15-1 

SECTION 15 - OTHER PROGRAMS 

CONTENTS 

Overview 

Food Stamp Program 

Administration, Program Variations, and Funding 

Benefits 

Quality Control (QC) 

Interaction with TANF, SSI, and GA Programs 

Recipiency Rates 

Recent Legislative History 

Medicaid 

 Overview 

Eligibility 

Families, Pregnant Women, and Children 

The Aged and Persons with Disabilities 

Medically Needy 

Other Individuals Covered 

Enrollment 

Medicaid and the Poor 

Benefits 

Financing 

Reimbursement Policy 

Administration 

Delivery Systems 

Medicaid Waiver Payments 

Legislative History 

State Children’s Health Insurance Program 

Eligibility 

Benefits 

Cost Sharing 

Financing 

General Program Characteristics 

Trends in Enrollment and Expenditures 

Legislative History 

Federal Housing Assistance 

Types of Assistance 

Trends in Levels and Budgetary Impact of Housing Aid 

School Lunch and Breakfast Programs 

Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children 

(WIC) 

Child and Adult Care Food Program 

Centers and Outside-of-School Programs 

Family and Group Day Care Homes 
15-2 

Workforce Investment Act 

Head Start 

Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) 

Background 

Federal Requirements for the Allotments 

Eligibility Standards 

Planning and Administration 

 Available Sources of Funds 

 Performance Measurement 

Veterans Benefits and Services 

Workers’ Compensation 

Overview 

Benefits 

Federal Role 

Major Developments Since 1980 

References

OVERVIEW

 A wide variety of Federal programs outside the jurisdiction of the Committee 

on Ways and Means provide benefits to individuals and families that also receive 

assistance from programs within the Committee’s jurisdiction (see appendix K). 

This section describes several such programs: food stamps; Medicaid; the State 

Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP); housing assistance; School Lunch 

and Breakfast Programs; the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, 

Infants, and Children (WIC); the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP); 

the Workforce Investment Act (WIA); Head Start; the Low-Income Home Energy 

Assistance Program (LIHEAP); veterans benefits and services; and workers’ 

compensation. 

 Most families receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) 

or Supplemental Security Income (SSI) would have incomes low enough to qualify 

them for assistance under these programs. Unlike the principal assistance programs 

under the jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means, participation in Head 

Start, LIHEAP, and other programs is limited by appropriations. Income received 

from TANF is counted in determining eligibility and benefit levels for these 

programs. However, because these programs provide in-kind rather than cash 

assistance, benefits are not counted in determining eligibility for TANF. 

 Tables 15-1 and 15-2 describe the overlap in recipients between programs 

within the jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means and other major 

Federal assistance programs. Table 15-1 illustrates that 80.8 percent of TANF 

recipient households also received food stamps during the first half of 2002; 

35.1 percent received WIC; 99.6 percent received Medicaid; 62.3 percent received 

free or reduced-price school meals; and 37.6 percent received housing assistance. 

 Table 15-2 presents the percentage of recipients of other means-tested 

programs who are participating in programs under Ways and Means jurisdiction. 

For example, 16.2 percent of food stamp households received TANF benefits at 
15-3 

some time during the first half of 2002; 30.2 percent received SSI; 30.5 percent 

received Social Security; 4.9 percent received unemployment benefits; and 

26.0 percent received Medicare. 

TABLE 15-1-- PERCENT OF RECIPIENTS IN PROGRAMS WITHIN THE 

JURISDICTION OF THE COMMITTEE ON WAYS AND MEANS 

RECEIVING ASSISTANCE FROM OTHER MAJOR FEDERAL 

ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS, 2002 

Ways and Means Assistance Programs 

Other Assistance Programs 

TANF SSI Social 

Security

Unemployment 

Compensation Medicare 

Food Stamps 80.8 40.2 6.7 10.6 6.3 

WIC 35.1 5.2 1.2 8.4 0.8 

Medicaid 99.6 96.4 18.2 23.5 17.8 

Free or reduced-price school 

meals 62.3 17.7 4.3 16.1 3.0 

Public or subsidized rental 

housing 37.6 22.9 5.6 3.0 5.6 

VA compensation or pensions 1.0 3.6 4.6 1.4 4.8 

Number of recipients in 

households receiving benefits 

(in thousands) 

1,393 5,207 31,358 3,209 28,452 

Note-Table shows number of recipient households for February-May 2002. Tables read that 80.8 

percent of households with TANF recipients also received food stamp benefits. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation. 

TABLE 15-2 -- PERCENT OF RECIPIENTS IN OTHER MAJOR 

FEDERAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS RECEIVING ASSISTANCE 

UNDER PROGRAMS WITHIN THE JURISDICTION OF THE 

COMMITTEE ON WAYS AND MEANS, 2002 

Other Assistance Programs 

Ways and Means 

Assistance Programs Food 

Stamps WIC 

Free or 

reduced-price 

school meals 

Public or 

subsidized 

rental housing 

Medicaid

VA 

compensation 

or pensions 

TANF 16.2 10.8 9.0 10.9 8.0 0.6 

SSI 30.2 6.0 9.6 24.8 29.0 7.0 

Social Security 30.5 8.1 13.9 36.9 32.9 54.4 

Unemployment 

Compensation 4.9 6.0 5.4 2.0 4.4 1.7 

Medicare 26.0 5.1 9.0 33.5 29.2 52.3 

Number of recipients 

in households 

receiving benefits 

(in thousands) 

6,924 4,517 9,620 4,795 17,322 2,639 

Note-Table shows number of recipient households for February-May 2002. Tables read that 

16.2 percent of households with food stamp recipients also received TANF. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Programs Participation. 

 
15-4 

 Table 15-3 shows the percentage of households receiving Aid to Families 

with Dependent Children (AFDC)/TANF or SSI and also receiving assistance from 

other programs for selected time periods. The figures at the bottom of the 

AFDC/TANF portion of the table show that the number of households receiving 

AFDC/TANF increased rapidly between 1990 and 1994, declined somewhat in 

1995, and then fell rapidly between 1995 and 2002. Due to the rapid decline after 

1994, the AFDC/TANF rolls declined by 61 percent over the entire period. The 

number of households receiving SSI declined slightly in 1990 and 1993, but 

otherwise increased throughout the period between 1984 and 2002. The rolls 

increased by 73 percent over this period. 

 

TABLE 15-3--PERCENT OF HOUSEHOLDS RECIEVING TANF OR SSI 

AND ALSO RECEIVING ASSISTANCE FROM OTHER PROGRAMS, 

SELECTED YEARS 1984-2002 

Assistance program 1984 1987 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997-98 2002 

AFDC/TANF: 

Food stamps 81.4 81.7 82.7 86.2 88.9 88.3 87.2 81.0 80.8 

WIC 15.3 18.6 18.7 21.5 18.5 21.4 24.7 30.6 35.1 

Free or reduced-price 

school meals 49.2 55.6 52.7 55.5 56.9 57.5 63.1 60.3 62.3 

Public or subsidized 

rental housing 23.0 19.4 34.7 29.5 33.1 30.3 31.1 21.2 37.6 

Medicaid 93.2 95.5 97.6 96.2 97.6 96.4 97.2 97.3 99.6 

VA compensation or 

pensions 2.8 1.9 1.3 1.9 1.1 1.1 0.8 1.1 1.0 

Number of 

households 

receiving benefits 

(in thousands) 

3,585 3,527 3,434 4,057 4,831 4,906 4,652 3,008 1,391 

SSI: 

Food stamps 46.5 39.7 41.3 46.2 48.0 50.1 50.0 43.7 40.2 

WIC 2.5 2.5 3.0 4.3 3.7 5.4 5.6 5.5 5.2 

Free or reduced-price 

school meals 12.7 11.9 15.3 18.2 21.3 23.8 25.2 18.4 17.7 

Public or subsidized 

rental housing 21.6 20.0 21.4 23.8 23.9 24.9 24.1 23.4 22.9 

Medicaid 100.0 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.5 100.0 100.0 95.0 96.4 

VA compensation or 

pensions 4.7 7.7 5.7 4.0 4.5 3.9 3.6 2.8 3.6 

Number of 

households 

receiving benefits 

(in thousands) 

3,008 3,341 3,037 3,957 3,861 4,223 4,580 4,772 5,207 

Note-Data on households interviewed between February and May 2002. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation. 

 The percentage of AFDC/TANF households receiving other benefits 

fluctuated over the 1984-2002 period, but several the biggest programs--school 

meals, housing assistance, and Medicaid--increased then declined, and then 
15-5 

increased again in 2002. Food Stamps experienced increased coverage until 1993, 

after which it fell off by 9 percent through 2002. School lunches also fell off 

somewhat between 1995 and 1998 before increasing in 2002. Medicaid coverage 

increased between 1984 and 1990, but the pattern was erratic after that prior to 

2002 establishing a new high-water mark of coverage. Similarly, the high-water 

mark for housing was 2002. The pattern of receiving other benefits for SSI 

households is broadly similar; namely, initial increases and then declines prior to 

selected increases again in 2002. For every program, except Medicaid which was 

received by 100 percent of SSI households, and veterans benefits, coverage 

increased between 1984 and 1994 but then declined either between 1994 and 1995 

or between 1995 and 1998. Medicaid too declined from its 100 percent coverage in 

1995 to 95 percent in 1998. Declines continued through 2002 in food stamps, WIC, 

school meals, and housing. However, coverage under Medicaid and VA 

Compensation Programs turned upward again. 

FOOD STAMP PROGRAM 

 Food stamps are designed primarily to increase the food purchasing power of 

eligible low-income households to a point where they can buy a nutritionally 

adequate low-cost diet. Participating households are expected to devote 30 percent 

of their counted monthly cash income to food purchases.1

 Food stamp benefits 

then make up the difference between the household’s expected contribution to its 

food costs and an amount judged to be sufficient to buy an adequate low-cost diet. 

This amount, the maximum food stamp benefit, is set at the level of the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture’s lowest cost food plan (the Thrifty Food Plan or TFP), 

varied by household size, and adjusted annually for inflation. Thus, a participating 

household with no counted cash income receives the maximum monthly allotment 

for its household size while a household with some counted income receives a 

lesser allotment, normally reduced from the maximum at the rate of 30 cents for 

each dollar of counted income. 

 Benefits are available to most households that meet Federal eligibility tests 

for limited monthly income and liquid assets. But household members must fulfill 

requirements related to work effort and must meet citizenship and legal permanent 

residence tests. Recipients in the two primary cash welfare programs (TANF and 

SSI) generally are automatically eligible for food stamps, as are recipients of State 

general assistance (GA) payments, if their household is composed entirely of 

TANF, SSI, or GA beneficiaries.2

 

1

 Because not all of a household’s income is actually counted when determining its food stamp benefits, 

the program, in effect assumes that most participants are able to spend 20-25 percent of their total cash 

monthly income on food. 

2 Except for (1) SSI recipients in California, where a State-financed adjustment to SSI benefits has 

replaced food stamp assistance; and (2) General Assistance Programs that do not meet minimum Federal 

standards for deeming need.
15-6 

ADMINISTRATION, PROGRAM VARIATIONS, AND FUNDING 

 The regular Food Stamp Program operates in all 50 States, the District of 

Columbia, Guam, and the Virgin Islands. The Federal Government is responsible 

for most of the rules that govern the program, and, with limited variations for 

Alaska, Hawaii, and the territories, these rules are nationally uniform. However, by 

law and regulation, States have a number of significant options to vary from 

Federal administrative, benefit calculation, and eligibility rules, especially for those 

who also are recipients of their State’s cash welfare programs, and a number of 

waivers from regular rules and procedures have been (and continue to be) granted. 

Sales taxes on food stamp purchases may not be charged, and food stamp benefits 

do not directly affect other assistance available to low-income households, nor are 

they taxed as income. 

 Alternative programs are offered in Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana 

Islands, and American Samoa, and program variations occur in a number of 

demonstration projects and in those jurisdictions that have elected to exercise the 

program options allowed. 

 Funding is overwhelmingly Federal, although the States and other 

jurisdictions have financial responsibility for significant administrative costs, as 

well as liability for erroneous benefit determinations (as assessed under the food 

stamp “quality control” system, discussed below). 

Federal Administrative Responsibilities

 At the Federal level, the program is administered by the Agriculture 

Department’s Food and Nutrition Service (FNS). The FNS gives direction to 

welfare agencies through Federal regulations that define eligibility requirements, 

benefit levels, and administrative rules. It also is responsible for overseeing State 

programs for the electronic issuance of food stamp benefits, and for approving and 

overseeing participation by retail food stores and other outlets that may accept food 

stamps. Other Federal agencies that have administrative roles to play include: the 

Federal Reserve System (through which food stamp benefits are redeemed for cash, 

and which has some jurisdiction over “electronic benefit transfer (EBT)” methods 

for issuing food stamp benefits), the Social Security Administration (responsible for 

the Social Security numbers recipients must have, for providing limited application 

“intake” services, and for providing information to verify recipients’ income), the 

Internal Revenue Service (providing assistance in verifying recipients’ income and 

assets), the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services of the Department of 

Homeland Security (helping welfare offices confirm alien applicants’ status), and 

the Agriculture Department’s Inspector General (responsible for trafficking 

investigations). 

State and Local Administrative Responsibilities

 States, the District of Columbia, Guam, and the Virgin Islands, through their 

local welfare offices, have primary responsibility for the day-to-day administration 

of the Food Stamp Program. They determine eligibility, calculate benefits, and 

issue food stamp allotments (using coupons or, in most cases, electronic benefit 
15-7 

transfer cards) following Federal rules. They also have a significant voice in 

carrying out employment and training programs and in determining some 

administrative features of the program (e.g., the extent to which verification of 

household circumstances is pursued, the length of eligibility certification periods, 

the structure of EBT systems). Most often, the Food Stamp Program is operated 

through the same welfare agency and staff that runs the State’s TANF Program. 

Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa

 In addition to the regular Food Stamp Program, the Food Stamp Act directs 

funding for a Nutrition Assistance Program in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico 

and another in American Samoa. Separate legislation authorizes a variant of the 

Food Stamp Program in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. 

 Since July 1982, Puerto Rico has operated a Nutrition Assistance Program 

of its own design, funded by an annual Federal “block grant.”3

 The 

Commonwealth’s Nutrition Assistance Program differs from the regular Food 

Stamp Program primarily in that: (1) funding is limited to an annually indexed 

amount specified by law4

; (2) the Food Stamp Act allows the Commonwealth a 

great deal of flexibility in program design, as opposed to the regular program’s 

extensive Federal rules (e.g., 75 percent of benefits, paid through electronic benefit 

transfers, are earmarked for food purchases, the remainder may be claimed as cash, 

and rules barring certain not citizens do not apply); (3) income eligibility limits are 

about one-third those used in the regular Food Stamp Program; (4) maximum 

benefit levels are about 40 percent less than in the 48 contiguous States and the 

District of Columbia; and (5) different rules are used in counting income for 

eligibility and benefit purposes. In fiscal year 2002, Puerto Rico’s Nutrition 

Assistance Program aided approximately 1 million persons each month with 

monthly benefits averaging $98 dollars a person ($244 a household). 

 Under the terms of the 1976 Covenant with the Commonwealth of the 

Northern Mariana Islands and implementing legislation (Public Law 96-597), a 

variant of the Food Stamp Program was negotiated with the Commonwealth and 

began operations in July 1982. The program in the Northern Marianas differs 

primarily in that: (1) it is funded entirely by Federal money, up to a maximum grant 

negotiated periodically ($7.1 million per year for fiscal years 2003 and 2004); (2) a 

portion of each household’s food stamp benefit must be used to purchase locally 

produced food; (3) maximum allotments are about 5 percent higher than in the 48 

contiguous States and the District of Columbia; and (4) income eligibility limits are 

about half those in the regular program. In September 2003, the Northern Marianas’ 

program assisted 6,800 persons with a monthly benefit averaging $80 per person. 

 As with the Northern Marianas, American Samoa operates a variant of the 

regular Food Stamp Program. Under the Secretary of Agriculture’s authority to 

extend Agriculture Department programs to American Samoa (Public Law 96-597) 

and a 2002 amendment to the Food Stamp Act made by the Farm Security and 

 

3 Prior to July 1982, the regular Food Stamp Program operated in Puerto Rico, although with slightly 

different eligibility and benefit rules. 

4

 For fiscal years 2003 and 2004, $1.395 billion and $1.397 billion are earmarked. The block grant funds 

the full cost of benefits and half the cost of administration. 
15-8 

Rural Investment Act (Public Law 107-171), American Samoa receives an 

annually indexed grant ($5.6 million per year in fiscal years 2003 and 2004) to 

operate a Food Stamp Program limited to low-income elderly and disabled persons. 

While maximum monthly allotments are similar to those in the regular Food Stamp 

Program ($132 per person), income eligibility limits are about 25 percent lower. In 

September 2003, the program aided about 2,900 persons per month. 

Program Options 

 The Food Stamp Act authorizes demonstration projects to test program 

variations that might improve operations. However, because of (1) the law’s 

substantial limits on how much any demonstration can reduce benefits or restrict 

eligibility, (2) an administration policy that effectively bars demonstrations that 

have a significant cost to the Food Stamp Program, and (3) implementation of 

provisions for State flexibility included in the 1996 Welfare Reform Law (Public 

Law 104-193) and the 2002 Farm Security and Rural Investment Act (Public Law 

107-171), no major demonstration projects are operational. Instead, a few small 

demonstrations are operating in some States (these deal with joint application 

processing and standardized food stamp benefits for SSI recipients, cash benefits 

for the elderly and SSI recipients, and “privatizing” program administration), and 

extensive waivers of administrative rules are routinely granted. 

 States also are allowed a number of significant options in how they 

implement the Food Stamp Program. States may establish their own administrative 

standards in areas such as application processing, ongoing recertification of 

recipient households, reporting of changes in household circumstances (and 

adjusting benefits to take these changes into account), counting child support 

payments, and standardizing the treatment of utility expenses in benefit 

calculations. In addition, States can use most of the rules they have established for 

TANF and Medicaid programs when deciding what income and resources (assets) 

to exclude in food stamp eligibility and benefit determinations, and may grant 5-

month “transitional” food stamp benefits to those leaving the TANF program 

(without requiring them to reapply for food stamps). The states may issue benefits 

(at their own cost) to ineligible noncitizens and those ineligible under the work rule 

for able-bodied adults without dependents (ABAWDs; discussed below). With 

50 percent Federal cost-sharing, they can operate “outreach” programs to inform 

low-income persons about food stamps and support nutrition education efforts. 

They may choose to operate a “simplified” program under which they can use 

many of their TANF rules and procedures when determining food stamp benefits 

for TANF recipients. States may sanction food stamp recipients failing to meet 

other public assistance program rules or failing to cooperate in child support 

enforcement efforts. They may, to a certain extent, waive the application of the 

work rule for ABAWDs; and they may choose to disqualify an entire household if 

the head of the household fails to fulfill work-related requirements. In some 

instances, they may include the cash value of food stamp benefits when using 

welfare to subsidize recipients’ wages. States and localities may opt to run 

“workfare” programs for food stamp recipients. Finally, States determine the 

content of employment and training programs for food stamp recipients (and, in 
15-9 

many cases, who must participate). 

Funding

 The Food Stamp Act provides 100 percent Federal funding of food stamp 

benefits, except when States choose to “buy into” the program and pay for issuing 

food stamp benefits to ineligible noncitizens or those made ineligible by the work 

rule for ABAWDs. The Federal Government also is responsible for its own 

administrative costs: overseeing program operations (including oversight of 

participating food establishments), redeeming food stamp benefits through the 

Federal Reserve, and paying the Social Security Administration for certain intake 

services. 

TABLE 15-4 -- RECENT FOOD STAMP ACT EXPENDITURES, 

SELECTED YEARS, 1980-2002 

[In millions of dollars] 

Administration2 Fiscal 

Year 

Benefits1 

(Federal) Federal State and local Total 

1980 $8,685 $503 $375 $9,563 

1985 11,556 1,043 871 13,470 

1990 15,090 1,422 1,174 17,686 

1991 18,249 1,516 1,247 21,012 

1992 21,883 1,656 1,375 24,914 

1993 23,033 1,716 1,572 26,321 

1994 23,736 1,789 1,643 27,168 

1995 23,759 1,917 1,748 27,424 

1996 23,510 1,984 1,842 27,336 

1997 20,810 2,058 1,904 24,772 

1998 18,228 2,169 1,988 22,385 

1999 17,217 2,100 1,874 21,191 

2000 16,320 1,935 2,086 20,341 

2001 16,711 2,102 2,233 21,045 

2002 19,393 2,264 2,397 24,054 

1 All benefit costs associated with the Food Stamp Program, Puerto Rico’s block grant, and grants to 

American Samoa and the Northern Marianas are included. Fiscal year 1998 and 1999 amounts shown 

in the table also cover the cost of State-financed benefits for noncitizens (approximately 

$100 million a year). For certain years, small downward adjustments have been made for overpayments 

collected from recipients and issued but unredeemed benefits. Over time, the figures reflect both 

changes in benefit levels and numbers of recipients. 

2

 All Federal administrative costs associated with the Food Stamp Program appropriation and grants to 

Puerto Rico, American Samoa, and the Northern Marianas are included: Federal matching spending for 

the various administrative and employment and training program expenses of States and other 

jurisdictions, and direct Federal administrative costs. Figures for Federal administrative expenses paid 

out of other Agriculture Department appropriations accounts ($40-$60 million a year). State and local 

costs are estimated based on the known Federal shares of administrative and employment and training 

program expenses and represent an estimate of these costs to States and other jurisdictions; however, the 

State/local figures shown in the table do not include administrative expenses for State-financed benefits 

to noncitizens. 

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture budget justification for fiscal years 1981-2004. Complied by 

the Congressional Research Service. 

 In most instances, the Federal Government provides half the cost of State 
15-10 

welfare agency administration.5

 In addition, the Federal Government shares the cost 

of carrying out employment and training programs for food stamp recipients: 

(1) each State receives a Federal grant for basic operating costs (a formula share of 

$90 million per year, plus a share of $20 million a year for those States pledging to 

serve all ABAWDs; and (2) additional operating costs, as well as expenses for 

support services to participants (e.g. transportation and child care) are eligible for a 

50 percent Federal match. Finally, States are allowed to retain a portion of 

improperly issued benefits they recover (other than those caused by welfare agency 

error): 35 percent of recoveries in fraud cases and 20 percent in other 

circumstances. Federal and State Food Stamp Act spending in selected years since 

1980 is shown in 15-4. 

 The Food Stamp Program has financial, employment/training-related, and 

“categorical” tests for eligibility. Its financial tests require that most of those 

eligible have monthly income and liquid assets below limits set by law (income 

limits are inflation indexed). Under the employment/training-related tests, certain 

household members must register for work, accept suitable job offers, and fulfill 

work or training requirements (such as looking or training for a job) established by 

State welfare agencies. Under a work requirement established in 1996, food stamp 

eligibility for ABAWDs is limited to 3-6 months in any 36-month period unless 

they are working at least half time or in a work or training activity. Categorical 

eligibility rules make some automatically eligible for food stamps (many TANF, 

SSI, and GA recipients), and categorically deny eligibility to others (e.g., strikers 

and many noncitizens, postsecondary students, and people living in institutional 

settings). Applications cannot be denied because of the length of a household’s 

residence in a welfare agency’s jurisdiction or because the household has no fixed 

mailing address or does not reside in a permanent dwelling. 

The Food Stamp Household

 The basic food stamp beneficiary unit is the “household.” A food stamp 

household can be either a person living alone or a group of individuals living 

together; there is no requirement for cooking facilities. The food stamp household 

is unrelated to recipient units in other welfare programs (e.g., TANF families with 

dependent children, elderly or disabled individuals or couples in the SSI Program). 

 Generally speaking, individuals living together constitute a single food 

stamp household if they customarily purchase food and prepare meals in common. 

Members of the same household must apply together, and their income, expenses, 

and assets normally are aggregated in determining food stamp eligibility and 

benefits. However, persons who live together can sometimes be considered separate 

“households” for food stamp purposes, related co-residents generally are required 

to apply together, and special rules apply to those living in institutional settings. 

Most often, persons living together receive larger aggregate benefits if they are 

treated as more than one food stamp household. 

 

5

 Under the terms of Public Law 105-185, most States are subject to an annual reduction in their 

normal Federal share totaling about $200 million nationwide.
15-11 

 Persons who live together, but purchase food and prepare meals separately, 

may apply for food stamps separately, except for: (1) spouses; (2) parents and their 

children (21 years or younger); and (3) minors 18 years or younger (excluding 

foster children, who may be treated separately) who live under the parental control 

of a caretaker. In addition, persons 60 years or older who live with others and 

cannot purchase food and prepare meals separately because of a substantial 

disability may apply separately from their coresidents as long as their coresidents’ 

income is below prescribed limits (165 percent of the Federal poverty guidelines). 

 Although those living in institutional settings generally are barred from food 

stamps, individuals in certain types of group living arrangements may be eligible 

and are automatically treated as separate households, regardless of how food is 

purchased and meals are prepared. These arrangements must be approved by State 

or local agencies and include: residential drug addict or alcoholic treatment 

programs, small group homes for the disabled, shelters for battered women and 

children, and shelters for the homeless. 

 Thus, different food stamp households can live together, food stamp 

recipients can reside with nonrecipients, and food stamp households themselves 

may be “mixed” (include recipients and nonrecipients of other welfare benefits). 

Income Eligibility

 Except for households composed entirely of TANF, SSI, or GA recipients 

(who generally are automatically eligible for food stamps), monthly cash income is 

the primary food stamp eligibility determinant.6

 In establishing eligibility for 

households without an elderly or disabled member,7

 the Food Stamp Program uses 

both the household’s basic (or “gross”) monthly income and it’s counted (or “net”) 

monthly income. When judging eligibility for households with elderly or disabled 

members, only the household’s counted monthly income is considered; in effect, 

this procedure applies a more liberal income test to elderly and disabled 

households. 

 Basic (or gross) monthly income includes all of a household’s cash income 

except the following “exclusions” (disregards): (1) most payments made to third 

parties (rather than directly to the household); (2) unanticipated, irregular, or 

infrequent income, up to $30 a quarter; (3) loans (deferred repayment student loans 

are treated as student aid, see below); (4) income received for the care of someone 

outside the household; (5) nonrecurring lump-sum payments such as income tax 

refunds and retroactive lump-sum Social Security payments (these are instead 

counted as liquid assets); (6) Federal energy assistance; (7) expense 

reimbursements that are not a “gain or benefit” to the household; (8) income earned 

 

6 Although they do not have to meet food stamp financial eligibility tests, TANF, SSI, and general 

assistance households must still have their income calculated under food stamp rules to determine their 

food stamp benefits. Thus food stamp benefits are reduced by 30 cents for ever dollar of cash benefits 

under TANF or SSI. 

7

 In the Food Stamp Program, “elderly” persons are those 60 years or older. The “disabled” generally 

are beneficiaries of governmental disability-based payments (e.g., Social Security or SSI disability 

recipients, disabled veterans, certain disability retirement annuitants, and the recipients of disabilitybased Medicaid or general assistance.
15-12 

by schoolchildren 17 or younger; (9) the cost of producing self-employment 

income; (10) Federal postsecondary student aid (e.g., Pell grants, student loans); 

(11) advance payments of Federal earned income credits; (12) “on-the-job” 

training earnings of dependent children under 19 in the Workforce Investment Act 

(WIA), formerly the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), Programs, as well as 

monthly “allowances”; (13) income set aside by disabled SSI recipients under an 

approved “plan for achieving self-support”; and (14) payments required to be 

disregarded by provisions of Federal law outside the Food Stamp Act (e.g., various 

payments under laws relating to Indians, payments under the Older Americans Act 

Employment Program for the Elderly). In addition, States may, within certain 

limits, choose to exclude other types of income they disregard in their TANF or 

Medicaid programs. 

 Counted (or net) monthly income is computed by subtracting certain 

“deductions” from a household’s basic (or gross) monthly income. This procedure 

is based on the recognition that not all of a household’s income is equally available 

for food purchases. Thus, a standard portion of income, plus amounts representing 

work expenses or excessively high nonfood living expenses, are disregarded. 

 For households without an elderly or disabled member, counted monthly 

income equals gross monthly income less the following deductions: 

 A “standard” monthly deduction that varies by household size and is 

indexed for inflation (for fiscal year 2004, this deduction in the 48 

States and the District of Columbia is $134 for households of 1-4 

persons, $149 for 5-person households, and $171 for households of 6 or 

more persons). Different standard deductions are used for Alaska, 

Hawaii, Guam, and the Virgin Islands (e.g., the fiscal year 2004 

deduction for 4-person households is $229 in Alaska, $189 in Hawaii, 

$269 in Guam, and $127 in the Virgin Islands). 

 Any amounts paid as legally obligated child support; 

 Twenty percent of any earned income, in recognition of taxes and 

work expenses; 

 Out-of-pocket dependent care expenses, when related to work or 

training, up to $175 per month per dependent, $200 per month for 

children under age 2; and 

 Shelter expenses (including utility costs) that exceed 50 percent of 

counted income after all other deductions, up to a periodically adjusted 

ceiling that is $378 per month for fiscal year 2004. Different ceilings 

prevail in Alaska ($604), Hawaii ($509), Guam ($444), and the Virgin 

Islands ($298). 

 For households with an elderly or disabled member, counted monthly 

income equals gross monthly income less: 

 The same standard, child support, earned income, and dependent care 

deductions noted above; 

 Any shelter expenses, to the extent they exceed 50 percent of counted 

income after all other deductions, with no limit; and 

 Any out-of-pocket medical expenses (other than those for special diets) 
15-13 

that are incurred by an elderly or disabled household member, to the 

extent they exceed a threshold of $35 a month. 

 Except for those households comprised entirely of TANF, SSI, or GA 

recipients, in which case food stamp eligibility generally is automatic; all 

households must have net monthly income that does not exceed the annually 

indexed Federal poverty guidelines. Households without an elderly or disabled 

member also must have gross monthly income that does not exceed 130 percent of 

the inflation-adjusted Federal poverty guidelines. Both these income eligibility 

limits are uniform for the 48 contiguous States, the District of Columbia, Guam, 

and the Virgin Islands; somewhat higher limits (based on higher poverty 

guidelines) are applied in Alaska and Hawaii. The net and gross eligibility limits on 

income are summarized in Table 15-5. 

TABLE 15-5 -- COUNTED (NET) AND BASIC (GROSS) MONTHLY 

INCOME ELIGIBILITY LIMITS FOR THE FOOD STAMP PROGRAM, 

FISCAL YEAR 2004 

Household size 48 States, D.C., 

and the territories Alaska Hawaii 

Counted (net) monthly income eligibility limits1: 

1 person 749 935 861 

2 persons 1,010 1,262 1,162 

3 persons 1,272 1,590 1,463 

4 persons 1,534 1,917 1,764 

5 persons 1,795 2,245 2,065 

6 persons 2,057 2,572 2,365 

7 persons 2,319 2,900 2,666 

8 persons 2,580 3,227 2,967 

Each additional person +262 +328 +301 

Basic (gross) monthly income eligibility limits2

: 

1 person 973 1,215 1,120 

2 persons 1,313 1,641 1,511 

3 persons 1,654 2,066 1,902 

4 persons 1,994 2,492 2,293 

5 persons 2,334 2,918 2,684 

6 persons 2,674 3,344 3,075 

7 persons 3,014 3,769 3,466 

8 persons 3,354 4,195 3,857 

Each additional person +341 +426 +392 1

 Set at the applicable Federal poverty guidelines, updated for inflation through calendar 2002. 2

 Set at 130 percent of the applicable Federal poverty guidelines, updated for inflation through 

calendar 2002. 

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service. 

Allowable Assets

 Except for households automatically eligible for food stamps because they 

are composed entirely of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), 

Supplemental Security Income (SSI), or GA recipients, eligible households must 

have counted liquid assets that do not exceed federally prescribed limits. 

Households without an elderly or disabled member cannot have counted liquid 
15-14 

assets above $2,000. Households with an elderly or disabled member cannot have 

counted liquid assets above $3,000. 

 Counted liquid assets include cash on hand, checking and savings accounts, 

savings certificates, stocks and bonds, individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and 

Keogh plans (less any early withdrawal penalties), and nonrecurring lump-sum 

payments such as insurance settlements. Certain less liquid assets also are counted: 

a portion of the value of vehicles and the equity value of property not producing 

income consistent with its value (e.g., recreational property). 

 Counted assets do not include the value of the household’s residence (home 

and surrounding property), business assets, personal property (household goods 

and personal effects), lump-sum earned income tax credit payments, burial plots, 

the cash value of life insurance policies and pension plans (other than Keogh plans 

and IRAs), and certain other resources whose value is not accessible to the 

household, would not yield more than $1,000 if sold (e.g., a car with a small equity 

value), or are required to be disregarded by other Federal laws. 

 Some special rules apply when counting allowable assets. Although the 

general rule is that the fair market value of a vehicle in excess of $4,650 is to be 

counted as an asset, States may (and often do) count vehicles as assets only to the 

extent they do under their TANF programs. Moreover, States generally may 

exclude additional assets to the extent they do so under their TANF or Medicaid 

programs. 

Work-Related Requirements

 To gain or retain eligibility, most able-bodied adults must: (1) register for 

work (typically with the welfare agency or a State employment service office); 

(2) accept a suitable job if offered one; (3) fulfill any work, job search, or training 

requirements established by administering welfare agencies; (4) provide the 

administering welfare agency with sufficient information to allow a determination 

with respect to their job availability; and (5) not voluntarily quit a job without good 

cause or reduce work effort below 30 hours a week. If the household head fails to 

fulfill any of these requirements, the entire household may, at State option, be 

disqualified for up to 180 days. Individual disqualification periods differ according 

to whether the violation is the first, second, or third; minimum periods, which may 

be increased by the State welfare agency, range from 1 to 6 months. 

 Those who are exempt by law from these basic work requirements include: 

persons physically or mentally unfit for work; those under age 16 or over age 59; 

individuals between 16 and 18 if they are not head of household or are attending 

school or a training program; persons working at least 30 hours a week or earning 

the minimum wage equivalent; persons caring for dependents who are disabled or 

under age 6; those caring for children between ages 6 and 12 if adequate child care 

is not available (this second exemption is limited to allowing these persons to 

refuse a job offer if care is not available); individuals already subject to and 

complying with another assistance program’s work, training, or job search 

requirements; otherwise eligible postsecondary students; and residents of drug 

addiction and alcoholic treatment programs. 
15-15 

 Those not exempted by one of the above-listed rules must, at least, register 

for work and accept suitable job offers. However, their State welfare agency may 

require them to fulfill some type of work, job search, or training obligation. Welfare 

agencies must operate an employment and training program of their own design for 

work registrants whom they designate. Welfare agencies may require all work 

registrants to participate in one or more components of their program, or limit 

participation by further exempting additional categories and individuals for whom 

participation is judged impracticable or not cost effective. Program components can 

include any or all of the following activities: supervised job search or training for 

job search, workfare, work experience or training programs, education programs to 

improve basic skills, or any other employment or training activity approved by the 

Agriculture Department. 

 Recipients who take part in an employment or training activity beyond work 

registration cannot be required to work more than the minimum wage equivalent of 

their household’s benefit. Total hours of participation (including both work and any 

other required activity) cannot exceed 120 hours a month. Welfare agencies also 

must provide support for costs directly related to participation (e.g., transportation 

and child care). Agencies may limit this support to local market rates for necessary 

dependent care. 

 In addition to these work-related requirements, there is a work requirement 

for most able-bodied adults between 18 and 50 without dependents (ABAWDs). 

They are ineligible for food stamps if, during the prior 36 months, they received 

food stamps for 3 months while not working at least 20 hours a week or 

participating in an approved work/training activity. Those disqualified under this 

rule are able to reenter the Food Stamp Program if, during a 30-day period, they 

work 80 hours or more or participate in a work/training activity. If they then 

become unemployed or leave work/training, they are eligible for an additional 

3-month period on food stamps without working at least 20 hours a week or 

participating in a work/training activity. But they are allowed only one of these 

added 3-month eligibility periods in any 36 months for a potential total of 6 months 

on food stamps in any 36 months without half-time work or enrollment in a 

work/training program. 

 At State request, this rule can be waived for areas with very high 

unemployment (over 10 percent) or lack of available jobs. Moreover, States may, 

on their own initiative, exempt up to 15 percent of those covered under the new 

work rule. 

 In fiscal year 2002, States reported 2.3 million new work registrants. Of 

these, approximately 1.2 million -- including an estimated 450,000 ABAWDs--

were subject to employment and training program placement. 

Categorical Eligibility Rules and Other Limitations

 Food stamp eligibility is sometimes denied for reasons other than financial 

need or compliance with work-related requirements. Many noncitizens are 

barred--eligibility is extended only to permanent residents legally present in the 

U.S. for at least 5 years, legal immigrant children (under 18), the elderly and 
15-16 

disabled who were legally resident before August 1996, refugees and asylees, 

veterans and others with a military connection, those with a substantial history of 

work covered under the Social Security system, and certain other limited groups of 

aliens. Households with members on strike are denied benefits unless eligible prior 

to the strike. With some exceptions, postsecondary students (in school half time or 

more) who are fit for work and between ages 18 and 50 are ineligible. Persons 

living in institutional settings are denied eligibility, except those in special 

SSI-approved small group homes for the disabled, persons living in drug addiction 

or alcohol treatment programs, and persons in shelters for battered women and 

children or shelters for the homeless. Boarders cannot receive food stamps unless 

they apply together with the household in which they are boarding. Those who 

transfer assets for the purpose of qualifying for food stamps are barred. Persons 

who fail to provide Social Security numbers or cooperate in providing information 

needed to verify eligibility or benefit determinations are ineligible. Food stamps are 

denied those who intentionally violate program rules, for specific time periods 

ranging from 1 year (on a first violation) to permanently (on a third violation or 

other serious infraction); and States may impose food stamp disqualification when 

an individual is disqualified from another public assistance program. Automatic 

disqualification is required for those applying in multiple jurisdictions, fleeing 

arrest, or convicted of a drug-related felony. Finally, States may disqualify 

individuals not cooperating with child support enforcement authorities or in 

arrears on their child support obligations. 

BENEFITS 

 Food stamp benefits are a function of a household’s size, its net monthly 

income, and inflation-indexed maximum monthly benefit levels (in some cases, 

adjusted for geographic location). An eligible household’s net income is determined 

(i.e., the deductions noted earlier are subtracted from gross income), its maximum 

benefit level is established, and a benefit is calculated by subtracting its expected 

contribution (30 percent of its counted net income) from its maximum allotment. 

Thus, a 3-person household with $400 in counted net income (after deductions) 

would receive a monthly allotment of $251 (the fiscal year 2004 maximum 

3-person benefit in the 48 States, $371, less 30 percent of net income, $120). 

 Allotments are not taxable and food stamp purchases may not be charged 

sales taxes. Receipt of food stamps does not affect eligibility for or benefits 

provided by other welfare programs, although some programs use food stamp 

participation as a “trigger” for eligibility and others take into account the general 

availability of food stamps in deciding what level of benefits to provide. In fiscal 

year 2002, monthly benefits averaged $80 per person (see Table 15-11). 

Maximum Monthly Allotments 

 Maximum monthly food stamp allotments are tied to the cost of purchasing a 

nutritionally adequate low-cost diet, as measured by the Agriculture Department’s 

Thrifty Food Plan (TFP). Maximum allotments are set at: the monthly cost of the 
15-17 

TFP for a four-person family consisting of a couple between ages 20 and 50 and 

two school-age children, adjusted for family size (using a formula reflecting 

economies of scale developed by the Human Nutrition Information Service), and 

rounded down to the nearest whole dollar. Allotments are adjusted for food price 

inflation annually, each October, to reflect the cost of the TFP in the immediately 

previous June. 

 Maximum allotments are standard in the 48 contiguous States and the 

District of Columbia; they are higher, reflecting substantially different food costs, 

in Alaska, Hawaii, Guam, and the Virgin Islands (Table 15-6). 

TABLE 15-6-- MAXIMUM FOOD STAMP ALLOTMENTS, 

FISCAL YEAR 2004 

Household size 48 States and D.C. Alaska1 Hawaii2 Guam Virgin Islands 

1 person $141 $167 $210 $182 $208 

2 person 259 307 386 333 382 

3 person 371 439 553 477 547 

4 person 471 558 702 606 695 

5 person 560 663 834 720 826 

6 person 672 795 1,001 864 991 

7 person 743 879 1,106 955 1,095 

8 person 849 1,005 1,264 1,092 1,252 

Each additional person +106 +126 +158 +137 +157 1 Maximum allotment levels in rural Alaska are 27 percent to 55 percent higher than the urban 

Alaska allotments noted here. The allotment levels noted here are those in effect as of October 1, 

2003. However, under legislation pending as of December 1, 2003, they are scheduled to increase 

slightly: to $169, $309, $443, $563, $669, $803, $887, $1,014 and + $127. 2

 The allotment levels noted here are those in effect as of October 1, 2003. However, under 

legislation pending as of December 1, 2003, they are scheduled to increase slightly to $212, $389, 

$557, $707, $840, $1,008, $1,114, $1273, and +159. 

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Minimum and Prorated Benefits

 Eligible one-and two-person households are guaranteed a minimum monthly 

food stamp allotment of $10. Minimum monthly benefits for other household sizes 

vary from year to year, depending on the relationship between changes in the 

income eligibility limits and the adjustments to the cost of the TFP. In a few cases, 

benefits can be reduced to zero before income eligibility limits are exceeded. 

 In addition, a household’s calculated monthly allotment can be prorated 

(reduced) for one month. On application, a household’s first month’s benefit is 

reduced to reflect the date of application. If a previously participating household 

does not meet eligibility recertification requirements in a timely fashion, but does 

become certified for eligibility subsequently, benefits for the first month of its new 

certification period normally are prorated to reflect the date when recertification 

requirements were met. 

Application, Processing, and Issuing Food Stamps 

 Food stamp benefits normally are issued monthly. The local welfare agency 

must either deny eligibility or make food stamps available within 30 days of initial 
15-18 

application and must provide food stamps without interruption if an eligible 

household reapplies and fulfills recertification requirements in a timely manner. 

Households in immediate need because of little or no income and very limited cash 

assets, as well as the homeless and those with extraordinarily high shelter expenses, 

must be given expedited service (provision of benefits within 7 days of initial 

application). 

 Food stamp issuance is a welfare agency responsibility, and issuance 

practices differ among welfare agencies. Food stamp coupons have traditionally 

been issued by: (1) providing (usually mailing) recipients an 

authorization-to-participate card that is then turned in at a local issuance point (e.g., 

a bank or post office) when picking up their monthly allotment; or (2) mailing food 

stamp coupon allotments directly to recipients. However, in most States electronic 

benefit transfer (EBT) systems now are used. EBT systems replace coupons with 

an ATM-like card used to make food purchases at the point of sale by deducting the 

purchase amount from the recipient’s food stamp benefit account. EBT issuance is 

used statewide in all States except California (which is scheduled for statewide 

issuance by the end of 2004); it also is used in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands 

(Guam is scheduled to convert to EBT in mid-2004). 

Items That May Be Purchased With Food Stamp Benefits

 Typically, participating households use their food stamp benefits in approved 

grocery stores to buy food items for home preparation and consumption; food 

stamp purchases are not taxable. However, the actual list of approved uses for food 

stamps is more extensive, and includes: (1) food for home preparation and 

consumption, not including alcohol, tobacco, or hot foods intended for immediate 

consumption; (2) seeds and plants for use in gardens to produce food for personal 

consumption; (3) food purchased at approved farmers’ markets; (4) in the case of 

the elderly and SSI recipients and their spouses, meals prepared and served through 

approved communal dining programs; (5) in the case of the elderly and those who 

are disabled to an extent that they cannot prepare all of their meals, home-delivered 

meals provided by programs for the homebound; (6) meals prepared and served to 

residents of drug addiction and alcoholic treatment programs, small group homes 

for the disabled, shelters for battered women and children, and shelters or other 

establishments serving the homeless; and (7) where the household lives in certain 

remote areas of Alaska, equipment for procuring food by hunting and fishing (e.g., 

nets, hooks, fishing rods, and knives). Food stamp benefits now normally are 

accessed through EBT cards. The card is swiped through an approved retailer’s 

point-of-sale device, automatically debiting the recipient’s food stamp account and 

crediting the retailer’s bank account; unlike coupon transactions, recipients receive 

no cash change, and special arrangements must be made for nontraditional sites like 

farmers’ markets. 
15-19 

QUALITY CONTROL (QC) 

 Since the early 1970s, the Food Stamp Program has had a QC system to 

monitor the degree to which erroneous eligibility and benefit determinations are 

made by State welfare agencies. The system was established by regulation in the 

1970s as an administrative tool to enable welfare officials to identify problems and 

take corrective actions. Today, by legislative directive, the QC system also is used 

to calculate and impose fiscal sanctions on States that have very high rates of 

erroneous benefit and eligibility decisions. It also provides outside evaluators with a 

general picture of the integrity of the eligibility and benefit determination process in 

each State. 

 Under the QC system, welfare agencies, with Federal oversight, 

continuously sample their active food stamp caseloads, as well as their decisions to 

deny or end benefits. The agencies perform in depth investigations of the eligibility 

and benefit status of the randomly chosen cases looking for errors in applying 

Federal rules and otherwise erroneous benefit and eligibility outcomes. Over 

90,000 cases are reviewed each year, and each State’s sample is designed to 

provide a statistically valid picture of erroneous decisions and, in most instances, 

their dollar value in benefits. The resulting error rate information is used by 

program managers to chart needed changes in administrative practices, and by the 

Federal Government to assess fiscal sanctions on States with error rates above 

certain tolerance levels. Both error rate findings and any assessed sanctions are 

subject to appeal through administrative law judges and the Federal courts. 

Sanctions may be reduced or waived if the State shows good cause or if it is 

determined that the sanction amounts should be invested in improved State 

administration. Interest may be charged on outstanding sanction liabilities if the 

administrative appeals process takes more than 1 year. 

 QC reviews generate annual estimates of the proportion of cases in which 

administrators or recipients make an “error” and the dollar value of those errors. 

Caseload and dollar error rates are calculated for overpayments (including incorrect 

payments to eligible and ineligible households) and underpayments. The accuracy 

of welfare agency decisions denying or terminating assistance also is measured 

periodically, with an error rate reflecting the proportion of denials and terminations 

that were improper; no dollar value is calculated. The national weighted average for 

the dollar value of overpayments was estimated at 6.2 percent for fiscal year 2002 

(Table 15-7). This is the lowest on the record. Error rates for underpayments have 

been relatively unchanged historically (running about 2 or 3 percent. Finally, the 

rate of improper denials/terminations in the most recent estimate (fiscal year 2002) 

was 7.9 percent (as a rate of improper decisions, not unissued dollars). 

 The dollar error rates reported through the food stamp QC system are used as 

the basis for assessing the financial liability of States for overpaid and underpaid 

benefits. Although about $2 billion in sanctions have been assessed since the early 

1980s, less than $20 million has been collected. The appeals process has delayed 

collection, sanctions have been forgiven or waived both by Congress and the 
15-20 

administration, permission has been given for States to invest sanction amounts in 

improved program administration, small errors have been removed from assessment 

calculations, and States’ reported error rates have been reduced because of the 

presumed error-rate effects of high and increased proportions of “error-prone” 

households with earnings and immigrant applicants. 

 Legislated rules governing fiscal sanctions also have changed a number of 

times. Under the most recent revision (enacted in 2002 and effective for error rates 

reported for fiscal year 2003 and beyond), sanctions are assessed against States 

with persistently high rates of error. Sanctions are calculated in cases in which a 

State has a combined (overpayment and underpayment) dollar error rate above 

105 percent of the weighted national average – after a statistical adjustment to 

ensure there is a 95 percent statistical probability that the State’s “true” error rate 

exceeds the sanction threshold. However, they are not “assessed” until a State has 

exceeded the 105 percent threshold for two consecutive years. In that case, the 

Agriculture Department may (1) require the State to invest up to 50 percent of the 

amount in administrative improvements, (2) place up to 50 percent of the amount 

“at risk” for collection in the next year, and (3) waive any amount. If a State then 

fails to reduce its combined error rate below the 105 percent threshold for a third 

consecutive year, the “at risk” amount is collected. 

TABLE 15-7-- FOOD STAMP QUALITY CONTROL ERROR RATES, 

FISCAL YEAR 2002 

[Percent of benefits paid or not paid in error]

State Overpayment 

error rate 

Underpayment 

error rate 

Combined 

error rate 

Alabama 7.57 1.16 8.74 

Alaska 8.23 2.76 10.99 

Arizona 3.86 1.41 5.27 

Arkansas 3.53 0.75 4.29 

California 10.15 4.69 14.84 

Colorado 7.23 2.43 9.66 

Connecticut 8.74 2.96 11.70 

Delaware 5.23 3.24 8.46 

District of Columbia 6.62 2.14 8.75 

Florida 7.42 2.19 9.61 

Georgia 5.59 1.14 6.73 

Guam 4.14 1.91 6.05 

Hawaii 3.67 1.36 5.03 

Idaho 5.66 3.39 9.04 

Illinois 7.32 1.42 8.75 

Indiana 5.90 2.40 8.31 

Iowa 4.79 1.65 6.44 

Kansas 8.95 2.75 11.70 

Kentucky 6.27 1.44 7.71 

Louisiana 3.88 1.90 5.78 

Maine 4.19 2.07 6.26 

Maryland 6.05 2.75 8.80 

Massachusetts 6.28 2.11 8.40 

Michigan 9.54 4.56 14.10 
15-21 

TABLE 15-7-- FOOD STAMP QUALITY CONTROL ERROR RATES, 

FISCAL YEAR 2002 -continued 

[Percent of benefits paid or not paid in error] 

State Overpayment 

error rate 

Underpayment 

error rate 

Combined 

error rate 

Minnesota 4.51 1.22 5.73 

Mississippi 3.50 0.89 4.39 

Missouri 7.88 1.89 9.77 

Montana 6.53 1.64 8.18 

Nebraska 5.20 1.82 7.02 

Nevada 6.43 1.15 7.59 

New Hampshire 10.56 1.46 12.03 

New Jersey 3.20 0.87 4.08 

New Mexico 5.54 1.17 6.71 

New York 5.33 2.41 7.75 

North Carolina 3.59 1.11 4.70 

North Dakota 3.99 2.14 6.14 

Ohio 4.51 1.99 6.50 

Oklahoma 6.10 1.84 7.94 

Oregon 8.40 2.66 11.07 

Pennsylvania 7.54 1.95 9.49 

Rhode Island 7.58 2.63 10.21 

South Carolina 4.18 0.23 4.40 

South Dakota 1.73 0.39 2.12 

Tennessee 6.06 0.97 7.02 

Texas 3.47 1.38 4.85 

Utah 4.88 1.72 6.60 

Vermont 6.83 0.85 7.68 

Virginia 4.82 1.92 6.74 

Virgin Islands 4.16 1.55 5.72 

Washington 5.96 2.20 8.16 

West Virginia 5.47 1.66 7.13 

Wisconsin 9.19 3.49 12.69 

Wyoming 2.84 0.45 3.29 

U.S. Average 6.16 2.10 8.26 

Note- Underpayment and overpayment rates may not add to combined rates due to rounding. 

Source: Food and Nutrition Service. 

 Under this new system, States are liable for amounts equal to the value of 

food stamps issued in the State (in the second consecutive year they exceed the 

105 percent threshold) multiplied by 10 percent of the amount by which the State’s 

combined error rate exceeds 6 percent. For example, in a State that issued 

$100 million in food stamp benefits and had a 12 percent combined error rate (in its 

second consecutive year above the threshold for sanctions), the amount of the 

sanction would be $100 million x 6 percent (i.e., the 6 percent by which the State 

exceeded the 6-percent base) x 10 percent, or $600,000. In addition (and separate 

from the QC system), States are required to attempt to collect identified 

overpayments. In fiscal year 2001, over $200 million in overpayments were 

collected. 
15-22 

 Under the revised QC system, States also can receive performance bonus 

payments, if they meet the standard set by the Agriculture Department. To carry 

this out, the Department is required to measure States’ performance as to actions 

taken to correct errors, reduce error rates, improve eligibility determinations, and 

other indicators of effective administration. The law sets aside $48 million a year 

for bonus payments. 

 Finally, the QC system identifies the various sources of error and requires 

States with combined error rates above 6 percent to develop and carry out 

corrective action plans to improve administration and payment accuracy. These 

reviews generally show that the primary responsibility for overpayment errors is 

almost evenly divided between welfare agencies and clients, and that most errors 

are mistakes (and not intentional violations). The most common errors are related 

to establishing food stamp expense deductions and households’ income correctly. 

 Intentional program violations (e.g., fraud) can occur in a number of ways; 

the most common are intentionally misrepresenting household circumstances in 

order to obtain food stamps or increase benefits, and trafficking in food stamp 

benefits to obtain cash or non-food items. Roughly one-quarter of the dollar value 

of erroneous benefit and eligibility determinations identified through QC reviews 

are fraudulent – about 1.5 percent of all benefits issued in fiscal year 2002. Among 

cases in which States establish actual claims against households for overpayment, 

fewer than 10 percent were classified as fraud in fiscal year 2001. The most recent 

Agriculture Department study on the extent of food stamp trafficking estimated that 

about $395 million per year was diverted from food stamp benefits by trafficking 

between 1999 and 2002. 

INTERACTION WITH TANF, SSI, AND GA PROGRAMS 

The Food Stamp Program is intertwined with Temporary Assistance for 

Needy Families (TANF), Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and State/local 

General Assistance (GA) programs in several ways: it is administratively linked 

with TANF and GA programs, TANF recipients can receive “transitional” food 

stamp benefits when leaving TANF, most TANF, SSI, and GA recipients are 

automatically (categorically) eligible for food stamps, and the food stamp recipient 

population is, to a large extent, made up of TANF, SSI, and GA participants. 

State and local offices and personnel administering TANF and GA programs 

are typically the same offices that enroll people for food stamps and issue food 

stamp benefits. States may choose to use many TANF rules on how to count 

income and assets when determining food stamp benefits. Joint food stampTANF/GA application and interview procedures are common. Information about 

applicants and recipients is shared. TANF/GA cash benefits sometimes are included 

as part of the food stamp electronic benefit transfer (EBT) system (i.e., both TANF 

cash and food stamp benefits can be accessed with the same EBT debit card). This 

coadministration does not apply in the case of the SSI Program, which is 

administered separately through Social Security Administration offices – although 

these offices do provide limited intake and referral services for the Food Stamp 

Program and some pilot projects provide standardized food stamp benefits through 
15-23 

SSI offices. 

States have the option to give up to 5 months’ transitional food stamp 

benefits to those leaving TANF (for reasons other than a sanction) – without 

requiring that the household apply for food stamps. The transitional benefit is the 

amount received prior to leaving TANF, adjusted to account for the loss of TANF 

income. Transitional benefit households may reapply during the 5-month period to 

have their benefits adjusted based on changed circumstances, and States may opt to 

adjust benefits based on information received from another program (like 

Medicaid) in which the household participates. At the end of the transitional 

period, households may reapply for continued food stamps under regular food 

stamp rules. 

Food stamp rules generally make households in which all members are 

TANF, SSI, or GA recipients categorically eligible for food stamps, without 

reference to regular food stamp financial eligibility requirements. TANF recipients 

are broadly defined as anyone receiving benefits or services through a State’s 

TANF Program. SSI recipients’ eligibility for food stamps is barred in California 

(see earlier eligibility discussion), and GA programs must meet minimal Federal 

standards to qualify their recipients for food stamps. Categorical eligibility for food 

stamps is particularly important in cases in which States have chosen TANF rules 

that are more liberal than food stamp rules (e.g., disregarding the value of vehicles 

for working households) in order to encourage work effort. However, it is 

important to keep in mind that food stamp rules often qualify a household for food 

stamps even after loss of TANF, SSI, or GA benefits. 

 For most persons participating in the Food Stamp Program, food stamp aid 

represents a second or third form of government assistance. Only about 20 percent 

of food stamp households rely solely on nongovernmental sources for their cash 

income, although about 30 percent have some income from these sources (e.g., 

earnings, private retirement income). According to 2001 data from QC surveys, 

TANF contributed to the income of some 23 percent of food stamp households. 

SSI benefits went to 32 percent of food stamp households, and GA payments were 

received by just under 6 percent. 

 Table 15-8 shows overall food stamp participation rates in selected years 

from 1975 to 2002 using two measures: as a proportion of the total U.S. population 

and as a percentage of the population with income below the Federal poverty 

thresholds. Food stamp enrollment has fluctuated widely over the last 25 years, 

reaching its peak in fiscal year 1994; in that year, it averaged 27.5 million persons a 

month, with an all-time high of 28 million in the spring of 1994 (not including 

1.4 million persons receiving aid under Puerto Rico’s nutrition assistance grant in 

lieu of food stamps). 

RECIPIENCY RATES 

 Food stamp enrollment is responsive to changes in the economy (i.e., 

recipients’ employment status and earnings), food stamp eligibility rules (and 

potential applicants’ perception of their eligibility status), and administrative 

practices, as well as the number of recipients getting or losing public assistance 
15-24 

eligibility. With few changes in eligibility rules, the caseload expanded from a 

monthly average of 22.6 million persons in fiscal year 1991 to the 1994 peak. From 

1994 through 2000, enrollment declined dramatically to a low of 17.2 million 

persons in 2000 – the lowest level since the 1970s – due to Federal and State 

welfare reform initiatives, a lower participation rate among those eligible, and the 

effects of a strong economy. Since 2000, participation has risen to more than 

19 million in 2002 due to outreach changes, an increasing rate of participation 

among eligible individuals, and weakened economic conditions.8

 

TABLE 15-8 -- FOOD STAMP PARTICIPATION RATES IN THE UNITED 

STATES, SELECTED YEARS 1975-2002 

Food stamp participation 

Year as a percent of: 

Number of food stamp 

participants 

(in millions) Total population1

 Poor population 

1975 16.3 7.6 63.0 

1980 19.2 8.4 65.6 

1985 19.9 8.3 60.2 

1990 20.0 8.0 59.6 

1991 22.6 9.0 63.3 

1992 25.4 10.0 68.9 

1993 27.0 10.4 68.7 

1994 27.5 10.5 72.1 

1995 26.6 10.1 73.0 

1996 25.5 9.6 69.8 

1997 22.9 8.5 64.3 

1998 19.8 8.2 57.4 

1999 18.2 6.6 55.5 

2000 17.2 6.2 54.4 

2001 17.3 6.1 52.6 

2002 19.1 6.7 55.2 

1

 Calculated as a percent of total U.S. resident population at the end of the fiscal year through 1996. For 

later fiscal years, calculated as a percent of total U.S. resident population reported in the March Current 

Population Survey (285 million for 2002). 

Note- Participants in Puerto Rico are not included in this table. Data are monthly average for each year. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau and Food and Nutrition Service. 

 Table 15-9 shows the average monthly number of people (in thousands) who 

received food stamp benefits in each State, the District of Columbia, and the 

participating Commonwealths and territories for selected years between 1975 

(when the Food Stamp Program became nationally available) and 2002. There was 

a general increase in food stamp participants between 1975 and 1995, followed by 

sharp declines through 2000 and modest increases in recent years. 

 

8 According to a July 2003 Agriculture Department study based on participation in September of 

each year, the participation rate among eligible individuals rose three percentage points between 

September 1999 and September 2001 – from 59 percent to 62 percent – after five consecutive years 

of falling participation rates. This same study indicated that participation rates varied widely among 

segments of the food stamp population – e.g., 80 percent for households with children, 28 percent for 

the elderly, and 52 percent for those living in households with earnings. 
15-25 

RECENT LEGISLATIVE HISTORY 

(For legislative history prior to 1996, see previous editions of the Green Book.) 

 The 1996 Omnibus “farm bill” (the Federal Agriculture Improvement and 

Reform Act; Public Law 104-127) extended the Food Stamp Act’s overall 

authorization for appropriations through fiscal year 1997, with no specific dollar 

limits. It also: (1) continued the requirement for nutrition assistance grants to Puerto 

Rico and American Samoa, and for employment and training programs, through 

fiscal year 2002; (2) revised rules for penalizing food stores in trafficking cases 

involving management; and (3) extended authority for several pilot projects. 

 Later in 1996, the omnibus welfare reform law (the Personal Responsibility 

and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act; Public Law 104-193) made the most 

extensive changes to the Food Stamp Program since the Food Stamp Act was 

rewritten in 1977. Under this law, spending on food stamps was projected for a net 

reduction of $23.3 billion through fiscal year 2002 (or 13 percent less than under 

then-current law over fiscal years 1997-2002). The food-stamp-related provisions 

of the welfare reform act: (1) gave States significantly more control over program 

operations and expanded their administrative options (e.g., allowed States to more 

closely conform their TANF and food stamp rules and sanction food stamp 

recipients for failure to meet other public assistance program requirements); 

(2) established a new work rule limiting participation by able-bodied adults without 

dependents (ABAWDs) who are not working or in training for work to 3 months in 

any 3-year period; (3) added other new work rules (e.g., disqualification for 

significantly reduced work effort); (4) instituted an across-the-board benefit 

reduction; (5) barred eligibility for most legally resident noncitizens; (6) increased 

penalties for violating Food Stamp Program rules; and (7) encouraged 

implementation of electronic benefit transfer (EBT) systems for issuing food stamp 

benefits (requiring systems be in place nationwide by 2002). 

 In 1997, the Balanced Budget Act’s (BBA) food stamp component followed 

up on the 1996 welfare reform law with amendments that allowed States to exempt 

significant numbers of ABAWDs from new work requirements and more than 

doubled Federal funding for employment and training programs for food stamp 

recipients (targeted on adults without dependents). It also required States to 

establish systems to ensure that prisoners are not counted as part of any food stamp 

household. Separately, the 1997 emergency supplemental appropriations law 

(Public Law 105-18) permitted States to “buy into” the Food Stamp Program and 

pay for benefits to noncitizens ineligible for federally financed food stamps and 

adults without dependents made ineligible by work requirements. 

 The 1998 Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act 

(Public Law 105-185) significantly reduced spending for the Federal share of State 

food stamp administrative costs--some $200 million per year--by imposing a flat 

annual dollar reduction on most States’ entitlements to correct for a perceived 

“windfall” extra payment States can potentially receive through the interaction
15-26 

between food stamp and TANF funding rules. It also lowered Federal payments to 

States for employment and training programs for food stamp recipients. A portion 

of the money saved by these reductions was then used to restore food stamp 

eligibility to some of the noncitizens made ineligible by the 1996 welfare reform 

law (e.g., elderly and disabled persons legally resident at the time the 1996 law was 

enacted). 

 Most recently, the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (Public 

Law 107-171) reauthorized appropriations for the Food Stamp Program and made 

the most extensive changes since the 1996 welfare reform law. It expanded 

eligibility for noncitizens children and other noncitizens who meet a 5-year legal 

residence test. It raised benefits, primarily for larger households, by increasing the 

amount of income that is disregarded when setting benefits (i.e., indexing the 

“standard deduction” and varying it by household size). It allowed States to 

guarantee 5-months of “transitional” food stamp benefits to those leaving TANF. 

A number of other State options were established to ease access to the program and 

administrative burdens on applicants/recipients and program operators. These let 

States reduce recipient reporting requirements, simplify benefit calculations, and 

conform income and asset definitions to those used in TANF and Medicaid. It 

ended Federal restrictions on the spending of work/training funds and changed and 

generally reduced the Federal share of this spending. Finally, the new law 

revamped the Food Stamp Program’s quality control system to (1) dramatically 

reduce the number of States likely to be sanctioned for high rates of erroneous 

benefit decisions (only those with persistently high error rates would be penalized), 

and (2) grant bonus payments to States with exemplary administrative performance. 

 Table 15-10 provides an overview of the characteristics of food stamp 

households for selected years since 1980; Table 15-11 summarizes annual vital 

statistics about the program for selected years since 1972. 

MEDICAID

OVERVIEW 

 Medicaid was enacted in 1965, in the same legislation that created the 

Medicare program, the Social Security Amendments of 1965 (P.L. 89-97). It grew 

out of and replaced two earlier programs of Federal grants to States that provided 

medical care to welfare recipients and the aged. 

 Medicaid is a means-tested entitlement program. It is jointly financed by 

Federal and State funds. Federal contributions to each State are based on a State’s 

willingness to finance covered medical services and a matching formula. Each 

State designs and administers its own program under broad Federal rules. The 

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), within the U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services (HHS), is responsible for Federal oversight of the 

program. In FY2002, total (preliminary) Federal and State spending on Medicaid 

reached $258.2 billion, slightly exceeding total outlays for Medicare. No other 

means-tested cash or noncash program comes close to approaching this spending 
TABLE 15-9 -- FOOD STAMP RECIPIENTS BY JURISDICTION, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1975-200

[In thousands] 

State 19751 19792 19853 19903 19953 19973 19993 20003 20013 200

Alabama 393 525 588 449 525 486 405 396 411 44Alaska 12 25 22 25 45 45 41 38 38 46 American Samoa NA NA NA NA 3 3 3 3 NA 3 Arizona 166 129 206 317 480 364 257 259 291 37Arkansas 268 277 253 235 272 266 253 247 256 28California 1,517 1,334 1,615 1,936 3,175 2,815 2,027 1,832 1,668 1,7Colorado 162 145 170 221 252 217 173 156 154 17

Connecticut 189 155 145 133 227 210 178 165 157 16Delaware 39 45 40 33 57 54 39 32 32 40 District of Columbia 112 100 72 62 94 90 84 81 73 74 Florida 767 828 630 781 1,395 1,192 933 882 887 99Georgia 569 559 567 536 816 698 617 559 574 64Guam 21 18 20 12 16 18 20 22 23 24 Hawaii 84 96 99 77 125 127 125 118 108 10Idaho 39 47 59 59 80 70 57 58 60 70 

Illinois 948 837 1,110 1,013 1,151 1,020 820 779 825 88

Indiana 255 275 406 311 470 348 298 300 347 41

Iowa 118 117 203 170 184 161 129 123 126 14

Kansas 63 73 119 142 184 149 115 117 124 14Kentucky 449 405 560 458 520 444 396 103 413 45

Louisiana 502 523 644 727 711 575 516 500 518 58Maine 151 121 114 94 132 124 109 403 104 11

Maryland 273 299 291 254 399 354 264 219 208 22Massachusetts 560 429 337 347 410 340 261 232 219 24Michigan 685 706 985 917 971 839 683 611 641 75Minnesota 191 143 228 263 308 260 208 196 198 21

Mississippi 390 452 945 499 480 399 288 276 298 32
TABLE 15-9 -- FOOD STAMP RECIPIENTS BY JURISDICTION, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1975-200

continued 

[In thousands] 

State 19751 19792 19853 19903 19953 19973 19993 20003 20013 200

Missouri 299 280 362 431 576 478 408 420 454 51Montana 38 33 58 57 713 67 61 59 62 63 Nebraska 50 55 94 95 105 97 92 82 81 88 Nevada 34 27 32 50 99 82 62 61 69 97 

New Hampshire 66 44 28 31 28 46 37 36 36 41 

New Jersey 565 524 464 381 540 490 385 345 318 32

New Mexico 154 159 157 157 239 205 178 169 163 17

New York 1,398 1,704 1,834 1,546 2,183 1,919 1,545 1,439 1,354 1,35North Carolina 537 517 474 419 614 586 505 488 494 57North Dakota 19 20 33 39 41 38 33 32 38 37 

Northern Mariana Islands NA NA 4 4 4 4 4 5 NA 6 Ohio 924 760 1,133 1,078 1,155 874 640 610 641 73Oklahoma 184 184 263 267 375 309 271 253 271 31Oregon 208 160 228 216 289 259 224 234 281 35Pennsylvania 893 923 32 954 1,173 1,009 835 777 748 76Puerto Rico 1,800 1,822 1,480 1,480 1,370 1,240 1,140 1,080 1,070 1,04

Rhode Island 104 80 69 64 100 85 76 74 71 72 

South Carolina 421 369 373 299 364 349 309 295 316 37

South Dakota 31 37 48 50 50 47 44 43 45 48 Tennessee 435 531 518 527 662 586 511 496 522 59Texas 1,085 1,027 1,263 1,880 2,564 2,034 1,401 1,333 1,366 1,55

Utah 50 44 75 99 119 98 88 82 80 90 Vermont 46 40 44 38 59 53 44 41 39 40 Virginia 193 320 360 346 546 476 362 336 331 35Virgin Islands 25 34 32 18 23 20 17 16 13 12 
Washington 239 205 281 337 476 442 307 295 309 35

West Virginia 204 182 278 262 329 287 247 227 221 23

Wisconsin 163 171 363 286 320 232 182 193 216 26

Wyoming 11 11 27 28 34 29 23 22 23 24 

Total 19,199 18,926 21,385 21,510 27,995 24,106 19,334 18,251 18,385 20,1

1 Year end participation, July 1975. Total does not match totals in other tables, which are annual average participation.2 Year end participation, September 1979. Total does not match totals in other tables, which are annual average participation. During fiscal 

1979, and into 1980, participations increases were largely due to the elimination of food stamp purchase requirement. Figures for Alabama aMississippi are estimates.

3 Annual average monthly participation. 

NA -Not available. Note- Data are average monthly number of recipients for each year. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service. Compiled by the Congressional Research Service.
TABLE 15-10 -- CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD STAMP HOUSEHOLDS, SELECTED YEARS 1980-20011

Food stamp recipient households 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 

With gross monthly income: 

Below the Federal poverty level 87 94 92 92 91 92 90 89 89 89 

Between the poverty level and 130 percent of the poverty level 10 6 8 8 8 8 9 10 10 10 Above 130 percent of the poverty level 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 

With earnings 19 20 19 21 23 24 26 27 27 27 With public assistance income3 65 68 73 68 61 61 59 57 57 55 

With AFDC/TANF income NA 39 43 38 37 35 31 27 26 23 With SSI income 18 19 19 23 24 26 28 30 32 32 

With children 60 59 61 60 59 58 58 56 54 54 

With female heads of household NA 46 51 50 50 49 NA NA NA 34 

With elderly members4 23 21 18 16 16 18 18 20 21 20 

Average household size 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 1 Data for 1995 through 2001 represent characteristics over the full course of each Fiscal Year; 1985 and 1990 are during summer; and 1980 is 

from August. 

2 Percentage equals 0.5 or less.3 Public assistance income includes Aid to Families with Dependent Children, TANF, SSI, and general assistance. 4 Elderly members and heads of household include those age 60 or older. 

NA- Not available. Note- For years prior to 1996, the proportion of households with public assistance income shown in this table is an estimate that generally over 

counts them because it is not corrected for households with multiple sources of public assistance income. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service Surveys of the characteristics of food stamp households. Compiled by the 

Congressional Research Service. 
15-31 

TABLE 15-11-- HISTORICAL FOOD STAMP STATISTICS, 

SELECTED YEARS, 1972-2002 

Total Federal spending 

(in millions)1

Average monthly 

benefits (per person) 

Fiscal year Current 

dollars 

Constant 

2002 

dollars2

Average monthly 

participation 

(in millions 

of persons) 

Current 

dollars 

Constant 

2002 

dollars2

Four-person 

maximum 

monthly 

allotment3

19724 $1,871 $7,954 11.1 $13.50 $57.40 $108 

19755 4,624 15,413 17.1 21.40 71.30 150 

1980 9,188 20,545 21.1 34.40 76.90 204 

1985 12,599 21,136 21.4 45.00 75.50 264 

1990 16,512 22,952 21.5 59.00 82.00 331 

1991 19,765 26,155 24.1 63.90 84.50 352 

1992 23,539 30,238 26.9 68.50 88.00 370 

1993 24,749 30,856 28.4 68.00 84.80 375 

1994 25,525 31,010 28.9 69.00 83.80 375 

1995 25,676 30,341 28.0 71.30 84.20 386 

1996 25,494 29,307 26.9 73.30 84.30 397 

1997 22,868 25,605 24.1 71.30 79.80 400 

1998 20,397 22,472 21.0 71.10 78.30 408 

1999 19,317 20,881 19.3 72.30 78.10 419 

2000 18,255 19,125 18.3 72.80 76.30 426 

2001 18,813 19,095 18.4 74.80 75.90 434 

2002 21,657 21,657 20.2 79.60 79.60 452 

1

 Spending for benefits and administration, including Puerto Rico. 2

 Constant dollar adjustments were made using the overall Consumer Price Index for All Urban 

Consumers (CPI-U). 

3

 For the 48 contiguous States and the District of Columbia, as in effect at the beginning of the fiscal 

year in current dollars. 

4

 The first fiscal year in which benefit and eligibility rules were, by law, nationally uniform and indexed 

for inflation. 

5 The first fiscal year in which food stamps were available nationwide. 

Note- Data for 1982 and subsequent years include funding for Puerto Rico’s nutrition assistance grant; 

earlier years include funding for Puerto Rico under the regular Food Stamp Program; participation 

figures include enrollment in Puerto Rico (averaging 1.1 to 1.5 million persons a month under the 

nutrition assistance grant and higher figures in earlier years); average benefit figures do not reflect 

benefits in Puerto Rico under its nutrition assistance grant. 

Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service. 

level. In fact, of all federally supported social programs, only Social Security costs 

more. 

 To many, Medicaid is an enigma. The program’s complexity surrounding 

who is eligible, what services are paid for, and how those services are reimbursed 

and delivered is one source of this confusion. Variability across State Medicaid 

programs is the rule, not the exception. In recent years, more and more States have 

implemented a variety of major program changes using special waiver authority. 

Income eligibility levels, services covered, and the method for and amount of 

reimbursement for services differ from State to State. Furthermore, Medicaid is a 

program that is targeted at individuals with low-income, but not all of the poor are 

eligible, and not all those covered are poor. For populations like children and 

families, primary and acute care often are delivered through managed care, while 
15-32 

the elderly and disabled typically obtain such care on a fee-for-service basis. 

Nationwide, Medicaid finances the majority of long-term care services. Such 

services include, for example, nursing home care and community-based services 

designed to support the elderly and disabled in their homes. Recently, some States 

have begun to integrate Medicare and Medicaid financing and/or coordinate acute 

and long-term care services for these populations. 

 The complexity of Medicaid presents an enormous challenge for anyone 

attempting to make generalizations about the program. This subsection describes 

Federal Medicaid rules that govern: (1) who is eligible, (2) what services are 

covered and how they are delivered, (3) how the program is financed and 

administered, (4) key provider reimbursement issues, and (5) the significant role of 

waivers in expanding eligibility and modifying services. It concludes with a brief 

legislative history beginning with major laws affecting Medicaid since 1996. 

ELIGIBILITY 

 The Federal Medicaid statute defines over 50 distinct population groups as 

being potentially eligible for States’ programs. Some groups are mandatory, 

meaning that all States that participate in the Medicaid program must cover them; 

others are optional. Prior to the 1980s, Medicaid eligibility was limited to very 

low-income families with dependent children, poor elderly and disabled 

individuals, and the “medically needy.” 

 Beginning in the 1980s, additional eligibility pathways were added to the 

Medicaid statute to allow for the coverage of higher income children and pregnant 

women as well as other elderly and disabled individuals. Most recently, States 

were given the option to provide Medicaid to other groups with specific 

characteristics including certain women with breast or cervical cancer, to uninsured 

individuals with tuberculosis, and to working individuals with disabilities. Not all 

groups of Medicaid beneficiaries receive the same set of benefits. To understand 

the different benefits offered to each group, see “Benefits” below. 

 Medicaid is a means-tested program. To qualify, applicants’ income and 

resources must be within certain limits. The specific income and resource 

limitations that apply to each eligibility group are set through a combination of 

Federal parameters and State definitions. Consequently, those standards vary 

considerably among States, and different standards apply to different population 

groups within a State. For many of those groups, moreover, States have permission 

under a special provision, Section 1902(r)(2), to use more liberal standards for 

computing income and resources than are specified within each of the groups’ 

definitions. Most States use Section 1902(r)(2) to ignore or disregard certain types 

or amounts of income or assets, thereby extending Medicaid to individuals with 

earnings or assets too high to otherwise qualify under the specified rules for that 

eligibility pathway. 
15-33 

FAMILIES, PREGNANT WOMEN, AND CHILDREN 

 The two primary pathways to Medicaid for low-income family members, 

pregnant women, and children are through (1) Section 1931 of Medicaid statute, for 

those families who would have been eligible for cash welfare payments under 

former Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program rules, and (2) a 

series of targeted Medicaid expansions for poor pregnant women and children 

begun in the 1980s. Other important pathways for low-income family members, 

including transitional medical assistance, other AFDC-related groups, and children 

qualifying for the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) who are 

receiving their health coverage under the Medicaid program, are explained below. 

Section 1931: Persons qualifying under the former AFDC program rules

 Families who are eligible for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families 

(TANF) are not automatically eligible for Medicaid. Medicaid’s Section 1931, 

however, preserves Medicaid entitlement for individuals who meet the 

requirements of the former AFDC programs in effect in their States on July 16, 

1996. This categorical group was created when TANF replaced AFDC in 1996 to 

ensure that low-income families do not lose Medicaid as a result of welfare reform. 

 States have significant flexibility in defining the income and resource standards for 

those families qualifying for Medicaid under Section 1931: (1) income standards 

may be reduced below those in effect in 1996, but they cannot be lower than those 

used on May 1, 1988; (2) income and resource standards may be increased for any 

period after 1996, but by no more than the percentage increase in the Consumer 

Price Index (CPI) for the same period; and (3) States may use less restrictive 

methods for counting income and resources than those in effect on July 16, 1996. 

Certain individuals qualifying under the Section 1931 pathway may be 

denied Medicaid coverage if they refuse to cooperate with States’ TANF work 

requirements. States are permitted to deny Medicaid benefits to nonpregnant adults 

and heads of households who lose TANF benefits because of refusal to work, but 

must continue to provide Medicaid coverage to their children. 

 In 2002, 39 States had taken advantage of the flexibility of Section 1931 to 

expand eligibility for working families by disregarding some earned income, 

thereby allowing families with higher total income to qualify for the program. 

Other States eliminated various income and assets rules, thus expanding lowincome working families’ access to Medicaid.9

Poverty-related pregnant women and children 

 Between 1986 and 1991, Congress gradually extended Medicaid to new 

groups of pregnant women and children. Under these provisions, States are required 

to cover pregnant women and children under age 6 with family incomes below 133 

percent of the Federal poverty income guidelines.10 Coverage for pregnant women 

 

9

 Maloy, K.A., Kenney, K.A., Darnell, J., Cyprien, S., Can Medicaid Work for Low-Income Working 

Families?, Kaiser Commission on the Future of Medicaid and the Uninsured, April 2002. 10 100 percent of FPL is equal to $15,260 and 133 percent of FPL is equal to $20,256 for a family of 

three in 2003. 
15-34 

qualifying through this pathway is limited to services related to the pregnancy or 

complications of the pregnancy and extends to 60 days after termination of the 

pregnancy. Children receive full Medicaid coverage. 

 States are required to cover all children over the age of five and under 19 who 

are in families with income below 100 percent of the Federal poverty level (FPL). 

This requirement has been phased-in since July 1, 1991 and was fully implemented 

in 2002. 

 States have the option to go beyond the above mandatory groups to include 

pregnant women and infants under 1 year of age whose family income is over 133 

and up to 185 percent of the FPL. In 2002, 36 States and the District of Columbia 

extended coverage to some or all pregnant women and infants in this category. 

Transitional medical assistance 

 Transitional medical assistance (TMA) was established prior to the 1996 

welfare reform to address the concern that individuals receiving AFDC payments 

would not seek work or would turn down work opportunities for fear of losing 

Medicaid. TMA requires States to continue providing Medicaid for 6 months to 

families that were receiving Medicaid under Section 1931 in at least 3 of the last 6 

months. The extended Medicaid coverage is available to individuals (and their 

families) who would otherwise have lost such assistance due to increased work 

hours, increased earnings of the caretaker relative, or the loss of one of the timelimited earned income disregards. In addition, States are required to extend 

Medicaid coverage for a second 6 months to families that were covered during the 

entire first 6-month TMA period, and whose earnings are below 185 percent of 

poverty. The provisions authorizing TMA are due to sunset at the end of March 

2004, although this date has been repeatedly extended. A small additional group of 

mandatory TMA-eligible persons are those who would otherwise lose Medicaid 

coverage under Section 1931 because of increased child or spousal support. 

Families eligible for this 4-month extension must have been receiving Medicaid 

under Section 1931 in at least 3 of the preceding 6 months. 

Other AFDC-related groups 

 While the AFDC program no longer exists, a number of Medicaid eligibility 

groups tied to States’ former AFDC rules remain. States must provide Medicaid to 

recipients of adoption assistance and foster care (who are under age 18) under Title 

IV–E of the Social Security Act. In 1999 States were given the option to extend 

Medicaid to former foster care recipients who are aged 18, 19, or 20. 

 Ribicoff children, a pathway named for the former Senator who sponsored 

legislation authorizing this group, are those under age 21 who meet income and 

resource requirements for the former AFDC Program but who do not meet other 

categorical requirements for AFDC. States have the option to cover Ribicoff 

children and have a great deal of flexibility in defining the specific group of 

children to be covered under this category. Often States use this authority to cover 

children in State-sponsored foster care, children who are institutionalized, or who 

are inpatients in psychiatric facilities. Although many of the children who have 

traditionally been covered under Ribicoff are now eligible under other poverty-
15-35 

related groups, Ribicoff remains an important pathway to eligibility for some small 

groups of older adolescents in foster care and children in two-parent families. 

Targeted low-income children authorized under the State Children’s Health 

Insurance Program (SCHIP)

 Section 4911 of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA 1997, P.L. 105-33) 

established an additional coverage group for low-income children.11 Targeted lowincome children are those who are not otherwise eligible for Medicaid, are not 

covered under a group health plan or other insurance, and are living with families 

with income that is either: (1) above the State’s Medicaid financial eligibility 

standard in effect in June 1997 but less than 200 percent of the FPL; or (2) in States 

with Medicaid income levels for children already at or above 200 percent of the 

poverty level as of June 1997, within 50 percentage points over this income 

standard. States either can establish a specific coverage group for targeted lowincome children or they can build upon other existing Medicaid coverage groups 

for children. As of February 2003, 37 States cover targeted low-income children 

under Medicaid. 

THE AGED AND PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 

Persons who qualify for Supplemental Security Income (SSI) 

 With one important exception, States are required to provide Medicaid 

coverage to recipients of SSI. SSI, authorized under Title XVI of the Social 

Security Act, is a means-tested cash assistance program for aged, blind, and 

disabled individuals whose income falls below the Federal maximum monthly SSI 

benefit and whose resources are limited. To qualify for SSI, a person must satisfy 

the program criteria for age or disability and meet certain citizenship or United 

States residency requirements. Eligibility for SSI is restricted to otherwise 

qualified individuals whose resources do not exceed $2,000 for an individual and 

$3,000 for a couple; certain resources, such as a person’s home, are exempt. 

Income cannot exceed the maximum Federal SSI benefit of $552 per month in 

2003 for an individual living independently, and $829 for a couple living 

independently. The SSI benefit level of $552 per month for an individual is 

74 percent of FPL. 

 The major exception to Medicaid coverage of SSI recipients is in States that 

exercise the so-called “209(b)” option described in Section 209(b) of the Social 

Security Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-603). Such States may use income, 

resource, and disability standards that are no more restrictive than those in place on 

January 1, 1972. As of 2001, there were 11 Section 209(b) States, including 

Connecticut, Illinois, Hawaii, Indiana, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, 

North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Virginia. Each of these has at least one 

 

11 This provision establishes a Medicaid coverage group that is parallel to the group of children 

eligible for health coverage under another provision of BBA 97, the State Children’s Health 

Insurance Program (Section 4901). The two provisions allowed States to choose, after the passage 

of BBA 97, to either extend Medicaid for targeted low-income children, to create a new SCHIP 

program for those children, or coordinate both programs to cover the target population. 
15-36 

eligibility standard that is more restrictive than current SSI standards and some 

have certain standards that are more liberal. States that use more restrictive 

eligibility rules under Section 209(b) must also allow applicants to deduct medical 

expenses from their income when determining financial eligibility for Medicaid. 

This process is sometimes referred to as “spend-down.”12

Recipients of State Supplemental Payment (SSP) benefits 

 Many States provide SSP benefits with State-only dollars on a monthly 

basis. These payments are intended to cover such items as food, shelter, clothing, 

utilities, and other daily necessities. The amount of the benefit is determined by the 

individual States. States may provide supplemental payments to all persons who 

receive SSI, and/or to individuals who meet all SSI criteria, other than income. 

States also may choose to provide SSP benefits only to particular groups, such as 

elderly persons living independently in the community without special needs, or 

elderly individuals who require in-home personal care assistance or home-delivered 

meals. In all of these cases, States decide whether to extend Medicaid coverage to 

all SSP recipients, to only some of these recipients, or to none at all. When a State 

provides Medicaid eligibility to persons receiving only SSP-and not SSI-then the 

maximum income eligibility standard for Medicaid is an amount equivalent to the 

combined Federal SSI payment and the SSP benefit. For 209(b) States, however, 

the effective maximum financial eligibility standard for these individuals is the 

209(b) categorical eligibility standard plus the SSP payment. 

Poverty-related group for the aged and disabled 

 The enactment of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986 (OBRA 

86) offered States an option for covering persons whose income exceeds SSI or 

209(b) levels. This option allows States to cover aged and disabled individuals 

with incomes up to 100 percent of FPL. In 2001, there were 21 States using this 

option.13 

Coverage for institutionalized individuals and related groups under the special 

income rule 

 States may extend Medicaid to certain individuals with incomes too high to 

qualify for SSI, and who are eligible for nursing facility or other institutional care. 

Under the special income rule, also referred to as “the 300 percent rule,” such 

 

12 An example of spend-down is as follows: if an applicant has a monthly income of $700 (not 

including any SSI or State Supplemental Payments (SSP)) and the State’s maximum allowable 

income standard for spend-down eligibility is $600, the applicant would qualify for Medicaid after 

incurring $100 in medical expenses in that month. 

13 A survey by the American Public Human Services Association reported the District of Columbia 

(up to 100 percent) and the following States had implemented this option as of October 2001: 

California (up to 100 percent), Florida (90 percent), Georgia (100 percent), Illinois (85 percent), 

Maine (100 percent), Massachusetts (100 percent), Michigan (100 percent), Minnesota (95 percent), 

Mississippi (100 percent), Nebraska (100 percent), New Jersey (100 percent), North Carolina (100 

percent), Pennsylvania (100 percent), Rhode Island (100 percent), South Carolina (100 percent), 

Utah (100 percent), Vermont (100 percent), Virginia (80 percent). In a separate survey, CRS 

determined that Oklahoma (100 percent) and Hawaii (100 percent) also used this option in 2001.
15-37 

persons must (1) require care provided by a nursing home or other medical 

institution for no fewer than 30 consecutive days, (2) meet the resource standard 

determined by the State, and (3) have income that does not exceed a specified level 

- no greater than 300 percent of the maximum SSI payment applicable to a person 

living at home. For 2003, this limit is $1,656 per month, three times the monthly 

SSI payment of $552. States may use a level that is lower than the maximum of 

300 percent of SSI. 

 Since 1993 (OBRA 93), States that use only the special income rule for 

institutional eligibility, and do not use the medically needy option (described 

below), must allow applicants to place income in excess of the special income level 

in a special trust, often called a Miller Trust, and receive Medicaid coverage for 

their care.14 Following the individual’s death, the State becomes the beneficiary of 

amounts in the trust. 

Working individuals with disabilities

 Concern that many workers with disabilities would lose eligibility for 

Medicaid as a result of increased earnings and yet not have access to affordable or 

adequate health insurance through their jobs, prompted Congress to establish a 

variety of special rules that would protect working individuals with disabilities 

from losing their Medicaid benefits. One rule does so by changing SSI program 

rules for working persons with disabilities. In order for disabled persons to qualify 

for SSI and, thus become eligible for Medicaid, applicants must establish disability 

status under the criteria determined by the Secretary of the Department of Health 

and Human Services (HHS). These criteria are linked to an individual’s ability to 

work or earn income from work, commonly referred to as an individual’s ability to 

“engage in substantial gainful activity” (SGA). Current regulations provide that an 

individual is able to engage in SGA if his or her earnings exceed $800 per month, 

as of January 2003. For persons who are blind, SGA is $1,330 per month for 2003. 

SGA is defined in Federal regulations as paid work involving significant and 

productive physical or mental duties.15 Section 1619(a) of SSI law permits those 

States that extend Medicaid to SSI recipients to allow certain persons with a 

disability who had been eligible for an SSI payment for at least one month and who 

meet all other eligibility rules, to continue receiving Medicaid even when they are 

working at the SGA level. The amount of their SSI special cash benefits is 

gradually reduced as their earnings increase under an income disregard formula16

 

14 OBRA 1993 codified a 1990 ruling from the United States District Court for the District of Colorado 

which first coined the term “Miller Trust.” See Miller v. Ybarra, 746 F.Supp. 79 (E. Colo 1990). 15 The inability to engage in SGA must be a result of a medically determined physical or mental 

impairment expected to result in death or that has lasted, or can be expected to last, for a continuous 

period of at least 12 months. A child under age 18 may qualify as disabled if he or she has an 

impairment that results in “marked and severe” functional limitations. 

16 Not all income is counted for SSI purposes. Different exemptions, or disregards, apply for the 

different types of income. Earned income that is exempt from being counted includes the first 

$65 per month in wages; one-half of all wages over $65; impairment-related expenses necessary for 

blind and disabled workers; and income used for a plan for achieving self support (PASS). Unearned 

income exclusions include the first $20 per month of non-needs tested benefits and all of the 

following: Food Stamps; housing and energy assistance; state and local needs-based assistance; in-
15-38 

until their countable earnings reach the SSI benefit standard or what is known as the 

breakeven point ($552 per month in 2003).

In addition, individuals who are blind or have a disability can continue to be 

eligible for Medicaid even if their earnings exceed the SSI income disregard 

breakeven point under a special group referred to as “qualified severely impaired 

individuals.” Special eligibility status granted by Section 1619(b)(1) and 1905(q), 

under which the individual is considered an SSI recipient for purposes of Medicaid 

eligibility (although he or she is not actually receiving a SSI cash benefit) applies as 

long as the individual: (1) continues to be blind or have a disabling impairment; 

(2) continues to meet all the other requirements, except for earnings, for SSI 

eligibility; (3) would be seriously inhibited from continuing to work by the 

termination of eligibility for Medicaid services; and (4) has earnings that are not 

sufficient to provide a reasonable equivalent to the benefits that would have been 

available if he or she did not have SSI, state supplementary payments, Medicaid 

and publicly funded personal care. 

 Other provisions give States even more flexibility to cover working persons 

with disabilities. The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA 97, P.L. 105-33) allows 

States to provide Medicaid coverage to working individuals with disabilities whose 

family’s net income does not exceed 250 percent of the FPL. Two other provisions 

were added under the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 

1999 (TWWIIA, P.L. 106-170). The first allows States to further expand Medicaid 

coverage to working individuals with disabilities, between the ages of 16 and 64, 

with incomes and resources as defined by the State and allows States to impose 

premiums and other cost-sharing on individuals who qualify. The second allows 

States, under certain circumstances, to provide coverage to persons whose medical 

condition has improved and who has therefore become ineligible for SSI on the 

basis of disability. 

Qualified Medicare beneficiaries and related groups

 Certain low-income individuals who are aged or have disabilities as defined 

under SSI and who are eligible for Medicare are also eligible to have some of their 

Medicare cost-sharing expenses paid for by Medicaid. There are four categories of 

such persons17: 

 Qualified Medicare Beneficiaries (QMB)-- Qualified Medicare 

beneficiaries are aged or disabled Medicare beneficiaries with incomes no 

greater than 100 percent of the Federal poverty level and assets no greater 

than $4,000 for an individual and $6,000 for a couple. States are required 

to cover, under their Medicaid programs, the costs of Medicare premiums, 

deductibles, and coinsurance for Medicare covered benefits for such 

persons. Other Medicaid covered services, such as nursing facility care, 

prescription drugs, and primary and acute care services, are not covered 

for these individuals unless they qualify for Medicaid through other 

 kind support and maintenance payments from non-profit organizations; and student grants and 

scholarships. 

17 The program known as Qualifying Individuals-2 (QI-2) terminated on September 30, 2002. 
15-39 

eligibility pathways (e.g. via SSI, medically needy, or the special income 

rule). 

 Specified Low-Income Medicare Beneficiaries (SLMB) -- Specified lowincome Medicare beneficiaries meet QMB criteria, except that their 

income is greater than 100 percent of FPL but does not exceed 120 

percent FPL. Under this Medicaid pathway, States are required to cover 

only the monthly Medicare Part B premium. Other Medicaid covered 

services are not covered for these individuals unless they qualify for 

Medicaid through other eligibility pathways. 

 Qualifying Individuals (QI-1) -- The QI-1 eligibility pathway applies to 

aged and disabled Medicare beneficiaries whose income is between 120 

and 135 percent of FPL. For these individuals, States are required to pay 

the monthly Medicare Part B premium, only until the Federal allotment 

for this purpose is depleted.18 These individuals are not otherwise eligible 

for Medicaid. 

 Qualified Disabled and Working Individuals (QDWIs) -- States are 

required to pay the Medicare Part A premiums for persons who were 

previously entitled to Medicare on the basis of a disability, who lost their 

entitlement based on earnings from work, but who continue to have a 

disabling condition. Such persons may qualify only if their incomes are 

below 200 percent of FPL, their resources are below 200 percent of the 

SSI limit ($4,000), and they are not otherwise eligible for Medicaid. 

MEDICALLY NEEDY 

States may extend Medicaid coverage to persons who are members of one of 

the broad categories of Medicaid covered groups (i.e., are aged, have a disability or 

are in families with children), but do not meet the applicable income requirements 

and, in some instances, resources requirements for other eligibility pathways. Under 

this option, States may set their medically needy monthly income limits for a family 

of a given size at any level up to 133 1/3 percent of the maximum payment for a 

similar family under the state’s AFDC program in place on July 16, 1996. For 

families of one, the statute gives certain states some flexibility to set these limits to 

amounts that are reasonably related to the AFDC payment amounts for two or more 

persons. 

 While 133 1/3 percent of the former AFDC program standard is generally 

higher than the income standard for other Medicaid pathways for families, it is 

generally lower than the income standard for elderly or disabled SSI recipients. For 

all groups, States are required to allow individuals to spend down to the medically 

needy income standard by incurring medical expenses, in the same way that SSI 

 

18 In general, Medicaid payments are shared between the Federal government and the States 

according to a matching formula (see the Medicaid section on financing). However, expenditures 

under the QI-1 program are paid 100 percent by the Federal government (from the Part B trust fund) 

up to the State’s allocation level. A State is required to cover only the number of persons which 

would bring its spending on these population groups in a year up to its allocation level. This 

temporary program, originally slated to end September 30, 2002, has been extended through 

September 30, 2004, most recently by P.L. 108-173. 
15-40 

recipients in Section 209(b) States may spend down to Medicaid eligibility. 

 Under the statute, States may limit the categories of individuals who can 

qualify as medically needy. If a State provides any medically needy program, 

however, it must include all children under 18 who would qualify under one of the 

welfare-related groups, and all pregnant women who would qualify under either a 

mandatory or optional group, if their income or resources were lower. In 2002, 

35 States19 and the District of Columbia covered the medically needy. 

OTHER INDIVIDUALS COVERED 

 In recent years, new groups have been added to Medicaid that move the 

program further away from its traditional links to cash assistance programs. 

Demonstration waivers have allowed States the flexibility to target enrollment and 

benefits to various groups, and two new pathways were added to Medicaid for 

individuals with specific medical diagnoses. With specific restrictions, Medicaid is 

also available to certain immigrants. 

Individuals qualifying under demonstration waivers

 Demonstration waivers available under the authority of Section 1115 of the 

Social Security Act enable States to experiment with new approaches for providing 

health care coverage that promote the objectives of the Medicaid program. Section 

1115 allows the Secretary of HHS to waive a number of Medicaid rules - including 

many of the Federal rules relating to Medicaid eligibility.20 The Health Insurance 

Flexibility and Accountability (HIFA) Initiative is an explicit effort of HHS to 

encourage States to seek Section 1115 waivers to extend Medicaid and SCHIP to 

the uninsured, with a particular emphasis on Statewide approaches that maximize 

private health insurance coverage options and target populations with incomes 

below 200 percent of FPL. A number of States have used such waivers to enact 

broad-based and sometimes statewide health reforms, although demonstrations 

under Section 1115 need not be statewide. A number of the demonstrations extend 

comprehensive health insurance coverage to low-income children and families who 

would not otherwise be eligible for Medicaid. 

Women with breast and cervical cancer 

Women who are eligible for Medicaid under this optional coverage group are 

those who have been screened for and found to have breast or cervical cancer 

(including precancerous conditions) through the National Breast and Cervical 

Cancer Early Detection Program (NBCCEDP). Women who qualify must be under 

age 65, uninsured, and otherwise not eligible for Medicaid. Benefits are limited to 

 

19 These include Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, 

Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, 

New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, 

Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West 

Virginia, and Wisconsin. All States except Texas cover aged and disabled medically needy groups. 20 See also the discussion of Section 1115 waivers in this subsection. 
15-41 

the period in which the beneficiary requires breast or cervical cancer treatment. In 

2002, 42 States21 chose to cover women who meet these requirements. 

Persons with tuberculosis 

States may choose to offer Medicaid to people with tuberculosis (TB) who 

are uninsured. Individuals qualifying under this pathway are entitled only to those 

services related to the treatment of tuberculosis. In 2002, 8 States22 and the District 

of Columbia covered such persons with TB. 

Immigrants 

Legal immigrants arriving in the United States after August 22, 1996 are 

ineligible for Medicaid benefits for their first 5 years here. Coverage of such 

persons after the 5-year ban is a State option.23 States may provide Medicaid 

coverage to legal immigrants who resided in the country and were receiving 

benefits on August 22, 1996, and for those residing in the country as of that date 

who become disabled in the future. States are also required to provide coverage to: 

 refugees for the first 7 years after entry into the United States; 

 asylees for the first 7 years after asylum is granted; 

 certain individuals whose deportation is being withheld by the 

Immigration and Naturalization Service for seven years after the 

deportation is first withheld; 

 lawful permanent aliens after they have been credited with 40 quarters of 

coverage under Social Security; and 

 immigrants who are honorably discharged U.S. military veterans, active 

duty military personnel, and their spouses and unmarried dependent 

children who otherwise meet the State’s financial eligibility criteria. 

 In addition, States are required to provide emergency Medicaid services to 

all legal and undocumented noncitizens who meet the financial and categorical 

eligibility requirements for Medicaid. 

ENROLLMENT 

In 2000, there were 44.3 million people enrolled in Medicaid. Over one-half 

(51 percent) of those enrolled were under age 1924, about 37 percent were ages 19 

 

21 These include Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, 

Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, 

Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New 

Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South 

Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. 22 These include California, Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota, New York, Oklahoma, Utah, and 

Wyoming. 

23 All States except for Colorado and Utah have opted to cover such persons. Colorado’s coverage 

for this group was repealed in May 2003, and was later upheld after a legal challenge by the 

American Civil Liberties Union of Colorado. 24 Chart 15-1 shows 49 percent of Medicaid enrollment in 2000 were children 

(47 percent children plus 2 percent foster care children). Additional children who are blind or 

disabled are included in the blind/disabled category. 
15-42 

through 64, and almost 10 percent were 65 or over. Charts 15-1 and 15-2 show 

2000 Medicaid enrollment by basis of eligibility (BOE) and by major enrollment 

group, respectively. State reported data are not available in a format that allows for 

examining enrollment by the pathways as described above. 

CHART 15-1--ENROLLEES BY BASIS OF ELIGIBILITY, 

FISCAL YEAR 2000 

Note-Medicaid enrollees include all persons enrolled in Medicaid during the year whether or not any 

payments for services have been made on their behalf. Total enrollees include those in the 50 States 

and the District of Columbia. 

Source: Congressional Research Services tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical 

Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all States except Hawaii. Hawaii did not report MSIS data 

from FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for FY1999. 

Chart 15-1 shows that Medicaid enrollment is predominantly non-disabled 

adults (e.g., parents) under age 65 and children (about 73 percent). Chart 15-2 

shows that almost half of Medicaid enrollment in 2000 is through traditional 

pathways: 39 percent of enrollees are SSI recipients, SSI-related enrollees, and 

members of families that would have been eligible for former AFDC programs and 

now qualify through Section 1931, and an additional 8 percent are the medically 

needy. Over one-third of 2000 enrollment is through relatively new pathways: 28 

percent of individuals on the program are enrolled through the poverty-level 

pathways added to Medicaid since the mid-1980s and 8 percent through 

demonstration waivers. Finally, about 17 percent of Medicaid enrollees are in the 

“other” group, including foster care children, elderly individuals in institutions, 

families receiving transitional medical assistance, and persons receiving State 

supplementary SSI payments. This “other” grouping includes over 60 specific 

eligibility pathways. 

Table 15-12 presents Medicaid recipients25 by basis of eligibility for selected 

years from 1975 through 2000. Since the mid-1970s, the number of individuals 

receiving at least one Medicaid service during the year has more than doubled, and 

during the 1990s, Medicaid enrollment growth quickened. Prior to 1998, Medicaid 

 

25 Recipients are those enrollees for whom either a service payment or a capitated payment is made 

during the year. 

Adults

24%

Aged

10%

Children

47%

Foster 

Care 

Children

2%

Blind/

Disabled

17%

N=44.3 million enrollees
15-43 

recipients, as reported by States using HCFA-2082 reporting forms, excluded 

individuals for whom only capitated26 payments were made. HMO enrollment, 

however, also grew rapidly, especially among non-disabled children and adults, 

after 1995. Individuals in HMOs, totaling over 5 million in 1995, are not reflected 

in the figures in Table 15-12, prior to 2000. 

CHART 15-2 --MEDICAID ENROLLEES BY MAJOR ENROLLMENT 

GROUP, FISCAL YEAR 2000 

Note-Medicaid enrollees include all persons enrolled in Medicaid during the year whether or not any 

payments for services have been made on their behalf. Total enrollees include those in the 

50 States and the District of Columbia. 

Source: Congressional Research Services tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical 

Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all states except Hawaii. Hawaii did not report MSIS 

data from FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for FY1999. 

Table 15-13 shows all Medicaid enrollees in fiscal year 2000 by State. 

Individuals counted in this table include all recipients plus all other individuals 

enrolled in the program in any month whether or not services were paid on their 

behalf. States are ranked by the total number of enrollees. California, the State 

with the highest Medicaid enrollment, had 8.1 million individuals in the program in 

2000. The second highest enrollment was in New York with 3.4 million enrollees. 

The top ten States, in terms of enrollment, accounted for over one-half of the 

program’s total enrollment. 

 

26 Capitation payments are fixed payment amounts made to providers or managed care organizations, 

usually monthly, for each person enrolled. The amounts are pre-paid and do not vary by the 

frequency or type of services provided during the period over which the payments apply. 

Enrolled 

through SSI or 

AFDC- Related 

Group

39%

Medically 

Needy

8%

Others

17%

Poverty Related

28%

N=44.3 million enrollees

Enrolled through 

Demonstration Waiver

8%
 TABLE 15-12--UNDUPLICATED NUMBER OF MEDICAID RECIPIENTS BY ELIGIBILITY 

CATEGORY FOR SELECTED YEARS 1975-2000 

[In Thousands] 

Year Total Recipients Aged Blind/Disabled Children Adults Foster Care Children Average Annual Growth 

1975 20,320 3,577 2,442 9,121 4,271 NA -- 

1980 20,660 3,439 2,874 8,921 4,585 NA 0.0% 1985 20,973 3,060 2,947 9,214 5,034 NA 0.0% 1990 23,964 3,201 3,661 10,783 5,618 NA 3.7% 1995 35,210 3,938 5,768 16,572 7,376 NA 9.4% 2000 42,763 3,731 6,889 18,962 8,750 761 4.3% Notes- For 1975-1995, recipients are those individuals for whom a fee-for-services claim was paid during the year. For 2000, recipients include both those individuals for whom a fee-for-service claim was paid during the year and those for whom a capitation payment was made during the 

year. Capitated service delivery systems became more prominent under Medicaid starting in 1995, primarily enrolling non-disabled adults and children. As a result, about 5.3 million people enrolled in such capitated arrangements are not included in this table before 2000. See subsectioon Medicaid managed care for more detailed information on capitated beneficiaries and expenditures. Totals do not sum because table does not include recipients of services for whom basis of eligibility is unknown. Total recipients in this table include recipients in 50 States and the District of Columbia. 

NA - Not available. Source: CRS Tabulations of HCFA 2082 data (for 1975-1995) and MSIS person-level summary records (for 1999 and 2000). Hawaii did not report MSIS data for 2000. CRS estimated Hawaii’s enrollment for FY2000 using data from 1999. 
15-45 

MEDICAID AND THE POOR 

In CY 2002, Medicaid covered 11.6 percent of the total U.S. population 

(excluding institutionalized persons) and 40.5 percent of those with incomes below 

the federal poverty level (FPL), according to data from the March 2003 Current 

Population Survey (CPS) conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. Because 

categorical eligibility requirements for children are less restrictive than those for 

adults, poor children are much more likely to receive coverage. Table 15–14 shows 

Medicaid coverage by age and income status in CY 2002. The estimates of those 

with Medicaid coverage include those covered by the State Children’s Health 

Insurance Program (SCHIP). Note that persons shown as receiving Medicaid may 

have had other health coverage as well. Nearly all the elderly, for example, had 

Medicare. Of persons with family incomes below poverty, more than two-thirds of 

children under age 6 are covered by Medicaid, compared to less than a third of 

those 19 and older. 

 Many individuals, even below the poverty level, are not eligible for 

Medicaid due to categorical restrictions. Nondisabled, childless, nonaged adults are 

never eligible for Medicaid, regardless of their income, unless their State obtains a 

special waiver to cover such individuals. In addition, even those who are eligible 

may not enroll. For example, all children under 6 years old in families with 

incomes below 133 percent of FPL are a mandatory coverage group. However, 

more than 2 million of these children are not enrolled in Medicaid. This may be for 

several reasons, including that these children have another source of health 

insurance, their families are unaware that Medicaid is available, or they do not 

perceive that coverage is needed. 

 Estimates of the number of people with Medicaid based on the CPS and other 

national surveys always have differed from official numbers published by the 

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), based on data provided by 

States. The most recent administrative data for Medicaid are from fiscal year 2000, 

which list more than 44 million Americans as enrolled in Medicaid, including those 

in institutions. The CPS estimates that, in calendar year 2000, enrollment in 

Medicaid was approximately 30 million. While not all of the reasons for this 

difference are understood, the following may be plausible explanations for at least 

part of the disparity: (1) double counting and classification errors in the 

administrative data; (2) imprecise imputation of Medicaid status on the CPS based 

on receipt of cash assistance; and (3) inaccurate survey response by those 

respondents who did not want to report being covered by a public assistance 

program or who reported their current insurance coverage rather than their coverage 

for the entire previous year, as is requested for the CPS. Also, the CPS is a survey 

of only the noninstitutionalized population. According to the Medicaid 

administrative data, approximately 2 million of the 44 million counted as enrolled 

in Medicaid in fiscal year 2000 were institutionalized. 
TABLE 15-13--MEDICAID ELIGIBLES BY BASIS OF ELIGIBILITY BY STATE, FISCAL YEAR 2000

[In Thousands of People] 

State Total Eligibles Rank Aged Blind/ Disabled Children Foster Care Children Adults Others 

Alabama 665.8 23 86.2 177.1 346.6 5.4 50.4 0.0 Alaska 109.5 47 6.2 10.7 65.5 1.6 25.5 0.0 Arizona 683.2 21 33.1 94.8 391.0 -- 164.3 0.0 Arkansas 504.3 29 54.1 100.9 233.8 5.6 109.9 13.0 California 8,063.6 1 592.1 925.3 3,042.2 145.1 3,358.9 5.0 Colorado 377.7 32 45.9 65.5 181.0 17.1 68.2 80.0 Connecticut 417.7 30 55.5 56.9 225.2 9.3 70.8 0.0 Delaware 124.3 45 9.1 15.9 56.1 2.0 41.2 0.0 District of Columbia 150.8 43 10.0 30.5 71.4 4.3 34.6 35.0 Florida 2,237.6 4 226.1 460.2 1,071.8 39.1 440.4 0.0 Georgia 1,238.8 10 110.4 224.3 679.6 18.7 205.8 0.0 Hawaii 202.9 39 18.8 21.6 85.1 4.1 73.3 0.0 Idaho 150.8 42 11.6 23.9 90.4 2.0 23.0 0.0 Illinois 1,736.2 6 118.1 290.2 880.8 83.7 363.3 0.0 Indiana 756.2 18 76.5 106.6 439.3 11.2 122.6 0.0 Iowa 316.4 34 41.0 55.5 147.7 9.3 63.0 0.0 Kansas 267.8 35 32.8 51.1 135.9 11.0 37.0 0.0 Kentucky 724.5 19 71.4 199.5 347.3 8.4 97.9 0.0 Louisiana 827.4 16 99.1 173.0 444.6 9.9 100.8 0.0 Maine 214.1 37 24.5 48.8 93.5 3.3 44.0 0.0 Maryland 721.8 20 54.9 114.8 382.7 16.0 153.3 0.0 Massachusetts 1,103.7 12 111.4 226.6 452.2 0.7 312.8 0.0 Michigan 1,360.7 9 100.0 282.1 697.2 41.1 240.2 113.0 Minnesota 596.7 25 64.0 83.5 298.4 9.4 141.4 0.0 Mississippi 595.8 26 69.6 152.1 306.8 3.4 63.9 1.0 Missouri 991.4 13 100.6 136.5 519.2 21.6 213.5 0.0 Montana 97.1 49 9.9 17.3 46.5 4.0 19.3 2.0 Nebraska 238.1 36 23.1 29.0 131.1 9.5 44.7 721.0 Nevada 158.5 41 17.1 28.6 77.2 5.2 30.4 0.0 
New Hampshire 110.2 46 13.0 13.8 64.6 2.6 16.1 0.0 

New Jersey 855.7 15 107.3 163.6 430.7 18.7 135.4 0.0 New Mexico 398.5 31 22.1 49.0 252.4 3.4 71.5 0.0 

New York 3,401.4 2 386.9 674.0 1,416.4 84.2 840.0 0.0 

North Carolina 1,228.1 11 176.5 219.1 609.0 15.0 208.6 0.0 North Dakota 62.2 50 9.7 9.3 29.4 1.7 12.1 0.0 Ohio 1,420.4 8 146.4 262.4 730.6 39.1 241.6 156.0 Oklahoma 584.6 27 63.1 73.8 354.6 7.6 85.5 0.0 Oregon 560.7 28 41.7 61.6 224.2 14.0 219.2 35.0 Pennsylvania 1,767.8 5 204.9 391.4 739.9 45.6 386.1 0.0 Rhode Island 182.1 40 18.7 34.0 78.8 5.3 45.4 0.0 South Carolina 775.4 17 78.0 117.3 391.6 7.1 181.3 32.0 South Dakota 98.7 48 10.0 15.8 55.8 1.7 15.4 0.0 Tennessee 1,535.1 7 89.1 318.9 653.5 12.7 461.0 0.0 Texas 2,707.0 3 361.0 346.5 1,520.1 28.6 450.8 0.0 Utah 203.8 38 11.7 25.3 113.6 6.5 46.7 0.0 Vermont 147.8 44 18.6 18.2 63.5 2.3 45.2 49.0 Virginia 681.3 22 95.4 131.5 348.7 13.7 92.0 1.0 Washington 916.8 14 69.1 121.7 520.3 13.9 191.9 1.0 West Virginia 354.3 33 31.9 84.5 171.1 6.2 60.6 0.0 Wisconsin 619.1 24 61.8 132.0 267.6 18.8 138.8 1.0 

Wyoming 52.5 51 4.9 8.2 27.8 1.5 10.0 0.0 Total 44,297.3 -- 4,295.0 7,474.8 21,004.3 852.1 10,669.8 1,245.0 

Notes- Medicaid eligibles include all persons enrolled in Medicaid during the year whether or not any payments for services were made on their 

behalf. Hawaii did not report MSIS data for FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for FY1999. Totals do not sum 

because table excludes individuals whose basis of eligibility was unknown. 

Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all Stat

except Hawaii. 
15-48 

TABLE 15-14--MEDICAID COVERAGE BY AGE AND FAMILY 

INCOME, CALENDAR YEAR 2002 

[In Thousands of People]

Age Covered by Medicaid Persons in age group Percent with Medicaid 

In poverty:

 0-5 3,040 4,395 69.2 

 6-10 2,173 3,512 61.9 

 11-18 2,599 4,798 54.2 

 19-44 3,452 12,727 27.1 

 45-64 1,720 5,565 30.9 

 65 and older 1,028 3,586 28.7 

 Total 14,013 34,582 40.5 

Family income between 100 and 132 percent of poverty: 

 0-5 980 1,866 52.5 

 6-10 654 1,469 44.5 

 11-18 1,005 2,318 43.4 

 19-44 1,018 5,849 17.4 

 45-64 547 2,675 20.5 

 65 and older 553 3,047 18.1 

 Total 4,757 17,224 27.6 

Family income between 133 and 184 percent of poverty: 

 0-5 1,089 2,716 40.1 

 6-10 790 2,272 34.8 

 11-18 1,051 3,413 30.8 

 19-44 1,067 9,809 10.9 

 45-64 523 4,166 12.6 

 65 and older 508 5,245 9.7 

 Total 5,028 27,621 18.2 

Family income of 185 percent of poverty and greater: 

 0-5 1,670 14,452 11.6 

 6-10 1,108 12,596 8.8 

 11-18 1,711 22,855 7.5 

 19-44 2,295 78,406 2.9 

 45-64 1,209 55,227 2.2 

 65 and older 1,194 22,355 5.3 

 Total 9,187 205,891 4.5 

All persons: 0-5 6,779 23,429 28.9 

 6-10 4,726 19,848 23.8 

 11-18 6,366 33,384 19.1 

 19-44 7,832 106,790 7.3 

 45-64 3,999 67,633 5.9 

 65 and older 3,283 34,234 9.6 

 Total 32,985 285,317 11.6 

Note- Number of Medicaid enrollees on the CPS is lower than the number on Medicaid 

administrative records. Counts exclude approximately 600,000 children who did not live with a 

family member (generally children in foster care) for whom income data are not available on the 

CPS. In 2002, the poverty threshold for a family with two adults and two children was $18,244. 

Source: Congressional Research Service tabulations from the March 2003 Current Population 

Survey (CPS). 

 
15-49 

BENEFITS 

 Medicaid’s basic benefits rules require all States to provide certain 

“mandatory” services as listed in Medicaid statute. The statute lists additional 

services that are considered optional - that is, Federal matching payments are 

available for optional services if States choose to include them in their Medicaid 

plans. States define the specific features of each mandatory and optional service to 

be provided under that plan within broad Federal guidelines. Those four basic 

guidelines include: 

 Amount, duration, and scope --Each covered service must be sufficient in 

amount, duration, and scope to reasonably achieve its purpose. The State 

may not arbitrarily deny or reduce the amount, duration, or scope of 

services solely because of the type of illness or condition. The State may 

place appropriate limits on a service based on such criteria as medical 

necessity. 

 Comparability--With certain exceptions defined in regulations, services 

available to any categorically needy beneficiary in a State must be equal 

in amount, duration, and scope to those available to any other 

categorically needy beneficiary in the State. Similarly, services available 

to any medically needy beneficiary in a State must be equal in amount, 

duration, and scope to those available to any other medically needy 

beneficiary in the State. 

 Statewideness--Generally, a State plan must be in effect throughout an 

entire State; that is, the amount, duration, and scope of coverage must be 

the same statewide. 

 Freedom-of-Choice--With certain exceptions, a State’s Medicaid plan 

must allow recipients freedom of choice among health care providers 

participating in Medicaid. States may provide and pay for Medicaid 

services through various prepayment arrangements, such as a health 

maintenance organization (HMO). 

 The Secretary may waive applicability of these requirements under certain 

circumstances (see the following discussion of waivers). The following services are 

mandatory for most groups of Medicaid recipients: 

 inpatient hospital services (excluding inpatient hospital services for 

mental disease); 

 outpatient hospital care including Federally Qualified Health Center 

(FQHC) services and, if permitted under State law, rural health clinic 

(RHC) services; 

 laboratory and x-ray services; 

 certified pediatric and family nurse practitioners; 

 nursing facility services for those age 21 and over; 

 early and periodic screening, diagnosis, and treatment for children under 

the age 21 (EPSDT, defined below); 

 physicians’ services; 
15-50 

 family planning services and supplies; 

 medical supplies and surgical services of a dentist; 

 home health services for those entitled to nursing facility care; 

 nurse-midwife services; 

 pregnancy-related services (including treatment for conditions that may 

complicate pregnancy); and 

 60 days of postpartum-related services 

 The statute lists a wide variety of optional benefits that can be covered. 

Some of the optional benefits are specific items, such as eyeglasses and prosthetic 

devices, that States may include as a Medicaid benefit. Others are types of medical 

providers, such as chiropractors and podiatrists, whose services can be considered 

Medicaid covered benefits. States have a great deal of flexibility in choosing 

among the listed items, in defining the scope of selected optional benefits, and in 

developing programs that meet the needs of their Medicaid populations. Other 

optional services include such items as prescription drugs, and inpatient psychiatric 

care for individuals under age 21 or over 65, dental care, physical therapy, case 

management, and many other services. Table 15-15 identifies the major optional 

benefits provided under State Medicaid plans in 2002. 

 In addition to the above general rules regarding mandatory and optional 

benefits, the Medicaid statute specifies special benefits or special rules regarding 

certain benefits for targeted groups of individuals. These special categories of 

benefits include: 

 EPSDT--Children under the age of 21 are entitled to the program of 

preventive child-care referred to as EPSDT. EPSDT is comprised of 

screening services including a comprehensive health and developmental 

history, comprehensive physical exams, appropriate immunizations 

according to the schedule established by the Advisory Committee on 

Immunization Practices, laboratory tests and lead toxicity screening, 

health education, vision services including eyeglasses, dental services, 

hearing services, and other necessary health care to correct or ameliorate 

defects, physical and mental illnesses, and conditions identified through 

the screening services. Under EPSDT, if an optional service is determined 

to be a necessary treatment to correct or ameliorate a condition identified 

through screening, States are required to provide that service, even if they 

have not chosen to cover that optional service under the general benefits 

rules described above. 

 Pregnancy-related services--While all women who qualify for Medicaid 

are eligible for pregnancy-related services, women who qualify under one 

of the pregnancy-related eligibility groups are eligible for only pregnancyrelated services (including treatment of conditions that may complicate 

pregnancy). Eligibility for these individuals extends through the 

pregnancy and for a period of 60 days postpartum. 

 Benefits for the medically needy--Special benefits rules apply if States 

choose to cover medically needy populations. States may offer a more 

restricted benefit package for those enrollees but are required, at a 
15-51 

minimum, to offer the following: prenatal and delivery services for 

pregnant women; ambulatory services for individuals under 18 and those 

entitled to institutional services; and home health services for individuals 

entitled to nursing facility services. Broader requirements apply if a State 

has chosen to provide coverage for medically needy persons in institutions 

for mental disease and intermediate care facilities for the mentally 

retarded. If so, the State is required to cover either all of the mandatory 

services, or alternatively, the optional services listed in any 7 of the 

categories of care and services in Medicaid law defining covered benefits. 

 Tuberculosis (TB)-related services--States are given the option of 

providing TB-related services to individuals infected with tuberculosis 

who meet certain income and resource requirements but are not otherwise 

eligible for Medicaid. TB-related services include prescription drugs, 

physicians’ services, outpatient hospital services, clinic services, FQHC 

services, RHC services, laboratory and x-ray services, case management, 

and services designed to encourage completion of regimens of prescribed 

drugs. 

In addition, States are able to waive many of the basic benefits rules to 

provide special home and community-based services for persons who are in need of 

long-term care and to conduct demonstration projects that test alternative methods 

of meeting the overall purpose of the Medicaid statute. These waivers include: 

- Home and Community-Based Long-Term Care Services (HCBS)--Under 

the HCBS waiver authority, States can provide special benefits tailored to 

meet the long-term care needs of targeted populations. Among the 

benefits offered under these programs are case management; homemaker; 

home health aide; personal care; adult day health; habilitation; respite 

care; day treatment or other partial hospitalization services; and 

psychosocial rehabilitation and clinic services for individuals with chronic 

mental illness. States also can cover a wide range of other medical, nonmedical, social and supportive services that allow persons who need longterm care to remain in the community. (For more information on HCBS 

waivers, see the “Medicaid Waiver Programs” subsection below). 

- Section 1115 Research and Demonstration Waivers--States have a great 

deal of flexibility to define benefits under Section 1115 waivers. Many of 

the rules outlined above regarding benefits may be waived. Under 

comprehensive 1115 demonstrations, States generally provide a broad 

range of services statewide. The Bush Administration has encouraged 

States to pursue targeted policies under three waiver initiatives, all using 

Section 1115 authority. Under Pharmacy Plus waivers, States are 

encouraged to provide only pharmacy benefits to low-income seniors and 

individuals with disabilities. Under Family Planning waivers, States are 

encouraged to provide only family planning services to certain individuals
TABLE 15-15--OPTIONAL MEDICAID SERVICES AND NUMBER OF STATES1 OFFERING EACH 

SERVICE, NOVEMBER 2002 

Number of States offering services to: 

Services Categorically 

 needy only 

Medically 

 needy only 

Both categorically and 

medically needy 

Populations add

through 1115 wa

Chiropractors 2 -- 30 -- Dental 4 -- 45 -- Dentures 4 -- 34 -- 

Diagnostic services 4 -- 31 -- Emergency hospital services in non-Medicare  participating hospital 3 -- 34 -- Eyeglasses 4 -- 44 -- 

Home health therapies:  Physical 6 -- 44 -- 

 Speech and Language 6 -- 43 --  Occupational 5 -- 44 --  Audiology Services 5 -- 40 -- Hospice 7 -- 35 1 

Inpatient hospital & nursing facility services for 

65 and older in IMD2 10 -- 33 -- 

Intermediate care services for the mentally disabled 10 -- 41 1 Inpatient psychiatric under age 21 10 -- 34 1 Mental health rehabilitation and stabilization 4 -- 40 -- Nurse anesthetists 2 -- 26 -- Occupational therapy 2 -- 37 1 Optometrists 5 -- 48 -- Other rehabilitative services 2 -- 20 -- 

Personal care 8 -- 28 -- 

Physical therapy 3 -- 42 1 Physician directed clinic services 5 -- 45 -- Podiatrists 5 -- 43 -- Prescribed drugs 6 -- 47 -- 
Preventive services 3 1 31 -- 

Private duty nursing 3 1 25 1 Prosthetic devices 6 -- 45 1 Psychologists 2 -- 30 -- Religious (non-medical) health care institution 2 -- 11 -- Respiratory care services for ventilator  dependent 3 -- 13 -- Screening services 3 -- 29 -- Skilled nursing facility for under age 21 9 -- 41 -- Targeted case management 10 -- 40 -- Therapies for speech, hearing and language  disorders 4 -- 40 1 Transportation 4 -- 46 -- Note- Row totals do not sum because a State may appear more than once. 1 Includes all States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands. 2 In Delaware, Indiana, New York, North Dakota, and Wyoming, only inpatient hospital services are provided to inpatients in institutions fo

mental disease (IMDs). In South Dakota and Idaho, only skilled nursing facility services are provided to inpatients in IMDs. Source: Medicaid At-a-Glance 2002, Publication No. CMS-11024-02. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services. 
15-54 

of childbearing age. Under Specialty Services and Populations 

Demonstrations, States provide pharmacy benefits to those with 

HIV/AIDS and conduct cash and counseling projects that provide cash to 

enrollees who may then arrange and purchase certain services on their 

own. (For more information on research and demonstration waivers, see 

the “Medicaid Waiver Programs” subsection below). 

 Tables 15-16 and 15-17 show recipients and expenditures by type of service 

for fiscal year 2000. The single benefit used by the largest number of Medicaid 

recipients was prescription drugs, for 20.5 million recipients, followed by physician 

services, used by 19.1 million recipients.27 Nursing facility services accounted for 

the largest share of Medicaid spending (23.9 percent), followed closely by inpatient 

hospital services (16.9 percent). Prescription drugs and physician services, while 

accounting for the largest number of users, accounted for 13.9 percent and 

4.7 percent of all spending on services, respectively. 

 Chart 15-3 shows average per recipient Medicaid spending by basis of 

eligibility-the aged, blind and disabled, adults, children, and others for fiscal year 

2000. The figure points out the relatively low cost of non-disabled children and 

adults to the Medicaid program. While these groups comprise the majority of 

Medicaid enrollment, their costs are relatively small ($2,030 per adult and 

$1,237 per child) when compared with the per recipient cost of the elderly 

($11,928), and blind and disabled ($10,559) recipients. This chart, on the other 

hand, underestimates the average cost of long-term care services for the 

comparatively few users of those services (see Table 15-16). Because these 

averages were calculated for all program recipients (of any service), they are below 

the average cost of services for only those individuals actually using the specific 

service. This difference is especially pronounced for long-term care services 

because relatively few users of those services account for a small number of very 

expensive claims. 

FINANCING 

 The Federal government helps States pay for Medicaid services by means of 

a variable matching formula, called the Federal medical assistance percentage 

(FMAP), which is adjusted annually.28 With specific exceptions (described below), 

the Federal matching rate, which is inversely related to a State’s per capita income, 

can range from 50 to 83 percent. Beginning in fiscal year 1998, the Federal 

matching rate for the District of Columbia increased to 70 percent and Alaska’s 

matching percentage is calculated using the 3-year average per capita income for 

 

27 Capitated payment systems accounted for a larger number of recipients than prescription drugs 

(almost 21.3 million recipients). Capitated payment services, however, despite being included 

alongside such services as prescription drugs and inpatient hospital services, are not considered a 

single benefit. The term refers to a managed care delivery system that provides a specified set of 

Medicaid benefits to a specified group of enrollees. (For more information on Medicaid managed 

care, see “Delivery Systems” subsection.) 

28 FMAP is a measure of the average per capita income in each State, squared, compared to that of the 

nation as a whole. 
15-55 

the State divided by 1.05. Federal matching for five territories is 50 percent, with a 

maximum dollar limit placed on the amount each territory can receive. 

TABLE 15-16--MEDICAID RECIPIENTS BY SERVICE CATEGORY, 

FISCAL YEAR 2000 

[In millions of people]

Service Category Recipients 

Acute Care

Capitated Payment Services 21.261 

Prescribed Drugs 20.517 

Physician Services 19.104 

Outpatient Hospital Services 13.226 

Lab & X-ray Services 11.396 

Other Care and Services 9.037 

Clinic Services 7.667 

Dental Services 5.892 

PCCM Services 5.560 

Inpatient Hospital Services 4.933 

Other Practitioner Services 4.735 

Sterilization Services 0.137 

Mental Health Facility Services 0.102 

Long-Term Care

Personal Support Services 4.549 

Nursing Facility Services 1.703 

Home Health Services 0.995 

ICF/MR Services 0.118 

Unknown 0.176 

Unduplicated total 42.763 

Notes - PCCM denotes primary care case management, under which primary care providers are

provided with a small fee, usually paid on a monthly basis, for each enrollee for whom they

coordinate primary care services. Recipients in this table include all individuals for whom a feefor-service claim was paid during the year and those for whom a capitation payment was made

during the year. 

Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical

Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all States except Hawaii. Hawaii did not report

MSIS data for FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for

FY1999. 

To provide fiscal relief to States, Federal matching rates were changed 

temporarily by the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act (JGTRRA, P.L. 

108-27), which altered the rates for certain expenditures29 for the last 2 quarters of 

fiscal year 2003 and the first 3 quarters of fiscal year 2004. For these quarters, the 

Federal matching percentage for each State is held harmless for declines from the 

prior fiscal year, and then is increased by 2.95 percentage points. The Federal 

matching percentages for all States and jurisdictions for fiscal years 2003 and 2004 

are shown in Table-15-18. 

 

29 See the Legislative history subsection for further information. 
15-56 

TABLE 15-17--TOTAL MEDICAID PAYMENTS BY BASIS OF 

ELIGIBILITY (BOE), TYPE OF SERVICE, AND AS A PERCENTAGE OF 

TOTAL PAYMENTS BY BOE, FISCAL YEAR 2000 

 [In order of descending total service payments] 

Service Type 

Total 

Service 

Payments 

Aged Blind/

disabled Children Adults Foster

 care Unknown 

 [In millions of dollars] 

Acute Care 

Capitated Payment 

Services $24,413 $1,721 $6,878 $9,459 $5,777 $323 $255 

Inpatient Hospital 

Services 24,266 1,630 10,409 4,537 4,767 360 2,562 

Prescribed Drugs 20,014 5,355 11,591 1,338 1,444 224 62 

Other Care and 

Services 14,680 2,448 9,874 848 593 554 363 

Outpatient Hospital 

Services 7,053 667 3,174 1,310 1,443 123 336 

Physician Services 6,806 633 2,316 1,765 1,697 166 229 

Clinic Services 6,174 267 2,638 1,063 823 272 1,112 

Mental Health 

Facility Services 1,768 312 515 402 24 339 175 

Dental Services 1,404 80 286 764 208 40 28 

Lab & X-ray 

Services 1,288 90 538 180 423 17 39 

Other Practitioner 

Services 658 79 257 192 75 49 6 

PCCM Services 165 3 32 108 18 2 2 

Sterilization Services 128 0 9 2 109 0 9 

Subtotal 108,817 13,285 48,517 21,968 17,401 2,469 5,178 

Long Term Care 

Nursing Facility 

Services 34,432 27,058 6,967 34 33 22 318 

Personal Support 

Services 11,567 2,688 6,415 1,340 232 740 152 

ICF/MR Services 9,375 708 8,611 15 5 18 17 

Home Health 

Services 3,119 718 2,175 90 65 60 12 

Subtotal 58,493 31,172 24,168 1,479 335 840 499 

Unknown 997 45 57 18 27 1 850 

Total Payments by 

BOE 168,307 44,503 72,742 23,466 17,763 3,309 6,525 

 [Percentage of total payments by BOE] 

Acute Care 

Capitated Payment 

Services 14.5 3.9 9.5 40.3 32.5 9.8 3.9 

Inpatient Hospital 

Services 14.4 3.7 14.3 19.3 26.8 10.9 39.3 

Prescribed Drugs 11.9 12.0 15.9 5.7 8.1 6.8 1.0 

Other Care and 

Services 8.7 5.5 13.6 3.6 3.3 16.7 5.6 

 
15-57 

TABLE 15-17--TOTAL MEDICAID PAYMENTS BY BASIS OF 

ELIGIBILITY (BOE), TYPE OF SERVICE, AND AS A PERCENTAGE OF 

TOTAL PAYMENTS BY BOE, FISCAL YEAR 2000-continued

[In order of descending total service payments] 

Service Type 

Total 

Service 

Payments 

Aged Blind/

disabled Children Adults Foster

 care Unknown 

Outpatient Hospital 

Services 4.2 1.5 4.4 5.6 8.1 3.7 5.1 

Physician Services 4.0 1.4 3.2 7.5 9.6 5.0 3.5 

Clinic Services 3.7 0.6 3.6 4.5 4.6 8.2 17.0 

Mental Health 

Facility Services 1.1 0.7 0.7 1.7 0.1 10.2 2.7 

Dental Services 0.8 0.2 0.4 3.3 1.2 1.2 0.4 

Lab & Xray Services 0.8 0.2 0.7 0.8 2.4 0.5 0.6 

Other Practitioner 

Services 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.4 1.5 0.1 

PCCM Services 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.0 

Sterilization Services 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.1 

 Subtotal 64.7 29.9 66.7 93.6 98.0 74.6 79.4 

Long Term Care 

Nursing Facility 

Services 20.5 60.8 9.6 0.1 0.2 0.7 4.9 

Personal Support 

Services 6.9 6.0 8.8 5.7 1.3 22.4 2.3 

ICF/MR Services 5.6 1.6 11.8 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.3 

Home Health 

Services 1.9 1.6 3.0 0.4 0.4 1.8 0.2 

 Subtotal 34.8 70.0 33.2 6.3 1.9 25.4 7.6 

Unknown 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 13.0 

Notes-Totals may not sum due to rounding. Comparing the payments information presented 

above with data from the other primary source of State-reported Medicaid payment data, the 

CMS-64, results in apparent inconsistencies that relate to differences in the information captured. 

 MSIS total reported payments are lower than CMS-64 total reported payments primarily because 

MSIS totals do not include payments made to disproportionate share hospitals. Other less 

significant differences between MSIS and the CMS-64 occur because adjudicated claims data are 

used in MSIS versus the reporting of actual payments reflected in the CMS-64. Differences may 

also occur because of internal State practices for capturing and reporting these data through two 

separate systems. 

Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical 

Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all States except Hawaii. Hawaii did not report MSIS 

data for FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for FY1999. 
15-58 

CHART 15-3--MEDICAID EXPENDITURES PER RECIPIENT BY ACUTE 

AND LONG-TERM CARE AND BASIS OF ELIGIBILITY, FISCAL YEAR 

2000 

Notes- Medicaid recipients include all individuals for whom any claim was paid during the year and 

for whom a capitation payment was made during the year. In these calculations, total expenditures for 

long term care and acute care services were divided by the total number of program recipients of any 

service in each eligibility group, whether or not all of those individuals were users of long-term care 

services and acute care services. This results in averages for all recipients that can diverge from the 

averages among only those individuals who used that particular type of service. This is especially 

true for long-term care where relatively few users account for a small number of large and costly 

claims. For a list of which services were classified as long term care and acute care, see Table 15-16. 

Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical 

Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all States except Hawaii. Hawaii did not report MSIS 

data for FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for FY1999 

REIMBURSEMENT POLICY 

 For the most part, States establish their own rates to pay Medicaid providers 

for services. By regulation these rates must be sufficient to enlist enough providers 

so that covered services will be available to Medicaid beneficiaries at least to the 

extent they are available to the general population in a geographic area. The 

Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA 97, P.L. 105-33) required that beginning 

October 1, 1997, States must provide public notice of the proposed rates for 

hospitals, nursing facilities, and intermediate care facilities for the mentally 

retarded and the methods used to establish those rates. 

 All providers are required to accept payments under the program as payment 

in full for covered services except where States require nominal cost-sharing by 

beneficiaries. States generally may impose such charges with certain exceptions. 

They are precluded from imposing cost sharing on services for children under 18, 

services related to pregnancy, family planning or emergency services, and services 

provided to nursing facility residents who are required to spend all of their income 

 $4,348

$1,237 $2,030 

$10,559

 $ 11,928 

-

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

Aged

Blind/Disabled

Adults

Children

Foster Children and Unknown

Long Term Care

Acute Care
15-59 

for medical care except for a personal needs allowance. Effective August 5, 1997, 

States are permitted to pay Medicaid rates, instead of Medicare rates, to providers 

for services to dual eligibles (those Medicare beneficiaries who also are eligible for 

full Medicaid benefits) and qualified Medicare beneficiaries (QMBs; see 

“Eligibility” subsection). 

Certain types of providers are subject to special rules. Three such 

circumstances are discussed in detail below. 

TABLE 15-18--FEDERAL MEDICAL ASSISTANCE PERCENTAGES 

BY STATE FOR FISCAL YEARS 2003 AND 2004

Fiscal Year 2003 Fiscal Year 2004 

State First 2 

Quarters 

Last 2 

Quarters 

First 3 

Quarters 

Last 

Quarter 

Alabama 70.60 73.55 73.70 70.75 

Alaska 58.27 61.22 61.34 58.39 

Arizona 67.25 70.20 70.21 67.26 

Arkansas 74.28 77.23 77.62 74.67 

California 50.00 54.35 52.95 50.00 

Colorado 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Connecticut 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Delaware 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

District of Columbia 70.00 72.95 72.95 70.00 

Florida 58.83 61.78 61.88 58.93 

Georgia 59.60 62.55 62.55 59.58 

Hawaii 58.77 61.72 61.85 58.90 

Idaho 70.96 73.97 73.91 70.46 

Illinois 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Indiana 61.97 64.99 65.27 62.32 

Iowa 63.50 66.45 66.88 63.93 

Kansas 60.15 63.15 63.77 60.82 

Kentucky 69.89 72.89 73.04 70.09 

Louisiana 71.28 74.23 74.58 71.63 

Maine 66.22 69.53 69.17 66.01 

Maryland 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Massachusetts 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Michigan 55.42 59.31 58.84 55.89 

Minnesota 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Mississippi 76.62 79.57 80.03 77.08 

Missouri 61.23 64.18 64.42 61.47 

Montana 72.96 75.91 75.91 72.85 

Nebraska 59.52 62.50 62.84 59.89 

Nevada 52.39 55.34 57.88 54.93 

New Hampshire 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

New Jersey 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

New Mexico 74.56 77.51 77.80 74.85 

New York 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

North Carolina 62.56 65.51 65.80 62.85 

North Dakota 68.36 72.82 71.31 68.31 

Ohio 58.83 61.78 62.18 59.23 

Oklahoma 70.56 73.51 73.51 70.24 

Oregon 60.16 63.11 63.76 60.81 

Pennsylvania 54.69 57.64 57.71 54.76 
15-60 

TABLE 15-18--FEDERAL MEDICAL ASSISTANCE PERCENTAGES 

BY STATE FOR FISCAL YEARS 2003 AND 2004- continued

Fiscal Year 2003 Fiscal Year 2004 

State First 2 

Quarters 

Last 2 

Quarters 

First 3 

Quarters 

Last 

Quarter 

Rhode Island 55.40 58.35 58.98 56.03 

South Carolina 69.81 72.76 72.81 69.86 

South Dakota 65.29 68.88 68.62 65.67 

Tennessee 64.59 67.54 67.54 64.40 

Texas 59.99 63.12 63.17 60.22 

Utah 71.24 74.19 74.67 71.72 

Vermont 62.41 66.01 65.36 61.34 

Virginia 50.53 54.40 53.48 50.00 

Washington 50.00 53.32 52.95 50.00 

West Virginia 75.04 78.22 78.14 75.19 

Wisconsin 58.43 61.52 61.38 58.41 

Wyoming 61.32 64.92 64.27 59.77 

America Samoa 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Guam 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Northern Marina Islands 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Puerto Rico 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Virgin Islands 50.00 52.95 52.95 50.00 

Sources: The FMAPs displayed for the first 2 quarters of fiscal year 2003 and the last quarter 

of fiscal year 2004 were published in the Federal Register (November 30, 2001, Volume 66, 

No. 231, and November 15, 2002, Volume 67, No. 221, respectively). The FMAPs displayed 

for the last 2 quarters of fiscal year 2003 were taken from the Centers for Medicare and 

Medicaid Services Memorandum of June 13, 2003 (MDL #03-005) to State Medicaid 

Directors on the impact of P.L. 108-27. Finally, the FMAPs displayed for the first 3 quarters 

of fiscal year 2004 were estimated by the Congressional Research Service. 

Reimbursement for prescription drugs

The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA 90, P.L. 101-508) 

established rules for Medicaid reimbursement of prescription drugs. Medicaid 

payments for drugs are subject to upper payment limits. For drugs with generic 

versions available from three or more manufacturers, the upper payment limit is 

150 percent of the average wholesale price. For other drugs, the upper payment 

limit is either the estimated price paid by the provider for the drug plus a dispensing 

fee or the provider’s usual charge for the drug to the general public. The law denies 

Federal matching funds for drugs manufactured by a firm that has not agreed to 

provide rebates to States. Under amendments made by the Veterans Health Care 

Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-585), a manufacturer is not deemed to have a rebate 

agreement unless the manufacturer has entered into a master agreement with the 

Secretary of Veterans Affairs. Rebate amounts vary depending upon whether the 

drug is available from multiple sources (a generic version of the drug is available) 

or available from a single source (a generic version of the drug is not available). 

The rebate for drugs ranges from 11 percent to 15.1 percent of the average 

manufacturer price. 
15-61 

Disproportionate share hospital payments

 States must provide for additional payments to hospitals serving a 

disproportionate share of low-income patients. Unlike comparable Medicare 

payments, Medicaid disproportionate share hospital (DSH) payments must follow a 

formula that considers a hospital’s charity patients as well as its Medicaid caseload. 

Beginning in fiscal year 1992, State DSH payments were limited as part of an effort 

to rein in fast growth. DSH payments were limited to 12 percent of total Medicaid 

spending. The 12 percent figure was phased in through the use of State-specific 

DSH allotments (caps on Federal matching payments) for each Federal fiscal year. 

BBA 97 lowered the DSH allotments by imposing a freeze and making graduated 

proportional reductions for 1998 - 2002. Thereafter, annual DSH allotments for a 

State equal the allotment for the preceding fiscal year increased by the percentage 

change in the medical care component of the Consumer Price Index for All Urban 

Consumers. BBA 97 also imposed a new cap on DSH payments to institutions for 

mental disease and other mental health facilities. The Medicare, Medicaid and 

SCHIP Benefits Improvement and Protection Act of 2000 (BIPA 2000, P.L. 106-

554) established a 175 percent (of uncompensated care costs) cap for all public 

hospitals in the nation for a two-year period beginning in State fiscal year 2003. 

Upper payment limits for certain institutional providers 

 In 1987, the Secretary of HHS issued regulations establishing separate upper 

payment limits for inpatient and outpatient services provided by different types of 

facilities. An aggregate upper payment limit was established for each type of 

institutional provider of Medicaid services by ownership (State versus other) that 

would not exceed what would have been paid for those services under Medicare 

payment principles. In 2000, the Secretary determined that some States made 

arrangements with city or county facilities to pay these facilities at inflated rates. 

The city or county facilities then transferred some or all of the enhanced payments 

back to the State. BIPA 2000 addressed these funding methods by requiring 

regulations to provide separate upper payment limits for private and public facilities 

up to 100 percent of the Medicare rate for such services. Later, through regulation, 

the Clinton Administration allowed payments to city and county public hospitals up 

to 150 percent of the Medicare rate for their services. In January 2002, the Bush 

Administration changed the special rule for city and county hospitals to 100 percent 

of the Medicare rate. 

ADMINISTRATION 

Medicaid is a State-administered program. At the Federal level, the Centers 

for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) of the U.S. Department of Health and 

Human Services (HHS) is responsible for overseeing State operations. 

 Federal law requires that a single State agency be charged with administration 

of the Medicaid program. Generally, that agency is either the State welfare agency, 

the State health agency, or an umbrella human resources agency. The single State 

agency may contract with other State entities to conduct some program functions. 
15-62 

Further, States may process claims for reimbursement themselves or contract with 

fiscal agents or health insuring agencies to process these claims. The Federal share 

of administrative costs is 50 percent for all States, except for certain items for 

which the authorized rate is higher. 

DELIVERY SYSTEMS 

 There are two systems for delivering services under Medicaid: fee-for-service 

and managed care. These systems differ in how the State pays for the services and 

how the individual accesses service providers. Most States use a combination of 

both of these systems to deliver Medicaid services. The primary elements of these 

systems and initiatives to deliver long-term care services are discussed below. 

Fee-For-Service 

 The fee-for-service (FFS) system has been the primary method of paying for 

and delivering Medicaid services since the program’s enactment in 1965. Under 

fee-for-service, a Medicaid beneficiary determines, in consultation with a 

physician, the type of services needed and can receive those services from any 

Medicaid-certified provider. States may limit the amount of services or require 

prior approval of services, but the individual retains significant flexibility. The 

provider receives payment from the State Medicaid agency for that particular 

service based on rates established by the State. States have significant flexibility in 

developing how payment rates are calculated and there is significant variation by 

State and by service. For example, the rate may be related to the actual cost of the 

service for an individual provider or could be a fixed, pre-determined amount for a 

particular procedure. 

 Although enrollment in managed care has increased over the last decade, the 

fee-for-service system continues to be a widespread and important service delivery 

mechanism. The fee-for-service system is used for individuals whose Medicaid 

eligibility group or geographic location is not served through managed care, or for 

persons who opt out when managed care is voluntary. The fee-for-service system 

also is used for those Medicaid services not covered by a managed care contract. 

 For individuals who live in rural areas and individuals who are elderly or 

have a disability, fee-for-service continues to be the dominant delivery system. 

States have tended to exclude these groups from managed care programs. 

Individuals in rural areas often have limited choice of managed care plans and 

service providers. Individuals who are elderly or who have a disability often have 

complex medical conditions which can be costly and require specialty care, and 

their health status can be unpredictable. Though individuals who are elderly or who 

have a disability tend to be excluded, States have started to develop managed care 

approaches for these groups to contain costs and test alternative delivery systems as 

discussed below. 

 Under a primarily fee-for-service system, State Medicaid expenditures and 

the number of enrollees have increased significantly. Over the 10-year period 

between 1985 and 1995, State Medicaid expenditures increased from $18.2 billion 
15-63 

to $67.3 billion, an average growth rate of 14 percent annually. This increase 

reflected both increases in medical costs and increases in the number of Medicaid 

enrollees. Between 1985 and 1995, the number of Medicaid enrollees increased 66 

percent from 21.8 million to 36.2 million. During that period, States also lacked a 

coordinated system for delivering services. No one was designated to assist the 

individual in sorting through his or her health care options or ensuring timely 

access to appropriate services. In an effort to slow the growth of expenditures and 

improve service delivery, many States turned to managed care for many of their 

enrollees. 

Managed Care 

 The number of Medicaid beneficiaries enrolled in a managed care plan of any 

type increased from 9.5 percent of the Medicaid population in 1991 to 57.6 percent 

in 2002. As of June 30, 2002, 21.3 million individuals receiving Medicaid were 

enrolled in some form of managed care. Alaska, Mississippi, and Wyoming were 

the only States that did not use managed care to deliver services to Medicaid 

beneficiaries. 

 Under managed care, the State contracts with one or more plans to provide 

an agreed upon set of benefits. The contract could include a comprehensive set of 

services or include only one service, such as, case management. For each managed 

care contract, the State establishes fixed, prospective, monthly, per person payment 

rates referred to as a “capitation” payment for the covered services. The capitation 

rate is based on the average cost of services for a defined group. After determining 

the average cost, States may use a variety of actuarial methods to adjust the average 

cost for specific individuals by age, geographic location, and/or diagnosis. For 

example, a State may establish different rates for men and women in different age 

brackets. The plan would receive the rate associated with the individual enrolled 

based on that person’s gender and age. The capitation payment does not vary on a 

monthly basis if the volume of services actually used by the individual differs from 

that assumed in the capitation payment. The plan also negotiates payment rates 

with participating providers. In contrast, under fee-for-service, the State establishes 

the provider payment rates as described earlier. The goal of managed care is to 

reduce unnecessary service use, improve access to quality health care by having a 

central point of contact, and increase care coordination thereby reducing 

expenditures. 

 Types of managed care--Managed care plans vary in the financial 

responsibility or “risk” the plan assumes and the services they provide. In a riskbased managed care contract, the plan is fiscally responsible for the provision of all 

services agreed upon in the contract regardless of actual use by beneficiaries. 

Under a non-risk based contract, States either implement processes to share the 

financial burden with the plan or the State assumes full financial responsibility for 

the services provided. For example, in a non-risk based contract, at the end of the 

fiscal period, a State may modify the payments to a managed care plan if actual 
15-64 

service use differs from projected use (upon which the original capitation payment 

was based). 

 There is also significant variation in the amount and types of services that 

each State includes in its Medicaid managed care contracts. Some States contract 

with a plan for a limited benefit package such as case management, dental, or 

mental health services. Other States have included a comprehensive30 set of 

services. 

 The primary types of Medicaid managed care arrangements are described 

below: 

 Managed care organization (MCO) --Under a managed care organization 

(such as an HMO), the entity has a comprehensive, risk-based contract 

with the State. The State pays the organization a fixed, prospective, per 

person per month rate for providing medical care for all plan enrollees. 

 Pre-paid health plan (PHP)--Pre-paid health plans refer to risk-based 

contracts that include less than a comprehensive set of services (such as 

only behavioral health services), or non-risk based contracts for any 

package of services. Essentially, such plans do not have a risk-based

contract with the State for a comprehensive set of services. 

 Primary care case management (PCCM)--Under a PCCM model, 

providers receive a per person, monthly fee for coordinating each 

enrollee’s care. The provider is not fiscally responsible for the services 

used by the individual. All services are provided through the fee-forservice delivery system. The PCCM must be a physician or licensed 

health care professional; this provider acts as a care coordinator and/or 

gatekeeper to the services specified under the PCCM contract. 

 There are also several hybrids of the MCO, PHP and PCCM models. Most 

States have implemented multiple models. For example, a State may have an MCO 

for children and families enrolled in Medicaid and a PHP for mental health services 

for individuals with a relevant disability. As of June 30, 2002, 47 States and the 

District of Columbia were using some form of Medicaid managed care, 44 States 

had risk-based plans31 and 30 States had non-risk PCCM plans.32 

 As discussed earlier, managed care has primarily included low-income adults 

and children, as shown in Table 15-19. Of the 21.3 million Medicaid recipients 

enrolled in a managed care organization or pre-paid health plan in fiscal year 2000, 

78 percent were low-income adults and children, 18 percent were individuals with 

disabilities and the elderly, and 5 percent had an unknown basis of eligibility.33 

 

30 The law considers a service package to be “comprehensive” if it includes inpatient hospital 

services and any of the following services, or any three or more of the following services: (1) 

outpatient hospital services; (2) rural health clinic services; (3) Federally qualified health center 

(FQHC) services; (4) other laboratory and x-ray services; (5) nursing facility services; (6) early and 

periodic screening, diagnostic, and treatment (EPSDT) services; (7) family planning services; (8) 

physician services; or (9) home health services. 

31Includes PHPs and hybrid managed care models. 

32CMS, 2002 Medicaid Managed Care Enrollment Report, Plan Type Breakout Enrollment by State.

 See www.cms.hhs.gov/medicaid/managedcare/mctype02.pdf. 

33Does not total to 100 percent due to rounding. This does not include individuals receiving only 

PCCM services.
15-65 

 Medicaid expenditures in fiscal year 2000 for services provided in managed 

care or a pre-paid health plan followed a similar pattern, as shown in Table 15-20. 

Of the $24.4 billion in Medicaid expenditures for individuals in a managed care 

organization (MCO) or pre-paid health plan (PHP), 64 percent were for low-income 

adults and children, 35 percent were for individuals with disabilities and the elderly, 

and 1 percent were for individuals whose basis of eligibility was unknown. 

TABLE 15-19--MEDICAID RECIPIENTS SERVED THROUGH MCO 

AND/OR PHP PLANS BY BASIS OF ELIGIBILITY, 

FISCAL YEAR 2000 

[In thousands of people]

State Total Aged Blind and 

Disabled Children Adults Foster 

care Unknown 

Alabama -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Alaska -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Arizona 650 29 90 379 137 8 6 

Arkansas -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

California 5,778 501 863 2,409 1,152 125 728 

Colorado 343 39 58 162 50 16 17 

Connecticut 291 -- 1 213 64 7 5 

Delaware 100 -- 10 51 36 2 -- 

Dist. of Columbia 101 -- 3 66 30 -- 1 

Florida 769 19 116 480 126 9 19 

Georgia 22 -- 4 15 4 -- -- 

Hawaii 167 -- 5 84 71 4 3 

Idaho -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Illinois 237 -- 1 173 55 1 7 

Indiana 178 -- 6 131 36 1 4 

Iowa 252 2 46 133 56 9 6 

Kansas 57 -- -- 43 11 -- 2 

Kentucky 700 49 184 346 97 8 16 

Louisiana -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Maine 3 -- -- 2 1 -- -- 

Maryland 507 7 71 335 77 15 2 

Massachusetts 779 2 117 385 255 1 19 

Michigan 1,055 10 185 596 181 24 59 

Minnesota 375 35 4 229 105 1 1 

Mississippi 9 -- 3 5 1 -- 1 

Missouri 395 -- 1 277 99 13 4 

Montana 3 -- -- -- 2 -- -- 

Nebraska 172 1 13 116 35 8 - 

Nevada 71 -- -- 47 17 -- 7 

New Hampshire 7 -- -- 6 1 -- -- 

New Jersey 560 33 19 403 95 1 8 

New Mexico 297 1 28 217 44 3 4 

New York 1,082 9 90 570 304 4 104 

North Carolina 62 -- 6 39 11 1 4 

North Dakota 1 -- -- 1 -- -- -- 

Ohio 362 -- 6 273 82 -- 1 

Oklahoma 382 -- 37 274 69 1 1 

Oregon 508 35 53 207 198 12 3 

Pennsylvania 1,015 66 215 510 180 26 18 
15-66 

TABLE 15-19--MEDICAID RECIPIENTS SERVED THROUGH MCO 

AND/OR PHP PLANS BY BASIS OF ELIGIBILITY, 

FISCAL YEAR 2000-continued

State Total Aged Blind and 

Disabled Children Adults Foster 

care Unknown 

Rhode Island 123 -- 1 76 44 1 1 

South Carolina 43 -- 3 36 3 -- -- 

South Dakota 99 10 16 56 15 2 -- 

Tennessee 1,552 87 315 637 452 12 49 

Texas 727 40 64 504 114 3 1 

Utah 195 9 21 103 35 6 21 

Vermont 66 -- 1 35 29 2 -- 

Virginia 213 2 30 144 37 -- -- 

Washington 613 3 3 466 126 1 14 

West Virginia -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Wisconsin 342 1 10 221 106 3 1 

Wyoming -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Total 21,263 992 2,700 11,456 4,647 330 1,137 

% of Total 100 5 13 54 22 2 5 

Notes - Does not include individuals who received only primary care case management services 

(PCCM). Dashes denote no managed care program, except in some cases States reported 

capitation payments as part of other services and did not report these payments in the MCO or 

PHP categories. This was most likely to occur when there was only one service provided under 

that managed care program (e.g., transportation). Alternate data sources from the Centers for 

Medicare and Medicaid Services website (cms.hhs.gov/medicaid/managedcare/mmcns600.asp) 

show that Alabama, Arkansas, and West Virginia had capitated MCO or PHP programs during 

FY2000. 

Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical 

Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all States except Hawaii. Hawaii did not report MSIS 

data for FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for FY1999. 

 

 Trends in Managed Care -- In the early and mid-1990s, States significantly 

expanded enrollment in Medicaid managed care programs, but the programs growth 

is slowing. In fiscal years 2001 and 2002, the number of individuals enrolled in a 

managed care plan as a percentage of all Medicaid eligible individuals increased 

1.9 percent and 1.3 percent, respectively. This is a significant decrease over the 

61.1 percent and 38.4 percent annual growth rates of fiscal years 1994 and 1995, 

respectively. The expansion of Medicaid managed care in the early and mid-1990s 

should be viewed in the context of a general trend toward managed care across 

many sectors of the U.S. health care system. Despite the significant growth of 

managed care both in Medicaid and the overall health care system, the extent to 

which it has accomplished the goal of controlling health care expenditures and 

increasing quality has been inconclusive. 

 Finally, in both Medicaid and the U.S. health care system in general, 

managed care continues to evolve. Some of these changes include plans entering 

and exiting certain geographic locations, and company consolidations and 

bankruptcies. There has been a significant number of risk-based managed care 

plans that have entered and left the Medicaid program. In a survey of all States that 

had risk-based programs in 1998 conducted by the National Academy for State 

Health Policy (May 2001), 82 percent of these States had turnover in plans between 
15-67 

1998 and 2000. State agencies most commonly cited financial reasons (e.g., 

insufficient capitation payments, inadequate risk-sharing methodology) for 

managed care plans leaving the Medicaid program. Five States reported that this 

turnover in plans resulted in moving solely to a PCCM model of service delivery. 

The turnover is not necessarily negative if it strengthens the overall delivery 

system, but it may result in decreased continuity of services and additional 

administrative costs if beneficiaries must switch providers or re-enroll in a different 

plan. 

Long-Term Care Delivery System 

 Long-term care refers to a wide range of supportive and health services for 

persons who have lost the capacity for self-care due to illness, frailty, or a disabling 

condition. It differs from acute care in that the goal of long-term care is not to cure 

an illness that is generally of short duration, but to allow an individual to attain and 

maintain an optimal level of functioning over the long-term. 

 

TABLE 15-20--TOTAL MEDICAID PAYMENTS FOR MCO AND PHP 

RECIPIENTS BY BASIS OF ELIGIBILITY, 

FISCAL YEAR 2000 

[In millions of dollars]

State Total Aged Blind and 

Disabled Children Adults Foster Care Unknown 

Alabama -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Alaska -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Arizona $1,709 $330 $690 $395 $257 $9 $29 

Arkansas -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

California 3,846 347 650 1,828 837 41 142 

Colorado 372 49 156 82 32 52 -- 

Connecticut 411 -- 1 284 116 8 1 

Delaware 169 2 51 45 70 1 -- 

Dist. of Columbia 136 -- 27 63 46 -- -- 

Florida 743 78 297 247 104 6 10 

Georgia 7 -- 3 2 1 -- -- 

Hawaii 235 -- 5 120 101 7 1 

Idaho -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Illinois 213 1 1 133 76 -- 1 

Indiana 143 -- 5 96 41 1 1 

Iowa 139 1 36 60 40 2 -- 

Kansas 43 -- -- 23 14 -- 5 

Kentucky 467 21 214 190 38 4 -- 

Louisiana -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Maine 2 -- -- 1 1 -- -- 

Maryland 911 30 395 301 174 15 -3 

Massachusetts 525 25 178 178 142 -- 2 

Michigan 1,274 15 658 347 235 10 8 

Minnesota 660 135 8 329 190 1 -2 

Mississippi -3 -- -- -2 -- -- -1 

Missouri 383 -- 1 277 91 13 -- 

Montana 3 -- -- -- 2 -- -- 

Nebraska 110 2 24 40 15 29 -- 
15-68 

TABLE 15-20--TOTAL MEDICAID PAYMENTS FOR MCO AND PHP 

RECIPIENTS BY BASIS OF ELIGIBILITY, 

FISCAL YEAR 2000-continued

State Total Aged Blind and 

Disabled Children Adults Foster 

Care Unknown 

Nevada 72 -- -- 33 32 -- 7 

New Hampshire 4 -- -- 4 1 -- -- 

New Jersey 648 8 49 422 168 1 -- 

New Mexico 526 2 173 243 84 18 5 

New York 1,469 142 263 558 492 3 11 

North Carolina 55 -- 17 23 14 1 -- 

North Dakota 1 -- -- 1 -- -- -- 

Ohio 385 -- 4 248 132 -- -- 

Oklahoma 221 1 63 130 26 -- -- 

Oregon 763 74 212 164 288 24 1 

Pennsylvania 2,523 253 1,144 734 349 42 1 

Rhode Island 140 -- 1 64 74 -- -- 

South Carolina 28 9 5 11 2 -- -- 

South Dakota 6 1 1 4 1 -- -- 

Tennessee 2,948 105 1,106 733 974 20 9 

Texas 634 68 188 297 81 1 -- 

Utah 131 5 52 39 16 2 16 

Vermont 25 -- -- 11 13 1 -- 

Virginia 322 5 139 124 54 -- -- 

Washington 658 2 1 387 261 -- 7 

West Virginia -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Wisconsin 358 11 59 190 91 7 -- 

Wyoming -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

Total 24,413 1,721 6,878 9,459 5,777 323 255 

% of Total 100 7 28 39 24 1 1 

Notes - Does not include individuals receiving only primary care case management services 

(PCCM). Dashes denote no managed care program, except in some cases States reported 

capitation payments as part of other services and did not report these payments in the MCO or 

PHP categories. This was most likely to occur when there was only one service provided under 

that managed care program (e.g., transportation). Alternate data sources from the Centers for 

Medicare and Medicaid Services website (cms.hhs.gov/medicaid/managedcare/mmcns600.asp) 

show that Alabama, Arkansas, and West Virginia had capitated MCO or PHP programs during 

FY2000. 

Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) tabulation of data from the Medicaid Statistical 

Information System (MSIS) for FY2000 for all States except Hawaii. Hawaii did not report 

MSIS data for FY2000. CRS approximated FY2000 data for Hawaii using data reported for 

FY1999. 

 Since the establishment of the Medicaid program in 1965, long-term care 

services (i.e. nursing home and home care) have been delivered largely through the 

fee-for-service delivery system. A 1981 amendment to the Medicaid statute 

established Section 1915(c) waivers, giving States the option of providing home 

and community-based services to individuals who otherwise would be eligible for 

institutional care. Many States arrange for these services to be delivered on a feefor-service basis, often using case managers to determine service needs and 

authorize delivery. Concerns about uncoordinated long-term and acute care, 

inefficiencies in disease management for persons with multiple chronic conditions, 
15-69 

and growing costs, however, have encouraged Federal and some State governments 

to develop alternative systems to pay for and deliver long-term care services. 

 In recent years, many of the alternative delivery systems that States and the 

Federal government have developed coordinate long-term care services for dual 

eligibles–persons who are eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare–through 

managed care programs. One example is the Program for All-Inclusive Care for the 

Elderly (PACE), originally modeled after the On Lok Senior Health Services pilot 

project in San Francisco. PACE makes available all services covered under both 

programs without amount, duration or scope limitations, and without application of 

any deductibles, copayments or other cost sharing. Under the program, certain lowincome individuals age 55 and older, who would otherwise require nursing home 

care, receive all health, medical, and social services they need. An interdisciplinary 

team of physicians, nurses, physical therapists, social workers, and other 

professionals develop and monitor care plans for enrollees. Monthly capitated 

payments are made to providers from both the Medicare and Medicaid programs. 

As specified in Medicare and Medicaid statutes, the amount of these payments from 

both programs must be less than what would have otherwise been paid for a 

comparable frail population not enrolled in the PACE program. Payments are also 

adjusted to account for the comparative frailty of PACE enrollees. PACE providers 

assume the risk for expenditures that exceed the revenue from the capitation 

payments. The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 made PACE a permanent benefit 

category under Medicare and a State plan optional benefit under Medicaid. As of 

February 2003, there were 28 PACE sites across the country. 

 Other examples of State initiatives to provide coordinated long-term care 

services include the Minnesota Senior Health Options (MSHO), the Wisconsin 

Partnership Program, and the Continuing Care Network (CCN) demonstration of 

Monroe County, New York. The MSHO program combines Medicare and 

Medicaid financing to integrate acute and long-term care services for dually eligible 

seniors residing in seven counties in Minnesota. The program consolidates all 

Medicare and Medicaid managed care requirements into a single contract overseen 

by the State, allowing MSHO to reduce duplication and resolve important 

differences across Medicare and Medicaid delivery systems. Like PACE, the 

Wisconsin Partnership Program pays capitated payments to providers to coordinate 

acute and long-term care services for persons who would otherwise qualify for 

nursing home care. It also places a strong emphasis on services provided in home 

and community settings. This program, however, was designed specifically to serve 

rural areas. New York’s CCN project enrolls at least 10,000 elderly beneficiaries, 

including 1,500 who had been certified for care in a nursing facility. To participate, 

enrollees must be age 65 or over, eligible for Medicare and/or Medicaid, and reside 

in the program’s service area. Capitation payments made to CCN are intended to 

cover all of Medicare’s acute care services for this population and most of 

Medicaid’s long-term care services. Medicaid prescription drug coverage, for 

example, is paid separately on a fee-for-service basis. 

 States have also experimented with other initiatives that capitate payments for 

acute and long-term care services under the Medicaid program only. Examples of 
15-70 

these demonstrations include the nation’s only statewide mandatory Medicaid 

managed care program–the Arizona Long-Term Care System (ALTCS)–and small, 

voluntary programs such as Florida’s Community-Based Diversion Pilot Project. 

Florida’s Diversion program serves selected metropolitan areas and counties. Case 

managers employed through both of these programs arrange Medicaid long-term 

care services and coordinate with Medicare providers to deliver acute care services. 

 All of these programs were designed with the expectation that they would 

control costs and reduce administrative complexity. They also intend to delay 

institutionalization, and thus incur savings for Medicaid through the provision of 

expanded home and community-based care options and, in some cases, greater 

beneficiary control over services. Those programs that also capitate Medicare are 

intended to reduce hospitalization and skilled nursing facility expenditures as well 

as other acute care costs associated with institutional care. While these initiatives 

exist in a number of States, they account for a relatively small share of total 

Medicaid spending for long-term care. 

MEDICAID WAIVER PROGRAMS 

 Under current law, States have the flexibility to waive certain Medicaid 

program requirements to provide services to individuals not traditionally eligible 

for Medicaid, limit benefit packages for certain groups, and provide home and 

community-based services to people with long-term care needs, among other 

purposes. States must submit proposals outlining terms and conditions for 

proposed waivers to CMS for approval before implementing these programs. The 

two primary provisions of the Social Security Act used today that authorize States 

to implement waiver programs are Section 1115 and Section 1915(c). 

 In recent years, there has been increased interest among States in 

demonstration programs as a means to restructure Medicaid coverage, control costs, 

and increase flexibility. Whether large or small reforms, the waiver programs have 

resulted in significant changes for Medicaid beneficiaries nationwide. 

Section 1115 Waiver Demonstration Programs 

 Section 1115 of the Social Security Act provides the Secretary of Health and 

Human Services (HHS) with broad authority to waive certain statutory 

requirements in the Medicaid program allowing States to conduct research and 

demonstration programs to further the goals of Title XIX.34 Under Section 1115, 

the Secretary may waive Medicaid requirements contained in Section 1902, known 

as freedom of choice of provider, comparability, and statewideness (see “Benefits” 

subsection for a discussion of these requirements). 

 States often use Section 1115 waivers to offer different service packages or a 

combination of services in different parts of the State, test new reimbursement 

methods, change eligibility criteria in order to offer coverage to new or expanded 

 

34 Section 1115 also authorizes the Secretary to conduct research and demonstration projects under 

several other programs authorized in the Social Security Act, including TANF, SSI, and SCHIP. 
15-71 

groups, cover non-Medicaid services (e.g., cash and counseling demonstrations35), 

or contract with a greater variety of managed care plans. Demonstration 

programs generally are approved for a five-year period, however CMS has granted 

program extensions for many of the comprehensive waiver programs (i.e., 

programs that generally offer a statewide comprehensive service package to 

populations traditionally eligible for Medicaid as well as expansion populations). 

Some of these extensions have allowed Section 1115 waiver programs to remain in 

operation for 10 or more years. For example, Arizona’s entire Medicaid program 

operates under Section 1115 waiver authority, and this program is in its 20th year. 

 While Section 1115 is explicit about provisions in Medicaid law that may be 

waived in conducting research and demonstration projects, a number of other 

provisions in Medicaid law and regulations specify limitations or restrictions on 

how a State may operate a waiver program. For example, one provision restricts 

States from establishing waivers that fail to provide all mandatory services to the 

mandatory poverty-related groups of pregnant women and children; another 

provision specifies restrictions on cost-sharing imposed under demonstration 

waivers. 

 Financing -- Approved Section 1115 waivers are deemed to be part of a 

Medicaid State plan and are financed through Federal and State matching funds at 

the regular FMAP rate. However, unlike regular Medicaid, costs associated with 

waiver programs must be budget neutral to the Federal government over the life of 

the waiver program. To meet the budget neutrality test, estimated spending under 

the waiver cannot exceed the estimated cost of the State’s existing Medicaid 

program. For example, costs associated with an expanded population (e.g., those 

not already covered under the State’ Medicaid program), must be offset by 

reductions elsewhere within the Medicaid program. Several methods used by 

States to generate cost savings for the waiver component include: (1) moving part 

of the Medicaid population into managed care; (2) limiting benefit packages for 

certain eligibility groups; (3) providing targeted services to certain individuals so as 

to divert them from full Medicaid coverage; and (4) using enrollment caps and costsharing to reduce the amounts States must pay. 

 Program Types -- CMS classifies Section 1115 waiver programs into five 

distinct categories: 

 Comprehensive demonstrations--These demonstrations provide a broad 

range of services that generally are offered statewide to populations 

 

35 Cash and counseling demonstrations are designed to test a consumer-directed approach to the 

financing and delivery of personal attendant services (e.g., assistance with activities of daily living 

such as eating, bathing, toileting, transport from bed to chair, etc.) for elderly and disabled 

individuals. These demonstrations provide cash payments to enrollees so that they may directly 

arrange and purchase services that best meet their needs. States must submit a Section 1115 waiver 

for a Cash and Counseling demonstration if: cash is provided directly to an individual; cash is used 

to pay a legally responsible relative (e.g., spouses or parents); the State intends to change Medicaid 

eligibility requirements; and/or the State intends to waive the requirement to pay only those agencies 

that have provider agreements with the State. 
15-72 

traditionally eligible for Medicaid as well as expansion populations. In 

fiscal year 2002, there were 20 approved Medicaid comprehensive State 

reform waivers,36 with two pending implementation. Fiscal year 2002 

State-reported enrollment estimates for the comprehensive demonstration 

waivers totaled approximately 7.2 million,37 and Federal expenditures 

for these programs were approximately $15.8 billion.38

 Family planning demonstrations--These demonstrations provide family 

planning services for certain individuals of childbearing age in 16 States.39

For the family planning demonstrations, fiscal year 2002 enrollment 

counts totaled 1.8 million, and Federal expenditures were approximately 

$327 million.40 

 Specialty services and population demonstration--These demonstrations 

generally include programs that provide cash to enrollees so that they may 

directly arrange and purchase services that best meet their needs. In 

addition, they also include waivers to provide pharmacy benefits to 

persons with specific conditions, such as HIV/AIDS. In fiscal year 2002, 

there were 10 such programs in 8 States.41 These demonstrations covered 

just under 7,000 individuals at a Federal cost of approximately 

$41.6 million.42

 The Health Insurance Accountability and Flexibility Initiative (HIFA)-

These demonstrations are designed to encourage States to extend 

Medicaid and SCHIP to the uninsured, with a particular emphasis on 

statewide approaches that maximize private health insurance coverage 

options and target populations with incomes below 200 percent of FPL. 

As of January 2003, there were six Medicaid Section 1115 waivers 

approved under the HIFA initiative in 5 States.43 Four of the six HIFA 

 

36 States with comprehensive demonstration waivers include Arizona, Arkansas, California (Los 

Angeles county), Delaware, District of Columbia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, 

Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, 

Vermont, and Wisconsin. 

37The fiscal year 2002 State-reported enrollment estimate for California (Los Angeles county) is not 

available. Several States cover SCHIP Medicaid expansion children in their Medicaid Section 

1115 waiver programs. Because expenditures associated with these children are not captured in the 

Medicaid 1115 expenditure data, where possible, counts of SCHIP children have been removed from 

the State-reported enrollment totals. 

38The fiscal year 2002 State-reported expenditure estimate for Utah is not available. New York’s 

fiscal year 2002 State-reported estimate was based on historical spending. 

39 States with family planning demonstration waivers include Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, 

California, Delaware, Florida, Maryland, Missouri, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, 

South Carolina, and Washington. 

40 Arizona, Delaware, Missouri, New York, and Rhode Island report their family planning 

demonstration expenditures as a part of their comprehensive demonstration waivers. Fiscal year 

2002 State-reported expenditures for Maryland were not available. 

41 States with specialty service and population demonstration waivers include Arkansas (2 waivers), 

Colorado (2 waivers), District of Columbia, Florida, Maine, New Jersey, New Hampshire, and 

Oregon. 

42 Fiscal year 2002 State-reported enrollment and expenditure data were not available for Arkansas 

and New Hampshire. 

43 States with approved Medicaid or Medicaid/SCHIP combined waivers include Illinois, Maine, 
15-73 

programs (Illinois, New Jersey, New Mexico, and Oregon) are 

Medicaid/SCHIP combined waivers. A combined HIFA waiver generally 

means that the State will finance changes to its Medicaid program using 

unspent SCHIP funds. No enrollment or expenditure data were available 

for fiscal year 2002 as these programs were new at that time. 

 Pharmacy plus demonstrations--These demonstrations provide 

comprehensive pharmacy benefits for low-income seniors and individuals 

with disabilities with income at or below 200 percent of FPL. The 

demonstrations may provide pharmaceutical products, assist individuals 

who have private pharmacy coverage with high premiums and cost 

sharing, or provide wraparound pharmaceutical coverage to bring private 

sources of pharmacy coverage up to the level of desired demonstration 

benefit coverage. Enrollees are not eligible for the comprehensive 

Medicaid benefits available under the State’s Medicaid plan. In fiscal 

year 2002, there were four approved Pharmacy Plus waivers in four 

States.44 Two States reported waiver data in fiscal year 2002. In these 

States, enrollment counts totaled 193,574 at a Federal cost of 

approximately $169 million. 

Section 1915(c) Home and Community-Based Waiver Programs 

 In 1981, Congress added Section 1915(c) to the Medicaid statute. Section 

1915(c) authorizes the Secretary of HHS to waive certain requirements45 of 

Medicaid law allowing States to cover a range of home and community-based 

services for persons who otherwise would be eligible for Medicaid-funded 

institutional care. The 1915(c) waivers, often referred to as home and communitybased services (HCBS) waivers, were designed to reduce the institutional bias in 

the Medicaid program that favors institutional care over care in the home or in the 

community. 

 The waivers allow States to cover a broad range of medical and non-medical 

social services to enable people with chronic long-term care needs to remain in the 

community. Unlike the budget neutrality test required for Section 1115 waivers 

(under which estimated spending under the waiver cannot exceed the estimated 

costs of the State’s existing Medicaid program), the cost-effectiveness test under 

1915(c) prohibits expenditures from exceeding the cost of institutional care that 

would have been provided to waiver recipients absent the waiver.46 To assist States 

in containing costs, Section 1915(c) allows States to place caps on the total number 

of individuals that may be covered under each waiver and/or set expenditure 

restrictions on a per capita basis (e.g., not to exceed $20,000 per year per waiver 

 New Jersey, New Mexico (2 waivers), and Oregon. HIFA waivers authorized solely under the 

SCHIP program are not included.

44 States with approved Pharmacy Plus waivers include Florida, Illinois, Wisconsin, and South 

Carolina. 

45 States can waive statewideness and comparability, and may apply certain institutional eligibility 

rules to persons in home and community-based waivers. 

46 Section 1915(c) waivers are prohibited from covering expenses for room and board, while such 

costs would be covered by Medicaid in an institutional setting.
15-74 

recipient) or on an aggregate basis (e.g., a cost cap applied to all persons under a 

waiver in the State). 

 Medicaid regulations require that waiver participants fall into one of the 

following target groups: the aged, persons with physical disabilities, persons with 

mental retardation or developmental disabilities (MR/DD), and persons with mental 

illness. Generally, States must apply for separate waivers to serve these different 

groups. Section 1915(c) also gives States the flexibility to define the categories of 

individuals within these broader target groups who may be eligible for certain 

waivers and the services they will receive. For example, States may cover only the 

elderly for case management services, or only individuals with physical disabilities 

for personal attendant care. States also may limit eligibility for services to 

individuals who have certain conditions, such as HIV/AIDS. 

 Further, eligibility is limited to individuals who otherwise would be eligible 

for institutional care provided in a hospital, nursing facility or intermediate care 

facility for the mentally retarded (ICF/MR). There are no Federal requirements that 

describe the level and/or severity of functional limitations that individuals must 

have to be admitted to an institutional setting and thus would be eligible for a 

1915(c) waiver, although States generally determine eligibility for long-term care 

services based on a test of applicants’ functional limitations for most waiver 

programs. The design of these tests varies across States, but often includes tests to 

determine an applicant’s limitations in ability to carry out activities of daily living 

(ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs).47 

 Although these programs are optional, all States provide some HCBS waiver 

services to certain Medicaid enrollees with long-term care needs. As of June 2003, 

CMS reported that 246 programs were in operation across the country. In 1999, the 

most recent year for which data are available, 1915(c) waivers served 707,132 

individuals. CMS estimates that about 875,000 people were served in 2000.48 The 

most recent expenditure data from fiscal year 2002 showed that total Medicaid 

spending on 1915(c) waivers reached $16.3 billion versus $11.2 billion in 1999. 

 The cost of providing waiver services to recipients varies across target 

populations (Chart 15-4). Spending on waivers for persons with MR/DD, for 

example, totaled $12 billion in fiscal year 2002, accounting for 

73.6 percent of total HCBS waiver spending. Waiver spending on elderly 

individuals and persons with physical disabilities totaled $4 billion in fiscal year 

2002, accounting for 24.5 percent of total spending on HCBS waivers. Waivers for 

AIDS or AIDS-related conditions (ARC) totaled $66.2 million (0.4 percent), for 

technology dependent individuals totaled $88.8 million (0.5 percent), and for 

persons with brain injuries $104.7 million (0.6 percent). In addition, three small 

waiver programs serving individuals with a primary diagnosis of mental illness 

 

47 ADLs refer to activities necessary to carry out basic human functions, and include the following: 

bathing, dressing, eating, mobility inside the home, toileting, and transferring from a bed to a chair. 

IADLs refer to tasks necessary for independent community living, and include the following: 

shopping, light housework, telephoning, money management, and meal preparation. 

48 States are required to report enrollment data for 1915(c) waivers to CMS through the submission 

of Forms 372. The most recent year for which all States have submitted these forms is 1999. 
15-75 

totaled $32.4 million and accounted for about 0.2 percent of all HCBS waiver 

expenditures. 

CHART 15-4--MEDICAID HCBS WAIVER EXPENDITURES BY TARGET 

POPULATION, 2002 

Notes – “Technology Dependent” are persons who are technology dependent or medically fragile. 

“MR/DD” are persons with mental retardation and/or developmental disabilities. Data are provided 

to CMS through Form 64 reports by States. Eiken and Burwell report that FY 2002 waiver 

expenditures may be understated by about $400 million (2-3 percent) since they do not include all 

prior period adjustments or corrections submitted by States to CMS. CMS Form 64 data are by date 

of payment, not by date of service. CMS 64 data on HCBS waiver spending represent only Medicaid 

fee-for-service spending, not spending through capitated managed care programs. Arizona, Florida, 

Wisconsin, Texas, and Minnesota are examples of States that pay for at least some HCBS waiver 

services through capitated long-term care programs. Totals may not sum to 100 due to rounding. 

Source: Eiken, S. and Burwell, B. Medicaid HCBS Waiver Expenditures, FY 1997 through FY 

2002, The MEDSTAT Group, May 15, 2003. 

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY 

 Below is a summary of major Medicaid changes enacted in public laws 

passed during 1996 forward. (For legislative history prior to 1996, see previous 

editions of the Green Book.) 

Contract with America Advancement Act of 1996, Public Law 104-121: 

Alcoholics and drug addicts--SSI benefits are terminated for individuals 

receiving disability cash assistance based on a finding of alcoholism and drug 

addiction. Persons who lose SSI eligibility still may be eligible for Medicaid if they 

meet other Medicaid eligibility criteria. States are required to perform a 

Elderly with 

Disabilities

24.5%

Persons with 

Brain Injury

0.6%

Technology 

Dependent

0.5%

Persons with 

AIDS

0.4%

MR/DD

73.6%
15-76 

redetermination of Medicaid eligibility in any case in which an individual loses 

SSI. 

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996, Public Law 104-193: 

Eligibility--A new cash welfare block grant to States, Temporary Assistance 

for Needy Families (TANF), is established. The automatic link between AFDC and 

Medicaid is severed. Families who meet AFDC eligibility criteria as of 

July 16, 1996 are eligible for Medicaid, even if they do not qualify for TANF. 

States must use the same income and resource standards and other rules previously 

used to determine eligibility, including the pre-reform AFDC family composition 

requirement. A State may lower its income standard, but not below the standard it 

applied on May 1, 1988. A State may increase its income and resource standards up 

to the percentage increase in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) subsequent to July 16, 

1996. States may use less restrictive methods for counting income and resources

than were required by law as in effect on July 16, 1996. States are permitted to deny 

Medicaid benefits to adults and heads of households who lose TANF benefits 

because of refusal to work; States may not apply this requirement to poverty-related 

pregnant women and children. 

 Disabled children--The definition of disability used to establish the eligibility 

of children for SSI is narrowed. Children who lose SSI eligibility still may be 

eligible for Medicaid if they meet other Medicaid eligibility criteria. States are 

required to perform a redetermination of Medicaid eligibility in any case in which 

an individual loses SSI and that determination affects his or her Medicaid 

eligibility. 

 Aliens--Legal resident aliens and other qualified aliens who entered the 

United States on or after August 22, 1996 are barred from Medicaid for 5 years. 

Significant exceptions are made for such aliens with a substantial U.S. work history 

or a military connection. Except for emergency services, Medicaid coverage for 

such aliens entering before August 22, 1996 and coverage after the 5-year ban are 

State options. 

 Administration--A State may use the same application form for Medicaid as 

they use for TANF. A State may choose to administer the Medicaid Program 

through the same agency that administers TANF or through a separate Medicaid 

agency. A special fund of $500 million is provided for enhanced Federal matching 

for States’ expenditures attributable to the administrative costs of Medicaid 

eligibility determinations due to the law. 

Balanced Budget Act of 1997, Public Law 105-33: 

Eligibility--The Balanced Budget Act restores Medicaid eligibility and SSI 

coverage for legal immigrants who entered the country prior to August 22, 1996 

and later become disabled; guarantees continued Medicaid eligibility for children 

with disabilities who are expected to lose their SSI eligibility as the result of 

restrictions enacted in 1996; and extends the period that States must provide 

coverage to refugees, asylees, and individuals whose deportation has been withheld 

from 5 to 7 years. States are permitted to provide continuous Medicaid coverage 
15-77 

for 12 months to all children, regardless of whether they continue to meet income 

eligibility tests. States are permitted to create a new Medicaid eligibility category 

for working persons with disabilities with income up to 250 percent of poverty and 

who would, but for income, be eligible for SSI. Such individuals can “buy into” 

Medicaid by paying a sliding scale premium based on the individual’s income as 

determined by the State. 

Payment methodology--The law repeals the Boren amendment, which 

directed that payment rates to institutional providers be “reasonable and adequate” 

to cover the cost of “efficiently and economically operated” facilities, and repeals 

the law requiring States to assure adequate payment levels for services provided by 

obstetricians and pediatricians. The requirement to pay Federally qualified health 

centers and rural health clinics 100 percent of reasonable costs is phased out over 6 

fiscal years, with special payment rules in place during fiscal years 1998-2002 to 

ease the transition. 

Payments for disproportionate share hospitals--This law includes several 

provisions affecting disproportionate share hospital (DSH) payments provided to 

hospitals that treat a disproportionate share of the uninsured and Medicaid 

beneficiaries. It reduces State DSH allotments by imposing freezes and making 

graduated proportionate reductions. Limitations are placed on payments to 

institutions for mental disease. The Act establishes additional caps on the State 

DSH allotments for fiscal years beginning in 1998 and specifies those caps for 

1998-2002. States are required to report annually on the method used to target 

DSH funds and to describe the payments made to each hospital. 

Managed care--The law eliminates the need for 1915(b) waivers to enroll 

most Medicaid populations in managed care. States can require the majority of 

Medicaid recipients to enroll in managed care simply by amending their State plan. 

Waivers still are required to mandate that children with special health care needs 

and certain dually eligible Medicaid-Medicare beneficiaries enroll with managed 

care entities. The law establishes a statutory definition of primary care case 

management (PCCM), adds it as a covered service, and sets contractual 

requirements for both PCCM and Medicaid managed care organizations. The Act 

also includes managed care provisions that establish standards for quality and 

solvency, and provide protections for beneficiaries. The law repeals the provision 

that requires managed care organizations to have no more than 75 percent of their 

enrollment be Medicaid and Medicare beneficiaries, and the prohibition on cost 

sharing for services furnished by health maintenance organizations. 

Nursing Home Resident Protection Amendments of 1999, Public Law 106-004: 

 Transfer or discharge of nursing facility residents--This law prohibits the 

transfer or discharge of nursing facility residents, both those covered and not 

covered by Medicaid, as a sole result of a nursing home’s voluntary withdrawal 

from participation in the Medicaid program, except under certain circumstances. 

 Information for new residents-- For new residents, meaning those entering a 

facility subsequent to the effective date of the facility’s withdrawal from Medicaid, 

the following information must be provided orally and in writing: (a) notice that the 
15-78 

facility does not participate in Medicaid; and (b) the facility may transfer or 

discharge such a new resident when that resident is no longer able to pay for his/her 

care, even if such a new resident is covered by Medicaid. 

 Facility requirements--Facilities that voluntarily withdraw from Medicaid are 

still subject to all applicable requirements of Title XIX, including the nursing 

facility survey, certification and enforcement authority, as long as patients covered 

under Medicaid prior to the facility’s withdrawal continue to reside in the facility. 

1999 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, Public Law 106-31: 

Tobacco settlement payments to States--Amounts recovered or paid to States 

by manufacturers of tobacco products as part of the comprehensive tobacco 

settlement of November 1998 or to any individual State based on a separate 

settlement or litigation shall be retained in full by such States. That is, such States 

do not have to pay the Federal government a portion of these amounts equal to the 

applicable (State-specific) Federal medical assistance percentage. 

Restriction on use of tobacco settlement funds--States receiving these sums 

are not permitted to use these funds to pay for administrative expenses incurred in 

pursuing such tobacco litigation. 

Medicare, Medicaid, and State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) 

Balanced Budget Refinement Act of 1999, incorporated by reference in the 

Consolidated Appropriations Act for Fiscal Year 2000, Public Law 106-113: 

Increase in DSH allotments for selected States--The law increases the Federal 

share of DSH payments to Minnesota, New Mexico, Wyoming, and the District of 

Columbia for each of fiscal years 2000-2002. 

Administration--The law extends beyond fiscal year 2000 the availability of a 

$500 million fund created to assist with the transitional costs of new Medicaid 

eligibility activities resulting from welfare reform, and allows these funds to be 

used for costs incurred beyond the first 3 years following welfare reform. 

Federally qualified health center (FQHC) services and rural health clinics 

(RHCs)--The law slows the phase-out of the cost-based system of reimbursement 

for services provided by FQHCs and RHCs, and authorizes a study of the impact of 

reducing or modifying payments to such providers. 

Payments for monitoring services and external review requirements--The law 

provides that States will receive enhanced matching payments for medical and 

utilization reviews for Medicaid fee-for-service, and quality reviews for Medicaid 

managed care, when conducted by certain entities similar to peer review 

organizations. It also eliminates duplicative requirements for external review, and 

requires the HHS Secretary to certify to Congress that the external review 

requirements for Medicaid managed care are fully implemented. 

Federal matching for disproportionate share hospital payments--The law 

clarifies that Medicaid disproportionate share hospital payments are matched at the 

Medicaid Federal medical assistance percentage and not at the enhanced Federal 

medical assistance percentage authorized under title XXI (SCHIP). 
15-79 

Outpatient drugs--The law allows rebate agreements entered into after the 

date of enactment of this Act to become effective on the date on which the 

agreement is entered into, or at State option, any date before or after the date on 

which the agreement is entered into. 

Disproportionate share hospital transition rule--The law extends a provision 

included in the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 related to allocation of DSH funds 

among California’s hospitals. 

Foster Care Independence Act of 1999, Public Law 106-169: 

 Former foster care children--States are given the option to extend Medicaid 

coverage to former foster care recipients ages 18, 19, and 20, and States may limit 

coverage to those who were eligible for assistance under Title IV-E before turning 

18 years of age. The law also includes a “sense of Congress” statement indicating 

that States should provide health insurance coverage to all former foster care 

recipients ages 18, 19, and 20. 

Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999, Public Law 106-

170: 

Employed, disabled individuals--States can opt to cover working persons with 

disabilities at higher income and resource levels than otherwise permitted (i.e., 

income over 250 percent of the Federal poverty level and resources over $2,000 for 

an individual or $3,000 for a couple). States also may cover financially eligible 

working individuals whose medical condition has improved such that they no 

longer meet the Social Security definition of disability. States can require these 

individuals to “buy in” to Medicaid coverage. These individuals pay premiums or 

other cost-sharing charges on a sliding fee scale based on income, as established by 

the State. 

Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000, Public Law 106-224: 

Information sharing--This law allows schools operating Federally subsidized 

school meal programs to take a more active role in identifying children eligible for, 

and enrolling such children in, the Medicaid and SCHIP programs. It permits 

schools to share income and other relevant information collected when determining 

eligibility for free and reduced-price school meals with State Medicaid and SCHIP 

agencies, as long as there is a written agreement that limits use of the information 

and parents are notified and given a chance to “opt out.” 

Demonstration project--The law also establishes a demonstration project in 

one State in which administrative funds under the Special Supplemental Nutrition 

Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) may be used to help identify 

children eligible for, and enroll such children in, the Medicaid and SCHIP 

programs. 

Children’s Health Act of 2000, Public Law 106-310: 

Rights of institutionalized children--The law requires that general hospitals, 

nursing facilities, intermediate care facilities and other health care facilities 
15-80 

receiving Federal funds, including Medicaid, protect the rights of each resident, 

including the right to be free from physical or mental abuse, corporal punishment, 

and any restraints or involuntary seclusions imposed for the purposes of discipline 

or convenience. Restraints and seclusion may be imposed in such facilities only to 

ensure the physical safety of the resident, a staff member, or others. Additional 

requirements govern reporting of resident deaths, promulgation of regulations 

regarding staff training, and enforcement. (Other Medicaid requirements regarding 

restraints and seclusion for inpatient psychiatric services for persons under age 21 

are specified in Federal regulations.) 

 Children’s rights in community-based settings--The law also includes 

requirements for protecting the rights of residents of certain non-medical, 

community-based facilities for children and adolescents, when that facility receives 

funding under this Act or under Medicaid. For such individuals and facilities, 

restraints and seclusion may be imposed only in emergency circumstances and only 

to ensure the physical safety of the resident, a staff member or others, and less 

restrictive interventions have been determined to be ineffective. Use of a drug or 

medication that is not a standard treatment for a resident’s medical or psychiatric 

condition is prohibited. Likewise, use of mechanical restraints is prohibited. 

Seclusion may be used only when a staff member is providing continuous face-toface monitoring and when strong licensing/accreditation and internal controls are in 

place. (Time out is not considered to be seclusion.) Additional requirements 

govern reporting of resident deaths, promulgation of regulations regarding staff 

training, and enforcement. 

Breast and Cervical Cancer Prevention and Treatment (BCCPT) Act of 2000, 

Public Law 106-354: 

 Eligibility--The law establishes a new optional coverage group under 

Medicaid for uninsured women who are under age 65, have been screened under 

the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Breast and Cervical Cancer Early 

Detection Program and need treatment for breast or cervical cancer, and who are 

not otherwise eligible for Medicaid under a mandatory coverage group. States have 

the option of extending presumptive eligibility to these women; presumptive 

eligibility allows individuals whose family income appears to meet applicable 

financial standards to enroll temporarily in Medicaid, until a final formal 

determination of eligibility is made. Medicaid providers are the only entities 

qualified to determine presumptive eligibility for these women. 

 Benefits--Medical coverage is limited to medical assistance provided during 

the period in which the individual requires breast or cervical cancer treatment. 

Financing--The Federal share of Medicaid payments for this group uses the 

enhanced matching rate structure under the State Children’s Health Insurance 

Program, which ranges from 65 to 85 percent. 
15-81 

Medicare, Medicaid, and SCHIP Benefits Improvement and Protection Act of 

2000, incorporated by reference in Public Law 106-554: 

Disproportionate share hospitals – State disproportionate share hospitals 

(DSH) allotments for 2001 and 2002 are increased. It also extends a special DSH 

payment rule for hospitals in California to qualifying facilities in all States, and 

provides additional funds to certain public hospitals not receiving DSH payments. 

 Federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) and rural health clinics (RHCs)--

The law replaces cost-based reimbursement with a prospective payment system for 

FQHCs and RHCs. 

Upper payment limit rules--It also modifies proposed rules governing upper 

payment limits on inpatient and outpatient services provided by certain types of 

facilities, and requires that the final regulations be issued by the end of 2000. 

Other provisions--Additional changes affect extensions of Section 1115 

Medicaid waivers, Medicaid county-organized health systems, the Federal medical 

assistance percentage for Alaska, transitional medical assistance for welfare-towork families, determination of presumptive eligibility for children, outreach to 

and enrollment of certain Medicare beneficiaries eligible for Medicaid cost-sharing 

assistance, PACE waivers, and posting of information on nursing facility services. 

Native American Breast and Cervical Cancer Treatment Technical Amendment 

Act of 2001, Public Law 107-121: 

 Eligibility--This law allows States to include in the optional Medicaid 

eligibility category created by the Breast and Cervical Cancer Prevention and 

Treatment (BCCPT) Act of 2000, American Indian and Alaskan Native women 

with breast or cervical cancer who are eligible for health services provided under a 

medical program of the Indian Health Service or a tribal organization. All 

provisions under the BCCPT Act of 2000 apply to such women. 

Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, 

Public Law 107-188: 

 Waiver of provider requirements and Medicare+Choice payment limits--The 

law authorizes the Secretary to temporarily waive conditions of participation and 

other certification requirements for any entity that furnishes health care items or 

services to Medicare, Medicaid, or SCHIP beneficiaries in an emergency area 

during a declared disaster or public health emergency. During such an emergency, 

the Secretary may waive: (a) participation, State licensing (as long as an 

equivalent license from another State is held and there is no exclusion from 

practicing in that State or any State in the emergency area), and pre-approval 

requirements for physicians and other practitioners; (b) sanctions for failing to 

meet requirements for emergency transfers between hospitals; (c) sanctions for 

physician self-referral; and (d) limitations on payments for health care and services 

furnished to individuals enrolled in Medicare+Choice (M+C) plans when services 

are provided outside the plan. To the extent possible, the Secretary must ensure 

that M+C enrollees do not pay more than would have been required had they 

received care within their plan network. 
15-82 

 Notification to Congress--The law also requires the Secretary to provide 

Congress with certification and written notice at least 2 days prior to exercising 

this waiver authority. It also provides for this waiver authority to continue for 60 

days, and permits the Secretary to extend the waiver period. 

 Evaluation--The Secretary is further required, within 1 year after the end of 

the emergency, to provide Congress with an evaluation of this approach and 

recommendations for improvements under this waiver authority. 

Health Care Safety Net Amendments of 2002, Public Law 107-251: 

 Study of migrant farm workers--This law requires the Secretary to conduct a 

study of the problems experienced by farm workers and their families under 

Medicaid and SCHIP, specifically barriers to enrollment, and lack of portability of 

Medicaid and SCHIP coverage for farm workers eligible in one State who move to 

other States on a periodic basis. The Secretary also must identify possible 

strategies to increase enrollment and access to benefits for these families. 

Strategies to be examined must include: (a) use of interstate compacts to establish 

portability and reciprocity, (b) multi-State demonstration projects, (c) use of 

current law flexibility for coverage of residents and out-of-State coverage, (d) 

development of programs of national migrant family coverage, (e) use of 

incentives to private coverage alternatives, and (f) other solutions as deemed 

appropriate. In conducting the study, the Secretary must consult with several 

groups. The Secretary must submit a report on this study to the President and 

Congress in October 2003. This report shall address findings and conclusions and 

provide recommendations for appropriate legislative and administrative action. 

Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003, Public Law 108-27: 

 Temporary increase in the Federal medical assistance percentage (FMAP)--

With respect to certain expenditures for Medicaid benefits, this law increases 

FMAP for all 50 States, the District of Columbia and 5 commonwealths and 

territories for a period of 5 calendar quarters, including the last 2 quarters of fiscal 

year 2003 and the first 3 quarters of fiscal year 2004. There is a two-step process 

for determining the increase. First, each State’s fiscal year 2003 FMAP, as would 

otherwise be calculated, must be at least equal to the State’s fiscal year 2002 

FMAP, and second, the FMAP determined under this step is increased by 

2.95 percentage points. For the fiscal year 2004 FMAP change, the same 

calculations (substituting fiscal year 2003 for fiscal year 2002) are applied to 

determine the temporary increase. The law also increases the limitation on 

payments for the commonwealths and territories. 

 State eligibility for increased FMAP-- To qualify for the increased FMAP 

payments, a State cannot have a Medicaid plan with more restrictive eligibility 

rules than the plan in effect on September 2, 2003. If a State restores the program 

eligibility to the levels in effect on September 2, 2003, then the State would qualify 

for increased matching payments for the entire quarter in which eligibility is 

reinstated. If a State expands eligibility rules after the beginning of the higher 

payments (April 1, 2003) and before September 2, 2003, the State is not eligible 
15-83 

for the higher payments for the period beginning on April 1, 2003 to the date that 

eligibility was expanded. 

State Children’s Health Insurance Program Allotments Extension Act of 2003, 

Public Law 108-74: 

 State eligibility for increased FMAP—This law modifies the requirements 

regarding State eligibility for the temporary increase in FMAP payments 

authorized under Public Law 108-27 (see above). Specifically, P.L. 108-74 

provides that if a State reduces eligibility after September 2, 2003, and later 

restores eligibility to the September 2, 2003 levels, the State would qualify for the 

higher payments from the date of the eligibility restoration rather than for the 

entire calendar quarter. In addition, if a State expands eligibility rules after the 

beginning of the higher payments (April 1, 2003) and before September 2, 2003, 

the State is eligible for the higher payments for the period beginning on April 1, 

2003 to the date that eligibility was expanded. 

STATE CHILDREN’S HEALTH INSURANCE PROGRAM 

The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA 97; Public Law 105-33) established 

the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) under a new Title XXI of 

the Social Security Act. In general, the program offers Federal matching funds to 

States and territories to provide health insurance to certain low-income children. 

ELIGIBILITY 

Under SCHIP, States may cover children under 19 years of age in families 

with incomes that are above the State’s Medicaid eligibility standard but less than 

200 percent of the Federal poverty level (FPL).49 However, States in which the 

maximum Medicaid income level for children was at or above 200 percent FPL 

prior to the enactment of SCHIP may increase the SCHIP income level by an 

additional 50 percentage points above the prior level used under the State’s 

Medicaid program. 

Not all targeted low-income children necessarily will receive medical 

assistance under SCHIP for two reasons. First, unlike Medicaid, Federal law does 

not establish an individual entitlement50 to benefits under SCHIP. Instead, it 

entitles States with approved SCHIP plans to pre-determined Federal allotments 

based on a distribution formula set in the law. Second, each State can define the 

group of targeted low-income children who may enroll in SCHIP. Title XXI allows 

States to use the following factors in determining eligibility: geography (e.g., sub-

 

49 For example, in 2002, the poverty guideline in the 48 contiguous States and the District of Columbia 

was $18,100 for a family of four (Federal Register, v. 67, no. 31, February 14, 2002. p. 6931-6933.) 

In 2003, the comparable poverty guideline for a family of four is $18,400 (Federal Register, v. 68, 

no. 26, February 7, 2003, p. 6456-6458).

50 The one exception to this rule is when a State chooses to implement a Medicaid expansion under 

SCHIP. Children who qualify for SCHIP through a Medicaid expansion are entitled to Medicaid 

benefits as long as they continue to meet these specific eligibility criteria (even if SCHIP itself 

terminates) or until the State is granted approval to eliminate such coverage.
15-84 

State areas or statewide), age (e.g., subgroups under 19), income and resources, 

residency, disability status (so long as any standard relating to that 

status does not restrict eligibility), access to other health insurance, and duration of 

SCHIP enrollment. Title XXI funds cannot be used for children who would have 

been eligible for the State’s Medicaid plan under the eligibility standards that were 

in effect prior to March 31, 1997 or for children covered by a group health plan or 

other insurance. 

As of fiscal year 2002, the upper income eligibility limit under SCHIP had 

reached 350 percent FPL (in one State; see Table 15-21).51 Twenty-four States and 

the District of Columbia had established upper income limits at 

200 percent FPL. Another 13 States exceeded 200 percent FPL. The remaining 

13 States set maximum income levels below 200 percent FPL.52

BENEFITS 

 States may choose from three options when designing their SCHIP 

programs. They may expand their current Medicaid program, create a new 

“separate State” insurance program, or devise a combination of both approaches. 

Under limited circumstances, States have the option to purchase a health benefits 

plan that is provided by a community-based health delivery system or to purchase 

family coverage under a group health plan that may cover adults as long as it is 

cost-effective to do so. 

States that choose to expand Medicaid to new eligibles under SCHIP must 

provide the full range of mandatory Medicaid benefits, as well as all optional 

services specified in their State Medicaid plans. States that choose to create 

separate SCHIP programs may elect any of three benefit options: (1) a benchmark 

benefit package, (2) benchmark equivalent coverage, or (3) any other health 

benefits plan that the Secretary determines will provide appropriate coverage to the 

targeted population of uninsured children.53

A benchmark benefit package is one of the following three plans: (1) the 

standard Blue Cross/Blue Shield preferred provider option plan offered under the 

Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP), (2) the health coverage 

offered and generally available to State employees in the State involved, and (3) the 

health coverage offered by a health maintenance organization (HMO) with the 

largest commercial (non-Medicaid) enrollment in the State involved. 

 

51 For determining income eligibility for SCHIP and Medicaid, some States apply “income disregards.” 

These are specified dollar amounts subtracted from gross income to compute net income, which is then 

compared to the applicable income criterion. Such disregards may increase the effective income level 

above the stated standard.

52 States may apply resource or asset tests in determining financial eligibility, but are not required to do 

so. Individuals must have resources for which the dollar value is less than a specified standard amount 

in order to qualify for coverage. States determine what items constitute countable resources and the 

dollar value assigned to those countable resources. Assets may include, for example, cars, savings 

accounts, real estate, trust funds, and tax credits.

53 When the law establishing SCHIP was enacted, existing State programs in Florida, New York, and 

Pennsylvania were designated as meeting the minimum benefit requirements under this program.
15-85 

TABLE 15-21--PRELIMINARY SCHIP ENROLLMENT DATA FOR 

THE 50 STATES AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA FOR 

FISCAL YEAR 2002 

FFY2002 enrollment 

(number of children ever 

enrolled during year) State 

and 

Program Type 

Date 

enrollment 

began 

SCHIP 

upper 

income 

eligibility 

standard 

(% FPL) 

Medicaid 

expansion

Separate 

Child 

Health 

Program

Total 

Adults Ever 

Enrolled in 

SCHIP 

Demonstrations 

Alabama (C) 2/1/1998 200% 17,332 66,027 83,359 NA 

Alaska (M) 3/1/1999 200% 22,291 NA 22,291 NA 

Arizona (S) 11/1/1998 200% NA 92,705 92,705 30,382 

Arkansas (M) 10/1/1998 100% 1,912 NA 1,912 NA 

California (C) 3/1/1998 250% 81,089 775,905 856,994 NA 

Colorado (S) 4/22/1998 185% NA 51,826 51,826 NA 

Connecticut (C) 7/1/1998 300% 3,216 18,130 21,346 NA 

Delaware (S) 2/1/1999 200% NA 9,691 9,691 NA 

District of Columbia (M) 10/1/1998 200% 5,060 NA 5,060 NA 

Florida (C) 4/1/1998 200% 4,706 363,474 368,180 NA 

Georgia (S) 11/1/1998 235% NA 221,005 221,005 NA 

Hawaii (M) 7/1/2000 200% 8,474 NA 8,474 NA 

Idaho (M) 10/1/1997 150% 16,895 NA 16,895 NA 

Illinois (C) 1/5/1998 185% 42,992 25,040 68,032 NA 

Indiana (C) 10/1/1997 200% 50,423 15,802 66,225 NA 

Iowa (C) 7/1/1998 200% 13,373 21,133 34,506 NA 

Kansas (S) 1/1/1999 200% NA 40,783 40,783 NA 

Kentucky (C) 7/1/1998 200% 59,642 34,299 93,941 NA 

Louisiana (M) 11/1/1998 200% 87,675 NA 87,675 NA 

Maine (C) 7/1/1998 200% 15,033 7,553 22,586 NA 

Maryland (C) 7/1/1998 300% 121,305 3,875 125,180 NA 

Massachusetts (C) 10/1/1997 200% 77,788 38,911 116,699 NA 

Michigan (C) 5/1/1998 200% 26,777 45,105 71,882 NA 

Minnesota (M) 10/1/1998 280% NR NA NR 40,008 

Mississippi (C) 7/1/1998 200% 1,180 63,625 64,805 NA 

Missouri (M) 9/1/1998 300% 112,004 NA 112,004 NA 

Montana (S) 1/1/1999 150% NA 13,875 13,875 NA 

Nebraska (M) 5/1/1998 185% 16,227 NA 16,227 NA 

Nevada (S) 10/1/1998 200% NA 37,878 37,878 NA 

New Hampshire (C) 5/1/1998 300% 438 7,700 8,138 NA 

New Jersey (C) 3/1/1998 350% 42,017 75,036 117,053 142,427 

New Mexico (M) 3/31/1999 235% 19,940 NA 19,940 NA 
15-86 

TABLE 15-21--PRELIMINARY SCHIP ENROLLMENT DATA FOR THE 50 

STATES AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA FOR 

FISCAL YEAR 2002 -continued

FFY2002 enrollment 

(number of children ever 

State enrolled during year) 

and 

Program Type 

Date 

enrollment 

began 

SCHIP 

upper 

income 

eligibility 

standard 

(% FPL) 

Medicaid 

expansion

Separate 

Child 

Health 

Program

Total 

Adults Ever 

Enrolled in 

SCHIP 

Demonstrations 

New York (C) 4/15/1998 250% NR 807,145 807,145 NA 

North Carolina (S) 10/1/1998 200% NA 120,090 120,090 NA 

North Dakota (C) 10/1/1998 140% 892 3,571 4,463 NA 

Ohio (M) 1/1/1998 200% 183,034 NA 183,034 NA 

Oklahoma (M) 12/1/1997 185% 84,490 NA 84,490 NA 

Oregon (S) 7/1/1998 170% NA 42,976 42,976 NA 

Pennsylvania (S) 5/28/1998 200% NA 148,689 148,689 NA 

Rhode Island (M) 10/1/1997 250% 19,515 NA 19,515 22,459 

South Carolina (M) 10/1/1997 150% 68,928 NA 68,928 NA 

South Dakota (C) 7/1/1998 200% 8,893 2,290 11,183 NA 

Tennessee (M) 10/1/1997 100% NR NA NR NA 

Texas (C) 7/1/1998 200% 10,491 716,961 727,452 NA 

Utah (S) 8/3/1998 200% NA 33,808 33,808 NA 

Vermont (S) 10/1/1998 300% NA 6,162 6,162 NA 

Virginia (C) 10/22/1998 200% 11,484 56,490 67,974 NA 

Washington (S) 2/1/2000 250% NA 8,754 8,754 NA 

West Virginia (S) 7/1/1998 200% NA 35,949 35,949 NA 

Wisconsin (M) 4/1/1999 185% 62,391 NA 62,391 113,842 

Wyoming (S) 12/1/1999 133% NA 5,059 5,059 NA 

Total – – 1,297,907 4,017,322 5,315,229 349,118 

S – Separate child health programs 

M – Medicaid expansion program 

C – Combination programs 

NR – Indicates that State has not reported data via the Statistical Enrollment Data System (SEDS) 

FPL - Poverty level 

NA - Not applicable 

Note- For States with combination programs, the “total” column shows the sum of the unduplicated 

number of children ever enrolled in the SCHIP Medicaid expansion program during the year and the 

unduplicated number of children ever enrolled in the separate SCHIP program during the year. Because 

a child may be enrolled in both programs during the year, there may be some double counting of

children enrolled in these States. 

Source: Data on date enrollment began and the SCHIP upper income eligibility standard are taken from 

the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, The State Children’s Health Insurance Program, 

Annual Enrollment Report Federal Fiscal Year 2001: October 1, 2000 – September 30, 2001, 

February 6, 2002. When applicable, these FY2001 upper income limit data were updated by CRS to 

reflect effective thresholds during FY2002. The State-reported SCHIP enrollment figures are taken 

from Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Fiscal Year 2002 Number of Children Ever Enrolled 

in SCHIP – Preliminary Data Summary, January 31, 2003. 
15-87 

Benchmark-equivalent coverage is defined as a package of benefits that has 

the same actuarial value as one of the benchmark benefit packages. A State 

choosing to provide benchmark-equivalent coverage must cover each of the 

benefits in the “basic benefits category.” The benefits in the basic benefits category 

are inpatient and outpatient hospital services, physicians’ surgical and medical 

services, lab and x-ray services, and well-baby and well-child care, including ageappropriate immunizations. Benchmark-equivalent coverage also must include at 

least 75 percent of the actuarial value of coverage under the benchmark plan for 

each of the benefits in the “additional service category.” These additional services 

include prescription drugs, mental health services, vision services, and hearing 

services. States are encouraged to cover other categories of service not listed 

above. Abortions may not be covered, except in the case of a pregnancy resulting 

from rape or incest, or when an abortion is necessary to save the mother’s life. 

COST SHARING 

Cost-sharing refers to the out-of-pocket payments made by beneficiaries of a 

health insurance plan. Cost-sharing may include, for example, monthly premiums, 

enrollment fees, deductibles, copayments, coinsurance and other similar charges. 

 Federal law permits States to impose cost-sharing for some beneficiaries and 

some services under SCHIP. States that choose to implement SCHIP as a Medicaid 

expansion must follow the nominal cost-sharing rules of the Medicaid program. 

If a State implements SCHIP through a separate State program, premiums or 

enrollment fees for program participation may be imposed, but the maximum 

allowable amount is dependent on family income. For all families with incomes 

under 150 percent FPL and enrolled in separate State programs, premiums may not 

exceed the amounts set forth in Federal Medicaid regulations. 

Additionally, these families may be charged service-related cost-sharing, but 

such cost-sharing is limited to (1) nominal amounts defined in Federal Medicaid 

regulations for the subgroup with income below 100 percent FPL, and (2) slightly 

higher amounts defined in SCHIP regulations for families with income between 

101-150 percent FPL. For families with income above 150 percent FPL, costsharing may be imposed in any amount, provided that cost-sharing for higher 

income children is not less than cost-sharing for lower income children. 

Most importantly, the total annual aggregate cost-sharing (including 

premiums, deductibles, copayments and any other charges) for all children in any 

SCHIP family may not exceed 5 percent of total family income for the year. In 

addition, States must inform families of these limits and provide a mechanism for 

families to stop paying once the cost-sharing limits have been reached. 

Preventive services are exempt from cost-sharing for all families regardless 

of income. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) defines 

preventive services to include the following: all healthy newborn inpatient 

physician visits, including routine screening (inpatient and outpatient); routine 

physical examinations; laboratory tests; immunizations and related office visits; 
15-88 

and routine preventive and diagnostic dental services (for example, oral 

examinations, prophylaxis and topical fluoride applications, sealants, and x-rays). 

FINANCING 

The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 appropriated a total of $39.7 billion for 

SCHIP for fiscal years 1998 through 2007.54 The funding level by fiscal year 

varies across time. The total annual appropriation for each of fiscal years 1998 

through 2001 is about $4.3 billion. This annual total drops to about $3.2 billion for 

fiscal years 2002 through 2004, then rises to $4.1 billion for fiscal years 2005 and 

2006, with a further increase to $5.0 billion in fiscal year 2007. The drop in 

funding for fiscal years 2002 through 2004, sometimes referred to as the “SCHIP 

dip,” was written into SCHIP’s authorizing legislation due to budgetary constraints 

applicable at the time the legislation was drafted. 

Allotment of funds among the States is determined by a formula set in law. 

This formula is based on a combination of the number of low-income children and 

low-income, uninsured children in the State, and includes a cost factor that 

represents average health service industry wages in the State compared to the 

national average. A State must draw down its entire allotment for a given fiscal 

year before it can access the next year’s funding. 

States have three fiscal years in which to draw down a given year’s 

allotment. For example, fiscal year 2002 allotments are available until the end of 

fiscal year 2004. At the end of the applicable three-year period, unspent allotments 

are subject to redistribution among only those States that fully expend their 

allotments, by a method to be determined by the Secretary. 

In 2000, the Medicare, Medicaid, and SCHIP Benefits Improvement and 

Protection Act of 2000 (BIPA) established special redistribution rules for unspent 

fiscal years 1998 and 1999 allotments. The reallocation process is the same for 

each of these two fiscal years and is applied to each year separately. From those 

States that did not fully expend their original allotments for a given year within the 

applicable three-year time frame, a pool of unused funds was formed. From this 

pool, 1.05% was set aside for redistribution among the 5 territories that exceeded 

their original allotments for that year based on each territory’s designated 

proportion of the original total appropriation established for the territories. Then 

the States that fully expended (exceeded) their original allotments for that year 

received redistributed funds equal to their excess spendingB12 States for fiscal year 

1998 redistributions and 13 States for fiscal year 1999 redistributions. Finally, the 

remaining States that did not use all their original allotments for these years 

retained a portion of the remaining unused funds in the pool, equal to the ratio of 

such a State’s unspent original allotment to the total amount of unspent funds for 

that fiscal year. The deadline for spending all fiscal year 1998 and 1999 reallocated 

funds was September 30, 2002. 

 

54 The law set aside 0.25 percent of SCHIP funds for five territories and commonwealths (Puerto Rico, 

Guam, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands). It also set aside 

$60 million annually for Special Diabetes Grants for fiscal year 1998 through fiscal year 2002 only.
15-89 

In August 2003, the State Children’s Health Insurance Program Allotments 

Extension Act (Public Law 108-74) extended the availability of fiscal year 1998 

and 1999 reallocated funds through the end of fiscal year 2004. This law also 

created a special redistribution rule for unspent fiscal year 2000 and 2001 SCHIP 

allotments that differs from the approach used for the fiscal year 1998 and 1999 

reallocation process. The fiscal year 2000 and 2001 methodology is identical for 

each of these two years and is applied to each year separately. For example, for 

fiscal year 2000, each State that did not spend its full original allotment by the 

3-year deadline will retain 50 percent of its unspent funds. The remaining unspent 

funds across such States will form a pool for redistribution among the territories 

and remaining States that did fully expend (and exceeded) their original 

fiscal year 2000 allotments by the 3-year deadline. Of the total redistribution pool, 

1.05 percent is earmarked for the territories, each of which will receive an amount 

from this earmark that is equal to its designated proportion of the total fiscal year 

2000 funds originally allotted to the territories. The remaining redistribution pool 

is divided among those States that exceeded their original fiscal year 2000 

allotments. Each such State will receive an amount that is based on the proportion 

of its excess spending relative to the total amount of excess spending for all such 

States. Reallocated fiscal year 2000 and 2001 funds are available until the end of 

fiscal years 2004 and 2005, respectively. Finally, this new law also permits certain 

States to use up to 20 percent of their reallocated fiscal year 1998 through 2001 

SCHIP funds for Medicaid expenditures for services delivered to Medicaid 

beneficiaries under age 19 who are not otherwise eligible for SCHIP and have 

family income that exceeds 150 percent of the FPL. (See the Legislative History 

section for more details.) 

Like Medicaid, SCHIP is a Federal-State matching program. For each 

dollar of State spending, the Federal government makes a matching payment 

drawn from SCHIP allotments. A State’s share of program spending for Medicaid 

is equal to 100 percent minus the Federal medical assistance percentage (FMAP). 

The enhanced SCHIP FMAP is equal to a State’s Medicaid FMAP increased by the 

number of percentage points that is equal to 30 percent multiplied by the number of 

percentage points by which the FMAP is less than 100 percent.55 For example, in 

States with a Medicaid FMAP of 60 percent, the enhanced FMAP equals the 

Medicaid FMAP increased by 12 percentage points (60 percent + [30 percent 

multiplied by 40 percentage points] = 72 percent). In this example, the State share 

is 100 percent - 72 percent = 28 percent. 

Compared with the Medicaid FMAP, which ranges from 50 percent to 

76.62 percent in fiscal year 2003, the enhanced FMAP for SCHIP ranges from 

65 percent to 83.63 percent. All SCHIP assistance for targeted low-income 

children, including child health coverage provided through a Medicaid expansion, 

is eligible for the enhanced FMAP. The Medicaid FMAP and the enhanced SCHIP 

 

55 The Federal medical assistance percentage (FMAP) and the enhanced Federal medical assistance 

percentage (enhanced FMAP) are calculated and published annually by the Secretary of HHS. FMAP is 

a measure of the average income per person in each State, squared, compared to that of the nation as a 

whole. This formula is designed to provide a higher FMAP to States with lower per capita income. 
15-90 

FMAP are subject to a ceiling of 83 percent and 85 percent, respectively. 

There is a limit on Federal spending for SCHIP administrative expenses, 

which include activities such as data collection and reporting, as well as outreach 

and education. For Federal matching purposes, a 10 percent cap applies to State 

administrative expenses. This cap is tied to the dollar amount that a State draws 

down from its annual allotment to cover benefits under SCHIP, as opposed to 

10 percent of a State’s total annual allotment. 

GENERAL PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS 

 The 50 States, the District of Columbia and 5 territories operate 56 SCHIP 

programs. As of May 2002, 21 had Medicaid expansions, 16 had separate State 

programs, and 19 provided health insurance coverage through a combination 

approach. Because some States had multiple plans for different SCHIP subgroups, 

in total the 35 States with separate SCHIP programs (SSPs) actually had 42 distinct 

programs identified by CRS. For example, some States have created more than 

one SSP for children at different income levels with different benefit packages. As 

of May 2002, among these 42 SSPs, 15 were benchmark plans (10 based on the 

State employees’ health plan, 4 based on the largest commercial HMO and 1 based 

on FEHBP). Another 14 SSPs were Secretary-approved programs (11 modeled 

after Medicaid, 2 modeled after the State employees’ health plan and 1 that built 

upon a comprehensive Medicaid waiver demonstration financed through SCHIP). 

Ten SSPs were classified as benchmark-equivalent (six equivalent to the State 

employees’ health plan, two equivalent to FEHBP, one equivalent to the largest 

commercial HMO, and one exceeding the actuarial value of all three types of 

benchmark plan options). Finally, three SSPs were unique comprehensive Statebased plans that were deemed to meet SCHIP requirements under the Balanced 

Budget Act of 1997. 

SCHIP programs across States are evolving rapidly as evidenced by the 

numerous changes States have made to their original State plans over time. As of 

February 2003, 150 amendments to original State plans had been approved and 

17 more were in review. Several States have multiple amendments. The content of 

the plan amendments varies among States. For example, some States use 

amendments to extend coverage beyond income levels defined in their original 

State plans. Others define new copayment standards for program participants. 

Still others modify benefit packages. 

In addition to the amendment process, States that want to make changes to 

their SCHIP programs that go beyond what the law will allow may do so through 

what is called an 1115 waiver (named for the section of the Social Security Act 

that defines the circumstances under which such waivers may be granted). The 

Secretary may waive certain statutory requirements for conducting research and 

demonstration projects under SCHIP that allow States to adapt their programs to 

specific needs. On August 4, 2001, the Bush Administration announced the 

Health Insurance Flexibility and Accountability (HIFA) Demonstration Initiative. 

Using 1115 waiver authority, this initiative is designed to encourage States to 
15-91 

extend Medicaid and SCHIP to the uninsured, with a particular emphasis on 

Statewide approaches that maximize private health insurance coverage options 

and target populations with income below 200 percent FPL. 

As of March 2003, CMS had approved 12 SCHIP 1115 waivers in 

10 States.56 Four additional 1115 waiver proposals were under review at that time. 

 Five of the twelve approved waivers are HIFA demonstrations in Arizona, 

California, Colorado, New Jersey, and New Mexico. In eight of the ten States with 

approved 1115 waivers (excluding Maryland and Ohio), SCHIP coverage is 

expanded to include one or more categories of adults57 with children, typically 

parents of Medicaid/SCHIP children, caretaker relatives, legal guardians, and/or 

pregnant women. Two States (Arizona and New Mexico) also cover childless 

adults under their HIFA demonstrations. In addition to expanding coverage to 

new populations under waivers, some States have used this authority for other 

purposes. Rhode Island will use redistributed SCHIP funds to finance coverage of 

adults with children in its waiver program. Through HIFA, New Jersey will offer 

the same (SCHIP) benefit package to adults covered under its SCHIP and Medicaid 

waiver demonstrations. Using 1115 waiver authority, both Maryland and New 

Mexico require a 6-month period of no insurance prior to enrollment under their 

waivers.58 New Mexico also has modified its cost-sharing rules for SCHIP 

Medicaid expansion participants. Finally, Ohio received approval to implement an 

annual enrollment fee and to give 12 months of continuous eligibility for certain 

beneficiaries in its Medicaid expansion.59

TRENDS IN ENROLLMENT AND EXPENDITURES 

Nearly 1 million children (982,000) were enrolled in SCHIP under 

43 operational State programs as of December 1998.60 Nearly 2 million children 

(1,979,450) were enrolled in SCHIP during fiscal year 1999 under 53 operational 

State programs.61 The latest official numbers show that SCHIP enrollment reached 

a total of 5.3 million children in fiscal year 2002 (see Table 15-21). Of this total, 

 

56 The 10 States are Arizona, California, Colorado, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, New Mexico, 

Ohio, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. New Jersey and New Mexico each have two approved 

1115 waivers. The remaining States have one waiver each.

57 As noted above, States have the option to purchase family coverage under a group health plan that 

may cover adults as long as it is cost-effective to do so (relative to the amount paid for comparable 

coverage 

for the children only), and it must not substitute for health insurance that otherwise would be provided to 

the children. For States seeking greater flexibility both in selecting which adults to cover and in the 

benefit package offered to those adults, a waiver is required. 

58 In general, for Medicaid expansions under SCHIP, all Medicaid rules apply. Thus, when States with 

SCHIP Medicaid expansions want to implement other rules (e.g., establish waiting periods before 

enrollment, implement enrollment fees, etc.), a waiver is required.

59 Due to a variety of budget and resource constraints, in May 2002, Ohio decided not to pursue 

implementation of its waiver.

60 U.S. Health Care Financing Administration. A Preliminary Estimate of the Children’s Health 

Insurance Program Aggregate Enrollment Numbers Through December 31, 1998 (background only). 

April 20, 1999.

61 U.S. Health Care Financing Administration. The State Children’s Health Insurance Program 

Annual Enrollment Report, October 1, 1998 B September 30, 1999 (no date).
15-92 

4.0 million were covered in separate State programs, and 1.3 million participated in 

SCHIP Medicaid expansions. In addition, five States also reported enrollment of 

nearly 350,000 adults in fiscal year 2002. Two of these States 

(New Jersey and Wisconsin) accounted for nearly three-fourths of adult enrollment 

in SCHIP. Adult enrollment exceeded child enrollment in three of these States 

(New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin). 

 To date, SCHIP spending has fallen well below allotment levels for a 

variety of reasons. Despite the fact that 42 States began enrolling children in their 

SCHIP programs in late 1997 or 1998 (see Table 15-21), new programs take time to 

get off the ground and participation rates rose more slowly than expected. 

Table 15-22 shows total available funds and cumulative spending by State for fiscal 

year 1998 through fiscal year 2002, as of the end of fiscal year 2002. During this 

period, States had access to fiscal years 1998 and 1999 redistributed 

funds as well as their original allotments for fiscal years 2000, 2001 and 2002. By 

the end of fiscal year 2002, eight States had spent less than 25 percent of their 

available allotments. Of these eight States, two had spent less than 10 percent of 

these funds. Another 21 States had used between one-fourth and one-half of their 

allotments. The remaining 22 States had expended more than 50 percent of 

available funds. Of these 22 States, 2 had spent more than 75 percent of their 

allotments. As SCHIP enrollment across States grows over time, expenditures 

under the program are likely to account for an ever increasing share of available 

allotments. 

 Nationally, through September 2002, $9.4 billion or 47 percent of available 

funds had been expended, leaving an unspent balance of approximately 

$10.7 billion from the fiscal years 1998 through 2002 allotments. As of 

October 2003, several SCHIP allotment accounts are available to the States and 

territories. (Accessing each account is subject to specific rules.) These “open 

accounts” include fiscal years 1998 and 1999 reallocated funds (available through 

the end of fiscal year 2004), unspent fiscal years 2000 and 2001 allotments to be 

reallocated among all of the States and territories based on a special redistribution 

formula (available through the end of fiscal years 2004 and 2005, respectively), and 

the three original allotment accounts for fiscal years 2002, 2003, and 2004, not yet 

subject to redistribution (available through the end of fiscal years 2004, 2005, and 

2006 respectively). 

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY 

Below is a summary of major SCHIP changes enacted in public laws 

beginning with the legislation authorizing the program in 1997: 

Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA 1997), Public Law 105-33: 

 Creation of SCHIP-Under BBA 1997, the State Children’s Health 

Insurance Program was established, effective August 5, 1997. A number of 

provisions specified eligibility criteria; coverage requirements for health 

 insurance; Federal allotments and the State allocation formula; payments to States 
15-93 

and the enhanced FMAP formula; the process for submission, approval and 

amendment of State SCHIP plans; strategic objectives and performance goals, and 

plan administration; annual reports and evaluations; options for expanding coverage 

of children under Medicaid; and diabetes grant programs. 

TABLE 15-22--SCHIP PROGRAM ALLOTMENTS AND EXPENDITURES 

BY STATE, FISCAL YEARS 1998-2002 

[In Thousands of Dollars]

 

Total available 

(Adjusted)1

 allotments 

for fiscal years 

1998-2002 

Total 

expenditures 

applied 

against allotments

Percent of 

available 

(adjusted)1

allotments spent

Allotment 

 balance 

at end of 

fiscal year 20022

Alabama $320,043 $153,953 48.1 $166,090 

Alaska $91,051 $66,482 73.0 $24,569 

Arizona $479,610 $213,005 44.4 $266,605 

Arkansas $195,714 $6,213 3.2 $189,501 

California $2,998,522 $1,022,659 34.1 $1,975,864 

Colorado $184,182 $76,067 41.3 $108,115 

Connecticut $154,601 $54,410 35.2 $100,191 

Delaware $37,435 $7,190 19.2 $30,245 

District of Columbia $46,358 $17,008 36.7 $29,349 

Florida $1,059,194 $648,261 61.2 $410,933 

Georgia $543,921 $239,137 44.0 $304,784 

Hawaii $40,828 $7,363 18.0 $33,465 

Idaho $83,117 $40,113 48.3 $43,005 

Illinois $573,738 $128,896 22.5 $444,842 

Indiana $461,019 $235,787 51.1 $225,232 

Iowa $143,700 $79,904 55.6 $63,797 

Kansas $132,745 $82,104 61.9 $50,641 

Kentucky $374,247 $217,915 58.2 $156,333 

Louisiana $351,625 $140,437 39.9 $211,188 

Maine $85,592 $48,956 57.2 $36,636 

Maryland $446,975 $318,362 71.2 $128,613 

Massachusetts $358,621 $189,717 52.9 $168,904 

Michigan $441,650 $128,810 29.2 $312,840 

Minnesota $129,139 $65,423 50.7 $63,716 

Mississippi $240,217 $147,912 61.6 $92,305 

Missouri $343,483 $175,404 51.1 $168,080 

Montana $58,964 $30,839 52.3 $28,125 

Nebraska $72,741 $31,138 42.8 $41,603 

Nevada $128,342 $47,977 37.4 $80,365 

New Hampshire $44,369 $9,413 21.2 $34,956 

New Jersey $542,408 $451,398 83.2 $91,009 

New Mexico $209,107 $26,128 12.5 $182,979 

New York $2,517,549 $1,405,833 55.8 $1,111,716 

North Carolina $545,750 $257,313 47.1 $288,437 

North Dakota $23,829 $8,164 34.3 $15,664 

New Hampshire $44,369 $9,413 21.2 $34,956 

New Jersey $542,408 $451,398 83.2 $91,009 

Ohio $589,150 $326,767 55.5 $262,383 
15-94 

TABLE 15-22--SCHIP PROGRAM ALLOTMENTS AND EXPENDITURES BY 

STATE, FISCAL YEARS 1998-2002-continued 

[In Thousands of Dollars] 

 

Total available 

(adjusted)1

 allotments 

for fiscal years 

1998-2002 

Total 

expenditures 

applied 

against allotments

Percent of 

available 

(adjusted)1

allotments spent

Allotment 

 balance 

at end of 

fiscal year 20022

Oklahoma $302,822 $107,317 35.4 $195,505 

Oregon $181,828 $51,227 28.2 $130,601 

Pennsylvania $588,656 $317,709 54.0 $270,947 

Rhode Island $70,031 $65,522 93.6 $4,510 

South Carolina $437,593 $206,138 47.1 $231,455 

South Dakota $34,379 $18,542 53.9 $15,836 

Tennessee $307,585 $60,139 19.6 $247,446 

Texas $1,882,714 $881,015 46.8 $1,001,700 

Utah $125,376 $69,232 55.2 $56,143 

Vermont $17,536 $6,848 39.0 $10,688 

Virginia $284,710 $92,210 32.4 $192,500 

Washington $205,491 $14,180 6.9 $191,310 

West Virginia $95,929 $59,860 62.4 $36,069 

Wisconsin $248,170 $159,327 64.2 $88,843 

Wyoming $28,126 $7,160 25.5 $20,966 

MOE3

 $7,894 NA NA $7,894 

Puerto Rico $208,136 $178,424 85.7 $29,711 

Guam $7,953 $5,550 69.8 $2,403 

Virgin Islands $5,908 $4,079 69.1 $1,828 

American Samoa $2,598 $4,128 158.9 -$1,530 

Northern Mariana 

Islands $2,499 $5,203 208.2 -$2,704 

Total $20,095,471 $9,420,272 46.9 $10,675,199 

1

 “Adjusted” refers to increases or decreases to the amounts provided through the redistribution of unspent 

FYs 1998 and 1999 funds. For States that received redistributions of other States’ unspent funds, this 

amount is greater than what was provided by original allotments. For States that contributed unspent funds 

to the pool for redistribution to other States, this amount is less than what was provided by original 

allotments. 

2 Figures in this column do not show the exact amount of funds available to States in FY2003. Some States 

lost access to unspent reallocated money from FYs 1998 and 1999, and unspent FY2000 original 

allotments, all of which expired on September 30, 2002. In addition, some States will gain additional funds 

through the redistribution of unspent FY2000 allotments that CMS will make available in the spring of

2003. Also new FY2003 allotments became available on October 1, 2002. 

3

 MOE refers to one of the maintenance of effort provisions in SCHIP statute. When SCHIP was created, 

three States – Florida, New York and Pennsylvania – had existing comprehensive State-based health 

benefit programs for children that were deemed to meet SCHIP requirements. These States are required to 

maintain their prior level of spending under SCHIP. Specifically, beginning in FY1999, the allotment for a 

given fiscal year will be reduced by the difference between the States’ spending in the prior fiscal year 

versus fiscal year 1996 (before SCHIP began). The $7.9 million shown for MOE in this table reflects 

spending patterns in Pennsylvania for FY1999, in which Pennsylvania’s share of SCHIP costs was $7.9 

million less than FY1996 spending, so its allotment for FY2000 has been reduced by $7.9 million. This 

amount will be included in the redistribution process for FY2000. (Pennsylvania’s share of FY1998 SCHIP 

costs was $2.2 million less than FY1996 spending, and its SCHIP allotment for FY1999 was reduced by 

$2.2 million. This amount is not shown in the MOE cell because it has already been redistributed to other 

States in the FY1999 redistribution process.) 

NA-Not applicable 

Source: Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, last updated November 20, 2002. 
15-95 

District of Columbia Appropriations Act of 1998, Public Law 105-100: 

Increased appropriation-This law increased the fiscal year 1998 SCHIP 

appropriation from $4.275 billion to $4.295 billion. 

Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Supplemental Appropriation Act, fiscal 

year 1999, Public Law 105-277: 

Increased appropriation for territories-For fiscal year 1999, an additional 

appropriation of $32 million for the territories was provided, bringing the fiscal 

year 1999 total appropriation to $4.307 billion. 

Change in allotment formula affecting some Native American children-For 

fiscal year 1998 and fiscal year 1999, the law changed the annual State allotment 

formula by stipulating that children with access to health care funded by the Indian 

Health Service and no other health insurance would be counted as uninsured (rather 

than as insured as required under the previously existing law). 

The Medicare, Medicaid and SCHIP Balanced Budget Refinement Act of 1999 

(BBRA 1999), incorporated by reference in the Consolidated Appropriations Act 

for Fiscal Year 2000, Public Law 106-113: 

 Stabilizing the SCHIP allotment formula-Annual Federal allotments to each 

State are determined in part by States’ success in covering previously uninsured 

low-income children under SCHIP. Under prior law, the more successful a State 

was in enrolling children in SCHIP, especially early in the program, the greater the 

potential reduction in subsequent annual allotments. To limit the amount a State’s 

allocation can fluctuate from one year to the next, BBRA 99 modified the allotment 

distribution formula and established new floors and ceilings. 

Targeted, increased allotments-Additional allotments for the 

commonwealths and territories were provided for fiscal years 2000 through 2007. 

Improved data collection-The law provided new funding for the collection of 

data to produce reliable, annual State-level estimates of the number of uninsured 

children. These data changes will improve research and evaluation efforts. They 

also will affect State-specific counts of the number of low-income children and the 

number of such children who are uninsured that feed into the formula that 

determines annual State-specific allotments from Federal SCHIP appropriations. 

Federal evaluation-New funding also was provided for a Federal 

evaluation62 to identify effective outreach and enrollment practices for both SCHIP 

and Medicaid, barriers to enrollment, and factors influencing beneficiary dropout. 

Additional reports and a clearinghouse-The law also required: (a) an 

inspector general audit63 and GAO report on enrollment of Medicaid-eligible 

 

62 Implementation of the State Children’s Health Insurance Program: Momentum is Increasing After a 

Modest Start, First Annual Report, Cambridge, MA: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., January 2001. 

Additional reports describing results from other components of the national evaluation of SCHIP are 

available from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

63 The OIG has issued two audit reports: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector 

General: State Children’s Health Insurance Program: Assessment of State Evaluations Reports, OEI05-00-00240, February 2001, and Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector 
15-96 

children in SCHIP,64 (b) States to report annually the number of deliveries to 

pregnant women and the number of infants who receive services under the Maternal 

and Child Health Services Block Grant or who are entitled to SCHIP benefits, and 

(c) the Secretary of Health and Human Services to establish a clearinghouse for the 

consolidation and coordination of all Federal databases and reports regarding 

children’s health. 

Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000, Public Law 106-224: 

See the description of this law in the Medicaid subsection. 

Children’s Health Act of 2000, Public Law 106-310: 

Rights of institutionalized children-The law requires that general hospitals, 

nursing facilities, intermediate care facilities and other health care facilities 

receiving Federal funds, including SCHIP, protect the rights of each resident, 

including the right to be free from physical or mental abuse, corporal punishment, 

and any restraints or involuntary seclusions imposed for the purposes of discipline 

or convenience. Restraints and seclusion may be imposed in such facilities only to 

ensure the physical safety of the resident, a staff member or others. Additional 

requirements govern reporting of resident deaths, promulgation of regulations 

regarding staff training, and enforcement. 

Children’s rights in community-based settings-The law also includes 

requirements for protecting the rights of residents of certain 

non-medical, community-based facilities for children and adolescents, when that 

facility receives funding under this Act or under Medicaid. (Forthcoming 

regulations are expected to clarify if and how these rights apply to such facilities 

funded by SCHIP.) For such individuals and facilities, restraints and seclusion may 

be imposed only in emergency circumstances and only to ensure the physical safety 

of the resident, a staff member, or others, and only when less restrictive 

interventions have been determined to be ineffective. Additional requirements 

govern reporting of resident deaths, promulgation of regulations regarding staff 

training, and enforcement. 

Medicare, Medicaid and SCHIP Benefits Improvement and Protection Act of 2000 

(BIPA), incorporated by reference into the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2001, 

Public Law 106-554: 

Special redistribution rules for unspent fiscal year 1998 and 1999 

allotments-For each of these years separately, a pool of unspent funds is created 

from the unused allotment amounts of those States that did not fully expend their 

original allotments within the applicable 3-year time frame. From this pool, 

1.05 percent is set aside for the territories that exceeded their original allotments for 

that year, based on each territory’s designated proportion of the original total 

 General: State Children’s Health Insurance Program: Ensuring Medicaid Eligibles are not Enrolled in 

SCHIP, OEI-05-00-00241, February 2001. 64 U.S. General Accounting Office: Children’s Health Insurance: Inspector General Reviews Should Be 

Expanded to Further Inform the Congress, GAO-02-512, March 2002.
15-97 

appropriation allotted to the territories. Then the States that fully expended 

(exceeded) their original allotments for that year receive redistributed funds from 

the remaining pool equal to their excess spending. The remaining States that did 

not use all their original allotments for the year retain a portion of the remaining 

funds in the pool, equal to the ratio of such a State’s unspent original allotment to 

the total amount of unspent funds for that fiscal year. These latter States are 

permitted to use up to 10 percent of their retained fiscal year 1998 funds for 

outreach activities. This allowance is over and above spending for such activities 

under the general administrative cap described above. The deadline for spending 

all redistributed and retained funds from fiscal years 1998 and 1999 

is September 30, 2002. (See the text for additional information on redistribution of 

unspent SCHIP funds.) 

Presumptive eligibility-Under Medicaid presumptive eligibility rules 

States are allowed to temporarily enroll children whose family income appears to 

be below Medicaid income standards, until a final formal determination of 

eligibility is made. BIPA clarified States’ authority to conduct presumptive 

eligibility determinations, as defined in Medicaid law, under separate (nonMedicaid) SCHIP programs. 

Authority to pay SCHIP Medicaid expansion costs from Title XXI 

appropriation-Under prior law, States’ allotments under SCHIP paid only the 

Federal share of costs associated with separate (non-Medicaid) SCHIP programs. 

The Federal share of costs associated with SCHIP Medicaid expansions was paid 

for under Medicaid. State SCHIP allotments were reduced by the amounts paid 

under Medicaid for SCHIP Medicaid expansion costs. BIPA authorized the 

payment of the costs of SCHIP Medicaid expansions and the costs of benefits 

provided during periods of presumptive eligibility from the SCHIP appropriation 

rather than the Medicaid appropriation, and as a conforming amendment, 

eliminated the requirement that State SCHIP allotments be reduced by these 

(former) Medicaid payments. Also, for fiscal years 1998 through 2000 only, BIPA 

authorized the transfer of unexpended SCHIP appropriations to the Medicaid 

appropriation account for the purpose of reimbursing payments associated with 

SCHIP Medicaid expansion programs. 

Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, 

Public Law 107-188: 

See the description of this law in the Medicaid subsection. 

Health Care Safety Net Amendments of 2002, Public Law 107-251: 

See the description of this law in the Medicaid subsection. 

State Children’s Health Insurance Program Allotments Extension Act, Public Law 

108-74: 

Extension of available SCHIP reallocated funds from fiscal years 1998 and 

1999-This law extends the availability of fiscal year 1998 and 1999 reallocated 

funds through the end of fiscal year 2004 (rather than the end of fiscal year 2002). 
15-98 

Revision of methods for reallocation of unspent fiscal years 2000 and 

FY2001, and extension of the availability of such funds-The law also establishes a 

new method for reallocating unspent funds from fiscal years 2000 and 2001 

allotments. For fiscal year 2000, each State (and territory) that did not spend its 

full original allotment by the 3-year deadline retains 50% of its unspent funds. The 

remaining 50 percent from each such State forms a pool of unspent funds for 

redistribution among the territories and other States that did fully expend (and 

exceeded) their fiscal year 2000 allotments by the 3-year deadline. First, 

1.05 percent of the total redistribution pool is set aside for allocation among the 

territories, from which each of the territories receives an amount equal to its 

designated proportion of the total fiscal year 2000 funds originally allotted to the 

territories. Then the remaining redistribution pool is allocated to each State that 

fully expended (exceeded) its fiscal year 2000 original allotment by the 3-year 

deadline. The redistribution amount for each such State is based on the proportion 

of its excess spending relative to the total amount of excess spending for all such 

States. The same methodology is applied to reallocation of unspent 

fiscal year 2001 original allotments. Reallocated funds for fiscal years 2000 and 

2001 are available until the end of fiscal years 2004 and FY2005, respectively. 

Authority for qualifying States to use certain funds for Medicaid 

expenditures-The law permits certain States to use not more than 20 percent of 

reallocated fiscal year 1998 through 2001 SCHIP funds for Medicaid expenditures 

for services delivered to Medicaid beneficiaries under age 19 whose family income 

exceeds 150 percent of the federal poverty level (FPL) and who otherwise are not 

eligible for SCHIP. For such services, the additional payments due are based on 

the SCHIP enhanced federal matching rate (up to the 20 percent cap on the use of 

reallocated funds for this purpose). Qualifying States include those that on or after 

April 15, 1997 had an income eligibility standard of at least 185 percent of the FPL 

for at least one category of children, other than infants. (Other qualifications apply 

to States with Statewide waivers under Section 1115 of the Social Security Act.) 

FEDERAL HOUSING ASSISTANCE65

 A number of Federal programs administered by the U.S. Department of 

Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the Rural Housing Service (RHS) 

address the housing needs of low-income households. Housing assistance has never 

been provided as an entitlement to all households that qualify for aid. Instead, 

Congress has traditionally appropriated funds for a number of new commitments 

each year. Until the 1990s, those commitments generally ran up to 40 years, with 

the result that the appropriations were actually spent gradually over many years. 

More recently, funding has been provided 1 year at a time. Those additional 

commitments have expanded the pool of available aid, thus increasing the total 

 

65 This discussion draws directly from the Congressional Budget Office (1988). For this report, CBO 

has updated all figures with additional years of data. For a more recent study on these topics, see 

Congressional Budget Office (1994). Assistance provided through various aspects of the Tax Code is 

excluded from the discussion. 
15-99 

number of households that can be served. They have also contributed to growth in 

Federal outlays in the past and have committed the government to continuing 

expenditures for many more years to come. The traditional housing programs have 

been augmented over the years with additional programs funded through block 

grants to State and local governments. This section describes recent trends in the 

number and mix of new commitments, as well as trends in expenditures for both the 

traditional assistance programs and the more recent block grant programs. The 

section focuses primarily on programs administered by HUD. 

TYPES OF ASSISTANCE 

 The Federal Government has traditionally provided housing aid directly to 

low-income households in the form of rental subsidies and mortgage interest 

subsidies. For the most part, both the number of households receiving aid and total 

Federal expenditures have steadily increased, but the growth of households assisted 

through the traditional programs has slowed since the 1980s and, in recent years, 

the number of such assisted households may have declined.66 Starting in the 

mid-1980s, a number of statutes were enacted-including the Stewart B. McKinney 

Homeless Assistance Act of 1987 (hereafter referred to as the McKinney Act) and 

the 1990 Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act (hereafter referred 

to as the 1990 Housing Act) that authorized new, indirect approaches in the form of 

housing block grants to State and local governments. Those governments may use 

the grants for various housing assistance activities specified in the laws. Data on the 

number of households assisted through those types of programs are not readily 

available, however. 

 A number of different housing assistance programs evolved over time in 

response to changing housing policy objectives. The primary purpose of housing 

assistance has always been to reduce housing costs and improve housing quality for 

low-income households. Other goals have included promoting residential 

construction, expanding housing opportunities for disadvantaged groups and groups 

with special housing needs such as the elderly, the disabled, and the homeless, 

promoting neighborhood preservation and revitalization, increasing home 

ownership, and empowering the poor to become self-sufficient. 

 New housing programs have been developed because of shifting priorities 

among these objectives as housing-related problems changed and because of the 

relatively high Federal costs associated with some approaches. Other programs 

have become inactive as Congress stopped appropriating funds for new assistance 

commitments through them. Because housing programs traditionally have involved 

multiyear contractual obligations, however, these so-called inactive programs 

continue to play an important role by serving a large number of households through 

commitments for which funds were appropriated some time ago. 

 

66 Because of changes in the way in which HUD reports the number of households assisted through the 

traditional programs, it is not entirely clear whether the number has just leveled off or has actually 

declined in recent years. 
15-100 

Direct Rental Assistance 

 Most Federal housing aid is now targeted to very-low-income renters 

through the rental assistance programs administered by HUD and the RHS 

(Schussheim, 2000). Rental assistance is provided through two basic approaches: 

(1) project-based aid, which is typically tied to projects specifically produced for 

low-income households through new construction or substantial rehabilitation; and 

(2) household-based subsidies, which permit renters to choose standard housing 

units in the existing private housing stock. Some funding is also provided each year 

to modernize units built with Federal aid. Rental assistance programs generally 

reduce tenants’ rent payments to a fixed percentage-currently 30 percent-of their 

income after certain deductions, with the government paying the remaining portion 

of the rent. 

 Almost all project-based aid also is provided through production-oriented 

programs, which include the Public and Indian Housing Program, the 

section 8 New Construction and Substantial Rehabilitation Program, and the section 

236 Mortgage Interest Subsidy Program-all administered by HUD-and the section 

515 Mortgage Interest Subsidy Program administered by the RHS.67 Today new 

commitments are being funded through only two of these four programs-a modified 

version of the section 8 New Construction Program for elderly and disabled 

families only and the section 515 program. In addition, some new housing for 

Native Americans continues to be developed through the Indian Housing Block 

Grant Program. 

 Some project-based aid is also provided through several components of 

HUD’s section 8 Existing Housing Program, which tie subsidies to specific units in 

the existing housing stock, many of which have received other forms of aid or 

mortgage insurance through HUD. Traditionally, those components have included 

the section 8 loan management set-aside (LMSA) and property disposition (PD) 

components, which are designed to improve cash flows in selected financially 

troubled projects that are or were insured by the Federal Housing Administration or 

to provide deeper subsidies to the occupants; the section 8 conversion assistance 

component, which subsidizes units that previously were aided through other 

programs; and the section 8 Moderate Rehabilitation Program, which provides 

subsidies to units that have been brought up to standard by the owner.68 In recent 

years, few, if any, new commitments have been funded through these programs. 

Today, new funding is predominantly used for tenant protection to enable tenants to 

remain in or move out of projects where rents are being raised after the owners opt 

out of the Federal assistance programs. Tenant protection assistance is also used to 

replace aid to households that are being displaced from assisted projects because 

the projects are being demolished. 

 Household-based subsidies traditionally have been provided through two 

other components of the section 8 Existing Housing Program-section 8 rental 

 

67 A small number of renters continue to receive project-based subsidies through the now inactive 

section 221(d)(3) Below-Market Interest Rate and Rent Supplement Programs. 

68 The 1990 Housing Act repealed the section 8 Moderate Rehabilitation Program at the end of fiscal 

year 1991, except for single-room occupancy units for the homeless. 
15-101 

certificates and vouchers. These programs tie aid to households that choose units 

meeting certain housing standards in the private housing stock. Certificate holders 

generally must occupy units with rents that are within guidelines-the so-called fair 

market rents-established by HUD. Voucher recipients, however, are allowed to 

occupy units with rents above the HUD guidelines provided they pay the 

difference. Starting in 2000, the certificate and voucher program are being 

combined into one program that pays the difference between 30 percent of a 

tenant’s income and the lesser of the tenant’s actual housing cost or a payment 

standard determined by local rent levels. Commitments to aid additional households 

are being made under this program. In addition, because of the tenant protection 

programs discussed above, aid gradually is being shifted from project-based to 

household-based assistance. 

Direct Home Ownership Assistance 

 Each year, the Federal Government assists some low- and moderate-income 

households in becoming homeowners by making long-term commitments to reduce 

their mortgage interest. Most of this aid has been provided through the section 502 

program administered by the RHS. This program supplies direct mortgage loans at 

low interest rates roughly equal to the long-term government borrowing rates or 

provides guarantees for private loans with interest rates that may not exceed those 

set by the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). Many home buyers, however, 

receive much deeper subsidies through the interest-credit component of this 

program, which reduces their effective interest rate to as low as 1 percent. 

 A number of home buyers have received aid through the section 

235 program administered by HUD. That program provides interest subsidies for 

mortgages financed by private lenders. New commitments now are being made 

only through the section 502 program but a small number of homeowners continue 

to receive aid from prior commitments made under the section 

235 program.69 Both programs generally reduce mortgage payments, property 

taxes, and insurance costs to a fixed percentage of income, ranging from 

20 percent for the RHS program to 28 percent for the latest commitments made 

under the HUD program. 

Homeless Programs 

 Since the mid-1980s, a number of programs specifically designed to address 

the issue of homelessness have been authorized. The still active programs, most of 

which were authorized by the McKinney Act, include the Emergency Shelter 

Grants Program, the Supportive Housing Program, the Shelter Plus Care Program, 

and the Moderate Rehabilitation for Single Room Occupancy Dwellings Program. 

Another program, which is designed to prevent rather than deal with homelessness, 

is the Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS (HOPWA) Program, 

authorized by the 1990 Housing Act. 

 Under these programs, HUD funds housing assistance indirectly in the form 

 

69 The Housing and Community Development Act of 1997 terminated the section 235 program at 

the end of fiscal year 1999. 
15-102 

of block grants to State and local governments. They in turn are required to 

contribute matching funds under all programs except under the Single Room 

Occupancy Dwellings and HOPWA Programs. Funds are distributed by formula or 

by competition, depending on the type of program. Funds may be used for a variety 

of housing activities that may be supported on a short-term, emergency basis or on 

a more permanent basis. Those activities include acquisition, rehabilitation, and 

new construction of facilities, tenant rental assistance (including section 8), 

supportive services, and administration costs. 

Other Housing Block Grant Programs 

 Several programs funded through block grants that are not specifically 

designed to deal with homelessness have been authorized since the early 1980s. 

Most of these programs have been terminated or are no longer being funded today. 

 Some assistance for the construction or rehabilitation of rental housing was 

funded under two small HUD programs authorized in 1983, the Rental Housing 

Development Grants (HoDAG) and the Rental Rehabilitation Block Grant 

Programs.70 These programs distributed funds through a national competition and 

by formula, respectively, to units of local government that met certain eligibility 

criteria. 

 The 1990 Housing Act authorized several new housing assistance 

approaches, including the Home Ownership and Opportunity for People 

Everywhere (HOPE) Program and the HOME Investment Partnerships Block Grant 

Program. Since 1996, funds have been appropriated only for the HOME Program. 

The HOME Program provides Federal grants to State and local governments on a 

formula basis. Currently, participating jurisdictions generally must provide 

matching contributions of at least 25 percent of HOME funds spent in each fiscal 

year. Some or all of the matching requirement may be waived for jurisdictions that 

can show they are financially distressed. Funds may be used for tenant-based rental 

assistance or assistance to new home buyers.71 They may also be used for 

acquisition, rehabilitation, or in limited circumstances, construction of both rental 

and owner-occupied housing. 

TRENDS IN LEVELS AND BUDGETARY IMPACT OF HOUSING AID 

 This section examines trends in the levels and the budgetary impact of 

housing aid. Figures are presented only for programs administered by HUD. 

Because of data limitations, figures for the number of assisted households are 

presented only for those subsidized through the traditional programs that provide 

direct rental and home ownership assistance. Figures for the budgetary impact are 

shown for all housing programs discussed above. 

 

70 The Housing and Community Development Act of 1987 terminated the HoDAG Program at the end 

of fiscal year 1989; the 1990 Housing Act repealed the Rental Rehabilitation Block Grant Program at the 

end of fiscal year 1991. 

71 Prior to the enactment of the HOME Program, some of the activities for home buyers were supported 

under the Nehemiah Housing Opportunity Grant Program, which was authorized by the Housing and 

Community Development Act of 1987. 
15-103 

Trends in Net New Commitments 

 Although HUD has been subsidizing the shelter costs of low-income 

households since 1937, more than half of all currently outstanding commitments 

under the traditional assistance programs were funded over the past 26 years. 

Between 1977 and 2002, funds were appropriated for about 2.7 million net new 

commitments to aid low-income renters (Table 15-23). Another 108,000 new 

commitments were funded in the form of mortgage assistance to low- and 

moderate-income home buyers. Between 1977 and 1983, the number of net new 

rental commitments funded each year declined steadily, however, from 354,000 to 

54,000. Trends have been somewhat erratic since that time. During the late 1990s 

relatively few new commitments were funded, ranging from less than 8,500 in 1996 

to 36,000 in 1998. For fiscal year 2000, however, funds were appropriated for 

nearly 130,000 new commitments before declining again to about 34,000 in 2002. 

 The production-oriented approach in rental programs was sharply curtailed 

in 1982 in favor of the less costly section 8 Existing Housing Programs. Between 

1977 and 1981, commitments through programs for new construction and 

substantial rehabilitation ranged annually from 47 to 69 percent of the total. 

After1981, the proportion never exceeded 32 percent until 1995, when it rose to 

roughly one-half of the total. Because in the late 1990s the number of commitments 

funded for existing housing has been so low, the new construction commitments 

(primarily for the elderly and disabled) have been a relatively high proportion of the 

total. 

Trends in Budget Authority 

 Under the direct housing assistance programs, funding for additional 

commitments used to be provided each year through appropriations of long-term 

(up to 40 years) budget authority for subsidies to households and through 

appropriations of budget authority for grants to public housing agencies and 

developers of rental housing. Today, most rental subsidies, both for new 

commitments and for the renewal of expiring contracts, are funded for 1 year at a 

time. Only new commitments that subsidize the operating costs of projects being 

built for the elderly and disabled are funded for 5-year periods. For the homeless 

and other housing block grant programs, funds are appropriated on an annual basis 

but spend out over periods as long as 10 years. 

 Annual appropriations of new budget authority for all housing assistance 

programs combined were cut dramatically during the 1980s. They dropped (in 2002 

dollars) from a high of $75 billion in 1978 to a low of $12 billion in 

1988 and 1989 (Table 15-24). Those cuts reflect four underlying factors affecting 

budget authority for the direct housing assistance programs: the previously 

mentioned reduction in the number of newly assisted households; the shift toward 

cheaper existing housing assistance; a systematic reduction in the average term of 

new commitments from more than 24 years in 1977 to less than 5 years recently; 

and changes in the method for financing the construction and modernization of 
15-104 

public housing and the construction of housing for the elderly and the disabled.72

 TABLE 15-23--NET NEW COMMITMENTS FOR RENTERS 

AND HOME BUYERS RECEIVING DIRECT HOUSING ASSISTANCE 

ADMINISTERED BY HUD, BY TYPE OF SUBSIDY, 1980-2002 

Net new commitments for renters Fiscal 

Year Existing housing1 New construction2

 Total 

Net 

commitments for 

home buyers3

1980 58,402 129,490 187,892 58,907 

1981 83,520 75,365 158,885 5,102 

1982 37,818 18,018 55,836 4,754 

1983 54,071 -339 53,732 2,630 

1984 78,648 9,619 88,267 930 

1985 85,741 16,980 102,721 4,586 

1986 85,476 13,109 98,585 5 

1987 72,788 20,192 92,980 60 

1988 64,270 19,991 84,261 0 

1989 67,653 14,053 81,706 0 

1990 61,309 7,428 68,737 0 

1991 55,900 13,082 68,982 0 

1992 62,008 23,537 85,545 0 

1993 50,162 18,715 68,877 0 

1994 47,807 17,652 65,459 0 

1995 16,904 16,587 33,491 0 

1996 7,055 1,438 8,493 0 

1997 9,229 12,449 21,678 0 

1998 18,376 17,675 36,051 0 

1999 16,225 11,060 27,285 0 

2000 121,951 8,001 129,952 0 

2001 85,720 7,611 93,331 0 

2002 25,900 7,635 33,535 0 

I Includes units assisted through section 8 certificates and vouchers, loan management set-aside 

(LSMA), PD, and Moderate Rehabilitation Programs. 

2 Includes units assisted through the section 8 New Construction and Substantial Rehabilitation 

Program, section 202-811 Housing for the Elderly and the Disabled, section 236, and Public and 

Indian Housing Programs. Excludes units constructed under the Indian Housing Block Grant 

Program. 

3

 Includes units assisted through the various section 235 programs. 

4

 Figures are no longer adjusted for units for which funds were deobligated because data were 

unavailable. 

 

72 Before 1987, new commitments for the construction and modernization of public housing were 

financed over periods ranging from 20 to 40 years, with the appropriations for budget authority 

reflecting both the principal and interested payments for this debt. Starting in 1987, these activities 

have been financed with up front grants, which reduced their budget authority requirements by 

between 51 and 67 percent. Similarly, prior to 1991, housing for the elderly and the disabled was 

financed by direct Federal loans for construction, coupled with 20 years of section 8 rental 

assistance. Moreover, starting in 1995, the term of the rental assistance was decreased from 20 years 

to 5 years, thereby reducing the budget authority even more.
15-105 

TABLE 15-23--NET NEW COMMITMENTS FOR RENTERS AND 

HOME BUYERS RECEIVING DIRECT HOUSING ASSISTANCE 

ADMINISTERED BY HUD, BY TYPE OF SUBSIDY, 1980-2002-

continued

Note-Because reliable data are not readily available, this table excludes substantial numbers of

commitments made through the various programs for the homeless (including HOPWA) and 

other block grant programs such as the HOME Investment Partnerships Program. Net new 

commitments for renters represent net additions to the available pool of rental aid and are defined 

as the total number of commitments for which new funds are appropriated in any year. To avoid 

double counting, numbers are adjusted for commitments for which such funds are deobligated or 

canceled that year (except where noted otherwise); the commitments for units converted from one 

type of assistance to another; starting in 1985, the commitments replacing those lost because 

private owners of assisted housing opt out of the programs or because public housing units are 

demolished; and starting in 1989, the commitments for units whose section 8 contracts expire. 

New commitments for home buyers are defined as the total number of new loans that HUD 

subsidizes each year. This measure of program activity is meant to indicate how many new home 

buyers can be helped each year. It is not adjusted to account for homeowners who leave the 

program in any year because of mortgage repayments, prepayment, or foreclosures. Thus, it does 

not represent net additions to the total number of assisted homeowners and therefore cannot be 

added to net new commitments for renters. 

Source: Congressional Budget Office based on data from the U.S. Department of Housing and 

Urban Development. 

 Between 1991 and 1994, budget authority levels (in 2002 dollars) rose 

sharply to between $23 and $24 billion. Those trends reflect primarily the cost of 

renewing section 8 contracts that expired, with contracts being extended for 5-year 

terms. In addition, appropriations for homeless programs and other housing block 

grant programs rose significantly during that period. 

 After 1994, budget authority levels dropped again to as low as 

$12 billion in 1997. That decrease is explained by decreases in net budget authority 

appropriated for direct housing assistance, which were only partially offset by 

increases in appropriations for homeless and other housing block grant programs. 

The decreases in net budget authority for direct assistance reflect several factors: a 

gradual reduction in the terms of renewed contracts from 

5 years to 1 year; further reductions in funding for new activity; and substantial 

rescissions of budget authority that had been appropriated in earlier years. 

 The years since 1997 have seen consistent increases in budget authority, with 

the 2002 level of nearly $26 billion more than double the 1997 level. 

Trends in Outlays 

 Total outlays for all housing programs administered by the U.S. Department 

of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) increased (in 2002 dollars) steadily 

from 1977 through 1996, from $7 billion to nearly $30 billion 

(Table 15-25). The lion’s share of that increase is explained by increases in outlays 

for direct housing assistance, reflecting both the continuing increase in the number 

of assisted households and increases in the average subsidy in real terms. 

 
15-106 

TABLE 15-24--NET BUDGET AUTHORITY APPROPRIATED 

FOR HOUSING ASSISTANCE ADMINISTERED BY HUD, 

BY BROAD PROGRAM CATEGORIES, 1977-2002 

[In millions of dollars]

Total net budget authority Fiscal 

Year 

Direct housing 

assistance1

 in current 

dollars

Homeless 

programs2

 in 

current dollars 

Other housing 

block grants3 in 

current dollars 

Current 

dollars 

2002 

dollars 

1977 $28,579 0 0 $28,579 $71,166 

1978 32,193 0 0 32,193 74,987 

1979 25,123 0 0 25,123 54,155 

1980 27,435 0 0 27,435 54,288 

1981 26,021 0 0 26,021 46,951 

1982 14,766 0 0 14,766 24,895 

1983 10,001 0 0 10,001 16,154 

1984 10,810 0 $615 11,425 17,794 

1985 11,071 0 0 11,071 16,692 

1986 9,888 0 144 10,032 14,771 

1987 8,645 $195 300 9,140 13,099 

1988 8,353 107 204 8,664 12,021 

1989 8,664 172 170 9,006 12,034 

1990 10,331 284 152 10,767 13,866 

1991 19,029 339 105 19,473 24,137 

1992 16,730 498 1,861 19,089 23,054 

1993 18,280 672 1,485 20,437 24,111 

1994 18,107 979 1,173 20,259 23,393 

1995 11,676 1,291 1,462 14,429 16,307 

1996 13,218 994 1,400 15,612 17,299 

1997 8,672 1,019 1,370 11,061 12,021 

1998 14,175 1,027 1,500 16,702 17,900 

1999 16,544 1,200 1,600 19,354 20,469 

2000 17,474 1,252 1,617 20,343 21,110 

2001 20,724 1,380 1,796 23,900 24,207 

2002 22,522 1,400 1,796 25,718 25,718 

1 Includes the following programs: Section 8 Low-Income Housing Assistance, section 202/811 Housing 

for the Elderly and the Disabled, section 236 Rental Housing Assistance, Rent Supplement, section 235 

Homeownership Assistance, Public Housing Capital, Public Housing Operating Subsidies, Public 

Housing Drug Elimination Grants, Revitalization of Severely Distressed Public Housing Operating 

subsidies, Public Housing Drug Elimination Grants, Revitalization of Severely Distressed Public 

Housing, Low-Rent Public Housing Loan Fund, Indian Housing Block Grant. 

2 Includes the following programs: Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS (HOPWA), Homeless 

Assistance Grants, Supplemental Assistance for Facilities to Assist the Homeless, Emergency Shelter 

Grants, Supportive Housing, Shelter Plus Care Program, Section 8 Moderate Rehabilitation for Single 

Room Occupancy Dwellings, Innovative Homeless Initiatives Demonstration Program. 

3 Includes the following programs: HOME Investment Partnerships Program, Nehemiah Housing 

Opportunity Grant Program, Rental Housing Development Grants (HoDAG), Rental Rehabilitation 

Block Grant Program.
15-107 

TABLE 15-24--NET BUDGET AUTHORITY APPROPRIATED 

FOR HOUSING ASSISTANCE ADMINISTERED BY HUD, 

BY BROAD PROGRAM CATEGORIES, 1977-2002-continued

Note-All figures are net of funding rescissions, exclude reappropriations of funds, and include 

supplemental appropriation. Figures exclude budget authority for HUD’s section 202 loan funds. Dollar 

conversion calculated using GDP deflator. 

Source: Congressional Budget Office based on data from the U.S. Department of Housing and 

Development. 

 

 Several factors have contributed to the growth of average subsidies over the 

1977-96 period. First, rents in assisted housing probably have risen faster than the 

income of assisted households, causing subsidies to rise faster than the inflation 

index used here-the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U-X1).73 

Second, the number of households that occupy units completed under the section 8 

New Construction Program rose during the 1980s. Those units require larger 

subsidies compared with the older units that were built prior to the 1980s under the 

Mortgage Interest Subsidy and Public Housing Programs. 

Third, the share of households receiving less costly home ownership assistance has 

decreased. 

 Since 1996, outlays for all housing assistance programs stabilized at around 

$29 billion through 2001 before rising again to nearly $32 billion in 2002. 

 The leveling off in constant dollar outlays for direct housing assistance in the 

late 1990s is not easily explained because of a lack of reliable data on the 

underlying factors that may have contributed. Nevertheless, several factors may 

have played a role. 

 The number of assisted households has more or less leveled off at around 

5 million. Further, several cost containment measures have been enacted in recent 

legislation that have slowed down the growth in average subsidies in current 

dollars, thereby helping to reduce average subsidies in 2002 dollars. First, rents in 

assisted housing are increasing at a slower rate or are even declining in many cases. 

Because the Federal Government pays part of those rents, subsidies have been 

lower than they would have been otherwise. In particular, the maximum allowable 

rent in the section 8 voucher and certificate program has been lowered from the 

45th percentile to the 40th percentile of the local rent distribution. That decrease is 

being phased in gradually, as households move from their current units or turn over 

their certificate or voucher to a new recipient. Also, rents in certain assisted housing 

projects no longer are increased annually, while rent adjustments in other cases are 

being reduced. Second, many assisted households who had been contributing little 

or nothing to their rent are now charged a minimum rent of up to $50 per month. 

Third, preference rules for admitting new tenants have been relaxed, thereby 

allowing a gradual shift to a population with somewhat higher incomes. Fourth, in 

 

73 For example, between 1980 and 1990, the CPI-U-X1 increased 59 percent. Over the same period, 

the Consumer Price Index (CPI) for residential rents and median household income of renters 

increased by 71 and 70 percent, respectively, while the maximum rents allowed for section 8 

existing housing rental certificates-the so-called fair market rents – rose even faster, by 85 percent.
15-108 

several of the years during the period, the reissuing of section 8 certificates and 

vouchers upon turnover has been delayed for 3 months. 

 In addition to the legislative changes, some nonlegislative factors may have 

contributed to the stabilization in outlays. First, the booming economy of the late 

1990s likely increased the incomes of many assisted households, thereby resulting 

in larger shares of the rent being paid by them and lower shares by HUD. Second, 

anecdotal evidence suggests that new recipients of section 8 certificates and 

vouchers in some parts of the country have trouble finding units in which to use 

their housing assistance because of very tight housing markets or a lack of 

landlords willing to participate in the programs. As a result, the utilization rate of 

certificates and vouchers has been decreasing. 

 Future trends in outlays for housing assistance will be affected by further 

changes made by recent legislation. On the one hand, the so-called mark-to-market 

initiative, enacted by the Multifamily Assisted Housing Reform and Affordability 

Act of 1997, will reduce rents in certain section 8 projects with federally insured 

mortgages, thereby reducing outlays for the section 8 program. Under this initiative, 

project rents will be reduced to market levels as the section 8 contracts expire. To 

avoid defaults on the federally insured mortgages, HUD will write down, if needed, 

those mortgages to levels that are supportable by the new lower rents. On the other 

hand, a second initiative, enacted in 1999 by the Preserving Affordable Housing for 

Senior Citizens and Families into the 21st Century Act, will allow rents to increase 

in certain section 8 projects, thereby increasing outlays for section 8. To prevent 

owners from opting out of the Federal assistance programs, rents will be raised to 

market levels. In cases where owners opt out anyway, tenants will be enabled to 

stay in the project through the use of vouchers that will be issued at market rent 

levels even if the latter exceed the section 8 fair market rent in the area. The extent 

to which these factors, as well as the slowing economy, combined to effect the rise 

in outlays in 2002 remains unclear. 

SCHOOL LUNCH AND BREAKFAST PROGRAMS74

 The School Lunch and School Breakfast Programs provide Federal cash and 

commodity support for meals. The meals are served by public and private nonprofit 

elementary and secondary schools and residential child care institutions (RCCIs) 

that opt to enroll and guarantee to offer free or reduced-price meals meeting Federal 

nutrition standards to eligible low-income children. Both programs are 

“entitlement” programs, and both subsidize participating schools and RCCIs for all 

meals served that meet Federal nutrition standards at specific, inflation-indexed 

rates for each meal. Each program has a three-tiered system for per-meal Federal 

reimbursements to schools and RCCIs that: (1) allows children to receive free 

meals if they have family income below 130 percent of the Federal poverty 

 

74 Other major Federal child nutrition programs include: the Child and Adult Care Food Program 

(discussed later in this section) and the Summer Food Service Program (which provides subsidies 

for meals and snacks served during the summer months to some two million children participating in 

recreational and other programs in low-income areas). 
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guidelines (about $23,900 for a four-person family in the 2003-2004 school year); 

(2) permits children to receive reduced-price meals (no more than 40 cents for a 

lunch or 30 cents for a breakfast) if their family income is between 130 and 185 

percent of the poverty guidelines (between about $23,900 and $34,000 for a 

four-person family in the 2003-2004 school year); and (3) provides a small 

per-meal subsidy for “full-price meals (the price is set by the school or RCCI) 

served to children whose families do not apply, or whose family income does not 

qualify them for free or reduced-price meals. Children in Temporary Assistance for 

Needy Families (TANF) and food stamp households may automatically qualify for 

free school meals without an income application, and the majority actually receive 

them. 

 In addition to the regular School Lunch program, schools and RCCIs may 

expand their program to cover children through age 18 in after-school programs (or 

other programs operating outside regular school schedules). Federal subsidies are 

paid to schools operating these programs at the free snack rate (discussed in a 

following section on the Child and Adult Care Food program) when they are served 

free to children in lower-income areas. In other cases, subsidies vary by the child’s 

family income (as in the regular program). 

 The School Lunch Program subsidizes lunches (4.7 billion in fiscal year 

2002) to children in about 6,000 RCCIs and almost all schools (93,000). During 

fiscal year 2002, average daily participation was 28 million students 

(57 percent of the children enrolled in participating schools and RCCIs); of these, 

48 percent received free lunches, and 9 percent ate reduced-price lunches (Table 

15-26). The remainder were served full-price (but still subsidized) meals. More 

than 90 percent of Federal funding is used to subsidize free and reduced-price 

lunches served to low-income children. For the 2003-2004 school year, per-lunch 

Federal subsidies (cash and commodity support) range from about 36 cents for 

full-price lunches to $2.34 and $1.94 for free and reduced-price lunches.75 Fiscal 

year 2002 Federal school lunch costs (including commodity assistance) totaled 

nearly $6.9 billion (Table 15-26). 

 The School Breakfast Program serves far fewer students than does the 

School Lunch Program; about 1.4 billion breakfasts in 71,000 schools 

(and 6,000 RCCIs) were subsidized in fiscal year 2002. Average daily participation 

was 8.1 million children (21 percent of the 38 million students enrolled in 

participating schools and RCCIs). Unlike the School Lunch Program, the great 

majority received free or reduced-price meals: 74 percent 

received free meals, and 9 percent purchased reduced-price meals 

(Table 15-27). In the 2003-2004 school year, per-breakfast Federal subsidies (cash 

 

75 Schools and RCCIs with very high proportions of low-income children receive an extra 2 cents a 

meal. Federally donated commodity assistance makes up about 15 cents of each cited subsidy rate.
TABLE 15-25--OUTLAYS FOR HOUSING ASSISTANCE ADMINISTERED BY HUD, 

BY BROAD PROGRAM CATEGORIES, 1977-2002

Direct housing assistance (in current dollars) Total outlays 

Fiscal 

 year 

Section 8 and 

other assisted 

housing1

Public 

housing2

Subtotal assisted 

housing 

Homeless 

programs3 

(in current 

dollars) 

Other housing 

block grants4 

(in current 

dollars)

Current 

dollars 

2002 

dollars 

1977 $1,331 $1,564 $2,895 0 0 $2,895 $7,209 1978 1,824 1,779 3,603 0 0 3,603 8,392 1979 2,374 1,815 4,189 0 0 4,189 9,030 1980 3,146 2,218 5,364 0 0 5,364 10,614 1981 4,254 2,478 6,732 0 0 6,732 12,147 1982 5,293 2,553 7,846 0 0 7,846 13,228 1983 6,102 3,318 9,420 0 0 9,420 15,216 1984 7,068 3,932 11,000 0 0 11,000 17,132 1985 7,771 17,261 25,032 0 $15 25,047 37,764 1986 8,320 3,859 12,179 0 142 12,321 18,141 1987 8,993 3,517 12,510 $2 165 12,677 18,168 1988 9,985 3,699 13,684 37 180 13,901 19,287 1989 10,689 3,774 14,463 72 275 14,810 19,789 1990 11,357 4,331 15,688 85 276 16,049 20,668 1991 12,107 4,786 16,893 125 168 17,186 21,303 1992 13,052 5,182 18,234 150 35 18,419 22,245 1993 14,032 6,447 20,479 180 276 20,935 24,699 1994 15,289 6,857 22,146 225 862 23,233 26,827 1995 16,448 7,505 23,953 359 1,259 25,571 28,900 1996 17,496 7,668 25,164 616 1,273 27,053 29,976 1997 17,131 7,809 24,940 718 1,263 26,921 29,258 
1998 16,975 8,028 25,003 916 1,316 27,235 29,188 

1999 17,171 7,805 24,976 1,032 1,367 27,375 28,952 2000 17,359 7,860 25,219 1,110 1,510 27,829 28,878 2001 18,153 8,188 26,341 1,208 1,448 28,997 29,369 2002 20,037 8,926 28,963 1,358 1,545 31,866 31,866

1 Includes the following programs: section 8 Low-Income Housing Assistance, section 202/811 Housing for the Elderly and the Disabled, 

section 236 Rental Housing Assistance, Rent Supplement, section 235 Homeownership Assistance.

2 Includes the following programs: Public Housing Capital, Public Housing operating Subsidies, Public Housing Drug Elimination Grants, 

Revitalization of Severely Distressed Public Housing, Low-Rent Public Housing Loan Fund, Indian Housing Block Grants.

3 Includes the following programs: Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS (HOPWA), Homeless Assistance Grants, Supplemental

Assistance for Facilities to Assist the Homeless, Emergency Shelter Grants, Supportive Housing, Shelter Plus Care Program, Section 8 Moderate Rehabilitation for Single Room Occupancy Dwellings, Innovative Homeless Initiatives Demonstration Program.

4 Includes the following programs: HOME Investment Partnerships Program, Nehemiah Housing Opportunity Grant Program, Rental 

Housing Development Grants (HoDAG), Rental Rehabilitation Block Grant Program

5 In order to reflect trends more accurately, figures have been adjusted to account for advance spending in certain years. In 1995, $1.2 billion 

of spending occurred that should have occurred in 1996. In 1998, $680 million of spending occurred that should have occurred in 1999. The Congressional Budget office protects also expects that $680 million of spending will occur in 2000 that should occur in 2001.

Note--The bulge in outlays for public housing in 1985 is caused by a change in the method of financing public housing, which generated close to $14 billion in one-time expenditures. That amount paid off—all at once the —capital cost of public housing construction and 

modernization activities undertaken between 1974 and 1985, which otherwise would have been paid off over periods of up to 40 years. 

Because of that expenditure, however, outlays for public housing since that time have been lower than they would have been otherwise. 

Dollar calculated using GDP deflator.

Source: Congressional Budget office based on data from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
15-112 

only) range from 22 cents for full-price meals to $1.20 and 90 cents for free and 

reduced-price breakfasts, respectively.76 Fiscal year 2002 Federal school breakfast 

funding totaled about $1.5 billion (Table 15-27). 

 

TABLE 15-26-- SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM PARTICIPATION AND 

FEDERAL COSTS, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1980-2002 

[In millions]

Participation1 Federal costs Fiscal 

year Free 

meals 

Reducedprice meals Full-price 

meals2 Total3 Current 

dollars4

Constant 2002 

dollars 

1980 10.0 1.9 14.0 26.6 $287.8 6,808.5 

1985 9.9 1.6 12.1 23.6 379.3 5,090.4 

1990 9.9 1.7 12.6 24.2 589.1 5,110.4 

1991 10.3 1.8 12.1 24.2 677.2 5,389.7 

1992 11.2 1.7 11.7 24.6 782.6 5,747.9 

1993 11.8 1.7 11.3 24.8 868.4 5,814.6 

1994 12.2 1.8 11.3 25.3 958.7 6,067.7 

1995 12.5 1.9 11.3 25.7 1,181.8 6,028.6 

1996 12.7 2.0 11.3 26.0 1,124.2 6,254.7 

1997 13.0 2.2 11.3 26.4 1,212.7 6,415.6 

1998 13.1 2.2 11.3 26.6 1,299.6 6,469.4 

1999 13.0 2.4 11.6 27.0 1,354.8 6,755.8 

2000 13.0 2.5 11.8 27.3 6,332.1 6,634.0 

2001 12.9 2.6 12.0 27.5 6,582.2 6,680.9 

2002 13.4 2.6 12.0 28.0 6,892.1 6,892.1 

1

 In order to reflect participation for the actual school year (September through May), these estimates are 

based on 9 month averages of October through May, plus September, rather than averages of the 12 

months of the fiscal year (October through September). 

2 The Federal Government provides a small subsidy for these meals. 

3

 Details may not sum to total because of rounding. 

4

 Includes cash payments and the value of “entitlement” commodities; does not include the value 

of “bonus” commodities. Overstates actual support for school lunches because a portion (less than 

$75 million a year) of commodity support included in the figures is used for other child 

nutrition programs. 

Note- Constant dollars were calculated using the fiscal year CPI-U. 

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service (FNS): (1) budget justification 

materials prepared by the FNS for appropriations requests for fiscal years 1980-2004; and (2) monthly 

“Program Information Report” summaries prepared by the FNS. 

SPECIAL SUPPLEMENTAL NUTRITION PROGRAM FOR WOMEN, 

INFANTS, AND CHILDREN (WIC) 

 The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and 

Children (the WIC Program) provides food assistance, nutrition risk screening, and 

related services (e.g., nutrition education and breastfeeding support) to low-income 

pregnant and postpartum women and their infants, as well as to low-income 

 

76 Subsidies are substantially higher (about 23 cents more) for schools in which breakfast service is 

required by State law or at least 40 percent of lunches are served free or at reduced price. Most 

schools receive these extra subsidies for free and reduced-price breakfasts.
15-113 

children up to age 5. Participants in the program must have family income at or 

below 185 percent of poverty, and must be judged to be nutritionally at risk. 

Nutrition risk is defined as detectable abnormal nutritional conditions; documented 

nutritionally-related medical conditions; health-impairing dietary deficiencies; or 

conditions that predispose people to inadequate nutrition or nutritionally related 

medical problems. 

 

TABLE 15-27--SCHOOL BREAKFAST PROGRAM PARTICIPATION AND 

FEDERAL COSTS, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1980-2002 

[In millions]

Participation1 Federal costs Fiscal 

Year Free 

meals 

Reducedprice meals Full-price 

meals2 Total3 Current 

dollars4

Constant 2002 

dollars 

1980 2.8 0.2 0.6 3.6 287.8 643.5 

1985 2.9 0.2 0.4 3.4 379.3 636.3 

1990 3.3 0.2 0.5 4.0 589.1 818.9 

1991 3.6 0.2 0.6 4.4 677.2 896.1 

1992 4.0 0.3 0.6 4.9 782.6 1,005.3 

1993 4.4 0.3 0.7 5.4 868.4 1,082.7 

1994 4.8 0.3 0.7 5.8 958.7 1,164.7 

1995 5.1 0.4 0.8 6.3 1,181.8 1,396.5 

1996 5.3 0.4 0.9 6.6 1,124.2 1,292.3 

1997 5.5 0.5 1.0 7.0 1,212.7 1,357.9 

1998 5.6 0.5 1.0 7.2 1,299.6 1,431.8 

1999 5.7 0.6 1.1 7.4 1,354.8 1,464.5 

2000 5.7 0.6 1.2 7.5 1,422.9 1,490.7 

2001 5.8 0.7 1.3 7.8 1,468.3 1,490.2 

2002 6.0 0.7 1.4 8.1 1,541.0 1,541.0 1

 In order to reflect participation for the actual school year (September through May), these 

estimates are based on 9 month averages of October through May, plus September, rather than 

averages of the 12 months of the fiscal year (October through September). 

2 The Federal Government provides a small subsidy for these meals. 

3

 Details may not sum to total because of rounding. 

4

 Does not include the value of any federally donated commodities. Fiscal year 1995 figure for Federal 

costs is not reduced for a “write-down” of approximately $50-$80 million for unclaimed obligations. 

Note-Constant dollars were calculated using the fiscal year CPI-U. 

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service (FNS): (1) budget justification 

materials prepared by the FNS for appropriations requests for fiscal years 1980-2004; and (2) 

monthly “Program Information Report” summaries prepared by the FNS. 

 

 Beneficiaries of the WIC Program receive supplemental foods each month in 

the form of actual food items or, more commonly, vouchers for purchases of 

specific items in retail stores. The law requires that the WIC Program provide foods 

containing protein, iron, calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin C, and allows Federal 

limits on the foods that may be provided by the WIC Program. Among the items 

that may be included in a food package are milk, cheese, eggs, infant formula, 

cereals, and fruit or vegetable juices. U.S. Department of Agriculture regulations 

require tailored food packages that provide specified types and amounts of food 

appropriate for six categories of participants: (1) infants from birth to 3 months; 
15-114 

(2) infants from 4 to 12 months; (3) women and children with special dietary needs; 

(4) children from 1 to 5 years of age; (5) pregnant and nursing mothers; and 

(6) postpartum nonnursing mothers. In addition to food benefits, recipients also 

must receive nutrition education and breast-feeding support (where called for). 

 The Federal cost of providing WIC benefits varies widely depending on the 

recipient and the foods included in the food package, as well as differences in retail 

prices (where vouchers are used), food costs (where the WIC agency buys and 

distributes food), and administrative costs (including the significant costs of 

nutrition risk screening, breastfeeding support, and nutrition education). Moreover, 

the program’s food costs are significantly influenced by the degree to which States 

gain rebates from infant formula manufacturers under a requirement to pursue “cost 

containment” strategies; these rebates total over $1.5 billion a year nationwide and 

pay for the cost of serving a significant portion of the WIC population. In fiscal 

year 2002, the national average Federal cost of a WIC food package (after rebates) 

was $35 a month, and, for each participant, the average monthly “administrative” 

cost (including nutrition risk assessments and nutrition education) was about $13. 

 The WIC Program has categorical, income, and nutrition risk requirements 

for eligibility. Only pregnant and postpartum women, infants, and children under 

age 5 may participate. As noted above, WIC applicants must show evidence of 

health or nutrition risk, medically verified by a health professional, in order to 

qualify. They also must have family income below 185 percent of the most recent 

Federal poverty guidelines (about $28,200 a year for a three-person family in fiscal 

year 2004). State WIC agencies may (but seldom do) set lower income eligibility 

cutoff points. Receipt of TANF, food stamps, or Medicaid assistance also can 

satisfy the WIC Program’s income test, and States may consider pregnant women 

meeting the income test “presumptively” eligible until a nutritional risk evaluation 

is made. Drawing on a 2002 study, almost two-thirds of WIC enrollees had family 

income below the Federal poverty guidelines, 10 percent of WIC enrollees were 

cash welfare (TANF) recipients, 18 percent received food stamps, and 54 percent 

were covered by Medicaid. 

 WIC participants receive benefits for a specified period of time, and in some 

cases must be recertified during this period to show continuing need. Pregnant 

women may continue to receive benefits throughout their pregnancy and for up to 6 

months after childbirth, without recertification. Nursing mothers are certified at 

6-month intervals, ending with their infant’s first birthday. 

 The WIC Program, which is federally funded but administered by State and 

local health agencies, does not serve all who are eligible. It is not an “entitlement” 

program, and participation is limited by the amount of Federal funding 

appropriated, whatever State supplementary funding is provided, and the extent of 

manufacturers’ infant formula rebates. In fiscal year 2002, Federal spending was 

$4.37 billion, and the program served a monthly average of 7.5 million women, 

infants, and children: 24 percent women, 25 percent infants, and 51 percent 

children. The administration’s most recent estimate of the total number of persons 

eligible and likely to apply for WIC benefits is 7.5 million persons, although other 
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sources suggest the number exceeds 8 million people. Table 15-28 summarizes 

WIC participation and Federal costs. 

TABLE 15-28--SPECIAL SUPPLEMENTAL NUTRITION PROGRAM FOR 

WOMAN, INFANTS, AND CHILDREN (WIC) PARTICIPATION AND 

FEDERAL SPENDING, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1977-2002 

 [Numbers in thousands, Dollars in millions]

Participation (9 month average) Federal spending Fiscal 

Year Women Infants Children Total1

 Current 

dollars2

Constant 2002 

dollars 

1977 165.0 213.0 471.0 848.0 $255.9 $767.5 

1980 411.0 507.0 995.0 1,913.0 724.7 1,620.5 

1985 665.0 874.0 1,600.0 3,138.0 1,488.9 2,497.7 

1990 1,035.0 1,412.5 2,069.4 4,516.9 2,125.9 2,955.1 

1991 1,120.1 1,558.8 2,213.8 4,892.6 2,301.1 3,045.1 

1992 1,221.5 1,684.1 2,505.2 5,410.8 2,566.5 3,296.9 

1993 1,364.9 1,741.9 2,813.4 5,920.3 2,819.5 3,515.2 

1994 1,499.2 1,786.3 3,191.7 6,477.2 3,159.8 3,838.8 

1995 1,576.8 1,817.3 3,500.1 6,894.2 3,451.0 4,078.0 

1996 1,648.2 1,827.3 3,712.3 7,187.8 3,688.3 4,239.8 

1997 1,710.5 1,863.0 3,835.4 7,408.9 3,845.7 4,306.0 

1998 1,733.3 1,882.8 3,749.2 7,365.3 3,895.8 4,292.0 

1999 1,742.5 1,897.6 3,671.4 7,311.5 3,955.6 4,275.9 

2000 1,750.0 1,894.2 3,554.0 7,198.1 3,976.4 4,166.0 

2001 1,779.7 1,921.2 3,604.6 7,305.6 4,147.3 4,209.5 

2002 1,812.2 1,928.2 3,748.2 7,488.6 4,372.3 4,372.3 

1

 Details may not sum to totals due to rounding. 

2 Includes funding for studies, surveys, pilots, and farmers’ market programs. Spending figures include 

adjustments for significant interyear carryovers and reflect spending by State WIC agencies derived both 

from current-year appropriations and prior-year amounts, adjusted for amounts carried forward into the 

next year. 

Note-Constant dollars were calculated using the fiscal year CPI-U. 

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service (FNS): (1) budget justification 

materials prepared by the FNS for appropriations requests for fiscal years 1980-2004; and 

(2) monthly “Program Information Report” summaries prepared by the FNS. 

CHILD AND ADULT CARE FOOD PROGRAM 

 The Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) is a permanently 

authorized entitlement under section 17 of the Richard B. Russell National School 

Lunch Act. It provides Federal subsidies for breakfasts, lunches, suppers, and 

snacks served in participating nonresidential child care centers (including homeless 

shelters, Head Start centers, and after school care centers) and family or group day 

care homes, as well as for snacks offered in outside-of-school programs.77 Sponsors 

 

77 CACFP subsidies also are available for meal services to chronically impaired adults and the elderly in 

adult day care centers under the same general terms and conditions as child care centers. However, few 

adult care centers participate (about 2,200 sites serving some 80,000 persons daily in fiscal year 2002), 
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giving administrative support for providers also are paid limited amounts for their 

costs. Subsidized meals and snacks must meet Federal nutrition standards, and 

providers must fulfill any State or local licensing/approval requirements or 

minimum alternative Federal requirements (or otherwise demonstrate that they 

comply with government-established standards for other child-care programs). 

Federal assistance is made up overwhelmingly of cash subsidies based on the 

number of meals/snacks served or paid for administration; about 3 percent is in the 

form of federally donated food commodities. CACFP subsidies to participating 

centers, homes, and outside-of-school programs are available for meals and snacks 

served to children age 12 or under (through age 18 in outside-of-school settings), 

migrant children age 15 or under, and handicapped children of any age, but 

preschool children form the majority. 

 At the Federal level, the program is administered by the Agriculture 

Department’s Food and Nutrition Service (FNS). At the State level, a variety of 

agencies have been designated as responsible by the individual States, and, in one 

State (Virginia), the FNS is the designated State agency. Federal CACFP payments 

flow to individual providers either directly from the State agency (this is the case 

with many child care centers able to handle their own administrative 

responsibilities) or through “sponsors” who oversee and provide support for a 

number of local providers (this is the case with some child care centers and all day 

care homes). The CACFP dates back to 1968, when Federal assistance for programs 

serving children outside of school (“special food service” programs) was first 

authorized. In 1975, the summer food service and child care components of this 

assistance were first formally separated as individual programs. 

 In fiscal year 2002, the cost of CACFP cash and commodity subsidies for 

meals/snacks, sponsors’ administrative costs, and a separate payment to State 

agencies for audit and oversight was $1.8 billion, up $100 million from 2001. Total 

average daily attendance in participating centers, homes, and outside-of-school 

programs was 2.7 million children, slightly higher than 2001 (2.6 million). 

CENTERS AND OUTSIDE-OF-SCHOOL PROGRAMS 

 Child care centers in the CACFP serve an average of 40-60 children and are 

of 5 types: (1) public or private nonprofit centers (including after school care 

centers), (2) Head Start centers, (3) for-profit proprietary centers (see restrictions 

noted below), (4) outside-of-school programs (often operated by schools), and (5) 

shelters for homeless families. In fiscal year 2002, some 42,000 centers/sites 

(17,000 sponsors) with an average daily attendance of 1.8 million children 

participated in the CACFP. Two-thirds of children in the CACFP were reached 

through centers or outside-of-school programs. Of these, 37 percent were in public 

or private nonprofit centers, 28 percent were in Head Start centers, 28 percent were 

 and Federal spending for them is a minor fraction of the total cost of the CACFP ($57 million in fiscal 

year 2002, or about 3 percent of overall CACFP spending). In limited cases, residential child care 

facilities may receive CACFP subsidies for snacks served in afterschool programs. 
15-117 

in for-profit center, and 7 percent were in outside-of-school programs. On the other 

hand, CACFP funding for centers/programs represented half of total CACFP 

spending, primarily because their subsidies are, for the most part, differentiated by 

individual children’s family income and larger administrative cost payments 

generally are provided for sponsors of day care homes (see below). Proprietary 

centers can be eligible in one of two ways: (1) if they receive Title XX funding for 

at least 25 percent of their enrollment, regardless of the income status of the 

children they serve (this includes cases in which Child Care and Development 

Block Grant and Title XX funds are “pooled” in such a way as to meet the 25 

percent requirement, even when Title XX money represents a minority of the 

pooled funding); or (2) if children representing at least 25 percent of their 

enrollment or licensed capacity have family income below 185 percent of the 

Federal poverty income guidelines (i.e., would be eligible for free or reduced price 

meals or snacks). However, authority to participate under the second rule is 

renewed annually under current law and may expire, except in three States 

(Delaware, Iowa, and Kentucky) where it is permanently in place. 

 Day care centers may receive daily subsidies for up to two meals and one 

snack or one meal and two snacks for each child, so long as they meet Federal 

nutrition standards. All meals and snacks served in centers are federally subsidized 

to at least some degree; different subsidies are provided for breakfasts, 

lunches/suppers, and snacks, and subsidy rates are set in law and indexed for 

inflation annually. However, cash subsidies vary according to the family income of 

each child, and applications for free or reduced-price meals and snacks normally 

must be taken. The largest subsidies are paid for meals and snacks served to 

children with family income below 130 percent of the Federal poverty income 

guidelines: for July 2003-June 2004, these subsidies are 60 cents for each snack, 

$1.20 for each breakfast, and $2.19 for each lunch/supper. Smaller subsidies are 

available for meals and snacks served at a reduced price (no more than 15 cents for 

snacks, 30 cents for breakfasts, and 40 cents for lunches/suppers) to children with 

family income between 130 and 185 percent of the poverty guidelines: for July 

2003-June 2004, these are 30 cents for snacks, 90 cents for breakfasts, and 

$1.79 for lunches/suppers. The smallest subsidies are paid for meals and snacks 

served to children who do not qualify or apply for free or reduced-price meals and 

snacks: for July 2003-June 2004, these are 5 cents for snacks, 22 cents for 

breakfasts, and 21 cents for lunches and suppers. “Independent” centers (those 

without sponsors handling administrative responsibilities) must pay for 

administrative costs associated with the CACFP out of non-Federal funds or a 

portion of their meal subsidy payments. In other cases, center sponsors may retain a 

proportion of the meal subsidy payments they receive on behalf of their centers to 

cover their costs. Finally, Federal commodity assistance is available to centers, 

generally valued at about 15 cents a meal. 

 While Federal subsidies for centers differ by the income of the child served 

the meal/snack, there is no requirement that “free” or “reduced-price” meals/snacks 

be served. Centers may adjust their fees to account for Federal subsidies or charge 
15-118 

separately for meals to account for the subsidies; the CACFP itself does not 

regulate the fees they charge. 

 In addition to the regular CACFP, public and private nonprofit organizations 

(including child care centers and schools) operating after-school programs any 

receive CACFP subsidies for snacks served free in their programs to children 

(through age 18) in lower-income areas, at the free snack rate noted above. In 

Delaware, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Pennsylvania, New York, and Oregon, 

Federal subsidies also are offered for free suppers, at the free lunch/supper rate 

noted above. 

FAMILY AND GROUP DAY CARE HOMES 

 CACFP-subsidized day care homes serve an average of 4-6 children; just 

under 40 percent of children in the CACFP are in day care homes, and about half 

the money spent under the CACFP supports meals and snacks served in homes. In 

fiscal year 2002, 165,000 home sites (with some 1,000 sponsors) received subsidies 

for an average daily attendance of some 900,000 children. As with centers, 

payments are provided for no more than two meals and one snack (or one meal and 

two snacks) a day for each child. Unlike centers, day care homes must participate 

under the auspices of a public or (most often) private nonprofit sponsor that 

typically has 100 or more homes under its supervision; CACFP day care home 

sponsors receive monthly administrative payments (separate from meal subsidies) 

based on the number of homes for which they are responsible. Also unlike centers, 

day care homes receive cash subsidies (but not commodities) that generally do not 

differ by individual children’s family income. Instead, there are two distinct 

subsidy rates. “Tier I” homes (those located in low-income areas or operated by 

low-income providers) receive higher subsidies for each meal/snack they serve: for 

July 2003-June 2004, all lunches and suppers are subsidized at $1.83 each, all 

breakfasts at 99 cents, and all snacks at 54 cents. “Tier II” homes (those not located 

in low-income areas or without low-income providers) receive smaller subsidies: 

for July 2003-June 2004, these are $1.10 for lunches/suppers, 37 cents for 

breakfasts, and 15 cents for snacks. However, Tier II providers may seek the higher 

Tier I subsidy rates for individual low-income children for whom financial 

information is collected and verified. 

WORKFORCE INVESTMENT ACT (WIA) 

WIA, enacted in August 1998, repealed the Job Training Partnership Act 

(JTPA) on July 1, 2000, and replaced it with Title I of WIA, Workforce Investment 

Systems. The purpose of WIA is to provide workforce investment activities that 

increase the employment, retention, and earnings of participants. WIA programs 

are intended to increase occupational skills attainment by participants, and, as a 

result, improve the quality of the workforce, reduce welfare dependency, and 

enhance the productivity and competitiveness of the Nation. WIA authorizes 

several job training programs including Adult Employment and Training Activities, 
15-119 

Youth Activities, and Job Corps. 

 Under WIA’s adult program, adults receive services through a coordinated 

service delivery system overseen by local workforce investment boards.78 This 

system, called the “One-Stop” system, is intended to provide a “seamless” system 

of services to improve employment opportunities for individuals. Through onestop centers individuals receive core services, such as outreach, initial assessment 

of skills and needs, and job search and placement assistance. Through one-stop 

centers, eligible individuals also receive access to intensive services such as 

comprehensive assessments and development of individual employment plans, and 

to training services such as occupational skills training and on-the job training. 

 Anyone age 18 and older is eligible to receive core services. To be eligible to 

receive intensive services, an individual has to have received at least one core 

service, have been unable to obtain or retain employment through core services and 

need intensive services to obtain or retain employment. To be eligible to receive 

training services, an individual has to have received at least one intensive service, 

have been unable to obtain or retain employment through such services, have the 

skills and qualifications to successfully participate in select training programs that 

are directly linked to employment opportunities in the local area, and be unable to 

obtain other grant assistance, including Pell grants, or need assistance above the 

levels provided by such other grants. 

 As shown in Table 15-29 of WIA adult participants who received intensive or 

training services and exited the program during program year 2001,79 43 percent 

were white, 29 percent were black, and 22 percent were Hispanic. Seventy-three 

percent were low-income and 80 percent were unemployed at the time of entry in 

the program. 

 Among the 73 percent of low-income “exiters” who received intensive or 

training services, 44 percent received intensive services only and 56 percent 

received training services. Of the low-income exiters who received intensive or 

training services and were unemployed at entry, 72 percent entered employment in 

the first quarter after exit. Of all low-income exiters who received intensive or 

training services, the average earnings of those with earnings in the first quarter 

after exit was $3,649.80

 Under WIA’s youth program, youth, who are generally required to be lowincome, receive services such as tutoring and study skills training, alternative high 

school services, and summer youth opportunities. Services to youth are provided 

through grants to providers made on a competitive basis. At least 

 

78 Under WIA’s adult and youth programs, funds are allocated to states by a statutory formula. 

States, in turn, allocate at least 85 percent of the funds to local workforce investment boards. 79 Program year 2001 for WIA programs is July 1, 2001 through June 30, 2002. 80 The information on entered employment and average earnings is for persons who exited the program 

from October 1, 2000 to September 30, 2001. Individuals who were reported as institutionalized or 

deceased at exit and those who had medical conditions that precluded continued participation in WIA or 

entry into employment are excluded from the percentages. 
15-120 

30 percent of the funds allocated to local areas have to be spent on activities for 

out-of-school youth. 

 

TABLE 15-29--CHARACTERISTICS OF WIA ADULT EXITERS WHO 

RECEIVED INTENSIVE OR TRAINING SERVICES, 

PROGRAM YEAR 20011

Selected Characteristics Percent 

Sex: 

Male 42 

Female 58 

Race/Ethnicity: 

Hispanic 22 

Non-Hispanic white (only) 43 

Black or African American (only) 29 

Other 6 

Age at enrollment: 

18-21 11 

22-29 28 

30-54 55 

55 and older 6 

Low income 73 

Receiving TANF 11 

Receiving public assistance (including TANF) 16 

Unemployment Compensation claimant 14 

Employed at registration: 

Employed 20 

Not employed 80 

Highest Grade Completed: 

Less than High School Graduate 20 

High School Graduate/Equivalent 56 

Post High School 24 1

 The number of exiters for fiscal year 2001 who received intensive or training services is 135,448. 

Source: Program Year 2001 WIASRD Data Book, September 3, 2003. Social Policy Research 

Associates, prepared for U.S. Department of Labor. 

 

 As shown in Table 15-30, of WIA youth participants who exited the program 

during program year 2001, 28 percent were white, 33 percent were black, and 34 

percent were Hispanic. Ninety-four percent were low-income. 

 In FY2003, an estimated $899 million is expected to be spent to serve 

545,600 adults under WIA Adult Activities, and an estimated $994 million is 

expected to be spent to serve 445,800 youth under Youth Activities. Data on 

participation and budget authority for recent years are provided in Table 15-31. 

 Job Corps, authorized by Title I-C of WIA, serves low-income youth 

ages 16-24 who demonstrate both the need for and the ability to benefit from an 

intensive and wide array of training, career development, job placement, and 

support services in a residential setting. The program is administered by DOL 

through contracts with large and small corporations and nonprofit organizations for 
15-121 

the operation of 90 centers, and through interagency agreements with the U.S. 

Departments of Agriculture and the Interior for the operation of 28 additional 

centers on public lands. 

TABLE 15-30--CHARACTERISTICS OF WIA YOUTH EXITERS, 

PROGRAM YEAR 2001 

Selected Characteristics Percent1

Sex: 

Male 47 

Female 53 

Race/Ethnicity: 

Hispanic 34 

Non-Hispanic white (only) 28 

Black or African American (only) 33 

Other 5 

Age at enrollment: 

14-15 33 

16-17 37 

18 13 

19-21 18 

Low income 94 

Receiving TANF 13 

Receiving public assistance (including TANF) 18 

Unemployment Compensation claimant 1 

Highest Grade Completed: 

Less than High School Graduate 86 

High School Graduate/Equivalent 13 

Post High School 1 

Education Status at Registration: 

Attending High School or Below 69 

Attending Post-Secondary School 2 

High School Drop-out 17 

High School Graduate/Equivalent 11 

Average Weeks Participated 40 

Total exiters 126,348 

1

 Percent except average weeks participated, and total exiters. Percentages under headings may not 

add to one hundred due to round.

Source: Program Year 2001 WIASRD Data Book, September 3, 2003. Social Policy Research 

Associates, prepared for U.S. Department of Labor. 

 In program year 2001 (July 1, 2001-June 30, 2002), nearly 68,000 new 

students enrolled in Job Corps Centers, 60 percent of whom were male. In that 

same year, 47 percent of new students were African-American, 29 percent were 

white, 18 percent were Hispanic, 4 percent were American Indian, and 2 percent 

were Asian or Pacific Islanders. Seventy-seven percent of new students had 

dropped out of high school; the average grade level for reading at enrollment was 
15-122 

7.5. Twenty percent of new students in program year 2001 came from families on 

public assistance. 

 TABLE 15-31--WIA JOB TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR ADULTS 

AND YOUTH: NEW ENROLLEES, FEDERAL APPROPRIATIONS, AND 

OUTLAYS, FISCAL YEARS 1999-2003 

[Appropriations and Outlays in millions of dollars]

Fiscal Year Program Participants Appropriations Outlays 

Adult 324,800 955 884 

1999 Youth 120,000 130 181 

Adult 268,700 950 797 

2000 Youth 307,200 1,001 431 

Adult 398,500 950 759 

2001 Youth 375,500 1,128 723 

Adult 475,200 945 1,078 

2002 Youth 396,500 1,128 1,072 

Adult 545,600 899 968 2003 

(est.) Youth 445,800 994 1,140 

Source: Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Financial and 

Administrative Services. 

 

 Of all Job Corps members who left the program in program year 2001, 

76 percent were placed in jobs, full-time advanced education or training, or the 

military. The average length of stay in Job Corps in program year 2001 was 

7.6 months. 

In FY2003, an estimated $1.5 billion is expected to be spent to serve 68,454 

youth under the Job Corps. Data on participation and budget authority for recent 

years are provided in Table 15-32. 

TABLE 15-32--JOB CORPS FEDERAL APPROPRIATIONS, OUTLAYS, 

AND NEW ENROLLEES, FISCAL YEARS, 1999-2003 

[Appropriations and Outlays in millions of dollars]

Year Appropriations Outlays New enrollees 

1999 1,308 1,154 70,565 

2000 1,358 1,253 71,487 

2001 1,399 1,291 67,833 

2002 1,454 1,467 64,043 

2003 est. 1,513 1,550 68,454 

Source: Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Office of Job Corps. 

HEAD START 

 Head Start began operating in 1965 under the general authority of the 

Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. Head Start provides a wide range of services to 
15-123 

primarily low-income children, ages 0 to 5, and their families. Its goals are to 

improve the social competence, learning skills, and health and nutrition status of 

low-income children so that they can begin school on an equal basis with their 

peers from higher-income households. The services provided include cognitive and 

language development; medical, dental, and mental health services (including 

screening and immunizations); and nutritional and social services. Parental 

involvement is extensive, through both volunteer participation and employment of 

parents as Head Start staff. Formal training and certification as child care workers is 

provided to some parents through the Child Development Associate Program. 

Head Start’s eligibility guidelines require that at least 90 percent of the 

children served come from families with incomes at or below the poverty line. At 

least 10 percent of the enrollment slots in each local program must be available for 

children with disabilities. In fiscal year 2002, 912,345 children were served in Head 

Start Programs, at a total Federal cost of $6.5 billion. In May 2002, 21 percent of 

Head Start families received TANF benefits. Table 15-33 provides historical data 

on participation in and funding of the Head Start Program, while Table 15-34 

provides characteristics of children enrolled in the program.

TABLE 15-33--HEAD START ENROLLMENT AND FEDERAL 

FUNDING, FISCAL YEARS 1965-2002 

Fiscal year Enrollment Appropriations 

(in millions of dollars) 

1965 (summer only) 561,000 96.4 

1966 733,000 198.9 

1967 681,400 349.2 

1968 693,900 316.2 

1969 663,600 333.9 

1970 477,400 325.7 

1971 397,500 360.0 

1972 379,000 376.3 

1973 379,000 400.7 

1974 352,800 403.9 

1975 349,000 403.9 

1976 349,000 441.0 

1977 333,000 475.0 

1978 391,400 625.0 

1979 387,500 680.0 

1980 376,300 735.0 

1981 387,300 818.7 

1982 395,800 911.7 

1983 414,950 912.0 

1984 442,140 995.8 

1985 452,080 1,075.0 

1986 451,732 1,040.0 

1987 446,523 1,130.5 

1988 448,464 1,206.3 

1989 450,970 1,235.0 
15-124 

TABLE 15-33--HEAD START ENROLLMENT AND FEDERAL 

FUNDING, FISCAL YEARS 1965-2002-continued

Fiscal year Enrollment Appropriations 

(in millions of dollars) 

1990 548,470 1,552.01

1991 583,471 1,951.8 

1992 621,078 2,201.8 

1993 713,903 2,776.3 

1994 740,493 3,325.7 

1995 750,696 3,534.1 

1996 752,077 3,569.3 

1997 793,809 3,980.5 

1998 822,316 4,347.4 

1999 835,365 4,658.2 

2000 857,664 5,266.2 

2001 905,235 6,199.1 

2002 912,345 6,536.6 

1

 After sequestration. 

Source: Head Start Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 

LOW-INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM (LIHEAP) 

BACKGROUND 

The Low-Income Home Energy Assistance program (LIHEAP) is a block 

grant program under which the Federal government gives annual grants to States, 

the District of Columbia, U.S. territories and Commonwealths, and Indian tribal 

organizations in order to operate home energy assistance programs for low-income 

households. Originally established in 1981 by Title XXVI of Public Law 97-35, the 

program has been reauthorized and amended several times, most recently in 1998, 

when Public Law 105-185 reauthorized LIHEAP through FY2004. The statute 

authorizes appropriations for both regular LIHEAP grants and for contingency 

funds. This program is operated out of the Division of Energy Assistance in the 

Office of Community Services, Administration for Children and Families, within 

the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 

Regular funds are allocated to States according to a three-tier formula 

prescribed in the LIHEAP statute as amended by the Human Services 

Reauthorization Act (HSRA) of 1984 (Public Law 98-558). The particular tier used 

for the allocations is determined by the size of the appropriation for that fiscal year. 

For funding levels below $1.975 billion a Tier I rate, determined in 1981, is 

applied. For allocations from $1.975 up to $2.25 billion a new Tier II rate is 

applied. At the Tier II rate, States are subject to a hold-harmless level where their 

new Tier II allocation must be at least as great as the allocation the State received in 

1984. Those States with the greatest percentage increase in their allocations and 

which are not at a hold-harmless level must have their allocations ratably reduced 
TABLE 15-34--CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN ENROLLED IN HEAD START, 

 SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1980-2002 

Age of Children Enrolled Enrollment by Race Fiscal 

Year Disabled 5 and older 4 3 Under 3 Native American Hispanic Black White Asian 

1980 12 21 55 24 0 4 19 42 34 1 1982 12 17 55 26 2 4 20 42 33 1 1984 12 16 56 26 2 4 20 42 33 1 1986 12 15 58 25 2 4 21 40 32 3 1988 13 11 63 23 3 4 22 39 32 3 1990 14 8 64 25 3 4 22 38 33 3 

1991 13 7 63 27 3 4 22 38 33 3 1992 13 7 63 27 3 4 23 37 33 3 1993 13 6 64 27 3 4 24 36 33 3 1994 13 7 62 28 3 4 24 36 33 3 1995 13 7 62 27 4 4 25 35 33 3 1996 13 6 62 29 4 4 25 36 32 3 1997 13 5 60 30 4 4 26 36 31 3 1998 13 6 59 31 4 3 26 36 32 3 

1999 13 5 58 33 4 3 27 35 31 3 2000 13 5 56 33 6 3 29 35 30 3 2001 13 4 54 35 7 4 30 34 30 2 2002 13 5 52 36 7 3 30 33 28 3 Source: Head Start Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 
15-126 

until the hold-harmless provision for States below that level is met. The Tier II 

formula is required by law to account for variations in heating and cooling needs of 

the States, variations in types of energy used, variations in energy prices, and 

variations in the low-income population and their heating and cooling methods, 

while using the most current data available. 

For funding levels at or above $2.25 billion a Tier III rate is applied. The 

Tier III rate uses the Tier II methodology but there are additional requirements for 

distributing funds. States that would have received less than 1 percent of a total 

$2.25 billion allocation must be allocated funds using the rate they would have 

experienced at a hypothetical $2.14 billion allocation (if this rate is greater than the 

calculated rate at $2.25 billion). In both the Tier II and Tier III rates, a State will 

not be allocated fewer funds than the State received in 1984. However, the 

proportion of total regular funds each State receives may differ substantially from 

the proportion received in 1984. 

For FY2003 the LIHEAP appropriation was $1.7 billion with an additional 

$100 million transferred from the FY2001 Supplemental Appropriations. The total 

of $1.8 billion was then subject to a 0.65 percent rescission, resulting in an 

allocation for regular LIHEAP funds in FY2003 of $1,788,300,000. 

Contingency funds are released and allocated at the discretion of the 

President and the Secretary of HHS and can be done at any point in the fiscal year. 

In FY2003, $200 million in supplemental contingency funds were released to 

States in January. All States in FY2003 received a proportion of these contingency 

funds, which were primarily allocated in the same manner as regular LIHEAP 

funds. 

Table 15-35 displays LIHEAP allocations by State (including 

tribal organizations but excluding U.S. territories). As noted in the table’s 

footnotes, the funding allotments include LIHEAP contingency funds released 

in a given fiscal year. 

FEDERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ALLOTMENTS 

 Decisions regarding LIHEAP are made by the States under broad Federal 

rules. Federal rules allow States to use LIHEAP funds for the following activities: 

aid in paying heating or cooling bills; low-cost weatherization projects (limited to 

15 percent of allotment unless the grantee has a waiver for up to 25 percent); 

services to reduce the need for energy assistance (limited to 5 percent of allotment); 

assistance with energy-related emergencies (with a reasonable amount reserved, 

based on prior years’ data, until March 15 of each program year); and development 

or implementation of a leveraging incentive program that may be used by grantees 

to attract funds from non-Federal sources. Up to 10 percent of LIHEAP funds may 

be used for administrative and planning costs. Federal rules also allow carryover of 

up to 10 percent funds into the next fiscal year. 

States decide the mix and dollar range of benefits, choose how benefits are 

provided, and decide which agencies will administer the program. When paying 

home energy suppliers directly, States are required to give HHS assurances that 

suppliers will charge the eligible households the difference between the amount of 
15-127 

the assistance and the actual cost of home energy. Also, States may use LIHEAP 

funds to provide tax credits to energy suppliers that supply home energy to 

low-income households at reduced rates. Tables 15-36 and 15-37 present estimates 

by State for FY2001 of total dollars spent on heating, cooling, emergency, and 

weatherization assistance as well as the number of households receiving benefits 

and average benefits (as of Fall 2003, these are the latest data available). 

TABLE 15-35--LOW-INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM 

STATE ALLOTMENTS, FISCAL YEARS 1999-2003 

[In thousands of dollars] 

State 19991

 20002 20013 20024 20035

Alabama $9,225 $11,040 $15,475 $14,362 $16,214 

Alaska 5,888 9,177 9,912 9,168 11,168 

Arizona 4,461 4,807 7,291 8,768 7,816 

Arkansas 7,039 7,681 11,829 10,959 12,333 

California 49,489 53,320 84,164 77,049 86,715 

Colorado 17,255 18,591 29,545 28,861 30,240 

Connecticut 25,633 34,424 38,737 36,651 43,809 

Delaware 3,682 5,388 5,098 5,006 5,766 

District of Columbia 4,581 3,883 5,935 5,742 6,269 

Florida 14,596 16,892 22,841 22,725 25,871 

Georgia 11,541 13,698 19,494 17,968 20,315 

Hawaii 1,162 1,252 1,755 1,809 2,036 

Idaho 6,731 7,264 10,785 11,372 12,035 

Illinois 78,262 67,127 107,759 105,174 109,621 

Indiana 35,353 30,393 48,219 47,632 50,205 

Iowa 23,491 22,033 34,463 32,245 35,516 

Kansas 12,488 9,892 15,880 15,304 16,090 

Kentucky 22,430 16,345 24,160 26,052 26,076 

Louisiana 9,431 10,161 15,794 14,683 16,531 

Maine 15,365 32,377 24,716 22,704 29,684 

Maryland 20,812 23,359 29,262 28,414 32,063 

Massachusetts 52,790 71,712 77,358 74,300 86,090 

Michigan 63,103 63,731 102,991 99,822 105,368 

Minnesota 45,696 47,461 72,968 68,606 77,485 

Mississippi 7,909 9,649 13,313 12,313 13,868 

Missouri 32,524 27,196 42,252 41,055 43,753 

Montana 7,895 8,506 13,198 12,879 13,967 

Nebraska 12,022 10,711 17,072 16,794 17,439 

Nevada 2,095 2,258 3,418 4,575 3,698 

New Hampshire 9,297 17,629 14,544 13,269 16,923 

New Jersey 50,855 67,290 72,660 69,879 78,880 

New Mexico 5,585 6,018 9,563 8,696 9,787 

New York 164,971 209,880 236,852 228,349 260,507 

North Carolina 47,176 29,038 33,535 35,753 38,071 

North Dakota 8,576 9,715 14,411 13,823 15,633 

Ohio 63,606 59,384 94,532 94,545 98,149 

Oklahoma 8,480 9,136 14,445 13,202 14,852 

Oregon 13,373 14,409 21,082 22,458 23,960 

Pennsylvania 86,271 106,313 126,165 121,386 136,651 
15-128 

TABLE 15-35--LOW-INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM 

STATE ALLOTMENTS, FISCAL YEARS 1999-2003-continued 

[In thousands of dollars] 

State 19991

 20002 20013 20024 20035

Rhode Island 9,133 13,420 12,883 12,328 14,202 

South Carolina 7,326 10,182 12,100 13,347 13,378 

South Dakota 6,965 8,291 11,805 11,404 12,622 

Tennessee 14,871 16,022 23,786 23,152 26,385 

Texas 24,284 26,163 40,597 37,807 42,543 

Utah 8,018 8,639 13,822 13,438 14,105 

Vermont 6,863 10,228 10,809 9,946 12,601 

Virginia 28,635 28,742 34,492 35,827 39,070 

Washington 21,997 23,700 34,423 34,248 39,250 

West Virginia 12,607 10,496 16,129 16,336 17,355 

Wisconsin 42,851 42,153 65,903 62,426 69,545 

Wyoming 3,210 3,459 5,460 5,326 5,629 

U.S. total 1,247,899 1,370,633 1,825,683 1,769,935 1,958,134 

1

 Includes reallotment of $2,204,442 in fiscal year 1998 block grant funds and $175,298,765 in 

emergency contingency funds. 

2

 Includes $744,350,000 in emergency contingency funds, including $400 million in FY2000 

contingency funds released in late September 2000, making it effectively available to States in FY2001. 

3

 Includes $455,650,000 in emergency contingency funds. 

4

 Includes $100,000,000 in emergency contingency funds. 

5

 Includes $200,000,000 in emergency contingency funds. The final FY2003 appropriations included 

$1.688 billion in new regular funds and converted $100 million of the contingency funds originally 

appropriated in FY2001 into regular funds. 

Note-Columns may not add due to rounding. The table includes payments to Indian tribal organizations 

and excludes payments to the insular areas. 

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 

TABLE 15-36--LOW-INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM 

ESTIMATED HEATING AND COOLING ASSISTANCE AND AVERAGE 

BENEFITS, FISCAL YEAR 20011

Heating assistance Cooling assistance 

State Assisted 

Households

Amount 

 of 

Assistance 

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Assisted 

Households

Amount 

of 

Assistance

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Alabama 53,209 $6,952,037 $130 20,375 $2,380,428 $116 

Alaska 7,549 8,704,243 1,149 0 0 0 

Arizona 17,222 4,982,615 289 0 0 0 

Arkansas 53,288 6,164,464 116 0 0 0 

California 134,236 31,063,739 266 0 0 0 

Colorado 76,470 43,836,549 573 0 0 0 

Connecticut 78,976 37,545,257 475 0 0 0 

Delaware 10,985 3,194,550 239 4,266 1,050,000 224 

District of Columbia 18,879 6,918,699 366 0 0 0 

Florida 20,215 2,117,897 105 38,755 3,960,450 102 

Georgia 130,120 17,313,858 132 12,568 2,515,840 200 

Hawaii 5,937 1,509,047 257 0 0 0 

Idaho 30,997 6,394,427 229 0 0 0 

Illinois 181,201 119,427,603 501 0 0 0 
15-129 

TABLE 15-36--LOW-INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM 

ESTIMATED HEATING AND COOLING ASSISTANCE AND AVERAGE 

BENEFITS, FISCAL YEAR 20011

-continued

Heating assistance Cooling assistance 

State Assisted 

Households

Amount 

 of 

Assistance 

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Assisted 

Households

Amount 

of 

Assistance

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Indiana 128,608 37,812,921 294 24,799 954,013 38 

Iowa 83,728 43,775,132 523 0 0 0 

Kansas 28,027 10,140,405 467 0 0 0 

Kentucky 154,147 14,489,026 108 0 0 0 

Louisiana 1,738 2,351,796 210 26,649 7,055,390 140 

Maine 52,421 20,580,155 438 0 0 0 

Maryland 76,424 34,559,038 471 0 0 0 

Massachusetts 133,355 78,755,827 652 0 0 0 

Michigan 302,582 75,869,231 251 0 0 0 

Minnesota 110,341 58,851,989 562 0 0 0 

Mississippi 57,617 8,523,334 150 22,186 2,272,889 152 

Missouri 110,133 26,390,001 240 0 0 0 

Montana 16,769 7,994,730 475 0 0 0 

Nebraska 29,646 5,421,890 183 5,482 592,096 91 

Nevada 9,025 2,797,917 296 4,884 1,106,759 296 

New Hampshire 27,276 15,047,793 594 0 0 0 

New Jersey 121,419 64,413,570 339 27,447 2,747,000 100 

New Mexico 44,502 10,219,960 250 0 0 0 

New York 697,465 107,401,024 154 0 0 0 

North Carolina 150,445 11,843,457 70 0 0 0 

North Dakota 15,442 8,121,985 653 337 0 -- 

Ohio 245,305 46,510,148 196 0 0 0 

Oklahoma 60,383 19,189,305 318 14,025 2,088,735 149 

Oregon 73,043 16,135,232 220 0 0 0 

Pennsylvania 300,462 76,639,340 255 0 0 0 

Rhode Island 24,606 9,353,098 380 0 0 0 

South Carolina 50,589 4,997,258 110 0 0 0 

South Dakota 15,159 9,030,294 640 0 0 0 

Tennessee 60,206 13,760,997 246 6,107 1,189,292 203 

Texas 8,734 5,069,161 459 14,443 21,767,574 1,428 

Utah 31,233 12,329,322 391 0 0 0 

Vermont 18,483 13,189,281 805 0 0 0 

Virginia 84,237 25,624,956 288 15,763 3,244,192 213 

Washington 66,741 26,997,172 385 0 0 0 

West Virginia 45,332 9,061,501 200 11,762 1,810,692 150 

Wisconsin 115,881 68,479,467 470 0 0 0 

Wyoming 9,587 4,600,308 422 0 0 0 

Total2

 4,380,375 1,302,453,006 297 249,848 54,735,350 219 1 States provide all estimates in all categories. As a result the average household benefit is not the 

calculated average but rather the State estimated rate. 

2

 Includes leveraging incentive funds. 

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 
15-130 

ELIGIBILITY STANDARDS 

 Federal law limits eligibility to households with incomes up to 150 percent 

of the Federal poverty income guidelines (or, if higher, 60 percent of the State 

median income). States may adopt lower income limits, but these limits may not be 

less than 110 percent of the poverty guidelines. The term “household” is defined as 

any individual or group of individuals who are living together as one economic unit 

and for whom residential energy is customarily purchased in common, or who 

make undesignated payments for energy in the form of rent. States may choose to 

make eligible for LIHEAP assistance any household where at least one member is a 

recipient of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), Supplemental 

Security Income (SSI), Food Stamps, or certain needs-tested veterans’ programs. 

 Within these limits, States decide which, if any, types of assistance to 

provide, what income limits to use, and whether to impose other eligibility tests. 

However, Federal law gives priority for aid to households with the greatest energy 

needs or cost burdens, especially those households that include disabled or elderly 

individuals or young children. Federal rules require States to treat owners and 

renters “equitably,” to adjust benefits for household income and home energy costs, 

and to have a system of “crisis intervention” assistance for those in immediate need. 

LIHEAP assistance does not reduce eligibility or benefits under other Federal aid 

programs targeted to low-income individuals and families. Federal rules also 

require outreach activities, coordination with the Department of Energy’s 

weatherization program, annual audits and appropriate fiscal controls, and fair 

hearings for those aggrieved. 

PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION 

 States are required to submit an application for funds to the Secretary of 

HHS. As part of the application, the chief executive officer of the State 

(Indian tribe, or territory), or a designee, is required to make several assurances 

related to eligibility requirements, anticipated use of funds, as well as satisfy 

planning and administrative requirements. 

 States must provide for public participation and public hearings in the 

development of the State plan, including making the plan, and any substantial 

revisions, available for public inspection and allowing public comments. Public 

Law 98-558 requires States to engage an independent person or organization to 

prepare an audit at least once every 2 years. However, the Single Audit Act of 

1984 (Public Law 98-502) supersedes this requirement in most cases, requiring 

States to conduct an annual audit for all Federal financial assistance received. 
TABLE 15-37--LOW-INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM ESTIMATED CRISIS AND 

WEATHERIZATION ASSISTANCE AND ESTIMATED AVERAGE BENEFITS, 

FISCAL YEAR 20011

Winter year round crisis assistance Summer crisis assistance Weatherization Assistance2

State Assisted 

Households 

Amount of 

Assistance 

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Assisted 

Households

Amount of 

Assistance 

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Assisted 

Households 

Amount of 

Assistance 

Alabama 16,577 $3,335,856 $195 18,776 $2,647,770 $145 611 $930,649 Alaska 417 284,208 682 0 0 0 617 4,030,139 Arizona 4,750 1,405,352 296 0 0 0 556 1,514,440 Arkansas 24,302 3,999,583 165 0 0 0 647 2,147,702 California 57,727 22,205,019 302 0 0 0 18,781 19,684,960 

Colorado 2,119 920,826 612 0 0 0 1,826 3,346,308 

Connecticut 21,465 6,814,489 175 0 0 0 0 0 Delaware 3,080 616,000 200 0 0 0 343 630,000 

District of Columbia 5,798 1,000,000 172 0 0 0 298 873,469 Florida 44,614 11,554,923 259 23,212 4,442,521 191 1,041 3,337,938 Georgia 0 0 0 0 0 0 924 2,000,737 Hawaii 0 0 0 704 66,046 94 0 0 Idaho 2,688 1,039,661 257 0 0 0 1,370 2,642,951 

Illinois 10,067 9,103,020 449 0 0 0 1,368 16,089,906 Indiana 29,000 3,406,949 117 0 0 0 1,406 8,215,392 

Iowa 1,949 1,232,826 276 0 0 0 1,391 2,693,869 Kansas 6,823 2,535,101 467 0 0 0 785 1,851,953 

Kentucky 70,642 7,583,593 100 0 0 0 822 4,023,650 Louisiana 20,769 3,044,242 340 0 0 0 319 1,920,157 Maine 3,587 1,249,816 250 0 0 0 1,822 4,710,451 

Maryland 1,695 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Massachusetts 12,743 8,557,446 681 0 0 0 10,530 4,000,000 
TABLE 15-37--LOW-INCOME HOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM ESTIMATED CRISIS AND 

WEATHERIZATION ASSISTANCE AND ESTIMATED AVERAGE BENEFITS, 

FISCAL YEAR 20011-continued

Winter year round crisis assistance Summer crisis assistance Weatherization Assistance2

State Assisted 

Households 

Amount of 

Assistance 

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Assisted 

Households

Amount of 

Assistance 

Average 

Household 

Benefit 

Assisted 

Households 

Amount of 

Assistance 

Michigan 60,867 22,431,839 369 0 0 0 2,808 12,152,377 Minnesota 33,504 17,238,371 352 0 0 0 564 2,373,319 Mississippi 2,712 454,578 172 1,717 113,643 80 0 0 Missouri 67,959 22,931,225 338 0 0 0 0 0 Montana 1,137 269,277 250 0 0 0 752 3,239,773 Nebraska 36,358 10,654,121 160 0 0 0 509 2,276,657 Nevada 0 0 0 6 987 165 0 0 New Hampshire 3,841 0 0 0 0 0 409 850,000 New Jersey 10,915 11,831,000 311 0 0 0 1,038 3,246,000 New Mexico 2,454 1,545,320 250 0 0 0 402 0 New York 159,390 113,242,106 352 0 0 0 9,320 42,582,158 North Carolina 115,338 14,840,753 300 0 0 0 1,729 3,936,704 North Dakota 1,766 1,598,719 735 0 0 0 1,123 2,090,888 Ohio 122,491 41,112,591 192 42,380 9,061,289 170 5,363 9,453,229 

Oklahoma 22,928 5,942,372 259 0 0 0 316 896,953 Oregon 7,222 1,473,758 204 0 0 0 2,438 4,244,195 Pennsylvania 124,991 62,900,000 507 0 0 0 6,251 16,851,279 Rhode Island 22,585 2,825,114 125 0 0 0 624 1,927,041 South Carolina 13,194 6,990,066 320 0 0 0 736 1,674,599 South Dakota 487 600,000 200 0 0 0 569 1,770,630 

Tennessee 20,867 5,033,750 250 0 0 0 2,179 1,903,012 Texas 98,941 2,981,859 30 0 0 0 3,460 10,463,872 
Utah 1,378 603,850 276 0 0 0 502 2,489,028 

Vermont 5,225 1,540,167 159 0 0 0 1,078 0 

Virginia 9,920 2,708,018 317 0 0 0 2,376 5,644,346 Washington 27,627 1,206,754 438 0 0 0 3,094 5,717,502 West Virginia 14,102 3,458,788 245 0 0 0 1,069 2,618,526 Wisconsin 24,737 11,203,318 319 0 0 0 3,074 9,785,486 Wyoming 1,812 442,230 260 0 0 0 207 1,364,975 Total3 1,355,560 457,948,854 338 86,795 16,332,256 188 97,447 234,197,220 1 States provide all estimates in all categories. As a result the average household benefit is not the calculated average but rather the State estimated ra2 States are not required to estimate average benefits for weatherization assistance. 3 Includes leveraging incentive funds. 

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 
15-134 

Section 607(a) of Public Law 98-558 directs HHS to collect annual data, 

including information on the number of LIHEAP households in which at least one 

household member is 60 years old or handicapped. 

AVAILABLE SOURCES OF FUNDS 

Several sources of Federal and non-Federal funds are available for State 

LIHEAP programs: 

 Federal LIHEAP block grant allotments; 

 LIHEAP emergency contingency allotment for weather emergencies 

(these funds can only be released at the President’s directive); 

 LIHEAP leveraging incentive awards (established by Public Law 101-501 

to reward States that have acquired non-Federal home energy resources 

for low-income households); 

 Residential Energy Assistance Challenge (REACH) grants which award 

funds to demonstration projects to increase energy efficiency and reduce 

the vulnerability of low-income households (REACH grants receive 

25 percent of the LIHEAP leveraging incentive allocation); 

 LIHEAP carryover (States can request that up to 10 percent of their 

Federal LIHEAP funds be carried over for use in the next fiscal year); 

 Oil overcharge funds (disbursed by the Department of Energy from 

settlements related to oil price overcharges pursuant to the Emergency 

Petroleum Act of 1973. States determine how to allocate these 

funds among several eligible activities, including LIHEAP); and 

 State and other funds. (States may use their own funds to supplement 

LIHEAP benefits or administrative costs. Other funds include 

reimbursements to LIHEAP agencies for taking applications for 

low-income weatherization programs or winter heating protection 

programs.) 

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT 

The LIHEAP statute provides that Federal LIHEAP funds should serve lowincome households that pay high home energy costs relative to income and that 

have very young, disabled, or elderly individuals. HHS has developed performance 

goals and measures to enable it to quantify State performance. The performance 

goals are to increase the percentage of LIHEAP recipient households having: a 

household member 5 years old or younger; a household member at least 60 years 

old; and the lowest income households with the highest energy costs. Achievement 

of these goals will be measured using specially developed benefit-targeting and 

burden-targeting indexes. The agency intends to measure performance using a 

FY2001 baseline. The data collected are intended to help States improve program 

outreach and management, and to assist HHS in determining how best to offer 

technical assistance to States. 
15-135 

VETERANS BENEFITS AND SERVICES 

 The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) offers a wide range of benefits 

and services to eligible veterans, members of their families, and survivors of 

deceased veterans. VA programs include veterans compensation and pensions, 

readjustment benefits, medical care, and housing and loan guaranty programs. The 

VA also provides life insurance, burial benefits, and special counseling and 

outreach programs. In fiscal year 2002, Federal appropriations for veterans benefits 

and services were nearly $53 billion (Table 15-38). 

 Service-connected compensation is paid to veterans who have disabilities 

from injuries and illnesses traceable to a period of active-duty military service. The 

amounts of monthly payments are determined by disability ratings that are based on 

presumed average reductions in earning capacities caused by the disabilities. 

Disability ratings generally range from 10 percent to 100 percent in 10-percent 

intervals; however, some disabilities are determined to be service-connected, but 

are given a zero-percent rating. Death compensation, or dependency and indemnity 

compensation, is paid to surviving dependents of veterans who died as a result of 

service-connected causes. In fiscal year 2002, about 2.4 million disabled veterans 

and 308,000 survivors received about $22 billion in compensation payments. 

 Veterans pensions are means-tested cash benefits paid to war veterans who 

have become permanently and totally disabled from non-service-connected causes, 

and to survivors of such disabled and impoverished war veterans. Under the current 

or “improved law” program, benefits are based on family size, and the pensions 

provide a floor of income. For 2002, the basic benefit before subtracting other 

income sources is $12,516 for a veteran with one dependent, $9,556 for a veteran 

living alone. Somewhat less generous benefits are available to survivors; a 

surviving spouse with no children could receive two-thirds ($6,497) of the basic 

benefit amount given a single veteran. About 581,000 persons received about 

$3.1 billion in veterans pension payments in fiscal year 2002. 

 Several VA programs support readjustment, education, and job training for 

veterans and military personnel who meet certain eligibility criteria. The largest of 

these programs was the Montgomery GI bill (MGIB). The MGIB provides 

educational assistance to persons, who as members of the Armed Forces or the 

Selected Reserve, elect to participate in the program after 

June 30, 1985. The purposes of the MGIB are to assist service members leaving the 

Armed Forces in their readjustment into civilian life, to provide an incentive for the 

recruitment and retention of qualified personnel in the Armed Forces, and to 

develop a more educated and productive work force. To participate in the MGIB, 

active duty military personnel contribute $100 per month, for the first 

12 months of enlistment. Benefit levels are contingent upon length of service. To 

receive the maximum benefit of $800 per month for 36 months, service members 

must generally serve continuously for 3 years. Those who enlist and serve for less 

than three years will receive $650 a month. 
15-136 

TABLE 15-38--BUDGET AUTHORITY FOR VETERANS BENEFITS AND 

SERVICES, DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS, 

FISCAL YEARS 1980-2002 

[In Millions of Dollars] 

Fiscal 

Year 

Service connected 

compensation and 

survivor payments; 

means tested options 

Education, 

training, 

readjustment

Medical 

care 

Housing 

loans1

Other benefits 

and services 

Total 

veterans 

benefits and 

services 

1980 $11,770 $2,374 $6,409 NA $641 $21,194 

1981 13,210 2,351 6,919 NA 671 23,150 

1982 14,510 1,964 7,802 NA 687 24,963 

1983 14,216 1,667 8,816 -$78 721 25,341 

1984 14,884 1,582 9,078 201 751 26,496 

1985 15,089 1,066 10,005 306 789 27,256 

1986 15,363 605 9,964 200 757 26,888 

1987 15,392 393 10,481 100 824 27,190 

1988 15,848 395 10,836 1,484 817 29,380 

1989 16,384 335 11,523 778 871 29,891 

1990 16,660 251 12,168 548 897 30,524 

1991 17,790 824 13,194 730 1,013 33,251 

1992 17,412 600 14,256 815 1,020 34,103 

1993 18,123 675 15,235 1,181 993 36,208 

1994 18,597 1,031 16,187 188 1,006 37,009 

1995 18,824 1,090 16,555 612 1,078 38,159 

1996 19,703 1,013 16,812 612 1,023 38,763 

1997 20,660 1,178 17,375 -291 1,014 39,936 

1998 21,517 1,168 17,959 1,145 1,003 42,792 

1999 22,934 989 18,032 1,087 1,115 44,157 

2000 21,568 1,469 19,871 1,791 1,625 46,324 

2001 23,356 1,981 21,362 498 1,801 48,998 

2002 24,944 2,135 22,799 921 2,087 52,886 

1 Housing loans are net income and expenditures from VA housing program revolving funds. 

Figures for the VA housing funds are unavailable in this format before fiscal year 1983.

NA-Not available. 

Source: Office of the President (2003). 

 

 The VA also provides vocational rehabilitation to disabled veterans. In fiscal 

year 2002, spending for VA readjustment programs was more than 

$2 billion (Table 15-38). In addition, the Department of Labor also provides 

employment counseling and job training for veterans. 

 The VA provides a comprehensive array of inpatient and outpatient medical 

services through 172 medical centers, 137 nursing homes, 

43 domiciliaries, 684 outpatient clinics, and 206 readjustment counseling centers 

(Vet centers). Public Law 104-262 reformed eligibility rules for VA medical 

services. These reforms not only simplified the rules, but give the VA greater 

flexibility in how it provides medical care to veterans. Past eligibility rules were 

seen as emphasizing inpatient over outpatient care and, thus, impeded the efficient 

use of VA medical resources. Under the new eligibility rules, the VA provides free 

medical care, both inpatient and outpatient, to veterans for service-connected 

conditions and to low-income veterans for nonservice-connected conditions. For 
15-137 

2002, veterans with an income of $29,168 or less and married or with one 

dependent (plus $1,630 for each additional dependent) or $24,304 or less if single 

would meet the low-income criterion for free medical care. As facilities and other 

resources permit, the VA provides care to veterans for nonservice-connected 

conditions with incomes that exceed these limits; however, copayments are 

required. Again, as facilities and other resources permit, the VA provides nursing 

home care to veterans, with priority going to those with service-connected 

disabilities. The VA also contracts with private facilities and/or medical providers 

when it is determined to be in the interests of the veteran and cost effective for the 

VA. VA-operated nursing home care is augmented by VA-supported care through 

contracts with private community nursing homes and with per diem payments for 

veterans in State-run homes for veterans. 

 In fiscal year 2002, VA medical treatment programs cost $23 billion (Table 

15-38). VA medical services were provided to about 4.8 million separate 

applicants, resulting in about 732,000 inpatient episodes and 47 million outpatient 

visits (Table 15-39). 

WORKERS’ COMPENSATION 

OVERVIEW 

Since 1911, every State has adopted a workers’ compensation law, but there 

are no national standards for this system. Before the passage of these laws, 

compensation for work-related injury or death was the exception rather than the 

rule, as employees had to sue their employers for negligence, and this could be 

difficult to prove. The goal of workers’ compensation programs is to provide 

prompt, adequate benefits to injured workers’ while at the same time limiting 

employers’ liabilities. Workers’ compensation has become a substantial component 

of the U.S. social insurance system and a significant element of the overall cost of 

employment (See Table 15-40.) With this system employers can expect more 

predictable costs than under the law of negligence, while employees are spared 

lengthy and uncertain litigation. (While the elimination of lawsuits was fairly well 

achieved at first, significant amounts of litigation have re-emerged in recent years.) 

 Another purported benefit is that employers have a tangible incentive to improve 

workplace safety. 

Although workers’ compensation laws differ from State to State, they tend 

to have common features based on the same overall principles: 

 Victims of work-related injuries are entitled to receive prompt reasonable 

compensation for injury, and in case of death dependents receive income 

and burial benefits. However, employees and survivors are barred from 

suing the employers except under unusual circumstances or if the 

employer does not pay compensation. Negligence and fault are largely 

immaterial and do not affect the worker’s right of recovery. 

 Employers pay all costs, either directly or through insurance. A variety 

of public and private sector insurance mechanisms are used 
15-138 

(see Table 15-41), with larger employers tending to “self-insure,” which 

means to bear the financial risks themselves. 

TABLE 15-39--NUMBER OF RECIPIENTS OF VETERANS BENEFITS 

AND SERVICES, FISCAL YEARS 1980-2002 

[In Thousands] 

Fiscal Medical Care 

Year

Compensation 

and pensions

Readjustment, 

education, job training Inpatient1

 Outpatient2

Housing 

Loans

1980 4,646 1,233 1,359 17,930 297 

1981 4,535 1,081 1,360 17,809 188 

1982 4,407 906 1,358 18,510 103 

1983 4,286 755 1,401 18,616 245 

1984 4,123 629 1,412 19,601 252 

1985 4,005 492 1,435 20,188 179 

1986 3,900 419 1,462 21,635 314 

1987 3,850 365 1,466 21,635 479 

1988 3,762 352 1,224 23,233 235 

1989 3,686 349 1,153 22,629 190 

1990 3,614 360 1,113 22,600 196 

1991 3,546 322 1,072 23,007 181 

1992 3,462 388 988 23,902 266 

1993 3,397 438 974 24,236 383 

1994 3,351 472 963 25,443 602 

1995 3,332 476 930 27,565 263 

1996 3,315 475 850 30,055 292 

1997 3,290 480 700 32,648 239 

1998 3,270 479 632 35,777 369 

1999 3,254 458 752 37,799 396 

2000 3,260 448 718 39,266 176 

2001 3,220 471 729 43,808 253 

2002 3,253 520 732 46,970 295 

1 Patients treated: the sum of discharges and deaths during the period plus patients remaining as 

bed occupants or absent bed occupants at the end of the report period.

2 Visits for outpatient care. 

Source: Department of Veterans Affairs. 

TABLE 15-40--FINANCIAL DIMENSIONS OF WORKERS’ 

COMPENSATION 

Benefits paid (in billions of dollars) 1990 1995 2000 

Wage replacement 21.7 25.7 25.0 

Medical 15.1 16.6 19.9 

Employer cost per worker ($) 503 506 442 

Employer cost as a % of total wages 2.13 1.83 1.25 

Source: Mont et al. (2002) 
15-139 

TABLE 15-41--BENEFIT PAYMENTS BY INSURANCE ARRANGEMENT 

[As Percent of Total Payments]

1990 1995 2000 

By insurance companies1 

Private Sector 58.1 41.7 48.3 

State-run 15.4 17.5 15.0 

Federal Programs2 7.6 7.2 6.6 

Self-insured (including insurance deductibles) 19.0 33.7 30.1 1

 Excluding deductibles. 

2

 Federal employees, longshore and harbor workers, black lung program. 

Source: Mont et al. (2002). 

 Cases are handled in the first instance by the employing firm or its insurer. 

 A State government appeals mechanism is available to resolve disputed 

claims with relatively little complexity or delay. Fees to lawyers and 

witnesses are minimized and costs of litigation are reduced or 

reimbursable to workers’ regardless of the outcome. 

 There is no provision for “pain and suffering” or other non-economic 

damages, or for punitive damages. The purpose of the system is to make 

the worker economically whole (or nearly so), not to implement a wider 

conception of justice. 

 Cash compensation is based on lost earnings or earning capacity. 

Typically, the benefit for total disability is two-thirds of lost earnings, paid 

for the term of the disability or a maximum allowable period. Benefits are 

not subject to Federal income tax. Injury-related medical costs are to be 

fully covered, although the majority of States have established some cost 

controls (e.g., fee schedules, utilization reviews), and a number of States 

limit employees’ choice of physician. 

 The States also have put into place mechanisms to facilitate and encourage 

the worker’s return to the labor market through vocational rehabilitation, 

in order to minimize losses to both workers and employers. Moreover, the 

payment of less than 100 percent of normal earnings could be interpreted 

as a return-to-work incentive. 

 State compensation laws also have established special funds and 

provisions to compensate special situations, such as aggravation of 

injuries from previous jobs. 

BENEFITS 

Workers’ compensation provides two kinds of benefits, income replacement 

and medical care. The income benefit for total disability is set at a specified 

fraction of the worker’s usual earnings for as long as he or she is unable to return to 

work. Partial disability is compensated proportionately to total disability 
15-140 

according to the estimated fraction of earning capacity that has been lost.81 

The replacement rate even for total disability is less than 100 percent for two 

reasons. First, the benefit is not subject to Federal (and usually not to State) income 

tax, and second, the decrease in income discourages fraudulent claims and gives an 

incentive to claimants to return to work as soon as possible. Table 15-42 indicates 

the variations in benefit formulas by State for permanent total disability.82 In order 

to provide a “basic” level of income support and to limit program costs, benefits are 

subject to various maximums and minimums, which are defined in State law in 

terms of the State average weekly wage (SAWW). As shown in the table, 

maximums range from $1069 (Iowa) to $323 (Mississippi). The variations result 

both from differences in the SAWW and from differences in the percentage 

limitation - with maximums varying from 200 percent of SAWW (Iowa) to nearly 

67 percent (California, Delaware and Mississippi). 

 There are no direct cost-of-living increases in benefits. However, for those 

whose benefit is determined by the maximum or minimum, their benefit would 

change as those benchmarks change in step with the SAWW. Benefits may be 

reduced (“offset”) to reflect income support from other sources, such as Social 

Security or private pension plans, under provisions varying greatly from State to 

State. (The table notes only those States that end benefits completely at a 

presumed retirement age.) 

 In cases of death, benefits are paid in similar fashion - as a percentage of 

previous earnings - but with various time limits. The limit can be a specific time 

period, such as 10 years, but more often the benefit continues until the spouse 

remarries (or reaches a specified age) and the youngest child reaches age 18. 

No payment is due if there are no immediate “dependents” as defined by State law. 

 These provisions are in keeping with the philosophy of workers’ compensation as a 

practical method of maintaining the worker’s role as breadwinner, rather than a 

liability-based system of distributive justice. 

The medical benefit in principle is straightforward: whatever care is 

necessary to heal the work-related injury. In practice many disputes arise. The 

principal points of contention include such questions as: Was the injury workrelated? Did it aggravate a previously existing condition? What treatments are 

medically necessary? How much should providers be reimbursed? Who chooses 

the providers? Such questions have been extensively litigated, and the answer in 

each case will depend on the particulars of the situation and the development of 

case law in each State. By statute, the States have established procedures for 

physician selection and for resolving disputes, and mandated various programs of 

vocational rehabilitation. Cost containment mechanisms also have been adapted 

from innovations in the health insurance arena. However, the workers’ 

 

81 Certain particular injuries, such as loss of a limb, are compensated according to a special formula 

rather than by estimating lost earning capacity. 

82 This information is simplified. Reference should be made to State law and regulation for precise 

terms. 
15-141 

compensation medical system remains separate from health insurance, even from 

the insurance plan of the same employer, and is governed by its own body of law. 

Cases of occupationally caused disease, as opposed to traumatic injury, present 

special problems because causation may be difficult to prove. Symptoms may not 

develop until long after exposure, exposure that may itself have occurred over a 

long period of low doses of a harmful substance or stress. Moreover, the resulting 

illness may be indistinguishable from illness that could have other, non-work 

causes, e.g., lung cancer or on-the-job heart attack. Early workers’ compensation 

laws dealt with these ambiguities restrictively, some by 

disqualifying all illnesses (as opposed to injury), some by excluding “diseases of 

ordinary life,” some by enumerating specific diseases as “occupational.” Since 

1970 the States have made all illnesses compensable, at least in principle, though 

some distinctions still are made, such as a lower level of payments for illness. 

TABLE 15-42--MAXIMUM BENEFITS FOR PERMANENT 

TOTAL DISABILITY, JANUARY 2002 

Cap Based on Percent of SAWW State Cap Based on Percent of 

Worker’s Earnings Percent Amount1

Alabama 66.67 100 $549 

Alaska 80% of spendable earnings 120 762 

Arizona 66.67 NA 374 

Arkansas 66.67 85 425 

California 66.67 66.67 490 

Colorado 66.67 91 646 

Connecticut 75% of spendable earnings 100 887 

Delaware 66.67 66.67 469 

District of Columbia 66.67 100 993 

Florida 66.67 100 594 

Georgia 66.67 NA 400 

Hawaii 66.67 100 564 

Idaho 67 90 473 

Illinois 66.67 133.33 972 

Indiana 66.67 NA 508 

Iowa 80% spendable earnings 200 1,069 

Kansas 66.67 75 417 

Kentucky 66.67 100 551 

Louisiana 66.67 75 398 

Maine 80% spendable earnings 90 472 

Maryland 66.67 100 668 

Massachusetts 66.67 100 891 

Michigan 80% spendable earnings 90 644 

Minnesota 66.67 NA 750 

Mississippi 66.67 66.67 323 

Missouri 66.67 105 629 

Montana 66.67 100 454 

Nebraska 66.67 100 528 

Nevada 66.67 100 581 

New Hampshire 60 150 998 

New Jersey 70 75 629 
15-142 

TABLE 15-42--MAXIMUM BENEFITS FOR PERMANENT 

TOTAL DISABLIITY, JANUARY 2002-continued

Cap Based on Percent of SAWW State Cap Based on Percent of 

Worker’s Earnings Percent Amount1

New Mexico 66.67 100 517 

New York 66.67 NA 400 

North Carolina 66.67 110 654 

North Dakota 66.67 110 516 

Ohio 66.67 100 628 

Oklahoma 70 100 473 

Oregon 66.67 100 645 

Pennsylvania 66.67 100 662 

Rhode Island 75% of spendable earnings 110 682 

South Carolina 66.67 100 549 

South Dakota 66.67 100 468 

Tennessee 66.67 100 581 

Texas 75 100 533 

Utah 66.67 85 471 

Vermont 66.67 150 827 

Virginia 66.67 100 645 

Washington 60 to 75 120 851 

West Virginia 66.67 100 506 

Wisconsin 66.67 110 647 

Wyoming 66.67 66.67 527 

Federal Employees (FECA) 66.67 to 75 No max no max 

Longshore workers 66.67 200% of national average 966 

1

 As the “percent” column reflects, these amounts are usually determined in State law as a percentage of

the Statewide average wage. The benefit for permanent total disability is normally payable for life, with 

 the following qualifications: until the worker qualifies for Social Security (KY, WV); until age 65 (TN); 

until age 67 (MN); up to 450 weeks except for certain injuries (TX); up to 450 weeks or 145,305 (MS); 

up to 450 weeks except in continuing rehabilitation cases; up to 500 weeks (SC); up to 

80 months, with an extra 150 per month per child to age of majority (WY); up to 125,000 (KS); 

maximum 316 per week after first year (ID). In WA the percent cap based on the worker’s earnings 

depends on marital status and dependents. 

NA-Maximum is a dollar figure set by law or regulation rather than percentage. 

Source: U.S. Department of Labor (2002). 

FEDERAL ROLE 

With few exceptions (to be described presently), the rights and obligations of 

workers’ compensation are defined and overseen pursuant to State law. Some 

coordination on the national level is afforded by organizations such as the 

International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions 

[www.iaiabc.org], the National Association of Insurance Commissioners 

[www.naic.org], and the National Council on Compensation Insurance 

[www.ncci.com] (which develops research and statistics used in setting insurance 

rates and terms). 

Calls have been made from time to time for the Federal government to set 

minimum national standards for workers’ compensation. When the Occupational 
15-143 

Safety and Health Act (P.L. 91-596) was passed in 1971, the subject was broached 

via a provision in that act establishing a commission to study workers’ 

compensation. The commission made many recommendations, 19 of which it 

deemed essential, in areas including worker eligibility, disease coverage, 

rehabilitation services, and size and duration of cash benefits (National 

Commission, 1972). In the next decade or so, Congressional investigation of these 

matters aided in inducing some reforms, but did not result in the passage of Federal 

mandates for the States. As of 1998, the States were, on average, in compliance 

with 12.8 of the commission’s 19 “essential” recommendations (LRP Publications 

1998, Table III-B). Expenditure on cash benefits, however, has been estimated at 

less than half of what would be required by adoption of the subsequent model act of 

the Council of State Governments.83

Federal Employees Compensation Act (FECA)-The Federal government 

directly provides or oversees workers’ compensation or similar benefits for certain 

groups of workers. The largest of these is the Federal workforce, which is covered 

by the Federal Employees Compensation Act (FECA, 5 U.S.C., Chapter 81) rather 

than by State law. FECA is administered by the Office of Workers’ Compensation 

Programs (OWCP), in the U.S. Department of Labor, through 12 district offices 

located across the United States. Eligible workers include (along with the regular 

executive, legislative, and judicial branch employees) civilian defense workers, 

medical workers in veterans’ hospitals, and the 800,000 employees of the Postal 

Service. Additionally, special legislation extends coverage to Peace Corps and 

VISTA (Volunteers In Service To America) volunteers; Federal petit or grand 

jurors; volunteer members of the Civil Air Patrol; Reserve Officer Training Corps 

Cadets; Job Corps, Neighborhood Youth Corps, and Youth Conservation Corps 

enrollees; and non-Federal law enforcement officers under certain circumstances 

involving crimes against the United States. 

 During FY2001, the program provided workers’ compensation coverage for 

approximately 2.7 million workers. In that year the program paid approximately 

2.2 billion in benefits to nearly 280,000 workers, including 165,915 new cases. 

Of the benefits paid, almost $1.5 billion was for wage-loss compensation, 

$617 million for medical and rehabilitation services, and $128 million for death 

benefits. 

While FECA greatly resembles most State workers’ compensation programs, 

it also has a number of distinctive features, among which the most important are: 

 A benefit formula that, at 75 percent of pay, is somewhat more generous 

than the usual level of State benefits, 66-2/3 percent (although FECA 

recipients without any dependents receive 66- 2/3 percent); 

 Full salary continuation for up to 45 days before switching to FECA 

benefits; 

 No maximum cap for workers throughout the General Schedule of 

positions up to and including GS-15; 

 

83 This ratio rose from 37 percent in 1972 to a peak of 48 percent in 1985, and has since come down 

to 46 percent as of 1998 (Burton 2001).
15-144 

 An appeals process, putatively non-adversarial and contained within the 

Department of Labor, whose appeals board’s decision is final. 

Longshore and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Act (LHWCA)--The 

Longshore and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Act (33 U.S.C. 901-950) covers 

injuries that occur during maritime employment on navigable waters of the United 

States. Benefits are paid by the employers, with oversight by the Office of 

Workers’ Compensation Programs (OWCP) in the U.S. Department of Labor rather 

than State governments. The program was originally established in response to a 

Supreme Court decision (Southern Pacific Co. v. Jensen, 244 U.S. 205) holding 

that State workers’ compensation laws did not apply on the nation’s navigable 

waters. The exact extent of coverage under LHWCA has been changed from time 

to time, but essentially, maritime employment includes the building, repairing, 

loading or unloading of vessels. The term navigable waters includes places beyond 

those where a boat could float, such as land that adjoins water at a pier, wharf, dry 

dock, or terminal. Areas not just on a pier or wharf, but also nearby, can be 

included if they are used for loading, unloading, repairing, or building vessels. The 

law exempts shipyards dealing with recreational boats under 65 feet in length and 

certain land operations of yards dealing exclusively with smaller commercial 

vessels, e.g., work boats under 1,600 tons gross. 

 LHWCA also covers several miscellaneous classes of employees through 

extensions to the law: 

 The Defense Base Act (August 16, 1941) covers employees on overseas 

military, air, or naval bases or other areas under public works contracts 

performed by contractors with U.S. government agencies; 

 The Nonappropriated Fund Instrumentalities Act (June 19, 1952) covers 

civilian employees in post exchanges or service clubs of the armed forces; 

and 

 The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (August 7, 1953) covers mineral 

exploration and production workers such as those on offshore drilling 

platforms. 

The law is more generous than most State workers’ compensation laws in 

some respects, notably: (a) payments for permanent total disability and for death 

receive annual cost-of-living increases, and (b) compensation is available for 

occupationally-caused disease that manifests itself after retirement has begun. This 

provision was added in 1984 due to concern over diseases caused by asbestos. 

The law also allows an injured worker to sue third parties (rather than the 

employer or a co-worker) who may be at fault for his or her injuries. For example, 

when an individual working for a repair firm is injured on a vessel, there may be a 

claim of negligence against the vessel and its owner. However, under the 

1972 amendments (P.L. 92-576) the worker cannot bring claims under the doctrine 

of “seaworthiness,” which would entail absolute liability on the part of the owner. 

In FY2001, 23,480 lost-time injuries were reported under the Act by 

330 self-insured employers and 410 insurance carriers. At the end of FY2001, 

14,830 workers were continuing to receive compensation payments. Benefits paid 

in Calendar 2000 totaled $675 million, of which $511 million was for wage-loss 
15-145 

and survivor benefits and $164 million in medical costs. Federal administrative 

costs were $25 million. 

Black Lung Program--As part of the Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 

1969 (P.L. 91-173, now codified at 30 U.S.C. 901 et seq.), which mandated 

reductions in miners’ exposure to coal dust, income and medical support was 

offered to those who contract black lung disease. While dust control has yielded 

some success in a reduction of new cases, nearly 5,000 new claims are still being 

received each year and more than 60,000 primary beneficiaries remain on the rolls, 

at a total cost of $400 million per year. 

 Former miners who suffer total disability or death due to coal workers 

pneumoconiosis or related diseases are eligible for medical and income benefits. 

The medical benefit consists of diagnostic testing (available for all claimants) and 

services needed due to the disease, including drugs, durable medical equipment, 

home nursing visits, and hospitalization. The base rate of the income benefit is set 

at three-eighths of the Federal salary for an employee in grade GS-2, Step 1, i.e., a 

base rate of $535 per month in calendar year 2003. The benefit is augmented if the 

miner (or his survivor) has dependents, up to as much as double the base rate when 

there are three or more dependents. Black lung benefits are not subject to Federal 

income tax but may be taxed by the States. The benefits may be subject to offsets, 

depending on when the initial claim was made, against various other income 

support systems such as workers’ compensation, disability insurance, and Social 

Security. 

 The program is administered by the Division of Coal Mine Workers’ 

Compensation, (a component of the Office of Workers’ Compensation Programs in 

the Department of Labor), and is funded primarily by a tax on coal production. In 

its fiscal year 2003 and 2004 budgets, the Administration proposed a refinancing to 

eliminate a debt of $7.7 billion that the black lung fund owes to the Treasury. 

Much of this would be achieved through intra-governmental transfers with no 

external effect, but the plan also would entail extending the life of the coal tax, 

which currently is scheduled to end in 2014. 

Radiation Exposure Compensation Act (RECA)--RECA (42 USC 2210, note) 

was passed in 1990 as a form of government compensation to three groups of 

people who suffered injury due to atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons in the 

Western States, namely, (a) civilian government84 and contractor workers who 

participated in the tests, (b) civilians who may have been injured by the fallout 

thereof (“downwinders”), and (c) mining and milling workers who produced 

uranium for weapons. Proof of causation is not necessary; rather, the claimant need 

show only that he/she was potentially exposed to radiation in a manner specified in 

the Act and has contracted one of the specified types of cancer. 

More specifically: 

 Atomic test participants qualify if they were employed and 

present on site. They receive $75,000. 

 

84 Military personnel are covered by the Radiation-Exposed Veterans’ Compensation Act, 

P.L. 100-321, as amended.
15-146 

 Downwinders qualify if they were in the “affected area” (certain 

counties in the Mountain States) for two years during 1951 to 1958 (or 

throughout the month of July 1962). They receive $50,000. 

 Uranium miners and millers qualify if they worked in the mines at any 

time from 1947 to 1971 and received specified cumulative doses of 

radiation. They receive $150,000 and necessary medical treatment. 

The program is administered by the Department of Justice, Civil Division, 

and payment is in the form of a lump sum. Declining amounts have been 

authorized to be appropriated for each year through 2011, with 143 million being 

the amount for fiscal year 2003. 

Energy Employees Compensation--The Energy Employees Occupational 

Illness Compensation Program Act (42 USC 7384 et seq.) was passed in 

recognition of the vital role played and the special hazards encountered by those 

who worked in the production of nuclear weapons and components. The Act 

provides lump sum compensation of 150,000 (and necessary medical expenses) to 

those who contract certain illnesses such as cancer and berylliosis 

after having worked in plants making atomic weapons and related facilities (the 

“nuclear weapons complex”). There also are provisions to help former workers 

obtain regular workers’ compensation (in addition to the lump sum benefit) and to 

obtain needed records from government contractors. The lead agency is the 

Department of Labor, with additional roles played by the Department of Energy 

and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 

 The program was initiated in July 2001, and by January 30, 2003 some 

30,000 applications had been received. Of those, 6,423 had been approved and 

$460 million in benefits had been paid out. About 12,000 cases were pending. 

Railroad Workers and Seamen--Rather than looking to workers’ 

compensation coverage, workers in these industries obtain redress for injuries by 

filing suit under specialized Federal statutes. For railroad workers, the Federal 

Employers’ Liability Act (45 U.S.C. 51-60) mandates the common law principle of 

comparative negligence, but with various modifications generally more favorable to 

the worker than traditional common law. For seamen, the Merchant Marine Act of 

1920, commonly known as the Jones Act (46 U.S.C. 688 et seq.), provides similar 

standards. 

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1980 

The influence of the National Study Commission and subsequent 

Congressional interest prompted liberalization of benefits in many States in the 

1980s, especially in the matter of “benefit adequacy,” i.e. amounts under the basic 

wage replacement formula. From 1972, when benefits averaged 0.68 percent of 

overall payroll, payments grew continuously, peaking at 1.66 percent in 1992 

(Thomason et al., 2001). In addition to benefits formula liberalization, medical cost 

inflation played a role. By the 1990s, employer and insurance groups were 

campaigning for relief from their State legislatures, arguing, among other things, 
15-147 

that workers’ compensation costs figure prominently as an indicator of “business 

climate” that influences business location decisions. 

TABLE 15-43--BENEFITS AS A PERCENTAGE OF COVERED WAGES 

BY STATE, 1997 VERSUS 2000 

[In Percent]

State 1997 2000 Change from 1997 to 2000 

Alabama 1.25 1.08 -0.17 

Alaska 1.64 1.76 0.12 

Arizona 0.81 0.68 -0.13 

Arkansas 0.68 0.68 0.00 

California 1.60 1.49 -0.11 

Colorado 1.20 0.98 -0.22 

Connecticut 1.20 0.89 -0.31 

Delaware 1.02 0.69 -0.33 

District of Columbia 0.47 0.34 -0.13 

Florida 1.48 1.11 -0.37 

Georgia 0.74 0.71 -0.03 

Hawaii 1.83 1.49 -0.34 

Idaho 1.18 1.11 -0.07 

Illinois 0.87 0.82 -0.05 

Indiana 0.59 0.63 0.04 

Iowa 0.82 0.84 0.02 

Kansas 1.02 0.92 -0.10 

Kentucky 1.02 1.06 0.04 

Louisiana 0.93 0.90 -0.03 

Maine 2.09 1.61 -0.48 

Maryland 1.72 1.48 -0.24 

Massachusetts 0.62 0.47 -0.15 

Minnesota 1.02 0.88 -0.14 

Mississippi 1.04 1.05 0.01 

Missouri 0.82 0.69 -0.13 

Montana 2.16 1.74 -0.42 

Nebraska 0.95 0.77 -0.18 

Nevada 1.41 0.90 -0.51 

New Hampshire 0.97 0.81 -0.16 

New Jersey 0.70 0.64 -0.06 

New Mexico 0.81 0.79 -0.02 

New York 0.88 0.76 -0.12 

North Carolina 0.67 0.69 0.02 

North Dakota 1.24 1.19 -0.05 

Ohio 1.35 1.19 -0.16 

Oklahoma 1.75 1.13 -0.63 

Oregon 1.00 0.81 -0.19 

Pennsylvania 1.60 1.29 -0.31 

Rhode Island 0.96 0.99 0.03 
15-148 

TABLE 15-43--BENEFITS AS A PERCENTAGE OF COVERED WAGES 

BY STATE, 1997 VERSUS 2000-continued 

[In Percent] 

State 1997 2000 Change from 1997 to 2000 

South Carolina 1.17 1.26 0.09 

South Dakota 1.07 0.90 -0.17 

Tennessee 0.68 0.79 0.11 

Texas 0.71 0.75 0.04 

Utah 0.54 0.55 0.01 

Vermont 1.29 1.37 0.08 

Virginia 0.64 0.49 -0.15 

Washington 1.66 1.54 -0.12 

West Virginia 3.93 4.24 0.31 

Wisconsin 0.88 0.87 -0.01 

Wyoming 1.41 0.80 -0.61 

Total1

 1.15 1.03 -0.12 

1

 Including Federal programs. 

Source: Mont et al. (2002). 

 

Thus, starting in 1992, economic and political reaction to the previous 

expansion in benefits led to an opposite kind of “reform,” one which emphasized 

cost control. The types of measures adopted include: promotion of prompt return 

to work (with incentives for both employer and employee); some reduction of 

benefit levels, streamlining of dispute settlement procedures; medical cost control; 

efforts against fraud; higher deductibles in employers’ insurance policies; and 

mandates for workplace safety programs (Burton, 2001; Conway & Svenson, 

1998). As a result of such measures, expenditures on benefits declined significantly, 

from 1.66 percent of payroll in 1992 to 1.03 percent by 2000. 

Table 15-43 provides a State-by-State breakdown of the benefit/wage 

ratio, comparing 2000 with 1997. Much of the variation among States at any point 

in time is determined by the mix of industries that are prevalent in each. The States 

with the highest payout rates in 2000 (West Virginia, Alaska, and Montana) have 

substantial activity in extractive industries (mining, forestry and fisheries) with 

inherently high injury rates. The jurisdictions with the lowest rates (District of 

Columbia, Massachusetts, and Virginia) are largely involved with technology, 

finance and service industries.85 Nevertheless, standards established in State 

legislation and administration have some effect on benefit costs and, more clearly, 

in the relatively sudden increases and decreases seen in recent years. (Changes in 

statistical methods between the years also may have played a role.) 

 

85 The rate paid by each employer is not affected by the State mix of industries. Rather, it is a 

function of the employer’s own industry and the employer’s size, occupational mix and, in most 

cases, own accident experience.
15-149 

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Burton, John F. Jr. (2001). Workers’ compensation: Developments since 1960 and 

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Review, 1(5), 3-19. 

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