Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 19

Employment and Job Openings in 2006

Kimberly Riley, 

Emily Lloyd,

and

Natalie Propst

Payroll employment and job openings

rate continued to grow in 2006

Payroll employment grew by 2.3 million

over the year; the job openings rate

climbed in the second half of the year,

while the hires and separations rates held steady

Kimberly Riley is an 

economist, and Emily Lloyd is a supervisory 

economist, in the Office 

of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, 

Bureau of Labor Statistics; Natalie Propst is an 

economist formerly in 

the same office. E-mail: 

Lloyd.Emily@bls.gov or 

Riley.Kimberly@bls.gov

Nonfarm payroll employment, as measured by the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey, increased by 

2.3 million in 2006.1 (See chart 1.) Employment growth, averaging 252,000 per month 

in the first quarter, was stronger then than in 

any subsequent quarter. Overall, the pace of 

growth in 2006 was slower than in 2005.

Employment trends varied by industry. 

(See table 1.) A weak housing market hurt 

employment in construction and related industries, and imports continued to compete 

with manufactured goods such as textiles 

and apparel. Oil prices hit an all-time high 

in the summer and had a dual effect, hindering growth in retail trade while boosting employment in mining and other industries that 

produce energy. Shortages of skilled labor 

suppressed hiring in temporary help services, 

but spurred wage growth in professional and 

technical services. Increased tax revenues had 

a positive influence on hiring for health care 

and education.

The job openings rate, as measured by the 

Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey 

(JOLTS),2 flattened out for most of the year, 

after climbing steadily since late 2003, but 

started to climb again in the second half of 

2006. (See chart 2.) Unlike the CES survey, 

which measures the net change in employment from month to month, JOLTS measures the number of hires and the number of 

separations that occur during the month, as 

well as the number of job openings that employers have at the end of the month. The 

hires rate had slight month-to-month movements in the first half of the year and then remained steady for the second half. The total 

separations rate fluctuated throughout 2006, 

showing no real trend over the year.

Housing-related industries

Employment in construction increased by 

134,000 in 2006, following 2 years of more 

robust growth. After employment peaked in 

February 2006 for residential specialty trade 

contractors, the industry shed 99,000 jobs 

through the end of the year; employment 

in residential building was flat over the year. 

Specialty trade contractors perform specific 

activities in building construction, but are not 

responsible for the project as a whole, whereas residential and nonresidential builders are 

typically responsible for the entire project, and 

they often subcontract parts of the project to 

other construction establishments, usually 

specialty trade contractors. The over-the-year 

employment decrease was the first for residential specialty trade contractors since 2001, 

and 2006 also marked the first year since 2001 

in which residential building employment did 

not increase. Residential construction indicators revealed similar weakness during the year. 

New home sales, for example, remained be-
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

20 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

other building material dealers. The 2006 over-the-year 

job gain for building material and supplies dealers was the 

smallest since 1997. Employment in real estate grew by 

2.1 percent in 2006, only 60 percent of the rate of growth 

in 2005. Credit intermediation also added jobs more slowly in 2006; the slower pace was due in large part to real 

estate credit, which saw employment edge down in 2006. 

Strong employment growth in the commercial banking 

industry contrasted with the slowed growth throughout 

credit intermediation. Commercial banking added twice 

as many jobs in 2006 as in 2005.

Strength in nonresidential construction boosted employment in some manufacturing industries. Architectural and structural metals manufacturing added jobs for the 

third consecutive year and grew twice as fast in 2006 as 

in 2005. Despite 3 years of continued growth, employment was still shy of its prerecession peak. Establishments 

in this industry manufacture building products for commercial and industrial construction, such as reinforcing 

bars and fabricated bar joists. Commercial refrigeration 

manufacturing added 10,000 jobs in 2006, compared with 

an average loss of 8,000 jobs per year over the previous 5 

years.

low 2005 levels for the majority of the year, and the ratio 

of housing starts to housing completions remained below 

1.0 for most of the year, indicating that fewer homes were 

started than completed.3

In contrast to the job losses registered in residential 

construction, nonresidential contractors experienced robust employment growth. (See chart 3.) Nonresidential 

specialty trades added twice as many jobs in 2006 as in 

2005, and payroll employment has increased by 290,000 

since reaching a low point in March 2003. Real expenditures for nonresidential construction increased in 2006, 

mirroring the employment growth.

4

The slumping housing market affected employment unfavorably in the manufacturing, retail, and financial activities industries. Wood products manufacturing lost 32,000 

jobs after employment peaked in January; employment 

had risen by an average 1,000 per month in the year leading up to the peak. Manufacturers in this industry produce goods used in the construction of homes, such as cut 

lumber, plywood, and wood trusses. Building material and 

supplies dealers saw job growth slow to less than a fifth of 

average job gains in 2005. Establishments in this industry 

include paint and wallpaper stores, hardware stores, and 

Thousands Thousands

138,000

136,500

135,000

133,500

132,000

130,500

129,000 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

138,000

136,500

135,000

133,500

132,000

130,500

129,000

NOTE: Shaded area denotes NBER-designated recession.

Chart 1. Total nonfarm employment, seasonally adjusted, 2000–06
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 21

 

 

2003 2004 2005 2006 Thousands Percent Thousands Percent Thousands Percent

 

 Total nonfarm.......... 130,298 132,363 134,904 137,167 2,065 1.6 2,541 1.9 2,263 1.7

 Total private.............. 108,756 110,659 113,031 115,053 1,903 1.7 2,372 2.1 2,022 1.8

 Goods-producing......... 21,691 22,024 22,410 22,520 333 1.5 386 1.8 110 .5

Natural resources and mining 576 601 651 705 25 4.3 50 8.3 54 8.3

 Logging .......................... 68.7 67.2 64.7 64.6 –1.5 –2.2 –2.5 –3.7 –.1 –.2

 Mining ............................... 507.0 534.2 586.3 640.0 27.2 5.4 52.1 9.8 53.7 9.2

 Oil and gas extraction....... 118.3 124.9 128.4 143.2 6.6 5.6 3.5 2.8 14.8 11.5

 Mining, except oil and gas 202.5 206.8 216.3 222.4 4.3 2.1 9.5 4.6 6.1 2.8

 Coal mining .................... 68.9 71.2 76.0 79.9 2.3 3.3 4.8 6.7 3.9 5.1

 Support activities for 

 mining ............................. 186.2 202.5 241.6 274.4 16.3 8.8 39.1 19.3 32.8 13.6

Construction........................... 6,819 7,131 7,550 7,684 312 4.6 419 5.9 134 1.8

 Construction of buildings .. 1,586.8 1,669.3 1,768.5 1,799.7 82.5 5.2 99.2 5.9 31.2 1.8

 Residential building........ 862.3 925.8 992.7 1,013.0 63.5 7.4 66.9 7.2 20.3 2.0

 Nonresidential building... 724.5 743.5 775.8 786.7 19.0 2.6 32.3 4.3 10.9 1.4

 Heavy and civil 

 engineering construction. 903.0 925.4 969.4 993.5 22.4 2.5 44.0 4.8 24.1 2.5

 Specialty trade contractors 4,329.1 4,536.4 4,812.5 4,890.5 207.3 4.8 276.1 6.1 78.0 1.6

 Residential specialty 

 trade contractors .......... 2,032.6 2,193.0 2,396.5 2,331.2 160.4 7.9 203.5 9.3 –65.3 –2.7

 Nonresidential specialty 

 trade contractors ......... 2,296.5 2,343.4 2,416.0 2,559.3 46.9 2.0 72.6 3.1 143.3 5.9

Manufacturing ........................ 14,296 14,292 14,209 14,131 –4 .0 –83 –.6 –78 –.5

 Durable goods ..................... 8,855 8,955 8,974 8,972 100 1.1 19 .2 –2 .0

 Wood products.................. 540.2 556.1 569.2 540.4 15.9 2.9 13.1 2.4 –28.8 –5.1

 Nonmetallic mineral 

 products .......................... 492.0 509.1 506.0 504.0 17.1 3.5 –3.1 –.6 –2.0 –.4

 Primary metals.................. 466.0 468.3 463.8 454.6 2.3 .5 -4.5 –1.0 –9.2 –2.0

 Fabricated metal products 1,472.7 1,511.0 1,533.7 1,564.9 38.3 2.6 22.7 1.5 31.2 2.0

 Machinery ......................... 1,132.2 1,147.9 1,169.7 1,210.1 15.7 1.4 21.8 1.9 40.4 3.5

 Computer and electronic 

 products .......................... 1,320.9 1,316.4 1,312.4 1,319.9 –4.5 –.3 –4.0 –.3 7.5 .6

 Computer and peripheral 

 equipment .................... 214.3 204.4 201.9 199.8 –9.9 –4.6 –2.5 –1.2 –2.1 –1.0

 Communications 

 equipment .................... 148.6 147.8 146.2 143.8 –.8 –.5 –1.6 –1.1 –2.4 –1.6

 Semiconductors and

 electronic components . 449.9 451.2 453.2 466.2 1.3 .3 2.0 .4 13.0 2.9

 Electronic instruments.... 426.6 435.8 435.9 438.3 9.2 2.2 .1 .0 2.4 .6

 Electrical equipment and 

 appliances....................... 450.0 442.5 430.3 437.4 –7.5 –1.7 –-12.2 –2.8 7.1 1.7

 Transportation equipment. 1,759.1 1,775.5 1,774.3 1,741.0 16.4 .9 –1.2 –.1 –33.3 –1.9

 Motor vehicles and parts 1,116.3 1,112.2 1,089.6 1,043.9 –4.1 –.4 –22.6 –2.0 –45.7 –4.2

 Furniture and related 

 products .......................... 569.3 573.1 563.8 541.1 3.8 .7 –9.3 –1.6 –22.7 –4.0

 Miscellaneous 

 manufacturing ................. 653.0 654.6 650.6 658.2 1.6 .2 –4.0 –.6 7.6 1.2

 Nondurable goods ............... 5,441 5,337 5,235 5,159 –104 –1.9 –102 –1.9 –76 –1.5

 Food manufacturing.......... 1,506.2 1,484.5 1,479.7 1,485.1 –21.7 –1.4 –4.8 –.3 5.4 .4

 Beverages and tobacco

 products .......................... 195.6 194.3 192.8 195.5 –1.3 –.7 –1.5 –.8 2.7 1.4

 Textile mills ....................... 243.8 230.2 208.1 185.0 –13.6 –5.6 –22.1 –9.6 –23.1 –11.1

 Textile product mills .......... 173.4 172.7 167.0 157.7 –.7 –.4 –5.7 –3.3 –9.3 –5.6

 Apparel ............................. 296.6 273.5 246.7 230.4 –23.1 –7.8 –26.8 –9.8 –16.3 –6.6

 Leather and allied 

 products .......................... 42.5 40.0 39.7 36.5 –2.5 –5.9 –.3 –.8 –3.2 –8.1

 Paper and paper products 504.4 490.3 477.1 462.6 –14.1 –2.8 –13.2 –2.7 –14.5 –3.0

 Printing and related 

 support activities ............. 671.3 655.3 639.7 636.7 –16.0 –2.4 –15.6 –2.4 –3.0 –.5

 Petroleum and coal 

 products .......................... 111.6 111.6 110.9 117.1 .0 .0 –.7 –.6 6.2 5.6

 Chemicals ......................... 891.2 880.6 867.0 871.0 –10.6 –1.2 -13.6 –1.5 4.0 .5

 

Industry

Change, December to December

December (thousands)

Employees on nonfarm payrolls, by industry, seasonally adjusted, 2003–06

2003–04 2004–05 2005–06

Table 1.
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

22 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

 

 

2003 2004 2005 2006 Thousands Percent Thousands Percent Thousands Percent

 

 Plastics and rubber 

 products .......................... 804.7 803.8 805.9 781.7 –.9 –.1 2.1 .3 –24.2 –3.0

 Service-providing................. 108,607 110,339 112,494 114,647 1,732 1.6 2,155 2.0 2,153 1.9

 Private service-

 providing ......................... 87,065 88,635 90,621 92,533 1,570 1.8 1,986 2.2 1,912 2.1

Trade, transportation, 

 and utilities .......................... 25,292 25,690 26,132 26,345 398 1.6 442 1.7 213 .8

 Wholesale trade .................. 5,605.0 5,706.8 5,820.8 5,955.0 101.8 1.8 114.0 2.0 134.2 2.3

 Durable goods .................. 2,925.9 2,966.8 3,034.8 3,104.3 40.9 1.4 68.0 2.3 69.5 2.3

 Nondurable goods ............ 1,998.5 2,019.8 2,024.7 2,055.0 21.3 1.1 4.9 .2 30.3 1.5

 Electronic markets and 

 agents and brokers ......... 680.6 720.2 761.3 795.7 39.6 5.8 41.1 5.7 34.4 4.5

 Retail trade .......................... 14,930.7 15,128.1 15,356.4 15,323.7 197.4 1.3 228.3 1.5 –32.7 –.2

 Motor vehicle and parts 

 dealers ............................ 1,893.6 1,907.2 1,913.6 1,908.5 13.6 .7 6.4 .3 –5.1 –.3

 Automobile dealers.......... 1,259.2 1,255.5 1,253.9 1,244.8 –3.7 –.3 –1.6 –.1 –9.1 –.7

 Furniture and home 

 furnishings stores............ 558.0 572.7 580.3 591.4 14.7 2.6 7.6 1.3 11.1 1.9

 Electronics and appliance

 stores .............................. 510.8 519.4 547.7 531.4 8.6 1.7 28.3 5.4 –16.3 –3.0

 Building material and 

 garden supply stores....... 1,199.5 1,251.4 1,299.9 1,314.1 51.9 4.3 48.5 3.9 14.2 1.1

 Food and beverage stores 2,812.6 2,806.8 2,815.7 2,843.7 –5.8 –.2 8.9 .3 28.0 1.0

 Health and personal care 

 stores .............................. 941.3 942.4 963.4 959.7 1.1 .1 21.0 2.2 –3.7 –.4

 Gasoline stations .............. 878.9 869.3 869.5 854.8 –9.6 –1.1 .2 .0 –14.7 –1.7

 Clothing and clothing 

 accessories stores .......... 1,319.3 1,376.8 1,444.7 1,460.1 57.5 4.4 67.9 4.9 15.4 1.1

 Sporting goods, hobby, 

 book, and music stores... 641.6 640.7 650.7 648.9 –.9 –.1 10.0 1.6 –1.8 –.3

 General merchandise 

 stores .............................. 2,835.6 2,906.8 2,944.6 2,885.4 71.2 2.5 37.8 1.3 –59.2 –2.0

 Department stores ......... 1,609.2 1,609.2 1,580.5 1,537.7 .0 .0 –28.7 –1.8 –42.8 –2.7

 Miscellaneous store 

 retailers ........................... 918.4 907.3 892.1 881.4 –11.1 –1.2 –15.2 –1.7 –10.7 –1.2

 Nonstore retailers ............. 421.1 427.3 434.2 444.3 6.2 1.5 6.9 1.6 10.1 2.3

 Transportation and 

 warehousing ...................... 4,185.2 4,299.8 4,403.9 4,517.0 114.6 2.7 104.1 2.4 113.1 2.6

 Air transportation .............. 517.6 512.1 486.2 488.3 –5.5 –1.1 –25.9 –5.1 2.1 .4

 Rail transportation............. 221.5 228.0 226.3 226.4 6.5 2.9 –1.7 –.7 .1 .0

 Water transportation ......... 55.1 56.3 63.4 67.8 1.2 2.2 7.1 12.6 4.4 6.9

 Truck transportation.......... 1,334.4 1,369.5 1,414.7 1,453.6 35.1 2.6 45.2 3.3 38.9 2.7

 Transit and ground 

 passenger transportation 386.5 389.4 394.3 390.2 2.9 .8 4.9 1.3 –4.1 –1.0

 Pipeline transportation...... 39.1 37.8 37.9 39.7 –1.3 –3.3 .1 .3 1.8 4.7

 Scenic and sightseeing 

 transportation.................. 25.6 27.9 27.8 27.8 2.3 9.0 –.1 –.4 .0 .0

 Support activities for 

 transportation.................. 521.6 546.5 559.8 575.9 24.9 4.8 13.3 2.4 16.1 2.9

 Couriers and messengers. 551.7 560.5 577.8 596.4 8.8 1.6 17.3 3.1 18.6 3.2

 Warehousing and storage. 532.1 571.8 615.7 650.9 39.7 7.5 43.9 7.7 35.2 5.7

 Utilities ............................... 571.0 555.6 550.9 549.2 –15.4 –2.7 –4.7 –.8 –1.7 –.3

Information ............................. 3,152 3,079 3,054 3,073 –73 –2.3 –25 –.8 19 .6

 Publishing industries, 

 except Internet ................ 914.4 904.0 903.4 906.1 –10.4 –1.1 –.6 –.1 2.7 .3

 Motion picture and sound 

 recording industries......... 385.5 375.1 382.3 378.3 –10.4 –2.7 7.2 1.9 –4.0 –1.0

 Broadcasting, except 

 Internet............................ 322.2 327.1 327.9 335.6 4.9 1.5 .8 .2 7.7 2.3

 Internet publishing and 

 broadcasting ................... 28.3 30.5 32.9 37.0 2.2 7.8 2.4 7.9 4.1 12.5

 Telecommunications ......... 1,061.1 1,012.0 976.7 978.0 –49.1 –4.6 –35.3 –3.5 1.3 .1

Industry

Change, December to December

December (thousands)

Continued—Employees on nonfarm payrolls, by industry, seasonally adjusted, 2003–06

2003–04 2004–05 2005–06

Table 1.
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 23

 

 

2003 2004 2005 2006 Thousands Percent Thousands Percent Thousands Percent

 ISP’s, search portals, and 

 data processing............... 390.2 379.5 379.7 386.1 –10.7 –2.7 .2 .1 6.4 1.7

 Other information 

 services........................... 50.0 50.8 50.7 52.1 .8 1.6 –.1 –.2 1.4 2.8

Financial activities .................. 7,984 8,083 8,250 8,438 99 1.2 167 2.1 188 2.3

 Finance and insurance ........ 5,918.9 5,979.1 6,095.0 6,239.8 60.2 1.0 115.9 1.9 144.8 2.4

 Monetary authorities—

 central bank ................... 22.4 20.9 20.9 21.8 –1.5 –6.7 .0 .0 .9 4.3

 Credit intermediation and 

 related activities .............. 2,800.6 2,836.8 2,902.4 2,959.7 36.2 1.3 65.6 2.3 57.3 2.0

 Depository credit 

 intermediation............... 1,749.2 1,755.5 1,781.8 1,824.6 6.3 .4 26.3 1.5 42.8 2.4

 Commercial banking..... 1,277.1 1,286.0 1,302.4 1,336.9 8.9 .7 16.4 1.3 34.5 2.6

 Securities, commodity 

 contracts, investments .... 754.7 778.7 796.9 829.2 24.0 3.2 18.2 2.3 32.3 4.1

 Insurance carriers and 

 related activities .............. 2,255.0 2,257.0 2,284.8 2,333.9 2.0 .1 27.8 1.2 49.1 2.1

 Funds, trusts, and other 

		 	 financial vehicles............... 86.2 85.7 90.0 95.2 –.5 –.6 4.3 5.0 5.2 5.8

 Real estate and rental and 

 leasing ............................... 2,064.6 2,103.8 2,154.9 2,198.0 39.2 1.9 51.1 2.4 43.1 2.0

 Real estate........................ 1,393.9 1,433.1 1,484.8 1,516.4 39.2 2.8 51.7 3.6 31.6 2.1

 Rental and leasing 

 services........................... 643.7 645.0 642.4 650.9 1.3 .2 –2.6 –.4 8.5 1.3

		 	 Lessors of nonfinancial

 intangible assets ............. 27.0 25.7 27.7 30.7 –1.3 –4.8 2.0 7.8 3.0 10.8

Professional and business 

 services ............................... 16,149 16,607 17,293 17,792 458 2.8 686 4.1 499 2.9

 Professional and technical 

 services ............................. 6,672.0 6,899.7 7,215.3 7,499.8 227.7 3.4 315.6 4.6 284.5 3.9

 Legal services ................. 1,154.8 1,165.9 1,168.6 1,179.0 11.1 1.0 2.7 .2 10.4 .9

 Accounting and 

 bookkeeping services .... 810.0 815.8 880.7 925.1 5.8 .7 64.9 8.0 44.4 5.0

 Architectural and 

 engineering services...... 1,232.9 1,283.6 1,345.9 1,411.4 50.7 4.1 62.3 4.9 65.5 4.9

 Computer systems design 

 and related services ...... 1,124.4 1,181.9 1,228.1 1,303.3 57.5 5.1 46.2 3.9 75.2 6.1

 Management and technical 

 consulting services ........ 760.3 815.4 887.0 953.8 55.1 7.2 71.6 8.8 66.8 7.5

 Management of companies 

 and enterprises.................. 1,702.8 1,745.1 1,775.7 1,826.0 42.3 2.5 30.6 1.8 50.3 2.8

 Administrative and waste 

 services ............................. 7,774.6 7,961.9 8,301.7 8,466.4 187.3 2.4 339.8 4.3 164.7 2.0

 Administrative and 

 support services.............. 7,451.5 7,628.3 7,959.6 8,117.0 176.8 2.4 331.3 4.3 157.4 2.0

 Employment services ...... 3,378.6 3,463.5 3,677.1 3,674.2 84.9 2.5 213.6 6.2 –2.9 –.1

 Temporary help 

 services....................... 2,311.0 2,445.7 2,658.1 2,641.6 134.7 5.8 212.4 8.7 –16.5 –.6

 Business support 

 services ......................... 752.8 767.7 768.1 806.9 14.9 2.0 .4 .1 38.8 5.1

 Services to buildings 

 and dwellings................. 1,655.6 1,704.8 1,770.9 1,817.7 49.2 3.0 66.1 3.9 46.8 2.6

 Waste management and 

 remediation services ....... 323.1 333.6 342.1 349.4 10.5 3.2 8.5 2.5 7.3 2.1

Education and health services 16,751 17,144 17,573 18,063 393 2.3 429 2.5 490 2.8

 Educational services ........... 2,740.1 2,802.0 2,862.4 2,948.6 61.9 2.3 60.4 2.2 86.2 3.0

 Health care and social 

 assistance.......................... 14,010.8 14,342.4 14,710.9 15,113.9 331.6 2.4 368.5 2.6 403.0 2.7

 Health care .......................... 11,919.0 12,170.9 12,438.2 12,779.2 251.9 2.1 267.3 2.2 341.0 2.7

 Ambulatory health care 

 services........................... 4,853.9 5,032.4 5,189.6 5,369.2 178.5 3.7 157.2 3.1 179.6 3.5

		 	 	Offices of physicians ....... 2,024.9 2,068.6 2,118.4 2,185.5 43.7 2.2 49.8 2.4 67.1 3.2

Industry

Change, December to December

December (thousands)

Continued—Employees on nonfarm payrolls, by industry, seasonally adjusted, 2003–06

2003–04 2004–05 2005–06

Table 1.
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

24 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

Foreign competition

Employment in the textile and apparel industries continued long-term declines; job losses in these industries accounted for 64 percent of the total employment decrease 

in nondurable goods for 2006. Employment has migrated out of the United States to countries with lower wages and fewer other costs. Imports hurt these industries; 

for every dollar’s worth of textiles and apparel exported 

 

 

2003 2004 2005 2006 Thousands Percent Thousands Percent Thousands Percent

 

 Outpatient care centers ... 433.4 460.3 483.4 493.6 26.9 6.2 23.1 5.0 10.2 2.1

 Home health care 

 services ......................... 752.9 801.5 838.9 890.9 48.6 6.5 37.4 4.7 52.0 6.2

 Hospitals ........................... 4,266.5 4,301.6 4,379.1 4,469.5 35.1 .8 77.5 1.8 90.4 2.1

 Nursing and residential 

 care facilities ................... 2,798.6 2,836.9 2,869.5 2,940.5 38.3 1.4 32.6 1.1 71.0 2.5

 Nursing care facilities ...... 1,575.1 1,577.8 1,578.6 1,596.4 2.7 .2 .8 .1 17.8 1.1

 Social assistance.............. 2,091.8 2,171.5 2,272.7 2,334.7 79.7 3.8 101.2 4.7 62.0 2.7

 Child day care services ... 754.8 775.1 805.5 803.6 20.3 2.7 30.4 3.9 –1.9 –.2

Leisure and hospitality ........... 12,333 12,638 12,918 13,373 305 2.5 280 2.2 455 3.5

 Arts, entertainment, and 

 recreation ............................ 1,830.1 1,854.9 1,905.1 1,957.2 24.8 1.4 50.2 2.7 52.1 2.7

 Performing arts and 

 spectator sports ................ 371.4 368.2 380.6 406.4 –3.2 –.9 12.4 3.4 25.8 6.8

 Museums, historical sites, 

 zoos, and parks ................ 115.1 118.6 121.1 127.1 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.1 6.0 5.0

 Amusements, gambling,

 and recreation................... 1,343.6 1,368.1 1,403.4 1,423.7 24.5 1.8 35.3 2.6 20.3 1.4

 Accommodations and food 

 services ............................... 10,502.7 10,783.0 11,013.2 11,415.9 280.3 2.7 230.2 2.1 402.7 3.7

 Accommodations ............... 1,785.5 1,806.9 1,822.8 1,863.2 21.4 1.2 15.9 .9 40.4 2.2

 Food services and drinking 

 places.............................. 8,717.2 8,976.1 9,190.4 9,552.7 258.9 3.0 214.3 2.4 362.3 3.9

Other services ........................ 5,404 5,394 5,401 5,449 –10 –.2 7 .1 48 .9

 Repair and maintenance ... 1,226.0 1,229.2 1,239.6 1,251.6 3.2 .3 10.4 .8 12.0 1.0

 Personal and laundry 

 services............................. 1,266.6 1,275.2 1,276.4 1,287.4 8.6 .7 1.2 .1 11.0 .9

 Membership associations 

 and organizations............ 2,911.2 2,889.4 2,885.3 2,909.7 –21.8 –.7 –4.1 –.1 24.4 .8

Government ........................... 21,542 21,704 21,873 22,114 162 .8 169 .8 241 1.1

 Federal ............................... 2,735 2,729 2,732 2,713 –6 –.2 3 .1 –19 –.7

 Federal, except U.S. 

 Postal Service................. 1,941.3 1,951.8 1,957.5 1,948.6 10.5 .5 5.7 .3 –8.9 –.5

 U.S. Postal Service........... 793.7 776.7 774.5 764.5 –17.0 –2.1 –2.2 –.3 –10.0 –1.3

 State government ................ 4,983 5,002 5,057 5,111 19 .4 55 1.1 54 1.1

 State government 

 education ........................ 2,252.0 2,242.2 2,280.0 2,311.8 –9.8 –.4 37.8 1.7 31.8 1.4

 State government, 

 excluding education ........ 2,731.0 2,759.7 2,777.0 2,798.9 28.7 1.1 17.3 .6 21.9 .8

 Local government................ 13,824 13,973 14,084 14,290 149 1.1 111 .8 206 1.5

 Local government 

 education ........................ 7,708.6 7,804.1 7,882.0 8,015.6 95.5 1.2 77.9 1.0 133.6 1.7

 Local government, 

 excluding education.......... 6,115.6 6,168.9 6,202.1 6,274.1 53.3 .9 33.2 .5 72.0 1.2

Industry

Change, December to December

December (thousands)

Continued—Employees on nonfarm payrolls, by industry, seasonally adjusted, 2003–06

2003–04 2004–05 2005–06

Table 1.

by U.S. manufacturers, $6.66 worth of textiles and apparel were imported.5

The story was quite different for the aerospace products and parts industry, which added 9,000 jobs to payrolls 

in 2006, marking the third consecutive over-the-year employment gain. This industry has benefited from a more 

global economy: global demand for air freight is increasing, and jet production must keep pace. Also, higher fuel 

prices have created a need for fuel-efficient jets.6 The risNOTE: Consistent with other CES publications, employment data 

are rounded to thousands for supersectors and selected aggregate 

industries and to hundreds for more detailed industries.
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 25

ing demand for air freight and fuel-efficient jets has resulted in a surge in new orders for nondefense aircraft and 

parts such that the number of new orders in 2006 was 

more than double the number in 2004.7

Unlike aerospace manufacturing, the motor vehicles 

and parts manufacturing industry has not benefited from 

a more global economy. In 2006, employment in this industry decreased by 46,000, the largest loss since 2001. 

American-branded automakers face many obstacles. Their 

share of the market has dwindled considerably, and they 

struggle with high legacy costs—the costs of pensions, 

health insurance, and other benefits.8 These costs have become more burdensome as rising fuel prices have shifted consumer preferences away from sport utility vehicles.9 

American-branded automakers have been less nimble in 

designing and marketing smaller, more fuel-efficient vehicles and have ceded their market share to both imports 

and foreign-branded companies operating in the United States. These foreign-branded companies have chosen 

to locate in areas where they can operate their facilities 

with less union influence, guaranteeing greater workforce 

flexibility and lower costs. In response, American-branded companies have sought, and received, concessions from 

unions that allow workforce reductions through attrition, 

buyouts, and early retirement.10

Demand for skilled labor

Employment in temporary help services changed little in 

2006. (See chart 4.) The industry sells its services to many 

different industries and employs workers in all types of occupations. With the wide diversity of employees and customers, several factors contributed to the flatness in temporary help employment in 2006. About two-thirds of 

the employment services industry comes from three occupational categories—office and administrative support, 

transportation and material moving, and production11—

that include many lower paid and lower skilled occupations. Still, demand for higher skilled workers remained 

firm throughout 2006. In a survey conducted by Manpower, Inc., employers said that they “would have hired more 

permanent professional staff ” if they could have found 

qualified applicants to fill the positions.12 With softening 

in manufacturing, construction, and retail trade, it is possible that the demand for these industries’ lower skilled 

workers weakened. As a result, temporary help firms were 

Chart 2.. Total nonfarm job openings, hires, and total separations rates, seasonally adjusted, 2001–06

4.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

2001

Hires rate

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Job openings rate

Total separations rate

4.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

Percent Percent

NOTE: Shaded area denotes NBER-designated recession.
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

26 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

unwilling to hire lower skilled workers, yet unable to find 

higher skilled workers, thereby making for the aforementioned flat employment in the temporary help services industry in 2006.

Workers in some industries benefited from the strong 

demand for highly skilled labor. In particular, employment 

in professional and technical services increased by 285,000. 

A relatively large share of the workers in this group of industries, including engineers, accountants, computer systems designers, and consultants, to name a few, is highly 

paid (see table 2) and, presumably, highly skilled. Although 

demand for these positions was high, there was a shortage 

of labor that led to relatively large wage gains.13 Average 

hourly earnings, at $25.95 as measured by the CES survey, 

rose 5.7 percent over the year, compared with $17.07 per 

hour and 4.3-percent growth for the entire private sector.

High oil and gas prices

There is a positive correlation between the price of crude 

oil and mining employment: as crude oil prices increase, 

the more profitable it becomes to drill for oil and gas, and 

companies respond by hiring more workers to meet demand. (See chart 5.) With oil and gas prices remaining 

high in 2006, employment in oil and gas extraction grew 4 

times as fast as in 2005, bringing employment to its highest level since November 1997. Support activities for oil 

and gas operations added 25,000 jobs over the year, a 16-

percent increase. Establishments in this industry provide 

support activities on a contract or fee basis. Since reaching 

a low point in April 2003, the industry has added 62,000 

jobs, far surpassing the most recent peak in January 2002.

Petroleum and coal products manufacturing, which is 

dominated by petroleum refineries, also benefited from 

high oil and gas prices, adding 6,000 jobs in 2006 after a 

long-term decline. This performance contrasts with that 

of nondurable goods manufacturing, which lost 76,000 

jobs in 2006.

Contributing to the nondurable goods employment 

loss was plastics and rubber products manufacturing, an 

industry that suffered from the high cost of oil, a major 

input to the industry’s production. Like employment in 

other manufacturing industries, plastics and rubber products employment was hit hard during the recession, but 

job losses had curtailed, and until this year, employment 

had been stagnant. Employment declines totaled 12,000 

Chart 3. Residential and nonresidential construction employment, seasonally adjusted, 2004–06

Thousands Thousands

NOTE: Residential construction is the sum of residential building (NAICS 2361) and residential specialty trade contractors 

(NAICS 238001). Nonresidential construction is the sum of nonresidential building (NAICS 2362) and nonresidential specialty 

trade contractors (NAICS 238002). These are not official CES series.

3,500

3,400

3,300

3,200

3,100

3,000

2,900

January 

 2004

July 

 2004

January 

 2005

July 

 2005

January 

 2006

July 

 2006

Residential

Nonresidential

3,500

3,400

3,300

3,200

3,100

3,000

2,900
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 27

in 2006, after adjustment for striking tire workers.14

Consumption of goods and services

Consumers had a positive outlook in 2006, with the Consumer Confidence Index ending the year at the highest 

level since May 2002.15 Despite the positive outlook, employment in retail trade edged down, following 2 years 

of robust growth. Employment in general merchandise 

stores declined by 59,000, with most of the decrease split 

between high-end and discount department stores. Electronics and appliance stores employment, which had one of 

the fastest growth rates within retail trade in 2005, edged 

down over the year, and employment in compact disc and 

record stores declined by 16,000. As digital media become 

cheaper and more readily available, people increasingly are 

purchasing their music online instead of in the store.16 Job 

gains in food and beverage stores helped offset the losses in other parts of retail trade. Since reaching a trough 

in September 2005, this industry has regained one-fifth 

of the jobs it lost in the peak-to-trough period starting in 

April 2000 and ending in September 2005.

Like employment in food and beverage stores, employment in food services and drinking places increased in 

2006, with the industry adding 362,000 jobs. This industry has added jobs every year since 1991. The leisure and 

hospitality industry added 455,000 jobs, the largest yearto-year increase in the history of the series.

Government budgets

Tax revenues for Federal, State, and local governments 

continued to grow in 2006.17 Federal employment continued its slow decline, but State and local government employment trended upward. Much of the employment gain 

came in State and local government’s education components, which together added 165,000 jobs. Local government education had its largest over-the-year gain since 

2001.

Public spending on nonbuilding construction increased 

in 2006, leading to increased work for private heavy construction.18 Employment in this industry grew over the 

year, although at a pace reduced from that of 2005. Since 

reaching a trough in February 2004, the industry has added 98,000 jobs, surpassing its prerecessionary employment 

level. Much of the employment gain in 2006 was in utiliChart 4. Employment in temporary help services, seasonally adjusted, 1999–2006

Thousands Thousands

1999

2,800

2,700

2,600

2,500

2,400

2,300

2,200

2,100

2,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

2,800

2,700

2,600

2,500

2,400

2,300

2,200

2,100

2,000
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

28 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

Distribution of employment by selected occupations: total nonfarm and professional, scientific,

Percent distribution

 Total nonfarm

 Total, all occupations ........................................................... $28.15 100.0 100.0

	Office and administrative support occupations ......................... 15.38 17.5 25.8

Computer and mathematical occupations................................. 34.34 2.3 13.4

Architecture and engineering occupations................................ 29.78 1.8 12.0

	Business and financial operations occupations ........................ 31.62 4.2 11.2

Legal occupations ..................................................................... 42.38 .8 8.4

Management occupations......................................................... 54.37 4.6 7.3

Other occupations..................................................................... 22.84 68.8 21.9

 

Occupation Professional,

scientific, and

technical services

Table 2.

NOTE: Data come from the Occupational Employment Survey, on the Internet at www.bls.gov/oes. 

ty system construction.

Total public health expenditures increased by 10.0 percent in 2006,19 having a positive impact on employment 

in health care. Doctors’ offices, home health care services, hospitals, and nursing and residential care facilities all 

added more jobs in 2006 than in 2005. Research suggests 

that as employment in the broader economy slows, employment among health care providers is able to accelerate.20 Employment in nursing care facilities increased 

by 18,000, the first over-the-year job gain in the industry 

since 2002. In the past, nursing care facilities have suffered 

from changes to the Medicare payment system, as well as 

reductions in total Medicare payments, leading to stagnant employment during the past 3 years.21

Job openings

Job openings are a measure of unmet labor demand. The 

Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey (JOLTS) counts 

the number of openings on the last business day of the 

month. In 2006, the seasonally adjusted monthly job 

openings rate22 remained flat through the first half of the 

year, but climbed in the second half. (See chart 2.) On the 

last business day of 2006, there were 4.4 million job openings, a figure that translates to a 3.1-percent job openings 

rate, compared with 2.8 percent for the last business day 

of 2005.

The monthly job openings rate throughout the year 

was higher in 2006 than in 2005 for most industries and 

regions. The biggest year-to-year increase in the average 

monthly job openings rate among industries was in information, followed by the transportation, warehousing, and 

utilities industry.

The industries with the highest average monthly job 

openings rate in 2006 were information (4.4 percent), accommodations and food services (4.0 percent), and health 

care and social assistance (3.9 percent). Geographically, 

unmet labor demand was consistently higher in 2006 in 

the South and West than in the Northeast and Midwest. 

(See chart 6.)

Hires

Hires are the sum total of additions to the payroll during 

the month. Increased hiring indicates a healthier economy. In 2006, the seasonally adjusted monthly hires rate 

was relatively flat, staying between 3.5 percent and 3.8 percent. Over the year, there were 59.4 million hires, slightly 

higher than the 57.5 million in 2005. (See table 3.)

The hires rate was little changed between 2005 and 

2006 in most industries. The exception was construction, 

in which the average monthly hires rate decreased from 

5.9 percent in 2005 to 4.9 percent in 2006, a year in which 

the hires rate reached some of the lowest points in the series for construction.

For almost every month in 2006, the hires rate was 

highest in professional and business services and in accommodations and food services. Regionally, the hires 

rate was higher in 2006 in the South and West than in 

the Midwest and Northeast.

Separations

All separations from the payroll throughout the month 

are counted in the JOLTS total separations figure. The seasonally adjusted monthly total separations rate did not 

vary much throughout 2006, ranging between 3.2 percent 

and technical services

Hourly mean wage
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 29

and 3.6 percent. For the year, there were 55.4 million total separations, up slightly from the 54.6 million total 

separations in 2005. (See table 4.)

The total separations rate was consistently highest in 

2006 in accommodations and food services. The average 

monthly total separations rate also was high in construction. Regionally, the total separations rate was higher in 

2006 in the South and West than in the Midwest and 

Northeast.

Churn in the labor market

Although the hires and total separations rates were relatively flat in 2006, there were still a vast number of hires 

(59.4 million) and separations (55.4 million) during the 

year. Two industries often had higher hires and total separations rates throughout 2006 than any other industries: 

accommodations and food services; and arts, entertainment, and recreation. Each of these industries regularly 

has large numbers of people moving in and out of jobs. 

Both the hires and total separations rates were higher in 

these industries because of the nature of the work and the 

pay. Jobs in the two industries tend to be easier to enter, 

because they do not demand many specific skill sets. Exits also are relatively more numerous, due to lower pay and 

less satisfying working conditions.

Analysis of separations

The components of total separations are quits, layoffs 

and discharges, and other separations. Quits are voluntary separations. Therefore, rising quits levels usually indicate that workers feel more confident about the availability of other jobs and are willing to leave their current job 

in search of a new one. There were slightly more quits in 

2006 than in 2005 (See table 5.) At 32.3 million in 2006, 

quits made up the largest part of total separations. Also, 

the number of quits as a percentage of total separations 

rose at times, to reach prerecession levels. (See chart 7.) 

Regionally, the South consistently had the highest ratio 

of quits to separations.

Layoffs and discharges measure involuntary separations. Quits, on the one hand, and layoffs and discharges, 

on the other, move in opposite directions throughout the 

business cycle. In 2006, there were fewer layoffs and discharges (18.9 million) than in 2005 (20.0 million). (See 

Chart 5. Employment in support activities for oil and gas operations and West Texas intermediate 

 crude oil, spot prices, 2000–06

Thousands, 

seasonally adjusted

186

120

126

132

138

144

150

156

162

168

174

180

 96

102

108

114

80

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

25

20

15

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

NOTE: Shaded area denotes NBER-designated recession. 

 SOURCE: Energy Information Administration.

 Dollars 

 per barrel

Support activities

Crude oil
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

30 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

table 6.) In 2006, the average monthly layoffs and discharges rate was highest in arts, entertainment, and recreation; construction; and professional and business services. Regionally, the West had the highest average monthly 

layoffs and discharges rate. 

The remaining separations, such as transfers, retirements, and deaths, are measured in the “other separations” 

category, which reflects demographic change as well as 

economic change. Other separations make up a very small 

portion of total separations, relative to quits and to layoffs and discharges. Other separations increased from 3.8 

million in 2005 to 4.2 million in 2006. (See table 7.) Federal Government had the highest average monthly other separations rate in 2006, followed by natural resources 

and mining, and professional and business services. Geographically, all four regions had the same average monthly other separations rate of 0.3 percent.

Labor shortages

Typically, the hires rate exceeds the job openings rate because job openings are a stock measure (measured on only 

1 day, the last business day of the month), while hires are 

a flow measure (measured for the entire month). However, the reverse relationship is true in a few industries, 

indicating that demand (job openings) outpaces supply 

(hires). As in previous years, demand outpaced supply in 

the health care and social assistance sector. This industry 

includes nursing and other health care workers. The average monthly job openings rate was 3.9 percent, while the 

average monthly hires rate was 2.8 percent. A major factor increasing the demand for registered nurses is the provision of health care for an aging population.23

The finance and insurance industry also showed high 

unmet labor demand, with a higher average monthly job 

openings rate (3.3 percent) than hires rate (2.2 percent). 

Moderate labor shortages appeared as well in State and 

local government, where the job openings rate averaged 

2.1 percent per month for the year while the hires rate averaged only 1.7 percent per month. (See chart 8.)

Trends in industries and regions

JOLTS data showed weakness in construction and strength 

in professional and business services during 2006. Both durable goods and financial activities exhibited mixed signals.

Chart 6. Job openings rates, by region, seasonally adjusted, 2001–06

Percent

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

NOTE: Shaded area denotes NBER-designated recession.

4.0

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Percent

4.0

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

South West

Northeast Midwest
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 31

Annual hires rates1 and levels2

2005 2006 Change 2005 2006 Change 

 Total ............................................................... 43.0 43.6 0.6 1.4 57,491 59,400 1,909 3.3

 Industry 

Total private......................................................... 47.7 48.0 .3 .6 53,416 54,851 1,435 2.7

 Natural resources and mining .......................... 40.9 37.6 –3.3 –8.1 257 257 0 .0

 Construction ..................................................... 70.2 58.7 –11.5 –16.4 5,150 4,513 –637 –12.4

 Manufacturing................................................... 28.9 30.1 1.2 4.2 4,112 4,278 166 4.0

 Durable goods ............................................... 28.9 28.3 –.6 –2.1 2,592 2,549 -43 –1.7

 Nondurable goods ......................................... 28.9 33.3 4.4 15.2 1,521 1,730 209 13.7

 Trade, transportation, and utilities .................... 47.3 48.2 .9 1.9 12,289 12,640 351 2.9

 Wholesale trade............................................. 29.8 27.6 –2.2 –7.4 1,720 1,629 –91 –5.3

 Retail trade .................................................... 55.8 58.2 2.4 4.3 8,530 8,909 379 4.4

 Transportation, warehousing, 

 and utilities................................................... 41.5 41.9 .4 1.0 2,039 2,100 61 3.0

 Information ....................................................... 28.8 31.9 3.1 10.8 881 974 93 10.6

 Financial activities ............................................ 28.0 30.0 2.0 7.1 2,281 2,512 231 10.1

 Finance and insurance .................................. 23.8 26.0 2.2 9.2 1,436 1,608 172 12.0

 Real estate, and rental and leasing ............... 39.7 41.4 1.7 4.3 845 903 58 6.9

 Professional and business services ................. 62.3 64.5 2.2 3.5 10,554 11,328 774 7.3

 Education and health services ......................... 32.3 33.1 .8 2.5 5,619 5,905 286 5.1

 Educational services...................................... 25.4 28.8 3.4 13.4 721 840 119 16.5

 Health care and social assistance ................. 33.7 34.0 .3 .9 4,898 5,066 168 3.4

 Leisure and hospitality...................................... 77.2 78.6 1.4 1.8 9,893 10,336 443 4.5

 Arts, entertainment, and recreation ............... 79.4 78.3 –1.1 –1.4 1,503 1,509 6 .4

 Accommodations and food services.............. 76.8 78.7 1.9 2.5 8,391 8,828 437 5.2

 Other services .................................................. 44.2 38.8 –5.4 –12.2 2,384 2,106 –278 –11.7

Government ........................................................ 18.7 20.7 2.0 10.7 4,075 4,549 474 11.6

 Federal ............................................................. 18.0 25.6 7.6 42.2 492 699 207 42.1

 State and local.................................................. 18.8 20.0 1.2 6.4 3,586 3,848 262 7.3

 Region3

 Northeast.......................................................... 37.3 36.3 –1.0 –2.7 9,331 9,233 –98 –1.1

 South ................................................................ 46.1 47.6 1.5 3.3 22,069 23,250 1,181 5.4

 Midwest ............................................................ 40.1 40.3 .2 .5 12,403 12,658 255 2.1

 West ................................................................. 45.9 46.8 .9 2.0 13,689 14,259 570 4.2

Industry and region Percent

change

Percent

change

Table 3.

1 The annual hires rate is the number of hires posted during the entire 

year as a percent of annual average employment. 2 The annual hires level is the number of hires posted during the 

entire year. 3 The States (including the District of Columbia) that make up the 

regions are as follows: Northeast—Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, 

New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 

and Vermont; South—Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, 

North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, 

and West Virginia; Midwest—Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, 

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, 

and Wisconsin; West—Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, 

Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, 

and Wyoming.

Weakness in construction is most evident in the hires 

rate, which averaged 5.9 percent per month in 2005 and 

then declined throughout 2006, dropping to 2.8 percent, a 

level not seen since December 2000. The annual quits rate, 

a barometer of workers’ ability to change jobs, decreased 

from 28.6 percent in 2005 to 25.7 percent in 2006. (See 

table 5.) After the 2001 recession, the quits rate in construction generally trended upward until the latter part 

of 2005, when it began a downward swing. In 2006, the 

monthly rate fell to a low of 1.5 percent. Although most 

other industries saw increases in their average monthly 

job openings rates from 2005 to 2006, construction held 

steady. Despite lackluster growth in the industry, the job 

openings rate in construction tends to be much lower than 

in other industries, implying that jobs in construction are 

fairly easy to fill. The declines in the hires and quits rates 

and the stagnant job openings rate together show a weakening situation for construction, consistent with the CES

picture of residential construction employment.

JOLTS data for professional and business services exRate (percent) Level (thousands)
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

32 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

Rate (percent) Level (thousands)

 2005 2006 Change 2005 2006 Change 

 Total .............................................................. 40.8 40.7 –0.1 –0.2 54,609 55,422 813 1.5

 Industry

Total private......................................................... 45.8 45.3 –.5 –1.1 51,286 51,715 429 .8

 Natural resources and mining .......................... 32.8 33.2 .4 1.2 206 227 21 10.2

 Construction ..................................................... 66.1 60.5 –5.6 –8.5 4,847 4,653 –194 –4.0

 Manufacturing................................................... 31.4 31.6 .2 .6 4,469 4,483 14 .3

 Durable goods ............................................... 31.6 28.8 –2.8 –8.9 2,829 2,590 –239 –8.4

 Nondurable goods ......................................... 31.1 36.5 5.4 17.4 1,640 1,896 256 15.6

 Trade, transportation, and utilities .................... 46.2 45.7 –.5 –1.1 11,983 11,995 12 .1

 Wholesale trade............................................. 27.8 29.1 1.3 4.7 1,602 1,716 114 7.1

 Retail trade .................................................... 55.1 55.6 .5 .9 8,424 8,517 93 1.1

 Transportation, warehousing, 

 and utilities................................................... 39.8 35.1 –4.7 –11.8 1,955 1,760 –195 –10.0

 Information ....................................................... 29.2 30.9 1.7 5.8 893 944 51 5.7

 Financial activities ............................................ 26.2 30.4 4.2 16.0 2,134 2,540 406 19.0

 Finance and insurance .................................. 22.7 26.0 3.3 14.5 1,367 1,607 240 17.6

 Real estate, and rental and leasing ............... 36.1 42.7 6.6 18.3 769 931 162 21.1

 Professional and business services ................. 57.9 57.3 –.6 –1.0 9,816 10,061 245 2.5

 Education and health services ......................... 28.6 28.6 .0 .0 4,969 5,099 130 2.6

 Educational services...................................... 22.5 23.7 1.2 5.3 638 692 54 8.5

 Health care and social assistance ................. 29.8 29.6 –.2 –.7 4,331 4,410 79 1.8

 Leisure and hospitality...................................... 75.5 74.1 –1.4 –1.9 9,674 9,734 60 .6

 Arts, entertainment, and recreation ............... 74.5 68.9 –5.6 –7.5 1,409 1,328 –81 –5.7

 Accommodations and food services.............. 75.7 74.9 –.8 –1.1 8,266 8,405 139 1.7

 Other services .................................................. 42.6 36.5 –6.1 –14.3 2,300 1,981 –319 –13.9

Government ........................................................ 15.2 16.9 1.7 11.2 3,325 3,706 381 11.5

 Federal ............................................................. 16.3 25.0 8.7 53.4 446 681 235 52.7

 State and local.................................................. 15.1 15.7 .6 4.0 2,880 3,024 144 5.0

 Region3

Northeast ........................................................... 35.5 34.0 –1.5 -4.2 8,880 8,654 –226 –2.5

 South ................................................................. 43.7 44.6 .9 2.1 20,928 21,765 837 4.0

 Midwest.............................................................. 38.9 38.4 –.5 –1.3 12,032 12,073 41 .3

 West................................................................... 42.8 42.4 –.4 –.9 12,773 12,930 157 1.2

Industry and region Percent

change

Table 4.

Percent

change

Annual total separations rates1 and levels2

1 The annual total separations rate is the number of separations 

posted during the entire year as a percent of annual average employment. 2 The annual total separations level is the number of separations 

posted during the entire year. 3 The States (including the District of Columbia) that make 

up the regions are as follows: Northeast—Connecticut, Maine, 

Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, 

Rhode Island, and Vermont; South—Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, 

District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, 

Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, 

Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia; Midwest—Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 

Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, 

Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin; West—Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, 

Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.

hibited signs of strength in 2006. This industry had a consistently higher job openings rate for most months of the 

year, compared with other industries. The average monthly job openings rate in 2006 for professional and business services was 3.8 percent, higher than the total nonfarm rate of 2.9 percent. The average monthly hires rate 

grew slightly in 2006, while the total separations rate remained consistent with 2005 levels. The average monthly quits rate increased slightly, from 2.3 percent in 2005 to 

2.5 percent in 2006, signaling strength in the professional 

and business services industry. 

The durable goods manufacturing industry exhibited mixed signs in 2006. The durable goods job openings 

rate has grown steadily every year since 2003. The average 

monthly job openings rate grew from 2.0 percent in 2005 

to 2.4 percent in 2006. The hires rate was little changed 

over the year. The annual total separations rate for 2006 

was 28.8 percent, compared with 31.6 percent in 2005. 
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 33

Rate (percent) Level (thousands)

2005 2006 Change 2005 2006 Change

 Total ............................................................. 23.1 23.7 0.6 2.6 30,825 32,292 1,467 4.8

 Industry

Total private......................................................... 26.1 26.7 .6 2.3 29,229 30,461 1,232 4.2

 Natural resources and mining............................ 17.5 18.7 1.2 6.9 110 128 18 16.4

 Construction....................................................... 28.6 25.7 –2.9 –10.1 2,098 1,977 –121 –5.8

 Manufacturing.................................................... 16.1 16.6 .5 3.1 2,288 2,356 68 3.0

 Durable goods ............................................... 15.9 14.9 –1.0 –6.3 1,421 1,345 –76 –5.3

 Nondurable goods ......................................... 16.5 19.5 3.0 18.2 868 1,014 146 16.8

 Trade, transportation, and utilities...................... 27.4 28.0 .6 2.2 7,117 7,337 220 3.1

 Wholesale trade............................................. 15.1 16.5 1.4 9.3 873 973 100 11.5

 Retail trade .................................................... 34.9 35.2 .3 .9 5,340 5,391 51 1.0

 Transportation, warehousing, 

 and utilities................................................... 18.4 19.4 1.0 5.4 904 972 68 7.5

 Information ....................................................... 19.0 21.9 2.9 15.3 581 670 89 15.3

 Financial activities ............................................ 15.5 18.3 2.8 18.1 1,262 1,527 265 21.0

 Finance and insurance .................................. 14.1 16.5 2.4 17.0 850 1,018 168 19.8

 Real estate, and rental and leasing ............... 19.3 23.3 4.0 20.7 412 508 96 23.3

 Professional and business services ................. 27.7 29.9 2.2 7.9 4,698 5,244 546 11.6

 Education and health services ......................... 18.5 18.6 .1 .5 3,219 3,312 93 2.9

 Educational services...................................... 12.5 12.2 –.3 –2.4 354 357 3 .8

 Health care and social assistance ................. 19.7 19.8 .1 .5 2,865 2,956 91 3.2

 Leisure and hospitality...................................... 49.9 51.4 1.5 3.0 6,396 6,751 355 5.6

 Arts, entertainment, and recreation ............... 31.5 28.5 –3.0 –9.5 596 549 –47 –7.9

 Accommodations and food services.............. 53.1 55.3 2.2 4.1 5,802 6,201 399 6.9

 Other services .................................................. 27.0 21.3 –5.7 –21.1 1,458 1,157 –301 –20.6

Government ........................................................ 7.3 8.3 1.0 13.7 1,598 1,827 229 14.3

 Federal ............................................................. 6.3 11.2 4.9 77.8 173 306 133 76.9

 State and local.................................................. 7.5 7.9 .4 5.3 1,426 1,520 94 6.6

 Region3

 Northeast.......................................................... 18.0 18.1 .1 .6 4,504 4,592 88 2.0

 South ................................................................ 26.1 28.0 1.9 7.3 12,521 13,681 1,160 9.3

 Midwest ............................................................ 21.1 21.5 .4 1.9 6,521 6,753 232 3.6

 West ................................................................. 24.4 23.9 –.5 –2.0 7,283 7,266 –17 –.2

Industry and region Percent

change

Table 5.

Percent

change

1 The annual quits rate is the number of quits posted during the entire 

year as a percent of annual average employment. 2 The annual quits level is the number of quits posted during the entire 

year. 3 The States (including the District of Columbia) that make up the 

regions are as follows: Northeast—Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, 

New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 

and Vermont; South—Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North 

Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and 

West Virginia; Midwest—Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, 

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, 

and Wisconsin; West—Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, 

Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and 

Wyoming.

 

Annual quits rates1 and levels2

Because rising worker flows indicate a healthier industry, 

a decline in the separations rate together with a stagnant 

hires rate points to weakness. Combining the increased 

demand for workers and the stagnant worker flows yields 

a mixed picture for durable goods manufacturing. 

The financial activities data also painted a mixed picture in 2006. After a steady 3-year climb, the job openings 

rate peaked at 3.8 percent in April 2006 and then dropped 

to 2.5 percent by the end of the year. This decline followed 

other, similar trends in economic data for the housing industry, with activity peaking during the first few months 

of the year, followed by cooling in the remainder of the 

year. Despite the drop in the job openings rate, hires increased modestly, with the monthly rate averaging 2.5 

percent in 2006, compared with an average of 2.3 percent 

in 2005. Separations also were up modestly: the total separations rate was slightly higher in 2006 (2.5 percent, on 

average) than in 2005 (2.2 percent). Despite declining la-
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

34 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

bor demand, worker flows remained fairly steady, indicating a mixed picture in financial activities.

Regional JOLTS data

Geographically, in 2006 the South and West exhibited 

strength, the Northeast showed mixed signs, and the 

Midwest was stagnant. Both the South and the West 

posted increased average monthly job openings rates 

and increased average monthly hires rates. Both regions also had about the same average monthly total 

separations rates in 2006 as in 2005. The South had 

the highest quits rates in its history. The Northeast 

had an increased average monthly job openings rate 

in 2006, but declining monthly hires and separations 

rates. The Midwest exhibited little change, with flat 

average monthly job openings, hires, and separations 

rates throughout the year. (See chart 6.)

IN 2006, VARYING INDUSTRY TRENDS COMBINED to 

produce a 2.3 million net increase in total nonfarm employment. There was widespread weakness in industries 

that rely on the housing market. High oil and gas prices hurt some industries and helped others. A positive outlook played a role in the job gains in food services, and increased government revenues spurred growth in the public 

sector.

The JOLTS data showed mixed signals in 2006. The 

hires rate varied slightly in the first half of the year, but 

smoothed out at 3.6 percent in the second half. The total 

separations rate exhibited some month-to-month variation, but no real trend throughout the year. Several industries showed increased job openings in 2006.

Chart 7. Quits as a percentage of total separations in total nonfarm employment, seasonally 

 adjusted, 2001–06

Percent

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

NOTE: Shaded area denotes NBER-designated recession.

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

Percent
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 35

Rate (percent) Level (thousands)

 2005 2006 Change 2005 2006 Change

 Total............................................................ 15.0 13.9 –1.1 –7.3 20,014 18,911 –1,103 –5.5

 Industry

Total private........................................................ 16.9 15.5 –1.4 –8.3 18,886 17,699 –1,187 –6.3

 Natural resources and mining ......................... 11.1 10.1 –1.0 –9.0 70 69 –1 –1.4

 Construction .................................................... 35.0 31.1 –3.9 –11.1 2,564 2,388 –176 –6.9

 Manufacturing.................................................. 12.4 12.2 –.2 –1.6 1,771 1,725 –46 –2.6

 Durable goods .............................................. 12.4 10.8 –1.6 –12.9 1,108 974 –134 –12.1

 Nondurable goods ........................................ 12.6 14.5 1.9 15.1 662 754 92 13.9

 Trade, transportation, and utilities ................... 16.0 14.0 –2.0 –12.5 4,144 3,669 –475 –11.5

 Wholesale trade............................................ 10.9 9.4 –1.5 –13.8 628 556 –72 –11.5

 Retail trade ................................................... 17.3 16.5 –.8 –4.6 2,651 2,532 –119 –4.5

 Transportation, warehousing, 

 and utilities.................................................. 17.6 11.6 –6.0 –34.1 865 584 –281 –32.5

 Information ...................................................... 7.5 6.5 –1.0 –13.3 231 199 –32 –13.9

 Financial activities ........................................... 8.3 9.2 .9 10.8 677 771 94 13.9

 Finance and insurance ................................. 5.9 6.5 .6 10.2 356 402 46 12.9

 Real estate, and rental and leasing .............. 15.0 16.9 1.9 12.7 319 368 49 15.4

 Professional and business services ................ 25.8 23.2 –2.6 –10.1 4,370 4,079 –291 –6.7

 Education and health services ........................ 8.1 7.9 –.2 –2.5 1,415 1,417 2 .1

 Educational services..................................... 8.4 9.8 1.4 16.7 239 287 48 20.1

 Health care and social assistance ................ 8.1 7.6 –.5 –6.2 1,174 1,129 –45 –3.8

 Leisure and hospitality..................................... 23.0 20.6 –2.4 –10.4 2,947 2,703 –244 –8.3

 Arts, entertainment, and recreation............. 41.3 38.6 –2.7 -6.5 782 744 –38 –4.9

 Accommodations and food services............ 19.8 17.5 –2.3 –11.6 2,160 1,958 –202 –9.4

 Other services............................................... 13.0 12.5 –.5 –3.8 701 677 –24 –3.4

Government ....................................................... 5.2 5.5 .3 5.8 1,128 1,212 84 7.4

 Federal.......................................................... 5.4 7.0 1.6 29.6 148 191 43 29.1

 State and local.............................................. 5.1 5.3 .2 3.9 981 1,021 40 4.1

 Region3

 Northeast ...................................................... 14.9 13.0 –1.9 –12.8 3,739 3,308 –431 –11.5

 South ............................................................ 14.8 13.4 –1.4 –9.5 7,095 6,547 –548 –7.7

 Midwest......................................................... 15.0 13.9 –1.1 –7.3 4,656 4,366 –290 –6.2

 West.............................................................. 15.2 15.4 .2 1.3 4,524 4,685 161 3.6

Industry and region

Percent

change

Table 6.

Percent

change

Annual layoffs and discharges rates1 and levels2

1 The annual layoffs and discharges rate is the number of layoffs 

and discharges posted during the entire year as a percent of annual 

average employment. 2 The annual layoffs and discharges level is the number of layoffs 

and discharges posted during the entire year. 3 The States (including the District of Columbia) that make up the 

regions are as follows: Northeast—Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, 

New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont; South—Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of 

Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, 

Virginia, and West Virginia; Midwest—Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, 

Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South 

Dakota, and Wisconsin; West—Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, 

Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

36 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

Annual other separations rates1 and levels2

Rate (percent) Level (thousands)

 2005 2006 Change 2005 2006 Change 

 

 Total............................................................ 2.8 3.1 0.3 10.7 3,770 4,221 451 12.0

 Industry

Total private....................................................... 2.8 3.1 .3 10.7 3,169 3,554 385 12.1

 Natural resources and mining ........................ 3.8 4.5 .7 18.4 24 31 7 29.2

 Construction ................................................... 2.5 3.7 1.2 48.0 183 286 103 56.3

 Manufacturing................................................. 2.9 2.8 –.1 –3.4 407 401 –6 –1.5

 Durable goods ............................................. 3.4 3.0 –.4 –11.8 300 273 –27 –9.0

 Nondurable goods ....................................... 2.0 2.5 .5 25.0 106 128 22 20.8

 Trade, transportation, and utilities .................. 2.8 3.8 1.0 35.7 720 986 266 36.9

 Wholesale trade........................................... 1.8 3.2 1.4 77.8 103 187 84 81.6

 Retail trade .................................................. 2.8 3.9 1.1 39.3 432 595 163 37.7

 Transportation, warehousing, 

 and utilities................................................. 3.8 4.1 .3 7.9 186 207 21 11.3

 Information ..................................................... 2.6 2.4 –.2 –7.7 81 72 –9 –11.1

 Financial activities .......................................... 2.4 2.9 .5 20.8 198 245 47 23.7

 Finance and insurance ................................ 2.7 3.0 .3 11.1 161 188 27 16.8

 Real estate, and rental and leasing ............. 1.8 2.7 .9 50.0 38 58 20 52.6

 Professional and business services ............... 4.4 4.2 –.2 –4.5 745 737 –8 –1.1

 Education and health services ....................... 1.9 2.1 .2 10.5 335 370 35 10.4

 Educational services.................................... 1.5 1.6 .1 6.7 43 47 4 9.3

 Health care and social assistance ............... 2.0 2.2 .2 10.0 289 323 34 11.8

 Leisure and hospitality.................................... 2.6 2.1 –.5 –19.2 332 280 –52 –15.7

 Arts, entertainment, and recreation ............. 1.6 1.9 .3 18.8 31 36 5 16.1

 Accommodations and food services............ 2.8 2.2 –.6 –21.4 301 246 –55 –18.3

 Other services ................................................ 2.6 2.7 .1 3.8 142 144 2 1.4

Government ...................................................... 2.8 3.0 .2 7.1 600 667 67 11.2

 Federal ........................................................... 4.7 6.7 2.0 42.6 128 182 54 42.2

 State and local................................................ 2.5 2.5 .0 .0 474 480 6 1.3

 Region3

 Northeast........................................................ 2.6 3.0 .4 15.4 639 754 115 18.0

 South .............................................................. 2.7 3.1 .4 14.8 1,312 1,535 223 17.0

 Midwest .......................................................... 2.8 3.0 .2 7.1 855 953 98 11.5

 West ............................................................... 3.2 3.2 .0 .0 964 975 11 1.1

Industry and region

Percent

change

Table 7.

Percent

change

1 The annual other separations rate is the number of other 

separations posted during the entire year as a percent of annual 

average employment. 2 The annual other separations level is the number of other 

separations posted during the entire year. 3 The States (including the District of Columbia) that make up the 

regions are as follows: Northeast—Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, 

New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 

and Vermont; South—Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of 

Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, 

North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, 

and West Virginia; Midwest—Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, 

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, 

and Wisconsin; West—Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, 

Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and 

Wyoming.
Monthly Labor Review • March 2007 37

1The Current Employment Statistics (CES) program is a monthly 

survey of more than 160,000 nonfarm businesses representing about 

400,000 establishments. For more information on the program’s concepts and methodology, see BLS Handbook of Methods (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1997); on the Internet at www.bls.gov/opub/hom/. CES

data are available on the Internet at www.bls.gov/ces/. The CES data 

used in this article are seasonally adjusted unless otherwise noted.

2The Bureau of Labor Statistics collects and compiles data for the 

Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey (JOLTS) on a monthly basis 

from a sample of business establishments. JOLTS data are available on 

the Internet at www.bls.gov/jlt/.

3Data on new residential construction are available from the U.S. 

Census Bureau at www.census.gov/const/www/newresconstindex.

html.

4See Bureau of Economic Analysis Table 5.4.6BU, “Real Private Fixed 

Investment in Structures by Type, Chained Dollars,” on the Internet at 

www.bea.gov/bea/dn/nipaweb/nipa_underlying/TableView.asp?

S e lectedTable=37&FirstYear=2005&LastYear=2006&Freq=Qtr.

5U.S. Census Bureau, FT900 Supplemental Exhibit 1, on the Internet at www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/current_press_

release/press.html. The data here are year-to-date data through December 2006 and are the sum of textile products (NAICS 313), textile 

product mills (NAICS 314), and apparel (NAICS 315). In comparison, for 

every dollar exported, $6.41 in 2005 and $6.06 in 2004 were imported.

6Stanley Holmes, “The Secret Weapon at Boeing,” Business Week, 

Dec. 28, 2006; on the Internet at www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/

dnflash/content/dec2006/db20061228_460167.htm.

7U.S. Census Bureau, “Manufacturers’ Shipments, Inventories and 

Orders (M3),” Manufacturing, Mining, and Construction Statistics, on 

the Internet at www.census.gov/indicator/www/m3/index.html.

8Alisa Priddle, “Getting Down to Fighting Weight,” Ward’s Auto 

World, December 2006, p. 30.

9Sharon Silke Carty, “Pickups get tough for automakers to unload; 

gas prices hurting sales a lot more than many expected,” USA Today, 

August 10, 2006, p. 1B.

10Sharon Terlep, “UAW: Expect sacrifice: This year, it’s not business 

as usual as union tells members that concessions may be needed to 

help Big 3 survive,” Detroit News, Jan. 16, 2007, p. A1.

11Data pertaining to these occupations come from the May 2005 

BLS Occupational Employment Survey. The data shown here are for 

employment services (NAICS 5613), a broader category that includes 

temporary help services. Visit www.bls.gov/oes/ on the Internet.

12 “Manpower Professional Survey Finds 25 Percent of Employers 

Worldwide Experiencing Wage Inflation Due to Talent Shortages,” 

press release, Oct. 24, 2006, on the Internet at www.manpower.com/

investors/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=215660.

13 Ibid.

14The over-the-year change for plastics and rubber products manNotes

Chart 8. Industries in which average monthly job openings exceed average monthly hires

Percent

Total nonfarm

5

0

1

2

3

4

Health care

 and social 

 assistance

Finance

 and

 insurance

State and local

 government

5

0

1

2

3

4

Percent

Average monthly job openings Average monthly hires
Employment and Job Openings in 2006

38 Monthly Labor Review • March 2007

ufacturing was actually –24,200, including a decline of 12,600 from 

workers who struck in October 2006 and did not return to work until January 2007.

15The Consumer Confidence Index is available on the Internet at 

www.conference-board.org/economics/consumerConfidence.cfm.

16Travis Loller, “’06 Album Sales Plunge; Downloads Way Up,” Associated Press, Jan. 4, 2007, on the Internet at www.comcast.net/includes/article/print.jsp?fn=/data/news/html//2007/01/04/554905.

html.

17See Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Economic Accounts, 

National Income and Product Accounts Tables 3.2 and 3.3, on the Internet at www.bea.gov/bea/dn/nipaweb/index.asp.

18Nonbuilding construction refers to, among other things, the 

building of highways, bridges, dams, and utility systems. Data on construction spending come from the U.S. Census Bureau, “Manufacturing, Mining, and Construction Statistics: Construction Spending, January 2007,” on the Internet at www.census.gov/const/www/c30index.

html.

19According to projections from the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, on the 

Internet at www.cms.hhs.gov.

20William C. Goodman, “Employment in hospitals: unconventional patterns over time,” Monthly Labor Review, June 2006, pp. 3–14.

21Robert Kulesher and Margaret G. Wilder, “Prospective Payment 

and the Provision of Post-Acute Care: How the Provisions of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 Altered Utilization Patterns for Medicare 

Providers,” Journal of Health Care Finance, fall 2006, pp. 1–16.

22The job openings rate is the number of job openings on the last 

business day of the month, as a percentage of total employment plus 

job openings. All other rates (hires, quits, layoffs and discharges, other separations, and total separations) are expressed as a percentage of 

employment.

23Cheryl A. Peterson, “Nursing Shortage: Not a Simple Problem—

No Easy Answers,” Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, Jan. 31, 2001, on 

the Internet at www.nursingworld.org/ojin/topic14/tpc14_1.htm.