Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 1999 19

Insurance Benefits in Jacksonville, Florida

ANN C. FOSTER

Insurance Benefits in the

Jacksonville, Florida

Construction Industry

Results of a 1998 test survey of wages and benefits for

full-time construction workers in the Jacksonville, FL,

area indicate that access to insurance benefits varies by

occupation. The survey also shows that participation

among employees with access to benefits varies by type

of benefit, but tends to be higher among workers in more

highly paid occupations.

Ann C. Foster is an economist in the

Division of Compensation Data Analysis

and Planning, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Telephone (202) 691-6199

E-mail: Foster_A@bls.gov

The Department of Labor’s Employment Standards Administration (ESA) administers prevailing wage programs.1 The Bureau

of Labor Statistics (BLS), at ESA’s request, conducted test surveys of construction wages and benefits in four

areas of the country: Jacksonville,

Florida; Tucson, Arizona; Salt Lake

City-Ogden, Utah; and Toledo, Ohio.

One goal of these surveys was to determine the feasibility of collecting

data on employer costs for employee

compensation for blue-collar occupations in local areas.2

In addition to hourly earnings, the

construction industry surveys provide

detailed information on access, participation, and employer cost per participant for insurance, retirement, and

paid leave benefits. This article examines insurance benefits information

from the Jacksonville survey. The specific benefits examined are health and

life insurance, and disability benefits

(paid sick leave and short- and longterm disability).

Sample description

The data in this analysis were collected

in 1998 from private industry construction establishments (with one or

more workers) in the Jacksonville,

Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area

(MSA). The MSA includes Clay,

Duval, Nassau, and St. Johns Counties, Florida. The data used in this

analysis are for 16,095 full-time workers in the major occupational groups

of precision production, craft, and repair; machine operators, assemblers,

and inspectors; transportation and

material moving; and handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.3

As table 1 shows, the majority (64

percent) of full-time workers were in

precision production, craft, and repair

occupations, and very few (1 percent)

were machine operators, inspectors,

and assemblers. Few (8 percent) were

in transportation and material moving

and 27 percent were handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.

The average hourly wage for all fulltime workers was $11.34, and ranged
20 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 1999

from $8.13 for handlers, equipment

cleaners, helpers, and laborers to

$12.91 in precision production, craft,

and repair occupations.

Benefit access and participation

This article reports the percent of employees with access to a benefit, the

percent of employees who participate

in a benefit, and the percent of employees with access to a benefit who

participate. Employees with access are

those who currently are, or will eventually be eligible for a benefit. Participating employees are those who

have met eligibility requirements, have

signed up for the benefit, and for whom

the employer is making a contribution.

Benefit access was determined for

each major occupational group. If the

benefit was made available to that occupational group, even if there was an

eligibility requirement or a mandatory

employee contribution, all employees

in the occupational group were considered to have access to the benefit.

Participation information is presented as a percent of all employees

and as a percent of those employees

with access to the benefit. For example, suppose 80 percent of all bluecollar construction workers had access

to health insurance benefits. If, due

to eligibility requirements and required contributions, 60 percent of all

blue-collar construction workers are

actually enrolled in health insurance

plans, 60 percent are considered to be

participating. In this scenario, 80 percent of the employees have access to,

and 60 percent are participating in,

health insurance benefits. In addition,

75 percent of the employees with access are participating.

In this study, a majority (82 percent) of blue-collar construction workers had access to one or more benefits

(paid leave, insurance, or retirement).4

Access ranged from 71 percent for

handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

and laborers to 97 percent in transportation and material moving occupations.5

Insurance Benefits

Insurance protects against the economic consequences of a loss. For

employee benefit purposes, insurance

is full or partial coverage for the financial losses and expenses resulting

from employee injury, illness, disability, or death.

Health insurance

In this survey, health insurance benefits included medical, dental, prescription drug, and vision care plans.

Overall, 64 percent of full-time bluecollar construction workers had access

to health insurance. Access ranged

from 50 percent for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers

to 81 percent in transportation and

material moving occupations. (See

table 2.) These figures are lower than

those from two other recent nationwide

surveys, both of which found that 82

percent of full-time workers were eligible for health insurance coverage

from their current employer.6

One factor that might account for

some of the overall access difference

is labor turnover. Industries, such as

construction, with labor turnover rates

higher than the national average (7

percent), have lower health insurance

offer rates (rates at which employers

offer the benefit) than industries with

low turnover rates. The construction

industry, with a turnover rate of 11

percent, has an employer offer rate of

less than 55 percent.7

Part of the access differences among

occupational groups could be related

to wage levels. Data from a 1997 national survey of employers found that

the average cost of providing health

insurance to an employee ranged from

$3,200 to $3,500 per year, depending

on the type of plan. For an employer,

paying a substantial portion of such

costs would add significantly to the

compensation of lower paid workers

unless wages were reduced to compensate. Even with a relatively substantial proportion of premiums paid by

an employer, lower paid workers may

still be unable to pay their share of the

cost and, consequently, decline to participate.8

The amounts that employers contribute toward employees’ health benefits are excluded from employees’ taxable income. Because lower-wage

workers do not benefit as much from

the associated tax savings as higherwage workers, they may prefer cash

wages instead of health coverage.9

Participation refers to the percentage of employees actually enrolled in

a benefit plan. For all benefits except

paid sick leave, participation is defined

as the proportion of employees who

have met eligibility requirements, are

enrolled in the benefit plan, and on

whose behalf an employer makes a

contribution. For paid sick leave, participation is defined as the proportion

of workers who are offered the benefit

and have also met eligibility requirements to begin using the benefit.

Health insurance participation

among all blue-collar full-time construction workers in Jacksonville,

Florida, was 45 percent, and ranged

from 28 percent for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers

to 51 percent in precision production,

craft, and repair occupations.

An important aspect of access to

health insurance is how many employees with access actually participate in

the benefit. As table 2 shows, 70 perTABLE 1. Percent distribution and average hourly earnings for major blue-collar

occupational groups, full-time construction industry workers, Jacksonville, FL, April

1998

All blue collar ................................................................... 100 $11.34

Precision production, craft, and repair ........................ 64 12.91

Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors ......... 1 10.56

Transportation and material moving ............................ 8 9.80

Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

 and laborers ............................................................ 27 8.13

Percent Average hourly

earnings Occupation
 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 1999 21

Insurance Benefits in Jacksonville, Florida

cent of blue-collar employees with access to health insurance were participating. This ranged from 56 percent

for handlers, equipment cleaners,

helpers, and laborers to 76 percent in

precision production, craft, and repair

occupations.10

A closer examination of these major occupational groups shows a positive association between participation

and level of wages. Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers

earned $8.13 per hour (56 percent participation rate), compared to $12.91

per hour for precision production,

craft, and repair occupations (76 percent participation rate).11

Employer costs for health insurance

averaged $1.12 per hour worked for

all full-time blue-collar construction

workers. They ranged from 72 cents

per hour for handlers, equipment

cleaners, helpers, and laborers to $1.26

in precision production, craft, and repair occupations.12

Occupations with hourly earnings

greater than the average for all workers also had employer health insurance

costs greater than average. From the

data collected, however, it is uncertain

whether this is because employers contribute more for the premiums of more

highly paid workers, or less highly

paid workers are in lower-cost health

plans.

Life insurance

Employers often provide life insurance

benefits to survivors of deceased employees. The most common means is

a group life insurance plan that normally provides a lump-sum payment

to a designated beneficiary.13

Less than half (48 percent) of all

full-time workers had access to life

insurance benefits. Access ranged

from 34 percent for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers

to 68 percent in transportation and

material movement occupations. (See

table 3.)

Participation among all workers

was 37 percent, and ranged from 18

percent for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers to 53 percent in transportation and material

moving occupations. In contrast, data

from the Bureau of Labor Statistics’

Employee Benefits Survey (EBS) show

that in 1996-97, 67 percent of all fulltime, private sector blue-collar and

service employees participated in a

group life insurance plan.14

The proportion of employees with

access that actually participated in a

life insurance plan averaged 77 percent, and ranged from 55 percent for

handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

and laborers to 83 percent in precision production, craft, and repair occupations.

Employer life insurance costs averaged 6 cents per hour worked per

participant, and ranged from 2 cents

per hour for machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors to 6 cents per

hour in precision production, craft, and

repair occupations.

Disability

Protection against loss of income due

to injury or illness is available to many

workers through paid sick leave and

short- and long-term disability. Sick

leave provides an employee with a

number of fully or partially paid days

per year to cover absences due to illness or injury. Short-term disability

(STD) coverage provides for salary

replacement, most often partial, for a

6- to 12-month period. STD benefits

are provided on a per disability basis

in contrast to sick leave, which provides benefits on a per year basis.15

Long-term disability (LTD) benefits

replace a portion of an employee’s salary, but for a longer period than STD

benefits. LTD benefits are generally

paid until the disability ends or until

retirement.

Sick leave. In the construction industry, paid sick leave may not be provided because construction work is

sporadic and often varies with the

number of contracts awarded to employers. This may be why only 16

percent of all blue-collar construction

workers in the study had access to paid

sick leave. (See table 4.) Access

ranged from 14 percent in precision

production, craft, and repair occupations to 31 percent in transportation

and material moving occupations.

Thirteen percent of all workers participated in a paid sick leave plan,

ranging from 9 percent for handlers,

equipment cleaners, helpers, and laTABLE 2. Access, participation, and employer costs for health insurance, major blue-collar occupational groups, full-time

construction industry workers, Jacksonville, FL, April 1998

All blue collar ............................................................... 64 32 4 70 45 $1.12

Precision production, craft, and repair .................... 67 29 4 76 51 1.26

Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors ..... 60 26 14 64 38 .82

Transportation and material moving ........................ 81 13 6 60 49 .79

Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

 and laborers ........................................................ 50 47 3 56 28 .72

Occupation

Employer

cost3 per hour

worked per

participant

Without

access1 to

the benefit

Access1 not

determinable

With access1

who participate2

 in the

benefit

Percent of employees

With

access1 to

the benefit

Participating2

in the benefit

1

 Employees with access are those who currently have, or will eventually be eligible for, a benefit. This includes employees who have not

yet met eligibility requirements or eligible employees who decline to

participate. 2

 Participating employees are those who have met eligibility requirements, have signed up for the benefit, and for whom the employer is

making a contribution. 3 Employer cost is the annual cost per participant divided by the

annual hours worked.
22 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 1999

borers to 23 percent in transportation

and material moving occupations. In

contrast, EBS data show that in 1996-

97, 36 percent of all full-time, private

industry blue-collar and service workers participated in a paid sick leave

plan.16

Participation among employees

with access averaged 81 percent, and

ranged from 61 percent for handlers,

equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers to 90 percent in precision production, craft, and repair occupations.

Because sick leave is always employer

paid, cost should not prevent employees with access from participating.

Many employees with access, however,

have to meet service requirements before qualifying for sick leave.17 Variation in the proportion of workers who

have met these service requirements

could account for occupational differences in participation among those

with access.

Employer costs for paid sick leave

averaged 12 cents per hour per participant with a range of 5 cents per

hour in transportation and material

moving occupations to 15 cents per

hour in precision production, craft, and

repair occupations.

Short-term disability. Fifteen percent

of all workers had access to STD coverage, ranging from 7 percent for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and

laborers to 19 percent in precision production, craft, and repair occupations.

(See table 5.) The proportion of all

employees participating in STD benefits was 14 percent, and ranged from

5 percent for handlers, equipment

cleaners, helpers, and laborers to 18

percent in precision production, craft,

and repair occupations. In comparison, EBS data show that in 1996-97,

41 percent of all full-time private sector blue-collar and service employees

were participating in STD plans.18

Almost all (93 percent) workers

with access participated in a STD plan.

TABLE 3. Access,participation, and employer costs for life insurance, major blue-collar occupational groups, full-time construction

industry workers, Jacksonville, FL, April 1998

All blue collar ............................................................ 48 51 1 77 37 $0.06

Precision production, craft, and repair ................. 52 47 1 83 43 .06

Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .. 43 44 14 64 28 .02

Transportation and material moving ..................... 68 31 2 78 53 .03

Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

 and laborers ..................................................... 34 66 (4) 55 18 .04

TABLE 4. Access, participation, and employer costs for paid sick leave, major blue-collar occupational groups, full-time construction

industry workers, Jacksonville, FL, April 1998

All blue collar ............................................................ 16 83 1 81 13 $0.12

Precision production, craft, and repair ................. 14 84 1 90 13 .15

Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .. 16 71 14 - 16 -

Transportation and material moving ..................... 31 68 2 74 23 .05

Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

 and laborers ..................................................... 15 85 (4) 61 9 .07

Occupation

Percent of employees

With

access1 to

the benefit

Without

access1 to

the benefit

Access1 not

determinable

Employer

cost3

 per hour

worked per

participant

With access1

who participate2

 in the

benefit

Participating

in the benefit

Percent of employees Employer

cost3 per hour

worked per

participant

Participating

in the benefit

With access1

who participate2

 in the

benefit

Access1 not

determinable

Without

access1 to

the benefit

With

access1 to

the benefit

Occupation

1

 Employees with access are those who currently have, or will eventually be eligible for a benefit. This includes employees who have not

yet met eligibility requirements or eligible employees who decline to

participate. 2

 Participating employees are those who have met eligibility requirements, have signed up for the benefit, and for whom the employer is

making a contribution.

3

 Employer cost is the annual cost per participant divided by the

annual hours worked. 4

 Less than 0.5 percent.

NOTE: Dashes indicate that no data were reported or that data did

not meet publication criteria. Because of rounding, sums of individual

items may not equal totals.

1

 Employees with access are those who currently have, or will eventually be eligible for, a benefit. This includes employees who have not

yet met eligibility requirements or eligible employees who decline to

participate. 2

 Participating employees are those who have met eligibility requirements, have signed up for the benefit, and for whom the employer is

making a contribution. 3

 Employer cost is the annual cost per participant divided by the

annual hours worked. 4

 Less than 0.5 percent.

NOTE: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal

totals.
 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 1999 23

Insurance Benefits in Jacksonville, Florida

Participation ranged from 76 percent

for handlers, equipment cleaners,

helpers, and laborers to 95 percent in

precision production, craft, and repair

occupations.

Employer costs for STD benefits

varied little. STD costs averaged 3

cents per hour, with a narrow range

of 2 cents per hour for handlers,

equipment cleaners, helpers, and

laborers to 3 cents per hour in precision production, craft, and repair

occupations and transportation and

material moving occupations. No

STD cost information was available

for machine operators, assemblers,

and inspectors.

Long-term disability. Access to LTD

benefits was virtually nonexistent.

(See table 6.) Two percent of all workers had access, with a range of less

than 0.5 percent for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers

to 12 percent for machine operators,

assemblers, and inspectors.

As might be expected, participation

among all workers was also low (2

percent) and ranged from less than 0.5

percent for handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers to 10 percent for machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors. In contrast,

1996-97 EBS data show that 19 percent of all full-time blue-collar and

service employees participated in a

long-term disability plan.19

Participation among all employees

with access was 77 percent. Information for major occupational groups was

only available for precision production, craft, and repair occupations.

Long-term disability costs averaged 8 cents per hour for all blue-collar occupations and in precision production, craft, and repair occupations.

No LTD cost information was available for the remaining major occupational categories.

Establishment employment size

Establishment employment size has

TABLE 5. Access, participation, and employer costs for short-term disability, major blue-collar occupational groups, full-time

construction industry workers, Jacksonville, FL, April 1998

All blue collar ............................................................ 15 84 1 93 14 $0.03

Precision production, craft, and repair ................. 19 79 1 95 18 .03

Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .. 15 72 14 - 14 -

Transportation and material moving ..................... 10 88 2 90 9 .03

Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

and laborers ........................................................ 7 93 (4) 76 5 .02

Percent of employees Employer

cost3 per hour

worked per

participant

Participating

in the benefit

With access1

who participate2

 in the

benefit

Access1 not

determinable

Without

access1

 to

the benefit

With

access1

 to

the benefit

Occupation

TABLE 6. Access, participation, and employer costs for long-term disability, major blue-collar occupational groups, full-time

construction industry workers, Jacksonville, FL, April 1998

All blue collar ............................................................ 2 97 1 77 2 $0.08

Precision production, craft, and repair ................. 3 96 1 77 2 .08

Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .. 12 74 14 - 10 -

Transportation and material moving ..................... 3 95 2 - 3 -

Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers,

 and laborers ..................................................... (4) 99 (4) -(4) -

Employer

cost3 per hour

worked per

participant

Percent of employees

Participating

in the benefit

With access1

who participate2

 in the

benefit

Access1

 not

determinable

Without

access1

 to

the benefit

With

access1 to

the benefit

Occupation

1 Employees with access are those who currently have or will eventually be eligible for a benefit. This includes employees who have not

yet met eligibility requirements or eligible employees who decline to

participate. 2

 Participating employees are those who have met eligibility requirements, have signed up for the benefit, and for whom the employer is

making a contribution. 3

 Employer cost is the annual cost per participant divided by the

annual hours worked. 4 Less than 0.5 percent.

NOTE: Dashes indicate that no data were reported or that data did

not meet publication criteria.

1

 Employees with access are those who currently have or will eventually be eligible for a benefit. This includes employees who have not

yet met eligibility requirements or eligible employees who decline to

participate. 2

 Participating employees are those who have met eligibility requirements, have signed up for the benefit, and for whom the employer is

making a contribution. 3 Employer cost is the annual cost per participant divided by the

annual hours worked. 4 Less than 0.5 percent.

NOTE: Dashes indicate that no data were reported or that the data

did not meet publication criteria.
24 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 1999

TABLE 7. Access, participation, and employer costs, for insurance benefits, full-time blue-collar construction industry workers by

establishment employment size, Jacksonville, FL, April 1998

Health insurance

All establishments ............................................... 64 32 4 70 45 $1.12

Less than 100 workers ................................... 58 40 1 65 38 .97

100 workers or more ...................................... 78 11 11 81 63 1.35

Life insurance

All establishments ............................................... 48 51 1 77 37 .06

Less than 100 workers ................................... 38 61 1 72 27 .05

100 workers or more ...................................... 76 24 (4) 84 64 .06

Paid sick leave

All establishments ............................................... 16 83 1 81 13 .12

Less than 100 workers ................................... 14 85 1 79 11 .13

100 workers or more ...................................... 21 79 (4) 83 18 .11

Short-term disability

All establishments ............................................... 15 84 1 92 14 .03

Less than 100 workers ................................... 9 89 2 89 8 .03

100 workers or more ...................................... 30 70 (4) - 29 -

Long-term disability

All establishments ............................................... 2 97 1 77 2 .08

Less than 100 workers ................................... 2 97 1 68 1 .07

100 workers or more ...................................... 4 96 (4) 89 3 .09

been shown to have a positive association with employee access to, and

participation in, benefit plans.20 (See

table 7.) Employer compensation costs

(wages and salaries, and benefits) have

also been found to increase with establishment employment size.21

To better determine the influence

of establishment employment size on

benefits provided to surveyed employees, the Bureau classified the data by

establishments with fewer than 100

workers and establishments with 100

workers or more.

The greatest proportion (72 percent) of employees worked in establishments with fewer than 100 workers. The average hourly wage for

employees in establishments with

fewer than 100 workers was $10.77,

compared to $12.83 for workers in establishments with 100 workers or

more. For all benefits, the proportion

of employees with access to or participating in a benefit increased with

establishment size. For example, 64

percent of full-time, blue-collar construction workers had access to health

insurance benefits, but 58 percent of

employees in establishments with

fewer than 100 workers had access,

compared to 78 percent in establishments with 100 workers or more.

Similarly, 45 percent of blue-collar

construction workers participated in

a health insurance plan, with participation of 38 percent in establishments

with fewer than 100 workers compared to 63 percent in larger establishments. The proportion of employees participating in a benefit and the

proportion of employees with access

that participated also increased with

establishment employment size.22

The benefit cost per hour worked

tended to be higher in establishments

with 100 workers or more. Paid sick

leave was an exception, with a 13-cent

cost per hour worked in establishments

with fewer than 100 workers and an

11-cent cost per hour worked in establishments with 100 workers or more.

Summary

This article examined insurance benefits information from a 1998 test survey of construction wages and benefits

in Jacksonville, Florida.

Among full-time workers, access

to benefits varied by occupation. The

proportion of employees participating

in a benefit varied by type of benefit,

but was lower than rates found in other

BLS surveys. Additional research is

necessary to determine whether the

patterns uncovered in this survey are

due to the nature of the construction

industry, the geographic area surveyed, or both.

Participation among employees

with access to a benefit also varied by

type of benefit, but tended to be higher

Percent of employees Employer

cost3 per hour

worked per

participant

With access1

who participate2

 in the

benefit

Participating2

in the benefit

Access1 not

determinable

Without

access1 to

the benefit

With

access1 to

the benefit

Benefit and establishment

employment size

1

 Employees with access are those who currently have, or will eventually be eligible for a benefit. This includes employees who have not

yet met eligibility requirements or eligible employees who decline to

participate. 2

 Participating employees are those who have met eligibility requirements, have signed up for the benefit, and for whom the employer is

making a contribution.

3

 Employer cost is the annual cost per participant divided by the

annual hours worked. 4

 Zero percent.

NOTE: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal

totals. Dashes indicate that no data were reported or that data did not

meet publication criteria.
 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 1999 25

Insurance Benefits in Jacksonville, Florida

among workers in more highly paid

occupations, a pattern uncovered in

other studies.

The relationship between establishment employment size and insurance

benefits was also examined. The proportion of employees with access to a

benefit and participating in that benefit tended to be higher in establishments with 100 workers or more. The

proportion of employees with access

that participated in a benefit and the

cost per hour worked per participant

for that benefit was also higher in establishments with 100 workers or

more. The fact that the majority (72

percent) of the workers in the sample

were employed in establishments of

fewer than 100 workers suggests that

future research on construction industry benefits should more closely examine benefits in smaller establishments. For example, establishment

employment size could be broken

down according to fewer than 25

workers, 25-49 workers, 50-99 workers, and 100 workers or more.

1

 The Davis-Bacon Act requires contractors

and subcontractors performing work on federally

financed or assisted construction projects to pay

employees prevailing wages and benefits comparable to those on other area projects. The Act applies to all construction contracts with the U.S.

government and the District of Columbia that are

over $2,000. The text of the Davis-Bacon Act

can be obtained from the Department of Labor’s

Internet site at http://www2.dol.gov/dol/esa/public/regs/statutes/whd/dbra.htm.

Congress has also added prevailing wage provisions to approximately 60 statutes that assist

construction projects through grants, loans, loan

guarantees, and insurance. These related acts involve construction in such areas as transportation,

housing, air and water pollution, and health. Additional information about the Davis-Bacon and

related acts may be accessed from the Department

of Labor’s Internet site at http://www2.dol.gov/

dol/esa/public/programs/dbra/whatdbra.html. 2

 Additional information about the Jacksonville and Tucson surveys may be found in Robert

W. Van Giezen, “Test Surveys of the Construction Industry,” Compensation and Working Conditions, Summer 1999, pp. 8-14. In addition, also

see Salt Lake City-Ogden, UT, Wages and Benefits, Construction Industry Test Survey, November 1998, Bulletin 2510-3 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999). Results from the Toledo, Ohio survey have not yet been published. 3

 This analysis uses unpublished data for fulltime workers in the Jacksonville, Florida construction industry test survey. Published data from this

survey are for 16,400 workers (98 percent full time

and 2 percent part time). For additional information, see Jacksonville, FL, Wages and Benefits,

Construction Industry Test Survey, April 1998,

Bulletin 2510-1 (Bureau of Labor Statistics,

1998). 4

 For a discussion of retirement benefits in the

Jacksonville and Tucson surveys, see Hilery Z.

Simpson, “Retirement Benefits in the Jacksonville,

FL and Tucson, AZ Construction Industries,”

Compensation and Working Conditions, Summer 1999, pp. 15-18. 5

 The proportion of workers with access to

one or more benefits was similar for precision production, craft, and repair occupations (85 percent)

and machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors (86 percent). 6

 Two other recent nationwide surveys are the

February 1997 Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangement Survey and the 1996 National Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. For

additional information on the findings of the 1997

survey, see Employment-based Health Insurance: Medium and Large Employers Can Purchase Coverage, but Some Workers Are Not Eligible, GAO/HEHS-98-184 (Washington, DC:

General Accounting Office, 1998). For additional information on findings from the 1996

National Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, see

Philip S. Cooper and Barbara S. Schone, “More

Offers, Fewer Takers for Employment-based

Health Insurance: 1987 and 1996,” Health Affairs, November/December 1997, Vol. 16, No.

6, pp. 142-148. 7

 For additional information, see Employment-based Health Insurance. 8

 Ibid. In 1999, employers, on average, contributed $1.20 per hour worked for health insurance for private industry blue-collar workers. This

would amount to $2,400 a year for an employee

working 2,000 hours a year. For additional information, see “Employer Costs for Employee Compensation—March 1999,” USDL 99-173 (U.S.

Department of Labor, BLS, June 24, 1999). 9

 If few workers choose to participate in a

health insurance plan, an employer may not offer

coverage, even if the firm also employs higherwage employees who can afford premium payments. This is because insurance carriers may not

provide coverage unless a minimum of eligible

employees (generally between 75 and 100 percent)

is enrolled. For additional information, see Employment-based Health Insurance. 10 This is lower than that from the 1996 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey where 81.3 percent

of full-time employees with access to health insurance at their main job held coverage from this

job. For additional information, see “More Offers, Fewer Takers for Employment-based Health

Insurance: 1987 and 1996.”

 11 A positive association between wages and

participation among employees with access to

health insurance was also uncovered in research

using the 1996 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Unpublished data furnished by the researchers provided additional insight into the characteristics of workers declining coverage. Nearly half

(49.1 percent) of those declining coverage made

less than $7.00 per hour; in contrast, 6.8 percent

declining coverage earned over $15.00 per hour.

Workers making $7.01-$10.00 made up 29.4 percent of those declining coverage, while workers

making $10.01-$15.00 represented 21.4 percent.

For additional information, see “More Offers,

Fewer Takers for Employment-based Health Insurance: 1987 and 1996.” 12 For additional information about how costs

were calculated, see Jacksonville, FL, Wages and

Benefits, Construction Industry Test Survey,

April 1998. 13 For additional information on group life insurance, see Ann C. Foster, “Life Insurance,”

Compensation and Working Conditions, Winter

1997, pp. 47-50.

14 For additional information, see Employee

Benefitsin Medium and Large Private Establishments, 1997, Bulletin 2517 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999); and Employee Benefits in Small

Private Establishments, 1996, Bulletin 2507 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999). 15 For additional information on short-term

disability plans, see Hilery Simpson, “Short-term

Disability Benefits,” Compensation and Working

Conditions, Summer 1997, pp. 52-56. 16 For additional information, see Employee

Benefitsin Medium and Large Private Establishments, 1997 and Employee Benefits in Small

Private Establishments, 1996. 17 For example, in 1997, about three-quarters

(74 percent) of full-time blue-collar and service

employees in medium and large private establishments with paid sick leave benefits had to satisfy

a service requirement before being able to participate. Among employees with service requirements, the majority (72 percent) had requirements

of 6 months or less. For additional information,

see Employee Benefits in Medium and Large

Private Establishments, 1997. 18 For additional information, see Employee

Benefitsin Medium and Large Private Establishments, 1997; and Employee Benefits in Small

Private Establishments, 1996. 19 Ibid. 20 For additional information, see “More Offers, Fewer Takers for Employment-based Health

Insurance: 1987 and 1996.” 21 For additional information, see Employer

Costs for Employee Compensation, 1986-98,

Bulletin 2508 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1998). 22 The only exception was for short-term disability. Information about the proportion of employees with access participating in the benefit was

not available for establishments with 100 workers or more.

 Participation rates by establishment employment size were less than those found in other

surveys. For example, EBS data show that in

1997, 38 percent of full-time, blue-collar and service employees in establishments with 100 workers or more participated in a paid sick leave plan.

In the Jacksonville survey, only 18 percent of fulltime, blue-collar workers in similar establishments

participated in a paid sick leave plan. EBS data

also show that in 1996, 35 percent of full-time,

blue-collar and service employees in establishments with fewer than 100 employees participated

in a paid sick leave plan. In the Jacksonville survey, only 11 percent of full-time employees in similar establishments participated in a paid sick leave

plan. For additional information, see Employee

Benefits in Medium and Large Private Establishments, 1997 and Employee Benefits in Small

Private Establishments, 1996.