Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 3

U.S. Labor Market in 2012

U.S. labor market continued

to improve in 2012

The labor market continued to gain strength slowly in 2012

as unemployment eased and employment grew 

Lisa Williamson

Lisa Williamson is an 

economist in the Division of 

Labor Force Statistics, Bureau 

of Labor Statistics. Email: 

williamson.lisa@bls.gov.

The U.S. labor market continued to 

improve slowly in 2012 as unemployment trended downward and 

employment grew. In the fourth quarter 

of the year, 12.2 million people were unemployed and the unemployment rate was 

7.8 percent, nearly a full percentage point 

lower than a year earlier. Total civilian employment grew at a faster pace in 2012 than 

in 2011. (For a comparison of the employment measures available from the Current 

Population Survey (CPS) and the Current 

Employment Statistics survey (CES), see the 

box on page 4.) Still, even with the modest 

improvement in the job market, a number of 

labor market problems persisted. For example, the proportion of unemployed people 

who had been without work for 6 months 

or longer remained close to historically high 

levels.

This article takes a detailed look at 

changes in key labor market measures from 

the CPS in 2012 by various demographic 

characteristics. Among the measures examined are earnings, unemployment duration, 

and the employment situations of veterans, 

people with a disability, and the foreign 

born.

Unemployment continued to trend downward 

for most major demographic groups in 2012. 

Over the year, the number of unemployed 

people fell by 1.2 million, to 12.2 million. 

A large drop in unemployment in the first 

quarter was followed by little movement in 

the second quarter and small declines in the 

third and fourth quarters. The unemployment rate declined 0.9 percentage point 

from the end of 2011, to 7.8 percent in the 

fourth quarter of 2012. (See table 1 and 

chart 1.)

In 2012, the unemployment rate for adult 

men (ages 20 and older) continued to decline faster than the rate for adult women. 

The jobless rate for adult men dropped by 

1.0 percentage point, to 7.3 percent, in 

the fourth quarter, while the rate for adult 

women was down 0.6 percentage point, to 

7.2 percent. The jobless rate for teenagers 16 

to 19 years of age showed little movement 

over the year and stood at 23.6 percent in 

the fourth quarter.

Unemployment rates for the major race 

and ethnicity groups declined in 2012.1

 The 

unemployment rate for Whites was down 

0.8 percentage point, to 6.9 percent. The jobless rates for Blacks and Hispanics fell by 1.4 

percentage points each, to 13.9 percent and 

9.8 percent, respectively. The rate for Asians 

(not seasonally adjusted) edged down over 

the year, from 6.9 percent to 5.9 percent.

Unemployment rates in 2012 also declined for people at all levels of educational 

attainment. (See chart 2.) Among workers 
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

4 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, the Bureau) 

produces two monthly employment series that are 

obtained independently of each other. The estimate of total nonfarm jobs is derived from the 

Current Employment Statistics survey (CES), also 

called the establishment or payroll survey. The 

estimate of total civilian employment is based on 

the Current Population Survey (CPS), also called 

the household survey. The two surveys use different definitions of employment, as well as different 

survey and estimation methods.

The CES is a survey of employers that provides 

a measure of the number of payroll jobs in nonfarm industries. The CPS is a survey of households 

that provides a measure of employed people ages 

16 years and older in the civilian noninstitutional 

population.

Employment estimates from the CPS give information about workers in both the agricultural and 

nonagricultural sectors and in all types of work 

arrangements: workers with wage and salary jobs 

(including employment in a private household), 

those engaging in self-employment, and those doing unpaid work for at least 15 hours a week in a 

business or farm operated by a family member.

CES payroll employment estimates are restricted 

to nonagricultural wage and salary jobs and exclude 

private household workers. As a result, employment 

estimates from the CPS are higher than those from 

the CES. In the CPS, however, employed people 

are counted only once, regardless of whether they 

hold more than one job during the survey reference 

period. By contrast, because the CES counts the 

number of jobs rather than the number of people, 

each nonfarm job is counted once, even when two 

or more jobs are held by the same person.

The reference periods for the surveys also differ. In the CPS, the reference period is the calendar 

week that includes the 12th day of the month. In 

the CES, employers report the number of workers 

on their payrolls for the pay period that includes 

the 12th of the month. Because pay periods vary in 

length among employers and may be longer than 

1 week, the CES employment estimates can reflect 

longer reference periods.

For purposes of comparison, some adjustments 

can be made to CPS employment estimates to make 

them more similar in definitional scope to CES employment figures. The Bureau routinely carries out 

these adjustments to evaluate how the two employment series are tracking. The long-term trends in 

the two surveys’ employment measures are quite 

comparable. Nonetheless, throughout the history 

of the surveys, there have been periods when the 

short-term trends diverged or when growth in one 

series significantly outpaced growth in the other. 

For example, following the end of the 2001 recession, CPS employment began to trend upward 

while CES employment continued to decline for a 

number of months.

The Bureau publishes a monthly report with 

the latest trends and comparisons of employment 

as measured by the CES and the CPS. (See “Employment from the BLS household and payroll 

surveys: summary of recent trends” (U.S. Bureau 

of Labor Statistics), www.bls.gov/web/ces_cps_

trends.pdf.) This report includes a summary 

of possible causes of differences in the surveys’ 

employment trends, as well as links to additional 

research on the topic.

The CPS and the CES
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 5

Table 1. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and older, by age and selected characteristics, 

quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 2011–2012

Characteristic

2012

 Fourth quarter, 

2011 First 

quarter

Second

quarter 

Third 

quarter

Fourth 

quarter

Total, 16 years and older

Civilian labor force 154,017 154,629 154,866 154,899 155,469

 Participation rate (percent) 64.1 63.8 63.7 63.6 63.7

 Employed 140,660 141,883 142,228 142,463 143,303

 Employment–population ratio 58.5 58.5 58.5 58.5 58.7

 Unemployed 13,356 12,747 12,638 12,437 12,166

 Unemployment rate (percent) 8.7 8.2 8.2 8.0 7.8

Men, 20 years and older

Civilian labor force 79,359 79,273 79,303 79,299 79,647

 Participation rate (percent) 73.3 73.3 73.1 72.9 72.9

 Employed 72,759 73,185 73,225 73,332 73,872

 Employment–population ratio 67.2 67.6 67.5 67.4 67.6

 Unemployed 6,600 6,087 6,078 5,967 5,776

 Unemployment rate (percent) 8.3 7.7 7.7 7.5 7.3

Women, 20 years and older

Civilian labor force 68,903 69,592 69,711 69,762 70,002

 Participation rate (percent) 59.6 59.4 59.4 59.2 59.3

 Employed 63,507 64,319 64,575 64,696 64,985

 Employment–population ratio 55.0 54.9 55.0 54.9 55.0

 Unemployed 5,396 5,272 5,137 5,066 5,017

 Unemployment rate (percent) 7.8 7.6 7.4 7.3 7.2

Total, 16 to 19 years

Civilian labor force 5,755 5,765 5,852 5,838 5,819

 Participation rate (percent) 34.4 33.8 34.4 34.4 34.5

 Employed 4,394 4,378 4,429 4,435 4,446

 Employment–population ratio 26.3 25.6 26.0 26.2 26.3

 Unemployed 1,361 1,387 1,423 1,403 1,373

 Unemployment rate (percent) 23.6 24.1 24.3 24.0 23.6

White

Civilian labor force 124,599 123,712 123,783 123,502 123,703

 Participation rate (percent) 64.4 64.2 64.1 63.9 63.8

 Employed 115,021 114,591 114,662 114,608 115,206

 Employment–population ratio 59.4 59.5 59.4 59.3 59.5

 Unemployed 9,578 9,121 9,121 8,894 8,497

 Unemployment rate (percent) 7.7 7.4 7.4 7.2 6.9

Black or African American

Civilian labor force 18,002 18,320 18,383 18,386 18,498

 Participation rate (percent) 61.5 61.6 61.6 61.4 61.5

Employed 15,246 15,778 15,866 15,845 15,930

 Employment–population ratio 52.1 53.0 53.1 52.9 53.0

Unemployed 2,756 2,543 2,517 2,541 2,568

 Unemployment rate (percent) 15.3 13.9 13.7 13.8 13.9

See notes at end of table.

[Levels in thousands]
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

6 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

Continued—Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and older, by age and selected 

characteristics, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 2011–2012

Characteristic

2012

 Fourth quarter, 

2011 First 

quarter

Second 

quarter 

Third

quarter

Fourth

quarter

Asian1

Civilian labor force 7,462 8,096 8,082 8,242 8,331

 Participation rate (percent) 64.4 63.6 63.4 64.1 64.4

 Employed 6,949 7,575 7,630 7,778 7,836

 Employment–population ratio 59.9 59.5 59.9 60.5 60.6

 Unemployed 513 521 452 464 496

 Unemployment rate (percent) 6.9 6.4 5.6 5.6 5.9

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Civilian labor force 23,319 24,122 24,467 24,428 24,551

 Participation rate (percent) 67.0 66.3 66.8 66.2 66.1

 Employed 20,707 21,594 21,828 21,955 22,139

 Employment–population ratio 59.5 59.4 59.6 59.5 59.6

 Unemployed 2,612 2,528 2,640 2,472 2,413

 Unemployment rate (percent) 11.2 10.5 10.8 10.1 9.8

1 Data for Asians are not seasonally adjusted.

NOTE: Race and Hispanic ethnicity totals do not sum to overall total, 16 years and older, because data are not presented for all races and 

because persons of Hispanic ethnicity may be of any race and are also

included in the race groups. Updated population controls are introduced 

annually with the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 1.

[Levels in thousands]

Percent Percent

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

Unemployment rate for people 16 years and older, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted,

1969–2012

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011

 Chart 1. 

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 7

2011 QIV 2012 QIV

Series1 Series4

 Chart 2. 

Percent Percent

Unemployment rate for people 25 years and older, by educational attainment, seasonally adjusted, 

fourth quarter, 2011, and fourth quarter, 2012

Total, 25 years Less than a high school High school graduate, Some college or Bachelor’s degree

 and older diploma no college associate’s degree and higher

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

2011 2012

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

25 years and older, the rate for those with less than a high 

school diploma fell by 1.4 percentage points, to 12.0 percent, at the end of the year. The unemployment rate for 

those with some college fell 1.0 percentage point, to 6.8 

percent, and the rate for high school graduates declined 

by 0.8 percentage point, to 8.2 percent. For those with 

at least a bachelor’s degree, the jobless rate decreased 0.5 

percentage point, to 3.8 percent. (See table 2.)

The number of job losers decreased in 2012 for the third 

consecutive year. The number of people who were unemployed because they lost their job fell by 1.2 million from 

the fourth quarter of the previous year. This category includes people on temporary layoff (who expect to be recalled to their jobs) as well as those not on temporary layoff. The latter group is further divided among permanent 

job losers and those who completed temporary jobs. A 

large portion of unemployment is made up of permanent 

job losers, a category that accounted for a disproportionate amount of the overall decrease in unemployment. (See 

table 3 and chart 3.)

The number of unemployed reentrants to the labor 

force was about the same in the fourth quarter of 2012 

as its year-earlier level, 3.4 million. Reentrants are people 

who had been in the labor force previously, had spent 

time out of the labor force, and were actively seeking 

work once again. Reentrants accounted for slightly more 

than one-quarter of the unemployed at the end of 2012. 

The number of unemployed job leavers—those who voluntarily left their jobs and started to seek another job— 

was about unchanged over the year. The number of new 

entrants in 2012—people who never previously worked 

but were searching for work—also was similar to what it 

was in 2011.

Despite some easing, long-term unemployment remained 

stubbornly high in 2012. The number of long-term unemployed people (those who were jobless for 27 weeks or 

longer) fell by 861,000, to 4.9 million.2

 This group made 

up 40.0 percent of total unemployment in the fourth 

quarter, down slightly from 42.9 percent in the fourth 

quarter of 2011. (See table 3 and chart 4.) 

After expanding for 3 consecutive years and reaching a 

record high 4.5 million in the second quarter of 2010, the 

number of people unemployed for a year or longer (not 

seasonally adjusted) was down by 605,000 from 2011, 

almost twice the size of the decrease from the previous 

year. In the fourth quarter of 2012, 29.2 percent of the 

unemployed had been jobless for a year or longer, down 
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

8 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

from 2011 but still very high by historical standards.3

The number of people who were jobless for 99 weeks or 

longer, 1.7 million, was down by 223,000 over the year. 

Despite this decline, at the end of 2012 about 1 person 

in 7 who were unemployed had been jobless for about 2 

years or longer, the same proportion as in 2011 (not seasonally adjusted). 

Data on labor force status flows capture the underlying changes 

as people move among being unemployed, employed, and not 

in the labor force. Each month, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, the Bureau) reports on the number of people 

employed, the number unemployed, and the number not 

in the labor force, as measured by the CPS. A great deal 

of movement contributes to the relatively small over-themonth net changes that usually occur among these labor 

force measures. The overall changes are captured by data 

on labor force status flows; the data show that millions 

of people move between employment and unemployment 

each month and millions of others leave or enter the labor 

force.4

 In 2012, 17.4 million people, or 7.1 percent of the 

population 16 years and older, changed their labor force 

status in an average month.

A greater understanding of the continued high level 

Table 2. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 25 years and older, by educational attainment, 

quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 2011–2012

Characteristic

2012

 Fourth 

quarter, 2011 First 

quarter

Second

quarter

Third

quarter

Fourth

quarter

Less than a high school diploma

Civilian labor force 11,698 11,463 11,405 11,275 11,156

 Participation rate (percent) 46.9 46.1 45.1 45.5 45.4

 Employed 10,127 9,989 9,958 9,926 9,818

 Employment–population ratio 40.6 40.2 39.3 40.1 39.9

 Unemployed 1,571 1,474 1,447 1,349 1,338

 Unemployment rate (percent) 13.4 12.9 12.7 12.0 12.0

High school graduate, no college

Civilian labor force 37,093 36,737 36,868 36,803 36,683

 Participation rate (percent) 60.1 59.2 59.6 59.7 59.5

 Employed 33,757 33,708 33,849 33,629 33,690

 Employment–population ratio 54.7 54.3 54.7 54.6 54.6

 Unemployed 3,337 3,030 3,019 3,173 2,993

 Unemployment rate (percent) 9.0 8.2 8.2 8.6 8.2

Some college or associate's degree

Civilian labor force 36,983 37,275 37,281 37,453 37,444

 Participation rate (percent) 69.0 69.2 69.0 68.4 68.7

 Employed 34,081 34,532 34,465 34,935 34,902

 Employment–population ratio 63.6 64.1 63.8 63.8 64.0

 Unemployed 2,902 2,743 2,815 2,518 2,542

 Unemployment rate (percent) 7.8 7.4 7.6 6.7 6.8

Bachelor's degree and higher

Civilian labor force 47,128 47,836 48,079 48,204 48,796

 Participation rate (percent) 76.0 76.0 76.4 75.7 75.6

 Employed 45,111 45,845 46,154 46,231 46,924

 Employment–population ratio 72.7 72.9 73.3 72.6 72.7

 Unemployed 2,016 1,991 1,925 1,973 1,871

 Unemployment rate (percent) 4.3 4.2 4.0 4.1 3.8

NOTE: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the 

release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

[Levels in thousands]
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 9

of unemployment in 2012 can be obtained by examining 

the updated status (employed, unemployed, or not in the 

labor force) of people who were unemployed the previous month. Chart 5 shows the proportions of unemployed 

people who found employment, remained unemployed, 

and left the labor force. Historically, these data indicate 

that people are more likely to remain unemployed from one 

month to the next than to find employment or leave the 

labor force. The data show that the likelihood of remaining 

unemployed over a given month continued to be greater 

than the combined likelihood of finding employment and 

leaving the labor force. The share of the unemployed who 

remained unemployed from one month to the next, about 

59 percent in December 2012 (calculated as a 3-month 

Unemployed people, by reason and duration of unemployment, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 

2011–2012

Reason and duration Fourth 

quarter, 2011

2012

First 

quarter

Second 

quarter

Third

quarter

Fourth

quarter

Reason for unemployment

Job losers and persons who completed

temporary jobs 7,663 7,167 6,990 6,843 6,458

 On temporary layoff 1,209 1,178 1,182 1,265 1,080

 Not on temporary layoff 6,454 5,989 5,808 5,579 5,377

 Permanent job losers 5,103 4,718 4,515 4,370 4,162

 Persons who completed temporary jobs 1,351 1,271 1,293 1,209 1,215

Job leavers 1,004 1,026 942 929 973

Reentrants 3,371 3,302 3,343 3,334 3,410

New entrants 1,282 1,354 1,342 1,274 1,306

Percent distribution:

 Job losers and persons who completed

 temporary jobs 57.5 55.8 55.4 55.3 53.2

 On temporary layoff 9.1 9.2 9.4 10.2 8.9

 Not on temporary layoff 48.5 46.6 46.0 45.1 44.3

 Job leavers 7.5 8.0 7.5 7.5 8.0

 Reentrants 25.3 25.7 26.5 26.9 28.1

 New entrants 9.6 10.5 10.6 10.3 10.8

Duration of unemployment

Less than 5 weeks 2,615 2,551 2,665 2,699 2,635 

5 to 14 weeks 2,993 2,825 2,892 2,925 2,814 

15 weeks or longer 7,726 7,337 7,087 6,835 6,698 

 15 to 26 weeks 2,009 1,932 1,833 1,815 1,843 

 27 weeks or longer 5,717 5,405 5,254 5,020 4,856 

Average (mean) duration, in weeks 40.1 39.8 39.5 39.2 39.2

Median duration, in weeks 20.8 20.2 19.6 17.9 18.8

Percent distribution:

 Less than 5 weeks 19.6 20.1 21.1 21.7 21.7

 5 to 14 weeks 22.4 22.2 22.9 23.5 23.2

 15 weeks or longer 57.9 57.7 56.1 54.9 55.1

 15 to 26 weeks 15.1 15.2 14.5 14.6 15.2

 27 weeks or longer 42.9 42.5 41.6 40.3 40.0

NOTE: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the 

release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 3.

[Levels in thousands]
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

10 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

 Chart 3. 

Thousands Thousands

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Reasons for unemployment, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 1990–2012

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

New entrants

Job leavers

Job losers

Reentrants

 Chart 4. 

Percent Percent

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

 Long-term unemployed as a percentage of total unemployed, quarterly averages, 1994–2012

NOTE: Data for 27 weeks or longer are seasonally adjusted. Data for 52 weeks or longer and 99 weeks or longer are not seasonally adjusted. 

Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Percent unemployed 

52 weeks or longer

Percent unemployed 27 

weeks or longer

Percent unemployed 

99 weeks or longer
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 11

moving average), continued to edge down over the year. 

The likelihood of unemployed people finding employment 

was about unchanged over the year, while the share of the 

unemployed who left the labor force trended upward in 

2012. In December, the likelihood of unemployed people 

finding employment was 18.1 percent while the likelihood 

of their leaving the labor force was a higher 22.9 percent.

Involuntary part-time employment declined in 2012. The 

number of people employed part time for economic reasons, also referred to as involuntary part-time workers, 

decreased over the year, to 8.1 million—329,000 lower 

than its year-earlier level.5

 Still, even with the decline in 

2012, the number of people employed part time for economic reasons remained almost double the prerecessionary6

 levels. (See chart 6.) Slack work or unfavorable business conditions, rather than an inability to find full-time 

work, typically has been the primary reason for working 

part time involuntarily.

The number of people not in the labor force who wanted a job 

but were not looking for one continued to trend upward in 

2012; however, the number of discouraged workers (not seasonally adjusted) was little changed over the year.7 People 

not in the labor force are neither employed nor unemployed. The number of people not in the labor force, 89.0 

million in the fourth quarter of 2012, increased over the 

year. Because the labor force participation rate was about 

unchanged over the year, the increase was due almost 

entirely to population growth. The vast majority of the 

increase occurred among those who did not want a job. 

People 65 years and older continued to make up about 

40 percent of those not in the labor force. The number of 

people not in the labor force who wanted a job but were 

not looking for one rose by 294,000 from its level a year 

earlier, to 6.4 million in the fourth quarter of 2012. (See 

table 4.) The proportion of these people edged up over the 

year, to 7.2 percent in the fourth quarter. 

Among the 6.4 million people who wanted a job but 

were not looking for one in the fourth quarter of 2012, 

2.5 million (not seasonally adjusted) had searched for 

work sometime in the previous year and were available to 

work had a job been offered to them. These individuals are 

defined as “marginally attached to the labor force” and are 

not counted as unemployed because they had not actively 

searched for work in the 4 weeks preceding the survey 

5 Chart 5. 

Percent Percent

Percentage of the unemployed who found employment, remained unemployed, or left the labor 

force, 3-month moving average, seasonally adjusted, April 1990–December 2012

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Left the labor force

Remained unemployed

Found employment
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

12 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

week.8 Among those in this group, some were currently 

not looking for work specifically for one of the following 

reasons: they felt that no jobs were available for them, 

that they could not find work, that they lacked schooling or training, that an employer would think that they 

were too young or too old, or that they might face other 

types of discrimination. The number of these “discouraged workers,” 953,000 in the fourth quarter of 2012, was 

little changed over the year. 

The remaining 1.6 million people marginally attached 

to the labor force are those who had not searched for work 

in the 4 weeks preceding the survey for reasons such as 

they had school or family responsibilities, they were in ill 

health, or they had transportation problems, as well as 

those for whom the reason for their nonparticipation was 

not identified in the CPS. The number of these individuals 

was virtually the same in the fourth quarter of 2012 as a 

year earlier.

 Chart 6. 

Thousands Thousands

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Number of people employed part time for economic reasons, quarterly averages, seasonally 

adjusted, 1969–2012

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Turning points are quarterly. Beginning in 

1994 (denoted by vertical black line), data are affected by the redesign of the Current Population Survey and are not strictly comparable with data for 

previous years.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

 Working part time

because of slack work

Total working part time

for economic reasons

Could find only part-time work

1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011

Number of people not in the labor force, quarterly averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2008–2012

Category Fourth quarter,

2008

Fourth quarter,

2009

Fourth quarter,

2010

Fourth quarter,

2011

Fourth quarter,

2012

Total not in the labor force 80,164 83,450 85,210 86,717 88,957

 People who currently want a job 5,019 5,726 5,971 6,096 6,390

 Marginally attached to the labor force1 1,831 2,394 2,581 2,562 2,517

 Discouraged workers2 578 866 1,273 1,002 953

 Other people marginally attached to the labor force3 1,253 1,528 1,308 1,559 1,564

1 People who want a job, have searched for work during the previous 

12 months, and were available to take a job during the reference week, 

but had not looked for work in the past 4 weeks. 2 Those who did not actively look for work in the past 4 weeks for 

reasons such as they thought that no work was available, that they could 

not find work, that they lacked schooling or training, that their employer 

would think that they were too young or too old, and that they might face

other types of discrimination. 3 Those who did not actively look for work in the past 4 weeks for 

reasons such as they had school or family responsibilities, they were in 

ill health, and they had transportation problems, as well as a number 

for whom the reason for their nonparticipation was not identified.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 4.

[In thousands]
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 13

All five alternative measures of labor underutilization declined 

in 2012. The Bureau uses CPS data to construct alternative 

measures of labor underutilization.9

 Known as U–1, U–2, 

and U–4 through U–6 (U–3 is the “official” unemployment 

rate), these measures tend to show similar cyclical patterns 

yet provide additional insight into the degree to which 

labor resources are being underutilized. Like the official 

unemployment rate, the alternative measures are presented 

as a percentage of the labor force (adjusted as necessary). 

Alternative measure U–1 shows the number of individuals unemployed 15 weeks or longer as a percentage of the 

labor force, while U–2 presents job losers and people who 

completed temporary jobs as a percentage of the labor force. 

Alternative measures U–4 through U–6 are broader than 

the official unemployment measure: To U–3, U–4 adds discouraged workers, U–5 adds all people marginally attached 

to the labor force (including discouraged workers), and U–6 

adds all people marginally attached to the labor force plus 

people employed part time for economic reasons.

All five alternative measures were down over the year. 

By the end of 2012, U–1 had declined to 4.3 percent and 

U–2 to 4.2 percent. Two measures, U–4 and U–5, decreased by 0.9 percentage point from the end of 2011. The 

broadest measure, U–6, declined by 1.2 points, to 14.4 

percent. (See chart 7.)

Throughout most of the series’ history, U–2 exceeded 

U–1. However, recently the pattern has changed, reflecting the persistently high levels of long-term unemployment and the declining number of people unemployed 

because they lost their job. 

The civilian labor force increased to 155.5 million in 2012, 

rising above its prerecession level. The labor force participation rate—the proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and older that is in the labor 

force—was little different at the end of 2012 from a year 

earlier, after accounting for the effects of annual population adjustments to population controls. (See chart 8 and 

box on page 14.)

The labor force participation rates for the major race 

and ethnicity groups declined or were little changed in 

2012 after accounting for the adjustments to population 

controls. The rate for Whites declined to 63.8 percent, 

and the rate for Hispanics edged down to 66.1 percent. 

The rates for Blacks and Asians were unchanged from 

their rates in 2011. (See table 1.)

 Chart 7. 

Percent Percent

Measures of labor underutilization, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 1994–2012

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Turning points are quarterly. Measures of 

labor underutilization are as follows: U–1 = people unemployed 15 weeks or longer, as a percentage of the civilian labor force; U–2 = job losers and 

people who completed temporary jobs, as a percentage of the civilian labor force; U–3 = total unemployed, as a percentage of the civilian labor force 

(official unemployment rate); U–4 = total unemployed plus discouraged workers, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus discouraged workers; U–5 = total unemployed, plus discouraged workers, plus all other marginally attached workers, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all 

marginally attached workers; U–6 = total unemployed, plus all marginally attached workers, plus total employed part time for economic reasons, as 

a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all marginally attached workers.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

U–6

U–5

U–4

U–2

U–1

U–3

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

14 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

 Chart 8. 

Percent Percent

70

68

66

64

62

60

58

56

70

68

66

64

62

60

58

56

Labor force participation rate and employment–population ratio, quarterly averages, seasonally 

adjusted, 2000–2012

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Labor force participation rate

Employment–population ratio

Updated population controls are introduced 

annually for the Current Population Survey (CPS) 

with the publication of January data in the Employment Situation news release. The updated controls in January 2012 incorporated the Census 

2010 population base for the first time; previous 

years’ data shown in tables in this article used the 

Census 2000 population base. Consequently, data 

for 2012 are not strictly comparable to those for 

earlier years. For the analysis presented in this 

article, the effects of the updated population controls have been taken into account.

The adjustment increased the estimated size 

of the civilian noninstitutional population in 

December 2011 by 1,510,000, the civilian labor 

force by 258,000, employment by 216,000, unemployment by 42,000, and people not in the labor 

force by 1,252,000. Although the total unemployment rate was unaffected, the labor force participation rate and the employment–population ratio 

were each reduced by 0.3 percentage point. This 

was because the population increase was primarily 

among people 55 and older and, to a lesser degree, 

people 16 to 24 years of age. Both of these age 

groups have lower levels of labor force participation than the general population does. For more 

information, see “Adjustments to Household Survey Population Estimates in January 2012” (U.S. 

Bureau of Labor Statistics, February 2012), www.

bls.gov/cps/cps12adj.pdf.

Adjustments to Population Estimates for the CPS
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 15

Table 5. Unemployment rates, by occupational group, quarterly averages, 

not seasonally adjusted, 2011–2012 

Occupational group

Fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Fourth 

quarter, 

2012

Management, professional, and related occupations 4.3 3.8

 Management, business, and financial operations occupations 4.6 3.8

 Professional and related occupations 4.0 3.7

Service occupations 9.6 8.9

 Health care support occupations 8.0 6.2

 Protective service occupations 6.7 5.2

 Food preparation and serving related occupations 10.8 10.2

 Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations 11.3 11.4

 Personal care and service occupations 8.7 7.9

Sales and office occupations 8.1 7.1

 Sales and related occupations 7.9 7.1

 Office and administrative support occupations 8.4 7.1

Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations 11.9 10.8

 Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations 16.1 14.8

 Construction and extraction occupations 14.7 13.3

 Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations 6.4 6.0

Production, transportation, and material moving occupations 10.0 9.1

 Production occupations 9.9 8.6

 Transportation and material moving occupations 10.1 9.5

NOTE: Effective with January 2012 data, occupations reflect the introduction of the 2010 

Census occupation classification system into the Current Population Survey, or household 

survey. This system is derived from the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification system. 

Historical data have not been revised. Updated population controls are introduced annually 

with the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

[In percent]

Total civilian employment grew at a faster pace in 2012 than 

in 2011. As measured in the household survey, employment reached 143.3 million in the fourth quarter of 2012. 

After accounting for the effects of population controls, 

the overall employment–population ratio rose over the 

year. The employment–population ratio is the proportion 

of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and 

older that is employed. (See chart 8 and box on page 14.) 

The ratio fell from 2007 to 2009 and has shown little definitive change until recently. After accounting for population adjustments, the employment–population ratio for 

adult men rose from its 2011 value while the ratios for 

adult women and teens were little changed. (See table 1.)

The employment–population ratios for Whites and 

Blacks increased over the year, to 59.5 percent and 53.0 

percent, respectively. The ratios for Asians (not seasonally 

adjusted), 60.6 percent, and Hispanics, 59.6 percent, were 

not significantly different from the previous year’s ratios. 

The number of workers holding more than one job, 

cupations each fell about a full percentage point over the 

year, to 7.1 percent and 9.1 percent, respectively. The jobless rate for service occupations was 8.9 percent in the 

fourth quarter of 2012, 0.7 percentage point lower than it 

was the previous year. The lowest rate continued to be in 

management, professional, and related occupations and 

was down by 0.5 percentage point, to 3.8 percent at the 

end of 2012.10 (See table 5.)

Employment rose over the year in management, professional, and related occupations, the largest of the five 

major occupational categories. Almost 2 in 5 employed 

people were classified under this broad occupational 

group in the fourth quarter of 2012. Women made up 

51.5 percent of the category, although they accounted for 

only 47.0 percent of the employed. However, the overthe-year employment growth in this occupational category was about equally split between women and men. 

Employment in other major occupational categories was 

little changed over the year. (See table 6.) 

7.0 million in the fourth quarter of 2012, 

was about the same as in the previous 

year. The percentage of the employed 

who were multiple jobholders also continued to hold steady, at about 4.9 percent 

throughout the year.

The number of self-employed workers 

increased in 2012 as a result of increases 

in the numbers of both the incorporated 

self-employed and the unincorporated 

self-employed. In the fourth quarter of 

2012, 14.8 million workers were self-employed. The self-employment rate—the 

proportion of total employment made up 

of the self-employed—was 10.3 percent, 

little different from a year earlier. Of all 

self-employed workers, 9.7 million, or 

nearly two-thirds, had unincorporated 

businesses; the remaining 5.2 million had 

incorporated businesses. 

Although unemployment rates varied across 

occupations, jobless rates fell over the year 

for all five of the major occupational categories. Unemployment rates continued 

to be highest in the natural resources, 

construction, and maintenance occupational group, at 10.8 percent in the fourth 

quarter of 2012. The rate for sales and 

office occupations and for production, 

transportation, and material moving oc-
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

16 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

Median weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary workers were up from 2011, but somewhat less than the rate of inflation as measured by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban 

Consumers (CPI-U). Median weekly earnings were $768 

in 2012, up by 1.6 percent from the 2011 figure. (See table 

7; data in this section are annual averages.)

Men’s median weekly earnings rose at a faster pace in 

2012 than did those of women. Men’s earnings increased 

by 2.6 percent over the year, compared with 1.0 percent 

for women. The women’s-to-men’s earnings ratio declined 

to 80.9 percent in 2012. The ratio has been in the 80-percent to 82-percent range since 2004. In 1979, the first 

year for which comparable data on usual weekly earnings 

became available, women’s earnings were 62.3 percent of 

men’s. (See chart 9.)

Among full-time wage and salary workers, median 

usual weekly earnings continued to be higher for Whites 

and Asians than for Blacks and Hispanics. 

Workers at all levels of educational attainment saw increases in their median usual weekly earnings in 2012. 

Workers 25 years and older with less than a high school 

diploma saw the largest over-the-year increase in median 

weekly earnings, 4.4 percent, to $471 in 2012. Earnings 

of workers with only a high school diploma were up 2.2 

percent, to $652 per week. Workers with some college 

or an associate’s degree earned $749 per week, and those 

with a bachelor’s degree or higher earned $1,165. (See 

table 7.)

Table 6. Employment, by occupational group and gender, quarterly averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2011–2012 

Occupational group

Total Men Women

Fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Fourth 

quarter, 

2012

Fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Fourth 

quarter, 

2012

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth 

quarter, 

2012

Total, 16 years and older 140,912 143,549 74,975 76,109 65,937 67,440

 Management, professional, and related occupations 52,820 54,936 25,675 26,638 27,144 28,299

 Management, business, and financial operations

 occupations 21,839 22,799 12,459 12,852 9,380 9,947

 Professional and related occupations 30,981 32,137 13,217 13,785 17,764 18,352

 Service occupations 24,856 25,184 10,965 10,930 13,891 14,254

 Health care support occupations 3,377 3,592 442 466 2,936 3,127

 Protective service occupations 3,168 3,031 2,541 2,383 626 648

 Food preparation and serving related occupations 7,778 7,727 3,580 3,480 4,197 4,247

 Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance

 occupations 5,559 5,595 3,359 3,390 2,200 2,205

 Personal care and service occupations 4,975 5,239 1,043 1,211 3,932 4,028

 Sales and office occupations 33,178 33,335 12,616 12,675 20,562 20,660

 Sales and related occupations 15,585 15,563 8,001 7,977 7,584 7,586

 Office and administrative support occupations 17,593 17,772 4,615 4,698 12,978 13,074

 Natural resources, construction, and maintenance

 occupations 13,216 13,001 12,678 12,445 538 555

 Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations 985 924 791 713 194 211

 Construction and extraction occupations 7,261 7,147 7,067 6,954 195 193

 Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations 4,969 4,929 4,820 4,779 150 151

 Production, transportation, and material moving

 occupations 16,843 17,093 13,041 13,421 3,802 3,672

 Production occupations 8,408 8,549 5,965 6,269 2,443 2,280

 Transportation and material moving occupations 8,435 8,544 7,076 7,153 1,359 1,391

NOTE: Effective with January 2012 data, occupations reflect the introduction of the 2010 Census occupation classification system into the Current Population Survey, or household survey. This system is derived from 

the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification system. Historical data have

not been revised. Updated population controls are introduced annually 

with the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

[In thousands]
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 17

Real median usual weekly earnings (adjusted to constant 1982–1984 dollars with the CPI-U) were about unchanged in 2012. (See table 7.)

In 2012, unemployment rates (not seasonally adjusted) for both 

veterans and nonveterans continued to decline over the year. 

The CPS defines veterans as men and women 18 years and 

older who previously served on active duty in the U.S. 

Armed Forces and were civilians at the time the survey 

was conducted.11 Veterans were more likely than nonveterans to be men: in the fourth quarter of 2012, only 

about 1 in 10 veterans were women. Veterans also were 

more likely to be older than nonveterans: about one-half 

of the total veteran noninstitutional population served 

during World War II, the Korean War, or the Vietnam 

era. Overall, 50.8 percent of male veterans 18 years and 

older were in the labor force in the fourth quarter of 2012, 

compared with 76.4 percent of their nonveteran counterparts. This disparity in participation rates reflects the fact 

that male veterans are much more likely than male nonveterans to be 65 years or older. (See table 8.)

The unemployment rate for male veterans fell 1.3 

percentage points, to 6.3 percent in the fourth quarter 

of 2012. The unemployment rate for female veterans was 

9.3 percent in the same quarter, not statistically different 

from the previous year’s percentage. 

The jobless rate for Gulf War–era II veterans (those 

who had served since September 2001) was 10.2 percent 

in the fourth quarter of 2012, higher than the overall rate 

for veterans. This difference partially reflects the fact that 

Gulf War–era II veterans tend to be younger than veterans from other periods of service and younger individuals, regardless of their veteran status, usually have higher 

unemployment rates than those who are older. The rate 

for male Gulf War–era II veterans edged down over the 

year, to 9.5 percent in the fourth quarter of 2012. The rate 

Table 7. Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, annual averages, 

2011–2012

Characteristic

Current dollars Constant (1982–1984) dollars

2011 2012

Percent 

change, 

2011–2012

2011 2012

Percent 

change, 

2011–2012

Total, 16 years and older $756 $768 1.6 $336 $335 –0.3

 Men 832 854 2.6 370 372 .5

 Women 684 691 1.0 304 301 –1.0

 White 775 792 2.2 344 345 .3

 Men 856 879 2.7 381 383 .5

 Women 703 710 1.0 313 309 –1.3

 Black or African American 615 621 1.0 274 271 –1.1

 Men 653 665 1.8 290 289 –3

 Women 595 599 .7 264 261 –1.1

 Asian 866 920 6.2 385 401 4.2

 Men 970 1,055 8.8 431 459 6.5

 Women 751 770 2.5 334 335 .3

 Hispanic or Latino ethnicity 549 568 3.5 244 247 1.2

 Men 571 592 3.7 254 258 1.6

 Women 518 521 .6 230 227 –1.3

Total, 25 years and older 797 815 2.3 — — —

 Less than a high school diploma 451 471 4.4 — — —

 High school graduate, no college 638 652 2.2 — — —

 Some college or associate’s degree 739 749 1.4 — — —

 Bachelor's degree or higher 1,150 1,165 1.3 — — —

NOTE: Dash indicates data not available. SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey 

and Consumer Price Index.
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

18 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

for female Gulf War era II veterans (14.7 percent) was not 

statistically different from that of the previous year.

Over the year, there was little change in the employment situation for people with a disability. In the fourth quarter of 

2012, 20.9 percent of people with a disability were in the 

labor force, a percentage unchanged from that for the same 

quarter in 2011. By comparison, in the fourth quarter of 

2012 the rate was 69.3 percent (not seasonally adjusted) for 

those with no disability.

 The low labor force participation rate among people 

with a disability reflects, in part, the fact that a large proportion of those with a disability are 65 years and older, 

an age group that, in general, has a low rate of labor force 

participation. Nonetheless, both men and women 16 to 

64 years old with a disability also were much less likely to 

be in the labor force than were their counterparts with no 

disability. (See table 9.)

The employment–population ratio for people with a disability was 18.3 percent in the fourth quarter of 2012, little different from the percentage in 2011. In the same quarter, those 

with no disability had an employment–population ratio of 64.2 

percent, more than 3 times that of people with a disability.

In the fourth quarter of 2012, the unemployment rate 

for people with a disability, 12.4 percent, continued to be 

higher than the rate for those with no disability, 7.3 percent. 

Both foreign-born and native-born individuals experienced a 

decline in their unemployment rates in 2012. By the end of 

the year, the unemployment rate for the foreign born had 

declined 1.0 percentage point, to 7.7 percent (not seasonally adjusted), and that for the native born declined 0.8 percentage point, to 7.5 percent. (See table 10.) Foreign-born 

workers are people who reside in the United States but were 

born outside the country or one of its outlying areas, such 

as Puerto Rico or Guam, to parents, neither of whom was 

a U.S. citizen. The foreign born comprise legally admitted 

immigrants; refugees; temporary residents, such as students 

and temporary workers; and undocumented immigrants.

In the fourth quarter of 2012, foreign-born workers 

were 16 percent of the U.S. civilian labor force. The labor 

force participation rates of both the foreign born and the 

native born were little changed over the year and stood at 

66.2 percent and 63.1 percent, respectively, in the fourth 

quarter. For the same period, the employment–population 

ratio of the foreign born, 61.1 percent, exhibited no statistically significant change while that of native-born workers rose a significant 0.3 percentage point, to 58.4 percent.

 Chart 9. 

Percent Percent

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

Women’s median usual weekly earnings as a percentage of men’s, full-time wage and salary workers, 

annual averages, 1979–2012

1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

85

80

75

70

65

60

55
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 19

Employment status of people 18 years and older, by veteran status, period of service, and gender, quarterly 

averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2011–2012

Employment status, veteran status,

and period of service 

Total Men Women

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2012

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2012

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2012

Veterans, 18 years and older

 Civilian labor force 11,154 10,892 10,049 9,771 1,105 1,120

 Participation rate (percent) 52.0 51.7 51.1 50.8 61.2 61.5

 Employed 10,305 10,169 9,285 9,153 1,020 1,016

 Employment–population ratio 48.0 48.3 47.2 47.6 56.5 55.8

 Unemployed 849 722 764 618 85 104

 Unemployment rate (percent) 7.6 6.6 7.6 6.3 7.7 9.3

Gulf War–era II veterans

 Civilian labor force 1,957 2,101 1,708 1,804 250 296

 Participation rate (percent) 82.2 82.6 84.4 84.8 69.8 71.1

 Employed 1,721 1,885 1,513 1,633 208 253

 Employment–population ratio 72.2 74.1 74.7 76.7 58.1 60.7

 Unemployed 237 215 195 172 42 43

 Unemployment rate (percent) 12.1 10.2 11.4 9.5 16.8 14.7

Gulf War–era I veterans

 Civilian labor force 2,482 2,539 2,130 2,177 352 362

 Participation rate 84.1 83.4 86.3 85.4 73.0 73.2

 Employed 2,344 2,404 2,006 2,072 338 332

 Employment–population ratio 79.5 79.0 81.3 81.3 70.0 67.1

 Unemployed 138 136 123 105 14 30

 Unemployment rate (percent) 5.5 5.3 5.8 4.8 4.1 8.4

 World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam-era veterans

 Civilian labor force 3,321 2,983 3,226 2,895 95 88

 Participation rate (percent) 32.4 30.7 32.5 30.8 29.5 27.8

 Employed 3,095 2,810 3,002 2,729 93 81

 Employment–population ratio 30.2 28.9 30.3 29.0 28.8 25.6

 Unemployed 227 173 224 166 2 7

 Unemployment rate (percent) 6.8 5.8 7.0 5.7 2.5 7.9

Veterans of other service periods

 Civilian labor force 3,393 3,269 2,985 2,894 408 374

 Participation rate (percent) 57.6 56.9 56.9 56.2 63.4 63.1

 Employed 3,145 3,070 2,763 2,720 382 350

 Employment–population ratio 53.4 53.4 52.6 52.8 59.3 59.1

 Unemployed 248 198 222 175 26 24

 Unemployment rate (percent) 7.3 6.1 7.4 6.0 6.4 6.4

Nonveterans, 18 years and older

 Civilian labor force 140,782 142,503 71,182 71,752 69,600 70,751

 Participation rate (percent) 67.0 66.6 76.9 76.4 59.2 58.9

 Employed 129,253 132,016 65,092 66,320 64,162 65,697

 Employment–population ratio 61.5 61.7 70.3 70.6 54.6 54.7

 Unemployed 11,529 10,487 6,090 5,432 5,439 5,055

 Unemployment rate (percent) 8.2 7.4 8.6 7.6 7.8 7.1

NOTE: Veterans served on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces and were 

not on active duty at the time of the survey. Nonveterans never served 

on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces. Veterans could have served 

anywhere in the world during these periods of service: Gulf War–era II 

(September 2001–present), Gulf War–era I (August 1990–August 2001), 

Vietnam era (August 1964–April 1975), Korean War (July 1950–January 

1955), World War II (December 1941–December 1946), and other service

periods (all other periods). Veterans who served in more than one wartime 

period are classified as being only in the most recent one. Veterans who 

served during one of the selected wartime periods and another period are 

classified as being only in the selected period. Updated population controls 

are introduced annually with the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 8.

[Levels in thousands]
U.S. Labor Market in 2012

20 Monthly Labor Review • March 2013

Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, by gender, age, and disability status, quarterly 

averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2011–2012

Employment status, gender, 

and age

People with a disability People with no disability

Fourth quarter,

2011

Fourth quarter, 

2012

Fourth quarter,

2011

Fourth quarter,

2012

Total, 16 years and older

 Civilian labor force 5,710 6,010 148,005 149,202

 Participation rate (percent) 20.9 20.9 69.4 69.3

 Employed 4,955 5,263 135,958 138,286

 Employment–population ratio 18.2 18.3 63.8 64.2

 Unemployed 755 748 12,047 10,916

 Unemployment rate (percent) 13.2 12.4 8.1 7.3

Men, 16 to 64 years

 Civilian labor force 2,618 2,724 75,328 75,227

 Participation rate (percent) 34.6 35.0 82.4 82.4

 Employed 2,217 2,337 68,899 69,577

 Employment–population ratio 29.3 30.0 75.3 76.2

 Unemployed 401 388 6,429 5,650

 Unemployment rate (percent) 15.3 14.2 8.5 7.5

Women, 16 to 64 years

 Civilian labor force 2,215 2,242 66,204 67,128

 Participation rate (percent) 30.0 29.0 70.6 70.8

 Employed 1,931 1,962 61,005 62,238

 Employment–population ratio 26.2 25.4 65.0 65.6

 Unemployed 285 280 5,199 4,890

 Unemployment rate (percent) 12.9 12.5 7.9 7.3

Total, 65 years and older

 Civilian labor force 877 1,044 6,473 6,847

 Participation rate (percent) 7.1 7.9 23.2 23.3

 Employed 807 964 6,053 6,471

 Employment–population ratio 6.5 7.3 21.7 22.1

 Unemployed 69 80 419 376

 Unemployment rate (percent) 7.9 7.6 6.5 5.5

NOTE: A person with a disability has at least one of the following conditions: is deaf or has serious difficulty hearing; is blind or has serious difficulty seeing even when wearing glasses; has serious difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions because of a physical, mental, 

or emotional condition; has serious difficulty walking or climbing stairs: 

has difficulty dressing or bathing; or has difficulty doing errands alone, 

such as visiting a doctor’s office or shopping, because of a physical, mental, or emotional condition. Updated population controls are introduced 

annually with the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 9.

[Levels in thousands]

IN SUM, MOST MAJOR EMPLOYMENT and unemployment measures from the CPS continued to point to gradual improvement in the U.S. labor market in 2012. The 

unemployment level and the unemployment rate declined 

over the year, although the proportion of unemployed 

people who had been jobless for long periods continued 

to be high by historical standards. Employment, as measured by the CPS, showed a greater increase in 2012 than 

in the previous year, while the employment–population 

ratio rose. The number of people employed part time for 

economic reasons declined in 2012 but remained at a 

relatively high level. Median weekly earnings for all fulltime wage and salary workers increased over the year, and 

real earnings were about unchanged.
Monthly Labor Review • March 2013 21

Employment status of the foreign- and native-born populations, by gender, quarterly averages, not seasonally 

adjusted, 2011–2012

Employment status and nativity

Total Men Women

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2012

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2012

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2012

Foreign born, 16 years and older

 Civilian labor force 24,794 25,244 14,493 14,428 10,301 10,817

 Participation rate (percent) 67.3 66.2 79.4 78.2 55.4 55.0

 Employed 22,642 23,292 13,301 13,423 9,342 9,869

 Employment–population ratio 61.4 61.1 72.8 72.7 50.2 50.2

 Unemployed 2,152 1,952 1,193 1,004 959 948

 Unemployment rate (percent) 8.7 7.7 8.2 7.0 9.3 8.8

Native born, 16 years and older

 Civilian labor force 128,921 129,968 67,567 67,977 61,354 61,991

 Participation rate (percent) 63.3 63.1 68.6 68.4 58.4 58.1

 Employed 118,270 120,257 61,674 62,686 56,596 57,571

 Employment–population ratio 58.1 58.4 62.6 63.1 53.9 54.0

 Unemployed 10,651 9,711 5,893 5,292 4,758 4,419

 Unemployment rate (percent) 8.3 7.5 8.7 7.8 7.8 7.1

NOTE: The foreign born are those residing in the United States who were 

not U.S. citizens at birth. That is, they were born outside the United States or 

one of its outlying areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam, to parents, neither 

of whom was a U.S. citizen. The native born are people who were born in 

the United States or one of its outlying areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam,

or who were born abroad of at least one parent who was a U.S. citizen. 

Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of 

January data. 

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 10.

[Levels in thousands]

Notes

1

 Those of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity may be of any race. About 

90 percent of people of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity identify themselves as White in the CPS.

2

 The duration of joblessness is the length of time (through the 

current reference week) that people classified as unemployed have 

been looking for work. This statistic measures the duration of the 

current spell of unemployment, rather than that of a completed spell 

of unemployment.

3

 For additional information, see Thomas Luke Spreen, “Ranks 

of those unemployed for a year or more up sharply,” Issues in Labor 

Statistics, Summary 10-10 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, October 

2010), http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils87.pdf. 

4

 For more information and analysis, see Randy E. Ilg, “How long 

before the unemployed find jobs or quit looking?” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 11-1 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2011), 

http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils89.pdf; Harley J. Frazis, 

“Labor force flows in the most recent recession,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 10-08 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, July 2010), 

http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils85.pdf; Harley J. Frazis 

and Randy E. Ilg, “Trends in labor force flows during recent recessions,” Monthly Labor Review, April 2009, pp. 3–18, http://www.bls.

gov/opub/mlr/2009/04/art1full.pdf; and Randy E. Ilg and Eleni 

Theodossiou, “Job search of the unemployed by duration of unemployment,” Monthly Labor Review, March 2012, pp. 41–49, http://

www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2012/03/art3full.pdf. 

5

 For additional information, see Emy Sok, “Involuntary parttime work on the rise,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 08-08 

(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2008), http://www.bls.

gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils71.pdf. 

6

 Beginning and ending dates of recessions are determined by the 

National Bureau of Economic Research. The most recent recession 

began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009.

7

 “People not in the labor force who want a job” denotes those who 

reported wanting a job without having necessarily looked for one; 

this group includes all people who responded “yes” to the question, 

“Do you currently want a job, either full or part time?”

8

 For additional analysis of people marginally attached to the labor force, see Sharon Cohany, “Ranks of discouraged workers and 

others marginally attached to the labor force rise during recession,” 

Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 09-04 (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, April 2009), http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils74.

pdf. 

9

 For further information, see Steven E. Haugen, “Measures of 

Labor Underutilization from the Current Population Survey,” Working Paper 424 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 2009), http://

www.bls.gov/ore/pdf/ec090020.pdf.

10 Unemployment rates by occupation are based on the last job an 

individual held. Excluded are unemployed people who have no previous work experience.

11 Veterans who served in more than one wartime period are classified into only the most recent one.