Monthly Labor Review • May 2010 23

Teen Summer Employment

The early 2000s: a period of declining

teen summer employment rates

With many teens concentrating on academics, fewer are working

during the summer; in recent years, teens also have faced 

a labor market weakened by recessions, a diminishing number 

of federally funded summer jobs, and competition from other 

groups for entry-level job opportunities

Teresa L. Morisi

Teresa L. Morisi is a supervisory 

economist in the Division of 

Occupational Outlook, Office 

of Occupational Statistics and 

Employment Projections, Bureau 

of Labor Statistics. E-mail: morisi.

teri@bls.gov

Having a summer job has become 

a less common way for teenagers 

to spend their summers. The proportion of teens aged 16 to 19 years who 

are employed in the summer has been on 

a downward trend since 2000. The trend 

has encompassed younger teens and older 

teens and has spanned the genders and 

the major race and ethnicity groups. This 

article examines possible reasons behind 

this trend of lower summer employment 

rates for teens.

The data on employed persons used in 

the analysis that follows come from the 

Current Population Survey (CPS), a monthly survey of about 60,000 households. Persons are counted as employed in the CPS if 

they did any work for pay or profit during 

the reference week of the survey.1 Persons 

who are absent from their jobs due to reasons such as illness or vacations are still 

counted as employed. Unpaid family workers, defined as those who work 15 or more 

hours during the reference week without 

pay in a family-operated enterprise, also 

are counted as employed. The employmentpopulation ratio, or the employment rate, 

is the proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population that is employed; the 

terms “employment rate” and “employmentpopulation ratio” are used interchangeably in 

this article. The CPS data used in the analysis are 

not seasonally adjusted. Throughout the article, 

when the words “summer” and “summertime” 

are used as an adjective, they refer to the average 

for the period from June through August, inclusive. For example, “summer employment rate” 

refers to the average employment rate for June, 

July, and August, and “summer 2009” refers to 

the average for those months in 2009.

Summer trends in teen employment rate 

Between 1948 and 1989, the summertime teen 

employment rate fluctuated between 46.3 percent and 58.0 percent, falling during and around 

recessions and climbing during expansions. The 

trend appeared to change around the time of the 

1990–91 recession: the summer employment 

rate declined during and around this period, as 

was typical, but it did not climb again during the 

1990s expansion, as it had in previous recovery 

periods. Beginning in 2000, the summer employment rate for teens dropped, from 51.7 percent in summer 2000 to 48.0 percent by summer 

2001, as the economy fell into a recession. The 

rate continued to fall, rather precipitously, until 

summer 2003, reaching 41.7 percent, and was 
Teen Summer Employment

24 Monthly Labor Review • May 2010

little changed until summer 2006, when it again began a 

steep decline. By summer 2008, the economy was again 

in a recession and the rate was 37.4 percent. It fell further 

to 32.9 percent in summer 2009, a new series low. During 

the early 2000s, the summer employment rate did not 

rebound between the end of the 2001 recession and the 

one that began in December 2007.2 (See chart 1.)

Demographic trends 

During the early 2000s, employment rates declined 

among teens of both genders and among younger 

(16–17 years) and older (18–19 years) teens. The proportions of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian teens 

employed in the summer dropped as well.

Male and female youths. Prior to 2000, the employment rates for young men and young women showed 

divergent trends. From summer 1948 (the start of 

both series) through summer 2000, the employmentpopulation ratio for women between the ages of 16 

and 19 years generally trended upward, while the ratio 

for young men was on a downward trend. Since 2000, 

the gap between the rates for young men and young 

women has disappeared, with women having overtaken men slightly and both rates moving downward. In 

summer 2009, the employment rate for 16- to 19-year 

old men was 32.1 percent, down by 20.5 percentage 

points from summer 2000. The rate for teen women 

was 33.8 percent in summer 2009, down by 16.9 percentage points since summer 2000. (See chart 2.)

Younger and older teens. Employment data for teens 

can be further subdivided into youths aged 16–17 

years and youths aged 18–19 years. The older teens 

have higher employment rates than the younger ones, 

but rates for both age groups have declined since the 

summer of 2000. During summer 2009, 44.1 percent 

of 18- to 19-year-olds were employed, down from 62.3 

percent in summer 2000. The rate for youths aged 16-

17 years dropped from 41.0 percent in summer 2000 

to 22.7 percent in summer 2009. (See chart 3.)

Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. The teen summer employment-population ratios for the major race 

and ethnicity groups (White, Black, Asian, and Hispanic) declined during the decade. The summer employment rate for White teens, 36.8 percent in 2009, 

was the highest among the groups that year; Whites 

also experienced the largest decline since summer 

2000 (from 56.4 percent to 36.8 percent). The rate for Hispanic teens, 27.1 percent in summer 2009, was down by 13.2 

percentage points since summer 2000. The summer 2009 employment rates for Black youths and Asian youths were 19.2 

percent and 18.2 percent, respectively, having shown declines 

similar to those of Whites and Hispanics since summer 2000. 

(See chart 4.)

The falling summer teen employment rate

The recent declines in summer employment rates among 

teens have been large and unprecedented, and have occurred 

across all major demographic groups. Several reasons for the 

declines are related to education. First, the proportion of 

teens enrolled in school during the summer was on an upward 

trend over the period examined. Second, a number of factors 

suggest that teenagers are facing greater academic demands 

and pressures than in the past, which, together with the desire 

to achieve, may incline them toward placing greater emphasis 

on academics than on working.3 Finally, teenagers were affected by the two recessions that occurred during the 2000s, 

which likely resulted in both reduced job opportunities and 

increased competition for those jobs which were available. 

The declines in summer 2009 employment rates were especially steep.

Summer school has increased. CPS data show that the proportion of 16- to 19-year-olds enrolled in school (both high 

school and college) during the summer has increased substantially.4

 More than half (53.0 percent) of youths aged 16-

19 years were enrolled in school sometime during the summer of 2009, a percentage close to 3 times higher than that 

20 years earlier (19.4 percent). (See chart 5.) The increase is 

due partly to a trend of school terms beginning earlier in the 

summer, compared with after Labor Day, but summer school 

enrollment plays a part as well. Looking solely at July data, 

when the majority of school systems would be closed for the 

summer, reveals that the proportion of teens enrolled has 

more than tripled in the past 20 years.

Teens who are enrolled in school are much less likely to 

hold jobs in the summer than are youths who are not enrolled. The employment-population ratio for enrolled youths 

was 25.5 percent in summer 2009, compared with 41.3 percent for nonenrolled youths. Both of these proportions have 

been on a downward trend since 1999–2000, with a pause 

during the summers of 2003–06. (See chart 6.)

Most school terms begin before September. School districts have 

moved toward setting earlier starting dates for the school year, 

and some have shortened the length of the summer break. It 
Monthly Labor Review • May 2010 25

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

 Chart 1. Employment-population ratio for teens aged 16–19 years, summer 1948–summer 2009

1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

Percent

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

Percent

NOTE: Data are averages for the period from June through August. Shaded areas represent recessions as determined by the National

Bureau of Economic Research, which has not yet determined an end point for the recession that began in December 2007.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

 Chart 2. Employment-population ratios for young men and young women aged 16–19 years, summer 1948–

summer 2009

1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

Percent

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

Percent

NOTE: Data are averages for the period from June through August. Shaded areas represent recessions as determined by the National

Bureau of Economic Research, which has not yet determined an end point for the recession that began in December 2007.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

Men

Women
Teen Summer Employment

26 Monthly Labor Review • May 2010

 Chart 3. Employment-population ratios for teens, by age group, summer 1948–summer 2009

Percent Percent

NOTE: Data are averages for the period from June through August. Shaded areas represent recessions as determined by the National

Bureau of Economic Research, which has not yet determined an end point for the recession that began in December 2007.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

70

60

50

40

30

20

1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

Ages 18–19

Ages 16–17

70

60

50

40

30

20

 Chart 4. Employment-population ratios, by race and Hispanic ethnicity, for teens aged 16–19 years, summer 

1976–summer 2009

Percent

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

Percent

NOTE: Data are averages for the period from June through August. The data series for Hispanics began in 1976, that for Asians in 

2000. Persons of Hispanic origin can be of any race. Shaded areas represent recessions as determined by the National Bureau of Economic 

Research, which has not yet determined an end point for the recession that began in December 2007.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

White

Asian

Black

Hispanic
Monthly Labor Review • May 2010 27

 Chart 5. Proportion of 16- to 19-year-olds enrolled in school, summer 1985–summer 2009

Percent

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

 Percent

NOTE: Schools are defined to be public or private institutions, including high schools, community or junior colleges, 4-year colleges, 

universities, and graduate or professional schools of learning, that confer academic degrees. School attendance can be either full time or 

part time. Data are averages for the period from June through August.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

 Chart 6. Employment-population ratios, by enrollment status, for teens aged 16–19 years, summer 1985–

summer 2009

Percent

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

Percent

Not enrolled

Enrolled

1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

NOTE: Data are averages for the period from June through August. Shaded areas represent recessions as determined by the National 

Bureau of Economic Research, which has not yet determined an end point for the recession that began in December 2007.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20
Teen Summer Employment

28 Monthly Labor Review • May 2010

has become less common for school districts to open after 

Labor Day. According to Market Data Retrieval, a company providing marketing services to educational institutions, about three-quarters of public school districts began 

their school year before September 1 in 2007, up from 

about one-half in 1988.5 School districts cite the need 

for more instructional time to prepare for standardized 

tests, such as those required by the Federal No Child Left 

Behind Act. In addition, some States and school districts 

have increased the number of instructional hours required 

in a school year. In recent years, however, there has been 

a push to open school later in the summer, and some 

school districts have moved to later starts. For example, 

Florida passed a law effective with the 2007 school year 

that school cannot begin more than 14 days before Labor 

Day; in 2006, about half of Florida school districts began 

their school year the first week in August.6

A shorter timeframe for working may serve to discourage teens from getting summer jobs and may discourage 

employers from hiring teens, who, because of early school 

starting dates, would not be available for work during a 

substantial part of the summer season.

Higher achievement is required for a high school diploma. The 

level and difficulty of high school courses have grown, at 

least partly because of tougher graduation requirements. 

Hence, teens may be attending summer school to “catch 

up” or to gain the needed credits. The trend for States or 

localities to adopt new graduation requirements started 

in the early 1980s in response to recommendations from 

the National Commission on Excellence in Education. 

The report A Nation at Risk recommended that collegebound students complete 4 units of English, 3 units each 

of mathematics, science, and social studies, one-half year 

of computer science, and 2 units of a foreign language.7 

Data from the National Center for Education Statistics 

of the U.S. Department of Education show that the percentage of high school graduates satisfying these requirements rose from 2 percent in 1982 to 36 percent in 2005 

(the year for which the latest data are available).8 Overall, 

the average number of credits (as measured in Carnegie 

units) earned by high school graduates from 1982 to 2005 

increased from 21.6 to 26.7.9

Data from the same organization also show that the 

proportion of high school graduates taking advanced 

courses has grown. In 2005 (the year for which the latest 

data are available), the proportion of graduates who took 

advanced mathematics courses was 48.8 percent, up from 

26.3 percent in 1982. The proportion who took advanced 

science courses also grew, from 35.4 percent in 1982 to 62.5 

percent in 2005. The proportion of graduates who took advanced English courses more than doubled, from 13.3 percent in 1982 to 30.9 percent in 2005, as did the proportion 

who took advanced foreign language courses: 14.6 percent 

in 1982, compared with 33.5 percent in 2005.10

College enrollment rates for recent high school graduates 

have risen. The increased level at which teens are taking academic courses also may be due to growing college 

enrollment. CPS data show that most recent high school 

graduates are enrolled in college in the October following 

graduation. In October 2009, the college enrollment rate 

for recent high school graduates was 70.1 percent.11 The 

rate has trended upward over time; when the series began 

in 1959, it was 45.7 percent. (See chart 7.) Because most 

teens enroll in college after graduation, students may be 

taking advantage of summer instruction to increase their 

levels of academic achievement.

Many colleges are now offering summer “precollege” programs. Attendance at these programs can allow prospective 

college attendees to enhance their admissions applications, 

and some colleges grant credit upon completion of the programs. Another scholarly choice for teens is traveling abroad 

during the summer; some trips are sponsored through high 

schools and others through private travel companies that 

combine volunteering with language-learning opportunities. 

If the educational institutions offer credit for these nontraditional educational options, then credit-earning participants 

would be counted as enrolled under the CPS definition.

Community service now receives increasing emphasis. There 

is some evidence that teenagers are being given both increased requirements and increased incentives for performing community service activities. In recent years, legislatures at the State and local levels have modified graduation 

requirements to include community service and volunteer 

work. Also, Federal programs such as Americorps have 

been attracting student volunteers. Colleges may look at 

past community service when evaluating applications for 

admission, and some offer scholarships based on previous 

volunteer activities. It is possible that teens are fulfilling 

such requirements and needs during the summer, which 

could leave less time for paid work.

The CPS collects data on volunteers as part of a supplemental survey conducted in September. The data characterize persons who performed unpaid volunteer activities 

for an organization at any point during the previous year 

ending in September. In the 2009 survey, 26.0 percent 

of teens aged 16–19 years reported volunteering at some 

time during the past year; the teen rate was higher than 
Monthly Labor Review • May 2010 29

the rate for 20- to 24-year-olds (18.8 percent).12

A recent survey by the Corporation for National and 

Community Service examined teen volunteering, with an 

emphasis on service learning—in other words, schoolbased service opportunities that are combined with academic instruction. The survey, conducted in 2005, found 

that 38 percent of youths reported current or past participation in community service activities as part of a school 

course or requirement. Of these youths, 74 percent were 

currently enrolled in a service-learning course or had been 

within the previous year.13 A November 2008 study by the 

Corporation for National and Community Service found 

that 86 percent of high schools recognized student participation in community service and 35 percent offered 

service learning to students.14

More students are taking internships, many of which are unpaid. Students increasingly are looking toward internships 

as a way to bolster their resumes or graduate school applications. Some college majors offer credit for internship 

work or require it for graduation. An April 2007 survey 

by Vault.com, a career counseling company, found that 74 

percent of respondents had completed at least one internship by graduation; in comparison, 62 percent of college 

seniors responding to a 1995 Vault survey reported that 

they had completed at least one internship by the time 

they graduated.15 Internships go not only to older college 

students, but to younger ones as well, with companies often hiring sophomore and freshmen interns.16 Therefore, 

students as young as 18 or 19 years (who are included 

in the age group studied in this article) could be among 

those seeking internships.

Internships can be paid or unpaid, and recent anecdotal discussions suggest that more youths are opting for 

unpaid internships.17 Unpaid internships can be easier to 

get than paid positions, and some sought-after fields tend 

to offer only unpaid internships. The 2007 Vault survey 

found that 29 percent of respondents had not been paid 

for their internships.18 Given that a person holding an 

unpaid internship as his or her primary job would not 

be counted as employed in the CPS (because the position is unpaid), if youths are increasingly holding unpaid 

internships instead of paid positions, then fewer would 

be counted as employed. Consequently, estimates of the 

number of youths enrolled in school could rise because 

students who are receiving college credit for an intern-

 Chart 7. College enrollment rates for recent high school graduates, October 1959–October 2009

Percent

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

 Percent

SOURCE: Current Population Survey, October Supplement.

1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Teen Summer Employment

30 Monthly Labor Review • May 2010

ship would be counted as enrolled while performing the 

internship.

Teen earnings may have become less important in funding a 

college education. Dependence on financial aid as a way 

to pay for college has been growing. There are a number 

of reasons, one being that the average amount for tuition 

and fees (adjusted for inflation) has grown substantially, 

resulting in more families becoming eligible for aid. In 

addition, revisions to the Higher Education Act in 1992 

made more students eligible for aid, allowed them to borrow more, and made federally guaranteed subsidized loans 

available regardless of students’ financial need.19 According to data from the National Center for Education Statistics, between 1998–99 and 2008–09 average prices for 

the academic year for undergraduate tuition, room, and 

board at public colleges, in constant 2007–08 dollars, rose 

by 32 percent, to $12,113, and prices for private institutions rose by 24 percent, to $30,803.20 Statistics from the 

College Board show that total aid to students increased by 

about 85 percent from 1998–99 to 2008–09 (in constant 

2008 dollars).21

In response to the rising costs of college tuition, 

Congress, State governments, and colleges and universities have developed new types of grant and assistance 

programs. One such State-administered program is the 

Hope scholarship, which provides financial assistance 

to students attending State universities. Established in 

Georgia in 1993, Hope scholarships are now available in 

15 additional States. A recent study by economists from 

the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago found evidence 

that the scholarships have influenced the decline in teen 

labor force participation rates. The researchers theorized 

that Hope scholarships could explain up to 0.5 percentage point in the decline in teen labor force participation 

among 16- to 17-year-olds between 2000 and 2004.22

Another source of financial aid has been colleges and 

universities that created their own programs offering 

free tuition to lower or middle-income families. An example is the University of North Carolina, which created 

a program in 2003 that covered nearly the entire cost of 

school for students whose families made less than 150 

percent of the poverty level, provided that the students 

worked 10 to 12 hours per week at a campus job.23 Other 

colleges, including the University of Virginia, Harvard 

University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 

and Stanford University, have followed with their own 

programs.

Yet another source of college financing comes from 

Section 529 college investment plans. There are two types 

of 529 plans: State-sponsored plans that cover State 

schools, and an independent plan offered by a group of 

more than 270 private college and universities. According 

to one report, assets in the 11.2 million State-sponsored 

529 savings plans totaled $100.3 million (in constant 

2009 dollars) in 2009.24 The publication also notes that 

assets in the independent 529 plan exceeded $135 million 

that same year.25 The State-sponsored plans came into existence in 1996, the independent plan in 2003; both were 

created by acts of Congress.

Given the aforementioned rise in tuition and fees and 

greater availability of grant and loan programs, teen earnings would make less of a dent now in paying for an education compared with past years and could therefore be a 

less desirable source of funding. Teens generally earn low 

wages. In 2009, median hourly earnings for hourly paid 

persons aged 16–19 years was $7.92. Although teen earnings have trended upward in recent years, they were still 

32 cents lower in 2009 than in 2002 (in constant 2009 

dollars; see chart 8). There were Federal minimum-wage 

increases in July in each of 2007, 2008, and 2009.

Increasing affluence has enabled parents to keep their children in school. Recent anecdotal evidence suggests that 

as parents have become more affluent, due partly to the 

well-known rise in dual-income families and increasing 

educational attainment, they are more willing to have 

their children participate in school and extracurricular 

activities instead of working for pay.26 As mentioned 

earlier, teens are facing greater academic demands and 

pressures than in the past and are participating in various school-related activities, such as volunteering. All of 

these endeavors can leave little or no time for jobs. A 

recent study examined the role played by parental educational attainment in teens’ use of time.27 The authors 

analyzed CPS data on employment and hours worked, 

time use data from the BLS American Time Use survey 

(ATUS), and data on hours worked and time use from the 

Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey administered by the 

Institute of Survey Research at the University of Michigan. They found that teens in families with higher educational attainment exhibited a decrease in the time they 

spent in paid employment and an increase in their rates 

of volunteering. Also noted was a trend for teens—especially in the most highly educated families—suggesting 

a substitution of volunteer work for paid work. Finally, 

the ATUS data indicated that teens in the most highly 

educated families spent much more time in “traditional” 

activities, including extracurricular activities, reading and 

writing, and pursuing hobbies.
Monthly Labor Review • May 2010 31

The number of federally funded summer jobs has diminished. 

The Summer Youth Employment Training Program 

(SYETP), a Federal summer jobs program for lowincome youths, was established in 1982 as part of the Job 

Partnership Training Act. The program was replaced by 

the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) in 2000. The Act, 

which is still in force, contains some restrictions that 

ended Federal funding dedicated solely to summer jobs 

programs: now all youths must be served in year-round 

programs, youths in the program must be tracked for a year 

following their enrollment, and at least 30 percent of the 

funds must be spent on out-of-school youths.28 Since 1999, 

the amount of Federal funding dedicated to WIA youth 

activities has been trending downward: between calendar 

years 1999 and 2009, funding was down by 8 percent, 

in current dollars.29 Reduced funding and additional 

program restrictions, as well as increases in Federal and 

State minimum wages, have resulted in municipalities 

offering fewer summer jobs. An example is the city of New 

York, which provided about 18 percent fewer jobs as part 

of its summer jobs program in 2005 than it did in summer 

1999; Federal funds made up 11.5 percent of the city’s 

summer jobs program’s budget in 2005, compared with 

82 percent in 1999.30 Another example is Pima County, 

Arizona, which includes the city of Tucson: the county’s 

summer youth program expected to fund fewer positions 

in summer 2008 than in the previous summer, owing to 

less funding and an increase in the minimum wage.31

The effect of the demise of SYETP can be seen in employment statistics from the BLS Current Employment 

Statistics (CES) survey, a monthly survey of business 

establishments in the private and public sectors. Customarily, local government entities have provided many 

federally funded summer jobs, so those jobs would be included in CES payroll data for local government; however, 

the number of federally funded summer jobs cannot be 

strictly separated from other jobs. Still, CES data for local 

government, excluding education, show fewer jobs added for 

the May-through-July period beginning in 2002. (Estimates are not seasonally adjusted; May-through-July data 

are used because seasonal buildup in that industry occurs 

during those months.)

The number of jobs added in May through July of 2002 

was down by about one-third from the same period in 

2001 (from 426,000 to 287,000). Although SYETP ended 

in 2000, it took States some time to change over to the 

 Chart 8. Median hourly earnings for 16- to 19-year-olds paid hourly rates, in constant 2009 dollars, 1979–2009

Dollars

$9.00

8.50

8.00

7.50

7.00

6.50

6.00

5.50

5.00

Dollars

NOTE: The Consumer Price Index research series (CPI-RU) is used to convert dollars into constant 2009 dollars.

1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

$9.00

8.50

8.00

7.50

7.00

6.50

6.00

5.50

5.00
Teen Summer Employment

32 Monthly Labor Review • May 2010

new WIA program, which is likely why summer hiring 

in local government, excluding education, did not begin to 

slow until 2002.32 Since then, the number of jobs added 

in May through July in this local government sector has 

ranged from 285,000 to 330,000, a clear dropoff from 

earlier years. (See chart 9.)

Teens are facing stiffer competition from adults and the foreign born. Federal and State laws bar minors from working in certain jobs and operating hazardous machinery, 

and some States and localities set limits on the hours that 

teens can work. Teenagers also have less experience and 

availability than adults; for example, they may be available 

only for summer work. These factors may make it more 

desirable for employers to hire adults, rather than teens, 

for entry-level jobs. Adults also may be more likely to take 

entry-level jobs in a tough labor market. Many studies 

have suggested that, in the current economic times, teens 

are facing increased competition from other groups for 

the types of entry-level jobs they normally would fill. One 

such study conjectures that a rising number of young college graduates are taking jobs outside of the normal college 

labor market and that more older women without college 

degrees are holding jobs in retail trade.33 The authors also 

note that employment growth over the 2000–04 period 

appears to be attributable to new immigrants, many of 

whom are young persons under age 30 who would compete directly with teenagers for entry-level jobs.34 In addition, teens are facing more competition for jobs from older 

workers in general, who have been increasing their participation in the labor force in recent years. Studies have 

shown that many older workers take on “bridge jobs” after 

they retire from career jobs. There are a number of reasons 

for this phenomenon, including an increase in the retirement age normally required to receive full Social Security 

benefits, the elimination of an earnings test for persons of 

normal retirement age, increased health among seniors, 

and a shift toward defined-contribution pension plans.35

The CPS has data by occupation and by age group. Because of a change in occupational classification, comparable data are available only back to 2000. Accordingly, 

the analysis that follows will examine changes in annual 

average employment between 2000 and 2009. CPS data 

show that the largest proportions of employed teens are 

in food preparation and serving occupations and in sales 

and related occupations. In 2009, 27 percent of employed 

 Chart 9. Number of payroll jobs added in May through July in local government, excluding education, not 

seasonally adjusted, 1978–2009

Thousands 

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Thousands 

SOURCE: Current Employment Statistics survey.

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
Monthly Labor Review • May 2010 33

teens worked in the former, and 24 percent in the latter, 

occupational group. Employment was up from 2000 to 

2009 in food preparation and serving, and little changed 

in sales occupations. Total employment in food preparation and serving rose by 1.1 million between 2000 and 

2009, while the number of teens employed declined by 

242,000. During this same period, food preparation and 

serving employment increased by 478,000 among persons between the ages of 20 and 24 years and by 388,000 

among 25- to 34-year-olds. The following tabulation of 

CPS data shows the change in employment, in thousands, 

between 2000 and 2009 in selected intermediate-level occupations, by age group:

 Occupational group

 Office and

 Food preparation Sales and administrative

 Age group and serving related support

 Total ................. 1,052 –80 –2,302

16-19 years............ –242 –532 –553

20-24 years............ 478 121 –532

25-34 years............ 388 –214 –869

35-44 years............ 15 –599 –1,280

45-54 years............ 284 322 –158

55 years and older.. 128 822 1,091

According to the tabulation, total employment in sales and 

related occupations was little changed (–80,000) between 

2000 and 2009; teen employment in sales fell by 532,000, 

while persons aged 55 years and older increased their employment in sales occupations by 822,000. The largest loss 

in teen employment among the intermediate-level occupations came in office and administrative occupations, 

which lost 553,000 teen workers between 2000 and 2009. 

Overall, employment in this occupational group declined 

by 2.3 million. During the same period, employment in 

the occupational group grew by 1.1 million among workers aged 55 years and older. 

The CPS also collects data on the labor force status of 

the foreign born, including data aggregated by level of 

educational attainment for those aged 25 years and older. 

Foreign-born persons tend to have lower levels of education than native-born persons and would therefore be 

more likely to seek or qualify for jobs in the areas that 

normally employ teens—that is, jobs which require lower 

levels of education. In 2009, 30 percent of the foreignborn population aged 25 years and older had less than a 

high school diploma, while 10 percent of the native-born 

population had that same low level of education. 

CPS data on persons employed in intermediate-level 

occupations are available by native- or foreign-born status. These data show that the proportions of workers who 

were foreign born increased between 2000 and 2009 in 

the two occupational categories that employ the most 

teens: food preparation and serving occupations and sales 

occupations. Foreign-born workers also increased their 

share of employment in the occupational category that 

showed the largest decline in teen employment: office and 

administrative support occupations. The following tabulation shows the foreign born as a percent of the total employed in selected occupations for 2000 and 2009: 

 Change,

 Occupational group 2000 2009 2000–09

 Total employed, all occupations. 13.3 15.4 2.1

Food preparation and serving ........ 20.1 22.4 2.3

Sales and related ............................ 10.9 12.3 1.4

Office and administrative support.. 8.6 9.7 1.1

Teens not in the labor force

Persons who are not in the labor force are neither employed 

nor unemployed; in other words, they do not have a job and 

are not currently looking for a job. The number of teens who 

are not in the labor force has been moving up steadily since 

the summer of 1989, when the group totaled 4.7 million; 

by summer 2009, 9.5 million teens did not participate in 

the labor force. The CPS asks non-labor-force participants 

about their desire to find a job; since 1994, the survey has 

included questions aimed at determining whether persons 

not in the labor force “want a job.” This group need not 

have made any effort to find a job. The proportion of teens 

not in the labor force who want a job was 13.2 percent in 

summer 2009, up slightly from the previous summer, but 

down from 24.0 percent in summer 1994. (See chart 10.)

IN SUM, FEWER TEENS ARE EMPLOYED during the 

summer, a trend that has been particularly evident since 

2000. Today, teens are enrolled in school during the summer more so than in the past. In addition, teens are placing greater emphasis on academic achievement, because 

of both stricter graduation requirements and increased 

college enrollment among recent high school graduates. 

Teens may be choosing summer school or other scholarly 

activities over working. Also, teen earnings may have become less important in paying for college as financial aid 

has grown and their earnings remain low. There is evidence 

as well that the types of jobs that teens would normally 

fill have become scarcer: not only is there increased competition for such jobs from other groups, but also, fewer 

summer jobs are funded through government programs. 

Finally, the decade has experienced two recessions, which 

no doubt have diminished employment opportunities for 

teens as well as other age groups.
Teen Summer Employment

34 Monthly Labor Review • May 2010

Notes

1 The survey reference week is the calendar week that includes the 

12th day of the month.

2 The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) is the official 

arbiter of dating recessions.

3 In this regard, more teenagers are both enrolled and working 

less during the school year. For a discussion of enrollment and employment trends during the school year, see Teresa L. Morisi, “Youth 

enrollment and employment during the school year,” Monthly Labor 

Review, February 2008, pp. 51–63, on the Internet at www.bls.gov/

opub/mlr/2008/02/art3full.pdf (visited May 20, 2010). 

4 In the CPS, schools are defined to be public or private institutions, 

including high schools, community or junior colleges, 4-year colleges, 

universities, and graduate or professional schools of learning, that confer academic degrees. School attendance can be either full time or part 

time.

5 “Public School Calendars Shifting Toward Earlier Opening and 

Closing Dates” (Shelton, CT, MDR, 2010), on the Internet at www.

schooldata.com/mdrk12calendar.asp (visited May 20, 2010).

6 Sean Lavin, “Districts could pick school starts,” The Florida 

Times-Union ( Jacksonville, Apr. 14, 2007), on the Internet at www.

jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/041407/met_9239982.shtml

(visited May 20, 2010).

7 A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (U.S. Department of Education, National Commission on Excellence in Education, April 1983), on the Internet at www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/

index.html (visited May 20, 2010).

 Chart 10. Percentage of teens not in the labor force who say they “want a job,” summer 1994–summer 

2009

Percent

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

 Percent

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

8 Digest of Education Statistics, 2009, Table 153, “Percentage of public 

and private high school graduates earning minimum credits in selected 

combinations of academic courses, by sex and race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 1982 through 2005” (National Center for Education Statistics, 

April 2010), on the Internet at nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/

tables/dt09_153.asp.

9 Digest of Education Statistics, 2009, Table 149, “Average number 

of Carnegie units earned by public high school graduates in various subject fields, by selected student characteristics: Selected years, 

1982 through 2005” (National Center for Education Statistics, April 

2010), on the Internet at nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/

dt09_149.asp (visited May 20, 2010). A Carnegie unit is the credit 

given for the successful completion of a year’s study of one subject in 

a secondary school.

10 The data cited in this paragraph are from the Federal Interagency 

Forum on Child and Family Statistics, America’s Children: Key National 

Indicators of Well-Being, 2009, Indicator Tables ED3A, B, C, and D: “High 

school academic coursetaking: percentage distribution of high school 

graduates by the highest level of mathematics, science, English, and 

foreign language courses taken, selected years, 1982–2005” (Hyattsville, MD, U.S. Government Printing Office, July 2009). The Forum 

uses data from a number of Federal sources, including the National 

Center for Education Statistics.

11 See “College Enrollment and Work Activity of 2009 High 

School Graduates,” news release (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Apr. 27, 

2010), on the Internet at www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/hsgec.pdf

(visited May 20, 2010).
Monthly Labor Review • May 2010 35

12 See “Volunteering in the United States—2009,” news release 

(Bureau of Labor Statistics, Jan. 26, 2010), on the Internet at www.bls.

gov/news.release/pdf/volun.pdf (visited May 20, 2010).

13 The survey included youths between the ages of 12 and 18, a 

broader group than that analyzed here. (See Youth Helping America: 

Educating for Active Citizenship; Service-Learning, School-Based Service 

and Youth Civic Engagement (Washington, DC, Corporation for National and Community Service, March 2006), on the Internet at www.

nationalservice.gov/pdf/06_0323_SL_briefing.pdf (visited May 20, 

2010).

14 “Community Service and Service-Learning in America’s 

Schools” (Washington, DC, Corporation for National and Community 

Service, November 2008), on the Internet at www.nationalservice.

gov/pdf/08_1112_lsa_prevalence.pdf (visited May 20, 2010).

15 “More Interns Getting the Loot, Says Vault,” on the Internet at www.

vault.com/wps/portal/usa/!ut/p/c4/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3gzQ0u_YHMPIwP_gABTA09npxDXgKAAY5cAc_2CbEdFAF2a9xM!/?

WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/vault_content_library/

articles_site/articles/internships/more+interns+getting+the+loot%2C+

says+vault (visited May 20, 2010).

16 Rachel Emma Silverman, “Summer Jobs are Easier to Find This 

Year; After a Post-Boom Drought, Employers Are Staffing Up; Industries That Are Hiring,” The Wall Street Journal, May 11, 2006, p. D1.

17 See, for example, Barbara Whitaker, “Ample Jobs, but Youths 

Are Choosy,” The New York Times, June 9, 2007), on the Internet at www.nytimes.com/2007/06/09/business/09teens.html?_

r=1&scp=1&sq=barbara%20whitaker%20summer%20jobs&st=cse 

(visited May 20, 2010).

18 “More Interns Getting the Loot.” 

19 Susan P. Choy, Paying for College: Changes Between 1990 and 

2000 for Full-Time Dependent Undergraduates, Findings from the Condition of Education 2004, NCES 2004–075 (National Center for Education Statistics, June 2004), on the Internet at www.nces.ed.gov/

pubs2004/2004075.pdf (visited May 20, 2010).

20 Digest of Education Statistics: 2009, Table 334, “Average undergraduate tuition and fees and room and board rates charged for fulltime students in degree-granting institutions, by type and control of 

institution, 1964–65 through 2008–09” (National Center for Education Statistics, April 2010), on the Internet at nces.ed.gov/programs/

digest/d09/tables/dt09_334.asp?referrer=list (visited May 20, 2010).

21 Trends in Student Aid: 2009 (New York, The College Board, 

2009), on the Internet at www.trends-collegeboard.com/student_

aid/pdf/2009_Trends_Student_Aid.pdf (visited May 20, 2010).

22 See Daniel Aaronson, Kyung-Hong Park, and Daniel Sullivan, “The decline in teen labor force participation,” Economic 

Perspectives (Chicago, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, first quarter, 2006), on the Internet at www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/

publications/economic_perspectives/2006/ep_1qtr2006_part1_

aaronson_et_al.pdf (visited May 20, 2010); and “Explaining the 

Decline in Teen Labor Force Participation,” Chicago Fed Letter

(Chicago, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, January 2007), on 

the Internet at www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/publications/

chicago_fed_letter/2007/cfljanuary2007_234.pdf (visited May 

20, 2010).

23 David Leonhardt, “The (Yes) Low Cost of Higher Ed,” The 

New York Times, Apr. 20, 2008, on the Internet at www.nytimes.

com/2008/04/20/education/edlife/essay.html?st=cse&sq=the+%28

yes%29+low+cost+of+higher+ed&scp=1 (visited May 20, 2010).

24 See Trends in Student Aid: 2009.

25 Ibid. 

26 See, for example, David Cho, “Working on Nothing But Their 

Suntans; Many Teens Do Without Summer Jobs,” The Washington Post, 

June 16, 2002, p. C1; Mary Williams Walsh, “Summer Work is Out of Favor With the Young,” The New York Times, June 18, 2008, on the Internet 

at www.nytimes.com/2000/06/18/business/summer-work-is-out-offavor-with-the-young.html?scp=2&sq=summer%20work%20is%20

out%20of%20favor&st=cse&pagewanted=1 (visited May 20, 2010); 

and Barbara Hagenbaugh, “Full Activity, Study Schedules Have Many 

Teens Just Saying No to Jobs,” USA Today, Apr. 6, 2005, on the Internet at 

www.usatoday.com/money/economy/employment/2005–04–06-teenwork-usat_x.htm?loc=interstitialskip (visited May 20, 2010).

27 Shirley L. Porterfield and Anne E. Winkler, “Teen time use and 

parental education: evidence from the CPS, MTF, and ATUS, Monthly 

Labor Review, May 2007, pp. 37–56, on the Internet at www.bls.gov/

opub/mlr/2007/05/art4full.pdf (visited May 20, 2010).

28 Josie Hathaway, “Summer Jobs Program Faces Two-Thirds 

Cut,” U.S. Mayor Newspaper, Washington, DC, Jan. 24, 2000, on 

the Internet at www.usmayors.org/uscm/us_mayor_newspaper/

documents/01_24_00/summer_washington.htm (visited May 20, 

2010).

29 Author’s analysis of WIA funding from program allotment information published in various issues of the Federal Register.

30 See “Since 2000, Funding Changes Cause Annual Uncertainty 

for Summer Jobs Program,” New York City Independent Budget Office 

Fiscal Brief (New York, New York City Independent Budget Office, 

June 2006), p. 1.

31 Siobhan Daniel, “Summer jobs program will hire fewer due to 

higher wage, smaller budget,” Arizona Daily Star, Apr. 3, 2008), on the 

Internet at azstarnet.com/business/article_8866619d-aaeb-5b2a-9827-

fcf11eb215a4.html (visited May 20, 2010).

32 See Jennifer L. Martel and David S. Langdon, “The job market in 

2000: slowing down as the year ended,” Monthly Labor Review, February 

2001, pp. 3–30, on the Internet at www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2001/02/

art1full.pdf (visited May 20, 2010).

33 Andrew Sum and Ishwar Khatiwada, with Sheila Palma, The 

Age Twist in Employment Rates in the U.S., 2000–2004: The Steep Tilt 

Against Young Workers in the Nation’s Labor Markets (Boston, Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, January 2005).

34 Ibid.

35 See, for example, Kevin E. Cahill, Michael D. Giandrea, and Joseph F. Quinn, “Are Traditional Retirements a Thing of the Past? New 

Evidence on Retirement Patterns and Bridge Jobs,” Working Paper 

384 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 2005), on the Internet at

www.bls.gov/osmr/pdf/ec050100.pdf (visited May 20, 2010); and “A 

Micro-Level Analysis of Recent Increases in Labor Force Participation 

Among Older Men,” Working Paper 400 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

October 2006), on the Internet at www.bls.gov/osmr/pdf/ec060120.

pdf (visited May 20, 2010). See also Murray Gendell, “Older workers: 

increasing their labor force participation and hours of work,” Monthly 

Labor Review, January 2008, pp. 41–54, on the Internet at www.bls.

gov/opub/mlr/2008/01/art3full.pdf (visited May 20, 2010).