Manufacturing in China

 40 Monthly Labor Review November 2006

Manufacturing in China

Labor costs of manufacturing employees

in China: an update to 2003–04

While total hourly compensation costs for manufacturing workers

increased more rapidly in China than in the United States

between 2002 and 2004, hourly compensation per employee in China

continued to be 3 percent of the level in the United States

Erin Lett and

Judith Banister

Erin Lett is an

economist in the

Division of Foreign

Labor Statistics,

Bureau of Labor

Statistics. Judith

Banister is the

Director of Global

Demographics of

The Conference

Board in New York,

Beijing, Hong Kong,

and Brussels. She is

the former head of

the International

Programs Center at

the U.S. Census

Bureau.

E-mail:

Lett.Erin@bls.gov or

Judith.Banister@

conferenceboard.org

China’s manufacturing industry is increasingly active in world trade: China’s shareof total world manufactures exports was 8

percent in 2004, about the same share as Japan in

that year, and up from 2 percent in 1990.1 In terms

of employment, China’s manufacturing industry is

the largest in the world, employing more manufacturing workers than the Group of Seven (G7)

industrial countries combined.2 With the emergence of Chinese products on the international

market, there has been increasing interest in the

statistics of China’s manufacturing industry, particularly for hourly compensation costs (total labor costs to employers). This article updates the

2002 compensation estimates for total Chinese

manufacturing, first published in an August 2005

article in the Monthly Labor Review, with data for

2003 and 2004.3

While hourly compensation costs in China’s

manufacturing sector increased rapidly between

2002 and 2004, average hourly compensation in

China continued to be a small fraction of that

found in many of China’s largest trade partners.

For example, the average hourly manufacturing

compensation estimate for China in 2004 was

$0.67, about 3 percent of the average hourly compensation costs of production workers in the

United States for the same year.4

 (See chart 1.)

This percentage is virtually unchanged from the

2002 estimate. In 2004, employees in China’s urban areas continued to be compensated at a higher

rate than those employed in town and village enterprises (TVEs),5

 $1.19 versus $0.45. (See table 1.)

The gap in labor costs between the two areas increased slightly from 2002 to 2004.

The hourly compensation cost measures presented in this article are estimates of employers’

costs to hire an hour of labor; they are not estimates of worker income. It should also be noted

that the changes over time in hourly compensation costs are changes in employers’ costs at official exchange rates and not changes in workers’

real income. Total hourly compensation, because

it takes account of employer payments into funds

for the benefit of workers (in China, payments to

pension, medical, and housing funds, and additional employee welfare costs are not included in

earnings), is a broader concept than either total

direct earnings or spendable earnings.

Besides updating the hourly compensation

costs comparisons published last year, this article

also provides updates to 2004 of China’s statistics

on manufacturing urban real earnings and earnings for urban manufacturing subsectors that also

were included in the previous article.

Sources and methods

The sources and methods used to update the compensation costs estimates in this report are the

same as in the August 2005 article. Employment

and earnings data for the various categories of

workers come from the annual yearend statistical

reporting system. In China, each enterprise is re-
Monthly Labor Review November 2006 41

Chart 1. Average hourly compensation costs of manufacturing workers, selected economies and

regions, 2004

U.S. = 100 ($22.87) U.S. = 100 ($22.87)

1 EU(15) refers to European Union member countries prior to the expansion to 25 countries on May 1, 2004. 2 Asian NIEs refer to Newly Industrialized Economies of Hong Kong SAR, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan.

SOURCES: Bureau of Labor Statistics, “International comparisons of hourly compensation costs for production workers in manufacturing, 2004,” November

18, 2005. Available on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/fls/home.htm. For China, data are from this article and are not from the BLS series. The data

for China refer to all employees rather than production workers.

United States China Brazil Mexico EU(15) Japan Asian NIEs

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1 2

Estimated labor compensation costs of manufacturing employees in China, 2003 and 2004

 2003

Total for manufacturing urban units

and TVEs1 .................................... 101.57 8,989 11,409 $1,378 951 $115 5.17 $0.62

Manufacturing urban units ......... 2 29.77 12,671 19,488 2,354 1,624 196 8.87 1.07

Onpost urban manufacturing

staff and workers .................. 28.98 12,496 19,219 2,321 1,602 193 8.74 1.06

Other urban manufacturing

employment .......................... 2 .79 19,030 29,268 3,535 2,439 295 13.32 1.61

Manufacturing TVEs1 ................... 2 71.80 7,462 8,059 973 672 81 3.63 .44

 2004

Total for manufacturing urban units

and TVEs1 .................................... 104.49 9,635 12,298 1,485 1,025 124 5.51 .67

Manufacturing urban units ......... 2 30.29 14,251 21,918 2,647 1,827 221 9.86 1.19

Onpost urban manufacturing

staff and workers .................. 29.40 14,033 21,583 2,607 1,799 217 9.71 1.17

Other urban manufacturing

employment .......................... 2 .89 21,473 33,025 3,989 2,752 332 14.86 1.80

Manufacturing TVEs1 ................... 2 74.20 7,751 8,371 1,011 698 84 3.73 .45

Category of

manufacturing

workers yuan U.S. dollars yuan U.S. dollars yuan

Annual compensation

per employee

Hourly compensation

per employee

Average

number of

employees

(in millions)

Monthly compensation

per employee

Average

earnings per

employee

(in yuan) U.S. dollars

1 TVEs refer to town and village enterprises. 2 Derived from other numbers reported in the table or in the sources.

NOTES: Total labor compensation for urban workers is 1.538 times

earnings, and for TVE workers is 1.08 times earnings. U.S. dollars calculated

at prevailing commercial exchange rate: 8.28 yuan = US $1. Hourly

compensation is calculated assuming that urban manufacturing employees

performed 2,198 and 2,222 actual hours of work per year in 2003 and

2004, respectively. TVE workers are assumed to have performed 2,219 and

2,243 hours per year in 2003 and 2004, respectively.

SOURCES: Judith Banister, “Manufacturing earnings and compensation

in China,” Monthly Labor Review, August 2005, p. 25. Data for 2003 are

from China National Bureau of Statistics and China Ministry of Labor and

Social Security, compilers, China Labor Statistical Yearbook 2004 (Beijing:

China Statistics Press, 2004), pp. 179, 183, 272, and 278; China Ministry

of Agriculture, China TVE Yearbook Editorial Committee, editors, China

Village and Town Enterprise Yearbook 2004 [In Chinese] (Beijing: China

Agriculture Publishing House, 2004), pp. 102 and 104. Data for 2004 are

from China National Bureau of Statistics and China Ministry of Labor and

Social Security, compilers. China Labor Statistical Yearbook 2005 (Beijing:

China Statistics Press, 2005), pp. 103, 191, 195, 284, 290. China, Ministry

of Agriculture, China TVE Yearbook Editorial Committee, editors. China

Village and Town Enterprise Yearbook 2005. [In Chinese] (Beijing: China

Agriculture Publishing House, 2005), pp. 108 and 110.

Table 1.
Manufacturing in China

 42 Monthly Labor Review November 2006

quired to report employment and earnings data based on the

entity’s “labor situation” during the previous year and at the

previous yearend. Urban, or city, data are the responsibility

of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, while rural and

town data are produced by the Ministry of Agriculture. The

employment and earnings figures from these two sources are

combined to construct an estimate of labor costs in China’s

manufacturing industry.6

For the original 2002 estimate of hourly compensation

costs, an urban annual hours worked figure was derived from

the Ministry of Labor’s labor force survey. First, a weekly

hours worked estimate was calculated by averaging two published figures which referenced a week in both the spring

and autumn of 2002. Then, the weekly figure was adjusted to

an annual basis using an estimate of the average number of

weeks worked during the year by urban manufacturing employees. For 2003 and 2004, hours data for the spring reference period were not published. Therefore, for this update,

the estimates of hours worked by urban employees are based

on changes in the number of hours worked in the autumn

reference periods. Because there are no published data to

update the estimate of hours worked by TVE manufacturing

employees, the percentage changes used for urban areas have

been applied to the 2002 TVE annual hours worked estimate.

In order to estimate total compensation costs for China’s

manufacturing employees, additional employer payments for

social benefits such as workers’ compensation, unemployment insurance, and old-age pension funds must be added to

the published earnings figures. China’s Ministry of Labor

conducted a survey of urban establishments with reference

to 2002 that collected relevant compensation data for the

calculation of social benefits as a percentage of total earnings. The results of this survey were used to construct the

original 2002 estimates of China’s manufacturing labor costs.

A more recent survey has not been conducted, so the percentage is held constant for the 2003 and 2004 estimates.

However, as noted in the original article, there is evidence

that the amount of required employer contributions has been

increasing over time. Therefore, it is possible that legally required employer contributions to social benefits funds have

increased since 2002, and the total compensation costs figures provided in this article are understated.

The estimates of Chinese manufacturing compensation

costs presented in this article may not be representative of all

workers in manufacturing industries because it is likely that

certain groups are not fully captured in the annual administrative data collected and published by China’s National Bureau of Statistics, specifically migrant workers and persons

employed in small-scale and private establishments and the

informal sector.7

In this article, data for China are converted into U.S. dollars using commercial market exchange rates. For the entire

2002–04 time period, the Chinese yuan was pegged to the

U.S. dollar at 8.28 yuan per dollar. In July 2005, China revalued the yuan, appreciating it by about 2 percent. In addition, instead of being pegged solely to the U.S. dollar, the

yuan is now allowed to float within a narrow 0.3 percent band

against a basket of foreign currencies in daily trading. Since

its revaluation, the yuan has continued to slowly appreciate

against the dollar.8 After 2004, this appreciation will lead to

larger percent increases in compensation costs measured in

U.S. dollars than those measured in the national currency.

Total hourly compensation in 2003 and 2004

While employees in China’s manufacturing sector are compensated at a fraction of the level of production workers in

the United States, Chinese compensation costs in current U.S.

dollars have been increasing at a faster rate. Between 2002

and 2004, total hourly compensation costs of manufacturing

employees in China increased nearly 18 percent, from $0.57

to $0.67. (See table 2.) In comparison, total hourly compensation costs for manufacturing production workers in the

United States grew about 7 percent over the same period from

$21.40 to $22.87.9

One of the prominent features of compensation in China

is the difference in labor costs between urban and rural areas. In 2004, total hourly compensation costs of TVE (rural)

manufacturing employees was $0.45. Urban manufacturing

employees were compensated more than 2.6 times this level

at $1.19 per hour. The gap between urban and rural compensation costs has increased since 2002 when employees in urban units were compensated at about 2.3 times the rate of

their rural counterparts.

The following two sections update other elements included in the August 2005 article in the Review. The first

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has been a leader in compiling international comparisons of hourly compensation of

manufacturing workers, currently covering 32 countries. Despite its large and growing importance in world manufacturing,

China has not been included in the comparisons because of difficulties in obtaining and interpreting that country’s data and

because of concerns about the quality of the data, as described

in detail in the Monthly Labor Review articles by Judith Banister cited in this report. BLS does not plan to include China in its

regular comparisons of hourly compensation costs at this time.

Because of the widespread interest in expanded country coverage, BLS is considering providing data on China, along with data

on some other countries, the quality of whose data is problematic, but in a separate format with appropriate annotations. BLS

will continue to monitor China’s data, and as better data become available, China could be moved into the regular comparisons series.

Division of Foreign Labor Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics
Monthly Labor Review November 2006 43

section covers trends in real (price-adjusted) earnings

for China’s urban manufacturing sector, and the second

one presents earnings data for urban manufacturing

subsectors. The reader should note that these sections cover

only earnings, not total labor compensation costs, and that

the data are not converted into U.S. dollars. Total compensation data are not available for China’s manufacturing

subsectors.

Urban manufacturing earnings over time

In order to compare earnings over time within China, changes

in prices should be taken into account. China’s Ministry of

Labor published indices of average real wages for urban

manufacturing workers until 2002. This series has been extended with data through 2004 using China’s Consumer Price

Index for urban areas to deflate average nominal earnings.

(See chart 2 and table 3.) Average annual real earnings have

increased every year since 1990, with the 1999–2004 time

period showing relatively rapid increases.

Earnings data for urban subsectors

China’s Ministry of Labor publishes data on yearend employment and average annual earnings per urban manufacturing

employee for 29 manufacturing subsectors. Data on weekly

hours worked and employer contributions to social benefit

funds are not available for individual subsectors. Absent these

data, total hourly compensation costs were not calculated for

manufacturing subindustries.

Average annual earnings vary considerably among the

many urban subsectors. (See table 4.) Persons employed in

tobacco processing, the highest-paying industry, earn nearly

four times the amount of their counterparts in the timber and

bamboo products and textiles industries. Urban employment

remained nearly constant between 2002 and 2004 in the six

industries with average annual earnings below 11,000 yuan

in 2004 (timber and bamboo products, textiles, food processing, nonmetallic mineral products, furniture, and leather

products). Over the same time period, urban employment

grew about 6 percent in the six industries with average annual earnings above 16,000 yuan in 2004 (tobacco processing, petroleum processing, ferrous metal smelting, electronics and telecommunication equipment, transport equipment,

and instruments and office machinery).

Future developments

In 2005, China’s National Bureau of Statistics conducted the

First National Economic Census. The Census reportedly collected data on groups previously excluded from published

estimates, including earnings of those employed in individual

and household manufacturing establishments. In addition, the

Census questionnaire included questions on employer payments to labor and unemployment insurance, old age and

medical insurance, and welfare funds. Using data from the

Census, BLS may be able to prepare more precise estimates of

hourly compensation costs in China’s manufacturing sector

in the future.

Notes

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: As coauthor of this article, Judith Banister worked

under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. The authors thank Constance Sorrentino and Chris Sparks for their

comments on previous drafts of this article; Song Jintao and Xing Shuqin

in Beijing for procuring and transmitting Chinese sources; and Kit Li and

Apinait Amranand for verifying the accuracy of the data.

1 International Trade Statistics 2005, World Trade Organization, on

the Internet at http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2005_e/

its05_bysector_e.pdf.

Estimated labor compensation costs of manufacturing employees in China, 2002–04

Total for manufacturing urban units and TVEs1 ...... 4.73 5.17 5.50 $0.57 $0.62 $0.67

Manufacturing urban units ................................... 7.87 8.87 9.86 .95 1.07 1.19

Onpost urban manufacturing staff and workers 7.76 8.74 9.71 .94 1.06 1.17

Other urban manufacturing employment ........... 12.17 13.32 14.86 1.47 1.61 1.80

Manufacturing TVEs1 ............................................. 3.40 3.63 3.73 .41 .44 .45

Category of manufacturing

workers

Hourly compensation per employee

Table 2.

yuan U.S. dollars

2002 2003 2004 2002 2003 2004

1 TVEs refer to town and village enterprises.

SOURCES: Table 1 and Judith Banister, “Manufacturing earnings and

compensation in China,” Monthly Labor Review, August 2005, p. 28.
Manufacturing in China

 44 Monthly Labor Review November 2006

Average annual real earnings and percent change of urban manufacturing staff and workers in China,

1990–2004

1990 ................ 5,272 7.7 5,835 8.6 4,324 5.2 7,122 4.4

1991 ................ 5,541 5.1 6,075 4.1 4,558 5.4 8,041 12.9

1992 ................ 5,874 6.0 6,451 6.2 4,708 3.3 8,483 5.5

1993 ................ 6,426 9.4 6,851 6.2 4,962 5.4 8,576 1.1

1994 ................ 6,574 2.3 6,934 1.2 4,947 –.3 8,585 .1

1995 ................ 6,791 3.3 7,044 1.6 5,120 3.5 8,739 1.8

1996 ................ 6,811 .3 7,016 –.4 5,074 –.9 8,809 .8

1997 ................ 6,947 2.0 7,051 .5 5,059 –.3 9,012 2.3

 1998 ................. 7,301 5.1 7,214 2.3 5,181 2.4 8,850 –1.8

1999 ................ 8,163 11.8 7,971 10.5 5,574 7.6 9,761 10.3

2000 ................ 9,094 11.4 8,888 11.5 5,942 6.6 10,591 8.5

2001 ................ 10,085 10.9 9,892 11.3 6,281 5.7 11,427 7.9

2002 ................ 11,466 13.7 11,336 14.6 7,035 12.0 12,536 9.7

2003 ................ 12,908 12.6 13,016 14.8 7,850 11.6 13,700 9.3

2004 ................ 14,033 8.7 14,486 11.3 8,598 9.5 14,569 6.3

Year

Urban manufacturing staff and workers

Table 3.

Average

real

earnings

Percent

change

Average

real

earnings

Percent

change

Average

real

earnings

Percent

change

(In constant 2004 yuan)

Total Urban State-owned units Other urban

ownership units

Average

real

earnings

Percent

change

Urban collectiveowned units

Labor and Social Security, compilers. China Labor Statistical Yearbook

2005, (Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2005), p. 56. China National Bureau

of Statistics and China Ministry of Labor and Social Security, compilers.

China Labor Statistical Yearbook 2005. (Beijing: China Statistics Press,

2005), pp. 46, 49, 52, 55, 56 and China National Bureau of Statistics,

compilers, China Statistical Yearbook 2005, (Beijing, China Statistics Press,

2005), p. 301.

1990 92 94 96 98 2000 02 04

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

Urban total manufacturing staff and workers, real earnings

Urban State-owned units, real earnings

Urban collective-owned units, real earnings

Other urban ownership units, real earnings

yuan yuan

SOURCE: China National Bureau of Statistics and China Ministry of Labor and Social Security, compilers. China Labor

Statistical Yearbook 2005 (Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2005), p.56.

Chart 2. Average annual real earnings of urban manufacturing staff and workers in China, 1990–

 2004

NOTES: This table includes only the reported annual earnings, which have

not been adjusted to include other labor compensation costs such as required

employer payments to municipal social insurance systems. Published data

for real earnings are not available for 2003 and 2004. Annual percent changes

for these years have been calculated using China’s Consumer Price Index

for Urban Areas.

SOURCE: China National Bureau of Statistics and China Ministry of
Monthly Labor Review November 2006 45

2

 Chinese data are from China National Bureau of Statistics and China

Ministry of Labor, compilers, China Labor Statistical Yearbook 2005

(Beijing, China Statistics Press, 2005). G7 data are from Comparative

Civilian Labor Force Statistics, 10 Countries, 1960–2005 (Bureau of

Labor Statistics, April 5, 2006); on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/fls/

lfcompendium.pdf.

3

 For the original hourly compensation estimate for 2002 and a detailed explanation of the methods used, see Judith Banister, “Manufacturing Employment and Compensation in China,” on the Internet at http://

www.bls.gov/fls/chinareport.pdf or two Monthly Labor Review articles

based on this report: Judith Banister, “Manufacturing employment in

China,” Monthly Labor Review, July 2005, pp. 11–29 on the Internet at

http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2005/07/art2full.pdf and Judith Banister,

“Manufacturing earnings and compensation in China,” Monthly Labor

Review, August 2005, pp. 22–40 on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/

opub/mlr/2005/08/art3full.pdf.

4

 China’s compensation data are for all employees while compensation

data for other countries in this report only refer to production workers.

Because nonproduction workers in manufacturing often are compensated

at higher rates than their production worker counterparts, the inclusion of

nonproduction workers in China’s data may affect comparability with other

countries.

5

 Town and village enterprise (TVE) data published by the Ministry of

Agriculture are used in this article to represent employment and earnings

in rural establishments. For a detailed explanation of why TVE data are

used, see Banister, “Manufacturing employment in China,” pp. 11–29.

6

 See Banister, “Manufacturing earnings and compensation in China,”

pp. 22–40, for a more detailed explanation of the sources and methods

used in constructing estimates of compensation costs and for the limitations of published data from China.

7

 See Banister, “Manufacturing employment in China,” pp. 11–29 and

Banister, “Manufacturing earnings and compensation in China,” pp. 22–

40 for more detailed explanations of the undercoverage of these groups in

China’s administrative data.

8

 Federal Reserve historical exchange rate data for China is on the

Internet at http://www.federalreserve.gov/RELEASES/H10/hist/

dat00_ch.txt.

9

 See “International comparisons of hourly compensation costs for production workers in manufacturing, 1975–2004,” (Bureau of Labor Statistics, November 18, 2005), on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/fls/

home.htm.

Urban manufacturing employment and earnings by subsector in China, 2002–04

Total manufacturing in urban units ....................... 29,807,492 29,804,919 30,508,231 11,152 12,671 14,251

Timber, bamboo, natural fiber, and straw products . 267,666 294,322 312,231 7,339 7,879 8,801

Textile industry ......................................................... 2,841,565 2,718,148 2,654,621 7,268 8,079 9,038

Food processing ....................................................... 977,439 949,907 981,935 7,965 8,727 9,607

Nonmetallic mineral products .................................. 2,116,034 2,092,946 2,095,421 8,123 9,173 10,394

Furniture manufacturing ........................................... 180,484 189,110 231,098 8,881 9,501 10,808

Leather, furs, down, and related products ............... 578,590 635,176 703,199 9,108 9,883 10,964

Papermaking and paper products ............................ 592,400 574,859 561,654 8,668 10,067 11,232

Other manufacturing ................................................ 601,416 536,188 563,466 8,781 10,049 11,334

Garments and other fiber products .......................... 1,336,191 1,390,683 1,671,406 9,066 10,090 11,381

Beverage manufacturing .......................................... 740,250 749,406 710,610 9,619 10,746 12,174

Cultural, educational, and sport products ................ 294,636 332,826 353,672 10,390 11,432 12,183

Food products manufacturing .................................. 621,757 657,164 673,822 10,064 11,157 12,360

Metal products .......................................................... 897,455 809,559 854,134 10,075 11,073 12,451

Rubber products ....................................................... 377,633 375,154 387,495 10,055 11,024 12,470

Plastic products ........................................................ 606,800 629,700 664,683 10,131 11,317 12,584

Printing and record medium reproduction ............... 493,497 477,071 454,347 10,863 11,707 13,409

Chemical raw materials and products ..................... 2,213,256 2,172,951 2,117,999 10,359 12,129 13,729

Chemical fibers manufacturing ................................ 263,378 204,733 207,241 11,404 12,562 13,804

Special purpose equipment manufacturing ............. 1,400,594 1,661,521 1,627,336 10,406 12,040 13,985

Ordinary machinery manufacturing ......................... 1,921,315 1,884,852 1,900,869 10,668 12,777 14,549

Electric equipment and machinery .......................... 1,441,399 1,414,331 1,568,808 12,405 13,435 14,797

Smelting and pressing of nonferrous metals ........... 755,646 790,666 789,552 12,491 13,661 15,285

Medical and pharmaceutical products ..................... 844,857 891,993 896,412 13,207 14,556 15,652

Instruments and stationery machine tools ............... 464,762 553,854 581,439 12,720 15,044 16,543

Transportation equipment manufacturing ................ 2,319,421 2,316,516 2,314,390 14,409 16,313 18,485

Electronics and telecommunications ....................... 1,623,783 1,825,847 2,054,772 17,636 18,922 20,428

Smelting and pressing of ferrous metals ................. 1,900,648 1,900,466 1,845,205 15,032 17,989 21,074

Petroleum processing and coking products ............. 565,505 525,522 507,916 17,357 20,733 22,951

Tobacco processing ................................................. 233,485 222,476 200,184 23,744 27,143 34,688

Urban manufacturing subsector

Urban employees

(yearend)

Table 4.

Average annual earnings

per employee

(in yuan)

2002 2002 2003 2004 2003 2004

NOTES: These data refer only to urban manufacturing employment and

earnings. The subsectors listed here refer to 29.47 million, 29.78 million,

and 30.49 million of China’s urban manufacturing workers in 2002, 2003,

and 2004, respectively. Rural manufacturing workers in each subsector

undoubtedly have lower earnings than shown here. These earnings figures

do not include required employer social insurance payments or other

nonwage labor costs.

SOURCE: Data for 2002 are from China National Bureau of Statistics

and China Ministry of Labor and Social Security, compilers, China Labor

Staistical Yearbook 2003, (Beijing, China Statistics Press, 2003), pp. 179

and 218–25. Data for 2003 are from China National Bureau of Statistics

and China Ministry of Labor and Social Security, compilers, China Labor

Statistical Yearbook 2004, (Beijing, China Statistics Press, 2004), pp. 187–

210. Data from 2004 are from China National Bureau of Statistics and China

Ministry of Labor and Social Security, compilers, China Labor Statistical

Yearbook 2005, (Beijing, China Statistics Press, 2005), pp. 199–264.