1

Evan Cunningham

cpsinfo@bls.gov

Evan Cunningham was formerly an economist in 

the Office of Employment and Unemployment 

Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Professional certifications and occupational 

licenses: evidence from the Current Population 

Survey

This article uses data from the Current Population Survey 

to analyze the role of professional certifications and 

occupational licenses in the U.S. labor market. It discusses 

the prevalence of these credentials among the employed by 

age, gender, race, ethnicity, educational attainment, and 

occupation. This analysis also explores the relationships 

between certifications, licenses, and earnings. Finally, the 

article presents new data on certification and licensing by 

detailed occupation and whether the credential is required 

for one’s job.

In 2018, more than 43 million people in the United States 

held a professional certification or license. The prevalence 

of occupational licenses, common in fields such as 

healthcare, law, and education, has risen substantially over 

the past 50 years.[1] Professional certifications, while less 

common than licenses, can signal proficiency in fastchanging fields like project management, software 

development, and financial analysis. Both of these timelimited credentials can serve as alternative forms of 

educational attainment, demonstrating a level of skill or knowledge needed to perform a specific type of job. As a 

result, researchers and others have developed an interest in using government surveys to measure the prevalence 

of certifications and licenses and tying these credentials to labor market outcomes and earnings. To meet this 

need, in January 2015, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), working with the federal Interagency Working Group 

on Expanded Measures of Enrollment and Attainment (GEMEnA), added questions on certifications and licenses 

to the Current Population Survey (CPS). This article provides an in-depth analysis of CPS data on professional 

certifications and licenses for 2018.

Professional certifications and licenses: what they are

As mentioned previously, in the CPS, certifications and licenses are credentials that demonstrate a level of skill or 

knowledge needed to perform a specific type of job. Both terms refer to time-limited credentials that need to be 

renewed periodically. The fundamental difference between the two is the issuer of the credential: certifications are 

June 2019
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

2

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

issued by nongovernmental certification bodies, whereas licenses are awarded by a federal, state, or local 

government agency. Thus, licenses convey a legal authority to work in an occupation, while a certification on its 

own does not.[2]

How certifications and licenses are measured in the Current 

Population Survey

In January 2015, the following three questions on certifications and licenses were added to the CPS, based on the 

work of GEMEnA:[3]

1. Do you have a currently active professional certification or a state or industry license? Do not include business 

licenses, such as a liquor license or a vending license.

This question is used to identify people with a certification or license. People may have more than one of these 

credentials.

2. Were any of your certifications or licenses issued by the federal, state, or local government?

This second question is asked of people who answered “yes” to the first question. People who answer “yes” 

are classified as having a license. People with a license may also have a certification.[4]

3. Earlier you told me you had a currently active professional certification or license. Was your certification or 

license required for your job?

This third question is asked later in the interview of employed people who answered “yes” to the first question. 

In this question, “required” can mean either legally required (a license to be a practicing doctor, for example) or 

required by an employer (such as a computer maintenance certification).[5]

In 2018, 43.7 million people in the United States held a currently active certification or license—16.9 percent of the 

civilian noninstitutional population. Among the employed, 24.1 percent held one of these credentials, compared 

with 12.1 percent of the unemployed and 5.6 percent of those not in the labor force. Licenses were the more 

common credential—21.8 percent of employed people held a license, while only 2.3 percent held a certification but 

no license.[6] Of the 37.6 million employed people with a certification or license, 32.5 million—or 87 percent—

usually worked full time (35 or more hours per week). (See table 1.) Finally, 84.4 percent of employed people with 

a certification or license responded that their credential was required for their job. Among those with a license, 87.0 

percent said their credential was required, compared with 60.0 percent for those with a certification, but no 

license.[7]
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

3

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Notes:

Employment 

status

Number of people (thousands) Percent distribution

Total

With a certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification 

or license

Total

With a certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification 

or license Total

With a 

certification, 

but no 

license

With a 

license(2)

Total

With a 

certification, 

but no 

license

With a 

license(2)

Civilian 

noninstitutional 

population

257,791 43,691 4,197 39,495 214,099 100.0% 16.9% 1.6% 15.3% 83.1%

Civilian labor 

force 162,075 38,321 3,658 34,664 123,753 100.0 23.6 2.3 21.4 76.4

Employed 155,761 37,556 3,546 34,010 118,205 100.0 24.1 2.3 21.8 75.9

Usually work 

full time 128,572 32,533 3,152 29,381 96,040 100.0 25.3 2.5 22.9 74.7

Usually work 

part time 27,189 5,024 394 4,630 22,165 100.0 18.5 1.4 17.0 81.5

Unemployed 6,314 765 112 654 5,549 100.0 12.1 1.8 10.4 87.9

Not in the 

labor force 95,716 5,370 539 4,831 90,346 100.0 5.6 0.6 5.0 94.4

Table 1. Certification and licensing status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and over by 

employment status, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

4

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

(1) A person may have more than one certification or license.

(2) People with a license may also have a certification.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Certifications, licenses, and employment status

In 2018, people with a currently active certification or license participated in the labor force at a higher rate and had 

a lower unemployment rate than people without one of these credentials. The labor force participation rate—the 

proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population working or looking for work—for those with a certification or 

license was 87.7 percent in 2018, compared with 57.8 percent for those with no certification or license. The 

unemployment rate—the number of people actively looking and available for work as a percentage of the labor 

force—for people with one of these credentials, at 2.0 percent, was less than half the rate for people with no 

certification or license (4.5 percent). These results generally held for people in all age, sex, race, ethnicity, and 

educational attainment groups. (See table 2.)

Characteristic

Labor force participation rate Employment–population ratio Unemployment rate

With a 

certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification or 

license

Total, 16 years 

and over 87.7% 57.8% 86.0% 55.2% 2.0% 4.5%

16 to 24 years 86.1 53.3 82.3 48.5 4.4 9.0

25 to 54 years 94.0 78.6 92.3 75.7 1.8 3.8

55 years and 

over

74.6 34.3 73.1 33.2 2.0 3.3

Men 90.1 65.0 88.3 62.1 2.0 4.5

Women 85.7 50.9 84.0 48.6 2.0 4.5

White 87.6 57.6 86.0 55.3 1.8 4.0

Black or 

African 

American

87.4 57.9 84.5 53.6 3.3 7.3

Asian 89.5 59.1 88.2 57.0 1.5 3.4

Hispanic or 

Latino 

ethnicity(2)

89.0 63.5 86.8 60.3 2.5 5.0

Total, 25 years 

and over 87.8 58.7 86.2 56.6 1.9 3.7

Less than a 

high school 

diploma

84.8 44.4 81.9 41.9 3.4 5.8

High school 

graduates, no 

college(3)

88.4 54.3 85.9 51.9 2.8 4.3

Table 2. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population by certification and licensing status 

and selected characteristics, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

5

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Notes:

(1) A person may have more than one certification or license.

(2) People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity can be of any race.

(3) Includes people with a high school diploma or equivalent.

(4) Includes people with a master's, professional, or doctoral degree.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Labor force participation rates typically vary by demographic characteristics such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, and 

educational attainment. However, the size of these participation rate gaps depends on certification and licensing 

status. Among those with a certification or license, differences in labor force participation between demographic 

groups tended to be smaller compared with those without one of these credentials. For example, among those with 

a certification or license in 2018, the participation rate for people ages 25 to 54 (often referred to as the prime 

working age), at 94.0 percent, was about 19 percentage points higher than the rate for people age 55 and over 

(74.6 percent). Among those without a certification or license, the prime-working-age participation rate, at 78.6 

percent, was about 44 percentage points higher than the participation rate for those 55 and over (34.3 percent). 

The labor force participation rate gap between men and women was also smaller among those with one of these 

credentials. Among those with a certification or license, the participation rate for men (90.1 percent) was only about 

4 percentage points higher than the rate for women (85.7 percent), compared with a difference of about 14 

percentage points among those with no certification or license (65.0 percent for men and 50.9 percent for women).

This pattern was perhaps most striking for educational attainment. For those with no certification or license, labor 

force participation increased steadily with educational attainment, ranging from 44.4 percent among people age 25 

and over with less than a high school diploma, to 68.8 percent for people in the same age group with a bachelor’s 

degree. For those with a credential, however, labor force participation was above 80 percent for every education 

level. In fact, the participation rate for people with a certification or license and at least a high school diploma, 

Characteristic

Labor force participation rate Employment–population ratio Unemployment rate

With a 

certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license(1)

Without a 

certification or 

license

Some college 

or associate 

degree

87.5 60.2 85.6 57.9 2.2 3.7

Some college, 

no degree 86.7 58.7 84.5 56.3 2.5 4.0

Associate 

degree 88.3 62.8 86.5 60.8 2.0 3.2

Bachelor's 

degree or 

higher

87.9 67.7 86.7 66.0 1.4 2.5

Bachelor's 

degree only 88.5 68.8 87.2 67.0 1.5 2.5

Advanced 

degree(4) 87.3 65.3 86.1 63.6 1.3 2.6

Table 2. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population by certification and licensing status 

and selected characteristics, 2018 annual averages
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

6

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

regardless of how much additional education they attained, was 87.9 percent. The participation rate for those with 

a certification or license but less than a high school diploma was only slightly lower, at 84.8 percent. An important 

caveat, however, is that people with less than a high school diploma represent a very small share of those with a 

professional certification or license. Higher levels of educational attainment are often required for obtaining a 

license, so people with a certification or license tend to have higher levels of educational attainment than those 

without such credentials. (See figure 1.)

Prevalence of certifications and licenses among the employed

Since labor force participation rates are generally higher and unemployment rates lower for people with a 

professional certification or license, the remainder of this article focuses on the employed. This section discusses 

trends in the prevalence of certifications and licenses by demographic factors including age, sex, race, and 

ethnicity.

Employed people with a certification or license were disproportionately of prime working age (25 to 54) or older (55 

and over). In 2018, 26.0 percent of workers ages 25 to 54 and 26.6 percent of workers age 55 and over held a 

certification or license. Younger workers (ages 16 to 24) were considerably less likely to hold one of these 

credentials, with just 9.7 percent doing so in 2018. Among employed people in their prime working age, those ages 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

7

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

25 to 34 were somewhat less likely to hold one of these credentials (23.2 percent) than those ages 35 to 44 (27.7 

percent) or ages 45 to 54 (27.3 percent). The prevalence of certification and licensing did not vary substantially for 

workers age 35 and over. These patterns held for those with a certification but no license, as well as for those with 

a license. (See table 3.)

Notes:

(1) A person may have more than one certification or license.

(2) People with a license may also have a certification.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Characteristic

Total 

employed

With a certification or license(1)

Without a certification or 

license Total

With a certification, but no 

license

With a 

license(2)

Total, 16 years and 

over

100.0% 24.1% 2.3% 21.8% 75.9%

16 to 24 years 100.0 9.7 1.0 8.7 90.3

25 to 54 years 100.0 26.0 2.5 23.5 74.0

25 to 34 years 100.0 23.2 2.3 20.9 76.8

35 to 44 years 100.0 27.7 2.8 24.9 72.3

45 to 54 years 100.0 27.3 2.5 24.8 72.7

55 years and over 100.0 26.6 2.3 24.3 73.4

55 to 64 years 100.0 26.3 2.4 23.8 73.7

65 years and over 100.0 27.5 2.0 25.5 72.5

Men, 16 years and 

over

100.0 21.4 2.5 18.9 78.6

16 to 24 years 100.0 7.7 1.0 6.7 92.3

25 to 54 years 100.0 22.4 2.9 19.5 77.6

25 to 34 years 100.0 18.7 2.7 16.0 81.3

35 to 44 years 100.0 23.9 3.1 20.8 76.1

45 to 54 years 100.0 25.0 2.8 22.2 75.0

55 years and over 100.0 25.7 2.4 23.3 74.3

55 to 64 years 100.0 25.0 2.6 22.4 75.0

65 years and over 100.0 27.7 2.0 25.7 72.3

Women, 16 years and 

over

100.0 27.1 2.0 25.2 72.9

16 to 24 years 100.0 11.7 0.9 10.8 88.3

25 to 54 years 100.0 30.1 2.1 28.0 69.9

25 to 34 years 100.0 28.5 1.9 26.6 71.5

35 to 44 years 100.0 32.0 2.3 29.7 68.0

45 to 54 years 100.0 30.0 2.2 27.8 70.0

55 years and over 100.0 27.6 2.1 25.4 72.4

55 to 64 years 100.0 27.7 2.2 25.5 72.3

65 years and over 100.0 27.2 2.0 25.2 72.8

Table 3. Certification and licensing status of employed people 16 years and over by age and sex, percent 

distribution, 2018 annual averages
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

8

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

The low prevalence of certifications and licenses among younger workers is most likely related to the nature of 

these credentials. Many licenses require certain levels of educational attainment or supervised work experience 

that are difficult to attain before reaching the age of 25. For example, all states require physicians and surgeons to 

be licensed, which involves graduating from an accredited medical school and completing residency training in an 

area of specialty, which typically takes from 7 to 11 years.[8] In addition, obtaining a license often involves high 

upfront financial costs, which can be more difficult for younger workers to afford.[9]

Employed women were more likely to hold a certification or license than employed men. In 2018, 27.1 percent of 

employed women held a certification or license, compared with 21.4 percent of employed men. Nearly all of the 

difference was due to the gender gap in the prevalence of licenses, rather than certifications. Employed women 

(25.2 percent) were 6 percentage points more likely to hold a license than employed men (18.9 percent). This may 

reflect, in part, differences in the occupational distribution of employment between women and men. For example, 

women are more likely to be employed as teachers or nurses, occupations that generally require a license. In 

2018, employed men were slightly more likely to hold a certification, at 2.5 percent, than employed women (2.0 

percent). Not including those ages 16 to 24, the gap between women and men in the prevalence of these 

credentials declined with age. Women ages 25 to 34 were about 10 percentage points more likely to hold a 

certification or license than men ages 25 to 34, while women age 55 and over were only about 2 percentage points 

more likely to hold one of these credentials.

A look at the major race and ethnicity groups reveals that employed Whites had the highest prevalence of 

certification and licensing, at 24.9 percent in 2018, followed by employed Blacks or African Americans (21.8 

percent) and Asians (20.9 percent). Employed people of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, at 14.9 percent, were the 

least likely to hold one of these credentials. These patterns generally held for both those with a certification but no 

license and those with a license. As with age, employed women were more likely than their male counterparts to 

hold a certification or license within each major race and ethnicity group. Of all these groups, White women, at 

27.9 percent, were the most likely to hold one of these credentials in 2018, while Hispanic men were the least 

likely (13.2 percent). This may also reflect differences in age, educational attainment, and occupation among 

employed people in the major race and ethnicity groups. (See table 4.)

Characteristic

Total 

employed

With a certification or license(1)

Without a certification or 

license Total

With a certification, but no 

license

With a 

license(2)

White 100.0% 24.9% 2.3% 22.6% 75.1%

Men 100.0 22.4 2.6 19.8 77.6

Women 100.0 27.9 2.0 26.0 72.1

Black or African 

American 100.0 21.8 2.1 19.6 78.2

Men 100.0 18.1 2.4 15.8 81.9

Women 100.0 25.0 1.9 23.1 75.0

Asian 100.0 20.9 2.4 18.5 79.1

Men 100.0 17.6 2.8 14.8 82.4

Table 4. Certification and licensing status of employed people 16 years and over, by sex, race and 

ethnicity, percent distribution, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

9

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Notes:

Characteristic

Total 

employed

With a certification or license(1)

Without a certification or 

license Total

With a certification, but no 

license

With a 

license(2)

Women 100.0 24.7 2.0 22.7 75.3

Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity(3) 100.0 14.9 1.6 13.3 85.1

Men 100.0 13.2 1.7 11.5 86.8

Women 100.0 17.1 1.4 15.7 82.9

Table 4. Certification and licensing status of employed people 16 years and over, by sex, race and 

ethnicity, percent distribution, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

10

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

(1) People may have more than one certification or license.

(2) People with a license may also have a certification.

(3) People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Educational attainment

Reaching a specified level of educational attainment is often a requirement for obtaining a professional certification 

or license. CPS data show that, in 2018, employed people age 25 and over with higher levels of educational 

attainment were more likely to hold a certification or license. Just under half (48.9 percent) of workers with an 

advanced degree held a certification or license, compared with only 8.1 percent of those with less than a high 

school diploma. Workers with an associate’s degree (33.4 percent) or a bachelor’s degree only (28.5 percent) 

were more likely to hold one of these credentials than those with some college but no degree (21.1 percent) or 

those with only a high school diploma (14.9 percent). This pattern was mostly driven by differences in the 

prevalence of licenses, rather than certifications, between education levels. However, workers with at least some 

college experience were more likely to have a certification but no license than those with only a high school 

diploma or less education. (See figure 2.)
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

11

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

The prevalence of certification and licensing varied among the three advanced degree categories. Workers with a 

professional degree (78.6 percent) were much more likely to hold a certification or license than those with a 

master’s (42.9 percent) or doctoral (54.6 percent) degree, probably because many workers with a professional 

degree are employed in legal occupations or in healthcare occupations, where obtaining a license is common.[10]

Workers with a master’s degree were the most likely (3.7 percent) to hold a professional certification but no 

license.

Occupation

Among the employed, the prevalence of certifications and licenses varied widely by occupation. In 2018, the share 

of workers with a currently active certification or license was highest among healthcare practitioners and technical 

occupations (75.7 percent) and legal occupations (65.9 percent). In addition, about half of workers in education, 

training, and library occupations (52.7 percent) and in healthcare support occupations (49.0 percent) held one of 

these credentials. By contrast, there were four occupational groups in which less than 1 in 10 workers held a 

certification or license: food preparation and serving related occupations (7.4 percent); building and grounds 

cleaning and maintenance occupations (7.9 percent); office and administrative support occupations (9.1 percent); 

and farming, fishing, and forestry occupations (8.6 percent). (See figure 3.)
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

12

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

In nearly all occupational groups, licenses appear to be the dominant credential. In the groups in which these 

credentials were most prevalent, more than 90 percent of credentialed workers held a license. In every 

occupational group, more workers held a license than a certification. The only exception was computer and 

mathematical occupations, in which 6.6 percent of workers held a certification but no license, and 6.9 percent held 

a license. The share of workers with a certification but no license reached 4 percent in only two other occupational 

groups—installation, maintenance, and repair occupations (4.1 percent) and community and social service 

occupations (4.6 percent). However, it is important to note that the occupational groups displayed in figure 3 are 

broad. Some jobs within an occupational group may have a high prevalence of certification and licensing, while 

others in the same group may not.

In 2018, a large majority of jobs with the highest share of licensed workers were in healthcare. However, when 

occupations were ranked according to the number of licensed workers, a wide variety of sectors were represented. 

In 2018, there were 2.6 million registered nurses with a license (81 percent of all employed registered nurses), 2.5 

million licensed elementary and middle school teachers (72 percent) and 1.0 million licensed lawyers (84 percent). 

The level of licensed physicians and surgeons (926,000) did not quite reach one million, but the share with a 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

13

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

license was about 85 percent. Although licenses were less prevalent among nursing, psychiatric, and home health 

aides (48 percent) and driver/sales workers and truck drivers (26.7 percent), these occupations accounted for just 

under 1 million licensed workers. Other detailed occupations with a high number of licensed workers include 

secondary school teachers (811,000; 76 percent); real estate brokers and sales agents (738,000; 69 percent); and 

hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists (566,000, 68 percent). These results show that occupational licenses 

are prevalent in a diverse range of detailed occupations that are spread across different industry sectors. (See 

table 5; also, data for all detailed occupations is available in an unpublished table upon request. Please email 

cpsinfo@bls.gov.)

Note: People with a license may also have a certification. Not all detailed occupations are shown.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

In 2018, professional certifications were less prevalent than occupational licenses, and they were most common 

among workers in computer and mathematical occupations. Examples of occupations with a high prevalence of 

certifications include computer network architects (24 percent), information security analysts (18 percent), and 

network and computer systems administrators (15 percent). In 2018, the share of workers with a certification but 

no license did not exceed 25 percent in any detailed occupation with employment of more than 50,000. Among 

workers in management occupations, 580,000 held a professional certification in 2018. Other occupations with the 

largest number of certified workers include software developers, members of the clergy, registered nurses, 

automotive service technicians and mechanics, and financial managers.

Employment Total employment (thousands)With a license (thousands)Percent with a license

Registered nurses 3,213 2,610 81.2%

Elementary and middle school teachers 3,421 2,454 71.7

Lawyers 1,199 1,003 83.7

Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides 2,035 975 47.9

Drivers/sales workers and truck drivers 3,549 947 26.7

Physicians and surgeons 1,094 926 84.6

Managers, all other 4,827 845 17.5

Secondary school teachers 1,062 811 76.4

Real estate brokers and sales agents 1,072 738 68.8

Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists 834 566 67.9

Accountants and auditors 1,929 513 26.6

Licensed practical and licensed vocational 

nurses

658 417 63.4

Counselors 895 384 42.9

Education administrators 955 384 40.2

Insurance sales agents 619 378 61.1

Postsecondary teachers 1,417 378 26.7

Electricians 887 364 41.0

Police and sheriff’s patrol officers 728 333 45.8

Health practitioner support technologists and 

technicians 694 328 47.2

Chief executives 1,573 327 20.8

Table 5. Employment in selected detailed occupations, by licensing status, 2018 annual averages
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

14

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

As mentioned previously, there is often substantial variation in the prevalence of these credentials within 

occupational groups. Consider legal occupations, for example, which include lawyers, judicial law clerks; judges, 

magistrates and other judicial workers; paralegals and legal assistants;[11] and miscellaneous legal support 

workers. In 2018, 84 percent of lawyers held a license, compared with only 21 percent of paralegals and legal 

assistants. This difference underscores the limitations of using intermediate occupation groups, which include 

many different kinds of specific occupations, to analyze the role of certifications and licenses in the labor market.

After seeing these data, readers may be curious as to why detailed occupations that are “universally licensed” in 

theory do not have licensing rates of 100 percent. Beyond the caveat that measures of the prevalence of 

certification and licensing from the CPS are self- or proxy-reported (See endnote 2.), the exact reasons often 

depend on the job in question and the relevant state and local licensing laws. (See “Occupational licensing 

regulation in the United States.”)

Occupational licensing regulation in the United States

In the United States, occupational licensing laws are generally enacted by state governments and executed 

by licensing boards, often composed of professionals from within the occupation. These laws can be quite 

complex. The two main forms of licensing are “title” and “practice” acts.

A “title” act (also called “right to title”) is when a government requires that prospective workers meet certain 

criteria in order to advertise themselves as a member of an occupation. Interior designers in Georgia are 

regulated this way. To be called a “registered interior designer,” one must meet education and work 

experience requirements and pass an examination. Those who are not officially registered may still provide 

many of the same services, but using the title of “interior designer” is a misdemeanor.* It is important to note 

that although the Georgia law provides for the granting of interior designer “certificates,” this credential 

would be considered a license in the Current Population Survey since it is awarded by a governmental 

licensing agency.

A “practice” act, or “right to practice” regulation, is a stricter form of licensing. Such laws make it illegal for 

anyone to perform the services associated with an occupation without a license. Many of the most wellknown examples are among healthcare practitioners, such as physicians and surgeons, nurses and nurse 

practitioners, and physical and occupational therapists. Lawyers also typically cannot provide legal services 

or represent clients in a court of law without being licensed, which involves obtaining a law degree (Juris 

Doctor or J.D.), passing the bar examination, and having their “character and fitness” confirmed by their 

state’s board of examiners.† However, over the past several decades, some states have expanded “right to 

practice” licensing laws to cover a wide variety of occupations, including cosmetologists, barbers, funeral 

directors, florists, tour guides, locksmiths, and professional wrestlers.‡

States may also enact legislation that requires workers to be licensed in order to legally perform specific 

tasks, while allowing unlicensed workers to perform the remaining work. For example, in different states, 

there are different limits on the scope of tasks that nurse practitioners are allowed to perform. In Illinois, 

nurse practitioners are allowed to prescribe medication, while in Missouri, only physicians can do so.§ 

Anyone can call themselves an accountant, but only a licensed certified public accountant (CPA) can 

perform a mandatory audit for a publically traded company.** Another variation is when laws require 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

15

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

unlicensed workers to be supervised by a licensed worker when performing specific tasks. For example, in 

most states, licensed dental hygienists are required to perform their work, which could include teeth 

cleaning, fluoride treatment, or initial screenings, under the supervision of a licensed dentist. However, in 

some states, licensed dental hygienists are permitted to perform some of these tasks without a dentist 

present, and in a few states, they are allowed to own their own dental hygiene practices.††

_______________________________

* See Morris M. Kleiner, Guild-ridden labor markets: the curious case of occupational licensing (Kalamazoo: 

Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 2015), pp. 20–22, http://www.upjohn.org/publications/upjohninstitute-press/guild-ridden-labor-markets-curious-case-occupational-licensing, and Georgia Law Title 43, 

Ch. 4, Article 2, http://sos.ga.gov/plb/acrobat/Laws/23_Architects_And_Interior_Designers_43-4.pdf.

† See “Bar admissions basic overview,” American Bar Association, https://www.americanbar.org/groups/

legal_education/resources/bar_admissions/basic_overview.html.

‡ See Kleiner, Guild-ridden labor markets, pp. 1–3.

§ Ibid., pp. 47–50.

** See “Become a CPA—FAQs,” Association of International Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), http://

www.aicpa.org/becomeacpa/faqs.html. Also see “All about auditors: what investors need to know, https://

www.sec.gov/reportspubs/investor-publications/investorpubsaboutauditorshtm.html.

†† See Morris M. Kleiner and Kyoung Won Park, “Battles among licensed occupations: analyzing 

government regulations on labor market outcomes for dentists and hygienists,” NBER Working Paper No. 

16560 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, November 2010), http://www.nber.org/

papers/w16560.pdf.

As an example, consider the case of physicians and surgeons. After 4 years of medical school, (unlicensed) 

medical school graduates typically begin their residencies. Medical residents work for pay under the supervision of 

a licensed physician or surgeon in their chosen specialty for at least 3 years. After the completion of their 

residency, these physicians and surgeons can then apply for a license, which gives them legal permission to 

practice medicine independently in their jurisdiction.[12] Although the CPS questionnaire does not address this 

issue specifically, the vast majority of the 146,000 unlicensed physicians and surgeons in 2018 were almost 

certainly medical residents.

Educational attainment within occupations

Within occupational groups, the prevalence of professional certifications and licenses varies substantially by 

educational attainment. Overall, these results are analogous to those discussed previously in the “Education” and 

“Occupation” sections of this article. The prevalence of certification and licensing increased with educational 

attainment and varied widely between the intermediate occupation groups. Workers with a professional degree 

and those employed in legal occupations; healthcare practitioner and technical occupations; or education, training, 

and library occupations held certifications and licenses at the highest rate. This is to be expected, because 

lawyers, physicians, surgeons, nurses, and teachers fall into these groups. Workers with the lowest rates had a 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

16

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

high school diploma or less or were employed in sales and office occupations; natural resources, construction, and 

maintenance occupations; production occupations; and many service occupations. (See table 6.)

Intermediate occupation Total

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High school 

graduates, 

no college(1)

Some 

college, 

no 

degree

Associate's 

degree

Bachelor's 

degree

Master's 

degree

Professional 

degree

Doctoral 

degree

Total, 25 years and over 26.1% 8.1% 14.9% 21.1% 33.4% 28.5% 42.9% 78.6% 54.6%

Management, 

professional, and 

related occupations

36.9 12.9 17.6 23.7 40.7 32.7 45.9 81.7 55.8

Management, 

business, and 

financial operations 

occupations

22.9 10.7 15.8 19.9 23.9 21.5 30.3 55.2 42.5

Management 

occupations 22.3 10.8 16.4 19.6 25.5 19.7 30.6 57.4 42.0

Business and 

financial operations 

occupations

24.3 — 13.1 20.9 19.7 24.8 29.6 51.0 43.8

Professional and 

related occupations 47.1 18.7 20.6 28.2 50.8 41.8 54.4 85.6 58.0

Computer and 

mathematical 

occupations

14.1 — 11.4 14.0 19.3 13.0 14.5 — 13.3

Architecture and 

engineering 

occupations

25.1 — 14.4 18.9 18.9 26.6 30.8 — 18.0

Life, physical and 

social science 

occupations

29.4 — — 18.6 26.9 23.3 34.5 45.1 32.4

Community and 

social services 

occupations

38.8 — 20.4 20.4 26.8 27.8 55.3 — 56.2

Legal occupations 67.2 — 20.0 25.2 30.0 32.2 64.2 89.2 83.5

Education, training, 

and library 

occupations

55.5 — 20.3 26.6 30.2 60.6 70.4 62.9 32.8

Arts, design, 

entertainment, 

sports, and media 

occupations

11.1 — 8.3 8.4 14.3 10.2 13.9 — —

Healthcare 

practitioners and 

technical 

occupations

77.2 — 38.7 57.0 78.4 77.9 81.0 93.2 88.5

Service occupations 24.6 8.6 18.7 29.1 44.3 31.0 33.0 48.4 36.4

Healthcare support 

occupations 51.3 35.0 44.0 51.6 64.4 54.1 56.4 — —

Table 6. Percentage of employed people 25 years and over with a certification or license by occupation 

and educational attainment, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

17

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Notes:

Intermediate occupation Total

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High school 

graduates, 

no college(1)

Some 

college, 

no 

degree

Associate's 

degree

Bachelor's 

degree

Master's 

degree

Professional 

degree

Doctoral 

degree

Protective service 

occupations 39.0 19.7 30.0 38.9 50.5 41.5 38.7 — —

Food preparation 

and serving related 

occupations

9.3 4.5 7.6 10.3 19.2 11.8 14.9 — —

Building and 

grounds cleaning 

and maintenance 

occupations

8.3 3.2 6.9 13.3 18.4 18.0 13.3 — —

Personal care and 

service occupations 33.3 22.2 30.0 34.0 51.7 29.0 33.7 — —

Sales and office 

occupations 13.6 4.5 8.2 13.0 16.8 16.8 25.4 49.4 43.8

Sales and related 

occupations 18.1 4.9 11.8 17.6 21.3 21.8 29.7 53.8 46.0

Office and 

administrative 

support occupations

9.8 4.1 5.5 9.8 13.9 11.3 20.4 — —

Natural resources, 

construction, and 

maintenance 

occupations

19.9 6.4 17.9 25.3 37.4 23.9 29.3 — —

Farming, fishing, 

and forestry 

occupations

10.2 2.9 11.6 17.8 19.3 21.4 — — —

Construction and 

extraction 

occupations

19.2 6.0 17.8 26.4 40.1 25.8 32.9 — —

Installation, 

maintenance and 

repair occupations

22.9 11.5 19.2 24.7 36.2 22.2 24.6 — —

Production, 

transportation, and 

material moving 

occupations

15.8 9.7 14.1 18.7 21.4 19.6 24.9 — —

Production 

occupations 10.4 3.9 8.3 13.8 18.9 13.7 16.8 — —

Transportation and 

material moving 

occupations

20.5 15.7 19.2 22.8 24.3 24.2 30.6 — —

Table 6. Percentage of employed people 25 years and over with a certification or license by occupation 

and educational attainment, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

18

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

(1) Includes people with a high school diploma or equivalent.

Note: Dashes indicate no data available or data do not meet publication standards. Percentages are not presented when base is less than 50,000. People 

may have more than one certification or license.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

While the prevalence of certifications and licenses in service occupations, at 24.6 percent in 2018, was about in 

line with the share of all workers who held one of these credentials, there was much variation within this 

occupational group. Certifications and licenses were most prevalent in healthcare support occupations, in 

protective service occupations, and in personal care and service occupations. Within these occupations, workers 

with an associate’s degree were most likely to hold one of these credentials. In healthcare support occupations, 

these workers were mostly nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides and medical assistants. Within protective 

service occupations, they tended to be employed as police officers, security guards, or firefighters. Personal care 

and service occupations include hairdressers, hairstylists and cosmetologists, as well as barbers. Professional 

certifications and licenses were relatively uncommon in food preparation and serving related occupations and in 

building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations.

Finally, within professional and related occupations, those employed in computer and mathematical occupations 

and in arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media occupations held certifications and licenses at a lower rate, 

regardless of their level of educational attainment. In 2018, only 13.9 percent of those with a master’s degree who 

were employed in arts occupations held a certification or license; among those with a bachelor’s degree, 10.2 

percent held one of these credentials. Among all workers in professional and related occupations, 54.4 percent of 

those with a master’s degree and 41.8 percent of those with bachelor’s degree held a certification or license in 

2018. Despite being relatively more likely to hold a certification than college graduates in other professional and 

related occupations, less than 15 percent of workers in computer and mathematical occupations with a bachelor’s 

degree or higher held a certification or license.

Requirement for job

In 2018, 84.4 percent of employed people with a certification or license said the credential was required for their 

job. [13] (See table 7.) Among those with a credential, the percentages of workers with a required certification or 

license were at least 50 percent for all intermediate occupation groups. However, there was substantial variation 

across the groups. Generally, credentialed workers in occupational groups with the highest prevalence of 

certification and licensing were more likely to say their credential was required. For example, among workers with 

a certification or license, 98.1 percent of those employed in healthcare practitioners and technical occupations, 

94.8 percent in legal occupations, and 94.8 percent in education, training, and library occupations said their 

credential was required. However, among credentialed workers in arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media 

occupations, as well as in office and administrative support occupations, less than 60 percent said their 

certification or license was required for their job.[14] These results show that for workers in highly credentialed 

occupations, a certification or license tended to be a necessary qualification for employment.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

19

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Number of people (thousands) Percent distribution

Total, with a 

certification or 

license

Required 

for job

Not 

required for 

job

Total, with a 

certification or 

license

Required 

for job

Not 

required for 

job

Total, 16 years and over 37,556 31,709 5,847 100.0% 84.4% 15.6%

Management, professional, 

and related occupations 22,290 19,558 2,732 100.0 87.7 12.3

Management, business, and 

financial operations 

occupations

5,767 4,273 1,494 100.0 74.1 25.9

Management occupations 3,991 2,921 1,070 100.0 73.2 26.8

Business and financial 

operations occupations 1,776 1,352 424 100.0 76.1 23.9

Professional and related 

occupations 16,522 15,284 1,238 100.0 92.5 7.5

Computer and mathematical 

occupations 690 413 277 100.0 59.9 40.1

Architecture and engineering 

occupations 780 615 165 100.0 78.8 21.2

Life, physical, and social 

science occupations 415 350 65 100.0 84.4 15.6

Community and social 

services occupations 995 872 123 100.0 87.6 12.4

Legal occupations 1,247 1,182 65 100.0 94.8 5.2

Education, training, and 

library occupations 4,910 4,656 254 100.0 94.8 5.2

Arts, design, entertainment, 

sports, and media 

occupations

351 199 152 100.0 56.7 43.3

Healthcare practitioners and 

technical occupations 7,135 6,998 137 100.0 98.1 1.9

Service occupations 5,791 5,001 790 100.0 86.4 13.6

Healthcare support 

occupations 1,780 1,671 109 100.0 93.9 6.1

Protective service 

occupations 1,170 1,081 89 100.0 92.4 7.6

Food preparation and 

serving related occupations 607 376 231 100.0 62.0 38.0

Building and grounds 

cleaning and maintenance 

occupations

462 288 175 100.0 62.2 37.8

Personal care and service 

occupations 1,772 1,585 187 100.0 89.5 10.5

Sales and office occupations 4,035 2,677 1,358 100.0 66.3 33.7

Sales and related 

occupations 2,430 1,866 564 100.0 76.8 23.2

Office and administrative 

support occupations 1,605 810 795 100.0 50.5 49.5

Table 7. Employed people with a certification or license, by occupation and requirement for job, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

20

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Note: People may have more than one certification or license.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The share of workers who held a required credential also varied by detailed occupation. In general, virtually all 

workers in occupations with the highest prevalence of licensing said the credential was required for their job. For 

example, among lawyers; physicians and surgeons; and elementary, middle and secondary school teachers, at 

least 97 percent of credentialed workers said their license was required for their job in 2018. However, among 

credentialed workers in occupations in which certifications and licenses were less prevalent, a majority still needed 

the credential. For example, among paralegals and legal assistants (24 percent of whom held a certification or 

license in 2018), about 69 percent of those with a certification or license said the credential was required for their 

job. Of the 47 percent of police and sheriff’s patrol officers who held a certification or license, the credential was a 

requirement about 96 percent of the time. Thus, even in occupations in which certifications and licenses were not 

as prevalent, these credentials were often a necessary condition for employment. The results may have been 

driven, in part, by differences in occupational licensing regulation by state.

Within detailed occupations in which the shares of people holding a certification (but no license) were the highest, 

the credential was less likely to be a requirement. Among computer network architects, information security 

analysts, computer and information systems managers, and software developers, the share of workers with a 

certification or license who said their credential was required for their job was closer to 50 percent than 100 

percent. For workers in these occupations, the credential may have served primarily as a resume boost. However, 

among other occupations with a relatively high prevalence of certifications, this was not the case. In 2018, about 

84 percent of the clergy and 86 percent of automotive service technicians and mechanics with a certification or 

license said the credential was required for their job.

Occupation

Number of people (thousands) Percent distribution

Total, with a 

certification or 

license

Required 

for job

Not 

required for 

job

Total, with a 

certification or 

license

Required 

for job

Not 

required for 

job

Natural resources, 

construction, and 

maintenance occupations

2,723 2,276 447 100.0 83.6 16.4

Farming, fishing, and 

forestry occupations 97 73 24 100.0 75.4 24.6

Construction and extraction 

occupations 1,510 1,285 224 100.0 85.1 14.9

Installation, maintenance, 

and repair occupations 1,117 918 199 100.0 82.2 17.8

Production, transportation, 

and material moving 

occupations

2,717 2,198 519 100.0 80.9 19.1

Production occupations 859 587 272 100.0 68.3 31.7

Transportation and material 

moving occupations 1,857 1,610 247 100.0 86.7 13.3

Table 7. Employed people with a certification or license, by occupation and requirement for job, 2018 

annual averages
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

21

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Earnings

In 2018, median weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary workers with a currently active professional 

certification or license were 35 percent higher than earnings for those without one of these credentials. However, 

the relationship between earnings and certification and licensing status was more complex than this 35-percent 

difference might suggest. As discussed in previous sections, older and more highly educated workers were more 

likely to hold a certification or license. In addition, the percent difference in earnings between those with and 

without a certification or license increased with age and decreased with educational attainment. Both the incidence 

of certification and licensing and the percent difference in earnings varied substantially across occupations. Finally, 

workers with a certification or license who said their credential was required for their job received higher earnings, 

on average, than those with a credential that was not required. The following sections discuss how earnings and 

certification and licensing status interact with age, sex, race, ethnicity, educational attainment, occupation, and 

requirement for job. It is important to note that these comparisons of earnings by certification and licensing status 

and demographic characteristics are on a broad level and do not control for these factors simultaneously.[15]

Earnings by certification and licensing status and demographic characteristics

In 2018, weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary workers with a certification or license, at $1,106, were 35 

percent higher than earnings for those without a certification or license ($818).[16] (See table 8.) Earnings for 

workers with a certification but no license, at $1,196, were slightly higher than earnings for those with a license 

($1,093). This difference was likely driven, in part, by the concentration of professional certifications in computer 

and mathematical occupations, in which workers tend to have relatively high earnings.[17]

Characteristic

Full-time wage and salary workers 

(thousands)

Median weekly earnings

Percent 

difference With a certification or 

license(1)

With no certification or 

license

Total, 16 years and over 115,567 $1,106 $818 35.2%

16 to 24 years 10,428 634 532 19.2

25 to 54 years 80,891 1,110 858 29.4

55 years and over 24,247 1,205 916 31.6

Men, 16 years and over 64,142 1,231 907 35.7

16 to 24 years 5,818 687 560 22.7

25 to 54 years 45,061 1,236 943 31.1

55 years and over 13,263 1,347 1,048 28.5

Women, 16 years and 

over

51,425 990 726 36.4

16 to 24 years 4,611 607 512 18.6

25 to 54 years 35,830 996 754 32.1

55 years and over 10,984 1,118 770 45.2

White, 16 years and 

over

88,953 1,133 847 33.8

Men 50,570 1,252 935 33.9

Women 38,384 1,017 743 36.9

Table 8. Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by certification and licensing 

status, age, sex, race, and ethnicity, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

22

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Notes:

Characteristic

Full-time wage and salary workers 

(thousands)

Median weekly earnings

Percent 

difference With a certification or 

license(1)

With no certification or 

license

Black or African 

American, 16 years and 

over

15,041 838 657 27.5

Men 7,282 950 699 35.9

Women 7,760 780 619 26.0

Asian, 16 years and over 7,643 1,342 1,021 31.4

Men 4,169 1,545 1,169 32.2

Women 3,474 1,152 875 31.7

Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity, 16 years and 

over(2)

20,297 899 648 38.7

Men 12,226 990 691 43.3

Women 8,071 808 592 36.5

Table 8. Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by certification and licensing 

status, age, sex, race, and ethnicity, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

23

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

(1) People may have more than one certification or license.

(2) People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

In 2018, weekly earnings for those with a certification or license were substantially higher than earnings for those 

without one of these credentials for all major age groups. However, the percent difference in earnings between 

those with and without a credential increased with age. Weekly earnings for credentialed full-time wage and salary 

workers age 55 years and over, at $1,205, were 32 percent higher than earnings for those without a credential 

($916). Earnings for credentialed workers ages 25 to 54, at $1,110, were 29 percent higher than those of their 

noncredentialed counterparts ($858), while workers ages 16 to 24 with a certification or license, at $634, had 19 

percent higher earnings than workers in the same age group with no certification or license ($532).

In 2018, for every age group, earnings for men were higher than earnings for women, independent of certification 

or licensing status. Both male and female full-time wage and salary workers ages 16 to 24 with a certification or 

license had about 20 percent higher earnings than those without a credential. Among the employed ages 25 to 54, 

both men and women had about one-third higher earnings than their counterparts without a certification or license. 

However, earnings for women workers age 55 and over with a certification or license were 45 percent higher than 

earnings for those without one of these credentials. For men age 55 and over, earnings for credentialed workers 

were 29 percent higher than earnings for those without a certification or license.

The difference in earnings between those with and without a certification or license also varied by race and 

ethnicity. The largest percent difference in earnings was among Hispanic full-time wage and salary workers. 

Earnings for Hispanic workers with a certification or license, at $899 in 2018, were 39 percent higher than the 

earnings for those without one of these credentials ($648). Among Whites (34 percent), Blacks (28 percent), and 

Asians (31 percent), the percent differences in earnings were similar.[18]

Earnings by certification and licensing status and educational attainment

In 2018, percent differences in earnings between those 25 years and over with and without a certification or 

license generally declined with educational attainment. For all workers with less than a bachelor’s degree, the 

median earnings for those with a certification or license were considerably higher than the median earnings for 

those without one of these credentials. Workers with less than a high school diploma who had a certification or 

license, at $636, had 16 percent higher earnings than similarly educated workers without such credentials ($546). 

Those with a high school diploma but no college had 17 percent higher earnings when they had a certification or 

license ($837 compared with $715). Credentialed workers with some college or an associate’s degree ($902) had 

12 percent higher earnings than their counterparts without a certification or license ($803). (See figure 4.)
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

24

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

For workers with a bachelor’s degree or higher, the percent difference in earnings between those with and without 

a certification or license varied substantially, especially between the three advanced-degree categories. The 

percent difference in earnings was highest among workers with a professional degree. In 2018, median weekly 

earnings for those with a professional degree and a certification or license, at $1,919, were 27 percent higher than 

for similarly educated workers without one of these credentials ($1,515). Earnings for workers with a master’s 

degree and a certification or license ($1,376) were 8 percent lower than for workers with a master’s degree but no 

additional credential ($1,492). In part, this was because credentialed workers with a master’s degree were 

concentrated in education, training, and library occupations (such as teachers), whereas similarly educated 

workers without a certification or license were more likely to work in higher paying management occupations. 

Among workers with a doctoral degree, those with a certification or license ($1,840) received 3-percent higher 

earnings than those without one of these credentials ($1,790). Finally, for workers with a bachelor’s degree, the 

difference in earnings was only 2 percent ($1,212 compared with $1,190).[19]

However, these results are subject to at least two important caveats. First, while the percent difference in earnings 

between those with and without a certification or license was highest for lower levels of educational attainment, 

very few workers with less formal education actually held one of these credentials. In 2018, of the 35.7 million 

employed people age 25 and over who held a certification or license, only 790,000 (about 2 percent) had less than 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

25

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

a high school diploma. (Workers with less than a high school diploma make up about 7 percent of total 

employment.) By comparison, 57 percent of employed people with a certification or license had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher, compared with 41 percent of all employed people.

Second, because of the strong correlation between educational attainment and certification and licensing status, it 

is difficult to conclusively determine whether differences in earnings are driven by the traditional (education) or 

alternative (certification or license) form of credential. A further confounding factor, as mentioned previously, is that 

certain levels of educational attainment are often criteria for obtaining a certification or license. For example, in 

most states, an aspiring lawyer cannot become a licensed attorney without completing law school. As a result, it is 

difficult to determine how much of the difference in earnings between a licensed attorney and a paralegal or legal 

assistant can be attributed to the license.

Earnings by certification and licensing status and occupation

Differences in earnings between those with and without a certification or license varied substantially by occupation 

in 2018. Table 9 presents median weekly earnings by certification and licensing status and occupational group, as 

well as the percent difference in earnings between credentialed and noncredentialed workers. Legal occupations 

were a clear outlier: those with a certification or license ($1,876) had 68-percent higher earnings than those 

without a credential ($1,115). On the other end of the distribution, for workers in computer and mathematical 

occupations and in arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media occupations, the differences in earnings were 

not statistically significant. Among other occupation groups with a high prevalence of certification and licensing, 

workers with a credential in healthcare practitioners and technical occupations ($1,218) had 39-percent higher 

earnings than those with no certification or license ($876). The percent difference in earnings between those with 

and without a credential was 17 percent in education, training, and library occupations ($1,054 compared with 

$902), and 5 percent for healthcare support occupations ($573 compared with $548).

Occupation

Full-time wage and 

salary workers 

(thousands)

Median weekly earnings

Percent 

difference

Is the difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Total, 16 years and over 115,567 $1,106 $818 35.2% Yes

Management, 

professional, and related 

occupations

48,808 1,268 1,232 2.9 Yes

Management, business, 

and financial operations 

occupations

19,863 1,541 1,305 18.1 Yes

Management occupations 13,477 1,576 1,382 14.0 Yes

Business and financial 

operations occupations 6,385 1,445 1,159 24.7 Yes

Professional and related 

occupations 28,945 1,204 1,158 4.0 Yes

Table 9. Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by certification and licensing 

status, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

26

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Full-time wage and 

salary workers 

(thousands)

Median weekly earnings

Percent 

difference

Is the difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Computer and 

mathematical occupations 4,755 1,592 1,531 4.0 No

Architecture and 

engineering occupations 2,994 1,648 1,445 14.0 Yes

Life, physical, and social 

science occupations 1,308 1,443 1,195 20.8 Yes

Community and social 

services occupations 2,223 1,015 849 19.6 Yes

Legal occupations 1,466 1,876 1,115 68.3 Yes

Education, training, and 

library occupations 7,166 1,054 902 16.9 Yes

Arts, design, 

entertainment, sports, and 

media occupations

1,880 1,182 1,073 10.2 No

Healthcare practitioners 

and technical occupations 7,154 1,218 876 39.0 Yes

Service occupations 16,288 645 543 18.8 Yes

Healthcare support 

occupations 2,595 573 548 4.6 Yes

Protective service 

occupations 2,836 997 773 29.0 Yes

Food preparation and 

serving related 

occupations

4,394 561 497 12.9 Yes

Building and grounds 

cleaning and maintenance 

occupations

3,695 701 540 29.8 Yes

Personal care and service 

occupations 2,768 586 530 10.6 Yes

Sales and office 

occupations 23,714 889 727 22.3 Yes

Sales and related 

occupations 10,077 1,027 765 34.2 Yes

Office and administrative 

support occupations 13,637 798 710 12.4 Yes

Natural resources, 

construction, and 

maintenance occupations

11,546 1,039 788 31.9 Yes

Farming, fishing, and 

forestry occupations 850 726 573 26.7 Yes

Construction and 

extraction occupations 6,414 1,084 772 40.4 Yes

Installation, maintenance, 

and repair occupations 4,282 1,028 902 14.0 Yes

Table 9. Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by certification and licensing 

status, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

27

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Note: A person may have more than one certification or license. Statistical significance is at the 90-percent confidence level.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

However, as mentioned previously in the “Occupation” section, each intermediate occupation group includes a 

variety of specific jobs, with varying responsibilities and requirements for certification and licensing. Differences in 

earnings between those with and without a certification or license at the intermediate occupational level may be 

the result of these differences in job roles and responsibilities, instead of the credential. Looking at differences in 

earnings at the detailed occupational level partially addresses this shortcoming.

The difference in earnings for those with and without a certification or license varied substantially within 

occupational groups. Table 10 presents earnings data for those with and without one of these credentials for select 

detailed occupations. Not all occupations are presented, because many smaller occupations did not have a 

sufficient number of observations for reliable earnings estimates to be calculated.

Occupation

Full-time wage and 

salary workers 

(thousands)

Median weekly earnings

Percent 

difference

Is the difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Production, transportation, 

and material moving 

occupations

15,210 898 682 31.7 Yes

Production occupations 7,668 898 707 27.0 Yes

Transportation and 

material moving 

occupations

7,542 897 649 38.2 Yes

Table 9. Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by certification and licensing 

status, 2018 annual averages

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings Percent 

difference in 

earnings 

levels

Is difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Total, 16 years and over 28,384 87,183 $1,106 $818 35.2% Yes

Management, 

professional and related 

occupations

17,400 31,408 1,268 1,232 2.9 Yes

Management, business, 

and financial operations 

occupations

4,242 15,620 1,541 1,305 18.1 Yes

Management occupations 2,842 10,635 1,576 1,382 14.0 Yes

Chief executives 237 861 2,316 2,285 1.4 No

Table 10. Certification and licensing status of employed people, by selected detailed occupation, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

28

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings Percent 

difference in 

earnings 

levels

Is difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

General and operations 

managers

140 799 1,474 1,321 11.6 No

Marketing and sales 

managers

91 873 1,574 1,565 0.6 No

Computer and 

information systems 

managers

105 497 1,986 1,855 7.1 No

Financial managers 259 899 1,720 1,381 24.5 Yes

Human resources 

managers

64 230 1,414 1,374 2.9 No

Construction managers 136 488 1,543 1,392 10.8 Yes

Education administrators 367 490 1,577 1,156 36.4 Yes

Food service managers 111 716 886 794 11.6 No

Medical and health 

services managers 291 277 1,631 1,222 33.5 Yes

Property, real estate, and 

community association 

managers

104 285 1,115 980 13.8 Yes

Social and community 

service managers 84 279 1,335 1,084 23.2 Yes

Managers, all other 635 2,650 1,616 1,477 9.4 Yes

Business and financial 

operations occupations 1,400 4,985 1,445 1,159 24.7 Yes

Claims adjusters, 

appraisers, examiners, 

and investigators

115 219 1,187 944 25.7 Yes

Compliance officers 92 186 1,402 1,250 12.2 No

Human resources 

workers 79 541 1,383 1,139 21.4 No

Management analysts 109 526 1,553 1,530 1.5 No

Accountants and auditors 435 1,180 1,565 1,114 40.5 Yes

Personal financial 

advisors 189 226 1,733 1,340 29.3 Yes

Credit counselors and 

loan officers 108 225 1,430 1,078 32.7 Yes

Professional and related 

occupations 13,158 15,788 1,204 1,158 4.0 Yes

Computer and 

mathematical 

occupations

656 4,099 1,592 1,531 4.0 No

Computer systems 

analysts 71 509 1,849 1,468 26.0 Yes

Table 10. Certification and licensing status of employed people, by selected detailed occupation, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

29

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings Percent 

difference in 

earnings 

levels

Is difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Software developers, 

applications and systems 

software

167 1,444 1,897 1,853 2.4 No

Computer support 

specialists 68 449 1,158 1,059 9.3 No

Computer occupations, 

all other 99 579 1,295 1,209 7.1 No

Architecture and 

engineering occupations 684 2,309 1,648 1,445 14.0 Yes

Architects, except naval 81 89 1,673 1,285 30.2 No

Civil engineers 168 242 1,767 1,332 32.7 Yes

Mechanical engineers 52 261 1,762 1,517 16.2 Yes

Engineers, all other 117 411 1,623 1,569 3.4 No

Engineering technicians, 

except drafters 70 328 1,175 1,116 5.3 No

Life, physical, and social 

science occupations 312 996 1,443 1,195 20.8 Yes

Community and social 

service occupations 803 1,420 1,015 849 19.6 Yes

Counselors 313 392 1,096 831 31.9 Yes

Social workers 280 473 1,016 835 21.7 Yes

Clergy 112 225 1,017 966 5.3 No

Legal occupations 896 570 1,876 1,115 68.3 Yes

Lawyers 718 135 2,083 1,510 37.9 Yes

Paralegals and legal 

assistants 101 311 878 965 –9.0 No

Education, training, and 

library occupations 4,278 2,888 1,054 902 16.9 Yes

Postsecondary teachers 315 679 1,443 1,438 0.3 No

Preschool and 

kindergarten teachers 273 296 785 556 41.2 Yes

Elementary and middle 

school teachers 2,289 741 1,031 940 9.7 Yes

Secondary school 

teachers 759 189 1,153 1,035 11.4 No

Special education 

teachers 265 58 1,058 894 18.3 No

Other teachers and 

instructors 122 265 1,068 920 16.1 No

Teacher assistants 163 452 557 555 0.4 No

Arts, design, 

entertainment, sports, 

and media occupations

196 1,684 1,182 1,073 10.2 No

Table 10. Certification and licensing status of employed people, by selected detailed occupation, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

30

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings Percent 

difference in 

earnings 

levels

Is difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Designers 74 609 1,271 1,045 21.6 Yes

Healthcare practitioners 

and technical occupations 5,332 1,821 1,218 876 39.0 Yes

Physicians and surgeons 701 126 2,261 1,419 59.3 Yes

Therapists, all other 102 53 1,114 930 19.8 Yes

Registered nurses 2,147 438 1,186 1,041 13.9 Yes

Clinical laboratory 

technologists and 

technicians

143 147 1,043 760 37.2 Yes

Diagnostic related 

technologists and 

technicians

186 83 1,181 924 27.8 No

Health practitioner 

support technologists and 

technicians

265 277 733 637 15.1 Yes

Licensed practical and 

licensed vocational 

nurses

322 169 804 635 26.6 Yes

Medical records and 

health information 

technicians

50 90 832 721 15.4 No

Miscellaneous health 

technologists and 

technicians

55 63 818 910 –10.1 No

Service occupations 3,833 12,456 645 543 18.8 Yes

Healthcare support 

occupations 1,264 1,332 573 548 4.6 Yes

Nursing, psychiatric, and 

home health aides 728 692 519 512 1.4 No

Dental assistants 97 99 609 602 1.2 No

Medical assistants 237 262 640 591 8.3 Yes

Protective service 

occupations 1,102 1,734 997 773 29.0 Yes

Firefighters 192 102 1,145 1,024 11.8 No

Bailiffs, correctional 

officers, and jailers 96 297 738 743 –0.7 No

Detectives and criminal 

investigators 61 96 1,286 1,431 –10.1 No

Police and sheriff's patrol 

officers 348 380 1,140 1,012 12.6 Yes

Security guards and 

gaming surveillance 

officers

237 544 634 582 8.9 No

Table 10. Certification and licensing status of employed people, by selected detailed occupation, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

31

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings Percent 

difference in 

earnings 

levels

Is difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Food preparation and 

serving related 

occupations

365 4,029 561 497 12.9 Yes

Chefs and head cooks 59 307 617 614 0.5 No

First-line supervisors of 

food preparation and 

serving workers

51 346 684 576 18.8 Yes

Cooks 89 1,236 511 485 5.4 No

Waiters and waitresses 72 860 561 491 14.3 Yes

Building and grounds 

cleaning and 

maintenance occupations

333 3,362 701 540 29.8 Yes

Janitors and building 

cleaners 125 1,547 674 564 19.5 Yes

Grounds maintenance 

workers 82 753 691 557 24.1 Yes

Personal care and 

service occupations 770 1,998 586 530 10.6 Yes

Hairdressers, hairstylists, 

and cosmetologists 202 107 549 539 1.9 No

Miscellaneous personal 

appearance workers 124 134 518 532 –2.6 No

Childcare workers 66 372 584 488 19.7 Yes

Personal care aides 150 636 509 497 2.4 No

Recreation and fitness 

workers 51 157 699 585 19.5 Yes

Sales and office 

occupations 2,750 20,964 889 727 22.3 Yes

Sales and related 

occupations 1,461 8,615 1,027 765 34.2 Yes

First-line supervisors of 

retail sales workers 194 2,226 1,003 779 28.8 Yes

First-line supervisors of 

non-retail sales workers 143 750 1,244 1,137 9.4 No

Cashiers 62 1,328 450 465 –3.2 No

Retail salespersons 163 1,697 881 646 36.4 Yes

Insurance sales agents 290 176 869 849 2.4 No

Securities, commodities, 

and financial services 

sales agents

51 146 1,895 1,170 62.0 Yes

Sales representatives, 

wholesale and 

manufacturing

95 1,017 1,319 1,152 14.5 No

Table 10. Certification and licensing status of employed people, by selected detailed occupation, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

32

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings Percent 

difference in 

earnings 

levels

Is difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Real estate brokers and 

sales agents 348 180 1,137 834 36.3 Yes

Office and administrative 

support occupations 1,288 12,349 798 710 12.4 Yes

First-line supervisors of 

office and administrative 

support workers

192 1,087 1,034 874 18.3 Yes

Billing and posting clerks 57 360 774 702 10.3 No

Bookkeeping, accounting, 

and auditing clerks 58 621 820 738 11.1 No

Customer service 

representatives 131 1,773 855 676 26.5 Yes

Receptionists and 

information clerks 91 844 595 606 –1.8 No

Dispatchers 53 217 852 759 12.3 Yes

Secretaries and 

administrative assistants 170 1,807 764 759 0.7 No

Office clerks, general 77 849 715 694 3.0 No

Office and administrative 

support workers, all other 60 396 1,021 771 32.4 Yes

Natural resources, 

construction, and 

maintenance occupations

2,171 9,375 1,039 788 31.9 Yes

Farming, fishing, and 

forestry occupations 73 777 726 573 26.7 Yes

Construction and 

extraction occupations 1,147 5,267 1,084 772 40.4 Yes

First-line supervisors of 

construction trades and 

extraction workers

106 435 1,289 1,010 27.6 Yes

Carpenters 79 894 887 745 19.1 Yes

Construction laborers 120 1,350 932 705 32.2 Yes

Operating engineers and 

other construction 

equipment operators

79 248 1,106 886 24.8 Yes

Electricians 330 451 1,136 841 35.1 Yes

Pipelayers, plumbers, 

pipefitters, and 

steamfitters

190 341 1,181 791 49.3 Yes

Installation, maintenance, 

and repair occupations 951 3,331 1,028 902 14.0 Yes

First-line supervisors of 

mechanics, installers, and 

repairers

52 219 1,380 1,048 31.7 Yes

Table 10. Certification and licensing status of employed people, by selected detailed occupation, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

33

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings Percent 

difference in 

earnings 

levels

Is difference 

statistically 

significant?

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

With a 

certification or 

license

Without a 

certification or 

license

Aircraft mechanics and 

service technicians 61 94 1,211 1,082 11.9 No

Automotive service 

technicians and 

mechanics

183 526 912 776 17.5 Yes

Bus and truck mechanics 

and diesel engine 

specialists

90 268 1,012 906 11.7 Yes

Heating, air conditioning, 

and refrigeration 

mechanics and installers

146 238 964 846 13.9 Yes

Industrial and refractory 

machinery mechanics 69 355 1,127 949 18.8 No

Maintenance and repair 

workers, general 77 379 938 839 11.8 Yes

Production, 

transportation, and 

material moving 

occupations

2,230 12,980 898 682 31.7 Yes

Production occupations 764 6,904 898 707 27.0 Yes

First-line supervisors of 

production and operating 

workers

82 711 1,123 963 16.6 No

Welding, soldering, and 

brazing workers 143 419 897 823 9.0 Yes

Inspectors, testers, 

sorters, samplers, and 

weighers

93 663 1,009 752 34.2 Yes

Production workers, all 

other 66 926 732 676 8.3 No

Transportation and 

material moving 

occupations

1,467 6,076 897 649 38.2 Yes

Bus drivers 114 247 619 683 –9.4 No

Driver/sales workers and 

truck drivers 829 1,963 953 769 23.9 Yes

Taxi drivers and 

chauffeurs 54 346 636 607 4.8 No

Industrial truck and 

tractor operators 70 527 736 633 16.3 Yes

Laborers and freight, 

stock, and material 

movers, hand

90 1,505 706 599 17.9 Yes

Table 10. Certification and licensing status of employed people, by selected detailed occupation, 2018 

annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

34

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Note: A person may have more than one certification or license. Estimates of full-time wage and salary workers for detailed occupations may not sum to totals 

because data are not presented for all occupations. Data are not presented for occupations for which the base is less than 50,000. Statistical significance is at 

the 90-percent confidence level.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Within legal occupations in 2018, weekly earnings for lawyers with a certification or license, at $2,083, were 38 

percent higher than earnings for lawyers without a credential ($1,510). On the other hand, paralegals with a 

credential had median weekly earnings of $878, which is not statistically different from the earnings of their 

counterparts without a certification or license ($965). These percent differences in earnings for individual jobs were 

much smaller than the percent difference in earnings for legal occupations in the aggregate. Thus, the overall 

difference in earnings for legal occupations was partially driven by occupational and educational differences. 

Within legal occupations, more than 8 in 10 workers with a certification or license were lawyers—who tend to be 

more highly paid—while about half of noncredentialed workers were paralegals and legal assistants. In addition, 

87 percent of credentialed workers in legal occupations held an advanced degree, compared with 31 percent of 

noncredentialed workers.

Within education, training, and library occupations, the percent difference in earnings between those with and 

without a certification or license was 41 percent for preschool and kindergarten teachers and 10 percent for 

elementary and middle school teachers. Earnings differences were modestly positive for secondary school 

teachers (11 percent), special education teachers (18 percent), and other teachers and instructors (16 percent), 

which includes substitutes. Among postsecondary teachers and teacher assistants, by contrast, differences in 

median earnings for those with and without one of these credentials were not statistically significant.

However, it is important to note that among teachers, the difference in earnings may partly reflect whether the 

teacher is employed in a public or private school and whether the teacher is a member of a union or covered by a 

union contract. Research by Allegretto and Tojerow (2014) found that, when controlling for educational attainment 

and demographics, public school teachers were paid about 16 to 19 percent more, on average, than private school 

teachers during the period from 1996 to 2012.[20] They also found that unionized teachers were paid about 5 to 8 

percent more, on average, than nonunion teachers, regardless of whether they were employed in a public or 

private school. Because public school teachers are more likely to hold a certification or license than private school 

teachers, it is hard to determine to what degree each of these factors is influencing the difference in earnings 

between teachers with and without one of these credentials.[21]

Among healthcare practitioners and technical occupations, some detailed occupations showed a substantial 

difference in earnings between full-time wage and salary workers with and without a credential. Physicians and 

surgeons with a certification or license had median weekly earnings of $2,261, which is 59 percent higher than the 

median for those without one of these credentials ($1,419).[22] Pharmacists and nurse practitioners, virtually all of 

whom held a certification or license, had median earnings of $2,071 and $1,894, respectively. The median weekly 

earnings for licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses who held a currently active certification or license, at 

$804, were 27 percent higher than the median for those without one of these credentials, at $635. Registered 

nurses with a certification or license ($1,186) only received 14-percent higher earnings than their counterparts 

without a certification or license ($1,041).[23] Nurses without a credential were likely younger and held interim or 

limited permits that allowed them to work under supervision while waiting for the results of their licensing test.[24]
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

35

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Among diagnostic-related technologists and technicians, workers with a certification or license did not have 

statistically higher median earnings than those without a credential.

Earnings by occupation and requirement for job

The difference in earnings between those with and without a certification or license also depended on whether a 

person’s credential was required for their job. In 2018, median weekly earnings for workers with a required 

credential, at $1,123, were 37 percent higher than they were for those without a certification or license ($818). 

However, median earnings for those who held a certification or license but said the credential was not required for 

their job, at $1,006, were only 23 percent higher. (See table 11.)

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings

With a certification or license Without a 

certification or 

license Total

Required 

for job

Not required 

for job

Total, 16 years and over 115,567 $1,106 $1,123 $1,006 $818

Management, professional, and 

related occupations 48,808 1,268 1,257 1,390 1,232

Management, business, and 

financial operations occupations 19,863 1,541 1,550 1,515 1,305

Management occupations 13,477 1,576 1,595 1,540 1,382

Business and financial 

operations occupations 6,385 1,445 1,445 1,445 1,159

Professional and related 

occupations 28,945 1,204 1,203 1,228 1,158

Computer and mathematical 

occupations 4,755 1,592 1,524 1,637 1,531

Architecture and engineering 

occupations 2,994 1,648 1,666 1,579 1,445

Life, physical, and social 

science occupations 1,308 1,443 1,465 1,344 1,195

Community and social services 

occupations 2,223 1,015 1,056 883 849

Legal occupations 1,466 1,876 1,899 1,063 1,115

Education, training, and library 

occupations 7,166 1,054 1,059 963 902

Arts, design, entertainment, 

sports, and media occupations 1,880 1,182 1,202 1,156 1,073

Healthcare practitioners and 

technical occupations 7,154 1,218 1,224 929 876

Service occupations 16,288 645 654 600 543

Healthcare support occupations 2,595 573 571 601 548

Protective service occupations 2,836 997 999 863 773

Food preparation and serving 

related occupations 4,394 561 580 530 497

Table 11. Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by occupation and requirement for 

job, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

36

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Note: People may have more than one certification or license. Dash indicates data not available or data did not meet publication standards.

Occupation

Full-time wage and salary 

workers (thousands)

Median weekly earnings

With a certification or license Without a 

certification or 

license Total

Required 

for job

Not required 

for job

Building and grounds cleaning 

and maintenance occupations 3,695 701 794 551 540

Personal care and service 

occupations 2,768 586 586 583 530

Sales and office occupations 23,714 889 967 784 727

Sales and related occupations 10,077 1,027 1,070 923 765

Office and administrative 

support occupations 13,637 798 852 728 710

Natural resources, construction, 

and maintenance occupations 11,546 1,039 1,061 955 788

Farming, fishing, and forestry 

occupations 850 726 743 — 573

Construction and extraction 

occupations 6,414 1,084 1,114 932 772

Installation, maintenance, and 

repair occupations 4,282 1,028 1,033 1,017 902

Production, transportation, and 

material moving occupations 15,210 898 936 705 682

Production occupations 7,668 898 930 794 707

Transportation and material 

moving occupations 7,542 897 939 617 649

Table 11. Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by occupation and requirement for 

job, 2018 annual averages

See footnotes at end of table.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

37

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

In general, the gap in earnings between workers with a required credential and a nonrequired credential was 

largest in occupations with a high prevalence of certification and licensing. For example, in legal occupations, 

workers with a required certification or license—overwhelmingly lawyers—had median earnings of $1,899 in 2018. 

Workers in legal occupations with a credential that was not required, however, had median earnings of $1,063, 

little different from the median for those without any credential ($1,115). Workers without a required certification or 

license were disproportionately paralegals and legal assistants.

A similar pattern was present among healthcare practitioners and technical occupations. Workers with a required 

certification or license had median earnings of $1,224 in 2018, significantly higher than the median for those who 

held a credential that was not required ($929). Earnings for the latter group were not statistically different from 

earnings for workers employed in healthcare practitioners and technical occupations without a certification or 

license ($876). Very few workers in this occupational group held a credential that was not required, but those who 

did were typically technicians or technologists. On the other hand, practitioners, such as physicians, surgeons, 

dentists, and nurses, held credentials that were required for their job. These occupations have very different roles 

and responsibilities, which may be a factor in the earnings differences.

In many occupations, holding an optional certification or license was not associated with a boost in earnings. 

However, in computer and mathematical occupations—an occupational group with a lower prevalence of 

certification and licensing—median weekly earnings for workers with an optional credential ($1,637) were actually 

slightly higher than those for workers with a required one ($1,524).

Conclusion

This analysis of CPS data provides insight into the effect that professional certifications and licenses have in the 

U.S. labor market. Over 43 million people, or 16.9 percent of the population, held one of these credentials in 2018. 

People with a certification or license had lower unemployment rates and higher labor force participation rates. 

Among the employed, the prevalence of these credentials increased with age and educational attainment. 

Employed women were more likely to hold a certification or license than employed men. Among the race and 

ethnicity groups, Whites held these credentials at the highest rate and Hispanics held them at the lowest rate.

Licenses were the more common credential, held by 21.8 percent of the employed. Licensed workers were most 

frequently employed in legal occupations, or in jobs related to healthcare or education. Professional certifications, 

by contrast, were held by only 2.3 percent of workers, most of whom were employed in computer and 

mathematical occupations and in management occupations. In addition, a large majority of workers with a 

certification or license said the credential was required for their job.

Overall, earnings for workers with a credential were about one-third higher than earnings for those without one of 

these credentials. This percent difference in earnings increased with age, but decreased with educational 

attainment. In addition, workers who said their credential was required for their job had significantly higher 

earnings than those with an optional credential. These differences in earnings also varied widely by occupation, 

highlighting how the role of these credentials was often linked to a workers’ specific job, as one might expect.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

38

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Although these new data from the CPS provide a useful snapshot of the prevalence of certification and licensing 

among U.S. workers, they are fundamentally limited in certain ways. Since the CPS is a household survey, it may 

not be able to accurately capture the nuances of occupational licensing regulation, such as whether a worker is 

covered by a “right to title” or “right to practice” law. Perhaps most importantly, because of the relatively small 

sample size in most states, the data are only available at the national level. Since many occupational licensing 

laws are passed at the state level, the applicability of CPS data to certain research questions about licensing may 

be limited. Still, as a tool to study changes in occupational licensing and professional certification over time and at 

various stages of the business cycle, these new data from the CPS should prove useful to researchers and other 

data users.

SUGGESTED CITATION

Evan Cunningham, "Professional certifications and occupational licenses: evidence from the Current Population 

Survey," Monthly Labor Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, June 2019, https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2019.15

NOTES

1

 See “Occupational licensing: a framework for policymakers,” U.S. Department of Treasury Office of Economic Policy, Council of 

Economic Advisors (CEA), and U.S. Department of Labor, July 2015, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/

licensing_report_final_nonembargo.pdf.

2

 As defined by GEMEnA, a certification or license must be for engaging in professional, as opposed to personal, activities. For this 

reason, a commercial driver’s license (CDL) would count as a license, but a regular driver’s license would not. A license or 

certification must also be issued to a person—licenses issued to businesses, such as liquor or vending licenses, are excluded. 

Educational certificates awarded by an educational institution, such as a college or university, are also excluded. These credentials 

are not time limited, and while such training may help in the performance of a specific job, it is not necessarily required or considered 

proof of qualification. Finally, certificates of attendance at short-term training are not counted.

3

 For a detailed discussion of the development of CPS questions on certification and licensing, see Mary Dorinda Allard, “Adding 

questions on certification and licensing to the Current Population Survey,” Monthly Labor Review, November 2016, https://doi.org/

10.21916/mlr.2016.52.

4

 BLS was unable to add questions to determine whether persons with a license also held a certification, or the number of credentials 

a person held. This was because adding questions to the monthly CPS is costly, and BLS did not have funding to increase the length 

of the survey permanently. For each question added about certifications and licenses, another question had to be removed. See 

Allard, “Adding questions on certification and licensing.”

5

 For multiple jobholders, the question refers to the respondent’s main job. This question is also asked of the unemployed and refers 

to the job at which they last worked. An important caveat to this third question is that it does not exhaustively measure the relevance 

of a credential to a particular job. While the question can provide information on whether a certification or license is required for a 

particular job, it cannot determine when a credential is not required but still helpful. Another important caveat is that the measure of 

the prevalence of certification and licensing is self- or proxy-reported in the CPS. People identified as holding a currently active 

certification or license and working in a specific occupation may not necessarily work in a state where a license is required to work in 

that occupation. Thus, certification and licensing data from the CPS should not be construed as complete measures of the extent of 

occupational licensing regulation in the United States. Even with the incorporation of results from the third question, readers should 

exercise caution when drawing conclusions. Respondents may not interpret “required for your job” as “legally required” or may not 

have sufficient knowledge of relevant licensing laws in their state.

6

 The CPS does not determine whether a person with a license has a certification, or the number of credentials of each type they 

hold. However, the Adult Training and Education Survey, conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics, found that a large 

majority of licensed workers—about 86 percent in 2016—did not hold a professional certification. See Stephanie Cronen, Megan 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

39

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

McQuiggan, and Sarah Grady, “Adult training and education: results from the National Household Education Surveys Program of 

2016: first look,” National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, February 

2018, https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017103rev.pdf.

7

 While estimates from the CPS are not directly comparable to those from other sources for a variety of reasons, including the mode 

of survey collection, context, questions used, and the population of interest, the results were generally in line with previous studies. 

Conducting a national labor force survey in the summer of 2008, Morris Kleiner and Alan Krueger found that 28 percent of the labor 

force 18 years and over were licensed by the federal, state, or local government. In addition, data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 

Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) showed that in 2012, 28 percent of employed persons 18 years and over held a 

professional certification or license. Estimates of certification and licensing status by sex, age, race, ethnicity, educational attainment, 

and occupation, as well as earnings differences, were also generally consistent between the data sources. However, an important 

shortcoming to the new data is that because of sample size concerns, BLS does not have plans to publish CPS data on certifications 

and licenses at the state level. This may make analyzing the data more challenging, as many occupational licensing regulations are 

enacted at the state level. See Morris M. Kleiner and Alan B. Krueger, “Analyzing the extent and influence of occupational licensing on 

the labor market,” Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 31, No. 2, The Princeton Data Improvement Initiative (Part 2, April 2013), pp. 

S173–S202; and Stephanie Ewert and Robert Kominski, “Measuring alternative education credentials: 2012,” Household Economic 

Studies, U.S. Census Bureau, January 2014, https://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/p70-138.pdf. For an analysis of certification and 

licensing at the state level, see Morris M. Kleiner and Evgeny Vorotnikov, “Analyzing occupational licensing among the States,” 

Journal of Regulatory Economics, Vol. 52, 2017, pp. 132–158. 

8

 See BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook, “How to become a physician or surgeon,” 2015, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/

physicians-and-surgeons.htm. 

9

 See Ryan Nunn, “How occupational licensing matters for wages and careers,” The Hamilton Project, 2018, The Brookings 

Institution, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/

es_3152018_how_occupational_licensing_matters_for_wages_and_careers.pdf.

10 Included in master’s degrees are M.A., M.S., M.Eng., M.Ed., M.S.W., and M.B.A. degrees. Included in professional school degrees 

are M.D., D.D.S., D.V.M., L.L.B., and J.D. degrees. Included in doctoral degrees are Ph.D. and Ed.D. degrees.

11 The BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (2015) describes paralegals and legal assistants as individuals who perform, “a variety 

of tasks to support lawyers, including maintaining and organizing files, conducting legal research, and drafting documents.” See 

https://www.bls.gov/ooh/legal/paralegals-and-legal-assistants.htm.

12 While exact license requirements vary by state, some examples are New York (http://www.op.nysed.gov/prof/med/medlic.htm) and 

California (http://www.mbc.ca.gov/Applicants/Physicians_and_Surgeons/).

13 When analyzing the “requirement for job” data from the CPS, users should remember that it is the respondent who determines 

whether their credential is required. A “Yes” response could indicate that a certification or license is either required by law to work in 

specific occupations or that an employer requires it. In fact, a “Yes” response could reflect nothing more than a perception on the part 

of the respondent that a credential is required, even if it has no basis in reality. As a result, answers to the “requirement for job” 

question cannot distinguish whether a worker is covered under a “right to title” or “right to practice” regulation. (See box, 

“Occupational licensing regulation in the United States.”) Additionally, respondents may have incomplete knowledge of the relevant 

credentialing laws in their state. Thus, CPS data on certifications and licenses, including the “requirement for job” question, should not 

be used as a comprehensive measure of occupational licensing regulations in the United States.

14 In 2018, 75 percent of credentialed workers in farming, fishing, and forestry occupations said their certification or license was 

required for their job. However, because the cell sizes were smaller for this occupation group, the difference between farming, fishing, 

and forestry occupations and the occupation groups listed above was not statistically significant.

15 “Earnings” refers to median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers. The CPS data represent earnings before 

taxes and other deductions, and include any overtime pay, commissions, or tips typically received. In the case of multiple jobholders, 

only earnings received at their main job are included. Earnings reported on a basis other than weekly are converted to a weekly 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

40

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

equivalent. The term “usual” is defined by the respondent, but if asked, interviewers are instructed to define the term as more than 

half the weeks worked during the past 4 or 5 months. Wage and salary workers are defined as those who receive wages, salaries, 

commissions, tips, payment in kind, or piece rates. This excludes all self-employed persons, regardless of whether their business is 

incorporated or unincorporated. Full-time workers are those who usually work 35 hours or more per week at their main job. BLS 

computes medians by ranking each reported or calculated weekly earnings value and placing them into a $50-wide interval or bin. 

Each of these bins is centered on a multiple of $50 ($25 or less, $25.01 to $75, $75.01 to $125, etc.). The procedure determines the 

bin in which the median falls and calculates the median through a linear interpolation. For more information, see the technical note in 

the news release, Usual Weekly Earnings of Wage and Salary Workers, at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/wkyeng.pdf.

16 While no formal regression analysis is presented in this article, Kleiner and Kruger and Gittleman, Klee, and Kleiner, using other 

data sources, find a licensing wage premium even when they control for age, sex, race and ethnicity, educational attainment, and 

occupation. See Kleiner and Kruger, “Analyzing the extent and influence of occupational licensing on the labor market”; and Maury 

Gittleman, Mark A. Klee, and Morris M. Kleiner, “Analyzing the labor market outcomes of occupational licensing,” Industrial Relations, 

Vol. 57, No. 1, 2018, pp. 57–100. 

17 In 2018, the median earnings for full-time wage and salary workers employed in computer and mathematical occupations was 

$1,539, compared with $886 for all full-time wage and salary workers.

18 In a 2017 working paper, Peter Q. Blair and Bobby W. Chung, using data from the 2008 panel of the SIPP, found that occupational 

licensing reduces the racial wage gap between White and Black men and the gender wage gap between women and White men. 

Replicating their results using CPS data, however, is beyond the scope of this article. See Peter Q. Blair and Bobby W. Chung, 

“Occupational licensing reduces racial and gender wage gaps: evidence from the survey of income and program participation,” 

Human capital and economic opportunity global working group, working paper series, Working paper No. 2017-050 (University of 

Chicago, June 2017), http://humcap.uchicago.edu/RePEc/hka/wpaper/

Blair_Chung_2017_licensing_gender_racial_wage_gaps.pdf. Also see, Nunn, “How occupational licensing matters for wages and 

careers.”

19 These patterns were also present in 2012 data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation. See, “The relationship 

between education and work credentials,” Data Point (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics June 2015), https://

nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015556.pdf.

20 Sylia A. Allegretto and Ilan Tojerow, “Teacher staffing and pay differences: public and private schools,” Monthly Labor Review, 

September 2014, pp. 12 and 15, https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2014/article/teacher-staffing-and-pay-differences.htm. See table 2, 

“Regression-adjusted relative wages, public and private school teachers, 1996–2012.”

21 In the United States, public preschools, elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools almost always require teachers to 

have a government-issued license in order to teach. While the exact licensing criteria and process are determined at the state level, 

common requirements include having at least a bachelor’s degree, completing a state-approved teacher preparation program (TPP), 

and passing a basic skills test. TPPs are typically either components of a bachelor’s or master’s degree in education or take the form 

of residency programs that combine professional development and supervised teaching experience in the classroom. Some states 

also issue preliminary credentials to entry-level teachers, who must then gain classroom experience and participate in formal 

mentorship programs in order to upgrade their license. After the upgrade, licenses are renewed automatically, as long as the teacher 

completes a required amount of professional development. Those who wish to teach in high school typically must pass a test in their 

desired subject (mathematics, science, history, etc.), and aspiring special education teachers must undergo additional training. Private 

school teachers and substitutes are generally not subject to these employment restrictions. For examples, see documentation on how 

to obtain a teaching license in California (https://www.ctc.ca.gov/credentials/teach) and New York (http://www.highered.nysed.gov/

tcert/certificate/certprocess.html#one).

22 As discussed in the “Occupation” section, physicians and surgeons who did not have a certification or license were likely 

completing their residencies. These unlicensed physicians and surgeons would be younger, on average, than their licensed 

colleagues, which could partly explain the large difference in earnings.
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

41

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

23 Registered nurses (R.N.s) and licensed practical nurses (L.P.N.s) and licensed vocational nurses L.V.N.s usually perform similar 

duties. However, entry-level R.N.s typically need an associate’s degree in nursing (A.D.N.) or a Bachelor of Science degree in nursing 

(B.S.N.), while entry-level L.P.N.s and L.V.N.s only need to complete a 1-year state-approved educational program. R.N.s often 

supervise L.P.N.s and L.V.N.s, and receive higher pay on average. See BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Registered nurses,” 

2017, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/registered-nurses.htm, and “Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses,” 2017, 

https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/licensed-practical-and-licensed-vocational-nurses.htm.

24 In order to obtain a license, aspiring registered nurses (R.N.s) must complete and pass the National Council Licensure Examination 

for Registered Nurses (NCLEX-RN) and licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses (L.P.N.s and L.V.N.s) must complete and 

pass the NCLEX-RN or the NCLEX-PN, respectively. Testing is overseen by the National Council of State Boards of Nursing. For 

examples of states that allow interim or limited nursing permits, see New York (http://www.op.nysed.gov/prof/nurse/nursing.htm) and 

California (https://www.rn.ca.gov/careers/steps.shtml).

RELATED CONTENT

Related Articles

The effects of occupational licensing on labor market outcomes, Monthly Labor Review, February 2018.

Adding questions on certifications and licenses to the Current Population Survey, Monthly Labor Review, November 2016.

The de-licensing of occupations in the United States, Monthly Labor Review, May 2015.

Related Subjects

Labor force Earnings and wages Employment