya n t

, “ t h e v eh i cl e was n o t o n a s t reet o r a ro ad way an d

t h e i n cri m i n at i n g ev i den ce was n o t p l ai n l y v i s i b le,” i d

. bu t req u i red a s earch o f t h e

i n t eri o r o f t h e v eh i cl e t o d i s co v er. Id

. at 8 6 3

. No ev id en ce was p res en t ed t h at t h e

o ffi cers in t en d ed t o en g ag e in a “ k n ock an d tal k ” at t h e res i den ce o r i ts cu rt i l ag e.

Th ey s i m p l y ap p ro ach ed t h e car, o p en ed t h e d o o rs , an d rem o v ed t h e o ccu p an t s

. See

Ga l lu p , s u p ra, 2 3 6 Ga. Ap p

. at 3 2 4 (1 ) (c) (o p en i n g d o o r o f refr i g e r a t o r e x ceed ed

s co p e o f o ffi cer’ s in ves ti g at i o n o f b u rg lary ). W h en th e o f f i c e rs here s earch ed t h e

i n t eri o r o f t h e v eh i cl e wi t h o ut a warran t

, co n s en t

, or ex i g en t ci rcu m s t an ces , t h ei r

d i s co v ery o f t h e d ru g s u n d er t h e s eat was i l l eg al an d was co rrect l y s u p p res s ed

. Id .;

s ee al so Bo wma n , s u pra, 3 3 2 Ga. Ap p . at 4 0 8 -4 09 (1 ).

Bo t h i n t h e t ri al co u rt an d o n ap p eal

, t h e S t at e rel i es u p on t h e “ ‘ au t o m o b i l e

ex cep t ion’ t o th e warran t req u i rem en t i m p o s ed b y t h e Fo urt h Am en d m en t” to co n t en d

t h a t t h e s earch was p erm i s s i bl e, co n t en d i n g t h at i t ap p l i es t o s earch es “ o n p ri v at e

p ro p ert y ” o n t h e au t h ori ty o f S ta t e v. S a rd en , 3 0 5 Ga. Ap p

. 58 7

, 58 9 (6 9 9 SE2 d 8 8 0 )

(2 0 1 0). Bu t t h e St at e, wh i l e ci t i n g o u r deci s i o n i n S a r d e n , i g n o res t h e d i st i n ct i o n

m ad e th ere bet ween t he cu r t i lag e o f a p ri v at e res i d en ce an d pri v at e co m m erci al

p r o p ert y

. Th e p o l i ce arres t ed Sard en o n fo u r o u ts tan d i n g fel o n y warran t s aft er h e

p ark ed i n a co n v en i en ce s t o re p ark i n g l o t

, an d t h ey lo o ked t h ro u g h t h e wi nd o w o f h i s

6car an d s aw d ru gs i n p l ai n v i ew. Id

. at 5 88

. Sard e n arg ued t hat t h e au t o m o b i l e

ex cep t i o n d i d n o t ap p l y b ecau s e h e was park ed o n p ri v at e p ro p ert y , b u t we reject ed

t h at co n t en t i o n , rel y i ng o n n u m ero u s Geo rg ia d eci si on s :

Th e au t o m o bi l e ex cep t i o n i s ju s ti fi ed o n t w o g ro u n d s : t h e read y

m o b i l i t y o f au to m o b i l es an d t h e d i m i n i s h ed ex pect at i on o f p ri v acy t hat

ci t i zen s h av e i n t h em

. See Ca l i fo r n i a v. Ca r n ey , 4 7 1 U. S. 3 8 6

, 3 9 1 -3 9 2

(II) (1 0 5 SCt 20 6 6

, 8 5 L E2 d 4 0 6 ) (1 9 8 5). An d “ [w] h en a v eh i cl e i s

b ei n g u s ed on t h e h i g h w ay s , o r i f i t i s read i l y cap ab l e o f s u ch u s e an d i s

fo u n d s t at i o n ary i n a pl ace n ot reg u l arl y us ed fo r res i d en t i al pu rp o s es

--

t em p o rary o r o t h erwi s e -- t h e t w o ju s t i fi cat io n s fo r t he v eh icl e ex cep t i o n

co m e i n t o p l ay .” (Fo o t no t e o m i tt ed

. ) I d

. at 3 92 -3 9 3 (II). Hen ce, th e

au t o m o b i l e ex cep t i o n ap p l i es ev en i f t h e car i s n o t s t o p p ed al o n g a

h i g h way , b ut i s s tat i o n ary i n a p l ace no t r eg u l a r ly u s ed fo r r es i d en ti a l

p u r p o s es , as i n t h e p res en t c a s e , wh ere Sard en ’ s car was i n a p ark i n g

s p ace o u t s i d e a co m

m erci al es tab l i sh m en t

.

(Ci t at i o n s an d fo o t n o t e om it t ed ; em p h as i s su p pl i ed .) Id

. at 5 9 0

. Ot h er Un i t ed St at es

Su p rem e Co u rt d eci si o ns an d t h e El ev en t h Ci rcu i t deci s i o n ci t ed b y t h e St at e l i k ewi s e

d o n o t i n vo l v e th e s earch o f a v eh i cl e wi t hi n t h e cu rt i l ag e o f a d efen d an t’ s res i d en ce. 3

3 Ca r n ey , s u pra, (v eh i cl e p ark ed o n a d o wn t o wn p ark in g l o t o p en t o t h e p u b l i c

an d n o t reg u l arl y u s ed fo r res i d en t i al p u rp o s es ); Pen n s yl va n i a v. La b r o n , 5 1 8 U. S.

9 3 8 (1 1 6 SCt 2 4 8 5, 1 3 5 LE2 d 1 03 1 ) (1 99 6 ) (o n p u b l ic s treet an d o n a n o t h er’ s

p ro p ert y wi t h o w n er’ s co n s en t ); Un i t ed S t a t e s v

. L i n d sey , 4 8 2 F3 d 1 2 85 (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 7 ) (v eh i cl e p ark ed i n g as s tat i o n ).

7An d to t h e ex t en t t h e St at e at t em p t s to rel y u po n Ha r r i s v. St a t e , 94 8 So

. 2 d 5 8 3 (Al a.

Cri m . Ap p . 2 0 0 6), h o l d i n g t hat t h e au t o m ob i le ex cep t io n co n t i n u es t o ap p ly wi t h in

t h e cu rt i l ag e, “ we are n o t b o u n d b y d eci s i o n s o f o t h er s t at es o r fed eral co u rt s ex cep t

t h e Un i t ed St at es Su p rem e Co urt .” Gr es ha m v. Ha r ri s , 3 2 9 Ga. Ap p. 4 6 5

, 4 6 7 (7 6 5

SE2 d 4 0 0) (2 0 1 4 ). W e d ecl in e t o al t er t h e es t ab l i s h ed Geo rg i a ru l e t h at v eh icl es , l i k e

an y o t h er i t em o r l o cat i o n wi t h i n t h e cu rt i lag e o f a res id en ce, are n o t to b e search ed

wi t h o u t a warran t

, co ns en t, o r ex i g en t ci rcu m s t an ces

. See O ’Br ya nt

, s u p ra. Here, t h e

t ri al co urt ex p li ci t l y fo u n d t h at “ t h ere was i n s u ffi ci en t ev i d en ce t h at t h e veh i cl e was

ev en o perat i o n al t o s u p p ort a fi n d i n g o f ex i gen cy .” G iv en t h at fi n d i n g o f fact

, to

wh i ch we m

u s t s h o w deferen c e, th e rat i o n al e fo r t h e au t om o b il e ex cep t i o n as

d el i n eat ed i n S

a r d en , s u p ra, d o es n ot ex i s t h ere.

Ou r Su p rem e Co u rt h as recen t l y rei t erat ed

, i n a un an im ou s o p i n i o n , t h at we are

b o u n d t o t h ree s tan d ard s i n rev i ewi n g a t ri al co urt ’ s ru l in g o n a m o t i o n t o s u p p res s :

Fi rs t

, an ap p el l at e co u rt g en eral ly m u s t accep t t h os e fi n d i ng s u n les s t h ey

are cl earl y erro neo u s

. Seco n d

, an ap p el l at e co u rt m u s t co n st ru e th e

ev i d en t i ary reco rd i n th e l i g h t m o s t fav o rab l e to t h e fact u al fi n d i n g s an d

ju d g m en t of t h e tri al co u rt

. An d t h ird

, an ap p el l at e co u rt g en eral l y m u s t

l i m i t i t s co n s i d erat i on o f t h e d i s p u t ed fact s to t h os e ex p res s l y fo u nd b y

t h e t ri al co u rt

.

8(Ci t at i o n s , p u n ct u at i on , an d fo o t n o t es o m i t t ed .) Hu g h es v. S t a t e , 2 9 6 Ga. 74 4

, 7 4 6 (1 )

(7 7 0 SE2 d 6 36 ) (2 0 1 5 ). W e can n o t rewei g h t h e ev i d en ce, p art i cu l arl y i n o rd er t o rel y

u p o n fact s ex p res s l y d i s co u n t ed b y t h e t ri al co u rt

.

Th e s p eci al co n cu rren ce reco g n i zes t h at t h e arg u m en t t h a t t h e s earch was

p erm i s s i b l e as i nc i d e n t t o t h e arres t o f t h e ap p el l ees u n d er Ar iz on a v. Ga n t

, 5 5 6 U.

S. 3 3 2

, 3 3 6 (I) (1 2 9 SCt 17 1 0

, 1 7 3 LE2 d 4 85 ) (2 0 0 9 ), was n ev er rai s ed b el o w an d i s

t h erefo re wai v ed

, b u t n ev ert hel es s ad dres ses t h e m eri t s o f t h is an al y s i s

. Ou r ab i l i t y

t o co n s i der t h i s i s s u e i s precl u d ed b ecau s e we can n o t en g ag e i n m ean i n g fu l an al y s i s

p reci s el y b ecau s e i t was n o t rai s ed b el o w

. No ev i d en ce was p res en t ed as t o wh et h er

t h e ap p el l ees were i n fact arres t ed , o r s i m p l y d et ai n ed fo r o ffi cer s afet y p u rs u an t t o

wh at offi cers co n t en d ed was a s earch u n d er t h e “ au t o m o bi l e ex cep t io n .” See Br a n n o n

v. S t a t e , 2 3 1 G a. Ap p

. 8 47

, 8 5 0 (5 00 SE2 d 5 9 8 ) (1 9 9 8 ) (d i s t i ng u is h i n g b et ween

“ t raffi c Ter r

y s t o p ” fo r o ffi cer s afet y an d “ a s earch co n du ct ed i n ci den t t o arres t .”) No r

was ev i d en ce d ev el o p ed reg ard i n g t h e i nd i ci a o f arres t o r wh et h er t h e ap pel l an t s were

wi t h i n “ reach i n g d i s tan ce” o f t h e v eh i cl e wi t h i n t he m ean in g o f Ga nt , s u p ra.

M o reo v er, ev en i f we w ere t o co n s i d er t h is arg u m en t, an d ev en accep t i n g t h e

co n ten t i o n t hat p ro b ab le cau s e ex i st ed t o arres t ap p el l ees , th e o ffi cers st il l were n ot

au t h o ri zed t o en t er t h e cu rt i l ag e t o m ak e t h e arres t s

. On t he c o n t r a r y , “ t o ju s t i fy a

9n o n co n s en s u al

, warran t l es s i n tru s i o n i n to a p ers o n ’ s h om e, t h ere m u s t ex i s t p ro b ab l e

cau s e f o r t h e a rr es t o r s ea r ch i n s i de t h e h o m e a n d a s ho wi n g o f ex i g en t

ci rcu m s t an ces

. [Ci t .] ” (Ci t at i on s an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t e d ; em p h as i s s u p p l i ed .)

W a t so n v. S t a t e , 3 0 2 Ga. Ap p . 6 1 9 , 6 2 2 (1 ) (6 9 1 SE2 d 3 7 8 ) (2 0 1 0 ) (p o l i ce v i o l at ed

Fo u rt h Am en d m en t b y o p en i ng t rai l er d o o r wi t h o u t ex i g en t ci rcu m s t an ces ). See al s o

Co r ey v. S t a t e , 3 2 0 Ga. Ap p

. 35 0

, 3 5 5 (1 ) (b ) (7 39 SE2 d 7 9 0 ) (2 0 1 3) (ev en i f o ffi cer

h ad pro b ab l e cau s e t o arres t

, n o ex i g en t ci rcu m s t an ces au t ho ri zed en t ry i n to cu rt i l ag e

t o effect arres t .) An d “ t h e p res en ce o f co n trab an d wi t h o u t m o re d o es n o t g i v e ri se to

ex i g en t ci rcu m s tan ces , s uffi ci en t t o au th o r i ze a warran t l es s en t ry i n t o a h o m e.”

(Ci t at i o n s , p u n ct u at i on an d fo o t n o t e o m i t t ed

. ) S t a t e v. Gr a y , 2 8 5 G a. Ap p. 1 2 4

, 1 2 8

(2 ) (6 45 SE2 d 5 9 8 ) (2 0 0 7 ). Here, t h e o ffi cers h ad n o m o re ri g h t t o en t er t h e cu rt i l ag e

o f t h e ho m e t o m ak e an arres t t h an t h ey d i d t o en t er i t t o i n s t i t u t e a s earch

. In d eed

,

t h e y ack n o wl ed g ed as m

u ch b y rel y i ng up o n t he “ au t om o b i l e ex cep t io n ” t o ju s ti fy

t h ei r s earch

.

In ad d i t i o n , t h e cas es ci ted b y t h e s p eci al co n cu rren ce are i n ap po s i te h ere. In

G a n t

, s up ra, t h e arres t i t s el f was au t h o ri zed b ecau s e o f an ou t s tan d i n g warr a n t f o r

Gan t’ s arres t

, an d b ecau s e p ol i ce o b s erv ed h i m d ri v i n g wi t h o u t a li cen se as h e en t ered

h i s d ri v eway

. 5 5 6 U. S. at 3 3 6 -3 3 7 ( I). An d i n Ki r kl a n d v. S t a t e , 3 1 6 Ga. Ap p

. 3 1 0

10(7 2 8 SE2 d 9 0 7 ) (2 0 1 2 ), we h el d t h at an o ffi cer in i t i at ed a p erm i s s i b le fi rs t -t i er

en co un t er , an d Ki rk l an d co n sen t ed t o a p at -d o wn an d t o t h e rem ov al of a b ag

co n tai n i n g co n t rab an d fro m h i s p o ck et

. Id

. at 3 1 2 -3 13

. M oreo v er, w h i l e we n o t ed in

p as s i n g t h at Ki rk l an d ’ s car was “ back ed i nt o a p ri vat e r e s i den ce” wh en t h e o ffi cer

ap p ro ach ed h i m , i d . at 3 1 0

, n o fact s were n ot ed reg ard i n g t h e t y p e of res id en ce, t h e

ex t en t o f t h e cu rt i lag e, o r t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e car wi t h referen ce t o “ t h e p ro x i m i t y o f

t h e area cl ai m ed t o b e cu rt i l ag e t o t h e h o m e, wh et h er t h e area i s i n cl u d ed wi t h i n an

en cl o s u re s u rro u n d i n g t h e h o m e, t h e n at u re o f t h e us es t o w h i ch t he area i s p u t

, an d

t h e s t ep s t ak en b y t h e res i d en t t o p ro t ect t h e area fro m o b s erv at i o n b y p eo pl e p as s i n g

b y .” (Ci t at i o n s an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed .) E s p i n o z a v. St a t e , 2 6 5 Ga. 1 7 1

, 1 7 3 (2 ) (4 5 4

SE2 d 7 6 5 ) (1 9 95 ). “ Qu es t i o n s wh i ch m erel y l urk in th e reco rd

, n ei t h er bro u g h t t o t h e

at t en ti o n o f t h e co urt n o r ru l ed u p o n , are no t t o b e co n s i d ered as h av i ng b een s o

d e c i d e d as t o co n st i tu te preced en t s .” (Ci t at i o n s an d p u n ct u at i on o m i t t ed .) S t a t e v.

Ou t en , 2 8 9 Ga. 5 7 9 , 5 82 (7 1 4 SE2 d 5 8 1 ) (2 0 11 ).

Th e t ri al co u rt ’ s co n cl u s i o n t h at th e offi cers fai l ed t o o b t a i n a warran t an d

en t ered th e cu rt il ag e wi t h o ut co n s en t o r ex i g en t ci rcu m s tan ces i s s up p o rt ed b y t h e

ev i d en ce, an d we t h erefo re affi rm

.

11Ju d

g men t a f f i r m ed

. Ba r n es

, P. J., co n cu r s

. Ri ckma n

, J., co n cu r

s s p eci a l l y a n d

i n t he j u d g men t o n l y.

12A1 6 A0 79 2 . THE STATE v . VICKERS et al

.

R I C K M A N , J u d g e, co n cu rri n g s p eci al l y an d i n ju d g m en t o n l y

.

I d i s ag ree wi th t h e m ajo ri t y o p i n i o n t o t h e ex t en t t h at i t can b e read t o creat e

a b ri g h t-l i n e ru l e t h at t h e au t o m o b i l e ex cep t i o n m a y n ev er ju s t ify t h e warran t l es s

s earch o f a v eh i cl e l ocat ed o n a p ri v at e res i den ce– ev en wi t h i n i t s cu rt i l ag e– or i m p li es

t h at s u ch a ru l e i s al read y e s t ab l i s h ed u n d er Geo rg i a l aw. Nev ert h el es s , I am

co n st rai ned t o affi rm t h e ru li n g o f t h e t ri al co u rt u n d er o u r s t an d ard o f rev i ew an d t h e

arg u m en t s p res erv ed b efo re t hat co u rt

.

I w ri t e s ep arat el y b ecau s e I t h i n k i t i m p o rt an t t o reco g n i ze t h at at n o t i m e d id

t h e o ffi cers i n t h i s cas e act u n reas o n ab l y in t h e co nt ex t o f t h e si t uat i o n p res en t ed t o

t h em , n o r d i d t hei r warran t l es s s earch o f t h e v eh i cl e at i s s u e co n s t i t u t e a v i o l at i o n o f

t h e Fo u rt h Am en dm e nt; r a t he r , the se arch was au t h o ri zed i n ci d en t t o ap p el l ees ’ arres t

.

Becau s e t h i s arg u m en t was n ot p res e r v e d o n th e reco rd b efo re us , ho wev er, we arep recl u d ed fro m co n s i d eri n g i t. 1 See McCo rma ck v. S t a t e , 3 2 5 G a. Ap p

. 1 8 3

, 1 8 8 (1 )

(b ) (7 51 SE2 d 9 04 ) (2 0 1 3 ).

Th e offi cers h ere p ers o n al l y o b s erv ed

, fro m a p l ace th ey w ere l awfu l l y en t i t l ed

t o b e, ap p el l ees “ h o t b ox i n g ” i n a v eh i cl e, s m el l ed th e s t ro n g– at o n e p o i nt

“ o v erwh el m i n g ”– o d o r o f m ari ju an a, v i ewed s m ok e i n s id e o f t h e v eh i c l e s o t h i ck i t

was d i ffi cu l t t o s ee fro m o ne s i d e o f t h e car t o t h e ot h er, an d wi t n es s ed a p p e l l ees

p as s i n g wh at

, in t h e i r t rai n i n g an d ex p eri en ce, t h ey bel i ev ed t o b e m ari ju an a. Th ey

t h u s h ad p ro b ab l e cau s e t o arres t ap p el l ees

. See H u g h es v. S ta t e , 2 9 6 Ga. 7 4 4, 7 4 8 (2 )

(7 7 0 SE2 d 6 3 6 ) (2 0 1 5 ) (p ro b ab l e cau s e t o arres t req u i res “ [f] act s an d ci rcu m s t an ces

wi t h i n t h e o ffi cer’ s k n owl ed g e t h at are s u ffi ci en t t o w arran t a p ru d en t p ers o n

. . . in

b el i ev i n g

. . . t h at th e s u s p ect has co m m i t t ed

, i s co m

m i t t i n g , o r i s ab o u t t o co m m i t an

o ffen s e”) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ). Becau s e t hey were au t h ori zed t o arres t

ap p el l ees , t h ey were al s o au t h o ri zed t o co n d uct a search o f t h e v eh i cl e in ci d en t t o t h at

1 Th e St at e d i d no t arg u e s ear c h i n c i d en t t o arres t d u ri n g th e heari ng o n t h e

m o ti o n t o s u p p res s

. Fo ll o wi ng t h at heari n g , t h e t ri al c o u r t o rd ered t h e part i es to

s u b m i t ad d i t i o n al b ri efi n g i n o rd er t o d i s cu s s u n der wh at au t h o ri ty th e offi cers were

p e r m i t t e d t o co n d u ct a warran t l es s s earch o f t h e v eh i cl e. T h e ad di t i o n al b ri efs

, h o wev er, were ei t h er n ev er s ub m i t t ed o r n o t fi l ed i n t h e t ri al co u rt an d are n o t p art o f

t h e ap p el l at e reco rd

.

2l awfu l arres t

, r e g a r d l e ss o f t he v eh i cl e’ s l ocat i o n

. 2 See Ar i z o n a v. Ga n t

, 5 5 6 U. S.

3 3 2

, 3 5 1 (VI) (1 2 9 SCt 17 1 0

, 17 3 LE2 d 4 8 5 ) (2 0 0 9 ) (“ Po l ice m ay s earch a v eh i cl e

i n ci d en t to a recen t o ccu p an t ’ s arres t

. . . i f

. . . i t i s reas o n ab le to b el iev e t h e v eh i cl e

c o n t a i n s ev i d en ce o f t h e offen s e o f arres t.” ); Ki r kl a nd v. S t a te

, 3 1 6 Ga. A p p

. 3 1 0

,

3 1 3 (7 28 SE2 d 9 0 7 ) (2 0 1 2 ).

2 It i s i rrel ev an t t o o u r co n s i d erat i o n w hether the o fficers believed themselves to be
operating purs u a n t t o the “vehicle ex ception” to the warrant requirement, since t h e o b ject i v e

n at u re o f Fo u rt h Am en d m en t i n q u i ri es i n to t h e reas o n ab l en es s o f p o l i ce co n d u ct h as b een rep eat ed l y em

p h as i zed by t h e Un i t ed St at es Su p rem e Co u rt

. See, e.g

. , W h r en v. Un i ted S t a t es , 5 1 7 U. S. 8 06

, 8 1 3 (II) (A) (1 1 6 SCt 1 7 6 9

, 1 3 5 LEd 2 d 8 9 ) (1 9 9 6 ) (“ [T] h e fact t hat t h e o ffi cer d oes n o t h av e t h e s t at e o f m i nd wh i ch i s h y p o t h ecat ed by

t h e reas on s w h i ch p r o v i d e t he l eg al ju s t i fi cat i o n fo r t h e o ffi cer’ s act io n do es n ot
i n v al i d at e t h e act i o n t ak en as l on g as t h e ci rcu m s t an ces , vi ewed o bject i v el y , ju s t i fy

t h at act i o n .”) (ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); Ma r yl a n d v. Ma co n , 47 2 U. S. 4 6 3,

4 7 0 -4 7 1 (II) (A) (1 05 SCt 2 7 7 8

, 8 6 L E d 2 d 3 7 0 ) (1 9 8 5 ) (“ W h et her a Fo u rt h

Am en d m en t v i o lat i o n h as o ccu rred t u rn s o n an ob ject i v e as s es s m en t o f t h e o ffi cer’ s

act i on s i n l i g h t o f th e fact s an d ci rcu m s t an ces co n fro n ti n g h i m at t he t i m e, an d n o t o n

t h e offi cer’ s act u al st at e o f m i n d at t h e t i m e t h e ch al l en g ed act i o n was t a k en .”) (ci t at i o n , p u nct uat i o n an d em p h as i s o m i t t ed ); S

co t t v. Un it ed S t a t e s , 4 3 6 U .S. 1 2 8,

1 3 6 (II) (9 8 SCt 1 7 17

, 5 6 LEd 2d 1 68 ) (1 9 7 8 ) (“ Su b ject i ve i n t en t al o n e

. . . d o es n ot

m ak e o t herwi se l awfu l co n d u ct i l l eg al o r u n co n s t i t u t i o nal .”).

3