31

Examining Social Science 

Occupations 

By Ben Cover

Benjamin Cover is an economist in the Division of Occupation Employment 

Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

According to The Princeton Review, the most popular 

college major is psychology, with three other social 

sciences—history, political science, and sociology—

included in the top 10. However, employment in occupations 

such as psychology, history, political science, and other social 

science occupations together account for less than 1 percent 

of U.S. employment. This article examines employment and 

wages for workers in these and other social science occupations, pointing out where people in these occupations work 

and how their wages vary with the area, industry, and occupation in which they are employed.

Employment

Social science occupations account for 416,980 of the more 

than 130 million workers in the United States. Almost half 

of the workers in those occupations (195,710) are market research analysts. All of the other social science occupations 

account for fewer than 100,000 employees each. Table 1 lists 

the national distribution of employment in social science occupations. 

State-level estimates show that there are large differences 

in numbers employed in social science occupations across 

States (including the District of Columbia). Indeed, numbers 

employed ranged from a low of 520 in North Dakota to a 

high of 52,830 in California. Chart 1 shows States with high 

social science employment. 

As one might expect, in many cases the largest States have 

the most employment in social science occupations. Another way to look at social science occupational employment 

across States is to examine the employment shares, or concentrations, within each State. This approach renders the size 

of the State unimportant as a factor in the analysis of social 

science occupations. Nationally, social science workers account for 0.32 percent of all employees. However, the percent 

varies from State to State. For instance, in the District of Columbia, social science employees make up almost 3 percent 

of total employment, whereas in Mississippi, social science 

employees account for only one-tenth of 1 percent of total 

employment. Table 2 lists States with a high concentration of 

employment in social science occupations. 

Because the District of Columbia has such a high concentration of social science workers, it is worthwhile to look into 

those occupations in the District that have a large percentage of social science employment. Although market research 

analysts are the largest social science occupation nationally, 

more notable in the District of Columbia is the large number 

of economists and political scientists. (See chart 2.) 

Like the District of Columbia, many States show a differTable 1. National employment in social science occupations

Occupation Employment

Market research analysts ................................... 195,710

Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists... 98,820

Social scientists and related workers, all other... 31,900

Urban and regional planners .............................. 31,650

Survey researchers ............................................ 21,650

Economists......................................................... 12,470

Psychologists, all other....................................... 6,750

Political scientists ............................................... 5,010

Anthropologists and archeologists...................... 4,790

Sociologists ........................................................ 3,500

Historians............................................................ 2,850

Industrial-organizational psychologists............... 1,070

Geographers....................................................... 810

Table 2. States with a high concentration of employment in 

social science occupations 

Area Percent 

District of Columbia ........................................ 2.58

Washington..................................................... .52

Virginia............................................................ .52

Massachusetts................................................ .50

Vermont .......................................................... .48

New York ........................................................ .47

Minnesota....................................................... .47

Maryland......................................................... .43

Connecticut..................................................... .42

New Jersey..................................................... .38
32

Chart 1. States with high social science employment

California

Employment

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

Employment

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

New York

Texas

Virginia

Illinois

Massachusetts

Florida

Pennsylvania

District of Columbia

New Jersey

State

Employment

Economist

Occupation

Chart 2. Social science occupational employment in the District of Columbia

Employment

4,000

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

0

4,000

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

0

1,000 1,000

500 500

Pollitical scientists

Market research analysts

Sociologists

Survey researchers

Historians

Urban and regional planners

Psychologists, all other

Anthropologists and 

archeologists

Clinical, counseling, 

and school psychologist

Social scientists and 

related workers, all other
33

ent employment distribution than that of the Nation. Some 

States have a large number of clinical, counseling, and school 

psychologists, while others have a large number of urban and 

regional planners or social scientists and related workers. 

Most States do, however, follow the national trend, with a 

large number of market research analysts. 

The variation in social science occupations may be partially explained by the distribution of industries that employ 

social scientists. Elementary and secondary schools have 

high social science employment, with 41,920 workers. Federal, State, and local governments also have large numbers of 

social science employees. (See table 3.) 

The industries with high social science employment get 

their large totals from different occupations. For instance, 

41,720 clinical, counseling, and school psychologists account for almost the entire elementary and secondary school 

total. On the other hand, 22,310 urban and regional planners 

make up the majority of social science occupations in local 

government. Chart 3 shows each of the social science occupations and its share of employment in different industries. 

For example, 27 percent of anthropologists are employed by 

scientific research-and-development firms, while the Federal 

Government accounts for more than half of the employment 

of geographers. 

Wages

Wages for social science occupations tend to be high, averaging $30.34 across the Nation, compared with the national 

average wage of $18.21 for all occupations. Social science 

wages range from $43.26 for industrial-organizational psychologists to $18.13 for survey researchers. The national 

mean wage for each of the social science occupations is depicted in table 7.

Across States, mean wages for all social scientists combined vary from $19.38 in South Dakota to $38.71 in the District of Columbia. (See table 4.) Because overall wages vary 

by State, it is useful to look at wage premiums in comparing 

occupational wages across States. This approach enables the 

comparison of State social science wages relative to State average wages. The State wage premium is calculated by subtracting the average State wage from the occupational wage. 

For example, social scientists have a mean wage of $35.21 in 

Virginia. The average mean wage in Virginia is $19.11, making the State wage premium for social scientists in Virginia 

$16.10. In addition to listing State wages for social science 

occupations, table 4 shows the wage premium and the percent 

wage premium for social science occupations in each State.

Wage premiums vary with the specific occupation and 

State. Each of the 13 social science occupations has a large 

wage premium in some States. A glance at the high-paying 

Table 3. Industries with high social science employment

Social 

Industry science

employment

Elementary and secondary schools........................ 41,920

Local government (OES designation)..................... 30,750

Federal executive branch (OES designation)......... 27,900

Management, scientific, and technical 

 consulting services ............................................... 22,510

Other professional, scientific, and technical 

 services ................................................................ 20,230

Management of companies and enterprises .......... 19,360

Scientific research and development services ....... 17,110

State government (OES designation)..................... 14,650

Offices of other health practitioners........................ 12,390

Colleges, universities, and professional schools.... 11,100

Table 4. Mean wages and wage premiums for all social science 

occupations combined

State 

Area Mean wage wage Percent 

premium

Virginia........................... $35.21 $16.10 46

New Jersey.................... 35.09 14.00 40

Rhode Island ................. 32.62 13.88 43

Washington.................... 33.62 13.69 41

North Carolina ............... 29.80 13.23 44

Hawaii............................ 30.95 13.14 42

Texas ............................. 30.14 13.09 43

Arkansas........................ 27.22 12.91 47

California ....................... 33.09 12.65 38

Delaware ....................... 31.23 12.39 40

Connecticut.................... 33.79 12.22 36

Michigan ........................ 31.43 12.18 39

Ohio............................... 29.44 12.00 41

Wisconsin ...................... 29.07 11.92 41

Colorado........................ 31.03 11.67 38

Georgia.......................... 29.11 11.66 40

Oregon........................... 29.28 11.36 39

Alabama ........................ 26.79 11.25 42

Kansas........................... 27.32 10.99 40

New York ....................... 31.91 10.73 34

Florida............................ 27.09 10.54 39

District of Columbia ....... 38.71 10.29 27

Minnesota...................... 29.66 10.27 35

Tennessee ..................... 26.16 10.17 39

Pennsylvania ................. 27.43 9.97 36

Missouri ......................... 26.60 9.94 37

North Dakota ................. 24.68 9.85 40

New Hampshire............. 27.92 9.66 35

Nebraska ....................... 25.57 9.56 37

Kentucky........................ 25.12 9.47 38

Illinois............................. 28.30 9.41 33

Louisiana ....................... 24.47 9.36 38

Maryland........................ 29.50 9.27 31

Iowa............................... 24.81 9.26 37

New Mexico................... 25.10 9.15 36

Nevada .......................... 25.82 9.11 35

Maine............................. 25.16 8.85 35

Vermont ......................... 25.60 8.74 34

South Carolina............... 23.84 8.34 35

Arizona .......................... 24.99 8.19 33

West Virginia ................. 22.69 8.00 35

Oklahoma ...................... 22.93 7.81 34

Indiana........................... 24.07 7.69 32

Mississippi ..................... 21.00 7.01 33

Massachusetts............... 29.02 6.92 24

South Dakota................. 20.33 6.31 31

Wyoming........................ 22.01 6.17 28

Utah............................... 22.61 6.13 27

Alaska............................ 26.54 5.99 23

Idaho.............................. 21.80 5.91 27

Montana......................... 19.38 4.85 25
34

Economista

Occupation

Chart 3. National mean wages for social occupations

Mean wage

$50.00

45.00

35.00

30.00

25.00

15.00

0

$50.00

45.00

35.00

30.00

25.00

15.00

0

10.00 10.00

5.00 5.00

Pollitical scientists

Sociologists

Survey researchers

Historians

Urban and regional planners

Market research analysts

Anthropologists and 

archeologists

Clinical, counseling, 

and school psychologist

Social scientists and 

related workers, all other

Mean wage

20.00 20.00

Industrial-organizational 

psychologists

Psychologists, all other

Geographers

40.00 40.00

States for each occupation (see table 5) reveals that Virginia is near the top for a good number of the social science 

occupations. This observation goes along with the fact that 

Virginia has the largest wage premium for all the social science occupations combined.

As with employment, State wage trends for social science 

occupations may be explained in part by industry concentrations. Table 6 lists each social science occupation and some 

of the highest-paying industries in that occupation. The table illustrates the fact that industries which pay high wages 

are different for each of the social science occupations. In 

addition, table 6 shows the industry wage premium, which 

compares the wage of one occupation with that of other occupations within the same industry. This wage premium is 

calculated by subtracting the average wage for the occupation 

in the industry from the average industry wage. For example, 

anthropologists have a mean wage of $24.52 in the local government industry. The average mean wage for the entire local 

government industry is $18.79, making the wage premium 

for anthropologists in the local government industry $5.73. 

Summary 

In spite of the large number of people with college majors 

in the social sciences, employment in specific social science 

fields is limited. This constraint suggests that people studying 

the subjects that offer entry into those fields tend to go into 

other, but perhaps related, fields. In addition, employment in 

most social science occupations tends to be concentrated in 

just a few industries. The exceptions, market research analysts and industrial-organizational psychologists, are found 

in many different industries.

Despite the large supply of college graduates who majored 

in the social sciences, the wages for these workers remain 

relatively high. Like employment, wages vary by industry, 

and although the largest employers sometimes pay the highest wages, that is not always the case. As regards particular 

jurisdictions, the District of Columbia had a high concentration of employment, while Virginia had high wages, for all 

social science occupations combined. Other States had a high 

concentration of employment or high wages for a particular 

social science occupation. 
35

Table 5. States with a high wage premium, by social science occupation

State

Occupation State Mean wage wage Percent

premium

Anthropologists and archeologists............................... Montana $27.03 $12.50 46

Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists............ New Jersey 45.03 23.94 53

Economists.................................................................. Delaware 45.64 26.80 59

Geographers................................................................ Virginia 39.24 20.13 51

Historians..................................................................... Virginia 33.59 14.48 43

Industrial-organizational psychologists........................ Colorado 51.03 31.67 62

Market research analysts ............................................ Washington 37.22 17.29 46

Political scientists ........................................................ Virginia 48.97 29.86 61

Psychologists, all other................................................ Alabama 40.69 25.15 62

Social scientists and related workers, all other............ Virginia 40.99 21.88 53

Sociologists ................................................................. Florida 38.19 21.64 57

Survey researchers ..................................................... Michigan 24.90 5.65 23

Urban and regional planners ....................................... Nevada 31.84 15.13 48

Table 6. Industries with high wages, by social science occupation

Industry

Industry Mean wage wage Employment

premium

Anthropologists and archeologists

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... $30.14 $0.32 1,280

Local government (OES designation)................................................ 24.52 5.73 40

Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 23.80 -4.04 390

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... 22.52 -6.33 1,120

Scientific research and development services .................................. 21.30 -11.55 1,280

Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... $64.79 $35.94 n/a

Other ambulatory healthcare services............................................... 49.03 32.97 50

Offices of physicians.......................................................................... 40.95 14.07 5,160

Offices of other health practitioners................................................... 39.21 18.71 10,920

Religious organizations ..................................................................... 35.79 20.88 n/a

Economists

Depository credit intermediation........................................................ $51.21 $32.17 50

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... 48.39 19.54 1,310

Scientific research and development services .................................. 47.15 14.30 1,620

Other financial investment activities .................................................. 46.19 10.91 50

Monetary authorities, central bank .................................................... 46.05 21.08 250

Geographers

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... $32.12 $2.30 580

Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 26.77 -1.07 80

Historians

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... $35.07 $5.25 560

Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 33.04 5.20 n/a

Museums, historical sites, and similar institutions............................. 25.20 10.12 150

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... 24.62 –4.23 240

Scientific research and development services .................................. 24.21 –8.64 520
36

Industrial-organizational psychologists

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... $52.52 $23.67 270

Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing ....... 40.67 15.81 n/a

Management of companies and enterprises ..................................... 39.41 12.28 40

Scientific research and development services .................................. 37.65 4.80 190

Colleges, universities, and professional schools............................... 29.96 6.41 50

Market research analysts

Scenic and sightseeing transportation, water.................................... $62.29 $47.99 30

Chemical and allied products merchant wholesalers ........................ 43.77 21.02 290

Software publishers........................................................................... 41.42 4.84 4,780

Computer and peripheral equipment manufacturing ......................... 41.41 6.18 3,190

Metal and mineral (except petroleum) merchant wholesalers........... 40.50 20.06 120

Political scientists

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... $46.56 $16.74 3,150

Scientific research and development services .................................. 37.97 5.12 550

Business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations..... 31.95 10.71 560

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... 23.95 -4.90 n/a

Psychologists, all other

Offices of physicians.......................................................................... $45.88 $19.00 440

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... 37.66 7.84 3,600

Offices of other health practitioners................................................... 37.18 16.68 580

Management of companies and enterprises ..................................... 35.46 8.33 120

Local government (OES designation)................................................ 33.90 15.11 150

Social scientists and related workers, all other

Business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations..... $40.63 $19.39 n/a

Wired telecommunications carriers ................................................... 35.62 8.96 n/a

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... 33.85 4.03 12,850

Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers ..................... 33.40 13.07 n/a

Offices of other health practitioners................................................... 32.40 11.90 680

Sociologists

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... $44.17 $14.35 30

Social advocacy organizations .......................................................... 36.86 19.87 430

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... 33.71 4.86 110

Scientific research and development services .................................. 33.22 0.37 1,380

Local government (OES designation)................................................ 25.59 6.80 240

Survey Researchers

Colleges, universities, and professional schools............................... $24.37 $0.82 1,280

Educational support services............................................................. 24.09 4.08 100

State government (OES designation)................................................ 24.08 3.69 800

Employment services ........................................................................ 22.24 8.32 120

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... 20.89 -7.96 1,100

Urban and regional planners

Federal executive branch (OES designation).................................... $37.50 $7.68 520

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution ................. 34.77 8.02 50

Residential building construction....................................................... 32.03 12.21 30

Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ............... 31.47 2.62 840

Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 31.35 3.51 4,190

Table 6. Industries with high wages, by social science occupation—Continued 

Industry

Industry Mean wage wage Employment

premium
37

Table 7. Occupational employment of social science occupations, by industry

[In percent]

Anthropologists and archeologists............... 26.8 26.8 23.4 0.8 .7 – –

Clinical, counseling, and school

 psychologists............................................. .4 – .3 4.5 – 41.8 .6

Economists.................................................. 13.0 32.0 10.5 6.7 .2 – 2.2

Geographers................................................ 1.9 71.4 1.3 1.5 – – .1

Historians..................................................... 18.4 19.7 8.4 22.9 .4 .1 .1

Industrial-organizational psychologists........ 17.3 – 25.2 1.1 .1 1.8 3.8

Market research analysts ............................ 1.7 .7 8.3 .5 3.9 .1 9.0

Political scientists ........................................ 10.9 62.8 9.2 1.1 .4 – .1

Psychologists, all other................................ 1.9 53.3 .1 2.3 – 3.2 1.8

Social scientists and related workers, 

 all other...................................................... 14.7 40.3 1.7 3.0 .8 .2 .7

Sociologists ................................................. 39.4 .9 3.1 7.0 .7 2.9 –

Survey researchers ..................................... 13.0 – 5.1 .2 56.9 – 2.1

Urban and regional planners ....................... .4 1.6 2.7 70.5 – – .3

Scientific 

research 

and 

development 

services

Federal 

executive 

branch (OES 

designation)

Management, 

scientific,

and

technical 

consulting 

services

Local 

government 

(OES 

designation)

Other 

professional, 

scientific, 

and

technical 

services

Elementary 

and 

secondary 

schools

Management of 

companies 

and 

enterprises

Occupation

NOTE: Dash indicates less than 0.1 percent.