Monthly Labor Review • December 2007 

Shift Work and Flexible Schedules

A time to work: recent trends

in shift work and flexible schedules

Numerous U.S. workers have work schedules different

from the standard 9 a.m.-to-5 p.m., Monday-through-Friday,

work shift; the demands of the industry are the chief

determinant of the use of shift work and flexible schedules

The traditional work schedule for an 

American employee has long been 

9 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday through 

Friday. However, an examination of data 

from the Work Schedules and Work at 

Home survey, a special supplement to the 

Current Population Survey (CPS) conducted in May 2004, reveals that substantial proportions of workers’ schedules do 

not fit this paradigm. For instance, nearly 

one-third of wage and salary workers have 

flexible schedules on their primary jobs, 

meaning that they can vary their beginning 

and ending hours; about one-fifth work a 

shift other than a regular daytime shift on 

their primary job; and a slightly smaller 

proportion works on Saturday, Sunday, or 

both. The use of alternate shifts and flexible work schedules is often determined by 

the demands of the industry, rather than 

by workers’ preferences. However, schedule 

considerations and flexibility are influential factors in the career-planning and labor market decisions of many workers.

The Work Schedules and Work at 

Home survey obtained information on 

individuals’ work schedules or shifts and 

on whether they did any job-related work 

Terence M. McMenamin is an 

economist in the Division of 

Labor Force Statistics, Office of 

Employment and Unemployment Statistics, Bureau of Labor 

Statistics. E-mail: McMenamin.

Terence@bls.gov

at home. The data presented in this article 

pertain to work schedules and alternate 

shifts. Because of the high prevalence of 

both shift work and flexitime among parttime workers, the article analyzes total employment, including that of both full- and 

part-time workers in most cases. (Where 

appropriate, data are analyzed separately 

for part-time workers; for further information about the survey, see the appendix.)

Flexible work schedules

In May 2004, 36.4 million wage and 

salary workers, or about 30 percent of 

all such workers, were able to vary their 

work hours to some degree. This percentage was somewhat lower than that (30.7 

percent) in May 2001, but about the same 

as in May 1997. Such flexibility provides 

workers with increased control over their 

time, enhancing their ability to balance 

competing demands at work and at home. 

In a competitive labor market, companies 

can choose to offer their workers the 

freedom afforded by flexible schedules in 

order to improve both morale and loyalty to the company.1

 The proportion of 

Terence M. McMenamin
Shift Work and Flexible Schedules

 Monthly Labor Review • December 2007

workers able to vary their work hours rose from 1985 

to 1997, but has remained fairly steady thereafter. The 

following tabulation shows the percentage of wage and 

salary workers with flexible schedules, by sex and the 

presence of their own children, for selected years over 

the past two decades:

1985 1991 1997 2001 2004

 Total, 16 years and 

older................................. 13.6 16.0 29.9 30.7 29.6

 Men............................... 13.9 15.9 30.0 30.8 29.3

 With own children 

 under 18 years .............13.1 15.6 30.7 31.8 29.8

 Women.......................... 13.2 16.0 29.7 30.6 29.9

 With own children 

 under 18 years............. 13.3 16.3 30.8 30.7 30.2

Since 1985, the proportions of employed men and women able to vary their work hours have been about equal.2

The same is true of both mothers and fathers who work. 

Within each of these groups, the proportion of workers 

able to vary the times they started and ended work more 

than doubled between 1985 and 1997, after which it has 

remained at about that level. 

The nature of the industry is one of the main determinants of the prevalence of flexible schedules. For example, in 2004, fewer workers (24.8 percent) had flexible 

schedules in the manufacturing industry, in which set 

work schedules are frequently necessary, than in financial activities or in professional and business services, in 

which nearly 40 percent of workers were able to vary their 

schedules.3 (See table 1.)

Despite the fact that flexible schedules have remained 

relatively steady overall, several industries exhibited recent declines in the proportion of workers on such schedules. Among such industries were retail trade; finance 

and insurance; educational services; arts, entertainment, 

and recreation; and accommodation. (See table 2.) This 

movement away from flexible schedules occurred despite 

employment growth in those industries.

Due to the nature of the work required for each particular job, the prevalence of flexible schedules varies by 

occupation. For example, elementary and high school 

teachers are less likely to be able to vary their work hours 

than others, because they have to be available when their 

students are in class. Hence, it is not surprising to see that 

only 16.6 percent of workers in education, training, and 

library occupations can vary their schedule. Management 

occupations, in which 46.7 percent of the workers could 

vary their work hours, is an example from the opposite end 

of the spectrum. (See table 1.) Work schedules required 

in management occupations usually are not as rigid as 

those required in teaching occupations, so employers can 

allow management workers to vary their schedules. 

Within some broad occupational categories, men 

were more likely than women to have access to flexible 

schedules. In professional and related occupations, for 

example, 41.8 percent of men were able to vary their 

schedule, compared with 26.2 percent of women. Much 

of this difference arises because many more women in 

that occupational group were employed in the education 

and health care fields, where flexible work schedules were 

less prevalent. (See table 1.) Within service occupations, 

however, 27.8 percent of women could vary their work 

hours, compared with 22.9 percent of men. In that occupational group, a large proportion of women worked 

in food preparation and serving related occupations and 

in personal care and service occupations. In both of these 

occupations, many workers were able to follow a flexible 

schedule. By contrast, men made up the majority of workers in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance 

occupations, as well as in protective support occupations, 

both of which had low proportions of workers with flexible schedules.

The proportion of white and Asian workers in occupations in which they can vary their schedules continued to 

exceed that of other groups. In May 2004, about 30 percent of employed whites and Asians could vary their work 

hours. The proportion was closer to 21 percent among 

black workers and those of Hispanic ethnicity. The following tabulation shows the percentage of wage and salary workers with flexible schedules, by race and Hispanic 

or Latino ethnicity (data on Asians were not tabulated 

prior to 2001):

1985 1991 1997 2001 2004

White........................... 14.0 16.4 31.0 31.8 30.9

Black or AfricanAmerican................... 9.9 12.8 21.7 22.8 21.2

Asian.......................... — — — 32.2 29.0

Hispanic or Latino

ethnicity................... 10.4 12.0 20.9 20.7 20.7

Many older workers have flexible schedules. Among 

workers 65 years and older in May 2004, about 37.2 percent of wage and salary workers were able to vary their 

work schedules on their main job. (See table 3.) Among 

younger workers, the rate ranged between 28 percent 

and 31 percent. The percentage of employed women who 

were able to vary their schedules exceeded that of men 

from ages 16 through 44; above age 45, a greater proportion of employed men in all age groups could vary their 
Monthly Labor Review • December 2007 

Table 1. Flexible schedules of wage and salary workers, by occupation and industry, May 2004

[Numbers in thousands]

Occupation and industry

All workers Men Women

Total

With flexible 

schedules Total

With flexible 

schedules Total

With flexible 

schedules

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

Occupation

 Management, professional, and 

related............................................... 41,906 15,799 37.7 19,302 8,570 44.4 22,604 7,229 32.0

 Management, business, and

    financial operations....................... 15,605 7,195 46.1 8,309 3,978 47.9 7,297 3,217 44.1

 Management................................ 10,654 4,981 46.7 6,200 3,004 48.5 4,454 1,976 44.4

    Business and financial

 operations.................................. 4,951 2,214 44.7 2,108 973 46.2 2,843 1,241 43.7

 Professional and related................. 26,300 8,604 32.7 10,993 4,592 41.8 15,307 4,012 26.2

    Computer and mathematical....... 2,799 1,480 52.9 2,078 1,124 54.1 721 356 49.5

    Architecture and engineering....... 2,571 1,144 44.5 2,216 967 43.6 355 177 49.8

    Life, physical, and social

      science....................................... 1,160 577 49.7 702 324 46.2 458 253 55.2

Community and social services... 2,162 1,042 48.2 862 480 55.6 1,301 

 Legal............................................ 1,251 568 45.4 577 338 58.6 674 230 34.1

Education, training, and library.... 8,354 1,387 16.6 2,182 530 24.3 6,172 

 Arts, design, entertainment,

 sports, and media....................... 1,988 833 41.9 1,117 485 43.4 871 348 40.0

Health care practiti

    technical..................................... 6,015 1,573 26.1 1,259 345 27.4 4,756 1,228 25

Service................................................ 20,787 5,335 25.7 9,036 2,069 22.9 11,751 3,266 27

Health care support.......................... 2,778 603 21.7 279 57 20.6 2,499 545 

Protective service............................. 2,527 505 20.0 2,001 380 19.0 526 125 

Food preparation and ser

 related............................................ 7,447 2,114 28.4 3,304 947 28.7 4,144 1,166 28.1

Building and grounds cleaning

maintenance.................................. 4,620 988 21.4 2,674 480 17.9 1,946 508 26

Personal care and service................ 3,415 1,125 33.0 779 204 26.2 2,636 921 

Sales and office................................. 31,946 10,439 32.7 11,440 3,856 33.7 20,506 6,583 32

 Sales and related............................. 13,304 5,131 38.6 6,769 2,761 40.8 6,535 2,370 36.3

Office and administrative support.... 18,642 5,308 28.5 4,671 1,095 23.4 13,971 4,212 

Natural resources, construction, a

  maintenance...................................... 11,551 2,219 19.2 11,024 2,092 19.0 527 128 24.2

Farming, fishing, and forestry........... 875 224 25.6 673 165 24.6 202 59 

Construction and extraction.............. 6,179 1,101 17.8 6,077 1,065 17.5 102 37 

Installation, maintenance,

 repair............................................... 4,497 894 19.9 4,275 861 20.2 223 32 14.4

Production, transportation, and

  material moving................................. 16,977 2,657 15.7 13,047 2,126 16.3 3,929 531 13.5

  Production........................................ 8,880 1,226 13.8 6,235 883 14.2 2,645 343 13.0

Transportation and material moving.. 8,097 1,432 17.7 6,812 1,243 18.3 1,285 188 14.6

Industry

Agriculture and related..................... 1,096 334 30.5 827 238 28.8 269 96 35.5

Nonagricultural................................. 122,071 36,115 29.6 63,022 18,475 29.3 59,049 17,641 29.9

See footnote at end of table.
Shift Work and Flexible Schedules

 Monthly Labor Review • December 2007

 Mining.......................................... 464 113 24.4 429 93 21.8 35 19 54.9

Construction................................ 7,636 1,683 22.0 6,848 1,361 19.9 789 321 

Manufacturing.............................. 15,957 3,961 24.8 11,081 2,768 25.0 4,876 1,193 

Durable goods manufacturing..... 9,729 2,562 26.3 7,166 1,898 26.5 2,563 664 2

Nondurable goods manufacturing. 6,228 1,399 22.5 3,915 870 22.2 2,313 529 2

 Wholesale and retail trade............ 18,546 5,850 31.5 10,349 3,111 30.1 8,197 2,739 33.4

 Wholesale trade.......................... 4,071 1,377 33.8 2,821 968 34.3 1,250 409 32.7

 Retail trade................................... 14,475 4,473 30.9 7,529 2,143 28.5 6,946 2,331 33.6

 Transportation and utilities.............. 6,296 1,517 24.1 4,789 1,151 24.0 1,507 365 24.2

 Transportation and warehousing.. 5,176 1,272 24.6 3,921 975 24.9 1,255 297 23.6

 Utilities.......................................... 1,121 245 21.9 869 176 20.3 252 69 27.2

 Information1.................................. 3,267 1,185 36.3 1,921 709 36.9 1,346 476 35.4

Publishing, except Internet........ 810 342 42.2 462 205 44.4 349 137 39

Motion picture and sou

      recording.................................

324 115 35.5 223 83 37.5 102 32 31.3

Broadcasting, except Internet........ 578 143 24.7 349 90 25.8 228 53 23

Telecommunications............... 1,217 437 35.9 738 256 34.8 479 181 37

Financial activities........................ 8,561 3,387 39.6 3,536 1,555 44.0 5,025 1,832 

Finance and insurance.............. 6,206 2,398 38.6 2,300 1,066 46.3 3,906 1,333 34

 Real estate and rental and leasing. 2,355 988 42.0 1,236 490 39.6 1,119 499 44.6

 Professional and business 

      services...................................... 10,916 4,284 39.2 6,059 2,374 39.2 4,857 1,909 39.3

Professional and tec

      services..................................

6,478 3,152 48.7 3,415 1,759 51.5 3,064 1,393 45.5

Management, administr

      and waste services.................... 4,438 1,132 25.5 2,645 616 23.3 1,793 516 28.8

Education and health services........ 27,686 6,606 23.9 6,698 1,771 26.4 20,988 4,836 

Educational services....................... 12,295 2,311 18.8 3,701 889 24.0 8,594 1,42

Health care and social assistance.. 15,391 4,295 27.9 2,997 882 29.4 12,394 3,41

 Leisure and hospitality................. 11,159 3,395 30.4 5,461 1,629 29.8 5,697 1,766 31.0

 Arts, entertainment, and 

      recreation...................................

2,218 654 29.5 1,203 333 27.7 1,015 321 31.6

Accommodation and food services. 8,940 2,741 30.7 4,258 1,296 30.4 4,682 1,44

      Accommodation......................... 1,451 346 23.8 633 171 27.0 818 175 21.3

      Food services and drinking places 7,490 2,395 32.0 3,625 1,125 31.0 3,864 1,271 32.9

Other services................................. 5,663 2,418 42.7 2,601 1,023 39.3 3,062 1,395 

Other services, 

      private households..................... 4,926 2,093 42.5 2,567 1,011 39.4 2,360 1,082 45.9

Other services, p

 households................................. 736 325 44.1 35 13 36.4 702 313 44.5

Public administration....................... 5,918 1,717 29.0 3,248 929 28.6 2,670 788 

Table 1. Continued—Flexible schedules of wage and salary workers, by occupation and industry, May 2004

[Numbers in thousands]

Occupation and industry

All workers Men Women

Total

With flexible 

schedules Total

With flexible 

schedules Total

With flexible 

schedules

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

1 Includes other industries not shown separately. SOURCE: Current Population Survey, supplement, May 2004.
Monthly Labor Review • December 2007

Table 2. Flexible schedules of wage and salary workers, by industry, May 2001–04

Industry 

 

Workers with flexible work schedules Change, May 

2001–May 2004 2001 2004

Agriculture and related........................................................................................ 30.7 30.5 –.2

Nonagricultural.................................................................................................... 30.7 29.6 –1.1

Mining............................................................................................................. 22.9 24.4 1.5

  Construction.................................................................................................... 23.2 22.0 –1.2

  Manufacturing.................................................................................................. 24.1 24.8 .7

  Durable goods manufacturing........................................................................ 25.3 26.3 1.0

  Nondurable goods manufacturing.................................................................. 22.2 22.5 .3

Wholesale and retail trade.......................................................................... 34.2 31.5 –2.7

 Wholesale trade......................................................................................... 35.3 33.8 –1.5

 Retail trade................................................................................................. 33.9 30.9 –3.0

Transportation and utilities.............................................................................. 25.2 24.1 –1.1

 Transportation and warehousing.................................................................. 24.5 24.6 .1

 Utilities........................................................................................................... 28.2 21.9 –6.3

Information1...................................................................................................... 36.7 36.3 –.4

  Publishing, except Internet............................................................................. 36.7 42.2 5.5

  Motion picture and sound recording industries.............................................. 41.0 35.5 –5.5

  Broadcasting, except Internet........................................................................ 31.2 24.7 –6.5

  Telecommunications....................................................................................... 37.4 35.9 –1.5

  Financial activities............................................................................................ 42.5 39.6 –2.9

  Finance and insurance................................................................................... 42.1 38.6 –3.5

 Real estate and rental and leasing................................................................. 43.6 42.0 –1.6

  Professional and business services................................................................. 41.4 39.2 –2.2

  Professional and technical services............................................................... 50.5 48.7 –1.8

  Management, administrative, and waste services.......................................... 28.1 25.5 –2.6

  Education and health services......................................................................... 24.3 23.9 –.4

  Educational services....................................................................................... 20.5 18.8 –1.7

  Health care and social assistance.................................................................. 27.5 27.9 .4

Leisure and hospitality..................................................................................... 32.0 30.4 –1.6

  Arts, entertainment, and recreation................................................................ 37.7 29.5 –8.2

  Accommodation and food services................................................................. 30.5 30.7 .2

  Accommodation............................................................................................ 28.8 23.8 –5

  Food services and drinking places............................................................... 30.8 32.  1

  Other services.................................................................................................. 41.5 42.7 1.2

  Other services, except private households..................................................... 41.6 42.5 .9

  Other services, private households................................................................ 41.1 44.  3

  Public administration...................................................................................... 32.5 29.0 –3.5

1 Includes other industries not shown separately. SOURCE: Current Population Survey, supplement, May 2004.

work schedules.

Persons with less than a high school diploma were the 

least likely (17.5 percent) to work in occupations in which 

they were able to vary their work schedules, while college 

graduates were most likely (39.1 percent). Among workers 

with less than a college degree, women were more likely 

than men to have a flexible work schedule. In contrast, 

among workers with college degrees, men were more likely 

[Percent distribution]
Shift Work and Flexible Schedules

 Monthly Labor Review • December 2007

Table 3. Flexible schedules of wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, May 2004

Characteristic

Total wage and salary workers Men Women

Total

With flexible 

schedules Total

With flexible 

schedules Total

With flexible 

schedules

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 Age

Total, 16 years and older.................. 123,167 36,449 29.6 63,849 18,713 29.3 59,318 17,736 29.9

 16 to 24 years................................. 18,702 5,457 29.2 9,567 2,567 26.8 9,135 2,890 31.6

 16 to 19 years.............................. 5,579 1,748 31.3 2,720 816 30.0 2,859 931 32.6

 20 to 24 years.............................. 13,122 3,709 28.3 6,847 1,751 25.6 6,276 1,959 31.2

 20 years and older......................... 117,588 34,701 29.5 61,129 17,896 29.3 56,459 16,805 29.8

 25 to 54 years.............................. 86,940 25,599 29.4 45,569 13,291 29.2 41,371 12,309 29.8

 25 to 34 years............................ 28,310 8,420 29.7 15,416 4,452 28.9 12,894 3,969 30.8

 35 to 44 years............................ 30,599 9,307 30.4 16,123 4,841 30.0 14,476 4,466 30.9

 45 to 54 years............................ 28,031 7,872 28.1 14,031 3,998 28.5 14,001 3,874 27.7

 55 years and older....................... 17,525 5,393 30.8 8,713 2,855 32.8 8,812 2,538 28.8

 55 to 64 years............................ 14,096 4,117 29.2 7,050 2,160 30.6 7,045 1,957 27.8

 65 years and older..................... 3,430 1,276 37.2 1,663 695 41.8 1,767 581 32.9

 Race and Hispanic origin

White............................................... 100,112 30,916 30.9 52,293 16,012 30.6 47,819 14,904 31.2

Black or African-American............... 14,881 3,159 21.2 7,280 1,410 19.4 7,602 1,749 23.0

Asian............................................... 4,975 1,444 29.0 2,614 861 32.9 2,360 583 24.7

Hispanic or Latino........................... 16,725 3,464 20.7 9,430 1,704 18.1 7,295 1,760 24.1

 Presence and age of children

Without own children under 18 years... 78,625 23,097 29.4 41,330 12,007 29.1 37,295 11,090 29.7

With own children under 18 years.... 44,542 13,352 30.0 22,519 6,706 29.8 22,023 6,646 30.2

With own children under 6 years... 19,117 5,961 31.2 10,646 3,224 30.3 8,531 2,737 32

With own children 6 to 17 years.... 25,366 7,391 29.1 11,874 3,482 29.3 13,492 3,909 29

 Educational Attainment

Less than a high school diploma...... 10,207 1,785 17.5 6,211 940 15.1 3,997 845 21.1

High school graduate, no college..... 31,396 7,175 22.9 16,560 3,398 20.5 14,836 3,777 25.5

Less than a bachelor’s degree.......... 28,940 8,770 30.3 13,792 4,079 29.6 15,148 4,691 31.0

College graduate.............................. 33,922 13,262 39.1 17,719 7,729 43.6 16,203 5,533 34.1

fective with the January 2003 estimates.

SOURCE:  Current Population Survey, supplement, May 2004.

NOTE: Data relate to the sole or principal jobs of full-time wa

and salary workers and exclude all self-employed persons, regardless of whether or not their businesses were incorporated. Data reflect

revised population controls used in the Current Population Survey efthan women to be able to vary their work schedules.

The option to work a flexible schedule was more common among part-time workers (38.6 percent) than among 

those who normally worked full time (27.5 percent). (See 

table 4.) As a result, part-time workers constituted a disproportionate share of workers with flexible schedules: 

while about 19 percent of all wage and salary workers usually worked part time, nearly one-quarter of all workers 

with flexible schedules worked part time.

Shift work

In May 2004, more than 80 percent of wage and salary 

workers usually worked a daytime schedule, one between 

[Numbers in thousands]
Monthly Labor Review • December 2007 

Table 4. Prevalence of a flexible schedule on wage and salary workers’ primary job, by sex and usual full- or 

 part-time status on primary job, May 2004

[Numbers in thousands]

Work status Total wage and 

salary workers

With flexible schedule Without flexible 

schedule

Not reporting 

Number Percent of total flexible schedule

Total................................................... 123,167 36,449 29.6 85,218 1,500

Usual full time.................................. 99,778 27,411 27.5 71,113 1,255

 Men................................................ 56,412 15,853 28.1 39,839 721

 Women........................................... 43,366 11,558 26.7 31,274 534

Usual part time................................. 23,102 8,919 38.6 13,939 244

 Men................................................ 7,262 2,785 38.3 4,383 95

 Women........................................... 15,840 6,134 38.7 9,557 149

SOURCE:  Current Population Survey, supplement, May 2004.

the hours of 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. However, more than 21 

million wage and salary workers, or 17.7 percent, usually 

worked alternate shifts that fell at least partially outside 

the daytime shift range. The most common alternate shift, 

the evening shift, with usual hours between 2 p.m. and 

midnight, accounted for 6.8 percent of all wage and salary workers. Other alternate shifts included employerarranged irregular schedules (3.8 percent), which allow 

employers to vary the time of the shift to meet the needs 

of the business; night shifts (3.1 percent), with hours between 9 p.m. and 8 a.m.; and rotating shifts (2.7 percent) 

with hours that change periodically. (See table 5.)

People who work alternate shifts do so to accommodate school attendance, to provide childcare, or for other 

reasons. Others choose to work alternate shifts because 

the employer offers higher earnings in the form of a shift 

premium.4 More than half of full-time workers who 

worked an alternate shift in May 2004 reported doing so 

because it was in the “nature of the job.”5 (See table 6.) 

Others, however, may have selected alternate shift work 

for “personal preference,” to have “better arrangements for 

family or childcare,” or because they “could not get any 

other job.” The reasons given by part-time workers for 

working an alternate shift differed somewhat from those 

cited by full-time workers. Primary among the reasons reported by part-time workers was “allows time for school” 

(40.2 percent). Other reasons commonly cited included 

“nature of the job” (33.5 percent), “better arrangements for 

family or childcare” (9.0 percent), and “could not get any 

other job” (6.1 percent). Both full- and part-time workers infrequently cited better pay as a reason for usually 

working an alternate shift (6.8 percent and 1.5 percent, 

respectively).

Employers normally make use of alternate shifts 

when they are required for efficiency or when the type 

of work being done can accommodate or requires work 

performed outside of the 6 a.m.-to-6 p.m. range.6 For 

this reason, certain industries make extensive use of alternate shifts while others do so sparingly. For example, 

establishments such as restaurants and bars are known 

to do much of their business after 6 p.m. Thus, it is no 

surprise that, within the leisure and hospitality industry, 

52.7 percent of workers in food services and drinking 

places usually work alternate schedules. (See table 7 on 

page 12.) Other industry groups with large portions of 

employees who work alternate shifts include arts, entertainment, and recreation (33.0 percent), mining (31.5 

percent), and transportation and warehousing (31.5 percent). Industries in which few employees work alternate 

shifts include construction (2.8 percent), finance and insurance (3.8 percent), professional and technical services 

(3.8 percent), and educational services (5.0 percent).

As with industries, the incidence of alternate shifts 

within different occupational groups is related to the type 

of work performed in those occupations. Workers in service occupations are those most likely to be alternate shift 

workers. Many service occupations, such as protective 

service and food preparation and serving occupations, are 

in businesses or industries that operate around the clock. 

Half of the workers in these occupational groups usually work an alternate shift. In contrast, the management, 

professional, and related occupations group includes jobs 

that, despite their high level of flexibility, are typically performed within the confines of normal business hours. For 

instance, only 1.8 percent of workers in legal occupations 

and 3.6 percent of those in business and financial operations occupations work alternate schedules as a usual part 

of their jobs. (See table 7.)

Between May 2001 and May 2004, the proportion of 

persons working alternate shifts changed little. Men continued to be more likely than women to usually work an 

alternate shift (19.1 percent and 16.1 percent, respective-
Shift Work and Flexible Schedules

10 Monthly Labor Review • December 2007

Table 5. Shift usually worked on primary job by wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, May 2004

[Percent distribution]

Characteristic

Total wage 

and salary 

workers (thousands)

Alternate-shift workers (percent of total wage and salary workers)

All

alternate-

 shift

 workers

Full time 

(percent 

of total 

full-time 

workers)

Part time 

(percent 

of total

 part-time 

workers)

Evening

 shift

Night 

shift

Rotating 

shift

Split 

shift

Employerarranged 

irregular 

schedules

Other 

shifts

 Age and sex

Total, 16 years and 

 older............................... 123,167 17.7 14.8 29.6

 

 6.8 3.1 2.7 0.6 3.8 0.7

16 to 24 years................. 18,702 35.2 23.9 49.3 18.0 3.3 4.7 .8 7.5 .7

 16 to 19 years............... 5,579 51.9 34.5 57.9 30.9 2.5 6.4 .8 10.5 .8

 20 to 24 years............... 13,122 28.1 22.3 40.6 12.6 3.6 4.0 .8 6.3 .7

20 years and older........... 117,588 16.0 14.6 23.5 5.6 3.1 2.5 .5 3.5 .7

 25 years and older......... 104,465 14.5 13.8 18.7 4.8 3.1 2.3 .5 3.2 .7

 25 to 54 years.............. 86,940 14.9 14.0 20.7 4.9 3.2 2.4 .5 3.1 .7

 25 to 34 years............ 28,310 16.6 15.2 25.7 6.0 3.4 2.6 .5 3.3 .7

 35 to 44 years............ 30,599 14.8 14.1 19.3 4.8 3.2 2.4 .5 3.3 .7

 45 to 54 years............ 28,031 13.3 12.8 16.5 3.9 3.1 2.3 .5 2.8 .6

 55 years and older....... 17,525 12.8 12.2 14.2 4.1 2.4 1.7 .6 3.4 .7

 55 to 64 years............ 14,096 13.0 12.5 15.1 4.0 2.6 1.9 .5 3.3 .6

 65 years and older..... 3,430 12.2 10.3 13.3 4.6 1.4 .8 .8 3.8 .8

 Men................................. 63,849 19.1 16.7 37.5 6.9 3.5 3.0 .6 4.2 .9

 Women............................ 59,318 16.1 12.4 26.0 6.6 2.6 2.3 .5 3.5 .5

 Race and ethnicity

White................................. 100,112 16.7 13.7 28.7 6.2 2.9 2.5 .5 3.9 .7

Black or African-American 14,881 23.2 20.8 36.4 9.8 4.4 4.1 .4 3.6 .7

Asian................................. 4,975 17.9 15.7 28.7 7.5 3.8 1.8 1.0 3.0 .8

Hispanic or Latino............. 16,725 18.1 16.0 29.5 7.6 3.5 2.5 .6 2.9 .8

 Educational attainment

Less than a high school

diploma..........................

10,207 18.6 17.8 22.5 7.8 4.1 2.2 1.0 2.9 .6

High school graduate,

no college.......................

31,396 17.1 16.8 19.0 6.0 3.5 2.8 .6 3.5 .7

Less than a bachelor’s

degree...........................

28,940 16.7 15.9 20.7 5.2 4.0 2.8 .5 3.3 .8

SOURCE:  Current Population Survey, supplement, May 2004.

ly; see table 5), and black workers were more likely than 

workers in any of the other racial or ethnic groups surveyed to work an alternate shift, in 2004 (23.2 percent). 

Among those other groups, 16.7 percent of whites, 17.9 

percent of Asians, and 18.1 percent of Hispanics worked 

alternate shifts.

Part-time workers were twice as likely to work alternate shifts as those who usually work full time. (See table 

5.) Although it is the nature of the industry, not the education of the worker, that determines whether a given job 

requires alternate shift work, workers with higher educational attainment are more likely to find work in industries 

in which shift work is less common. The reason is that alternate shifts are much more common in industries, such 
Monthly Labor Review • December 2007 11

as manufacturing, in which relatively large proportions of 

workers do not have college degrees. In fact, even parttime workers with a college degree were less likely to work 

an alternate shift than full-time workers with lower levels 

of educational attainment.

Days usually worked

For most workers, the standard workweek is limited to 

weekdays. However, some workers have schedules that 

usually include work on the weekends. Table 8 (on page 

13) shows that, although the majority of employed wage 

and salary workers (66.3 percent) usually worked only on 

weekdays in 2004, 15.8 percent of workers usually worked 

during at least 1 weekend day. Men were more likely than 

women to work on a weekend day, while women were 

more likely to have schedules in which the days worked 

varied. Working fathers were about as likely to work on 

a weekend day as were employed men without children, 

but were less likely to report that their workdays varied. 

Working mothers were less likely to work a weekend 

day or weekly schedules that varied than were employed 

women without children.

Among the racial and ethnic groups surveyed, Hispanic 

or Latino workers were the most likely to work during the 

weekend, while white workers were the least likely. Black 

workers were the most likely to have a schedule in which 

the days worked varied. More than two-thirds of full-time 

workers, but less than half of part-time workers, usually 

worked weekdays only. Nearly one-third of part-time 

workers worked weekly schedules with varying days, more 

than twice the rate among full-time workers.

THE TIMING OF WORK IS CONTINUALLY EVOLVING. 

Despite a recent decline in the percentage of people who 

say that they can vary their hours of work, the proportion of workers with this option is more than double that 

of 20 years ago. Over the same period, the proportion of 

workers with alternate shifts has remained fairly steady. 

Flexible schedules and shift work can provide benefits to 

both workers and employers. Because of these potential 

benefits, regular examinations of various aspects associated with the flexibility of work schedules help to provide 

a more complete understanding of employment patterns 

in industries and occupations and among demographic 

groups.

Table 6. Shift usually worked on principal job by wage and salary workers, by reason for working shift, May 2004

[Numbers in thousands]

Reason for working shift

Shift workers Shift worked

Evening 

shift

Night 

shift

Rotating 

shift

Split 

shift

Employerarranged 

irregular 

schedule

Other 

shifts Total

Usual 

full 

time

Usual 

part 

time

Total shift workers................................................... 21,762 14,805 6,844 8,353 3,811 3,296 679 4,719 850

Better arrangements for family or childcare.......... 1,827 1,211 613 888 626 74 44 162 

 Better pay.............................................................. 1,125 1,007 104 397 365 166 32 119 45

Allows time for school........................................... 3,236 477 2,753 2,110 204 332 40 516 

Could not get any other job................................... 1,624 1,200 416 892 307 202 25 168 

Local transportation or pollution contr

program................................................................ 26 26 — 6 2 5 — 11 2

Nature of the job.................................................... 10,445 8,089 2,294 2,586 1,247 2,242 470 3,346 5

Personal preference.............................................. 2,122 1,700 409 976 732 110 40 191 

 Some other reason................................................ 1,029 802 220 388 251 124 25 177 65

Not reporting reasons............................................ 328 292 34 110 77 42 2 28 13

NOTE: Data relate to the sole or principal jobs of wage and sala

workers and exclude all self-employed persons, regardless of whether or not their businesses were incorporated. Dash represents zero.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey, supplement, May 2004.
Shift Work and Flexible Schedules

12 Monthly Labor Review • December 2007

Table 7. Shift usually worked by wage and salary workers, by occupation and industry, May 2004

[Numbers in thousands]

Occupation and industry Total wage and 

salary workers

Alternate-shift 

workers

Percent of wage 

and salary workers

Occupation

Management, professional, and related............................... 41,906 3,650 8.7

Management, business, and financial operations................. 15,605 88  5

 Management......................................................................... 10,654 702 6.6

Business and financial operations........................................ 4,9

 Professional and related......................................................... 26,300 2,768 10.5

Computer and mathematical................................................. 2,799 21 

Architecture and engineering................................................ 2,571 02 

Life, physical, and social science..................................... 1,16092 

Community and social services....................................... 2,162 298 

 Legal..................................................................................... 1,251 23 1.8

Education, training, and library....................................... 8,354 38 

 Arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media.................. 1,988 348 17.5

Health care practitioner and technical............................. 6,015 1,446 

Service..................................................................................... 20,787 7,511 36.1

Health care support................................................................ 2,778 774 27

Protective service................................................................... 2,527 1,273 50

Food preparation and serving related................................ 7,447 3,680 49

Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance................. 4,620 840 18

Personal care and service...................................................... 3,415 944 27

Sales and office........................................................................ 31,946 5,239 16.4

 Sales and related.................................................................... 13,304 3,094 23.3

Office and administrative support..................................... 18,642 2,145 11

Natural resources, construction, and maintenance................ 11,551 879 7.6

Farming, fishing, and forestry.................................................. 875 90 10

Construction and extraction.................................................... 6,179 26  4

Installation, maintenance, and repair................................. 4,497 522 11

Production, transportation, and material moving.................... 16,977 4,483 26.4

Production............................................................................... 8,880 2,133 24

Transportation and material moving.................................. 8,097 2,351 29

Industry

Agriculture and related.............................................................. 1,096 104 9.5

Nonagricultural......................................................................... 122,071 21,658 17.7

 Mining..................................................................................... 464 146 31.5

Construction............................................................................ 7,636 21  2

Manufacturing......................................................................... 15,957 2,829 17

Durable goods manufacturing.............................................. 9,729 1,377

Nondurable goods manufacturing................................. 6,228 1,452 23.3

See footnote at end of table.
Monthly Labor Review • December 2007 1

 Retail trade..................................................................................... 14,475 3,734 25.8

 Transportation and utilities................................................................ 6,296 1,748 27.8

 Transportation and warehousing............................................ 5,176 1,629 31.5

 Utilities........................................................................................... 1,121 119 10.6

 Information1...................................................................................... 3,267 491 15.0

Publishing, except Internet........................................................    10   108

Motion picture and sound recording industries................    24   125

Broadcasting, except Internet........................................         87

Telecommunications.....................................................................  117   124

Financial activities...........................................................................  8,56  59  7

Finance and insurance.................................................................  606  236

 Real estate and rental and leasing.......................................... 2,355 362 15.4

Professional and business services........................................... 10,916 1,02  9

Professional and technical services.....................................  678  248

Management, administrative, and waste services...................  438   780

Education and health services......................................................... 27,686 3,542 12

Educational services..................................................................... 1295  617

Health care and social assistance......................................... 15,391 2,926

 Leisure and hospitality...................................................................... 11,159 5,107 45.8

Arts, entertainment, and recreation.....................................  218   732

Accommodation and food services......................................  8,940 4,376

Accommodation....................................................................... 1,451  

Food services and drinking places..................................  7,490 3

Other services.................................................................................  5,66  739 13

Other services, except private households.................................... 4,926 622 12.6

Other services, private households..................................    36   117

Public administration.......................................................................  5,918 1,143 19

1 Includes other industries not shown separatel

Table 7. Continued—Shift usually worked by wage and salary workers, by occupation and industry, May 2004

[Numbers in thousands]

Occupation and industry Total wage and 

salary workers

Alternate-shift 

workers

Percent of wage 

and salary workers

SOURCE:  Current Population Survey, supplement, May 2004.

 Wholesale and retail trade................................................................ 18,546 4,074 22.0

 Wholesale trade............................................................................. 4,071 340 8.4

 Days usually worked by wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, May 2004

[Percent distribution]

Characteristic Total 

(thousands)

Usually work 

weekdays 

only

Usually work 

on both 

Saturday and 

Sunday1

Usually work 

on Saturday1

Usually 

work on 

Sunday1

Days vary

Total, 16 years and older.................................... 123,167 66.3 5.4 8.1 2.3 16.8

 

 White........................................................ 100,112 67.3 5.1 8.2 2.2 16.3

Black or African-American............................. 14,881 61.6 5.7 7.6 2.5 2

 Asian....................................................... 4,975 64.8 6.9 8.1 2.9 15.6

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity........................... 16,725 63.9 6.8 9.9 2.3 1

See footnote at end of table.

Table 8. 
Shift Work and Flexible Schedules

14 Monthly Labor Review • December 20

major definitional changes to many of the SIC-based series, and after the conversion, SIC-based series no longer were produced or published. Historical time 

series from 2000 forward were reconstructed as part of the NAICS conversion 

process.

4

 Joseph Lanfranchi, Henry Ohlsson, and Ali Skalli, “Compensating Wage 

Differentials and Shift Work Preferences: Evidence from France,” Economics 

Letters, February 2002, pp. 393–98; on the Internet at www.handels.gu.se/epc/

data/html/html/PDF/gunwpe0055.pdf (visited July 25, 2007). 

5

 Those who worked an alternate shift were asked to choose their main 

reason for working such a shift from a list. (See appendix.)

6

 Joram Mayshar and Yoram Halevy, “Shiftwork,” Journal of Labor Economics: Vol. 15, No. 1, Part 2: Essays in Honor of Yoram Ben-Porath, January 

1997, pp. S198–S222; on the Internet at www.jstor.org/view/0734306x/

di009557/00p00252/0.

1 Max Messmer, “Building employee job satisfaction,” Employment Relations 

Today, summer 2005, pp. 53–59; retrieved July 25, 2007, from ABI/INFORM

Research database, Document ID 872589231. 

2

 Data on flexible work schedules were first collected in May 1980, but 

those data are not comparable to the data in this article, due to a difference in 

coverage. The 1980 survey included self-employed workers (most of whom, by 

definition, can vary their work hours) and excluded farmworkers. Starting in 

1985, the survey did not ask the incorporated self-employed the question about 

flexible work schedules, but did ask it of farmworkers. Starting in 1997, the 

unincorporated self-employed also were excluded.

3 A breakdown, by industry, of workers on flexible schedules is limited to the 

2001 and 2004 supplementary CPS data, due to the 2003 conversion from the 

1987 Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) basis to the 2002 North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). The conversion to NAICS involved 

Notes

 Men.......................................................... 63,849 65.3 5.7 9.8 2.5 15.5

Without own children under 18..................... 41,330 62.6 6.2 9.7 2.6

With own children under 18......................... 22,519 70.2 4.8 10.1 2.4

 Women...................................................... 59,318 67.4 5.0 6.3 2.0 18.1

Without own children under 18..................... 37,295 65.2 5.6 6.5 2.0

With own children under 18........................... 22,023 71.0 4.0 6.0 2.1 1

 Usual full time............................................ 99,778 71.4 4.7 7.9 2.1 13.0

 Usual part time........................................... 23,102 44.7 8.1 9.3 3.1 32.9

1 These groups include workers who worked only on one or both weekend days, as well as workers who reported working on the weeke

addition to working during the week.

Table 8. Continued—Days usually worked by wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, May 2004

[Percent distribution]

Characteristic Total

Usually work 

weekdays 

only

Usually work 

on both 

Saturday and 

Sunday1

Usually work 

on Saturday1

Usually 

work on 

Sunday1

Days vary
Monthly Labor Review • December 2007 1

APPENDIX: Data collection

The data presented in this article and other information on work 

schedules and shifts were obtained from a supplement to the 

May 2004 Current Population Survey (CPS), a monthly sample 

survey of about 60,000 households conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), principally 

to gather information on employment and unemployment. Respondents to the May 2004 supplement answered questions 

about work schedules or shifts and whether they did any jobrelated work at home. Since 1973, surveys concerning shift work 

have been conducted periodically by the Census Bureau for the 

BLS. Periodic surveys concerning flexible work schedules have 

been conducted since 1980.

Following are some sample questions from the May 2004 

CPS work schedule supplement:

Do you have flexible work hours that allow you to vary or make 

changes in the time you begin and end work?

1. Yes

2. No

On your main job in your business do you USUALLY work a 

daytime schedule or some other schedule?

A daytime schedule

Some other schedule

Which of the following best describes the hours you USUALLY

work at this main job in your business?

1. An EVENING shift: anytime between 2 p.m. and mid- 

 night

2. A NIGHT shift: anytime between 9 p.m. to 8 a.m.

3. A ROTATING shift: one that changes periodically from

 days to evenings or night

4. A SPLIT shift: one consisting of two distinct periods 

each day

5. An irregular schedule

6. Some other shift

What is the MAIN reason why you work this type of shift?

1. Better arrangements for family or childcare

2. Better pay

3. Allows time for school

4. Could not get any other job

5. Local transportation or pollution control program

6. Nature of the job

7. Personal preference

8. Some other reason

Which days of the week do you USUALLY work?

1. Sunday

2. Monday

3. Tuesday

4. Wednesday

5. Thursday

6. Friday

7. Saturday

8. Monday through Friday

9. It varies.