Federal Register / Vol. 82, No. 181 / Wednesday, September 20, 2017 / Rules and Regulations 43873 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

50 CFR Part 17 

[Docket No. FWS–R1–ES–2016–0057; 

4500030113] 

RIN 1018–BB54 

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife 

and Plants; Threatened Species Status 

for the Iiwi (Drepanis coccinea) 

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Interior. 

ACTION: Final rule. 

SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service (Service), determine 

threatened status under the Endangered 

Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act), 

for the iiwi (Drepanis coccinea), a bird 

species from the Hawaiian Islands. The 

effect of this regulation is to add this 

species to the Federal List of 

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. 

DATES: This rule becomes effective 

October 20, 2017. 

ADDRESSES: This final rule is available 

on the internet at http://

www.regulations.gov and http://

www.fws.gov/pacificislands. Comments 

and materials we received, as well as 

supporting documentation we used in 

preparing this rule, such as the species 

status report, are available for public 

inspection at http://

www.regulations.gov. Comments, 

materials, and documentation that we 

considered in this rulemaking will be 

available by appointment, during 

normal business hours at: U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish 

and Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana 

Boulevard, Room 3–122, Honolulu, HI 

96850; by telephone at 808–792–9400; 

or by facsimile at 808–792–9581. 

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: 

Mary Abrams, Field Supervisor, Pacific 

Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, 300 

Ala Moana Boulevard, Room 3–122, 

Honolulu, HI 96850; by telephone (808– 

792–9400); or by facsimile (808–792– 

9581). Persons who use a 

telecommunications device for the deaf 

(TDD) may call the Federal Relay 

Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. 

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: 

Executive Summary 

Why we need to publish a rule. Under 

the Endangered Species Act, 16 U.S.C. 

1531 et seq., a species or subspecies 

may warrant protection through listing 

if it is endangered or threatened 

throughout all or a significant portion of 

its range. Critical habitat shall be 

designated, to the maximum extent 

prudent and determinable, for any 

species determined to be an endangered 

or threatened species under the Act. 

This rule finalizes the listing of the 

iiwi (Drepanis coccinea) as threatened 

under the Act because of current and 

future threats, and listing can only be 

done by issuing a rule. The iiwi no 

longer occurs across much of its 

historical range, and faces a variety of 

threats in the form of diseases and 

impacts to its remaining habitat. 

Delineation of critical habitat 

requires, within the geographical area 

occupied by the species, identification 

of the physical or biological features 

essential to the species’ conservation. A 

careful assessment of the biological 

needs of the species and the areas that 

may have the physical or biological 

features essential for the conservation of 

the species and that may require special 

management considerations or 

protections, and thus qualify for 

designation as critical habitat, is 

particularly complicated in this case by 

the ongoing and projected effects of 

climate change and will require a 

thorough assessment. We require 

additional time to analyze the best 

available scientific data in order to 

identify specific areas appropriate for 

critical habitat designation and to 

analyze the impacts of designating such 

areas as critical habitat. Accordingly, we 

find designation of critical habitat for 

the iiwi to be ‘‘not determinable’’ at this 

time. 

What this document does. This 

document lists the iiwi as a threatened 

species. We previously published a 90- 

day finding and a 12-month finding and 

proposed listing rule for the iiwi. Those 

documents assessed all available 

information regarding status of and 

threats to the iiwi. 

The basis for our action. Under the 

Act, we can determine that a species is 

an endangered or threatened species 

based on any of five factors: (A) The 

present or threatened destruction, 

modification, or curtailment of its 

habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for 

commercial, recreational, scientific, or 

educational purposes; (C) Disease or 

predation; (D) The inadequacy of 

existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) 

Other natural or manmade factors 

affecting its continued existence. We 

have determined that the primary 

threats to the iiwi are its susceptibility 

to avian malaria (Factor C) and the 

expected reduction in disease-free 

habitat as a result of increased 

temperatures caused by climate change 

(Factor E). Although not identified as 

primary threat factors, rapid ohia death, 

a fungal disease that kills the tree 

species required by iiwi for nesting and 

foraging, and impacts from nonnative 

invasive plants and feral ungulates, 

contribute to the degradation and 

curtailment of the iiwi’s remaining, 

disease-free native ohia forest habitat, 

exacerbating threats to the species’ 

viability. 

Peer review and public comment. We 

sought comments on our proposal from 

eight independent specialists to ensure 

that our designation is based on 

scientifically sound data, assumptions, 

and analyses. We also considered all 

comments and information received 

during the public comment period. 

A species status report for the iiwi 

was prepared by a team of Service 

biologists, with the assistance of 

scientists from the U.S. Geological 

Survey’s (USGS) Pacific Islands 

Ecosystems Research Center and the 

Service’s Pacific Islands Climate Change 

Cooperative. We also obtained review 

and input from experts familiar with 

avian malaria and avian genetics. The 

species status report represents a 

compilation of the best scientific and 

commercial data available concerning 

the status of the species, including the 

past, present, and future threats to the 

iiwi. The final species status report, 

revised in response to peer reviewer 

comments, and other materials relating 

to this proposal can be found at http:// 

www.regulations.gov, at Docket No. 

FWS–R1–ES–2016–0057, or by 

contacting the Pacific Islands Fish and 

Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION CONTACT). 

Background 

Previous Federal Actions 

Please refer to the proposed listing 

rule, published in the Federal Register 

on September 20, 2016 (81 FR 64414), 

for previous Federal actions for this 

species prior to that date. The 

publication of the proposed listing rule 

opened a 60-day public comment period 

that closed on November 21, 2016. We 

published a public notice of the 

proposed rule on September 19, 2016. 

This notice was picked up and 

published by several local media outlets 

including the State’s largest newspaper, 

the Honolulu Star Advertiser, as well as 

the Garden Island Newspaper, Honolulu 

Civil Beat, and Hawaii News Now. 

Summary of Comments and 

Recommendations 

We solicited comments during the 60- 

day public comment period from 

September 20, to November 21, 2016 (81 

FR 64414). We contacted appropriate 

Federal and State agencies, scientific 

experts and organizations, and other 

interested parties and invited them to 


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43874 Federal Register / Vol. 82, No. 181 / Wednesday, September 20, 2017 / Rules and Regulations 

comment on the proposal. Notices 

inviting public comment also were 

published in four major news outlets in 

the State. During the comment period, 

we received a total of nine letters from 

members of the public. We did not 

receive any requests for a public 

hearing. In this final rule, we address 

only those comments directly relevant 

to the listing of the iiwi. All nine letters 

were from individual members of the 

public. We did not receive any 

comments from the State of Hawaii. 

Public Comments 

Of the nine comment letters we 

received from members of the public, 

eight expressed general support for our 

listing the iiwi under the Act, and one 

commented on a topic unrelated to our 

proposed rule. None of these letters 

provided new, substantive information 

or comments requiring specific response 

here. 

Peer Review 

In accordance with our peer review 

policy published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 

34270), we solicited expert opinions 

from eight individuals with scientific 

expertise on the iiwi and its habitat, 

biological needs, and threats, including 

familiarity with the geographic region 

where the iiwi occurs, and principles of 

conservation biology. We received 

responses from all eight of these 

individuals. 

In general, all of the peer reviewers 

agreed that the draft Species Status 

Report and proposed rule provided an 

accurate synthesis of the life history of 

the iiwi and robust analysis of the 

stressors affecting the species. They 

further agreed that our conclusions 

regarding the status of the species were 

reasonable and scientifically sound. We 

reviewed all comments received from 

the peer reviewers for substantive issues 

and new information regarding the 

listing of iiwi. Where appropriate, we 

have incorporated corrections, editorial 

suggestions, and new literature and 

other information they provided into 

both the final species report and final 

rule. Any substantive comments are 

discussed below (see also Summary of 

Changes from Proposed Rule). All of the 

peer reviews were constructive and 

thorough; we thank the peer reviewers 

for their thoughtful assistance. 

Comment (1): Two of the peer reviews 

suggested that we had not sufficiently 

emphasized the potential importance of 

avian pox as a threat to the iiwi. 

Specifically, the reviewers noted that 

the literature on mosquito-borne 

diseases affecting native Hawaiian forest 

birds tends to be focused more on avian 

malaria due, in part, to the knowledge 

gaps about the impacts of avian pox and 

the lack of an accurate, noninvasive 

diagnostic test for identifying acute 

active infections and birds that have 

recovered from infection. The reviewers 

point out that the two diseases may be 

acting both individually and 

synergistically when infections are 

simultaneous. Although avian malaria 

has been more thoroughly studied, the 

peer reviewers felt that the available 

evidence suggests avian pox may also be 

a significant source of mortality and 

pose a greater threat to the iiwi than 

would be suggested by our analysis. 

Our Response: Although our draft 

Species Status Report pointed to the 

difficulty in untangling the relationship 

between the two diseases because of 

their frequent occurrence together, we 

agree with the reviewers that we placed 

more emphasis on the threat posed by 

avian malaria, in part simply due to the 

greater amount of scientific information 

available that clearly links high levels of 

mortality in iiwi directly to infection 

with malaria. In our final Species Status 

Report and this final rule, we have 

increased emphasis on the possibility 

that avian pox, both alone and in 

combination with avian malaria, may 

have negative, population-level impacts 

on iiwi. 

Comment (2): One reviewer suggested 

that the ‘‘estimate’’ of 50 birds on Oahu 

reported in the draft Species Status 

Report is unrealistically high and not 

based on scientific data; the reviewer 

stated that based on observations of 

occasional single birds over the past 15 

years, the population is probably much 

less than 50, perhaps 10 at the most. 

Likewise for Molokai, the reviewer 

pointed out that the estimated number 

of birds from the 1980s is no longer 

accurate, and there are many fewer than 

80 birds on that island. 

Our Response: We thank the reviewer 

for his comments, and have made the 

corrections as needed in the final 

Species Status Report. Because the 

proposed rule did not refer to specific 

numbers of birds, no associated changes 

were required in this final rule. 

Comment (3): Two peer reviewers 

provided updated information regarding 

the impacts and extent of various 

diseases affecting ohia trees, especially 

rapid ohia death (also known as ohia 

wilt, caused by fungi in the genus 

Ceratocystis). 

Our Response: We have incorporated 

these changes into the final Species 

Status Report and final rule, as 

appropriate. In particular, we have 

updated the estimated area infected 

with rapid ohia death on Hawaii Island 

to more than 50,000 acres (20,235 

hectares) (Hughes 2016, pers. comm.). 

Comment (4): One peer reviewer 

pointed out that, although Paxton et al. 

(2013) stated that the iiwi population on 

the leeward (Kona) side of Hawaii 

Island is strongly increasing, they 

couched those specific results as the 

inference from a limited dataset. The 

reviewer suggested that it was important 

for us to provide a similar caveat with 

regard to this reported trend in our final 

Species Status Report and final rule. 

Our Response: We agree that this 

point provides important context for the 

interpretation of this reported trend, and 

have provided additional language in 

the final Species Status Report and in 

this final rule to more accurately mirror 

the reported results of Paxton et al. 

2013. 

Comment (5): One peer reviewer 

suggested that, although it is true that 

the effects of predation have not been 

well documented or quantified for the 

iiwi, there is substantial evidence that 

predation by nonnative rats, particularly 

the black rat (Rattus rattus), is a serious 

threat to other Hawaiian forest birds. 

Although the reviewer acknowledges 

that predation is difficult to detect and 

document, particularly in species like 

the iiwi that nest high in the forest 

canopy, he believes the available 

evidence suggests predation by rats is 

likely also a contributing factor in the 

decline of the iiwi. 

Our Response: We have incorporated 

additional discussion of the potential 

impacts of rat predation on the iiwi in 

this final rule. 

Comment (6): Two peer reviewers 

suggested that we consider the findings 

of Paxton et al. (2016) in a paper 

published subsequent to the writing of 

our draft Species Status Report. 

Our Response: We have incorporated 

the results of Paxton et al. 2016 into our 

final Species Status Report and this 

final rule. This research documents the 

rapid collapse of the native avian 

community on the island of Kauai since 

2000 as a result of the impacts of 

mosquito-borne diseases exacerbated by 

increased ambient temperature. In 

particular, the projections of Paxton et 

al. (2016) point to the likely extirpation 

of the iiwi from the island of Kauai by 

the year 2050 as a consequence of the 

loss of disease-free habitat on Kauai and 

consequent exposure to avian malaria 

and pox. We also updated the reported 

numbers and range of iiwi on Kauai 

with the more recent estimates from 

Paxton et al. (2016). 

Summary of Changes From Proposed 

Rule 

After consideration of the comments 

we received during the public comment 

period and new information published 


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Federal Register / Vol. 82, No. 181 / Wednesday, September 20, 2017 / Rules and Regulations 43875 

or obtained since the proposed rule was 

published, we have made some changes 

to the final rule. None of these changes 

affect the determination. We made many 

small, nonsubstantive changes and 

corrections (e.g., updating the 

Background section in response to 

comments, minor clarifications, and 

editorial changes) throughout the 

document. In addition, we made some 

substantive changes to the information 

in this final rule in response to peer 

review, which are summarized here: 

(1) We have elevated the 

identification of avian pox as a 

potentially important factor contributing 

to the decline of iiwi in response to 

mosquito-borne diseases, in addition to 

the effects of avian malaria; 

(2) We have made a more definitive 

statement about the likely negative 

effects of rat predation on iiwi 

(VanderWerf 2016, pers. comm.); 

(3) We updated the amount of area on 

Hawaii Island that is now estimated to 

be affected by rapid ohia death, which 

has now increased to more than 50,000 

acres (20,235 hectares) (Hughes 2016, 

pers. comm.); 

(4) We have updated our discussion of 

both the documented and projected 

declines of native forest birds on the 

island of Kauai to reflect the recently 

published work of Paxton et al. (2016), 

which projects the potential extirpation 

of iiwi from that island by the year 2050 

as a consequence of warming 

temperatures and associated exposure to 

mosquito-borne diseases. 

Status Assessment for the Iiwi 

A thorough review of the taxonomy, 

life history, and ecology of the iiwi 

(Drepanis coccinea) is presented in the 

Iiwi (Drepanis coccinea) Species Status 

Report, available online at http://

www.regulations.gov under Docket No. 

FWS–R1–ES–2016–0057. The species 

status report documents the results of 

our comprehensive biological status 

review for the iiwi, including an 

assessment of the potential stressors to 

the species. The species status report 

does not represent a decision by the 

Service on whether the iiwi should be 

listed as a threatened or endangered 

species under the Act; that decision 

involves the application of standards 

within the Act and its implementing 

regulations and policies. The species 

report does, however, provide the 

scientific basis that informs our 

regulatory decision. We have revised the 

report in response to comments from 

peer reviewers, who provided new 

information, additional references, and 

minor corrections. None of these 

changes substantively altered the 

conclusions we drew from the available 

information or changed the outcome of 

our assessment. The following is a 

summary of the key results and 

conclusions from the species status 

report. 

Summary of Biological Status 

A medium-sized forest bird notable 

for its iconic bright red feathers, black 

wings and tail, and a long, curved bill 

(Fancy and Ralph 1998, p. 2), the iiwi 

belongs to the family Fringillidae and 

the endemic Hawaiian honeycreeper 

subfamily, Drepanidinae (Pratt et al. 

2009, pp. 114, 122). Iiwi songs are 

complex with variable creaks (often 

described as sounding like a ‘‘rusty 

hinge’’), whistles, or gurgling sounds, 

and they sometimes mimic other birds 

(Fancy and Ralph 1998, p. 5; Hawaii 

Audubon Society 2011, p. 97). The 

species is found primarily in closed 

canopy, montane wet or montane mesic 

forests composed of tall stature ohia 

(Metrosideros polymorpha) trees or ohia 

and koa (Acacia koa) tree mixed forest. 

The iiwi’s diet consists primarily of 

nectar from the flowers of ohia and 

mamane (Sophora chrysophylla), 

various plants in the lobelia 

(Campanulaceae) family (Pratt et al. 

2009, p. 193), and occasionally, insects 

and spiders (Fancy and Ralph 1998, pp. 

4–5; Pratt et al. 2009, p. 193). 

Although iiwi may breed anytime 

between October and August (Fancy and 

Ralph 1998, p. 7–8), the main breeding 

season occurs between February and 

June, which coincides with peak 

flowering of ohia (Fancy and Ralph 

1997, p. 2). Iiwi create cup-shaped nests 

typically within the upper canopy of 

ohia (Fancy and Ralph 1998, p. 7–8), 

and breeding pairs defend a small area 

around the nest and disperse after the 

breeding season (Fancy and Ralph 1997, 

p. 2). An iiwi clutch typically consists 

of two eggs, with a breeding pair raising 

one to two broods per year (Fancy and 

Ralph 1998, p. 7–8). 

Well known for their seasonal 

movements in response to the 

availability of flowering ohia and 

mamane, iiwi are strong fliers that move 

long distances following their breeding 

season to locate nectar sources (Fancy 

and Ralph 1998, p. 3; Kuntz 2008, p. 1; 

Guillamet et al. 2016, p. 192). The iiwi’s 

seasonal movement to lower elevation 

areas in search of nectar sources is an 

important factor in the exposure of the 

species to avian diseases, particularly 

malaria (discussed below). 

Although historical abundance 

estimates are not available, the iiwi was 

considered one of the most common of 

the native forest birds in Hawaii by 

early naturalists, described as 

‘‘ubiquitous’’ and found from sea level 

to the tree line across all the major 

islands (Banko 1981, pp. 1–2). Today 

the iiwi is no longer found on Lanai, 

and only a few individuals may be 

found on Oahu, Molokai, and west 

Maui. Remaining populations of iiwi are 

largely restricted to forests above 

approximately 3,937 feet (ft) (1,200 

meters (m)) in elevation on Hawaii 

Island (Big Island), east Maui, and 

Kauai. As described below, the present 

distribution of iiwi corresponds with 

areas that are above the elevation at 

which the transmission of avian malaria 

readily occurs (‘‘disease-free’’ habitats). 

The current abundance of iiwi 

rangewide is estimated at a mean of 

605,418 individuals (range 550,972 to 

659,864). Ninety percent of all iiwi now 

occur on Hawaii Island, followed by 

east Maui (about 10 percent), and Kauai 

(less than 1 percent) (Paxton et al. 2013, 

p. 10; Paxton et al. 2016, p. 2). 

Iiwi population trends and abundance 

vary across the islands. The population 

on Kauai appears to be in steep decline, 

with a modeled rate of decrease 

equivalent to a 92 percent reduction in 

population over a 25-year period 

(Paxton et al. 2013, p. 10); the total 

population on Kauai is estimated at a 

mean of 2,603 birds (range 1,789 to 

3,520) (Paxton et al. 2016, p. 2). Trends 

on Maui are mixed, but populations 

there generally appear to be in decline; 

East Maui supports an estimated 

population of 59,859 individuals (range 

54,569 to 65,148) (Paxton et al. 2013, p. 

10). On Hawaii Island, which supports 

the largest remaining numbers of iiwi at 

an estimated average of 543,009 

individuals (range 516,312 to 569,706), 

evidence exists for stable or declining 

populations on the windward side of 

the island. Strong trends of increase are 

inferred on the leeward (Kona) side of 

the island, but these trends should be 

interpreted with caution because they 

are based on a limited number of 

surveys (Paxton et al. 2013, pp. 25–26; 

Camp 2016, pers. comm.). As noted 

above, iiwi have been extirpated from 

Lanai, and only a few individual birds 

have been sporadically detected on the 

islands of Oahu, Molokai, and on west 

Maui in recent decades. Of the nine iiwi 

population regions for which sufficient 

information is available for quantitative 

inference, five of those show strong or 

very strong evidence of declining 

populations; one, a stable to declining 

population; one, a stable to increasing 

population; and two, strong evidence for 

increasing populations. Four of the nine 

regions show evidence of range 

contraction. Overall, based on the most 

recent surveys (up to 2012), 

approximately 90 percent of remaining 


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43876 Federal Register / Vol. 82, No. 181 / Wednesday, September 20, 2017 / Rules and Regulations 

iiwi are restricted to forest within a 

narrow band between 4,265 and 6,234 ft 

(1,300 and 1,900 m) in elevation (Paxton 

et al. 2013, pp. 1, 10–11, and Figure 1) 

(See the Population Status section of the 

species status report for details). 

Summary of Factors Affecting the 

Species 

The Act directs us to determine 

whether any species is an endangered 

species or a threatened species because 

of any of five various factors affecting its 

continued existence. Our species status 

report evaluated many potential 

stressors to iiwi, particularly direct 

impacts on the species from introduced 

diseases, as well as predation by 

introduced mammals, competition with 

nonnative birds, climate change, 

ectoparasites, and the effects of small 

population size. We also assessed 

stressors that may affect the extent or 

quality of the iiwi’s required ohia forest 

habitat, including ohia dieback (a 

natural phenomenon), ohia rust (a 

nonnative pathogen), drought, fires, 

volcanic eruptions, climate change, and 

particularly rapid ohia death (ROD, also 

known as ohia wilt; a nonnative 

pathogen) and habitat alteration by 

nonnative plants and feral ungulates. 

All species experience stressors; we 

consider a stressor to rise to the level of 

a threat to the species if the magnitude 

of the stressor is such that it places the 

current or future viability of the species 

at risk. In considering what stressors or 

factors might constitute threats to a 

species, we must look beyond the 

exposure of the species to a particular 

stressor to evaluate whether the species 

may respond to that stressor in a way 

that causes impacts to the species now 

or is likely to cause impacts in the 

future. If there is exposure to a stressor 

and the species responds negatively, the 

stressor may be a threat. We consider 

the stressor to be a threat if it drives, or 

contributes to, the risk of extinction of 

the species such that the species 

warrants listing as endangered or 

threatened as those terms are defined in 

the Act. However, the identification of 

stressors that could affect a species 

negatively may not be sufficient to 

compel a finding that the species 

warrants listing. The information must 

include evidence sufficient to suggest 

that these stressors are operative threats 

that act on the species to the point that 

the species may meet the definition of 

endangered or threatened under the Act. 

Our species status report examines all 

of the potential stressors to iiwi in 

detail. Here we describe those stressors 

that we conclude rise to the level of a 

threat to the long-term viability of iiwi. 

Based on our comprehensive 

assessment of the status of the iiwi, we 

conclude that the best scientific data 

available consistently identifies avian 

malaria as the primary driver of declines 

in abundance and distribution of iiwi 

observed since the turn of the 20th 

century. This conclusion is supported 

by the extremely high mortality rate of 

iiwi (approximately 95 percent) in 

response to avian malaria, and the 

disappearance of iiwi from lowelevation ohia forest where it was 

formerly common and where malaria is 

prevalent today. Both the life cycle of 

the mosquito vector and the 

development and transmission of the 

malaria parasite are temperaturelimited; thus, iiwi are now found 

primarily in high-elevation forests above 

3,937 ft (1,200 m) where malaria 

prevalence and transmission is only 

brief and episodic, or nonexistent, 

under current conditions. The 

honeycreepers amakihi and apapane 

appear to be developing some resistance 

or tolerance to avian malaria (e.g., 

Woodworth et al. 2005, p. 1,531; 

Atkinson et al. 2014, p. 366; Samuel et 

al. 2015, pp. 12–13). In contrast, iiwi 

have not demonstrated any substantial 

sign of developing resistance to avian 

malaria to date and do not appear to be 

genetically predisposed to evolve 

resistance (Jarvi et al. 2004, pp. 2,164– 

2,166). As the prevalence of avian 

malaria increases in association with 

warmer temperatures (e.g., LaPointe et 

al. 2012, p. 217), the extent and impact 

of avian diseases upon iiwi are 

projected to become greatly exacerbated 

by climate change during this century. 

Additionally, on Hawaii Island, where 

90 percent of the iiwi currently occur, 

the recently discovered tree disease, 

ohia wilt, commonly known in Hawaii 

as rapid ohia death (ROD), was 

identified as an emergent source of 

habitat loss and degradation that has the 

potential to exacerbate other stressors to 

ohia forest habitat, as well as reduce the 

amount of habitat remaining for iiwi in 

an already limited, disease-free zone 

contained within a narrow elevation 

band. Rapid ohia death leads to 

significant mortality of the ohia that iiwi 

depend upon for nesting and foraging. 

This disease is spreading rapidly and 

has become a matter of urgent concern. 

If ROD continues to spread across the 

native ohia forests, it will directly 

threaten iiwi by eliminating the limited, 

malaria-free native forest areas that 

remain for the species. 

Based on the analysis in our species 

status report, invasive, nonnative plants 

and feral ungulates have major, adverse 

impacts on ohia forest habitat. Although 

we did not find that the historical and 

ongoing habitat alteration by nonnative 

species is the primary cause of the 

significant observed decline in iiwi’s 

abundance and distribution, the 

cumulative impacts to iiwi’s habitat, 

and in particular the activities of feral 

ungulates, are not insignificant and 

likely exacerbate the effects of avian 

malaria. Feral ungulates, particularly 

pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), 

and axis deer (Axis axis), degrade ohia 

forest habitat by spreading nonnative 

plant seeds and grazing on and 

trampling native vegetation, and 

contributing to erosion (Mountainspring 

1986, p. 95; Camp et al. 2010, p. 198). 

Invasive nonnative plants, such as 

strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) 

and albizia trees (Falcataria 

moluccana), prevent or retard 

regeneration of ohia forest used by iiwi 

for foraging and nesting. The combined 

effects of drought and nonnative, 

invasive grasses have resulted in 

increased fire frequency and the 

conversion of mesic ohia woodland to 

exotic grassland in many areas of 

Hawaii ((D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, 

p. 67; Smith and Tunison 1992, pp. 

395–397; Vitousek et al. 1997, pp. 7–8; 

D’Antonio et al. 2011, p. 1,617). Beyond 

alteration of ohia forest, feral pig 

activities that create mosquito habitat in 

ohia forest where there would otherwise 

be very little to none is identified as an 

important compounding stressor that 

acts synergistically with the prevalence 

of malaria and results in iiwi mortality. 

Although habitat loss and degradation is 

not, by itself, considered to be a primary 

driver of iiwi declines, the habitat 

impacts described above contribute 

cumulatively to the vulnerability of the 

species to the threat of avian malaria by 

degrading the quality and quantity of 

the remaining disease-free habitat upon 

which the iiwi depends. In this regard, 

ROD, discussed above, is a matter of 

urgent concern as it can further 

exacerbate and compound effects from 

the suite of stressors that impact iiwi 

(see below). 

Avian Diseases 

The introduction of avian diseases 

transmitted by the introduced southern 

house mosquito (Culex 

quinquefasciatus), including avian 

malaria (caused by the protozoan 

Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox 

(Avipoxvirus sp.), has been a key 

driving force in both extinctions and 

extensive declines over the last century 

in the abundance, diversity, and 

distribution of many Hawaiian forest 

bird species, including declines of the 

iiwi and other endemic honeycreepers 

(e.g., Warner 1968, entire; Van Riper et 

al. 1986, entire; Benning et al. 2002, p. 


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14,246; Atkinson and LaPointe 2009a, p. 

243; Atkinson and LaPointe 2009b, pp. 

55–56; Samuel et al. 2011, p. 2,970; 

LaPointe et al. 2012, p. 214; Samuel et 

al. 2015, pp. 13–15). Nonnative to 

Hawaii, the first species of mosquitoes 

were accidentally introduced to the 

Hawaiian Islands in 1826, and spread 

quickly to the lowlands of all the major 

islands (Warner 1968, p. 104; Van Riper 

et al. 1986, p. 340). Early observations 

of birds with characteristic lesions 

suggest that avian pox virus was 

established in Hawaii by the late 1800s 

(Warner 1968, p. 106; Atkinson and 

LaPointe 2009a, p. 55), and later genetic 

analyses indicate pox was present in the 

Hawaiian Islands by at least 1900 (Jarvi 

et al. 2008, p. 339). Avian malaria had 

arrived in Hawaii in the early 20th 

century (Warner 1968, p. 107; Van Riper 

et al. 1986, pp. 340–341; Atkinson and 

LaPointe 2009, p. 55; Banko and Banko 

2009, p. 52), likely in association with 

imported cage birds (Yorinks and 

Atkinson 2000, p. 731), or through the 

deliberate introduction of nonnative 

birds to replace the native birds that had 

by then disappeared from the lowlands 

(Atkinson and LaPointe 2009a, p. 55). 

Avian Malaria 

As noted above, avian malaria is a 

disease caused by the protozoan parasite 

Plasmodium relictum; the parasite is 

transmitted by the mosquito Culex 

quinquefasciatus, and invades the red 

blood cells of birds. Birds suffering from 

malaria infection undergo an acute 

phase of the disease during which 

parasitemia, a quantitative measure of 

the number of Plasmodium parasites in 

the circulating red blood cells, increases 

steadily. Because the parasite destroys 

the red blood cells, anemia and decline 

of physical condition can quickly result. 

In native Hawaiian forest birds, death 

may result either directly from the 

effects of anemia, or indirectly when 

anemia-weakened birds become 

vulnerable to predation, starvation, or a 

combination of other stressors (LaPointe 

et al. 2012, p. 213). Native Hawaiian 

birds that survive avian malaria remain 

chronically infected, thus becoming 

lifetime reservoirs of the disease 

(Samuel et al. 2011, p. 2,960; LaPointe 

et al. 2012, p. 216) and remaining 

capable of further disease transmission 

to other native birds. In contrast, 

nonnative birds in Hawaii are little 

affected by avian malaria and later 

become incapable of disease 

transmission (LaPointe et al. 2012, p. 

216). 

Wild iiwi infected with malaria are 

rarely captured, apparently because the 

onset of infection leads to rapid 

mortality, precluding their capture 

(Samuel et al. 2011, p. 2,967; LaPointe 

et al. 2016, p. 11). However, controlled 

experiments with captive birds have 

demonstrated the susceptibility of 

native Hawaiian honeycreepers to avian 

malaria; mortality is extremely high in 

some species, including iiwi, 

experimentally infected with the 

disease. As early as the 1960s, 

experiments with Laysan finches 

(Telespiza cantans) and several other 

species of native Hawaiian 

honeycreepers demonstrated 100 

percent mortality from malaria in a very 

short period of time (Warner 1968, pp. 

109–112, 118; Fig. 426). 

In a study specific to iiwi, Atkinson 

et al. (1995, entire) demonstrated that 

the species suffers approximately 95 

percent mortality when infected with 

malaria (Atkinson et al. 1995, p. S65). 

All of the exposed iiwi developed 

infections within 4 days, with only a 

single male iiwi surviving. Following reexposure with the same Plasmodium 

isolate after initial infection, no 

subsequent increase in parasitemia was 

detected, suggesting a possible 

development of some immunity 

(Atkinson et al. 1995, p. S66). The 

authors suggested that iiwi may lack 

sufficient diversity in the major 

histocompatibility complex or 

genetically based immunity traits 

capable of recognizing and responding 

to malarial antigens, an important factor 

in iiwi’s susceptibility to introduced 

disease (Atkinson et al. 1995, pp. S65– 

S66). 

Despite extremely high mortality of 

iiwi from avian malaria in general, the 

aforementioned study as well as two 

other studies have demonstrated that a 

few individuals have survived infection 

(Van Riper et al. 1986, p. 334; Atkinson 

et al. 1995, p. S63; Freed et al. 2005, p. 

759). If a genetic correlation were 

identified, it is possible that surviving 

individuals could serve as a potential 

source for the evolution of genetic 

resistance to malaria, although evidence 

of this is scant to date. Eggert et al. 

(2008, p. 8) reported a slight but 

detectable level of genetic 

differentiation between iiwi populations 

located at mid and high elevation, 

potentially the first sign of selection 

acting on these populations in response 

to disease. Additionally, the infrequent 

but occasional sighting of iiwi on Oahu 

indicates a possible developed 

resistance or tolerance to avian malaria. 

Moreover, other more common 

honeycreepers, such as the amakihi and 

apapane, show signs of developing 

resistance or tolerance to the disease, as 

evidenced by molecular studies (e.g., 

Woodworth et al. 2005, p. 1,531; 

Atkinson et al. 2014, p. 366) and their 

continued distribution at mid and low 

elevations where mosquitos and malaria 

transmission persist year-round (e.g., 

Foster et al. 2004, entire; Eggert et al. 

2008, pp. 7–8). 

Despite these observations, there is no 

indication as of yet that iiwi have 

developed significant resistance to 

malaria such that individuals can 

survive in areas where the disease is 

strongly prevalent, including all 

potential low-elevation forest habitat 

and most mid-elevation forest habitat 

(Foster et al. 2007, p. 4,743; Eggert et al. 

2008, p. 2). In one study, for example, 

4 years of mist-netting effort across 

extensive areas of Hawaii Island 

resulted in the capture of a substantial 

number of iiwi, yet no iiwi were 

captured in low-elevation forests and 

only a few were captured in midelevation forests (Samuel et al. 2015, p. 

11). In addition, several studies indicate 

that iiwi have low genetic variability, 

and even genetic impediments to a 

possible evolved resistance to malaria in 

the future (Jarvi et al. 2001, p. 255; Jarvi 

et al. 2004, Table 4, p. 2,164; Foster et 

al. 2007, p. 4,744; Samuel et al. 2015, 

pp. 12–13). For example, Eggert et al. 

(2008, p. 9) noted that gene variations 

that may confer resistance appear to be 

rare in iiwi. 

Three factors—the homogeneity of a 

portion of the iiwi genome, the high 

mortality rate of iiwi in response to 

avian malaria, and high levels of gene 

flow resulting from the wide-ranging 

nature of the species—suggest that iiwi 

would likely require a significant 

amount of time for development of 

genetic resistance to avian malaria, 

assuming the species retains a 

sufficiently large reservoir of genetic 

diversity for a response to natural 

selection. Genetic studies of iiwi have 

also noted a dichotomy between the 

lack of variation in mitochondrial DNA 

(Tarr and Fleischer 1993, 1995; 

Fleischer et al. 1998; Foster et al. 2007, 

p. 4,743), and maintenance of variation 

in nuclear DNA (Jarvi et al. 2004, p. 

2,166; Foster et al. 2007, p. 4,744); both 

attributes suggest that iiwi may have 

historically experienced a drastic 

reduction in population size that led to 

a genetic bottleneck. Studies have also 

found low diversity in the antigenbinding sites of the iiwi’s major 

histocompatibility complex (that part of 

an organism’s immune system that 

helps to recognize foreign or 

incompatible proteins (antigens) and 

trigger an immune response). 

The relationship between temperature 

and avian malaria is of extreme 

importance to the current persistence of 

iiwi and the viability of the species in 

the future. The development of the 


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Plasmodium parasite that carries 

malaria responds positively to increased 

temperature, such that malaria 

transmission is greatest in warm, lowelevation forests with an average 

temperature of 72 °F (22 °C), and is 

largely absent in high-elevation forests 

above 4,921 ft (1,500 m) with cooler 

mean annual temperatures around 57 °F 

(14 °C) (Ahumada et al. 2004, p. 1,167; 

LaPointe et al. 2010, p. 318; Liao et al. 

2015, p. 4,343). High-elevation forests 

thus currently serve as disease-free 

habitat zones for Hawaiian forest birds, 

including iiwi. Once one of the most 

common birds in forests throughout the 

Hawaiian islands, iiwi are now rarely 

found at lower elevations, and are 

increasingly restricted to high-elevation 

mesic and wet forests where cooler 

temperatures limit both the 

development of the malarial parasite 

and mosquito densities (Scott et al. 

1986, pp. 367–368; Ahumada et al. 

2004, p. 1,167; LaPointe et al. 2010, p. 

318; Samuel et al. 2011, p. 2,960; Liao 

et al. 2015, p. 4,346; Samuel et al. 2015, 

p. 14). 

Temperature also affects the life cycle 

of the malaria mosquito vector, Culex 

quinquefasciatus. Lower temperatures 

slow the development of larval stages 

and can affect the survival of adults 

(Ahumada et al. 2005, pp. 1,165–1,168; 

LaPointe et al. 2012, p. 217). Although 

closely tied to altitude and a 

corresponding decrease in temperature, 

the actual range of mosquitoes varies 

with season. Generally, as temperature 

decreases with increasing elevation, 

mosquito abundance drops significantly 

at higher altitudes. In the Hawaiian 

Islands, the mosquito boundary occurs 

between 4,921 and 5,577 ft (1,500 and 

1,700 m) (VanRiper et al. 1986, p. 338; 

LaPointe et al. 2012, p. 218). Areas 

above this elevation are at least 

seasonally relatively free of mosquitoes; 

thus, malaria transmission is unlikely at 

these high elevations under current 

conditions. 

Early on, Ralph and Fancy (1995, p. 

741) and Atkinson et al. (1995, p. S66) 

suggested that the seasonal movements 

of iiwi to lower elevation areas where 

ohia is flowering may result in 

increased contact with malaria-infected 

mosquitoes, which, combined with the 

iiwi’s high susceptibility to the disease, 

may explain their observed low annual 

survivorship relative to other native 

Hawaiian birds. Compounding the 

issue, other bird species that overlap 

with iiwi in habitat, including Apapane 

(Himatione sanguinea), are relatively 

resistant to the diseases and carry both 

Plasmodium and avian pox virus. As 

reservoirs, they carry these diseases 

upslope where mosquitoes are less 

abundant but still occur in numbers 

sufficient to facilitate and continue 

transmission to iiwi (Ralph and Fancy 

1995, p. 741). 

Subsequent studies have confirmed 

the correlation between risk of malaria 

infection and iiwi altitudinal 

migrations, and suggest upper elevation 

forest reserves in Hawaii may not 

adequately protect mobile nectarivores 

such as iiwi. Kuntz (2008, p. 3) found 

iiwi populations at upper elevation 

study sites (6,300 ft (1,920 m)) declined 

during the non-breeding season when 

birds departed for lower elevations in 

search of flowering ohia, traveling up to 

12 mi (19.4 km) over contiguous 

mosquito-infested wet forest. Guillamet 

et al. (2016, p. 192) used empirical 

measures of seasonal movement 

patterns in iiwi to model how 

movement across elevations increases 

the risk of disease exposure, even 

affecting breeding populations in 

disease-free areas. La Pointe et al. 

(unpublished data 2015) found that, 

based on malaria prevalence in all 

Hawaiian forest birds, species migrating 

between upper elevations to lower 

elevations increased their risk of 

exposure to avian malaria by as much as 

27 times. The greater risk was shown to 

be due to a much higher abundance of 

mosquitoes at lower elevations, which 

in turn was attributable at least in part 

to the higher abundance of pigs and 

their activities in lower elevation forests 

(discussed further below). 

Avian Pox 

Avian pox (or bird pox) is an infection 

caused by the virus Avipoxvirus, which 

produces large, granular, and eventually 

dead tissue lesions or tumors on 

exposed skin or infected lesions on the 

mouth, trachea, and esophagus of 

infected birds. Avian pox can be 

transmitted through cuts or wounds 

upon physical contact or through the 

mouth parts of blood-sucking insects 

such as the mosquito Culex 

quinquefasciatus, the common vector 

for both the pox virus and avian malaria 

(LaPointe et al. 2012, p. 221). Tumors or 

lesions caused by avian pox can be 

crippling for birds, and may result in 

death. Although not extensively 

studied, existing data suggest that 

mortality from avian pox may range 

from 4 to 10 percent observed in Oahu 

Elepaio (Chasiempis ibidis) (for birds 

with active lesions) (VanderWerf 2009, 

p. 743) to 100 percent in Laysan finches 

(Warner 1968, p. 108). VanderWerf 

(2009, p. 743) has also suggested that 

mortality levels from pox may correlate 

with higher rainfall years, and at least 

in the case of the Elepaio, observed 

mortality may decrease over time with 

a reduction in susceptible birds. 

As early as 1902, native birds 

suffering from avian pox were observed 

in the Hawaiian Islands, and Warner 

(1968, p. 106) described reports that 

epizootics of avian pox ‘‘were so 

numerous and extreme that large 

numbers of diseased and badly 

debilitated birds could be observed in 

the field.’’ As the initial wave of postEuropean extinctions of native 

Hawaiian birds was largely observed in 

the late 1800s, prior to the introduction 

of avian malaria (Van Riper et al. 1986, 

p. 342), it is possible that avian pox 

played a significant role, although there 

is no direct evidence (Warner 1968, p. 

106). Molecular work has revealed two 

genetically distinct variants of the pox 

virus affecting forest birds in Hawaii 

that differ in virulence (Jarvi et al. 2008, 

p. 347): One tends to produce fatal 

lesions, and the other appears to be less 

severe, based on the observation of 

recurring pox infections in birds with 

healed lesions (Atkinson et al. 2009, p. 

56). 

The largest study of avian pox in 

scope and scale took place between 

1977 and 1980, during which 

approximately 15,000 native and 

nonnative forest birds were captured 

and examined for pox virus lesions on 

Hawaii Island (Van Riper et al. 2002, pp. 

929–942). The study made several 

important determinations, including 

that native forest birds were indeed 

more susceptible than introduced 

species, that all species were more 

likely to be infected during the wet 

season, and that pox prevalence was 

greatest at mid-elevation sites 

approximately 3,937 ft (1,200 m) in 

elevation, coinciding with the greatest 

overlap between birds and the mosquito 

vector. Of the 107 iiwi captured and 

examined during the study, 17 percent 

showed signs of either active or inactive 

pox lesions (Van Riper et al. 2002, p. 

932). Many studies of avian pox have 

documented that native birds are 

frequently infected with both avian pox 

and avian malaria (Van Riper et al. 

1986, p. 331; Atkinson et al. 2005, p. 

537; Jarvi et al. 2008, p. 347). This may 

be due to mosquito transmission of both 

pathogens simultaneously, because 

documented immune system 

suppression by the pox virus renders 

chronically infected birds more 

vulnerable to infection by, or a relapse 

of, malaria (Jarvi et al. 2008, p. 347), or 

due to other unknown factors. The 

relative frequency with which the two 

diseases co-occur makes it challenging 

to disentangle the independent impact 

of either stressor acting alone (LaPointe 

et al. 2012, p. 221). Although we lack 


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direct evidence of the degree to which 

pox may be a specific threat to iiwi or 

contributing to its decline, both field 

observations of and limited 

experimental studies on closely related 

species of honeycreepers suggests that it 

may be a significant factor (Warner 

1968, pp. 106, 108–109; VanRiper et al. 

2002, pp. 936–939). 

Compounded Impacts—Feral Ungulates 

Create Habitat for Culex 

Quinquefasciatus Mosquitoes and 

Exacerbate Impacts of Disease 

It has been widely established that 

damage to native tree ferns (Cibotium 

spp.) and rooting and wallowing activity 

by feral pigs create mosquito larval 

breeding sites in Hawaiian forests where 

they would not otherwise occur. The 

porous geology and relative absence of 

puddles, ponds, and slow-moving 

streams in most Hawaiian landscapes 

precludes an abundance of waterholding habitat sites for mosquito 

larvae; however, Culex quinquefasciatus 

mosquitoes, the sole vector for avian 

malaria in Hawaii, now occur in great 

density in many wet forests where their 

larvae primarily rely on habitats created 

by pig activity (LaPointe 2006, pp. 1–3; 

Ahumada et al. 2009, p. 354; Atkinson 

and LaPointe 2009, p. 60; Samuel et al. 

2011, p. 2,971). Pigs compact volcanic 

soils and create wallows and water 

containers within downed, hollowedout tree ferns, knocked over and 

consumed for their starchy pith (Scott et 

al. 1986, pp. 365–368; Atkinson et al. 

1995, p. S68). The abundance of C. 

quinquefasciatus mosquitoes is also 

much greater in suburban and 

agricultural areas than in undisturbed 

native forest, and the mosquito is 

capable of dispersing up to 1 mile (1.6 

kilometers) within closed-canopy native 

forest, including habitat occupied by the 

iiwi (LaPointe 2006, p. 3; LaPointe et al. 

2009, p. 409). 

In studies of native forest plots where 

feral ungulates (including pigs) were 

removed by trapping and other 

methods, researchers have demonstrated 

a correlation in the abundance of Culex 

spp. mosquitoes when comparing pigfree, fenced areas to adjacent sites where 

feral pig activity is unmanaged. Aruch 

et al. 2007 (p. 574), LaPointe 2006 (pp. 

1–3) and LaPointe et al. (2009, p. 409; 

2012, pp. 215, 219) assert that 

management of feral pigs may be 

strategic to managing avian malaria and 

pox, particularly in remote Hawaiian 

rain forests where studies have 

documented that habitats created by 

pigs are the most abundant and 

productive habitat for larval mosquitoes. 

Reduction in mosquito habitat must 

involve pig management across large 

landscapes due to the tremendous 

dispersal ability of C. quinquefasciatus 

and the possibility of the species 

invading from adjacent areas lacking 

management (LaPointe 2006, pp. 3–4). 

The consequences of feral pig activities 

thus further exacerbate the impacts to 

iiwi from avian malaria and avian pox, 

by creating and enhancing larval 

habitats for the mosquito vector, thereby 

increasing exposure to these diseases. 

Avian Diseases—Summary 

The relatively recent introduction of 

avian pox and avian malaria, in concert 

with the introduction of the mosquito 

disease vector, is widely viewed as one 

of the key factors underlying the loss 

and decline of native forest birds 

throughout the Hawaiian Islands. 

Evolving in the absence of mosquitoes 

and their vectored pathogens, native 

Hawaiian forest birds, particularly 

honeycreepers such as iiwi, lack natural 

immunity or genetic resistance, and 

thus are more susceptible to these 

diseases than are nonnative bird species 

(van Riper et al. 1986, pp. 327–328; 

Yorinks and Atkinson 2000, p. 737). 

Researchers consider iiwi one of the 

most vulnerable species, with an 

average of 95 percent mortality in 

response to infection with avian malaria 

(Atkinson et al. 1995, p. S63; Samuel et 

al. 2015, p. 2). 

Many native forest birds, including 

iiwi, are now absent from warm, lowelevation areas that support large 

populations of disease-carrying 

mosquitoes, and these birds persist only 

in relatively disease-free zones in highelevation forests, above roughly 4,921 to 

5,577 ft (1,500 to 1,700 m), where both 

the development of the malarial parasite 

and the density of mosquito populations 

are held in check by cooler temperatures 

(Scott et al. 1986, pp. 85, 100, 365–368; 

Woodworth et al. 2009, p. 1,531; Liao et 

al. 2015, pp. 4,342–4,343; Samuel et al. 

2015, pp. 11–12). Even at these 

elevations, however, disease 

transmission may occur when iiwi move 

downslope to forage on ephemeral 

patches of flowering ohia in the 

nonbreeding season, encountering 

disease-carrying mosquitoes in the 

process (Ralph and Fancy 1995, p. 741; 

Fancy and Ralph 1998, p. 3; Guillaumet 

et al. 2015, p. EV–8; LaPointe et al. 

2015, p. 1). Iiwi have not demonstrably 

developed resistance to avian malaria, 

unlike related honeycreepers including 

Amakihi (Hemignathus spp.) and 

Apapane. Due to the extreme mortality 

rate of iiwi when exposed to avian 

malaria, we consider avian malaria in 

particular to pose a threat to iiwi. 

Having already experienced local 

extinctions and widespread population 

declines, it is possible that the species 

may not possess sufficient genetic 

diversity to adapt to these diseases 

(Atkinson et al. 2009, p. 58). 

Climate Change 

Based on the assessment of the best 

scientific data available, we conclude 

that climate change exacerbates the 

impacts to iiwi from mosquito-borne 

disease, and this effect is likely to 

continue and worsen in the future. Air 

temperature in Hawaii has increased in 

the past century and particularly since 

the 1970s, with the greatest increases at 

higher elevations, and several 

conservative climate change models 

project continued warming in Hawaii 

into the future. As a result, the 

temperature barrier to the development 

and transmission of avian malaria will 

continue to move up in elevation in 

response to warmer conditions, leading 

to the curtailment or loss of disease-free 

habitats for iiwi. We briefly discuss 

below three climate studies that 

conservatively predict the iiwi will lose 

between 60 and 90 percent of its current 

(and already limited) disease-free range 

by the end of this century, with 

significant effects occurring by midcentury. 

Climate Change Effects on Iiwi 

Climate change is a stressor that is 

likely to significantly exacerbate the 

effects of avian malaria on iiwi both 

directly through increased prevalence 

and mortality, and indirectly through 

the loss of disease-free habitat. Air 

temperature in Hawaii has increased in 

the past century and particularly since 

the 1970s, with greater increases at high 

elevation (Giambelluca et al. 2008, pp. 

2–4; Wang et al. 2014, pp. 95, 97). 

Documented impacts of increased 

temperature include the prevalence of 

avian malaria in forest birds at 

increasing elevation, including highelevation sites where iiwi are already 

declining, for example, on Kauai 

(Paxton et al. 2013, p. 13; Paxton et al. 

2016, entire). Several projections for 

future climate in Hawaii describe a 

continued warming trend, especially at 

high elevations. In our species status 

report, we analyzed in particular three 

climate studies (summarized below) that 

address the future of native forest birds, 

including iiwi, in the face of the 

interactions between climate change 

and avian malaria. 

Benning et al. (2002) concluded that 

under optimistic assumptions (i.e., 3.6 

°F (2 °C) increase in temperature by the 

year 2100), malaria-susceptible 

Hawaiian forest birds, including iiwi, 

will lose most of their disease-free 

habitat in the three sites they considered 


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in their projection of climate change 

impacts. For example, current diseasefree habitat at high elevation within the 

Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge 

(NWR) on the island of Hawaii (where 

the environment is still too cold for 

development of the malarial parasite) 

would be reduced by 96 percent by the 

end of the century. 

Fortini et al. (2015) conducted a 

vulnerability assessment for 20 species 

of Hawaiian forest birds based on a 

projected increase of 6.1 °F (3.4 °C) 

under the A1B emissions scenario at 

higher elevations by 2100. Even under 

this relatively optimistic scenario, in 

which emissions decline after midcentury (IPCC 2007, p. 44), all species 

were projected to suffer range loss as the 

result of increased transmission of avian 

malaria at higher elevations with 

increasing temperature. Iiwi was 

predicted to lose 60 percent of its 

current range by the year 2100, and 

climate conditions suitable for the 

species will shift up in elevation, 

including into areas that are not 

currently forested, such as lava flows 

and high-elevation grasslands. Most of 

the remaining habitat for iiwi would be 

restricted to a single island, Hawaii 

Island. 

Liao et al. (2015) generated 

temperature and precipitation 

projections under three alternative 

emissions scenarios and projected 

future malaria risk for Hawaiian forest 

birds. Irrespective of the scenario 

modeled, by mid-century (roughly 

2040), malaria transmission rates and 

impacts to bird populations began 

increasing at high elevations. By 2100, 

the increased annual malaria 

transmission rate for iiwi was projected 

to result in population declines of 70 to 

90 percent for the species, depending on 

the emissions scenario. 

All three of these studies consistently 

predict a significant loss of disease-free 

habitat for iiwi with consequent severe 

reductions in population size and 

distribution by the year 2100, with 

significant changes likely to be observed 

as early as 2040. As the iiwi’s numbers 

and distribution continue to decline, the 

remaining small, isolated populations 

become increasingly vulnerable to loss 

of ohia forest habitat from other 

stressors such as ROD, as well as other 

environmental catastrophes and 

demographic stochasticity, particularly 

should all remaining iiwi become 

restricted to a single island (Hawaii 

Island), as some scenarios suggest. 

Climate change will likely exacerbate 

other stressors to iiwi in addition to 

disease. Projected increases in 

temperature and humidity are likely to 

increase the spatial extent of areas on 

Hawaii Island vulnerable to ROD (Keith 

2016, pers. comm). Changes in the 

amount and distribution of rainfall in 

Hawaii likely will affect the quality and 

extent of mesic and wet forests on 

which iiwi depend. Hawaii has 

experienced an overall drying trend 

since the 1920s, with an average annual 

decline in precipitation of 1.78 percent 

(Frazier and Giambelluca 2016, p. 4), 

but some future projections suggest that 

areas that currently are wet (windward 

sides of islands) will experience greater 

rainfall and more extreme rainfall 

events, while currently dry areas 

(leeward sides and high elevations) will 

become drier (Zhang et al. 2016, pp. 

8,350–8,351). Changes in the trade wind 

inversion (which strongly influences 

rainfall) and other aspects of 

precipitation with climate change are 

difficult to model with confidence, 

complicating projections of future 

precipitation in Hawaii on various 

spatial scales (Chu and Chen 2005, pp. 

4,801–4,802; Cao et al. 2007, pp. 1,158– 

1,159; Timm et al. 2015, p. 107; Fortini 

et al. 2015, p. 5; Liao et al. 2015, p. 

4,345). In addition, potential increases 

in storm frequency and intensity in 

Hawaii as a result of climate change 

may lead to an increase in direct 

mortality of individual iiwi and a 

decline in the species’ reproductive 

success. Currently, no well-developed 

projections exist for these possible 

cumulative effects. 

Climate Change—Summary 

The natural susceptibility of native 

forest birds to introduced diseases, in 

combination with the observed 

restriction of Hawaiian honeycreepers to 

high-elevation forests, led Atkinson et 

al. (1995, p. S68) to predict two decades 

ago that a shift in the current mosquito 

distribution to higher elevations could 

be ‘‘disastrous for those species with 

already reduced populations.’’ Thus, 

climate change has significant 

implications for the future of Hawaiian 

forest birds, as predictions suggest 

increased temperatures may largely 

eliminate the high-elevation forest 

currently inhospitable to the 

transmission of mosquito-borne diseases 

(Benning et al. 2002, pp. 14,247–14,249; 

LaPointe et al. 2012, p. 219; Fortini et 

al. 2015, p. 9). Samuel et al. (2015, p. 

15) predict further reductions and 

extinctions of native Hawaiian birds as 

a consequence, noting that the iiwi is 

particularly vulnerable due to its high 

susceptibility to malaria. Finally, Paxton 

et al. (2016, entire) report a steepening 

decline in iiwi and other honeycreepers 

on Kauai since 2000. 

Iiwi is projected to be extirpated from 

Kauai by 2050 as a result of the island 

having now passed a ‘‘tipping point’’ 

where increasing temperature exposes 

birds to mosquito-borne disease 

throughout their remaining range on the 

island; if the current trends of decline 

in distribution and abundance continue 

in a linear fashion in the future, iiwi 

could be extirpated from Kauai much 

sooner (Paxton et al. 2016, pp. 3, 5). The 

maximum elevation of forest habitat on 

Kauai (about 4,900 ft (1,500 m)) is less 

than that on either Maui or Hawaii 

Island, where similar trends of increase 

in temperature and the elevation of 

disease transmission are well 

documented, as discussed above. Iiwi, 

and other disease-susceptible 

honeycreepers, only persist in 

abundance on these higher islands in 

high-elevation, disease-free habitat that 

is shrinking with increasing 

temperature. In sum, several 

independent studies project consistently 

significant negative impacts to the iiwi 

as a result of climate change and the 

increased exposure to avian malaria as 

disease-free habitats shrink. As iiwi are 

known to exhibit 95 percent mortality 

on average as a result of avian malaria, 

the current numbers of iiwi are of little 

consequence should all or most of the 

remaining individuals become exposed 

to the disease in the future. 

Rapid Ohia Death 

Rapid ohia death, a new disease that 

kills ohia trees, is a factor with the 

potential to exacerbate the threats 

currently affecting iiwi and reduce the 

amount of disease-free habitat 

remaining by destroying high-elevation 

ohia forest. Unexplained, widespread 

mortality of ohia trees was first detected 

in 2012 in lowland forests of the Puna 

Region of Hawaii Island (Keith et al. 

2015, entire). Pathogenicity tests 

conducted by the USDA Agriculture 

Research Service determined that the 

vascular wilt disease, now commonly 

known in Hawaii as rapid ohia death 

(ROD), is caused by the fungus 

Ceratocystis fimbriata (Keith et al. 2015, 

pp. 1–2). A second, new species of 

Ceratocystis also kills ohia; this new 

species is being described as of this 

writing (Hughes 2016, pers. comm.; 

Keith 2016, pers. comm.). 

Ohia stands experience rapid and 

extensive mortality from ROD. In 2014, 

approximately 15,000 ac (6,000 ha) of 

ohia forest from Kalapana to Hilo on 

Hawaii Island experienced greater than 

50 percent mortality, with 100 percent 

mortality in some stands over a two to 

three year period (Friday et al. 2015, p. 

1). Between 2014 and 2015, annual 

mortality rates measured in monitoring 

plots averaged from 24 percent 

(measured as ohia stems) to 28 percent 


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(measured as ohia basal area) 

(Mortenson et al. 2016, p. 89). When 

these plots were established in the RODinfected area in January and February of 

2014, all had already experienced an 

average of approximately 39 percent 

ohia mortality (Mortenson et al. 2016, p. 

89). 

At present, the disease remains 

restricted to Hawaii Island, where it is 

spreading rapidly. In 2016, the amount 

of forest area affected on Hawaii Island 

was estimated to be more than 50,000 ac 

(20,235 ha), and this estimate includes 

a new outbreak in Laupahoehoe Forest 

Reserve on the Hamakua Coast (Hughes 

2016, pers. comm.). The largest affected 

area is within the Puna District, where 

infected trees have been observed 

within approximately 4,000 

discontinuous acres (1,619 ha) (Hughes 

2016, pers. comm.). In some areas, dead 

and dying trees affected by the fungus 

have been observed within the range of 

iiwi (Hughes 2016, pers. comm.; Keith 

2016, pers. comm.). Affected trees are 

found at elevations ranging from sea 

level up to approximately 5,000 ft (1,524 

m), including at Wailuku Forest near 

Hakalau Forest NWR (Hughes 2016, 

pers. comm.), which contains a stable to 

increasing iiwi population (Paxton et al. 

2013, p. 12). Hawaii Island is home to 

90 percent of the current iiwi 

population, and this island will remain 

particularly important for the species: 

Iiwi are predicted to be largely if not 

entirely restricted to that island under 

some future climate change projections 

(Fortini et al. 2015, p. 9, Supplement 6). 

Evaluation of Existing Regulatory 

Mechanisms and Conservation 

Measures 

Our species status report evaluated 

several regulatory and other measures in 

place today that might address or are 

otherwise intended to ameliorate the 

stressors to iiwi. Our analysis concluded 

that forest habitat protection, 

conservation, and restoration has the 

potential to benefit iiwi by protecting 

and enhancing breeding and foraging 

areas for the species while 

simultaneously reducing the abundance 

of mosquito breeding sites, despite the 

disease vector’s (Culex 

quinquefasciatus) 1-mi (1.6-km) 

dispersal ability (LaPointe et al. 2009, 

pp. 408; 411–412; LaPointe et al. 2012, 

p. 215). 

Because of the iiwi’s extreme 

susceptibility to avian malaria, habitat 

to sustain the species must be diseasefree. Efforts to restore and manage large, 

contiguous tracts of native forests have 

been shown to benefit iiwi, especially 

when combined with fencing and 

ungulate removal (LaPointe et al. 2009, 

p. 412; LaPointe et al. 2012, p. 219). 

While forest restoration and ungulate 

management at the Hakalau Forest NWR 

on Hawaii Island are excellent examples 

of what is needed to increase iiwi 

abundance, many similar large-scale 

projects would be necessary rangewide 

to simply reduce mosquito abundance 

and protect the species from current 

habitat threats alone. However, even 

wide-scale landscape habitat 

management would be unable to fully 

address the present scope of the threat 

of disease, and sufficient high-elevation 

forest is not available to provide 

disease-free habitat for iiwi in the face 

of future climate change. Even if 

disease-free habitat within managed 

areas could be restored and protected 

now, much of this habitat will lose its 

disease-free status as avian malaria 

moves upward in elevation in response 

to warming temperatures, as is 

occurring already within the Alakai 

Wilderness on the island of Kauai. 

New opportunities are emerging, such 

as large-scale vector control using new 

tools that have the potential to assist 

Hawaiian forest birds (LaPointe et al. 

2009, pp. 416–417; Reeves et al. 2014, 

p. e97557; Gantz et al. 2015, pp. E6736– 

E6743; Fischer in press, pp. 1–2). The 

most promising of these new tools 

forego chemicals as a means of lethal 

control and directly manipulate the 

viability (or fitness) of the mosquitoes 

and can be grouped into two broad 

categories: the Sterile Insect Technique 

(SIT) and the Population Replacement 

Technique (PRT) (Fischer in press, pp. 

1–2). These tools have positive 

attributes that set them apart from 

traditional mosquito control options. 

These new approaches have the 

potential to achieve landscape-scale 

control, are species specific, and are 

more effective against dispersed, 

cryptic, and hard to-reach targets such 

as the Culex mosquitoes that carry avian 

malaria in Hawaiian forests (Alphey et 

al. 2010, pp. 297–299). Although these 

new developments are encouraging, 

these new technologies for achieving 

large-scale control or eradication of 

mosquitoes in Hawaii are still in the 

research and planning stage and have 

yet to be implemented or proven 

effective. 

We also evaluated several regulations 

and agreements pertaining to climate 

change. Although the United States and 

some other countries have passed some 

regulations specifically intended to 

reduce the emission of greenhouse gases 

that contribute to climate change, the 

scope and effect of such regulations are 

limited. Indeed, during the United 

Nations Framework Convention on 

Climate Change (UNFCCC) meeting in 

December 2015, the UNFCCC indicated 

that, even if all the member countries’ 

intended contributions to greenhouse 

gas reductions were fully implemented 

and targets met, the goal of limiting the 

increase in global average temperature 

to 2 °C (3.6 °F) by the year 2100 would 

not be achieved. 

Many of the efforts to tackle the 

primary stressors to iiwi are still in the 

research and development stage, or are 

implemented only on a small or limited 

scale. Because the primary stressor, 

avian malaria, continues to have 

negative impacts, and these impacts are 

exacerbated by climate change, we 

conclude that the existing regulatory 

mechanisms do not offset these impacts 

to the species. 

Summary of Biological Status and 

Threats 

We have reviewed the best scientific 

and commercial data available regarding 

iiwi populations and the stressors that 

affect the species. This information 

includes, notably, a recent 

comprehensive analysis of iiwi 

abundance, distribution, and population 

trends (Paxton et al. 2013); numerous 

studies that provide information on the 

particularly high mortality of iiwi in 

response to avian malaria; and recent 

models examining the current 

relationship between climate and 

malaria, as well as the likely future 

consequences of climate change for iiwi 

and other Hawaiian forest birds 

(including Benning et al. 2002, Fortini 

et al. 2013, and Liao et al. 2015). Our 

review also reflects the expert opinion 

of the species’ status report team 

members, and input provided by 

specialists familiar with avian malaria 

and iiwi genetics. We direct the reader 

to the iiwi species status report for our 

detailed evaluation of the biological 

status of the iiwi and the influences that 

may affect its continued existence. 

Once one of the most common of the 

native Hawaiian forest birds, the iiwi 

has declined across large portions of its 

range and has been extirpated or nearly 

so from some islands, and many of the 

few remaining populations are 

declining. The iiwi’s range is 

contracting upslope in most areas, and 

population declines and range 

contraction are concurrent with 

increasing prevalence of avian malaria. 

The iiwi is highly susceptible to avian 

malaria, and that the prevalence of this 

disease is moving upslope in Hawaiian 

forests correlated with temperature 

increases associated with climate 

change. This disease and its trend of 

increasing prevalence at increasing 

elevation are the chief drivers of 

observed iiwi population declines and 


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range contraction. Although habitat 

management to reduce breeding habitat 

for mosquitoes may have slowed the 

decline of iiwi and other forest birds to 

some degree in a few locations, no 

landscape-scale plans or strategies exist 

for eradicating mosquitoes or otherwise 

reducing the risk posed by avian malaria 

to iiwi and other susceptible Hawaiian 

bird species. 

The documented trend of temperature 

increase, which is greatest at high 

elevation, is projected to continue at 

least through the 21st century. The 

transmission of avian malaria is 

currently limited or absent at higher 

elevations, where temperatures are too 

cool for the development of the malaria 

parasite. However, multiple 

independent modeling efforts 

consistently project that the prevalence 

of avian malaria will continue to 

increase upslope with increasing 

temperature, eventually eliminating 

most or all remaining disease-free 

habitat in the islands. These models, 

which incorporate data on the 

distribution of forest birds and on 

disease transmission, project moderate 

to high avian malaria transmission at 

the highest elevations of the iiwi’s 

current range by the end of this century, 

with some significant effects predicted 

within the next few decades. As a 

consequence, significant declines in 

iiwi populations are projected, on the 

order of 70 to 90 percent by 2100, 

depending on the future climate 

scenario. 

The impacts of other stressors to iiwi, 

such as loss or degradation of native 

forest by nonnative species (disturbance 

or destruction by feral ungulates; 

invasion by nonnative plants; impacts 

from nonnative pathogens such as 

ROD), predation by mongooses and feral 

cats, and small-population stressors 

such as demographic stochasticity and 

loss of genetic diversity, have not been 

well documented or quantified 

(predation by rats, notably Rattus rattus, 

is suspected to contribute to decline in 

iiwi) (VanderWerf 2016, pers. comm.). 

However, any stressors that result in 

further degradation or fragmentation of 

the forests on which the iiwi relies for 

foraging and nesting, or result in 

increased mortality or reduced 

reproductive success, are likely to 

exacerbate the impacts of disease on the 

species. The effects of climate change 

are likely to exacerbate these other 

stressors to iiwi as well. 

As the number and distribution of 

iiwi continue to decline, the remaining 

small, isolated populations become 

increasingly vulnerable to 

environmental catastrophes and 

demographic stochasticity; this will 

particularly be the case should all 

remaining iiwi become restricted to 

Hawaii Island, as some modeling 

scenarios suggest. Ninety percent of the 

rangewide iiwi population is already 

restricted to Hawaii Island, where ROD 

has recently emerged as a fast-moving 

threat to the already limited ohia forest 

habitat required by iiwi. 

In consideration of all of this 

information, we conclude that avian 

malaria and possibly avian pox, as 

exacerbated by the ongoing effects of 

climate change, pose a threat to iiwi, 

and the action of these stressors places 

the species as a whole at an elevated 

risk of extinction. Because the vast 

majority of the remaining iiwi 

population is restricted to the island of 

Hawaii, we consider ROD to pose a 

threat to the future viability of iiwi as 

well, as it may result in major loss of 

forest within the iiwi’s remaining range 

on that island. 

Determination 

Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), 

and its implementing regulations in title 

50 of the Code of Federal Regulations at 

50 CFR part 424, set forth the 

procedures for adding species to the 

Federal Lists of Endangered and 

Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Under 

section 4(a)(1) of the Act, we may list a 

species based on (A) The present or 

threatened destruction, modification, or 

curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) 

Overutilization for commercial, 

recreational, scientific, or educational 

purposes; (C) Disease or predation; (D) 

The inadequacy of existing regulatory 

mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or 

manmade factors affecting its continued 

existence. Listing actions may be 

warranted based on any of the above 

threat factors, singly or in combination. 

We have carefully assessed the best 

scientific and commercial information 

available regarding the past, present, 

and future threats to the iiwi. As 

described in the species status report, in 

considering the five listing factors, we 

evaluated many potential stressors to 

iiwi, including but not limited to: 

Stressors that may affect the extent or 

quality of the bird’s ohia forest habitat 

(ROD and ohia rust (both nonnative 

pathogens), ohia dieback (a natural 

phenomenon), drought, fires, volcanic 

eruptions, nonnative plants, and feral 

ungulates), introduced diseases, 

predation by introduced mammals, 

competition with nonnative birds, 

ectoparasites, climate change, and the 

effects of small population size. Based 

on our assessment, disease—particularly 

avian malaria—is the primary driver in 

the ongoing declines in abundance and 

range of iiwi, and climate change 

substantially exacerbates the impact of 

disease on the species and will continue 

to do so into the future. 

The greatest current threat to iiwi 

comes from exposure to introduced 

diseases carried by nonnative 

mosquitoes (Factor C). Avian malaria in 

particular has been clearly 

demonstrated to result in extremely 

high mortality of iiwi; avian pox may 

have significant effects on iiwi as well, 

although the evidence is not as clear or 

measurable. These diseases have 

resulted in significant losses of the once 

ubiquitous iiwi, which remains highly 

susceptible and, as of present, shows no 

clear indication of having developed 

substantial resistance or tolerance. 

Exposure to these diseases is ongoing, 

and is expected to increase as a 

consequence of the effects of climate 

change (Factor E). 

Several climate model projections 

predict that continued increases in 

temperature due to climate change will 

greatly exacerbate the impacts of avian 

diseases upon iiwi due to loss of 

disease-free habitat. Several iiwi 

populations, including those on 

Molokai, Kauai, West Maui, and 

possibly Oahu—all lower in elevation 

than East Maui and Hawaii Island—are 

already extremely small in size or are 

represented by only a few occasional 

individuals, probably owing to the loss 

of disease-free habitat. Iiwi may face 

extirpation in these places due to the 

inability to overcome the effects of 

malaria. The species is expected to first 

become restricted to Hawaii Island, 

perhaps by the year 2040. By the end of 

the century, the existence of iiwi is 

uncertain due to the ongoing loss of 

disease-free habitat; the potential 

impacts to ohia forests from ROD and 

other stressors could increase the risk to 

iiwi as well. These threats to iiwi are 

ongoing, most are rangewide, are 

expected to increase in the future, and 

are significant because they will likely 

result in increased mortality of iiwi and 

loss of remaining populations, as well as 

further decreases in the availability and 

amount of disease-free habitat at high 

elevation. As discussed above, the 

existing regulatory mechanisms are not 

sufficient to address these threats 

(Factor D). 

Some of the other stressors 

contributed to past declines in iiwi, or 

negatively affect the species or its 

habitat today; however, of the additional 

stressors considered, we found no 

information to suggest that any is 

currently a key factor in the ongoing 

declines in abundance and range of iiwi, 

although they may be contributing or 

exacerbating factors. Habitat loss and 

alteration (Factor A) caused by 


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nonnative plants and ungulates is 

occurring rangewide, has resulted in 

degraded ohia forest habitat, and is not 

likely to be reduced in the future. While 

ohia forests still comprise the majority 

of native forest cover on most of the 

main Hawaiian Islands, climate change 

and its likely effects, such as increased 

drought frequency, are expected to 

further affect ohia forest habitat and 

compound other impacts, including the 

spread of invasive plants and perhaps 

the severity and frequency of ohia 

diseases. In particular, ROD, the rapidly 

spreading and highly lethal tree disease, 

poses an increasing risk to the native 

forest habitat of iiwi on Hawaii Island, 

where 90 percent of remaining iiwi 

occur. This emerging factor has the 

potential to exacerbate avian disease 

and other stressors in the future by 

accelerating the loss and degradation of 

iiwi’s habitat. If this disease becomes 

widespread, it could further increase the 

vulnerability of the iiwi by eliminating 

the native forest it requires for foraging 

and nesting. 

We do not have any information that 

overutilization for commercial, 

recreational, scientific, or educational 

purposes (Factor B) poses a threat to 

iiwi. 

The Act defines an endangered 

species as any species that is ‘‘in danger 

of extinction throughout all or a 

significant portion of its range’’ and a 

threatened species as any species 

‘‘which is likely to become an 

endangered species within the 

foreseeable future throughout all or a 

significant portion of its range.’’ We 

considered whether the iiwi meets 

either of these definitions, and find that 

the iiwi meets the definition of a 

threatened species for the reasons 

described below. 

We considered whether the iiwi is 

currently in danger of extinction and 

determined that endangered status is 

not appropriate. Although the species 

has experienced significant reductions 

in both abundance and range, at the 

present time the species is still found on 

multiple islands, and the species as a 

whole still occurs in relatively high 

numbers. Additionally, disease-free 

habitat currently remains available for 

iiwi in high-elevation ohia forests with 

temperatures sufficiently cool to prevent 

the development of the malarial 

parasite. For these reasons, we do not 

consider the iiwi to be in imminent 

danger of extinction, although this 

formerly common species has 

experienced threats of such severity and 

magnitude that it has now become 

highly vulnerable to continued decline 

and local extirpation, such that the 

species is likely to become endangered 

within the foreseeable future, as 

explained below. 

Based on our review of the best 

scientific and commercial data 

available, we expect that additional iiwi 

population declines will be observed 

range-wide within the next few decades, 

and indications are that declines are 

already taking place on Kauai and in 

some Maui and Hawaii Island 

populations as a result of increasing 

temperatures and consequent exposure 

to avian malaria at some elevations 

where the disease is uncommon or 

absent today. Iiwi has a very high 

observed mortality rate when exposed to 

avian malaria, and the warming effects 

of climate change will result in 

increased exposure of the remaining 

iiwi populations to this disease, 

especially at high elevation. Peerreviewed results of modeling 

experiments project that malaria 

transmission rates and effects on iiwi 

populations will begin increasing at 

high elevations by mid-century, and 

result in population declines of 70 to 90 

percent by the year 2100. We thus 

conclude that the iiwi is likely to 

become in danger of extinction 

throughout all of its range within the 

foreseeable future. Because the iiwi is 

not in imminent danger of extinction, 

but is likely to become in danger of 

extinction within the foreseeable future, 

it meets the definition of a threatened 

species. Therefore, on the basis of the 

best available scientific and commercial 

information, we are listing the iiwi as a 

threatened species in accordance with 

sections 3(20) and 4(a)(1) of the Act. 

Under the Act and our implementing 

regulations, a species may warrant 

listing if it is endangered or threatened 

throughout all or a significant portion of 

its range. Because we have determined 

that the iiwi is threatened throughout all 

of its range, under the Final Policy on 

Interpretation of the Phrase ‘‘Significant 

Portion of Its Range’’ in the Endangered 

Species Act’s Definitions of 

‘‘Endangered Species and ‘‘Threatened 

Species’’ (79 FR 37577 (July 1, 2014)) 

(SPR Policy), if a species warrants 

listing throughout all of its range, no 

portion of the species’ range can be a 

‘‘significant’’ portion of its range. While 

it is the Service’s position under the 

SPR Policy that undertaking no further 

analysis of ‘‘significant portion of its 

range’’ in this circumstance is consistent 

with the language of the Act, we 

recognize that the Policy is currently 

under judicial review, so we also took 

the additional step of considering 

whether there could be any significant 

portions of the species’ range where the 

species is in danger of extinction. We 

evaluated whether there is substantial 

information indicating that there are any 

portions of the species’ range: (1) That 

may be ‘‘significant,’’ and (2) where the 

species may be in danger of extinction. 

In practice, a key part of identifying 

portions appropriate for further analysis 

is whether the threats are geographically 

concentrated. For the iiwi, the primary 

driver of its status is avian malaria. The 

prevalence of this disease is moving 

upslope in Hawaiian forests correlated 

with temperature increases associated 

with climate change. These threats are 

affecting the species throughout its 

entire range; therefore, there is not a 

meaningful geographical concentration 

of threats. As a result, even if we were 

to undertake a detailed SPR analysis, 

there would not be any portions of the 

species’ range where the threats are 

harming the species to a greater degree 

such that it is in danger of extinction in 

that portion. 

Available Conservation Measures 

Conservation measures provided to 

species listed as endangered or 

threatened species under the Act 

include recognition, recovery actions, 

requirements for Federal protection, and 

prohibitions against certain practices. 

Recognition from listing will result in 

public awareness and conservation by 

Federal, State, Tribal, and local 

agencies, private organizations, and 

individuals. The Act encourages 

cooperation with the States and other 

countries and calls for recovery actions 

to be carried out for listed species. The 

protection required by Federal agencies 

and the prohibitions against certain 

activities are discussed, in part, below. 

The primary purpose of the Act is the 

conservation of endangered and 

threatened species and the ecosystems 

upon which they depend. The ultimate 

goal of such conservation efforts is the 

recovery of these listed species, so that 

they no longer need the protective 

measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of 

the Act calls for the Service to develop 

and implement recovery plans for the 

conservation of endangered and 

threatened species. The recovery 

planning process involves the 

identification of actions that are 

necessary to halt or reverse the species’ 

decline by addressing the threats to its 

survival and recovery. The goal of this 

process is to restore listed species to a 

point where they are secure, selfsustaining, and functioning components 

of their ecosystems. 

Recovery planning includes the 

development of a recovery outline 

shortly after a species is listed and 

preparation of a draft and final recovery 

plan. The recovery outline guides the 

immediate implementation of urgent 


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recovery actions and describes the 

process to be used to develop a recovery 

plan. Revisions of the plan may be done 

to address continuing or new threats to 

the species, as new substantive 

information becomes available. The 

recovery plan also identifies recovery 

criteria for review of when a species 

may be ready for downlisting or 

delisting, and methods for monitoring 

recovery progress. Recovery plans also 

establish a framework for agencies to 

coordinate their recovery efforts and 

provide estimates of the cost of 

implementing recovery tasks. Recovery 

teams (composed of species experts, 

Federal and State agencies, 

nongovernmental organizations, and 

other qualified persons) are often 

established to develop recovery plans. 

When completed, the recovery outline, 

draft recovery plan, and the final 

recovery plan for iiwi will be available 

on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/ 

endangered), or from our Pacific Islands 

Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR

FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). The 

public will have an opportunity to 

comment on the draft recovery plan, 

and the Service will consider all 

information presented during the public 

comment period prior to approval of the 

plan. 

Implementation of recovery actions 

generally requires the participation of a 

broad range of partners, including other 

Federal agencies, States, Tribes, 

nongovernmental organizations, 

businesses, and private landowners. 

Examples of recovery actions include 

habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of 

native vegetation), research, captive 

propagation and reintroduction, and 

outreach and education. The recovery of 

many listed species cannot be 

accomplished solely on Federal lands 

because their range may occur primarily 

or solely on non-Federal lands. To 

achieve recovery of these species 

requires cooperative conservation efforts 

on private, State, and Tribal lands. If 

this species is listed, funding for 

recovery actions will be available from 

a variety of sources, including Federal 

budgets, State programs, and cost-share 

grants for non-Federal landowners, the 

academic community, and 

nongovernmental organizations. In 

addition, pursuant to section 6 of the 

Act, the State of Hawaii would be 

eligible for Federal funds to implement 

management actions that promote the 

protection or recovery of the iiwi. 

Information on our grant programs that 

are available to aid species recovery can 

be found at: http://www.fws.gov/grants. 

Please let us know if you are 

interested in participating in recovery 

efforts for this species. Additionally, we 

invite you to submit any new 

information on this species whenever it 

becomes available and any information 

you may have for recovery planning 

purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

CONTACT). 

Section 7(a) of the Act requires 

Federal agencies to evaluate their 

actions with respect to any species that 

is listed as an endangered or threatened 

species and with respect to its critical 

habitat, if any is designated. Regulations 

implementing this interagency 

cooperation provision of the Act are 

codified at 50 CFR part 402. Section 

7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal 

agencies to ensure that activities they 

authorize, fund, or carry out are not 

likely to jeopardize the continued 

existence of the species or destroy or 

adversely modify its critical habitat. If a 

Federal action may affect a listed 

species or its critical habitat, the 

responsible Federal agency must enter 

into consultation with the Service. 

Federal agency actions within the 

iiwi’s habitat that may require a 

conference or consultation or both as 

described in the preceding paragraph, 

include but are not limited to, 

management and any other landscapealtering activities on Federal lands 

administered by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, 

and National Park Service; actions 

within the jurisdiction of the Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, and branches 

of the Department of Defense (DOD); 

and activities funded or authorized 

under the Federal Highway 

Administration, Partners for Fish and 

Wildlife Program, and DOD 

construction activities related to 

training or other military missions. 

Under section 4(d) of the Act, the 

Service has discretion to issue 

regulations that we find necessary and 

advisable to provide for the 

conservation of threatened species. We 

are not proposing to issue a special rule 

pursuant to section 4(d) for this species. 

Therefore, the provisions of 50 CFR 

17.31(a) and (b) would apply. These 

regulatory provisions apply the 

prohibitions of section 9(a)(1) of the Act 

to threatened wildlife and make it 

illegal for any person subject to the 

jurisdiction of the United States to take 

(which includes harass, harm, pursue, 

hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, 

or collect; or to attempt any of these) 

threatened wildlife within the United 

States or on the high seas. In addition, 

it is unlawful to import, export, deliver, 

receive, carry, transport, or ship in 

interstate or foreign commerce in the 

course of commercial activity; or sell or 

offer for sale in interstate or foreign 

commerce any listed species. It is also 

illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, 

transport, or ship any such wildlife that 

has been taken illegally. Certain 

exceptions apply to employees of the 

Service, the National Marine Fisheries 

Service, other Federal land management 

agencies, and State conservation 

agencies. 

We may issue permits to carry out 

otherwise prohibited activities 

involving threatened wildlife under 

certain circumstances. Regulations 

governing permits are codified at 50 

CFR 17.32. With regard to threatened 

wildlife, a permit may be issued for the 

following purposes: For scientific 

purposes, to enhance the propagation or 

survival of the species, or for incidental 

take in connection with otherwise 

lawful activities. There are also certain 

statutory exemptions from the 

prohibitions, which are found in 

sections 9 and 10 of the Act. 

It is our policy, as published in the 

Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 

34272), to identify to the maximum 

extent practicable at the time a species 

is listed, those activities that would or 

would not constitute a violation of 

section 9 of the Act. The intent of this 

policy is to increase public awareness of 

the effect of a final listing on proposed 

and ongoing activities within the range 

of a listed species. Based on the best 

available information, actions that may 

result in a violation of section 9 include 

but are not limited to: 

(1) Development of land or the 

conversion of native ohia forest, 

including the construction of any 

infrastructure (e.g., roads, bridges, 

railroads, pipelines, utilities) in 

occupied iiwi habitat; 

(2) Unauthorized collecting, handling, 

possessing, selling, delivering, carrying, 

or transporting of the species, including 

import or export across State lines and 

international boundaries, except for 

properly documented antique 

specimens of this species at least 100 

years old, as defined by section 10(h)(1) 

of the Act; 

(3) Introduction of nonnative species 

that compete with or prey upon the iiwi, 

such as the new introduction of 

nonnative predators or competing birds 

to the State of Hawaii; and 

(4) Certain research activities: 

Collection and handling of iiwi for 

research that may result in displacement 

or death of individuals. 

Questions regarding whether specific 

activities would constitute a violation of 

section 9 of the Act should be directed 

to the Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife 

Office, Ecological Services Field Office 

(see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). 


sradovich on DSKBBY8HB2PROD with RULES
Federal Register / Vol. 82, No. 181 / Wednesday, September 20, 2017 / Rules and Regulations 43885 

Required Determinations 

National Environmental Policy Act (42 

U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) 

We have determined that 

environmental assessments and 

environmental impact statements, as 

defined under the authority of the 

National Environmental Policy Act 

(NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not 

be prepared in connection with listing 

a species as an endangered or 

threatened species under the 

Endangered Species Act. We published 

a notice outlining our reasons for this 

determination in the Federal Register 

on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). 

References Cited 

A complete list of references cited in 

this rulemaking is available on the 

Internet at http://www.regulations.gov at 

Docket No. FWS–R1–ES–2016–0057 and 

upon request from the Pacific Islands 

Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR

FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). 

Authors 

The primary authors of this final rule 

are the staff members of the Pacific 

Islands Fish and Wildlife Office. 

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 

Endangered and threatened species, 

Exports, Imports, Reporting and 

recordkeeping requirements, 

Transportation. 

Regulation Promulgation 

Accordingly, we amend part 17, 

subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the 

Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth 

below: 

PART 17—ENDANGERED AND 

THREATENED WILDLIFE AND PLANTS 

■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 

continues to read as follows: 

Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– 

1544; 4201–4245; unless otherwise noted. 

■ 2. In § 17.11(h), add an entry for ‘‘Iiwi 

(honeycreeper)’’ to the List of 

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in 

alphabetical order under BIRDS to read 

as set forth below: 

§ 17.11 Endangered and threatened 

wildlife. 

* * * * * 

(h) * * * 

Common name Scientific name Where listed Status Listing citations and 

applicable rules 

*******

BIRDS 

*******

Iiwi (honeycreeper) ......... Drepanis coccinea ........ Wherever found ............ T 82 FR [Insert Federal Register page where the 

document begins], 9/20/2017. 

*******

Dated: August 23, 2017. 

James W. Kurth 

Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 

[FR Doc. 2017–20074 Filed 9–19–17; 8:45 am] 

BILLING CODE 4333–15–P 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

50 CFR Part 17 

[Docket No. FWS–R4–ES–2016–0037; 

4500030113] 

RIN 1018–BB55 

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife 

and Plants; Threatened Species Status 

for Pearl Darter 

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Interior. 

ACTION: Final rule. 

SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service (Service), determine 

threatened species status under the 

Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Act), 

as amended, for the pearl darter (Percina 

aurora), a fish whose historical range 

includes Mississippi and Louisiana. The 

effect of this regulation will be to add 

this species to the List of Endangered 

and Threatened Wildlife. 

DATES: This rule becomes effective 

October 20, 2017. 

ADDRESSES: This final rule is available 

on the internet at http://

www.regulations.gov in Docket No. 

FWS–R4–ES–2016–0037 and on the 

Mississippi Field Office Web site at 

https://www.fws.gov/mississippiES/. 

Comments and materials we received, as 

well as supporting documentation we 

used in preparing this rule, are available 

for public inspection at http://

www.regulations.gov and by 

appointment, during normal business 

hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Mississippi Ecological Services Field 

Office, 6578 Dogwood View Parkway, 

Jackson, Mississippi 39213, by 

telephone 601–321–1122 or by facsimile 

601–965– 4340. 

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: 

Stephen Ricks, Field Supervisor, U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Mississippi 

Ecological Services Field Office, 601– 

321–1122. Persons who use a 

telecommunications device for the deaf 

(TDD) may call the Federal Relay 

Service at 800–877–8339. 

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: 

Executive Summary 

Why we need to publish a rule. Under 

the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 

amended (Act, 16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), 

if we determine that a species is an 

endangered or threatened species 

throughout all or a significant portion of 

its range, we are required to promptly 

publish a proposal in the Federal 

Register and make a determination on 

our proposal within 1 year. Listing a 

species as an endangered or threatened 

species can only be completed by 

issuing a rule. We published a proposed 

rule to add the pearl darter (Percina 

aurora) to the List of Endangered and 

Threatened Wildlife in title 50 of the 

Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR 

17.11(h)) as threatened on September 

21, 2016 (81 FR 64857). 

What this document does. This rule 

will finalize the listing of the pearl 

darter as a threatened species. 

The basis for our action. Under the 

Act, we may determine that a species is 

an endangered or threatened species 

based on any of five factors: (A) The 

present or threatened destruction, 

modification, or curtailment of its 

habitat or range; (B) overutilization for 

commercial, recreational, scientific, or 

educational purposes; (C) disease or 

predation; (D) the inadequacy of 


sradovich on DSKBBY8HB2PROD with RULES