were looking at was not the

original but extensive inexpert

repainting (fig. 15–2). We discussed our suspicions with Barbara Wolanin, Curator for the

Architect of the Capitol, and

were subsequently contracted

by that office in 1993 to undertake a one-year technical

study of the corridor decoration. 

The 1993 study confirmed

that the unsettling qualities

that distract from the extraordinary beauty of the Brumidi

Corridors are the result of

changes made subsequent to

their creation (fig. 15–3). We

discovered that the original

paintings lay essentially intact

buried under repainted layers,

that they are of extraordinary beauty and executed in a rare

and sophisticated technique, and that they can be recovered by removal of the overpaint (fig. 15–4). We arrived at

these conclusions by working backwards through time. Beginning with the topmost layer, and analyzing and removing layer by layer until we reached the original, we were

able to reconstruct what had happened to the decorations. 

Apparently by accident and misunderstanding, the

overpaint introduced changes that destroyed both the details and the original sweeping integrity of the design.

Other changes in execution medium and lighting compounded the disruption. In the course of our study of the

corridors, we used techniques such as laboratory analysis

he ornate decoration of

the Brumidi Corridors

has long dazzled visitors

in its sheer complexity. The variety of motifs and the masterly

compositions are tributes to

Brumidi’s skill and experience

as an artist, historian, and designer (fig. 15–1). Yet, despite

the years and highly skilled

labor that Brumidi and his assistants devoted to its execution, the decoration that resulted appeared at best only

extremely elaborate. We found

it puzzling that the high quality of Brumidi’s execution

technique elsewhere was not

evident throughout the corridor decoration, and that closeup, the minute details of the

decoration appeared crude and awkwardly painted in

muddy and inharmonious colors. The meticulous skill and

craftsmanship that might be expected in the painting of

such an important decoration were mysteriously absent. In

examining and testing many of the painted images very

closely, we concluded that the uppermost layer of paint we

205

CHAPTER 15

The Process of Change 

in the Brumidi Corridors

CHRISTIANA CUNNINGHAM-ADAMS AND GEORGE W. ADAMS

T

Fig. 15–2. Test removal of overpaint. In comparison with

the overpainted areas, the original painting is higher in

quality, with the details of the black-headed grosbeak and vine

delicately and accurately painted on a white background.

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.

Fig. 15–1. Main Corridor at North Entry before

conservation of the walls. Over time, repainting of the walls

obscured the light backgrounds, vivid colors, and delicate details,

and the harmony with the ceiling vaults was lost. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams. 
of execution medium and pigment types; infrared and ultraviolet fluorescence photography; reflectance spectrophotometry; archival research, including photographs

preserved in the Curator’s Office; and long and frequent

discussions with Capitol personnel familiar with the recent maintenance of the building. But the most important tools were frequent reflection on, and discussion of,

the import of each new clue we found. The windows we

opened through the overpaint at carefully selected sites

confirmed, in context, the hypotheses we were continually refining. Our study also revealed a great deal about

the process of change, which proved to be a coherent tale

in which each little step was reasonable by itself, but

which led more or less steadily away from the original

scheme at a quickening pace.

At the curator’s request, we devised a restoration plan

that will restore the corridors’ original aesthetic character

and safeguard them from future transformation through

the use of techniques such as reflectance spectrophotometry. The restoration plan was approved by Congress, and

the ten-year project was begun with a pilot phase funded

for 1996. In the initial phase of the project, the large sections of original surface that were uncovered fulfilled the

promise of our research (fig. 15–5) and provided the final

confirmation of our hypothesis of the process of change.

The metamorphosis we had slowly unraveled proved to

be an exemplary case study of the gradual transformation

sometimes imposed on a work of art that can camouflage

the artist’s intent and take the art out of its proper place

in time and art history.

Change in Palette

The process of change in the Brumidi corridors started

with a shift of palette toward yellow and brown. It is apparent that since they were originally painted between

1857 and 1859, the wall paintings, which are the most

vulnerable to constant damage, have been worked on

many times. In addition to the repair of numerous

206

Fig. 15–3. Section of the North Corridor. Overpainting 

over the years darkened and coarsened the original decoration of

the walls, leaving the borders a murky green and the background

fields yellow. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.

Fig. 15–4. Section of the North Corridor with computer

enhancement. A computer-generated image predicts the

appearance of the corridor when returned to its original colors. Note

the airiness of the light panel backgrounds, the suggestion of stone

structure in the walls, and the visual unity of wall and ceiling. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.
walls and ceilings became obscured. Because of discolored varnish and/or changes in taste, green was introduced into the wall panel surrounds, further weakening

this unity and increasing the likelihood of further change.

By the 1960s, the unity of the corridors had been so obscured that a new lighting system was designed to illuminate the ceilings as separate visual entities from the walls,

creating a sharp division at the top of the cornice molding. Not long after that, the cornice molding was painted

with darker colors to match the walls.

The change in the walls is far greater than the change

in the ceilings, because the walls were more subject to

damage and thus were more frequently overpainted.

However, although the ceilings have only a thin layer of

overpaint, and some original work remains visible, the

color of the overpaint was chosen to match discolored

varnish on the walls, so that the overall palette of the ceilings is also substantially altered.

The history of this evolution can be seen in the paint

stratigraphy. The scala (a graduated exposure revealing the

scratches, nicks, and gouges, it appears that approximately every twenty years, instead of being cleaned of accumulated dirt, the murals were repainted to freshen

them up. With newly dirtied colors matched in each new

repainting, the palette gradually darkened. Brumidi’s own

restoration of the wall paintings in 1861 may have been

the first of the six major restoration treatments we identified. In the first two treatments, the paintings were retouched in color, technique, and style very similar to

those of the original. As time distanced restorers from the

original execution, however, understanding of the original intent was lost and distortions were introduced. With

time, the drift accelerated as the two important constraints against change were diminished. One was memory of the original scheme, which faded with time and

changes in personnel. The other constraint lost was the

understanding of the harmony and traditional meaning of

the entire original classical scheme. As the colors of the

walls were shifted away from the colors of the ceilings toward darker browns, the original relationship between the

207

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE IN THE BRUMIDI CORRIDORS

Fig. 15–5. Patent Corridor with two conserved panels.

Exposure of the first large sections of original paint layers in the

initial phase of the corridor restoration produced bright, limpid

colors that dramatically contrast with the untreated panel to 

the right. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.
paint layers step by step) (fig. 15–6) confirms what one

would expect: there was no sudden, dramatic change of

color, but rather a gradual process of drift, which varied in

different areas. For example, in the northern end of the

Main Corridor, the wall panel surrounds are presently a

chocolate color. Visually, this region now seems utterly unconnected to the adjacent North Corridor, but it originally

had the same colors as the North and West Corridors.

The colors found in the original decorations (such as

the Pompeian red and sapphire blue) are, not surprisingly,

the same as those found in the ancient Roman murals

that inspired Brumidi, and they are also found in the

Minton floor tiles. The light gray borders of the wall panels originally suggested carved stone moldings. As the

palette drifted, it lost its meaning within the traditional

decorative vocabulary. For example, the original blue

fields have become dark green, through the yellowing of

varnish over time or from repainting to match the yellowed varnish, effectively disconnecting these areas visually from the blue in the floor tiles, and the light gray

borders have become pea green.

Yellow overpainting in the panel background fields encroached on the outlines of the birds and animals, obscuring their original accurate details. In some areas, the

figures have been completely repainted.

Execution Techniques

Brumidi’s original choice of execution technique was just

as important to his intended effect as his choice of colors.

Our study showed that he chose three particular techniques to create the combined effect he desired in the

corridors. Each was selected for the texture, color absorption, and reflectance it would produce, and for its effect

in concert with the other two techniques. The concealment of these effects with overpainting had done much to

reduce the decoration’s original quality.

Brumidi used primarily three different execution techniques on the walls and ceilings in the Senate corridors.

First, the lunettes that Brumidi painted himself were executed in buon fresco, in which pigments moistened with

water are applied to wet mortar and become incorporated

208

Fig. 15–6. Test window showing the gradual color shift in

overpaint. This scala through layers of overpaint at the edge of the

trompe l’oeil molding shows nine major paint layers. They shift

from the lowest, original, layer of stony light gray to muddy green.

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.

Fig. 15–7. Sample taken from a panel detail seen through a

microscope. This photomicrograph shows the layers of mortar,

lime wash fresco, and accent color, surmounted by several layers of

repaint and heavy, yellow-tinted varnish.

Photo: Ulderico Santa Maria and Cooperativa Punta Terra.

} varnish

} oil repaint

} tempera accent

} green pigment in 

lime wash

} lime wash

} yellow fresco base

mortar }
tions of the trompe l’oeil molding components is visible.

Removal of the overpaint in layers revealed that the shift

came about gradually, each new layer of overpaint deviating only slightly from the layer before it. 

In the course of the changes in palette, medium, and

painting technique, the liveliness of the ancient Roman

and Renaissance design became leaden, as elements were

rigidly replicated without understanding of their original

reference and so were robbed of their original decorative

spirit. The magnitude of the changes that have occurred

over the years can be directly seen by comparing the present appearance with the original work that lies beneath

(fig. 15–8). The process of change began as the white

(now yellow) central field was repainted, at first with

some pains to avoid overpainting the decorative flora and

fauna. But here and there, the overpaint encroached onto

the detail so that, over time, overpainting of the entire

decorative element became necessary.

in the mortar as it cures, leaving the texture of the rough

mortar visible. The corridor ceilings were executed in

tempera, a paint formed of pigments mixed in a watersoluble binding medium such as glue or gum. The surface

of the tempera painting has a somewhat chalky, velvet appearance that adds the appearance of depth to the painting and looks similar to fresco from a distance. A third

technique we discovered in our study is the relatively rare

fresco in scialbatura, or lime wash fresco technique. The

corridor walls, erroneously thought to have been painted

originally in oil, are primarily executed in this fresco technique, in which successive layers of pigment were applied

to lime washes brushed onto the surface of fresh mortar

(fig. 15–7). The resulting effect is a crystalline structure

with the slightly transparent appearance of a smooth, colored stone. The matte surface enhances the illusion of

three-dimensionality. In some places, the pale, transparent colors of some details were heightened and intensified

by the addition of tempera over the surface of the fresco

in scialbatura. It is not possible to prove absolutely

whether these additions were part of the original painting

technique or part of an early restoration.

Since the turn of the century, all of the repainting of

the corridor has been done in oil. The effect of this

medium, especially when covered by the yellowing varnish applied for protection, is to distort colors and create

a high gloss that weakens the effectiveness of the original

trompe l’oeil with its softly painted shadows. Heavy layers

of varnish further flatten the three-dimensional illusion,

which makes some visitors believe they are looking at

wallpaper.

Stylistic Drift

Finally, a change in painting technique led to a change in

style. The original trompe l’oeil was painted freehand,

giving it a softness and vitality of appearance that was

complementary to the soft texture of the original medium

and the soft, limpid colors of the original palette. The

trompe l’oeil moldings presently visible, however, have

largely been painted with edge guides or with masking

tape. Although the difference is subtle, the effect is great.

The human eye is very sensitive to sharp lines, and the

sharp lines of the present trompe l’oeil distract the eye

and weaken the appearance of the other decoration. At

the same time, the delicate shading used to create the illusion of depth in the original trompe l’oeil has been

coarsened, partly as an inevitable result of this change in

technique. Combined with the effect of the change in

medium from lime wash fresco to oil, this coarsening

greatly flattened the appearance of the wall. In all of the

test windows we opened, a marked shift in the propor209

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE IN THE BRUMIDI CORRIDORS

Fig. 15–8. Panel in main corridor with early test windows.

The discovery of the much lighter colors and delicate details showed

the value of uncovering Brumidi’s original designs. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.
On the overpainted surfaces, the stylistic drift can be

seen in samples of acanthus, which appear frequently in

the corridors. The drift is so conspicuous throughout the

Senate wing that the painted acanthus leaves can be used

as an indicator of the amount of change that has occurred

in any section of the hallways since that section was first

painted (fig. 15–9).

A study of the birds of the Brumidi Corridors also offers insight into changes in the decorative scheme because each was intended to portray accurately a creature

whose actual appearance is known to us. The birds obviously were painted with skill and with the intent to be

faithful to nature; therefore, even though painted by

different hands and at different times, they can be used

to measure the degree of stylistic change. The corridors

can be seen as an ecosystem in which the natural

processes of evolution, interbreeding, and genetic leaps

remain active as a result of overpainting. Generally the

birds show a tendency toward the appearance of their

corridor neighbors, as if by cross-species interbreeding;

natural forces seem to encourage shrinking and coarsening of appendages and outline; occasionally a grand mutation occurs. Just as DNA divergence forms a measure

of evolutionary distance, the divergence of these birds

from their natural models forms a good measure of

the degree of overpainting that has been applied to

them and probably, therefore, to the surrounding decoration (fig. 15–10). In the first phase of the restoration in 1996, panels decorated with daisies and roses

were restored to reveal a wide variety of more colorful

flowers such as hydrangea, poppies, hibiscus, and morning glories; the daisies and roses painted over them in

the 1930s repainting reflect the American tastes of that

period (fig. 15–11). 

210

Fig. 15–9. Comparison of overpainted acanthus leaves. In

the corridors, the acanthus leaves range from three-dimensional

forms that appear to be growing (left) to crude and flat outlines

resulting from heavy-handed overpainting. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.
211

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE IN THE BRUMIDI CORRIDORS

Fig. 15–10. Varied conditions of overpainted birds. The

original birds of the corridors, such as the blue macaw at left, were

painted with the accuracy of good ornithological illustration of the

period. In areas subject to damage, birds have “mutated” through

repainting. The belted kingfisher, for example, has lost its

distinctive crest and gained a sparrow’s tail. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.

Fig. 15–11. Details of floral panel before and after

conservation. The heavy oil overpainting of the uppermost layer

(left) showed stiff, leaden flowers of unspecific character.

Underneath them were found delicate and brilliant morning

glories, poppies, and hibiscus (right) on the original paint layer,

which needed only minor repair. 

Photo: Cunningham-Adams.
Lighting

In the course of time, at least two major renovations of

the corridor lighting system were made. The first was the

introduction of electric lighting; the second was a renovation of the electrical system the 1960s, a period when reflected lighting was gaining popularity. These changes

were undoubtedly necessary, and they achieved appropriate overall light levels. But they brought with them some

unfortunate results—in particular, a large imbalance between the illumination of the ceiling and the illumination

of the walls (fig. 15–12). This imbalance severely disrupts

the original visual unity of the ceilings and walls and

makes the cornice a harsh dividing line between the surfaces, compounding the effect of the changes in palette

and execution medium on the walls.

This imbalance was almost certainly not present with

the original gas lighting system. When it was replaced

with electric lighting, the fixtures on the cornices of the

Patent, North, and West Corridors were simply bare

bulbs in pairs and triplets at an angle above the horizontal. Although not aesthetically desirable, such fixtures

would have resulted in fairly even distribution of light in a

transverse vertical plane and much less contrast between

the walls and ceilings, as confirmed by photographs from

the 1950s.

Before the present fixtures were installed in the 1960s,

the Central Corridor was lit with small glass globes at the

groins. Although this lighting system had a number of

disadvantages compared to the present system, it is interesting to note how clean the vista appears in early photos

without the disruption of the present chandeliers.

Conclusion

The study of the corridors strengthened our belief in some

philosophical precepts in conservation analysis of wall

paintings. One is trust that the artist will have considered

and incorporated all the elements of the environment in

his design, so that lighting and execution medium are as

important to the final effect as subject matter or palette.

Each element in a complex such as the Brumidi Corridors

must be examined in light of an understanding of the

whole. Conservation and historical judgments cannot be

made on the basis of personal or contemporary taste. One

must trust that the original was aesthetically satisfying. We

began the study with respect for Brumidi and an expectation of finding excellence. We were surprised only that the

genius and integrity of the corridor design were so much

greater even than we expected, and that so many new

riches can continually be found in his work.

212

Fig. 15–12. Effect of modern lighting. The light reflecting ten

times brighter on the ceiling of the corridors than on the walls

exaggerates the visual separation of the two elements. 
213

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE IN THE BRUMIDI CORRIDORS