Compensation and Working Conditions Winter 1998 23

Wages in San Juan

HILERY Z. SIMPSON

How Do Wages in

San Juan Compare to

Wages on the Mainland?

Average weekly wages for full-time employees studied in

the San Juan survey ranged from $230 for general clerks

to $802 for engineers. Without exception, occupational

wages were lower in the San Juan CMSA than for

equivalent occupations on the mainland.

Hilery Z. Simpson is an economist in the

Division of Compensation Data Estimation,

Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Telephone: (202) 606-6246

E-mail: Simpson_H@bls.gov

A primary purpose of the

Occupational Compensation

Survey (OCS) was to produce

measures of local labor market pay

levels in the United States. The Federal Government used these data to set

locality based Federal wages and

salaries.1 Prior to OCS, the Federal

Government usually paid an identical

wage for an occupation regardless of

geographic location. This system

made it difficult to recruit workers in

certain higher paying areas. In

response to this, Congress passed the

Federal Employees Pay Comparability

Act in 1990, which mandated the

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) to

collect the necessary wage comparability data.

The Act only applies to Federal

workers within the contiguous 48

States (mainland). Federal wages in

Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and other

areas such as Guam and the Northern

Marianas Islands, are adjusted using

a methodology based on the Consumer

Price Index (CPI). In response to

litigation about pay adjustments in the

areas excluded from the Act, the Office of Personnel Management (OPM)

contracted with BLS to conduct

occupational wage surveys in Alaska,

Hawaii, and Puerto Rico in 1996. This

article presents selected survey results

for the San Juan–Caguas–Arecibo

Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical

Area (CMSA) in the Commonwealth

of Puerto Rico, hereafter known as the

San Juan survey or the San Juan

CMSA.2

Survey design

The Bureau used standard OCS

procedures to complete the San Juan

This is the last of three articles

dealing with a special wage study

completed in 1996 for Hawaii,

Alaska, and Puerto Rico. An article on wages in Hawaii appeared

in the Summer 1998 issue of Compensation and Working Conditions

and an article on wages in Alaska

appeared in the Fall 1998 edition.
24 Compensation and Working Conditions Winter 1998

survey. As a result, data are comparable between all published OCS geographic areas. The OCS surveys described the level and distribution of

occupational pay in a given labor market. In addition, the surveys provided

information on the incidence of employee benefits among and within local labor markets. However, because

the contract with OPM only included

funds for the collection of wages and

salaries, no benefit data were collected

for the San Juan survey.

The OCS randomly sampled establishments3

 employing 50 workers or

more in the industries that follow.

Goods producing

Mining

Construction

Manufacturing

Service producing

Transportation

Communications

Electric, gas, and sanitary

 services

Wholesale and retail trade

Finance, insurance, and real

 estate; and

State and local government

Private household workers, Federal Government employees, the

self-employed, and agricultural employees were excluded from the survey. Unless specifically included in

a Bureau job description, working

supervisors, trainees, and part-time

employees were also excluded.4

Establishments in the San Juan

survey were randomly sampled using

State unemployment insurance reports

as of October 1994 for the San JuanCaguas-Arecibo CMSA. From these

reports, establishments were classified

into strata (groups) based on industry

and employment size. The number

of establishments sampled in a stratum was determined by the expectations of the number of workers to be

found in professional, administrative,

technical, protective services, clerical,

and blue-collar occupations. In other

words, the larger the number of employees expected to be found in the

46 selected occupations, the larger the

number of establishments sampled in

that stratum. Certain industry strata

expected to have relatively high sampling errors also led to increased

establishment sampling.

A total of 1,324 establishments

employing just over 431,000 employees in the San Juan-Caguas-Arecibo

CMSA were found to be in scope of

the survey.5 Of those, 247 establishments employing 240,001 workers

were studied in the San Juan survey.

Data collection began in July 1996 and

ended in November 1996. The average payroll reference month was October 1996. Data obtained for a payroll period prior to the end of

September 1996 were updated to include general wage changes scheduled

to be effective in October.

Wage data were collected for all

employees in 46 preselected occupations6 that met OCS definitions.7 For

example, the OCS defines a word processor as anyone who primarily produces items such as memos, forms, or

graphs using word processing software packages. Excluded were typists who use non-editing typewriters,

key entry operators, and employees requiring subject matter knowledge,

even if their job title was word processor.

The purpose of using precise job

descriptions is two-fold. First, it helps

field economists classify workers into

appropriate occupations. Second, it

permits establishments to compare

their employees’ wages with the

earnings of workers who do the same

type of work. Because of the emphasis

on comparability of occupational

content, the Bureau’s job description

for an occupation may differ

significantly from those used in

individual establishments.

In addition to specific employee

occupational classifications, occupations were further classified into

grade levels. Just as the occupations

are clearly defined, so are grade levels. For example, a level-1 accounting clerk is someone who “Performs

very simple and routine accounting

clerical operations....” The description then goes on to explain the level

of supervision received and the specific procedures incumbents are expected to be able to complete, such as

“verifying mathematical accuracy.” At

level 2, accounting clerks are expected

to “perform one or more routine operations such as examining... transactions to ensure accuracy....” At the

next level, they are expected to do

double entry bookkeeping. Finally,

accounting clerks level 4, the highest

level surveyed, balance and reconcile

accounts. (Actual published occupational and grade level definitions used

are much more detailed than shown

in this example.)

As these definitions illustrate, the

responsibilities and knowledge needed

to complete the work rises from one

level to the next. The number of levels within an occupation depends upon

its range of complexity. For example,

the occupation of engineer has eight

levels, while receptionist has one

level.

The classification of workers

within an occupation into various levels allows true comparability of duties and skills. This is particularly

useful to wage and salary administrators and others who compare wage

rates among establishments for workers who do the same work, not just

workers who have the same job title.

Large establishments

The San Juan CMSA had 121 large

establishments of 500 workers or

more. Of these, 75 were surveyed and

they employed 58 percent of all workers in the San Juan survey, compared

to the mainland average of 51 percent.

This is probably because the San Juan

survey only included metropolitan areas, where larger establishments are

expected to be concentrated, while the

mainland average also includes

nonmetropolitan areas.

Previous BLS studies have shown

that average occupational wages in

large establishments tend to be higher

than those in small establishments.8

The results of the San Juan survey were

mixed. (See table 1.) Wages of most

clerical and maintenance occupations

were higher in the large establishments, whereas wages for professional

and administrative occupations followed no pattern.
 Compensation and Working Conditions Winter 1998 25

Wages in San Juan

Unless otherwise noted, wage data

presented in the rest of this article are

from all surveyed establishments regardless of size.

Different industry concentrations

Industry employment distributions differed between the San Juan CMSA and

the mainland, particularly for the State

and local government and the service

sectors, as the tabulation below shows.

(See chart.)

Percent

employment

San Juan Mainland

Goods producing ..... 27 24

Service producing ... 42 55

State and local

 government .......... 31 21

Occupational pay data

The occupational pay data presented

in this article are for full-time

employees who work a regular weekly

schedule as established by their

employer (just under 40 hours, on

average, in San Juan). The published

data exclude premium pay for

overtime, weekends, holidays, and late

shifts. Also excluded are nonproduction bonuses and lump-sum

payments. Pay increases under costof-living clauses and incentive

payments (production bonuses)

however, are included.

Unless otherwise noted, the pay

data presented are for employees in

private industry, as well as State and

local governments. Average pay data

were published in San Juan for 36 selected occupations; however, detailed

data for only 13 occupations are presented in this article. Occupations are

included based on their prevalence in

the local economy, their comparability with mainland averages, and their

suitability to illustrate a point.9

The earnings data presented are the

mean weekly or hourly wages of all

sampled workers in an occupation.

Mean wages were computed by totaling the pay for all workers in each occupation and level and then dividing

by the total number of employees in

each category. Median wages, the

point at which half the workers earned

less and half earned more, as well as

middle ranges were also published, but

are not included in this article.

Professional occupations

Accountants. Like all other occupations surveyed, accountants are paid

less in the San Juan CMSA than in

the 48 contiguous States.10 The average weekly pay of accountants in the

San Juan CMSA and on the mainland

are presented in table 2.

To be classified as an accountant,

the employee must perform professional accounting work requiring

knowledge of financial transactions.

Public accountants are considered a

separate occupation.

As seen in several of the occupations surveyed, the difference in pay

for accountants between the San Juan

CMSA and the mainland average varied by grade level. Generally, the

higher the grade level, the closer the

relative San Juan CMSA wage was to

the comparable mainland average. For

example, a level-1 accountant in the

San Juan CMSA earned roughly 60

percent of the average earnings of a

level-1 accountant on the mainland.

In comparison, a level-4 accountant in

the San Juan CMSA, the highest level

published, earned 85 percent of the

average mainland wage for the same

occupation.

Engineers. The average weekly pay

for all engineers surveyed was $836.

The average increased to $863 for

those in private industry and as much

as $903 for engineers in the manufacturing sector. With an average

wage of no less than 80 percent of the

equivalent mainland average, engineers were the highest paid occupation in the San Juan CMSA, both in

dollar amount and relative pay to the

mainland. (See table 2.)

To be categorized as an engineer,

workers must hold a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering (or in rare

instances, equivalent experience or

education). They must also perform

professional work including development, design, or testing of facilities,

systems, or devices. As the knowledge

required increases, the level of supervision required decreases.

Technical occupations

Computer programmers. These

workers primarily convert specifications into a sequence of detailed computer instructions. They earned, on

average, $560 per week in the San

Juan CMSA. Like most of the sampled

professional occupations, the gap between their pay and the mainland average decreased as their duties and

responsibilities increased. For example, a level-1 computer programmer earned roughly 70 percent as

much as a level-1 programmer on the

mainland, yet a level 3 earned nearly

80 percent of the equivalent mainland

average.

Percent of non-agricultural workforce sector, San Juan CMSA and the Mainland, 1996

0

20

40

60

80

100

San Juan United States

Goods Producing Service Producing Government

Percent

 Sector

San Juan Mainland
26 Compensation and Working Conditions Winter 1998

Computer systems analysts. In contrast to computer programmers, system analysts are more likely to analyze overall business and scientific

problems and develop the needed

specifications. As illustrated in table

2, analysts’ earnings in the San Juan

survey lagged behind the average earnings of mainland analysts at each level.

Personnel specialists. Entry-level

personnel specialists were among the

lowest paid occupations within the

administrative occupations surveyed.

In contrast, level-4 specialists were

among the highest paid. Level-4

workers also earned 94 percent of the

equivalent mainland average earnings,

the highest ratio of any occupation

surveyed.

Clerical occupations

Clerks. Accounting and general clerks

were among the lowest paid occupations studied in the San Juan survey.

General clerks earned the least of any

occupation in this group, averaging

$230 per week. They also had the largest pay difference relative to the mainland. For example, the wages of level2 accounting clerks were 66 percent

of the mainland average for the same

occupation, while level-2 general

clerks earned 62 percent of the mainland average. (See table 2.) General

clerks are responsible for a combination of clerical tasks such as maintaining records and compiling information

at each grade level. Accounting clerks

perform one or more simple accounting tasks in an entry level position,

whereas level-4 accounting clerks

maintain ledgers and reconcile accounts. These added responsibilities

explain why accounting clerks earned

more than general clerks at each grade

level both in San Juan and on the

mainland.

Unlike the majority of workers

found in professional and technical

occupations, the ratio of San Juan to

mainland wages in clerical occupations varied little by grade level. For

example, both entry-level and level-3

accounting clerks in San Juan earned

69 percent of the equivalent mainland

wage. Similar results were seen with

general clerks and secretaries.

Receptionists. Among the lowest paid

occupations found in the San Juan survey, receptionists averaged $256 per

week. Workers in this occupation primarily use telephone switchboards to

relay calls and greet visitors. Like

many of the other occupations studied, they earned roughly 30 percent

less than the mainland average.

Secretaries. With an average salary

of $374, secretaries were among the

highest paid clerical occupations found

in the San Juan survey. For example,

a level-4 secretary earned over $100

per week more, on average, than any

other occupation in this group. Like

many of the higher paying occupations, the wages of secretaries relative

to the mainland were also high, ranging from 72 to 82 percent.

Blue-collar occupations

Maintenance workers. Pay rates between maintenance workers in the San

Juan CMSA varied more than in the

other occupations studied. (See table

3.) For example, a skilled multi-craft

maintenance worker earned almost

twice as much as a general maintenance worker.

Skilled multi-craft maintenance

workers were among the highest paid

blue-collar occupations studied, at

$12.62 per hour. Workers in these

journey-level jobs perform maintenance and repair work in two or more

craft trades such as masonry, plumbing, or carpentry. General maintenance workers, on the other hand,

perform work related to the repair and

upkeep of buildings, equipment, and

related fixtures. Although a worker

needs to have practical skill and

knowledge in two or more trades to

be included in this category, journeylevel experience is not required. As

expected, general maintenance workers were paid less than journey-level

skilled multi-craft workers and averaged $6.66 per hour.

Truckdrivers. Compared to the

equivalent mainland average,

truckdrivers were among the lowest

paid occupations. For example, the

average hourly wage for drivers of

heavy trucks, at $6.19 per hour, was

46 percent of the mainland average of

TABLE 1. Average weekly or hourly wages in the San Juan CMSA by establishment size,

selected occupations, 1996

 Weekly mean

Accountants ......................................................... $521 $498

Attorneys .............................................................. 762 783

Engineers ............................................................. 836 798

Buyers .................................................................. 486 453

Computer programmers ....................................... 560 572

Computer systems analysts ................................. 664 653

Computer operators.............................................. 306 282

Personnel specialists ............................................ 581 601

Accounting clerks ................................................. 282 268

General clerks ...................................................... 230 236

Personnel assistants ............................................ 372 403

 Hourly mean

General maintenance workers .............................. $6.66 $7.26

Maintenance electricians ...................................... 10.06 10.81

Guards ................................................................. 4.81 5.01

Janitors ................................................................. 4.96 5.03

Maintenance electricians ...................................... 10.06 10.81

Truckdrivers .......................................................... 6.73 7.14

Surveyed

establishments

employing 500

workers or more

All establishments

surveyed Occupation
 Compensation and Working Conditions Winter 1998 27

Wages in San Juan

$13.38. None of the published driver

occupations earned more than 63 percent of their mainland counterparts.11

(See table 3.)

As expected, the hourly wages of

truckdrivers in the San Juan survey,

like those on the mainland, varied by

the size of truck driven. As the size of

the vehicle increased (and often the

driver’s level of required experience

and education) so too did the hourly

wage rate. For example, drivers of

light trucks earned $5.41 per hour

while drivers of tractor trailers earned

$8.40.

Guards. Guards were among the lowest paid occupations in the survey, both

in real terms and relative to the average pay of guards on the mainland.

For example, level-2 guards in the San

Juan survey earned 41 percent of the

mainland average, the largest pay gap

for any occupation surveyed. On the

mainland, level-2 guards earned approximately $5.00 per hour more than

level-1 guards. In comparison, the pay

difference between level-1 and -2

guards in the San Juan CMSA was less

than $0.25.

Summary

Wage progression within most of the

sampled occupations was more in the

San Juan survey than for comparable

occupations on the mainland. In every occupation studied, workers in the

San Juan CMSA earned less than their

counterparts on the mainland. The pay

difference was particularly evident for

the entry-level positions in the studied occupations. There are many illustrations of this phenomenon. For

example, entry level accountants

earned less than 60 percent of the average mainland wage while level-4

accountants, the highest grade published, earned close to 85 percent of

the mainland average. Similar wage

progression was found in each of the

salaried occupations studied with the

exception of several administrative

and clerical jobs.

With the exception of clerical occupations, average occupational

wages in San Juan tended to have a

TABLE 2. Average weekly wages, selected occupations and occupational levels, 1996

Occupation and level San Juan Mainland Ratio1

Professional......................................................

Accountants

 1 ................................................................. $310 $523 59

 2 ................................................................. 429 626 69

 3 ................................................................. 595 811 73

 4 ................................................................. 887 1,041 85

Engineers

 1 ................................................................. 587 675 87

 2 ................................................................. 663 805 82

 3 ................................................................. 769 959 80

 4 ................................................................. 934 1,167 80

 5 ................................................................. 1,242 1,411 88

Technical

Computer programmers

 1 ................................................................. 383 543 71

 2 ................................................................. 485 639 76

 3 ................................................................. 621 788 79

Systems analysts

 1 ................................................................. 523 779 67

 2 ................................................................. 685 940 73

 3 ................................................................. 853 1,111 77

Personnel specialists

 1 ................................................................. 322 515 63

 2 ................................................................. 422 611 69

 3 ................................................................. 586 804 73

 4 ................................................................. 984 1,045 94

Clerical

Accounting clerks

 1 ................................................................. 222 320 69

 2 ................................................................. 251 379 66

 3 ................................................................. 322 464 69

General clerks

 1 ................................................................. 186 289 64

 2 ................................................................. 211 342 62

 3 ................................................................. 301 429 70

 4 ................................................................. 304 493 62

Secretaries

 1 ................................................................. 312 385 81

 2 ................................................................. 345 476 72

 3 ................................................................. 421 557 76

 4 ................................................................. 546 665 82

Receptionists ................................................. 256 355 72

 1 Ratio is San Juan to mainland wages.

TABLE 3. Average hourly wages, selected blue-collar occupations and occupational

levels, 1996

Occupation and level San Juan Mainland Ratio1

Maintenance workers

 General

 1 ................................................................. $6.43 - -

 2 ................................................................. 10.56 - -

 Electricians .................................................... 10.06 18.74 54

 Motor vehicle ................................................. 9.99 15.91 63

 Skilled multi-craft ........................................... 12.62 - -

Truckdrivers

 Light .............................................................. 5.41 8.53 63

 Heavy ............................................................ 6.19 13.38 46

 Tractor- trailer .............................................. 8.40 14.24 59

Guards .............................................................

 1 ............................................................... 4.80 7.11 68

 2 ............................................................... 5.01 12.14 41

 1 Ratio is San Juan to mainland wages. NOTE: A dash inidcates data are not

available.

$
28 Compensation and Working Conditions Winter 1998

occupation requested. The proportion

of employees for whom wage data were

not available was less than 5 percent.

No weight adjustments were made for

those establishments providing partial

data.

Data quality. Estimates of relative

standard errors14 for these surveys vary

among occupational work levels, and

depend upon such factors as the frequency with which the job occurs, the

dispersion of salaries for the job, and

the survey design. The tabulation below shows the distribution of the published work levels for one relative standard deviation from both surveys.

These sampling errors are measurable,

nonsampling errors are not.

Less than 1 ...................... 0.9

1 and under 3 .................. 37.9

3 and under 5 .................. 52.9

5 and over ....................... 8.4

Nonsampling errors stem from

many sources, such as the inability to

obtain information from some establishments, difficulties with survey definitions, and the inability of respondents to provide accurate data. While

very difficult to measure, such errors

are expected to be minimal due to the

high response rate, the extensive training of field economists who collect the

data, and constant, rigorous review of

both the occupational definitions and

the collected data. 

larger range in pay between the lowest and highest skilled employees than

they did on the mainland. For example, the average mainland weekly

pay for entry level personnel specialists was $515, while experienced personnel specialist (level 4) earned over

twice as much, $1,045. Experienced

personnel specialists in the San Juan

CMSA, in comparison, earned three

times as much as entry level personnel specialists. Similar results are

seen for many of the occupations studied. The specific cause for San Juan’s

higher spread in occupational wages

is unknown. The opposite trend was

found in a recent study of Alaskan

wages.12

Technical considerations

Publishing data by occupation and

grade level. Although the list of occupations and grade levels are known

prior to collection, the occupations and

grade levels which meet the necessary

requirements for publication are determined only after the survey is completed. For a specific occupation or

grade level to be published, it must:

(1) Be sampled from at least three establishments; (2) have a minimum of

6 weighted workers; and (3) not have

a single establishment contribute more

than 60 percent of the workers in that

occupation or grade level.

The prevalence of an occupation in

the surveyed area is the primary factor determining which occupations

will meet publication requirements.

For example, a State or MSA with

Percent of

published

occupational

work levels in

San Juan

Relative standard error in

percent

large numbers of engineers is more

likely to have data for all eight levels

of engineers published than an area

with relatively few engineers. In the

San Juan survey, 36 of the 46 occupations had at least one level published.

Occupational pay information is

published for both private industry and

State and local governments when

possible. Within private industry,

more detailed information is presented

to the extent that the surveys’ establishment sample can support such detail. In the San Juan survey, data are

also published for occupations regardless of establishment size (50 or more

workers) and for occupations within

establishments that employ 500 or

more workers.

Survey nonresponse. Sample loss

rates were lower in the San Juan survey than for OCS in general. Wage

data were not collected from 5.3 percent of the sampled establishments,

primarily due to lack of cooperation.

The sample weights originally assigned to the establishments that

chose not to participate were redistributed among the participating establishments. This ensures that published average wages take into account

industry variations, among other factors. In addition to refusals, 6.4 percent of establishments were excluded

from the survey because they were outof-business or out-of-scope at the time

of collection.13

In addition to establishment losses,

certain participating respondents refused to provide wage data for each
 Compensation and Working Conditions Winter 1998 29

Wages in San Juan

1

 In July 1997, BLS concluded 6 years of locality pay and Service Contract Act surveys collected under the umbrella of the Occupational

Compensation Survey (OCS) program. The OCS

program was discontinued as the first step in phasing in the new National Compensation Survey

(NCS) program. For additional information on

NCS, see Beth Levin Crimmel, “COMP2000:

Designing a New Wage Survey,” Compensation

and Working Conditions, December 1996, pp. 9-

11. 2

 The San Juan–Caguas–Arecibo CMSA includes the following: Arguas Buenas, Arecibo,

Barceloneta, Bayamon, Caguas, Camuy,

Canovanas, Carolina, Catano, Cayey, Ceiba,

Cidra, Comerio, Corozal, Dorado, Fajardo,

Florida, Guaynabo, Gurabo, Hatillo, Humacao,

Juncos, Las Piedras, Loiza, Luquillo, Manati,

Morovis, Naguabo, Naranjito, Rio Grande, San

Juan, San Lorenzo, Tao Alta, Tao Baja, Trujillo

Alto, Vega Alta, Vega Baja, and the Yubicoa

municipios. 3

 For these surveys, an establishment is an economic unit which produces goods or services, a

central administrative office, or an auxiliary unit

providing support services to a company. In manufacturing industries, the establishment is usually

at a single physical location. In service-producing industries, all locations of a company in a Metropolitan Statistical Area or nonmetropolitan

county are usually considered an establishment.

In government, an establishment is generally defined as all locations of a specific government entity.

4

 Working supervisors, apprentices, learners,

beginners, and trainees, as well as part-time, temporary, and probationary workers are excluded,

unless specifically included in the job description. 5

 Includes all workers in all establishments

with total employment at or above the minimum

limitations. 6

 The selected occupations are as follows:

Professional—accountants, public accountants,

attorneys, engineers, registered nurses; administrative—budget analysts, buyers, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, computer

systems analysts supervisors/managers, personnel specialists, personnel supervisor/managers,

tax collectors; clerical —accounting clerks, general clerks, order clerks, key entry operators, personnel assistants, secretaries, switchboard operator/receptionists, word processors; protective service—corrections officers, firefighters, police officers; technical—computer operators, drafters,

engineering technicians, civil engineering technicians, licensed practical nurses, nursing assistants; maintenance and powerplant—general

maintenance workers, maintenance electricians,

maintenance electronics technicians, maintenance machinists, machinery maintenance mechanics, motor vehicle maintenance mechanics,

tool and die makers; custodial and material

movement —forklift operators, guards, janitors,

material handling laborers, order fillers, shipping

and receiving clerks, truckdrivers, and warehouse

specialists. 7

 See Appendix B. Occupational Descriptions,

Occupational Compensation Survey: Pay Only,

San Juan-Caguas-Arecibo, PR, Consolidated

Metropolitan Area, Bulletin 3085-44, Bureau of

Labor Statistics, October 1996. 8

 See, for example, Robert W. VanGiezen,

“Occupational Pay by Employment Size,” Compensation and Working Conditions, Spring 1998,

pp. 28-36. 9

 Occupations and occupational levels with

fewer than 100 workers were not included in this

article. 10 Occupational Compensation Survey: Pay

Only, San Juan-Caguas-Arecibo, PR, Consolidated Metropolitan Area, Bulletin 3085-44, Bureau of Labor Statistics, October 1996. 11 BLS categorizes truckdrivers by the type and

rated capacity of the vehicle they drive as follows:

Light trucks—under 1.5 tons, usually 4 wheels;

heavy trucks—over 4 tons, usually 10 wheels; and

tractor trailers—separable cab and trailer, usually

18 wheels. 12 For an analysis of Alaska wages, see Hilery

Z. Simpson, “How Do Wages in Alaska Compare

to Wages on the Mainland?” Compensation and

Working Conditions, Fall 1998, pp. 18-24. 13 Out-of-scope establishments primarily include those in agriculture, private households, and

the self-employed. 14 The standard error indicates the precision

with which an estimate from a particular sample

approximates the average result of all possible

samples. The relative standard error is the standard error divided by the estimate. The smaller

the relative error, the greater the reliability of the

estimate.