THE CLARK YEARS,

1865–1902

337

W hen Walter left Washington, 

neither the extension nor the

dome was complete. A temporary

wooden floor closed the eye of the inner dome,

blocking views to Brumidi’s half-finished Apotheosis of Washington. Only one of the porticoes was

finished on the outside, but the interiors of the

wings were complete. Sheds and shops that littered the grounds were being torn down one by

one as they ceased being useful. There was now

talk of enlarging and landscaping the grounds, giving them professional attention after their years as

a disheveled construction site.

Walter’s departure caused some commotion in

the office. On June 1, 1865, the commissioner of

public buildings appointed his son, B. B. French,

Jr., architect of the Capitol extension and wrote

Secretary Harlan to inform him of the fact. In a few

days the secretary overturned French’s act,

reminding him that the office was filled by a presidential appointment. French immediately put his

son to work as a clerk in the architect’s office,

bestowing the impressive title of “supervising engineer” upon him.

Within a week of leaving Washington, Walter

was notified that the president had accepted his

resignation. Throughout the summer of 1865, however, he thought there would be a change of heart

in the administration and awaited a recall. His legal

troubles with Anderson and curiosity about the

library extension brought him back regularly to

Washington. At the commissioner’s urging, the secretary of interior ordered the library project advertised for bids, attracting a variety of builders and

entrepreneurs. Samuel Strong, the superintendent

of the Capitol extension forced out of office in 1852,

reappeared as a contractor, as did Charles B.

Cluskey, a local architect. Charles Fowler and his

former partners, Adrian Janes and Charles Kirtland, also resubmitted bids. The lowest offer, however, was received from the Architectural Iron

Works of New York City, which was awarded the

contract on June 29, 1865. Under French’s supervision work resumed on the library project the following day. Walter soon heard that the ironworkers

regretted bidding so low ($146,000) and were looking for ways to annul their contract. He shuddered

at the prospect of construction shortcuts and inferior workmanship that would reflect poorly on him

as the architect. But now he was only a sideline

observer, viewing the situation from a distance.

Walter wrote to the assistant secretary of the interior about the troubled project:

I would not have the responsibility of that work

upon me in its present relations and conditions

for any consideration the Dept. could suggest.

If the Secy. had talked 10 minutes with me on

the subject before he put the ball in motion, I

CHAPTER TEN

Scene at the Pennsylvania Avenue Entrance to the Capitol at

Washington on the Daily Adjournment of Congress (Detail) 

by F. Dielman, Harper’s Weekly, April 28, 1866
338 History of the United States Capitol

think he would have saved himself some trouble—The accounts I have of the anxieties of

the contractors are heart rendering.

1

Out of office more than a month, Walter

remained hopeful that the administration would

reconsider his resignation, but the chances were

fading fast. Soon after his resignation became

official, the secretary of the interior tapped Edward

Clark to fill the position temporarily until President

Johnson named a successor. When Walter learned

of the arrangement he thought that Clark would

refuse a permanent appointment if the office

remained under the commissioner. “The Secy. will

not find any Architect to accept the office,” he

wrote naively, “while under the degrading conditions which drove me away.” 2 Walter’s high-minded

convictions notwithstanding, Clark was hard at

work behind the scenes hoping to transform his

temporary job into a permanent appointment.

Easygoing, practical, and likable, Clark was adept

at keeping peace, making friends, and landing jobs.

On the strength of his experience and popularity,

the president appointed him architect of the Capitol extension on August 30, 1865.

During the 1865 building season, Clark completed the east portico in front of the House wing;

he raised the first column on the north portico at

the end of August. For the next year’s work, he

requested and received an appropriation of

$175,000 to continue the porticoes. To expedite

matters, Clark abandoned monolithic shafts in

favor of using two stones. In April 1866, however,

the chairman of the House Committee on Public

Buildings wrote the secretary of interior objecting

to the shortcut. He wanted to substitute eight new

monolithic shafts for the two-piece shafts already

in place. The cost would be small and the dignity

of the porticoes would be restored.3 Inside, work

progressed slowly on the library extension. By

mid-October, demolition was complete and the

roofs were under way. (The north room was occupied in the fall of 1866, while its counterpart south

of the main reading room was finished at the beginning of 1867.) The new marble floor in Statuary

Hall was also completed during the year, and the

room stood ready to receive commemorative statues from the states.

While on one of his visits to Washington in

November 1865, Walter climbed up on the scaffold

where Brumidi worked on The Apotheosis of Washington. He was disappointed not to find Brumidi

but later wrote him: “I like the picture very much;

you have greatly improved it both in figures and

tone—I think it will be perfect when seen from

below.” 4 Although the painting was finished by the

time of Walter’s unexpected visit, the artist declined

to have the scaffold removed until workmen finished

installing the gas lights that would illuminate the

picture at night: he knew that he might need to

make some adjustments after seeing the work

Portrait of Edward Clark 

by Constantino Brumidi

ca. 1865

As a student in Walter’s office, Clark (1822–1902)

moved from Philadelphia to Washington in 1851 to continue his apprenticeship. He worked at various jobs,

first for his master and later for Captain Meigs as

superintendent of the Patent Office extension.

Clark’s fifty-one-year service in the architect’s

office—thirty-seven as its head—were productive yet

unspectacular. He was more comfortable attending to

administrative details than solving design challenges,

which were left to hired consultants. This management

style perfectly suited the times and foreshadowed the way

the office would be operated in the twentieth century.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 339

View of the Capitol

from the Southeast 

ca. 1865

The east portico of the

House wing was completed

during the summer of 1865.

Portico Construction 

1865

The first column on the

north portico was raised on

August 31, 1865. Four additional shafts—two rough and

two finished—appear 

in the foreground.

Detail of Portico Stonework

The ceilings of the porticoes were marble with egg-anddart moldings outlining the deep coffers. Also seen in this

closeup view are the familiar elements of the Corinthian

order—the capital with its distinctive acanthus leaves and

volutes, and the modillions and dentils belonging to the

cornice. (1974 photograph.)
340 History of the United States Capitol

artificially lit. He also wanted time to retouch the

giornate (the joints between each day’s application

of plaster and paint) but was obliged to postpone

that job. Five hundred dollars was retained from his

fee to cover the cost of repairing the giornate, but

he was never given the chance to do the work. The

scaffold was removed in January 1866, using old

sails borrowed from the Navy Yard to catch the dirt

that would fall to the rotunda floor.5 After more

than a decade of hard work by a legion of laborers,

riggers, carpenters, machinists, foremen, pattern

makers, foundry workers, painters, glaziers, engineers, draftsmen, artists, and an architect—the

great iron dome was finished.

B. B. French, Jr., sent Walter a photograph 

of the completed painting a few weeks after the

scaffold came down. The retired architect was

impressed with the photography as well as the

painting, which he declared “a decided success.”

In his opinion the United States government had

made quite a bargain with this particular work of

art. For creating its counterpart at the Panthéon

in Paris, Antoine Jean Gros had been paid 100,000

francs and made a baron, while Brumidi’s fresco

was one-third larger, ten feet higher, and was a

“far better painting.” 6

ENLARGING 

THE GROUNDS

In his annual report for 1865, the commissioner of public buildings called

attention to the necessity of enlarging

and enclosing the Capitol grounds. The recommendation was nothing new; French himself had called

for improving the grounds while commissioner during the Pierce administration eleven years earlier.

Inner Dome

Construction of the dome was completed in January

1866 when the scaffold was removed below the 4,664-

square-foot painting, The Apotheosis of George Washington. The gigantic figures appear life-size when seen

from the floor 180 feet away. (1990 photograph.)

The Rotunda

The iron inner dome

stands on sandstone 

walls erected in the early

1820s. (1958 photograph.)
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 341

The two new wings came within a few feet of A

Street north and A Street south, and construction

activities had long since caused sections of the old

iron fence to be removed. French suggested closing a short stretch of north A Street and the equivalent stretch of south A Street in order to give the

grounds additional area. Under French’s proposal,

the land around the Capitol would have assumed

the shape of a “T,” growing from thirty-one to fortyone acres. The most attractive aspect of the proposal was that it did not require the government to

acquire private property. Closing the streets simply

united parcels of publicly owned land, with a minimal financial outlay.

On the last day of the Pierce administration,

the Senate debated the idea of closing both A

Streets and extending the grounds north and south

to both B Streets, a proposal that required the

acquisition of two privately owned city squares.

Some senators wanted to see the grounds extended

even further—all the way to C Streets north and

south and west to Third Street. An enlargement of

that scale, in some minds, better reflected the

importance of the building, but it would also

require the purchase of fifteen squares of land and

entail considerable expenditure. The more modest

of the two schemes was favored by James Bayard

of Delaware, chairman of the Senate Committee on

Public Buildings, while the more ambitious enlargement was supported by Stephen Douglas of Illinois

and William P. Fessenden of Maine. Fessenden was

convinced that the grounds would eventually

extend to C Streets north and south and argued

that it would be more economical to proceed right

away rather than wait until rising land values prohibited such acquisitions. In his address to the Senate, Fessenden said:

Now, sir, that we shall be obliged to go to a

larger extent on each side of the Capitol, and

take in some portion of those grounds is very

manifest. In the first place, to a person walking

up in this direction, when he arrives at the bottom of the grounds the Capitol can not be seen.

It makes no show, or a very small portion of it

does so. It does not present the appearance

that a building that has cost so much ought to

do. Considering for one single moment what

the feeling of this country is—that if we are not

we are to be the greatest nation on the face of

this earth, it would seem very singular to allow

the building up of this city to go on, and to be

contracted in grounds as we are at present, or

must be if what the committee proposes be

adopted, and leave it to the future to clear the

buildings surrounding the Capitol at a very

much greater cost than would be necessary at

the present time.7

Against the advice of the Committee on Public

Buildings, the Senate agreed on March 3, 1857, to

enlarge the grounds to the extensive boundaries

advocated by Douglas and Fessenden. Due to cost,

however, the measure was defeated in the House.

Year after year, the commissioner or the architect called on Congress to make a decision regarding the Capitol grounds. As different plans were

discussed, some land owners in the neighborhood

were reluctant to make improvements while others

were busily making improvements that would

increase the eventual acquisition cost to the government. Uncertainty made it difficult to rent property with long-term leases. In 1860, the district

attorney for the District of Columbia was asked to

determine the fair cash value of real estate located

within the two squares bordering the Capitol

grounds along A Streets north and south. On February 13, 1861, Robert Ould reported that it would

require about $500,000 to enlarge the grounds by

closing the streets and annexing the two privately

owned squares. The grounds would then encompass fifty-eight acres.

The Civil War prevented Congress from making the appropriation necessary to carry out any of

the enlargement schemes. In his 1865 annual

report, Edward Clark recommended the adoption

of the enlargement proposed earlier by B. B.

French so that the terracing of the west grounds

could begin. In 1866, Senator Lyman Trumbull of

Illinois resurrected Robert Ould’s estimate for

enlarging the grounds to fifty-eight acres and advocated that the government acquire the land using

the appraised values enumerated in 1861. He also

proposed landscape improvements. Trumbull noted

that the elevation of the ground at First Street east

was eight feet higher than the base of the Capitol’s

center steps, a condition that gave the building a

“very low appearance.” Removing the high ground

in front would improve not only appearances but

drainage as well.

After the war the House and Senate Committees on Public Buildings and Grounds annually

reported bills authorizing the enlargement of the

grounds, and each year objections in the House of

Representatives thwarted the legislation. Support
342 History of the United States Capitol

in the Senate was far greater, but hardly unanimous. Some objected to the expenditure as contrary to the principles of economy, and some

objected to any improvement in Washington that

would keep the seat of government from moving

westward. In 1866, for instance, Senator Jacob

Howard of Michigan claimed not to see the necessity of expending money to enlarge the grounds

when vast tracts of free land awaited in the 

Mississippi River valley. In 1870, James Harlan, the

former secretary of the interior who had returned

to the Senate, presented a petition from the Iowa

legislature objecting to any and all appropriations

for improvements in the District of Columbia, as

the removal of government to the center of the

nation was “only a question of time.” 8 Even if the

government stayed in Washington, Harlan insisted,

the expense of enlarging the Capitol grounds was

“merely a luxury and nothing else. There is no

public necessity for making this expenditure at

the present time, except to enhance the pleasure

of pleasure seekers, those who may desire to

recline in the shade of the groves located or to be

located on these grounds.” 9

Regardless of their size, the grounds required

upkeep. In 1867, $20,000 was given to the architect of the Capitol extension for grading, removing

work sheds, and improving the grounds and streets

around the Capitol. Under the terms of this otherwise minor piece of legislation the architect was

put in charge of improvements that in years past

would have been the domain of the commissioner

of public buildings. The grounds of the Capitol had

been under the supervision of the commissioner

or a board of commissioners since George Washington appointed the first board in 1791. On March

4, 1867, Radical Republicans in Congress abolished the office of commissioner as a way of punishing Benjamin Brown French for his steadfast

loyalty to President Andrew Johnson. Robert

Schenck of Ohio ridiculed French on the floor of

the House and had the clerk read a poem the commissioner wrote praising the 17th president, which

gave members a hearty “jollification.” 10 The humiliating jeer was aimed more at the scorned president, rather than at the author of the innocuous

rhyme, but it indicated the political consequence

of supporting Johnson.

Scene at the Pennsylvania Avenue

Entrance to the Capitol at Washington on

the Daily Adjournment of Congress

by F. Dielman, Harper’s Weekly, April 28, 1866

Souvenir vendors wait hopefully as sightseers leave

the grounds following an afternoon watching Congress

in session.

View of the 

Capitol, Looking

Southwest 

ca. 1867

After sixteen years,

the Capitol extension

was completed in 1867.

At the time this photograph was taken several

small items, such as 

the stone caps for the

cheek blocks of the 

Senate portico, remained

to be installed.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 343

After the office of commissioner was abolished,

its duties were transferred to the chief engineer of

the army, General A. A. Humphreys, who, in turn,

appointed General Nathaniel Michler engineer in

charge of public buildings and grounds. While the

change may have been prompted by French’s politics, it also addressed the problem that the vast

duties of the office had become too much for one

man to handle. The army, it was thought, could

surely take better care of so much valuable public

property in the capital city.

On March 14, 1867, French surrendered books,

ledgers, accounts, and other property held by the

commissioner of public buildings and accompanied General Michler to see the secretary of the

interior. Michler remained in charge of the Capitol

for a couple of weeks: on March 30 Congress

placed the maintenance of the Capitol building

and grounds in the hands of Edward Clark, who

was just about to finish work on the extension.

Thus, the architect replaced the commissioner as

the official with a permanent place in the government with oversight of the Capitol as his principal

responsibility. To reflect the expanded jurisdiction

of the office, the word “extension” was dropped

from Clark’s title, who was thereafter called the

“architect of the Capitol.”

Congress granted the architect of the Capitol

a small sum to grade the streets and regulate the

grounds around the building. Part of the funds was

used to remove work sheds and other obsolete

nuisances. In 1868, Clark again urged Congress to

decide on a plan for enlarging the grounds. He

now recommended extending the grounds to C

Streets north and south to ultimately unite them

with the Mall and the grounds around the President’s House. He envisioned carriage drives connecting these parks through a system of roads,

bridges, and underpasses that would carry pleasure vehicles without intersecting with street traffic.

“These drives could be so arranged,” Clark wrote,

“that carriages could run almost from the Capitol

to the President’s mansion without touching a

paved road.” 11 A similar circulation system, separating those enjoying the park from the traffic

merely passing through, had been successfully

incorporated into the design of New York’s Central

Park and may have inspired Clark’s proposal.

Year after year Justin Morrill, now in the Senate and chairman of the Committee on Public

Buildings and Grounds, introduced legislation to

acquire two squares of land to extend the Capitol

grounds to B Street north (modern day Constitution Avenue) and B Street south (modern day

Independence Avenue). While not as ambitious or

grand as some had hoped, it was the most realistic

proposal considering the opposition that had been

encountered every year in the House of Representatives. On March 5, 1872, the junior senator from

Vermont was hopeful that his efforts on behalf of

the Capitol grounds would prove successful:

I desire to say to the Senate that this is the

same proposition that has passed time and

again, year after year, for the addition of two

squares of ground on the east side of the Capitol. It seems that the Senate has been unanimously in the opinion that it was good economy

to take these two squares, for years, and I

should not propose the amendment again only

that I understand there is a prospect that the

other House will now assent to the proposition.12

Morrill’s amendment easily passed the Senate.

A few days later the House of Representatives took

up the matter amid a long and rambling debate.

Norton P. Chipman, a delegate from the District of

Columbia, praised the beauty and grandeur of the

Capitol that so aptly reflected the strength and

magnificence of the nation. But as soon as the eyes

focused on the grounds, he claimed, it became “a

standing reproach and disgrace to the whole people of this country.” 13 The vastly enlarged and

newly domed Capitol seemed to demand a suitable

landscape setting to correspond with the building’s grandeur. It was not dignified, he argued, to

have private property so close to the Capitol, property that housed noisy restaurants and bawdy

saloons. Delay posed hardships to his constituents

on Capitol Hill, who did not know how or whether

to proceed with improvements to their property.

Only those who wished to see the capital city relocated to the west, people Chipman characterized

as “unpatriotic” and “mischievous,” would deny

the wisdom of acquiring the two squares to enlarge

the grounds. “Let us, then,” Chipman concluded:

no longer while we point with pride to this great

building, and exhibit to our friends and visitors

its beauties and the glory of its architecture; let

us no longer be obliged, as we conduct them

from this splendid monument to American
344 History of the United States Capitol

taste, to apologize for the shabby, mean, and

disgraceful condition of its surroundings.14

Horace Maynard of Tennessee agreed, saying it

was not right to allow the Capitol to be surrounded

by such ordinary buildings and unkept grounds.

But James Garfield of Ohio, chairman of the House

Appropriations Committee (and future president

of the United States) disagreed. He thought the

grounds were large enough and did not wish to

expend public money to purchase any more. Others pointed to the spectacle of war widows and

orphans begging for their “little pensions,” while

Congress turned its back on them to spend money

foolishly on land acquisitions. Robert B. Roosevelt

of New York City thought the treasury could satisfy

the claims of all widows and still have enough

money for the Capitol grounds. To the great amusement of the House, he claimed with mock alarm

that “widows had entire control of the appropriations of this House” and felt that signs should be

posted in committee rooms warning of the danger

of approaching widows.15 Others noted the irony of

Congress buying land from individuals when it routinely gave land away to rich corporations. Examples of this practice included the train stations

built on the Mall without cost to the railroad companies, which reaped huge profits from congressional largess.

After hours of debate, with exhaustive arguments and bewildering digressions, the House

failed to reach an agreement that day on Morrill’s

plan to enlarge the Capitol grounds. But a month

later on April 12, 1872, following another long and

grueling afternoon of tedious speeches, the House

finally—and narrowly—passed an amended version of the bill. On May 8, 1872, President Ulysses

S. Grant signed legislation authorizing the secretary of the interior to purchase private property in

the two squares at prices not exceeding the 1861

appraised values. The sum of $400,000 was appropriated, and the secretary was further directed to

auction salvaged building materials and apply the

receipts to the project. After two decades of discussion, the Capitol grounds were about to receive

some professional attention.

Justin S. Morrill 

ca. 1870

Library of Congress

During his forty-three years in Washington representing Vermont in Congress, Morrill (1810–1898) exercised

considerable influence over public buildings in the capital

city. As a congressman, he introduced legislation to convert

the old House chamber into National Statuary Hall. This

action saved the historic room by giving it a new function

and thwarted those who wished to see it rebuilt into

offices. As senator, he spearheaded the successful effort 

to enlarge the Capitol grounds and was instrumental in

securing the landscaping services of Frederick Law Olmsted. He supported the idea of moving the Library of Congress out of the Capitol and into a separate facility. He 

also wished to provide the Supreme Court with a new 

building, but that proposition failed to win support during

his lifetime. In addition to his effect on Capitol Hill, 

Morrill was instrumental in securing legislation to finish

the Washington Monument.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 345

FREDERICK 

LAW OLMSTED

A year after Congress authorized

the enlargement of the grounds,

Senator Morrill secured an appropriation of $125,000 for grading, paving, and

improving the landscape around the Capitol. Soon

after the money became available in March 1873,

the senator wrote landscape architect Frederick

Law Olmsted asking that he develop a new plan

for the grounds. “I hope you may feel sufficient

interest in this rather national object,” Morrill

wrote bluntly, “not to have it botched.” 16 Olmsted

was pleased with the offer, but an eye ailment prevented him from attending to the project immediately. Due to Olmsted’s preeminence in his field,

Morrill was willing to wait. Clark was relieved at

the prospect of Olmsted taking responsibility for

landscaping the grounds. “Not having any practice

or pretensions to skill as landscape gardener,” he

reported to Congress, “I earnestly recommend

that a first-class artist in this line may be employed

to plan, plant, and lay out the grounds.” 17 This signaled a fundamental change in the way architectural and other design services were provided to

Congress. While taking care of day-to-day matters,

the architect of the Capitol would now also supervise the work of consultants hired to perform large

design tasks. It also began a century-long practice

of hiring consulting architects and other designers

without competition of any sort.

In the year after Morrill wrote his letter, Olmsted made several trips to Washington to investigate the problems he was about to face. Morrill

wanted his thoughts regarding the possibilities for

improving the Capitol grounds, as well as any additional advice regarding the landscape situation in

Washington. Olmsted set forth an analysis of existing conditions at the Capitol in a letter written on

January 26, 1874. Among his keenest concerns

was the way in which trees affected views to the

Capitol from various directions:

Under present conditions there is no position

where the eye of the observer can hold it all in

a fair perspective, none from which its proportions are not either concealed or seen in effect

a little distorted. The best points of view are

on the Northwest and the Northeast—but from

these it appears crowding over the edge of a

hill and having no proper standing room.

Frederick Law Olmsted

Photograph by Barlett F. Henny, ca. 1895 

Courtesy of the National Park Service 

Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site

After careers in farming and journalism, Olmsted (1822–1903)

became interested in landscape architecture while visiting England.

There he discovered the urban park and came to appreciate its role in

the health and happiness of city dwellers. Back in America, Olmsted

formed a partnership with an English-born architect, Calvert Vaux. In

1858 Olmsted and Vaux were commissioned to execute their plan of

Central Park in New York City, which launched Olmsted on a lifelong

career as a landscape architect. City parks in Brooklyn, Buffalo,

Detroit, and Boston were among his notable public commissions, which

built upon the success of Central Park. He also designed numerous college campuses, city squares, and suburban developments. His work at

the Capitol confirmed his position at the top of the profession. Olmsted’s landscape plan for George W. Vanderbilt’s “Biltmore” estate in

North Carolina was perhaps his most significant private commission.

One of Olmsted’s most important and lasting legacies was the scenic

conservation of Niagara Falls and the Yosemite Valley.

CH.10

09 A
346 History of the United States Capitol

The face of the hill is broken by two formal terraces which are relatively thin and weak, by no

means sustaining in forms and proportion the

grandeur of the superimposed mass.

These disadvantages of the Capitol are mainly

due to the single fact that the base lines of the

wings were not adapted to the ground they

stand upon but were laid down with relation to

those of the original much smaller central structure, and that the trees now growing about it

were planted with no thought of the present

building but only with regard to the old one. A

considerable number of those on the East have

also been introduced subsequently to the original planting and apparently without reference

to the purposes then had in view.

It is chiefly by these trees that the design of the

architect is on that side obscured. On the west

a few of the permanent trees were probably

planted with consideration only for the effect

they would have while young and small; others,

unquestionably, with the expectation that they

would be thinned out. Had this been done at

the proper time the Capitol would be seen to

much better advantage than it is now and the

general effect of the trees would be much more

umbrageous as well as more harmonious with

its architecture.18

The creation of a more sophisticated landscape

for the Capitol was Olmsted’s principal mandate.

But he also looked forward to making improvements to all the open ground from the Capitol to

Lafayette Square north of the President’s House.

As Clark had suggested earlier, the public lands of

the Botanic Garden, the Mall, and the President’s

Parade Ground (today called the “Ellipse”) could

be developed under a uniform plan that would

impose a degree of harmony amid the disparate

parks. As things stood, individual government

buildings were surrounded by their own landscapes, which differed in style and effect. The

result, Olmsted claimed, was “broken, confused

and unsatisfactory.” From a citywide perspective,

marble, granite, and brick public buildings were

sprinkled among cheaper commercial and residential buildings, producing a bewildering effect. “In

short,” Olmsted scolded, “the Capital of the Union

manifests nothing so much as disunity.” (A charge

of “disunity” was very serious at that time.) A coordinating landscape and better planning would do

much to correct the impression of helter-skelter.

His recommendations were farsighted, but they

would go unheeded until his son helped revive

them early in the next century.

On March 27, 1874, Olmsted stated the terms

under which he would begin work. He requested

an initial fee of $1,500 for a general design, in addition to traveling expenses. The next day Senator

Morrill wrote Olmsted (with the concurrence of

James H. Platt, chairman of the House Committee

on Public Building and Grounds) to accept the proposal. Morrill soon steered legislation through the

Senate authorizing employment of a topographical

engineer to survey the grounds and pinpoint every

View of the Capitol, Looking Southeast

1874

Closing A Streets north and south and buying two city squares enlarged the

grounds immediately around the Capitol to its present size of fifty-eight acres. 

This view was taken after the streets were closed but before Olmsted’s landscape

improvements were begun.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 347

tree, walk, drive, curb, bench and lamppost on the

site. An appropriation of $3,000 paid the engineering cost as well as Olmsted’s initial fee. Taking

notice of the movement toward landscape improvements, Harper’s Weekly reported in its “Home and

Foreign Gossip” column of March 7, 1874: “Discussions are going on in Congress in regards to plans

for improving and beautifying the grounds surrounding the Capitol in Washington.... Great bodies, it is said, move slowly, and when there are

several great bodies in charge of a matter, they

often do not move at all.” 19

By June 1874 Olmsted had fully digested the

special problems presented by the Capitol landscape, and he offered his general solution in a single drawing that would guide the project over the

next two decades. From the west the Capitol would

be approached by pedestrians using two shaded

walks following the lines of Pennsylvania and Maryland Avenues. Gone was the central walk, which

was overgrown with trees that blocked a particularly fine view. Secondary curving walks took longer

but easier paths up the hill and offered changing

prospects of the building and grounds. One of the

boldest features of the general plan was the suggestion for a marble terrace to replace the grass

berm, which Olmsted thought too puny to uphold

visually the stupendous structure above. A new

terrace would serve as mighty pedestal for the

Capitol and its soaring dome.

As in the past, the principal carriage entrances

to the east plaza were from the north and south. A

new entrance was created from First Street east.

Flanking it were two expansive lawns planted with

trees shading the walkways but not blocking views.

Much of the open lawn area had once been the site

of bars, boarding houses, and other private property. Throughout the plan, Olmsted imposed symmetrical order without geometric formality. Curving

walks were used in preference to straight ones, contributing to the sense of informality. Much of what

later landscape architects would call the “hardscape” —fences, walks, lamps, and such—shows

oriental, classical, and Romanesque influences. The

planting conformed to Olmsted’s idea of managed

scenery. The framing of views was an important aesthetic consideration: on a pragmatic level, Olmsted

had also to reconcile the convergence of fifteen

streets and avenues. The grounds were to be planted

not as an arboretum, but as a park-like setting that

General Plan for the Improvement of the U. S. Capitol Grounds

by Frederick Law Olmsted, 1874

Olmsted presented his overall scheme for landscape improvements in a single

drawing, shown here with east at the top. The outline of the Capitol indicated a large

east front extension and a more modest addition to the west front, where the Library

of Congress was located. The size and shape of these unauthorized additions were 

presumably provided by the architect of the Capitol.

The most ambitious aspect of Olmsted’s proposal was a new marble terrace 

adjacent to the Capitol’s north, south, and west sides. A pair of grand staircases were

reached from walks following the lines of Pennsylvania and Maryland Avenues.
348 History of the United States Capitol

would focus attention on the Capitol. Olmsted carefully and properly kept the landscape as an accessory to the architectural features of the Capitol.

On June 23, 1874, Congress approved Olmsted’s plan and put him on an annual salary of

$2,000 to provide general supervision. Along with

the approval came an appropriation of $200,000 to

be expended under the direction of the architect of

the Capitol. Clark had begun leveling the grounds,

filling in, and smoothing the earth before Olmsted’s

plan was approved, but much remained to be done.

In July, Olmsted reported to Senator Morrill that

about 400 trees would have to be removed, grading

had been contracted at the very reasonable rate of

thirty cents per cubic yard, and the search was on

for some of the more important ingredients needed

for the work ahead, such as “soil, peat, dung, and

trees.” 20 During the first season, 2,500 cubic yards

of earth were moved each day. Olmsted was busily

designing features and fixtures, such as the low

walls bordering the walks and roads and the various lamps needed for lighting the grounds at night.

One of his first designs was for the large planters

on the east plaza. Each red granite container was

to be filled with laurel or other evergreen shrubs in

the winter and with callas or papyrus in the summer. Above was an oval bronze vase with a fountain

spraying water to create a “constant rainbow 

illumination.” 21 At night, the rainbow effect continued under gas lights.

Supervising daily operations was John A. Partridge, whom Olmsted appointed engineer in

charge on August 15, 1874. He was described as

having “New England training” and being “accustomed to hard work and to nice work, a methodical, deliberate, prudent man, precise and

exacting.” 22 Two years later he was succeeded by

F. H. Cobb, who remained on the work until its

conclusion. For architectural assistance, Olmsted

hired Thomas Wisedell, a native of England who

came to America in 1868. He had been an assistant to Olmsted’s former partner, Calvert Vaux,

and had worked with Olmsted on previous commissions, including Prospect Park in Brooklyn.

After Wisedell’s death in 1884, architectural services were provided by C. Howard Walker of Boston.

Labor problems plagued the work from the

beginning. In mid-August 1874, the first contractor

walked off the job, and Clark was obliged to look

elsewhere for workers to continue the backbreaking task of grading the grounds. After advertising,

he received fourteen bids ranging from fourteen to

thirty-five cents per cubic yard. The four lowest

bids were accepted. Soon the grounds were visited

by a “mob” of laborers demanding an increase in

wages of 50 percent. Olmsted looked upon the agitators and saw “25 second class field hands and as

many boys and girls . . . a few smarter looking and

roguish men.” It was hardly a threatening scene:

some of the discontented workers napped while

others sang hymns.23 These so-called rowdies were

met by the Capitol police, who arrested the ringleaders and confiscated their weapons. Impressed,

the architect testified: “I must say that our Police,

which I have always regarded as purely ‘ornamental,’ proved themselves efficient and ‘plucky.’” 24

Despite labor problems, progress was made in

1874 on grading and leveling the grounds east of

the Capitol. More than 150,000 cubic yards of earth

was removed and replaced by new enriched soil

on the lawns. A layer of topsoil a foot deep was

placed on a fertilized subsoil two and a half feet

deep. New gas, sewer, and water pipes were also

laid, and the foundations for walks and roads were

prepared. The frame office Walter had built in 1862

was cut down the middle, and one half was carted

off to a lot adjoining the grounds to be used as the

Designs for a

Fountain (top) 

and an Entrance

Pier (bottom) 

by Thomas Wisedell

and Frederick Law

Olmsted, ca. 1875

These designs 

drew upon classical,

Romanesque, and 

oriental traditions.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 349

engineer’s office. The other half served as Clark’s

office for a while.

TERRACE AND 

LIBRARY TANGLE

I mprovements to the western grounds

were delayed while Congress considered Olmsted’s proposal to replace the

Bulfinch terrace with a more substantial structure.

The improvement would entail a large expense,

which had not been previously anticipated, and

there were those who could not appreciate the

need for such a structure. Complicating the debate

was the question of making further enlargements

to the Library of Congress, which continually suffered space shortages. The enlargements of the

library completed in 1867 were no match for the

flood of books, pamphlets, sheet music, engravings,

and other materials sent to Washington under the

provisions of the Copyright Act of 1870, which

required that two copies of any item protected by

the law be deposited in the congressional library.

No one doubted the need to provide the library

with more room, but there was plenty of disagreement on how that need should be met. Some wanted

an addition built on the west front; others proposed

removing the library from the Capitol altogether.

The first group did not like the idea of a separate

library building because of the distance it would

place between them and their books. Where to relocate the library facility was another knotty question. Those in the opposing camp could see no end

to the library’s space needs and warned of the architectural catastrophe of making endless additions to

the Capitol. There were merits on both sides of the

question, and while the library issue was debated,

Olmsted’s west terrace would have to wait.

To help sell the idea of a new marble terrace,

Olmsted’s collaborator, Thomas Wisedell, drew two

views of the Capitol’s west front. Each rendering

showed an addition to the central building fronted

by a new portico capped by a broad pediment. Presumably designed in Clark’s office, the addition

was intended to accommodate a new library extension. The first view showed the old terrace scooped

away in the center of the Capitol to make way for

the new extension—a condition that intentionally

Capitol Police Force

ca. 1870

In 1801, a watchman was employed to guard the Capitol

grounds at night, keeping an eye out for persons

attempting to steal construction materials or to enter

the building illegally. He had no power to make arrests

and on occasion had to rely on the Marine Corps for

assistance. In 1828, as the Capitol’s construction drew

to a close and it became a popular tourist destination, 

a captain and three men were designated as the first

Capitol police force. They were expected to protect

public property and to expel “disorderly persons,

vagrants, and beggars.”

Following the Civil War the Capitol police force had

grown to three six-man watches. Among the new

recruits were African-Americans, who now protected

the building that their enslaved forefathers had helped

to build. Frederick Douglass, Jr. was one of the first

African-Americans to join the Capitol police.
350 History of the United States Capitol

produced a ridiculous effect. By contrast, the second view showed a sturdy new stone terrace handsomely upholding the library extension. While the

library extension was still a question open to

debate, Olmsted cleverly used it to help justify his

marble terrace.

In January 1875, Clark received a letter from

General Montgomery C. Meigs that was critical of

Wisedell’s renderings. Although he no longer had

any direct connection with the Capitol, the opinions of General Meigs still carried a great deal of

weight around town. He had no objection to the

new terrace, which he called “imposing and beautiful,” but he did not like the idea of building an addition to the west center building. In Meigs’ opinion,

it would harm the appearance of the Capitol when

viewed from an angle. The central projection would

cut off views to the wings and actually decrease

the apparent size of the building. He wrote:

the proposed projection of the central portion

of the building, while it will not afford permanent relief to the library, will darken two stories

of rooms now not too well lighted, and it will,

while costing a large sum, be an actual injury to

the effect of the building from the most valuable and important points of view.25

Meigs wrote Olmsted a similar letter. Olmsted

replied that he had labored under the impression

that the library extension had been practically

decided upon and that his terrace had been

designed to accommodate it. In his judgment, the

size of the west projection shown in the sketches

was about as large as it should be. He thought an

addition was acceptable, but agreed that it should

be held back as far as possible.

Meigs also asked about the possibility that the

terrace might block views to the Capitol, a subject

dear to Olmsted’s heart. Olmsted described in reply

a temporary scaffold that he had built to approximate the height and width of the proposed terrace.

The scaffold gave him and others (including

Thomas U. Walter, whose name was not mentioned)

the opportunity to study and judge the effect the

terrace would have on views to the Capitol. To help

keep the view open, Olmsted devised a two-level

terrace with the first stage five feet lower than the

part closer to the building. He concluded: “I think

that there is no point of view in which an observer

can be expected to place himself, (if my plan is

adhered to) at which the Capitol will not appear

more stately with the terrace than without.” 26

On March 3, 1875, Senator Morrill introduced

legislation to appropriate $300,000 to begin the

terrace. He acted as if there would be no opposition to the measure: he claimed that every senator

who saw the design had approved it. The proposal

had the unanimous support of his Committee on

Public Buildings, and he had not met a Republican

or a Democrat in either house of Congress or any

architect who did not agree with making the

The Capitol 

with a Proposed

Library Extension

by Thomas Wisedell

1875

Olmsted hoped this

rendering would hasten

approval of his terrace

design. It showed the

Library of Congress

enlarged by an extension

that would require 

demolition of the center

section of the earthen

terrace. The unsightly

results seemed to support

the need for a marble 

terrace that could 

accommodate the 

library extension.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 351

improvement. Aside from the grandeur and

magnificence of the marble terrace, it would provide fifty-six windowless vaults for storing documents. Morrill maintained that this practical

advantage was nevertheless incidental to the main

purpose of the terrace, acting as a grand pedestal

for the building perched on the brow of a hill.

Any hope of easy passage faded when Senator

Allen Thurman of Ohio questioned his colleague

from Vermont about vaults under the terrace. He

doubted the wisdom of spending so much money

“to make some damp vaults to stow away old documents to feed rats . . . of putting these old documents where the moth doth corrupt and where the

rats do eat and thrive.” 27 Morrill replied by describing conditions at the Treasury building, where the

corridors were piled high with documents, and noting that the overflow of copyright books from the

Library of Congress needed to be put somewhere.

The terrace offered a perfect place to store such

items. Thurman still thought it foolish to spend

money “to make a cellar to keep old books in.”

William B. Allison of Ohio revived the subject of

the library extension and advised the Senate not to

make the terrace appropriation until “we have settled finally the question of improving the Capitol

on the west front.” 28

The terrace legislation was tabled soon after

Allison took his seat. Morrill waited more than two

years to reintroduce it. On June 17, 1878, he submitted an amendment providing $50,000 to begin

work, but he met strong opposition from James B.

Beck, the junior senator from Kentucky. Beck ran

down a list of expensive federal buildings then

under construction, including a new building for

the Bureau of Printing and Engraving and a massive new structure for the Navy, War, and State

Departments. Every appropriation contained funds

for new federal buildings across the country. Now

came another request for construction funds “to

tear up, under the pretense of improvement, the

whole of the west front of the Capitol grounds, to

adorn them with stairways, I suppose, which will

cost before we get through over a million dollars,

probably two.” The senator then took an unusual

swipe at Olmsted, whom he implied was selfaggrandizing, wasteful, and lacking in good taste:

If we begin this work now we shall have to

spend for five or six consecutive years two,

three, or four hundred thousand annually to

Bartholdi Fountain

1876

One of the popular attractions at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia was an iron

fountain designed by Frederick August Bartholdi. The base featured aquatic monsters and

fishes while three caryatids upheld the wide, shallow basin. Lighted by gas lamps, the 

fountain made a lively display of fire and water at night.

On November 22, 1876, Bartholdi’s friend Frederick Law Olmsted wrote Edward

Clark to say that the fountain was for sale at a reasonable price and to urge him to find 

a place for it in Washington. He enclosed this drawing in his letter. Following Olmsted’s

suggestion, the government paid $6,000 for the fountain and set it up on the grounds of

the Botanic Garden, where it remained until 1927 when the garden was taken off the Mall.

It was re-erected in 1932 on its current site in Bartholdi Park, a display garden southwest

of the Capitol maintained by the U. S. Botanic Garden.

Bartholdi’s most famous work in America is the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor.
352 History of the United States Capitol

ornament according to the design of somebody

who thinks it is going to make him immortal to

have his name in the grand plan. We have now

a couple of Dutch spittoons standing out on

the east front of the Capitol, costing forty or

fifty thousand dollars intended, I believe, for

fountains. We now find it will require two or

three hundred thousand dollars to furnish them

with water and fix them up.29

Morrill was annoyed at Beck’s sarcastic characterization of the landscape architect as well as

his shortsighted vision of future improvements. He

asked if it was not strange that Congress made liberal appropriations for buildings everywhere else

in the United States, but when it came time to fund

work at the Capitol some senators “begrudge every

little picayune amendment here and compel the

completion of these grounds to be procrastinated

year after year.” Senator Daniel W. Voorhees of

Indiana doubted that the improvements under way

were any better than the old landscape that had

been ripped out. He asked a fellow senator:

if he really believes that this scraggy, ragged line

of trees down here are as handsome today as

those beautiful chestnuts which lined the walk

when he and I first came here together young

men in the other branch of Congress. If he

answers in the affirmative, I despair of his lines

of beauty, of his vision, of his appreciation.30

Morrill again spoke in favor of the appropriation, saying it would cost no more than funding a

lighthouse on Lake Superior. The Capitol’s outside

stairs had been neglected for years and it was time

to replace them with something better. Again,

Beck opposed the measure, this time citing the

unresolved issue regarding the library extension.

To him it was folly to build the terrace when it

might have to be torn down to make way for a new

addition. “It seems to be the general plan all

around this Capitol,” Beck noted suspiciously, “to

put up one year and tear away the next.” 31 The

Committee on Appropriations, he said, felt the terrace could wait until the library issue was resolved.

Henry B. Anthony of Rhode Island supported Morrill’s amendment on economic grounds: after noting the danger of the worn steps, he slyly reminded

his colleagues that it cost $5,000 to bury a member of Congress. Despite that, and other more serious arguments, Morrill’s drive to authorize the

terrace failed again by a wide margin.

The two prime movers for a separate library

building were Ainsworth Spofford, the librarian of

Congress, and Timothy Howe of Wisconsin, the

Senate’s senior member on the Joint Committee on

the Library. With their push, Congress authorized a

design competition for a new library building and

appointed a commission to select a plan. The commission and competition were authorized on March

3, 1873, and more than nine months later the Washington firm of Smithmeyer & Pelz was awarded

$1,500 for its first-place design. (Thomas U. Walter,

one of the twenty-seven competitors, was awarded

$100 for his entry.) On June 23, 1874, the competition was reopened and $2,000 appropriated to

acquire additional designs. In August 1874 Senator

Howe asked Walter to prepare two designs for the

Statue of John Marshall 

by William Wetmore Story

The seated figure of Marshall presided over the

Capitol’s lower west terrace from 1884 until 1981, when

it was relocated to the Supreme Court building. Worn

steps leading to the old terrace may also be seen in this

ca. 1884 photograph.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 353

enlargement of the Capitol. One scheme showed

an addition on the west front for the additional

accommodation of the library, while an eastern

extension addressed the problem of the dome’s

apparent want of support. The second design omitted the library extension and showed an addition

only on the east side of the building. Walter was

paid $1,000 for the drawings, a welcome sum as he

waited in vain for a recall to Washington to improve

his woefully diminished financial situation.

Despite years of discussion on the matter, the

competing factions could not reach an agreement

on the best way to accommodate the library’s

needs. In 1876, Howe’s committee recommended a

separate building at the foot of Capitol Hill where

the Botanic Garden was located, but there were

those who still could not accept the idea of the

library leaving the Capitol. Congress appointed a

committee to reconsider the subject in 1878. The

majority of its members reported in favor of a new

building located on Judiciary Square, several

blocks northwest of the Capitol. A minority favored

a location opposite the east plaza, but at least one

important consensus had been reached: everyone

agreed that the library should have its own building. At the same time, Ainsworth Spofford asked

Thomas U. Walter to estimate the cost of enlarging

the Capitol for the library and was told that about

four million dollars would be needed. The librarian

subsequently used Walter’s estimate to justify

funding a separate facility.

George F. Edmunds, the senior senator from

Vermont, was among those who opposed the idea

of moving the library out of the Capitol. During an

extensive discussion on the matter, which took

place on February 11, 1879, he presented four

ways of enlarging the Capitol for the accommodation of the library. The most daring was a design

prepared by Alfred B. Mullett, who had been supervising architect of the treasury from 1866 until

1874. His plan called for an addition to the east

front containing a new chamber for the Supreme

Court and a broad corridor in front of the rotunda

running north and south to connect the House and

Senate wings. The former Supreme Court chamber and adjacent rooms would be turned over to

the Library of Congress and the rotunda would

become the library’s main reading room.32 The suggestion found little support.

President Rutherford B. Hayes wrote in favor

of a new building for the Library of Congress in his

1879 annual message. (President Chester Arthur

would repeat the recommendation two years

later.) In an address to the Senate delivered on

March 31, 1879, Justin Morrill lent his support to

the idea. The American Architect and Building

News, the nation’s leading architectural journal of

the period, happily quoted the senator, who condemned the notion of enlarging the Capitol as “perhaps the greatest blunder now in process of

incubation among civilized peoples.” 33 With

momentum building for a separate facility, another

commission was appointed on June 8, 1880, to

again examine the long-range needs for the library.

Washington architects Edward Clark and John

Smithmeyer and Boston architect Alexander Esty

were named to the “Joint Select Committee on

Additional Accommodations for the Library.” Their

report, issued on September 29, 1880, strongly

and unequivocally recommended a new building to

house the congressional library. They calculated

that in a very few years the entire Capitol would

be needed to shelve the library’s holdings. As that

was unthinkable, a new building was fully justified.

The report ended talk of extending the Capitol on the west front for the library. It did not, however, put an end to ideas for enlarging the building

in other ways. In 1882, an architect from Texas

submitted a photograph of a design that would

raise the dome and insert two floors of stack space

above the rotunda. The idea was seized upon by

Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts and others who still wanted to keep the library in the Capitol. To kill the foolish scheme as quickly as possible,

Spofford forwarded it to General Meigs for comment, which the engineer gave in his usual thorough and analytical style. After providing a detailed

description and analysis of the materials used in

the construction of the center building, such as

handmade brick, sandstone, and lime mortar, Meigs

concluded that no new weight could be safely supported. He was decidedly against the proposal on

aesthetic grounds as well. “To raise the center,

even if it were safe,” he wrote, “would not improve

its architecture. . . . Nowhere is to be found a great

a building of such rich and graceful composition as

the present Capitol of the United States.” 34
354 History of the United States Capitol

In September 1882, six months after Meigs

reported on the dome-raising scheme, Smithmeyer

was sent to Europe by the library committee to

study national libraries there. In 1885, President

Grover Cleveland joined his two predecessors in

recommending a new library building in his first

message to Congress. Finally, on April 15, 1886,

Congress authorized the construction of a building

to house its library on First Street east. One half

million dollars was appropriated to begin construction, with another $585,000 allocated to acquire

the site. (Unfortunately, the location of the library

caused a block of Pennsylvania Avenue to be

closed, thus obstructing views to the Capitol from

the southeast.) In years to come, the Supreme

Court and most congressional members and committees followed the library out of the Capitol into

new buildings. The new library had become the

first step towards the creation of a Capitol campus.

“FEARFUL BOTCHERY”

A lthough the new library building

was not funded until 1886, it was

widely viewed as a fait accompli

when Smithmeyer was sent to Europe by Senator

Howe’s committee four years earlier. At that time,

with the question all but settled, Justin Morrill

next tried to direct the Senate’s attention back to

the stalled terrace project. In an appropriation

approved on August 7, 1882, he was able to secure

a small sum ($10,000) to construct the permanent

approach to the terrace on its northeast corner.

Most senators did not realize that the money was

intended to begin the terrace—perhaps because

Morrill never used the word “terrace,” but spoke

only of the “approach.” Yet with that money the

terrace made a modest and irreversible beginning

in the fall of 1882.

During the next year’s discussion on the landscape appropriation, some senators realized what

Morrill had done to begin the terrace without stirring up debate. Senator Beck wished that the matter had been discussed openly instead of slipped

by in a sneaky maneuver. On the strength of a single, half-finished approach the whole terrace would

now have to be built, and he hoped for more forthright dealings in the future.35 One of his allies,

Eugene Hale of Maine, offered an amendment

requiring that the cost of future improvements to

the Capitol grounds be estimated in detail and

illustrated so that everyone would know exactly

what was being voted upon. This suggestion was

not a censure upon the landscape architect, but

rather a simple measure to ensure that the misunderstanding of 1882 would not be repeated in the

future. Hale’s amendment was agreed to without

objections. It was included in the bill appropriating

$65,000 for the Capitol grounds, which President

Chester Arthur approved on March 3, 1883.

To comply with Senator Hale’s amendment,

Olmsted divided the terrace and grand stairs into

thirteen parts. He proposed building from the

north and south approaches and working westward along the sides of the two wings. Once those

sections were completed, the front of the terrace

facing the Mall could be begun. The central section and two monumental stairs would be the last

parts to be built.

On February 6, 1884, Morrill’s Committee on

Public Buildings and Grounds reported a bill making available all the funds necessary to finish the

terrace. The chairman promoted the terrace as

the appropriate base on which the Capitol should

stand, more imposing and more handsome than

the old dirt terraces. Again, he mentioned the

storage rooms (now seventy-four in number), but

he also stated that there would also be ten rooms

suitable for committees. These rooms looked onto

the courtyards between the terrace and the Capitol. Morrill’s legislation passed the Senate but was

curtailed in a conference with the House. On July

7, 1884, $60,000 was appropriated to construct

one section of the terrace, a stretch along the

north side of the Senate wing. The following year

Morrill’s powers of persuasion were greater:

$200,000 was given for the terrace in 1885.

With construction of the terrace assured, Olmsted quietly resigned his commission in December

1884. He thought it would be best not to divide

the supervision among the several parties, as

before. Because the terrace was mostly a work of

architecture, he felt it should be supervised by

Clark’s office. When Clark forwarded Olmsted’s letter to congressional authorities, he recommended

that the landscape architect be retained as an 
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 355

advisor with an annual stipend of $500.36 The recommendation was accepted.

As the terrace seemed to be gaining in popularity with legislators, and its annual funding

became easier to secure, a proposal suddenly

appeared that would have altered the design and

threatened untold harm to its effectiveness. When

the appropriation for 1886 was being discussed,

Senator Hale introduced an amendment to suspend work until a plan could be developed to provide more committee rooms in the terrace with

windows looking westward toward the Mall.

George G. Vest of Missouri immediately objected

to the proposal because it would diminish the

apparent strength of the terrace. He explained to

his colleagues in the Senate that the idea of windows looking west had originated in their Committee on Appropriations and was opposed in the

Committee on Public Buildings.

Aware that Olmsted would want to know what

was going on with regard to his terrace, Clark

wrote him an account of the window question.

Apparently the architect of the Capitol did not

think the idea was particularly bad, which surprised and alarmed Olmsted. Immediately writing

Morrill, Olmsted urged him “to resist with all your

might the proposition to open windows in the terrace wall.” 37 He rushed to Washington on February

25, 1886, to persuade Congress not to order windows, concerned that “the fearful botchery” would

destroy the impression of strength and solidity. In

case his word was not enough, Olmsted brought

with him a testimonial from Henry Hobson

Richardson, a personal friend and America’s greatest living architect, confirming the correctness of

his position. To the chairman of the Appropriations Committee, Senator William B. Allison of

Ohio, Olmsted explained his objections to windows by describing the importance of an unbroken

terrace wall:

There is nothing more necessary . . . in a building than that it should seem to stand firmly;

that its base should seem to be immovable.

There is a difficulty in making as strong an

impression in this respect as it is desirable

when an extraordinarily massive structure is

placed, as in the case of the Capitol, hanging

upon the brow of a hill.

The object of the terrace was to more effectually overcome this difficulty. How was it to be

accomplished?

It was proposed to be accomplished by setting

a strong wall into the face of the hill in front of

the foundations of the building; that is to say,

in front of its cellar wall. Such an outer wall, it

was calculated, would have the effect upon the

eye of a dam holding back whatever on its

upper side looked liable to settle toward the

down-hill side. Every dollar thus far spent on

the terrace, and on the grounds in connection

The Proposed

Terrace of the

Capitol at

Washington 

by Hughson Hawley

1884 or 1885

Alongside a

detailed description of

the terrace written by

Olmsted, this drawing

was published in

Harper’s Weekly on

December 25, 1885. An

addition to the Library 

of Congress was shown

behind a new central 

portico. The addition 

was to be supported on

Olmsted’s marble terrace,

illustrated here in its

original form without

windows between the 

two grand staircases.
356 History of the United States Capitol

with it, has been spent on the supposition that

this calculation was soundly made. If it was

soundly made, then it will appear that the

opening of holes in this wall would leave the

same effect as the opening of holes in a dam. It

would make the building behind it look less

secure in its foundations, less firmly based on

the down-hill side.38

Soon after Olmsted learned of the window

problem, he made a small revision to the plan hoping to satisfy the desire for committee rooms with

westward views. The original design for the wall

between the two monumental staircases called for

a central feature (possibly a wall fountain), flanked

by four arched openings leading into a crypt that

was the vestibule for the rooms under the terrace.

Massive piers had been designed for the crypt to

support the library extension, but now that the

library was moving out of the Capitol, they could

be eliminated. In fact, the crypt itself could be

eliminated and its space used for a central passage

and six committee rooms lighted by western windows. This slight alteration increased the total

number of committee rooms to twenty-eight and

gratified those in the Senate who wanted some to

have a Mall view. It was a simple, effective compromise that was adopted on June 24, 1886. Hale

fought Olmsted to the end over the window issue,

but was finally “completely whipped, horse, foot,

and dragoons.” 39 After the revision was accepted,

Olmsted’s collaborator in Boston, Howard Walker,

designed the details of the area between the grand

staircases. There he planned a series of Corinthian

pilasters and arched windows with a distinctive

Romanesque flavor.

With the crisis defused, the terrace project

entered a peaceful period unencumbered by criticism or discord. The appropriation for 1887 was

$175,000, and it was followed by $330,000 the

next year. By the close of the 1888 building season a total of $740,000 had been expended on the

terrace, which by then stood almost complete.

Over the next five years small appropriations were

made to pay for such things as paving, bronze

lamps and vases, railings, and finishing the interior. In 1889, part of the funds was given to provide a fountain between the grand stairs at ground

level. It was a simple octagonal bowl upheld by

squat granite columns designed in the fashionable

Romanesque style.

Year by year, landscape improvements were

carried out while the terrace was being built. Trees

were ordered from France and England through

agents in New York. Shrubs and undergrowth were

planted for “variety, cheerfulness, and vivacity.” 40

Olmsted preferred simple shrubs to large, “showy”

flowers, which tended to capture and unduly hold

the viewer’s attention. Roads were paved with

modern surfacing materials such as “Gray’s patent

macadam,” vulcanized asphalt, bituminous concrete, Grahamite and Trinidad asphalt, and “Van

Camp’s patent pavement.” 41 Subsoil drains, sewers, and water pipes were laid and scores of

lamps—both ornamental and plain—were

installed. Underground pipes fed gas to the fixtures

while miles of wire were strung to light the lamps

by electric sparks. In 1882, gas leaks were discovered to be killing certain shrubs and Clark promised to investigate lighting all of the grounds by

electric lamps. (J. P. Hall of New York City was

hired in 1897 to substitute 138 electric arc lamps

for gas burners.) Footpaths were paved with a

variety of materials, including concrete, Seneca

and blue stone flagging, Belgian block, and artificial

stone (a mixture of cement and sand). Blue stone

was used for ordinary edging and black granite

from Maine was used for the low coping walls at

more prominent locations.

A brick summerhouse was built in 1879–1880

on the western grounds to provide a cool retreat

where visitors might have a drink of water and rest

a while. Sometimes called the “grotto” or “resting

Rooms Under

Terrace 

ca. 1890

In 1886 Olmsted

rearranged the floor 

plan of the central 

portion of the terrace 

to provide committee 

rooms with western

views. Six rooms were

blessed with windows

looking west while

twenty rooms had 

windows looking 

onto courtyards.

This plan was probably drawn in Clark’s

drafting room and indicated the location of 

gas, water, steam, and

drainage pipes. It also

noted that the terraces

covered an area of two

and two-thirds acres 

compared to the three

and a half acres covered

by the Capitol.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 357

court,” the structure was not part of Olmsted’s

1874 plan but was a delicious afterthought that has

long been admired for its picturesque character.

Clark reported that it was designed to “combine

both drinking fountain and a secluded cool retreat,

while sufficiently public to prevent its being used

for improper purposes.” 42 More poetically, Olmsted

said he designed the fountain to supply a continuous flow of water in several streams “with a view to

musical murmurings and moistening the air.” 43 He

planted ivy around the summerhouse to merge it

with its surroundings. Water diverted from the old

Terrace Construction 

ca. 1888

The space between the stairs was redesigned in

1886 to provide windows for a few committee rooms

under the terrace. At the same time, an exedra with

pilasters and niches was designed for the lower terrace.

Exedra and Central Fountain 

by Frederick Law Olmsted and C. Howard Walker

ca. 1892

The octagonal fountain was designed in the

Romanesque style popularized by Olmsted’s friend

Henry Hobson Richardson.
358 History of the United States Capitol

drinking fountain that Robert Mills had built at the

base of the terrace in 1834 was piped into a rocklined alcove off the summerhouse where delicate

ivies were grown for display.

When the summerhouse was finished in 1880,

it attracted a great deal of attention—some welcome, some not. Olmsted complained about the

ineffective police protection the grounds were

receiving. More than 3,000 plants had been stolen

and more than 100 persons were observed climbing over the summerhouse on a single Sunday

afternoon. Once discovered by recreating visitors,

the building’s red tile roof was damaged by people

rocking back and forth or walking on it. Others

beat down plants around the structure. Its popularity also attracted the attention of the press.

Olmsted prepared a brief account intended to be

carried in the local papers:

When planting about the summer house is well

grown the masonry is intended to be all mantled with ivy and the South wind drawing

through is to bear at times a slight perfume

suggestive of romantic foliage rather than the

sweetness of flowers. The overflow of the fountain is designed to produce through an apparatus specially planned for the purpose a

succession of sounds suggestive of melody but

not a tune and not so loud as to be always distinguished above the tinkling and murmur of

the water falling into the cavity below. A window looks into a rocky runlet not a grotto but

suggestive of the coolness of a grotto and giving conditions favorable to the growth of plants

proper to cool & moist situations.44

A water-powered musical apparatus, a set of

chimes referred to as the “carillon,” was indeed

built in 1881 at Olmsted’s request by Tiffany and

Co. of New York. However, it apparently could not

be made to function properly in the summerhouse

and was placed in storage.

Whenever a massive undertaking such as landscaping the Capitol grounds was under way, there

were always those in Congress who tired of being

asked yearly for money to finish up. It was true in

Latrobe and Bulfinch’s day, it was true in Walter’s

day, and remained equally true in Olmsted and

Clark’s time. The dashing senator from New York,

Roscoe Conkling, seemed to think the landscaping

would go on forever and spoke up to protest. As

early as 1878, he asked the chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings if the money about to

be appropriated for the grounds would finish the

project. He had grown tired of the disruption, dirt,

noise, and traffic stirred up by the landscaping and

hoped the end of work was in sight. Senator Dawes

of Massachusetts, who was chairman at the time,

urged patience:

I will answer the Senator in the language of the

Yankee who told me he was going to New York

when it was finished; he did not propose to go

there to see the city when it was unfinished. I

think that it will be a good many years before

the grounds will be finished. I think as the capital grows, as the nation grows, as these

grounds about here change, as time’s tooth

wears away what is erected, there will constantly be expenditure in the line of the suggestion of the Senator from New York.45

Senator Morrill noted that “pyramidal evergreens” were being planted along parts of the terrace just completed. To his eye these pointed

plants were suited more to a Gothic building,

where pointed arches, crockets, and spires characterized that architectural style. Because the

Capitol was classical, the senator felt that such

plants should be avoided on the grounds. He also

thought that evergreens covered over too much of

the terrace, part of which was faced with beautiful Vermont marble.46

Some of the terrace committee rooms were

occupied in 1891 and the rest were ready the following year. These were simply finished rooms

with oak doors, oak paneled wainscoting, and flat

The Summerhouse

Perhaps Olmsted’s

finest architectural

design for the Capitol

grounds was the brick

summerhouse. The intricate textures and patterns seen on its wall

surfaces and around its

various openings are a

tribute to the bricklayer’s

craft. (1992 photograph.)
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 359

ceilings made of iron plates. Steam radiators provided heat. The corridors were lighted from above

by sidewalk lights; unfortunately, these lights

leaked from the beginning. Water also seeped into

the committee and storage rooms through plant

cases that did not drain properly. Copper lining

was installed to contain moisture, but the leaks

continued. Indeed, from the time the terraces were

completed, annoying and hard-to-find leaks played

a continuous role in their history.

UPKEEP & UPDATE

Throughout much of the Clark years,

the Capitol was maintained by the

architect with an administrative staff

of two clerks, one draftsman, and one messenger.

Scores of laborers were hired seasonally and there

were mechanics on the permanent payroll to take

care of the machinery, plumbing, and electrical

The Capitol

ca. 1905

Upon completion of the marble terrace, the Capitol no longer appeared as if it

were about to slip off the edge of Jenkins Hill.

Young Visitors 

ca. 1900

Library of Congress

From the time of its

completion, the terrace

has been a favorite place

to view the city of Washington. Shown here is 

one of the electric arc

lamps that replaced gas 

lighting on the terrace 

in 1897.
360 History of the United States Capitol

plant. A few blacksmiths, carpenters, and masons

also served under the architect. Clark was responsible for the maintenance of a patchwork building

served by a variety of mechanical systems that

constantly needed repair or updating. Resourcefulness and American knowhow were routinely

called upon to keep the Capitol’s creature comforts on par with the latest technological developments. Such innovations as elevators and electric

lighting were introduced during this period, while

improvements kept the existing mechanical and

sanitary plants up to date. Particularly welcome

were the additional water closets and wash basins

installed where conditions permitted. These and

other plumbing modifications snaked pipes around,

under, and through massive brick walls and vaults

without structural consequences. Repairs to the

center building routinely involved removing old

wood materials and introducing fireproof substitutes. In 1870 steam heating replaced the coal

burning stoves that had been used to warm the

rotunda; gradually, it replaced all the furnaces in

the center building.

Some members of the House became annoyed

at the crowds of tourists who gathered around the

Columbus Doors at the entrance to the corridor

leading to their chamber. In 1870, John Farnsworth

of Illinois complained about the great nuisance

caused by “strangers” blocking the passage, making it difficult to get by. Some tourists admired the

bronze doors so much that they could not resist

breaking off pieces to take as souvenirs.

Farnsworth wanted to remove the doors to the

east entrance of the rotunda, where they could

serve “outside duty.” 47 His suggestion spurred a

general discussion about enlarging all the doorways from the House to the Senate, which was

accompanied by a few humorous remarks; Omar

D. Conger of Michigan, for example, observed that

the best way to get from the House to the Senate

was through the state legislatures (which elected

senators at the time). Fernando Wood of New York

City objected more seriously to the change because

he was tired of seeing the Capitol in a constant

state of flux:

I think if there is anything that illustrates the

instability of the American character and of

American institutions it is the style of architecture that had been adopted periodically with

reference to this Capitol. Since the original

erection of the Capitol nearly every Congress,

and certainly every Administration, has done

something to change it. We have no fixed style

of architecture; we have no plan; we have nothing stable; nothing is fixed beyond this periodical disposition of the American people to

change, change, change. We no sooner establish one thing, however well and carefully

matured, than those who succeed us in public

life see some improvement to be made, and

make a still further change. This is, however, I

regret to say, the physical temperament of the

American people.48

Those who opposed relocating the Columbus

Doors noted that it would be necessary to cut away

some of the stonework around the entrance to

enlarge the opening. Fears that the dome’s support might be compromised caused the proposal

to be deferred while the architect studied the

issue. Clark reported back to Farnsworth in a brief

note on June 27, 1870, stating that there were no

structural reasons to prevent the work from being

done. Thus reassured, Congress ordered the doors

rehung at the east central portico in 1871.

Clark’s reports and letter books describe hundreds of small things done to the Capitol during

his tenure to maintain and modernize the building.

On the exterior, old sandstone walls and the iron

dome were painted every four years, usually just

before an inauguration. Annual painting and whitewashing projects undertaken by private contractors kept the interior fresh and clean. Constantino

Brumidi, Emerich Carstens, George Strieby,

Joseph Rakemann, G. W. Fosberg, and Charles E.

Moberly, among other artists, labored at the ornamental painting and decorations that were

extended little by little throughout the Capitol,

especially in the Senate wing. Water and gas leaks

forced repairmen to remove the Minton tile, which

they usually relaid carefully but occasionally put

down without regard to surrounding colors or patterns. Canvas window awnings were installed in

1878 to help control the sunlight streaming into

the Library of Congress. Small upholstery jobs

were carried out by boys at the local reform school,

who also made the Capitol’s brooms. Barrels of

sawdust were purchased for cleaning the stone

floors in the old center building. Lighting fixtures

were routinely taken down to be repaired, gilded,

or bronzed. A Turkish bath was set up in the basement of the Senate wing in 1878. In 1884, Clark

paid fifty-four dollars for an enameled French bath
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 361

tub to supplement either the Senate’s marble tubs

or the tin tubs used in the House of Representatives’ bathing room. Brackets holding senators’

coats in the two cloak rooms were regilded and

the name plates reworded and polished as needed.

Gilders repaired ornate window valances as well as

sundry eagles and shields, also covered in gold

leaf. Indian rubber spittoons were placed around

the rotunda and in the dome in a never-ending

battle against tobacco stains. Grain alcohol was

bought by the gallon to keep the cigar lighters in

the House cloak rooms in good working order. In

1899, a steam pipe system was installed in the gutters to melt snow. Electric fans made their first

appearance in 1890, when Congress worked

throughout a long, hot summer. During that same

session, Clark bought 1,000 feet of rough boards to

hold blocks of ice in an attempt to cool the air

pumped into the Senate chamber.

A myriad of such tasks and purchases kept the

Capitol working and up to date. Yet, large problems like the ventilation of the House chamber

remained unsolved. To a lesser extent, the same

complaints of foul and smelly air were heard in the

Senate chamber, but the larger room in the south

wing was the object of considerable dissatisfaction. Ventilation was a subject that would not—

could not—be settled to the satisfaction of every

member of Congress.

On February 24, 1871, Thomas A. Jenckes of

Rhode Island introduced legislation in the House to

improve the chamber’s ventilation. His bill authorized $20,000 to enlarge the shaft through which air

was exhausted from the room. It would also pay for

adjusting the flues under the floor, enlarging the

registers, and buying additional exhaust fans and

the steam engines to run them. The main object

was removing “vitiated air,” which was thought to

be stale and perhaps poisonous. Something also

had to be done with the floor registers: when the

fans were started up in the morning, papers and

clouds of dirt and dust were blown into the air, and

coughing fits bothered many members.49

Soon after Jenckes’ legislation was adopted on

March 3, 1871, Clark supervised removal and

rebuilding of the chamber floor to accommodate

additional desks as well as new air vents. Floor

registers were replaced by grilles in the risers in

an attempt to defeat the dust bowl greeting the

House each morning. The ventilating shaft was

enlarged to handle 50,000 cubic feet of exhausted

air per minute.

A few members noticed the improved atmospheric conditions in their chamber when they

returned to work in the fall of 1871. Yet, within

two years there were more proposals to improve

the air. A scheme was afoot to enlarge the House

chamber by removing the lobbies and rooms standing between it and the outside wall. Like senators

before them, members of the House wanted to see

daylight and breathe the air from open windows,

and they were prepared to enlarge their chamber

to reach the south wall. (Coincidentally, the larger

chamber would also help accommodate forty new

members provided by the decennial census.)

Debate on the proposition was held on February

19, 1873, with Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts

leading the forces in favor of the alteration and

James Garfield of Ohio urging his colleagues to

maintain the status quo. Butler asserted that the

loss of a few rooms was a small price to pay for

access to “the air and the light of heaven.” 50 But

Garfield was alarmed at the loss of much more. He

called attention to the two beautiful staircases and

their exquisite bronze railings that would be

sacrificed to the enlargement scheme. The lavish

Speaker’s office would also be lost. He considered

the hall too large already and suggested that, if

anything were to be done, it be made smaller. That,

he argued, would help members hear more easily.

Others did not wish to alter the hall until the next

Congress was seated in it, believing that those

members should be given the opportunity to

decide the merits of the proposal. Michael C. Kerr

of Indiana did not wish to anticipate the wishes of

the next House (over which he would preside as

Speaker). That said, Kerr also stated that he

believed the hall was too large and to make it any

bigger would be similar to holding sessions in a

“ten-acre field.” 51

On March 3, 1873, $40,000 was appropriated

to rearrange the hall and improve its ventilation

and lighting. Major structural changes were

deferred until a plan could be developed and

approved by the House. A subcommittee on ventilation and acoustics was appointed by the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds. It, in turn,

named five public officials to an advisory board.
362 History of the United States Capitol

Joseph Henry, longtime secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was appointed president of the

board. The other members were Thomas Lincoln

Casey of the Army Corps of Engineers; Edward

Clark, architect of the Capitol; F. Schumann, a civil

engineer in the office of the supervising architect

of the treasury; and Dr. John Billings, the surgeon

general of the army, who was the board’s secretary.

In a report issued in 1877, the board recommended

retaining the existing method of heating, an

upward-draft, forced-air system. It could, however,

be made more effective by certain alterations. Brick

flues under the floor that retained too much heat

were changed to galvanized iron. Additional ventilators were added to the roof to exhaust foul air

from the space above the ceiling. An electric bell

was installed to communicate with the personnel in

charge of the engine rooms in the basement.

Although physical changes to the House chamber were slight, some alterations were made to

rooms directly behind it in order to increase the

flow of air into the hall. In 1879, the Speaker’s

office was relocated and its former space (modern

day H–213) altered extensively. The fireplace was

removed to allow the creation of a tall, wide opening connecting with the Speaker’s lobby. The

remaining doors were removed and the doorways

enlarged. The result was three large unobstructed

openings that promoted the circulation of air from

southern windows into the House chamber. Brick

Speaker’s Room

In 1879 the Speaker

moved into a former 

committee room to 

allow his former space 

to be reconfigured into 

a retiring room for 

members of the House.

(ca. 1900 photograph.)

Members Retiring Room

In 1879 the end walls of the former Speaker’s office

were removed and the space united with two adjoining

rooms to create a new lounge behind the House chamber. New furniture designed in the Empire revival style

was purchased for the room. (ca. 1880 photograph.)
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 363

partition walls were removed to join two flanking

rooms (modern day H–212 and H–214) with the

central area, resulting in a single long space that

became the members’ retiring room. Removing the

walls further facilitated an unencumbered flow of

air both throughout the spacious suite and indirectly into the nearby House chamber.

Each attempt to purify the air in the House

chamber was followed by a brief period of quiet

before the old complaints were heard again—usually louder and more bitter than before. The board

of advisors routinely investigated the complaints

and always concluded that the air was healthy and

the ventilation ample. Dr. Billings went to England

to examine the ventilation system in the House of

Commons and conferred there with officials in

charge. The more data they gathered, the more the

board believed that the ventilation system in the

House was well devised and properly operated. A

scientific analysis of the air, made in 1880 by Dr.

Charles Smart of the U. S. Army, found the levels of

carbonic impurities insignificant. Another investigation was conducted in 1884 by Dr. J. H. Kidder of

the U. S. Navy. He collected sixty-five specimens of

air and tested them for carbonic acid, ammonia,

and other contaminants. He determined that no

more impurities were present in the chamber’s air

than were usually found in any private home lighted

by gas. Ten years later the process was repeated by

Dr. J. J. Kinyoun of the Marine Hospital Service,

whose conclusions were the same.

All evidence to the contrary, some members

persisted in their complaint about foul air. In 1895,

Joseph H. Walker of Massachusetts initiated an

investigation into the architect’s office by accusing

Clark of standing in the way of change to the ventilating system. On the floor of the House he

declared:

We never can have any decently pure air in this

Hall until we reverse the operation by which

the air enters the Hall, taking it in at the top

instead of at the bottom, and we will never get

it done by the present Architect—never in this

world . . .

You will not get the Hall ventilated until you

have an architect competent in those things,

and who will not endeavor in every possible

way to defeat every measure of this character

brought before him. Until that is done you can

not expect proper ventilation of this Hall,

because the present system of not ventilating

this Hall is his pet child.52

The irate representative thought that no jail or

prison in New England was as badly ventilated as

the hall of the House. A storm of indignation would

await a county commissioner in Massachusetts if

his jail had such foul air as that found in the chamber. Defenders of the architect seized upon that

claim and compared the air in the hall to that found

in a number of school houses, town halls, and factories in the Bay State. The congressional air was

scientifically proven to be as pure as that breathed

by the school children of Massachusetts.

Unswayed by science, George Washington Shell

of South Carolina, chairman of what had become a

full Committee on Ventilation and Acoustics,

echoed Walker’s concerns in a speech delivered in

the House on January 24, 1895. He was greatly

alarmed by the unhealthful conditions caused by

leaking gas pipes and bad ventilation. Every day he

heard complaints about the air, but most distressing was the damage to the health of his fellow representatives. “We see Members carried away from

here corpses after very short illnesses,” Shell

lamented, “and we have been led to suppose that

this is occasioned largely by the unhealthy condition of the Hall itself.” 53 He requested a small sum

to finance yet another investigation into the chamber’s atmospheric conditions as well as a study of

the general sanitary conditions in the Capitol. His

committee would also examine the architect’s office

to see if any change there would promote the health

of the nation’s legislators.

The results of the investigation were reported

on March 2, 1895.54 One source of stale or foulsmelling air was determined to be store rooms filled

with decaying, musty, and filthy books, rubbish,

and waste paper. Obviously, the committee concluded, if the air is vile it must be unhealthy. Also,

the kitchen operated by the doorkeeper was too

small, unclean, and inadequately ventilated. Impure

air was pervasive, striking the nostrils well outside

the cooking area. Smoking and chewing tobacco in

the chamber were further nuisances affecting air

quality: ashes and expectoration found their way

into the floor registers, which, therefore, required

more regular and thorough cleaning. The report

also declared that smelly people who came to loaf

in the gallery should be barred from entering the
and energy of members; and it is passing

strange to me that Senators will sit six, eight,

and ten hours breathing diseased air, coming

here fresh at the beginning of the session, and

leaving impaired in health, and intellectually,

and in almost every other way.57

Despite vocal and occasionally eloquent opposition, Morrill’s modest proposal to improve the

atmosphere in the chamber was adopted. Workmen

soon began cutting a tunnel through the old earthen

terrace, lining it with whitewashed brick, and connecting it to the air intake opening in the courtyard.

Complaints were soon lodged against the location

of the new air intake, however: the unmistakable

odor of manure being spread on the grounds easily

made its way into the Senate chamber, and animals

were occasionally found taking up residence in the

tunnel. Before the old terrace was removed and the

Olmsted terrace begun, the Senate’s ventilating

tunnel was placed underground. In 1889 it was connected to a rustic stone tower designed by Olmsted. A similar tower had been built for the

ventilation system for the House of Representatives

ten years earlier. Both towers were recommended

by Robert Briggs, the engineer who designed the

original system under Captain Meigs in the 1850s.

By raising the air intake well above the dust, smells,

and creatures lurking at ground level, Briggs promised that the system would be supplied with the

purest air available in Washington.58

CENTENNIAL

At first glance, the Capitol at the

end of the nineteenth century

gave the impression of a relatively

new establishment. The impression was fostered

by the landscape improvements that surrounded

the building with young trees and by the new terrace, walks, walls, lamps, and fountains. For those

who did not look closely, the Capitol defied its age.

To many it appeared as though built at one time

from a single design. While that impression was

entirely at odds with its history, it was a credit to

the talents of its architects and builders. What

may have appeared as a relatively new building

was actually a century old—its 100th anniversary

was observed in an impressive ceremony held on

September 18, 1893.

364 History of the United States Capitol

chamber. Gas leaking from the lighting apparatus

above the ceiling should also be fixed. Although

still viewed with some suspicion, electric lighting

was considered a good candidate to replace gas

altogether. Having identified the sources of the

foul air, Shell’s committee concluded that the

architect of the Capitol was not responsible for

any of the noxious conditions; the causes were, in

fact, under the control of the House’s own officers.

The Senate also took a turn at improving its

ventilation. In 1872, Senator Morrill asked his colleagues to approve a plan to extend the shaft used

to bring air into the chamber. Under the existing

arrangement, air from the courtyard between the

Capitol and the terrace was brought into the ventilation system and was subject to sudden downdrafts that could suck chimney smoke into the air

tunnels. Morrill reminded the Senate of one windy

day when its chamber had filled with “gas and sulphurous smoke,” a condition he called “very disagreeable.” 55 Moving the air intake farther from

the Capitol would help solve the problem. 

Senator Lyman Trumbull thought the only solution to the ventilation problem was to rebuild the

chamber on the outside walls so that it might have

windows. Having served in the windowless chamber since its inauguration, Trumbull said the move

was long overdue and especially urgent now that

the grounds were being landscaped and the view

improved. Roscoe Conkling joined in the protest

against the windowless chamber. There was nothing new about the complaint, but Conkling gave it a

fresh sting by rubbing salt into an old war wound:

If Jefferson Davis had never engaged in rebellion against his country, I think he would be

sufficiently guilty for being responsible, as I

understand he is, for cooping up the Senate in

this iron box covered with glass. As has been

said, who ever heard of putting men or animals

in a box inside a building, shut out on every

hand from the outer air, then going to work by

artificial means and contrivances to pump up

and blow up atmosphere so that they shall not

be like a rat in an exhausted receiver [i.e., in a

vessel from which air had been emptied by a

vacuum pump], dying from the want of something to breathe? 56

William Sprague of Rhode Island agreed, but

took the position that to spend any more funds on

the chamber was to throw good money after bad:

There is no use of appropriating money for a

ventilation which is destructive to the health
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 365

The idea for a centennial celebration originated at a meeting of the East Washington Citizens Association held on September 3, 1891.

Officials of the city of Washington formed a general committee in the spring of 1893 to oversee

preparations. Once the machinery was in place,

Congress was consulted. On August 11, 1893, the

House passed a resolution allowing members of

Congress to participate in a ceremony marking the

upcoming anniversary. The Senate agreed to the

resolution in a few days. Passage was secured once

it was made clear that the cost of the ceremony

was to be borne entirely by private citizens. A joint

committee of seven representatives and seven

senators joined the citizens’ group to prepare the

Capitol for the event.

The steering committee appointed a score of

subcommittees to take care of such duties as coordinating the musical program, or producing

badges and souvenirs to raise money. A “rates

committee” was appointed to pressure railroads

to lower fares to Washington to stimulate attendance. The decorations committee installed

grandstands, draped the Capitol with red, white,

and blue bunting, and hung huge flags above the

speaker’s platform. Between the columns of the

central portico, the committee arranged a series

of gas lights in the form of an arcade. Flanking the

grand stairs were large gilded signs honoring the

first and present presidents, on one side “1793—

Washington” and on the other “1893—Cleveland.” The commemoration of the cornerstone’s

anniversary was destined to be far more spectacular than the original event.

September 18, 1893, was declared a holiday in

the city of Washington. The day’s program began

with a concert by the “centennial chimes” mounted

on top of the roof of the Library of Congress, which

stood unfinished opposite the Capitol. For an hour,

the air was filled with melodies such as Way Down

Upon the Suwannee River, The Sweet By and

By, and Wagner’s Wedding March. As a tribute to

the states, thirteen bells were struck forty-four

times at the end of the morning’s concert. At one

o’clock a second concert played from atop the

library while a parade left the vicinity of the White

House heading for the Capitol. More than 150,000

spectators lined Pennsylvania Avenue, where they

watched as President Cleveland and the cabinet,

justices of the Supreme Court, miscellaneous

Masons and Odd Fellows, the Society of the Cincinnati, a variety of other patriotic and fraternal

organizations, and numerous military regiments

and fire companies traveled approximately the

same route taken by President Washington’s procession in 1793. The parade reached the Capitol

before two o’clock and was greeted by the Committee on Invitations. Soon senators and representatives marched out of the rotunda past the

Columbus Doors and joined their guests on the

portico. Positioned nearby were the Marine Band

and a chorus of 1,500 voices. Crowds cheered again

and again as the participants assembled.

The bishop of Maryland opened the ceremony

with an invocation, followed by a warm introduction of the president. Cleveland spoke for a few

minutes, recalling that the Capitol was “designed

and planned by great and good men as a place

where the principles of a free representative government should be developed in patriotic legislation for the benefit of free people.” 59 His address

was followed by an oration that lasted two hours.

William Wirt Henry of Virginia, a descendant of the

fiery patriot Patrick Henry, noted that the day’s

festivities were the last in a series of centennial

celebrations commemorating the most important

events of the American Revolution. Henry covered

minutely the nation’s early struggles and its

progress during times of peace and war. He quoted

statistics illustrating the progress of the nation,

the number of states, population, exports, imports,

and treasury receipts. A new and interesting fact

showed the nation was blessed with 220,000 miles

of telephone lines.

The Marine Band, under director Francesco

Fanciulli, played The Star-Spangled Banner as

Henry took his seat. Vice President Adlai Stevenson spoke on behalf of the Senate, followed by

Charles Frederick Crisp, Speaker of the House;

Henry Brown, an associate justice of the Supreme

Court; and Myron Parker, a commissioner of the

District of Columbia. The ceremony concluded

with the singing of America. According to one

account, “The volume of sound from voices of the

thousands present was such as had never been

heard before on any similar occasion.” 60 That

evening, another concert was given by the Marine

Band and the centennial chorus. An actor recited
366 History of the United States Capitol

The Star-Spangled Banner while the vast multitude cheered wildly. Fanciulli’s composition entitled A Trip to Mars ended the day’s activities on a

celestial note.

By any reckoning, the centennial celebration

of the Capitol’s cornerstone had been a spectacular success. A full account of the event was compiled by the committee’s chairman, General

Duncan S. Walker, and printed as a government

document in 1896. Included in that work was a

brief history of the Capitol written by Edward

Clark. In two paragraphs he gave the dimensions

of the old Capitol and the extension, the dates

when the extension and the new terraces were

begun and finished, and the total cost of the Capitol—$14,455,000. The remainder of the brief essay

was an attempt to provide biographical material on

the various architects employed on the building

from its beginning.

Had Clark known more about the early history

of the Capitol, he could have prevented the bronze

plaque donated by the citizen’s centennial committee from being mounted in the wrong location.

On April 23, 1894, Senator Daniel Voorhees of Indiana introduced a joint resolution directing Clark to

affix the plaque above the supposed location of

the first cornerstone. The resolution passed the

Senate without objection and was approved by the

House the next day. Soon Clark had the centennial

plaque mounted on the south face of the southeast

corner of the old north wing. He reasoned that

because the old Senate wing was the first part of

the Capitol finished it would have therefore been

the first—and only—section started in 1793. Clark

failed to understand that the whole building was

begun in 1793 and curtailed only after the financial conditions of the city soured. Had these facts

been known, the tablet would have been installed

on the southeast corner of the old south wing.

EXPLOSION

W hen the Capitol extension was

under way in the 1850s, ample

provisions were made to supply

the vast quantities of gas needed to illuminate the

building. Fortunately, it was not often that a night

session of Congress coincided with an evening

levee at the President’s House: there was not

enough gas in the city to fuel the chandeliers in

the east room and the illuminating apparatus above

the House and Senate chambers at the same time.

Among the largest consumers of gas in the Capitol

were the 1,083 jets lighting the rotunda. These

were installed in 1865 by Samuel Gardnier, using

his patented device that permitted multiple gas

lights to be ignited simultaneously. An electrical

current was sent to magnets that opened the gas

supply to the fixtures. Another current was sent to

heat wires placed just above the gas jets, and the

hot wires lit the fixtures. Thus, by throwing a few

remote switches, one person could open and light

hundreds of gas lamps at the same time. Turning

off the magnets closed the source of gas and extinguished the flames. Gardnier’s apparatus was the

first application of electricity in the Capitol.

In 1879, the voltaic batteries connected to

Gardnier’s lighting fixtures in the rotunda and

House chamber were replaced with “dynamo-electric machines.” The electrician in charge of the

House wing, J. H. Rogers, conducted experiments

to light the House chamber with electrodes, but

the flickering light was distracting and disagreeable. Further experiments were conducted two

years later with a “voltaic arc.” Rogers was still not

happy with the unsteady light, but he thought that

electric lighting would eventually be less expensive, cooler, and safer than gas. In 1882, the American Electric Light Company experimented in the

Capitol with incandescent lights, but did not

achieve valuable results. Three years later the

company installed lamps on the terrace, but the

effect was unsatisfactory because the bright light

attracted too many insects.

In the mid-1880s Clark thought the future of

electric lighting at the Capitol would be limited to

windowless cloakrooms, lobbies, and other places

where artificial lighting was necessary at all hours.

However, when the Edison Company for Isolated

Lighting was permitted to install lights in the Senate cloakrooms and lobby in 1885, the experiment

proved so successful that the Senate approved a

measure to extend electric lighting throughout its

wing. In 1888, the Sayer-Mann Electric Company

of New York City installed 650 lights in the Senate

wing. That year the same company was permitted

to place 200 lights in the south wing, while the
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 367

House Committee on Public Building and Grounds

considered the desirability of permanent electric

lighting. By 1890 more than 1,150 lights (averaging sixteen candlepower) had been installed in the

Capitol and on the terrace.

In 1890, the architect of the Capitol began to

recommend that Congress make its own electricity. Electric companies had been leasing dynamos

to the government and charging for the electricity

consumed, which cost as much as $200 a month.

As the lighting was extended throughout and

around the building, operating costs grew accordingly. Clark wanted the authority and money to

purchase equipment and operate a power plant

himself. In 1895, Congress granted the request

and the next year Clark purchased from the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company

four engines and dynamos that could light 5,000

lamps. Soon, electric lighting was installed over

the glass ceilings above the House and Senate

chambers, replacing gas that was sometimes smelly

and always dangerous. The gas apparatus caused

problems in the winter when heat buildup shattered the skylights on the roof. The problem was

solved when the gas was turned off and electric

lights were installed in 1896.

While electricity was quickly overtaking gas in

the illumination business, there was a lingering

suspicion that it could not always be trusted. Flickering light and power outages hampered acceptance of the new technology, and the possibility of

electrical shock frightened many a steadfast soul.

(President Benjamin Harrison, a veteran of fierce

military campaigns during the Civil War, refused to

touch electrical switches, employing a White

House electrician to operate them for him.) Hybrid

chandeliers, outfitted with gas and electric lights,

were common. If the weather was hot or the gas

pressure was low, the electric lamps could be operated. For a while, both forms of illumination were

used at the Capitol, but that peaceful coexistence

ended abruptly on a Sunday afternoon in 1898.

Just after five o’clock on November 6, 1898,

lieutenant Robert S. Akers of the Capitol police

was in his office when a sudden and violent explosion knocked him out of his chair. He ran out of his

office and into the ornamental air shaft (today

called the “small Senate rotunda”), where he witnessed a scene of terrible destruction. The floor

had been blown away and sections of Latrobe’s

Aftermath of the Gas Explosion

1898

The stone floor in the ornamental air shaft (today called the “small Senate

rotunda”) was blown away by the force of the gas explosion that rocked the 

Capitol on November 6, 1898. 

The Press Corps

ca. 1895

At the end of the

nineteenth century, members of the press covering

the House of Representatives worked below a

chandelier that burned

both gas and electricity.
368 History of the United States Capitol

tobacco columns and other pieces of stone had

been hurled far and wide. All over the old north

wing, windows and doors were blown out. The skylights above the Supreme Court chamber were

damaged, as were the cupolas over the main stairway and the air shaft. In the cellar a fire raged with

great intensity, burning fiercely from a broken gas

meter. Nearby piles of discarded documents were

on fire. Flames licked at the woodwork of the elevator shaft located near the entrance to the law

library. The room used by the marshal of the

Supreme Court (modern day S–229) was heavily

damaged, its window blown out and its plaster and

woodwork destroyed. Other offices suffered as

well, but to a lesser degree. Some arches in the

cellar supporting the floors were knocked down

and stone and brick paving was thrown up or loosened everywhere.

Because the accident happened on a Sunday

afternoon, no one was near the immediate scene,

and, luckily, there were no injuries. The city’s fire

companies hastened to the Capitol when the alarm

was sounded. They arrived as flames leaped from

the east front windows, but these small fires were

put out with relative ease. Firefighters discovered

a broken gas meter in the cellar and began to pour

water on the flames, but the fire was not easily

extinguished. Clark’s chief electrician bravely

crawled through the maze of pillars and debris and

managed to turn off the gas.61 Firemen worked

elsewhere trying to put out smaller fires before

flames reached the roof—a tinderbox of dry wood.

Soon after the fires were extinguished, Elliott

Woods, an assistant to the old and ailing Edward

Clark, asked Glenn Brown and Charles Munroe to

make a thorough examination of the north wing

and report on the damage. Brown was a prominent

local architect and Munroe was a professor of

chemistry and an expert on explosives. While the

two sleuths went over the north wing and interrogated witnesses, workers began clearing debris.

Twenty tons of brick, mortar, and plaster were

hauled from the building and dumped temporarily

on the east plaza.

Speculation on the cause of the explosion

included a theory that the Capitol was bombed by

Spanish nationals seeking revenge for the nation’s

intervention in Cuba during the Spanish-American

War. That brief conflict, begun soon after the battleship Maine was sunk in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, was over by August. Although few

lives were lost on either side (and most casualties

resulted from malaria), Spain was forced to give

up Cuba, and the United States gained control of

Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

No trace of a bomb could be found. Instead

Brown and Munroe blamed a meter that had been

leaking gas into the cellar. Heavier than air, coal

gas built up from the floor until it reached a pendant lamp, which was left burning to assist attendants from the gas company in their weekly meter

reading. The instant the accumulated gas ignited,

it exploded with considerable force and sent fire

balls flying throughout the old north wing. Brown

and Munroe absolved Spain of any involvement

and blamed the $50,000 damage on carelessness

and faulty equipment. 

Because Congress would return in a few

weeks, Woods had little time to repair the damage.

Temporary concrete floors were laid, and stone

and woodwork were patched and replaced hurriedly. The Supreme Court, whose fall term was

already under way, was relocated temporarily to

the room of the Senate Committee on the District

of Columbia (modern day S–211).

Two days after the explosion, a local newspaper carried a story under the eye-catching headline: “CAPITOL NOT FIRE–PROOF; Central Portion

of the Building in Danger; GREAT DOME MIGHT

FALL.” The story noted that the roofs over the old

north and south wings were framed with wood and

speculated that if the fire had spread to these areas

the resulting heat could have destabilized or possibly melted the iron dome. The article was illustrated with plans and a section view of the center

part of the Capitol showing the extent of the

wooden roof structure as well as the sundry attic

areas crammed with books and papers. Editors

quoted John Smithmeyer, the architect of the new

Library of Congress building, who was also well

acquainted with the structural conditions at the

Capitol. He credited the promptness and efficiency

of the fire departments for containing the fire and,

thereby, saving the roofs and dome. If not for their

efforts, the Capitol might have been left a ruin, its

magnificent dome damaged if not entirely

destroyed. The article further recalled a report on

the safety of federal buildings that President Hayes
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 369

had commissioned following a disastrous fire at

the Patent Office in 1877. Apparently, the hazardous conditions at the Capitol had been known

for at least twenty years.62

A NEW CENTURY

At the beginning of the twentieth

century, the Capitol was beset by

old and new problems. Roofs over

the center section needed to be fireproofed, the

ventilation system in the House chamber needed

to be overhauled, and something needed to be

done with the rooms vacated by the Library of

Congress. Unlike the first two concerns, the fate of

the old library space was a relatively new issue.

Without the slightest hint of sentimental regret,

during the spring and summer of 1897 the librarians and their books moved out of the Capitol and

into the magnificent new building across the street.

Left behind were three iron rooms that were once

among the most celebrated specimens of metallic

architecture in the world, now empty and without

a purpose. Some legislators wanted to retain at

least the central room as a reference library, but

others wanted the three spaces gutted and rebuilt

into committee rooms and offices.

While the future of the old library space was

under discussion, interest in building an east front

extension was revived and became associated with

a proposal to spruce up the rotunda with marble

columns, marble walls, and a new mosaic floor.

Also, in 1900 the House of Representatives asked

the architect’s office to investigate the feasibility

of building a fireproof structure that would be used

for congressional offices; an underground tunnel

would connect it to the Capitol. Each idea was

proposed in the name of progress, efficiency, convenience, safety, or comfort. During few periods in

the history of the Capitol were so many large projects simultaneously under consideration as when

the new century began.

As the office of the architect of the Capitol

geared up to take on an unprecedented round of

improvements, the man who headed the small

agency retired. By 1898, old age and failing health

had taken their toll on Edward Clark, who turned

over the operation of the office to his assistant

Elliott Woods. With congressional permission,

Clark retained his title and salary and all official

documents still carried his name, but he rarely

came to the office or participated in its daily operation. The young, personable, and energetic Woods

had joined the architect’s office as a clerk in 1885,

with the help of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks. Although without a college education or

formal architectural training, he soon proved himself a master of detail, a skillful administrator, and

a trustworthy public servant.

On June 6, 1900, Congress authorized the

architect of the Capitol to reconstruct the old

library space into three floors. The attic level was

Library of Congress

ca. 1897

The decision to relocate the Library of Congress

into a separate facility was reached after years of discussion among politicians, architects, and the persistent

librarian of Congress, Ainsworth Spofford. The building

was designed by Washington architects Paul Pelz and

John Smithmeyer, who took the Paris Opera House as

their model. After construction was transferred to the

Army Corps of Engineers in 1892, the work was directed

by Edward Pearce Casey, who orchestrated a legion of

artists and sculptors to decorate the inside and outside

of the building. The results were astonishing. Immediately after it opened in 1897, the Library of Congress

was widely considered to be the most beautiful, educational, and interesting building in Washington.
370 History of the United States Capitol

to be fitted as a reference library, while the rooms

on the second and third floors would be divided

equally between the House and Senate and used

for such purposes as those bodies might choose.

Demonstrating extraordinary confidence in Woods’

integrity and ability, the legislation did not limit or

specify the funds available for the project, appropriating “such sum as is necessary” to carry out

the work. It was an unprecedented appropriation.63

Woods repaid the compliment by finishing the

reconstruction in just six months. Demolition work

began on June 11, 1900, and was completed in five

weeks. The old ironwork was sold at an auction,

recouping most of the demolition cost. Black and

white marble flooring was carefully taken up and

relaid in the corridor directly below. Once the

Lobby in the Old

Library of

Congress Space

The principal feature

of the reconstructed

library space was a grand

lobby with columns,

walls, and ceiling made of

white Vermont marble.

The Ionic details were

inspired by the Erectheion order found in the

old Senate chamber.

(1964 photograph.)

Plan of the Rooms Built in the Old

Library of Congress Space

1900

The plan for the new rooms fitted into the former

library space was straightforward. Elevators were

tucked into courtyards while a staircase was built in the

narrow passage leading to the west portico at the bottom of the plan. That stair was soon considered an

encumbrance and removed within three years.

Demolition of the Iron Library 

1900

It took just five weeks to disassemble the ironwork

in Walter’s library, which was then sold for scrap.
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 371

rooms were stripped bare, unforseen structural

defects blamed on the 1851 fire and natural settling prompted Woods to take down and rebuild

more partitions than he had anticipated. Working

two eight-hour shifts a day, masons labored from

August 10 to October 15 building new brick partitions, arches, and vaults. Construction and decorative details were approximate copies of the

originals in the Capitol, as Woods reported, “with

the paramount idea to preserve the sentiments

and ideas of the old and historic central building.” 64 (The details actually resemble those in the

Walter extension.) The two courtyards were

refaced with glazed brick, which was cleaner and

reflected light better than red brick. As soon as

conditions permitted, a special fast-drying plaster

was applied over the masonry, and the molded

ornaments were affixed soon thereafter. Henry

Chick of Washington was hired to install the ornamental plaster, for which he was paid 5 percent

above cost. Sixteen thousand square feet of tile

was bought from the Mosaic Tile Company of

Zanesville, Ohio. Time would not permit special

patterns to be made. Hot and cold water was piped

to a marble lavatory in each room. A forced-air

heating and ventilation system was installed to

supplement steam radiators. Each room was fitted

with a working fireplace, and each fireplace had an

Italian marble mantel designed “in keeping with

the simple dignity of this building.” 65 Electrical

service was provided through steel conduits placed

in the ventilating ducts. The new rooms and corridors were illuminated by 760 lights, and provisions

were made for more. Pivot sash windows were

used instead of double-hung sash or casements

because they were easy to operate and allowed a

greater flow of air. The windows were glazed with

American plate glass.

When the rooms were finished, just before the

opening of the second session of the 56th Congress on December 3, 1900, they were either

empty or scantily furnished with left-over pieces.

By May 1901, Woods’ office had designed suitable

furnishings that were then put out to bid for the

House committee rooms. No two were furnished

alike, but a typical room had a conference table, 

a variety of cane-bottom and upholstered 

chairs, one five-foot-wide roll-top desk, a couch, a 

combination bookcase and wardrobe, a clothes

tree, and an umbrella stand.

In 1901, Congress appropriated $153,500 to

remove the wooden roofs over the old north and

south wings and the west-central building and

rebuild them with fireproof materials. The new

roofs covered 37,500 square feet and were constructed of steel and concrete covered with copper. For the sake of appearances, the profile of the

domical roofs was lowered and the steep pitch

gently eased. In order that the lanterns might

remain at the same elevation, the new saucer

domes were raised on low walls that could not be

seen from the ground. These adjustments allowed

a habitable attic level to be added to the north

wing, but no similar addition could be built above

Statuary Hall due to interior conditions.

While the outside work produced only a few

subtle changes, the interior alterations to Statuary

Removal of the Roof over the Old Senate Chamber

1901

Following the gas explosion of 1898, Congress authorized removal of the old

wooden roofs over the north and south wings and construction of new roofs made 

of fireproof steel and copper. This view shows the roof over the north wing partially

removed, exposing the dome over the old Senate chamber (then occupied by the

Supreme Court).
372 History of the United States Capitol

Hall were more noticeable. Gone was the smooth

wooden ceiling painted by Pietro Bonanni in 1819.

The ceiling promoted echoes when the room was

used for legislative purposes and had been a prime

reason the chamber was abandoned by the House

of Representatives. James Monroe’s order to construct it of wood, against the professional judgment

of B. Henry Latrobe, contributed to sour relations

with the president during the architect’s last days

in Washington. Removal of the wooden ceiling and

its reconstruction in fireproof materials was a tardy

vindication of Latrobe’s good sense. The replacement was not masonry, as Latrobe would have used,

but structural steel and ornamental plaster. Graduated coffers with rich moldings and flowers alternated between decorated ribs that radiated from

the central lantern. The new ceiling unavoidably

affected the room’s acoustical properties, but

Woods hoped that some of its curious echoes would

remain to entertain tourists:

One of the features of the Capitol building

interesting to visitors was the combination of

echoes in the old hall. While mysterious to the

ordinary listener, they are readily explained by

the laws of acoustics. It was a problem of some

interest to preserve these characteristics which

have been the pleasure of numerous visitors.

To do this and be entirely successful would

have required a smooth ceiling exactly as

before. Preserving to within five-eighths of an

inch variation the contour of the old hall ceiling, and by compromising on the depth to

which the new panels might go, the echoes

have been saved to a great extent, though

somewhat diminished in strength.66

While the new ceiling was being put over Statuary Hall, a new floor was being built in the House

Chamber. It was the room’s third floor in its fortyfour-year history and the latest attempt to improve

the quality of the air pumped into the chamber.

After the floor was removed, glazed tiles were laid

and scoured weekly.67 The new floor supplied air

to the chamber through risers in the platform and

Roof Replacement 

1901

On September 10,

1901, a small crowd 

gathered to watch a steel

truss being hoisted for

the north wing’s new 

fireproof roof.

Statuary Hall

This photograph was taken soon after a new fireproof ceiling was placed over Statuary Hall. Unlike its

predecessor, this ceiling was designed with three-dimensional coffers and ornaments. (ca. 1902 photograph.)
The Clark Years, 1865–1902 373

grills under 400 new desks, each of which was

fitted with an electric call button to summon

pages. New furniture was also purchased for the

cloakrooms and lobbies, and the chamber was

repainted in a simpler style than the original

Meigs-Brumidi scheme.

Work accomplished around the Capitol in 1900

and 1901 was impressive. Gone was the threat of

fire from the old wooden roofs and ceilings that

were dangerously close to the dome. Gone too was

the iron library: built as a revolutionary response

to a fire, it was now a victim of Congress’ insatiable

appetite for committee rooms and offices. Unfortunately, it was also an irreplaceable loss to the

history of American architecture. Thomas U. Walter, the man who created that iron masterpiece,

died in 1887 honored but penniless, bitter to the

end about the government’s failure to pay him for

the design of the library, the Capitol dome, and a

half-dozen other projects. Walter’s poverty rendered him resentful at times about his former pupil

Clark’s successful career and comfortable life. Privately, he considered his successor ungrateful and

unhelpful in times of need.

The annual report that Woods wrote for the

year ending June 30, 1902, was the largest in the

agency’s history. For the first time, the report was

extensively illustrated with photographs and drawings that helped explain the work accomplished

over the course of the year. Thirty-seven drawings

showed such things as the steelwork of the new

ceiling over Statuary Hall and the framing plan for

the floor in the House chamber. Sixty-eight photographs showed before and after conditions of the

roofs and the design of a suggested improvement

to the rotunda. Also included in the report were

testimonials to the lives of Edward Clark and

August Schoenborn, both of whom died in January

1902. Head draftsman since 1851, Schoenborn

had, like Clark—begun his Washington years in

Walter’s drafting room. He was remembered for his

“marked artistic and official fidelity” as well as his

“even temperament apparently only satisfied by

hard work.” 68 Woods was particularly eloquent in

the tribute he wrote Clark, his mentor and friend.

After briefly sketching Clark’s career, he wrote:

I may be pardoned for the expression of my

great personal love for him and his character.

It is on the experience of seventeen years’ service with him that I build my estimate of his

character. No man was more modest than he.

No man oftener lifted his hand to the worthy

or more unobtrusively exercised his charitable

instincts. Modest and unassuming, his whole

life is worthy of emulation....

Probably no man connected with the history

of the Capitol building enjoyed more than he

the confidence and respect of those whose

official and personal life brought them in contact with him.69

Clark’s death marked the end of a career

known mainly through official documents. He left

no personal papers to shed light on his intimate

thoughts or record his observations on the world

around him. His official life was nonetheless long

and productive. He had little of Walter’s genius for

design, yet he was enthusiastic about working with

those who did; his collaboration with Olmsted was

one case in point. Clark was temperamentally

equipped to transform the office from a design

atelier to an administrative post, helping set the

stage for the tremendous growth of the job during

the twentieth century.

Rebuilding the Floor in the House Chamber 

1901

Complaints about the foul air in the House chamber usually resulted in reworking

the duct work under the floor. This also provided an opportunity to reconfigure the

platforms and risers to accommodate more desks and chairs for additional members.