1

U.S. Department of Labor

Bureau of Labor Statistics

August 2000

Report 944

A Profile of the Working

Poor, 1998

Thomas M. Beers, an economist in the Division of Labor Force Statistics,

Bureau of Labor Statistics, prepared this report.

Total persons ............. 

In poverty .............. 

Poverty rate ........... 

Unrelated individuals .

In poverty ..............

Poverty rate ...........

Primary families ......... 

In poverty ..............

Poverty rate ...........

Characteristic

Table A. Poverty status of persons and primary families in the

labor force for 27 weeks or more, 1995-98

(Numbers in thousands)

1 Includes persons in families, not shown separately.

2 Primary families with at least one member in the labor force for more than

half of the year.

 1995 1996 1997 1998

1

2

 

About 34.5 million people, or 12.7 percent of the population, lived at or below the official poverty level in 1998—1.1

million fewer than in 1997. Although the Nation’s poor were

primarily children and adults who did not participate in the

labor force, about 7.2 million persons were classified as the

“working poor.” This was nearly 300,000 fewer than in 1997.

The working poor are individuals who spent at least 27 weeks

in the labor force (working or looking for work), but whose

family or personal incomes fell below the official poverty

level. The poverty rate—defined in this report as the ratio of

the working poor to persons in the labor force for at least 27

weeks—fell 0.3 percentage point to 5.4 percent in 1998.

(See tables A and 1.)

Full-time work substantially lowers a person’s probability

of being poor. Among persons in the labor force for 27 weeks

or more, the poverty rate for those usually employed full time

was 4.1 percent, compared with 10.6 percent for part-time workers. Nevertheless, the majority of the working poor—63.3

percent—were full-time workers. Only a very small proportion of the working poor (5.1 percent) actively sought a job

for more than 6 months in 1998 without finding any work.

This was down from 6.8 percent in 1997.

This report presents data on the relationships between

labor force activity and poverty in 1998 for individual workers

and their families. The data were collected in the work experience and income supplement to the March 1999 Current

Population Survey (CPS). For a more detailed description of

the source of the data and an explanation of the concepts and

definitions used in this report, see the technical note.

The earnings thresholds that are established to determine

poverty status are in terms of family earnings, rather than

personal earnings, if related individuals reside in the household. Thus, earnings from an individual’s employment are

only one factor in that person’s poverty status; if the individual lives with family, then the earnings of others in the

family and the presence of dependents also are important.

Demographic characteristics

Among those who were in the labor force for 27 weeks or

more in 1998, the proportion of women classified as working

poor (6.3 percent) was much higher than that of men (4.7

percent). The rate for women had been as high as 7.3 percent

as recently as 1993. The rate for men continued its steady

decline from a high of 6.2 percent in 1993. (See table 2.)

Working wives were less likely than working husbands to

be poor (in aggregate) because working wives were more

likely to be in families with a second earner. In 1998, about 2.0

percent of married women who were in the labor force for 27

weeks or more were in poverty, compared with 3.7 percent of

married men. In contrast, 20.4 percent of women who maintained families and who were in the labor force for at least 6

months were in poverty. Part of the explanation for the very

high poverty rate among women who maintain families is

that they are less likely to be in households in which another

family member is an earner. (See “Family structure,” below.)

Among those who were in the labor force for 6 months or

more in 1998, 4.7 percent of whites were classified as working

poor, compared with 10.8 percent of blacks and 12.5 percent

of Hispanics. The chances of being among the working poor

decline substantially with age, in part because earnings are

higher and unemployment is lower among older workers than

among younger ones. The poverty rate for teenagers who

were in the labor force for 27 weeks or more fell substantially,

from 11.6 percent in 1997 to 8.6 percent in 1998. The decline

was due in part to a nearly 9-percentage-point drop in the

rate for black teens. (See table 2.)

 126,020 128,320 130,047 131,731

 7,484 7,421 7,453 7,158

 5.9 5.8 5.7 5.4

 24,207 25,539 26,158 26,971

 2,312 2,423 2,534 2,281

 9.5 9.5 9.7 8.5

 57,262 58,087 58,815 59,621

 4,008 4,084 4,068 4,019

 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.7
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Educational attainment

Lack of education and poverty are closely related among those

in the labor force for at least half of the year. In 1998, 14.5

percent of high school dropouts were among the working

poor, more than double the proportion for high school graduates (6.6 percent). The poverty rates were even lower for

workers with an associate degree (2.5 percent) and for college graduates (1.4 percent). At all major levels of educational attainment, the proportions among the working poor

were higher for women and blacks than for men and whites.

(See table 3.)

Occupation

Nearly 12 percent of those who were in the labor force for at

least 27 weeks, and whose longest job was a service occupation, lived below the poverty line. The 2.0 million working

poor in these occupations accounted for nearly 30 percent of

all workers living in poverty. Within the category of service

workers, private household workers, almost all of whom were

women, were the most likely to be in poverty (19.4 percent).

Among the other major occupation groups, workers in farming, forestry, and fishing had the highest incidence of poverty in 1998 at 16.0 percent. The lowest poverty rates were for

those employed in executive, administrative, and managerial

occupations and in professional specialty jobs (1.4 percent),

in which high earnings and full-time employment are typical.

(See table 4.)

Family structure

Among families with at least one member in the labor force

 for 27 weeks or more in 1998, 4.0 million, or 6.7 percent, had

incomes at or below the poverty line, about the same as in

1997. The poverty threshold for families reflects both total

family income and the number of family members; thus, the

larger the family, the higher the level of income needed to

keep the family out of poverty. This, coupled with the fact

that the presence of children tends to decrease the overall

labor supply of a family, creates a circumstance in which the

larger the family, the more likely it is to be below the poverty

line. Consequently, families with children under age 18 were

much more likely to be counted as working poor families than

those without children (10.2 percent and 2.1 percent, respectively).

The likelihood that a family was living below the poverty

line falls dramatically if more then one member was in the

labor force for at least 6 months. Only 2.2 percent of families

with two labor force participants and 1.0 percent of families

with three or more participants were among the working poor.

In contrast, 13.6 percent of families with only one member in

the labor force were in poverty. (See tables 5 and 6.)

Unrelated individuals

Unrelated individuals are persons who live either alone or

with nonrelatives. Of the 27 million unrelated individuals

who were in the labor force for 27 weeks or more in 1998, 2.3

million, or 8.5 percent, lived below the poverty level. This

rate was down from 9.7 percent in 1997.

Two types of living situations characterize unrelated individuals: some live by themselves, while some share housing

with other unrelated persons. Of those who were labor force

participants for more than 6 months in 1998, those living with

unrelated individuals were much more likely to be among the

working poor (11.7 percent) than were those living alone (5.6

percent). It should be noted that the poverty status of unrelated individuals is determined by their personal, rather than

household, incomes. To the extent that unrelated individuals

with low incomes live with others in order to share expenses

and pool their resources, the proportion of these workers in

poverty, in terms of their standard of living, may be

overstated. Conversely, many of those who live alone do so

because they have sufficient incomes to support themselves.

(See table 7.)

Labor market problems

As noted above, people who usually work full time—that is,

35 hours or more per week—are far less likely to live in poverty than are others. However, there remains a sizable group

of full-time workers who live below the poverty threshold.

There are three primary labor market problems experienced

by these full-time workers: Unemployment, low earnings, and

involuntary part-time employment. (See definitions in the

technical note.) Among those who participated in the labor

force for more than half of the year and who usually worked

in full-time wage and salary jobs, 3.8 million, or 3.7 percent,

were classified as working poor in 1998, little changed from

the prior year. (See table 8.)

About 83 percent of the working poor who usually worked

full time experienced at least one of the major labor market

problems. Low earnings continued to be the most common

problem; about 7 in 10 poor workers faced low earnings, either alone or in conjunction with other labor market problems. Nearly a third of the working poor experienced unemployment, alone or in conjunction with other problems. Only

1 in 20 experienced all three problems—low earnings, unemployment, and involuntary part-time employment.

Some 650,000 of these working poor, or 17.2 percent, did

not experience any of the three primary labor market problems in 1998. Their poverty status may be associated with

other factors, including short-term employment, some weeks

of voluntary part-time work, or a family structure that increases the risk of poverty.
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Source of data

The primary source of data in this report is the work experience and income supplement (called the Annual Demographic

Survey) to the March 1999 Current Population Survey (CPS).

The CPS is a monthly survey of about 50,000 households

conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of

Labor Statistics to collect demographic, social, and economic

information about persons 16 years of age and older. The

work experience and income information collected in the March

supplement refers to activity in the entire prior calendar year.

The estimates are based on a sample; consequently, they

may differ from the figures that would have been obtained

from a complete census using the same questionnaire and

procedures. Sampling variability may be relatively large in

cases where the numbers are small. Thus, small estimates, or

small differences between estimates, should be interpreted

with caution. For a detailed explanation of the March supplement to the Current Population Survey, its sampling variability, and more complete definitions than those provided below, see Poverty in the United States: 1998—Current

Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 207 (U.S. Census

Bureau, September 1999). This publication also is available

on the U.S. Census Bureau website (http://www.census.gov).

Information in this report will be made available to sensory impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: (202)

691-5200; Federal Relay Service: 1-800-877-8339. This material is in the public domain and, with appropriate credit,

may be reproduced without permission.

For more information on the data provided in this report,

write to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Labor

Force Statistics, Room 4675, 2 Massachusetts Avenue, NE,

Washington, DC 20212, e-mail: cpsinfo@bls.gov or telephone

(202) 691-6378.

Concepts and definitions

Poverty classification. Poverty statistics presented in this

report are based on definitions developed by the Social

Security Administration in 1964 and revised by Federal interagency committees in 1969 and 1981. These definitions originally were based on the Department of Agriculture’s Economy

Food Plan and reflected the different consumption requirements of families based on factors such as family size and the

number of children under 18 years of age.

The actual poverty thresholds vary in accordance with the

makeup of the family. In 1998, the average poverty threshold

for a family of four was $16,660; for a family of nine or more

persons, the threshold was $33,339; and for an unrelated individual aged 65 or older, it was $7,818. The poverty thresholds are updated each year to reflect changes in the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U). The

thresholds do not vary geographically. For more information,

Technical Note

see Poverty in the United States: 1998, cited above.

Low earnings. The low earnings level, as first developed in

1987, represented the average of the real value of the minimum wage between 1967 and 1987 for a 40-hour week. The

base year of 1967 was chosen because that was the first year

in which minimum-wage legislation covered essentially the

same broad group of workers who currently are covered. The

low earnings level has subsequently been adjusted each year

using the CPI-U, so that the measure maintains the same real

value that it held in 1987. In 1998, the low earnings threshold

was $239.91 per week. For a more complete definition, see

Bruce W. Klein and Philip L. Rones, “A Profile of the Working

Poor,” Monthly Labor Review, October 1989, pp. 3-13.

Income. Data on income are limited to money income received in the calendar year preceding the March survey date,

before personal income taxes and payroll deductions. It does

not include the value of noncash benefits such as Food

Stamps, medicare, medicaid, public housing, and employerprovided benefits. For a complete definition of the income

concept, see Poverty in the United States: 1998, cited above.

In the labor force. Persons in the labor force are those who

worked or looked for work sometime during the calendar year

preceding the March survey date. The number of weeks in

the labor force is accumulated over the entire year. The focus

in this report is on persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or

more.

Involuntary part-time workers. These are persons who, in

at least 1 week of the year, worked fewer than 35 hours because of slack work or business conditions, or because they

could not find full-time work. The number of weeks of involuntary part-time work is accumulated over the year.

Occupation. Refers to the occupation in which a person

worked the most weeks during the calendar year.

Unemployed. Unemployed persons are those who looked

for work while not employed or those who were on layoff

from a job and expecting recall. The number of weeks unemployed is accumulated over the entire year.

Family. A family is defined as a group of two or more

 persons residing together who are related by birth, marriage,

or adoption. Persons in related subfamilies—married couples

or parent-child groups sharing the living quarters of another

family member—are included as members of that family and

are not distinct family units. The count of families used in this

report does not include unrelated subfamilies, such as lodgers,

guests, or resident employees living in a household but not
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related to the householder (the person in whose name the

housing unit is owned or rented). Families are classified

either as married-couple families or as those maintained by

men or women without spouses present. Family status is

determined at the time of the March interview, and thus may

be different from that of the previous year.

Unrelated individuals. These are persons who are not living

with any relatives. Such individuals may be living alone,

reside in a nonrelated family household, or live in group

quarters with other unrelated individuals.

Related children. Data on related children refer to own

children (including sons, daughters, and step or adopted

children) of the husband, wife, or person maintaining the

family and all other children related to the householder by

birth, marriage, or adoption.

Race. White, black, and other are terms used to describe the

race of workers. Included in the “other” group are American

Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asians and Pacific Islanders;

because of their relatively small sample size, data for this group

are not separately tabulated or published.

Hispanic origin. This term refers to persons who identify

themselves in the CPS enumeration process as Mexican, Puerto

Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or of some other

Hispanic origin or descent. Persons of Hispanic origin may be

of any race; thus, they also are included in both the white and

black population groups.
Table 1. Persons in the labor force: Poverty status and work experience by weeks in the labor force, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Poverty status and work experience Total in the labor force

27 weeks or more in the labor force

Total 50 to 52 weeks

TOTAL

Total in labor force ................................................................................ 146,570 131,731 117,858

 Did not work during the year ............................................................... 1,729 726 643

 Worked during the year ...................................................................... 144,841 131,005 117,216

 Usual full-time workers ..................................................................... 115,697 109,619 101,787

 Usual part-time workers .................................................................... 29,144 21,386 15,428

 Involuntary part-time workers ......................................................... 4,202 3,378 2,611

 Voluntary part-time workers ............................................................ 24,942 18,008 12,817

At or above poverty level

Total in labor force ................................................................................ 136,666 124,573 112,126

 Did not work during the year ............................................................... 935 364 313

 Worked during the year ...................................................................... 135,731 124,210 111,814

 Usual full-time workers ..................................................................... 109,941 105,091 98,008

 Usual part-time workers .................................................................... 25,790 19,118 13,806

 Involuntary part-time workers ......................................................... 3,081 2,508 1,952

 Voluntary part-time workers ............................................................ 22,709 16,611 11,853

Below poverty level

Total in labor force ................................................................................ 9,903 7,158 5,732

 Did not work during the year ............................................................... 794 362 330

 Worked during the year ...................................................................... 9,110 6,796 5,402

 Usual full-time workers ..................................................................... 5,756 4,528 3,779

 Usual part-time workers .................................................................... 3,354 2,268 1,623

 Involuntary part-time workers ......................................................... 1,121 871 659

 Voluntary part-time workers ............................................................ 2,233 1,397 964

Poverty rate1

Total in labor force ................................................................................ 6.8 5.4 4.9

 Did not work during the year ............................................................... 45.9 49.9 51.3

 Worked during the year ...................................................................... 6.3 5.2 4.6

 Usual full-time workers ..................................................................... 5.0 4.1 3.7

 Usual part-time workers .................................................................... 11.5 10.6 10.5

 Involuntary part-time workers ......................................................... 26.7 25.8 25.2

 Voluntary part-time workers ............................................................ 9.0 7.8 7.5

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor

force.

 NOTE: Data refer to persons 16 years and older. Data for 1998, which

were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population

Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier

years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised population

controls used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions in

the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February

1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.

5
Table 2. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Age and sex Total White Black Hispanic

origin

Below poverty level Poverty rate1

Total White Black Hispanic

origin Total White Black Hispanicorigin

 Total, 16 years and older .................. 131,731 110,617 15,041 13,341 7,158 5,219 1,617 1,665 5.4 4.7 10.8 12.5

16 to 19 years ....................................... 5,101 4,371 554 589 439 340 80 122 8.6 7.8 14.4 20.6

20 to 24 years ....................................... 12,362 10,210 1,591 1,844 1,361 1,021 291 297 11.0 10.0 18.3 16.1

25 to 34 years ....................................... 31,077 25,248 4,157 4,086 2,138 1,485 549 554 6.9 5.9 13.2 13.6

35 to 44 years ....................................... 36,697 30,575 4,375 3,563 1,881 1,390 406 458 5.1 4.5 9.3 12.9

45 to 54 years ....................................... 28,653 24,480 2,927 2,148 789 577 165 166 2.8 2.4 5.6 7.7

55 to 64 years ....................................... 13,770 12,063 1,164 923 446 325 110 59 3.2 2.7 9.5 6.4

65 years and older ................................ 4,070 3,670 273 188 105 80 17 10 2.6 2.2 6.2 5.1

 Men, 16 years and older ................... 71,067 60,783 7,015 7,912 3,364 2,689 506 999 4.7 4.4 7.2 12.6

16 to 19 years ....................................... 2,617 2,257 269 322 184 146 31 52 7.1 6.5 11.6 16.2

20 to 24 years ....................................... 6,521 5,512 734 1,129 619 502 92 189 9.5 9.1 12.5 16.8

25 to 34 years ....................................... 16,977 14,080 1,961 2,557 982 773 165 360 5.8 5.5 8.4 14.1

35 to 44 years ....................................... 19,932 16,949 2,031 2,049 879 723 106 264 4.4 4.3 5.2 12.9

45 to 54 years ....................................... 15,168 13,174 1,376 1,202 420 327 66 98 2.8 2.5 4.8 8.2

55 to 64 years ....................................... 7,565 6,718 522 527 225 170 45 33 3.0 2.5 8.5 6.3

65 years and older ................................ 2,287 2,093 122 127 54 49 1 3 2.4 2.3 1.2 2.0

 Women, 16 years and older ............. 60,664 49,834 8,026 5,428 3,795 2,530 1,111 666 6.3 5.1 13.8 12.3

16 to 19 years ....................................... 2,484 2,115 285 267 254 194 49 69 10.2 9.2 17.1 26.0

20 to 24 years ....................................... 5,841 4,698 857 715 742 519 199 107 12.7 11.0 23.2 15.0

25 to 34 years ....................................... 14,100 11,168 2,196 1,529 1,156 713 383 194 8.2 6.4 17.5 12.7

35 to 44 years ....................................... 16,765 13,625 2,344 1,514 1,002 667 300 194 6.0 4.9 12.8 12.8

45 to 54 years ....................................... 13,485 11,306 1,551 946 368 250 99 68 2.7 2.2 6.4 7.2

55 to 64 years ....................................... 6,205 5,345 642 396 221 155 66 26 3.6 2.9 10.2 6.5

65 years and older ................................ 1,783 1,577 151 61 51 32 15 7 2.9 2.0 10.2 2 ( )

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor

force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year. 2 Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.

 NOTE: Detail for race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals

because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics

are included in both the white and black population groups. Data for 1998,

which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current

Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997

and earlier years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised

population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see

"Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the

February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.

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Table 3. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status by educational attainment, race, and sex, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Educational attainment and race Total Men Women

Below poverty level Poverty rate1

Total Men Women Total Men Women

 Total, 16 years and older ...................................................... 131,731 71,067 60,664 7,158 3,364 3,795 5.4 4.7 6.3

Less than a high school diploma .............................................. 16,196 9,830 6,366 2,342 1,277 1,066 14.5 13.0 16.7

 Less than 1 year of high school .............................................. 4,456 2,941 1,515 796 535 261 17.9 18.2 17.2

 1-3 years of high school ......................................................... 10,098 5,830 4,268 1,330 609 721 13.2 10.4 16.9

 4 years of high school, no diploma ......................................... 1,642 1,059 583 216 132 83 13.1 12.5 14.3

High school graduates, no college ........................................... 42,760 23,003 19,757 2,825 1,254 1,571 6.6 5.5 7.9

Some college, no degree .......................................................... 26,365 13,445 12,919 1,176 472 704 4.5 3.5 5.5

Associate degree ...................................................................... 10,780 5,280 5,500 306 105 201 2.8 2.0 3.7

College graduates .................................................................... 35,630 19,508 16,122 509 256 253 1.4 1.3 1.6

 White, 16 years and older ..................................................... 110,617 60,783 49,834 5,219 2,689 2,530 4.7 4.4 5.1

Less than a high school diploma .............................................. 13,213 8,316 4,897 1,799 1,063 736 13.6 12.8 15.0

 Less than 1 year of high school .............................................. 3,835 2,589 1,246 710 485 225 18.5 18.7 18.1

 1-3 years of high school ......................................................... 8,147 4,888 3,259 928 475 453 11.4 9.7 13.9

 4 years of high school, no diploma ......................................... 1,231 839 392 162 104 58 13.1 12.4 14.7

High school graduates, no college ........................................... 35,705 19,435 16,270 1,965 958 1,006 5.5 4.9 6.2

Some college, no degree .......................................................... 21,685 11,274 10,411 829 374 455 3.8 3.3 4.4

Associate degree ...................................................................... 9,304 4,616 4,689 221 76 145 2.4 1.6 3.1

College graduates .................................................................... 30,709 17,142 13,568 404 217 187 1.3 1.3 1.4

 Black, 16 years and older ..................................................... 15,041 7,015 8,026 1,617 506 1,111 10.8 7.2 13.8

Less than a high school diploma .............................................. 2,211 1,089 1,123 444 151 293 20.1 13.9 26.1

 Less than 1 year of high school .............................................. 367 221 145 42 17 25 11.4 7.6 17.1

 1-3 years of high school ......................................................... 1,542 712 830 354 111 243 23.0 15.6 29.3

 4 years of high school, no diploma ......................................... 303 156 147 48 23 25 15.9 14.8 17.0

High school graduates, no college ........................................... 5,661 2,820 2,841 769 252 517 13.6 8.9 18.2

Some college, no degree .......................................................... 3,578 1,598 1,980 281 63 218 7.9 3.9 11.0

Associate degree ...................................................................... 1,020 431 590 51 12 39 5.0 2.9 6.6

College graduates .................................................................... 2,571 1,079 1,492 72 28 44 2.8 2.6 3.0

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force

for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year.

 NOTE: Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement

to the Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data

for 1997 and earlier years because of the introduction in January 1999 of

revised population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see

"Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the

February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.

7
Table 4. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year: Poverty status by occupation of the longest job

held, race, and sex, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Occupation and race Total Men Women

Below poverty level Poverty rate1

Total Men Women Total Men Women

 Total, 16 years and older2 .................................................... 131,005 70,691 60,314 6,796 3,197 3,598 5.2 4.5 6.0

Managerial and professional specialty ..................................... 39,094 19,729 19,364 589 276 312 1.5 1.4 1.6

 Executive, administrative, and managerial ............................. 19,316 10,492 8,824 263 145 119 1.4 1.4 1.3

 Professional specialty ............................................................. 19,778 9,237 10,541 325 132 194 1.6 1.4 1.8

Technical, sales, and administrative support ............................ 37,976 13,872 24,104 1,662 383 1,279 4.4 2.8 5.3

 Technicians and related support ............................................ 4,236 2,016 2,220 66 29 37 1.6 1.4 1.7

 Sales occupations .................................................................. 15,750 8,088 7,662 949 261 688 6.0 3.2 9.0

 Administrative support, including clerical ................................ 17,990 3,768 14,222 648 93 554 3.6 2.5 3.9

Service occupations ................................................................. 17,535 6,916 10,619 2,013 564 1,448 11.5 8.2 13.6

 Private household ................................................................... 696 30 666 135 7 129 19.4 3 ( ) 19.3

 Protective service ................................................................... 2,408 1,942 466 64 25 39 2.6 1.3 8.4

 Service, except private household and protective .................. 14,431 4,944 9,488 1,814 533 1,281 12.6 10.8 13.5

Precision production, craft, and repair ...................................... 14,766 13,472 1,294 660 596 64 4.5 4.4 4.9

Operators, fabricators, and laborers ......................................... 18,226 13,903 4,322 1,353 962 391 7.4 6.9 9.0

 Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .................... 7,621 4,869 2,752 487 266 221 6.4 5.5 8.0

 Transportation and material moving occupations ................... 5,350 4,801 549 331 278 53 6.2 5.8 9.7

 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ............ 5,255 4,234 1,021 534 418 116 10.2 9.9 11.4

Farming, forestry, and fishing ................................................... 3,239 2,644 595 518 414 104 16.0 15.7 17.5

 White, 16 years and older2 ................................................. 110,148 60,503 49,644 5,011 2,575 2,436 4.5 4.3 4.9

Managerial and professional specialty ..................................... 34,027 17,523 16,504 453 240 213 1.3 1.4 1.3

 Executive, administrative, and managerial ............................. 16,981 9,473 7,509 208 131 77 1.2 1.4 1.0

 Professional specialty ............................................................. 17,046 8,050 8,995 245 110 135 1.4 1.4 1.5

Technical, sales, and administrative support ............................ 32,068 11,842 20,226 1,176 282 894 3.7 2.4 4.4

 Technicians and related support ............................................ 3,540 1,716 1,824 43 28 16 1.2 1.6 .9

 Sales occupations .................................................................. 13,565 7,116 6,449 659 192 468 4.9 2.7 7.3

 Administrative support, including clerical ................................ 14,963 3,010 11,954 473 63 410 3.2 2.1 3.4

Service occupations ................................................................. 13,454 5,420 8,034 1,357 425 931 10.1 7.8 11.6

 Private household ................................................................... 536 26 510 104 7 97 19.4 3 ( ) 19.1

 Protective service ................................................................... 1,818 1,517 301 33 16 17 1.8 1.1 5.5

 Service, except private household and protective .................. 11,100 3,877 7,223 1,220 402 817 11.0 10.4 11.3

Precision production, craft, and repair ...................................... 13,029 12,003 1,025 556 510 46 4.3 4.3 4.5

Operators, fabricators, and laborers ......................................... 14,466 11,188 3,278 1,014 762 252 7.0 6.8 7.7

 Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .................... 6,011 3,965 2,046 355 211 144 5.9 5.3 7.0

 Transportation and material moving occupations ................... 4,343 3,900 444 250 216 34 5.8 5.5 7.7

 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ............ 4,112 3,324 788 410 335 75 10.0 10.1 9.5

Farming, forestry, and fishing ................................................... 2,974 2,407 567 456 355 100 15.3 14.8 17.7

 Black, 16 years and older2 ................................................. 14,823 6,937 7,886 1,480 461 1,019 10.0 6.7 12.9

Managerial and professional specialty ..................................... 3,011 1,121 1,890 94 21 74 3.1 1.9 3.9

 Executive, administrative, and managerial ............................. 1,441 549 891 34 4 30 2.4 .7 3.4

 Professional specialty ............................................................. 1,570 572 999 60 17 43 3.8 3.0 4.3

Technical, sales, and administrative support ............................ 4,233 1,303 2,930 405 69 336 9.6 5.3 11.5

 Technicians and related support ............................................ 447 197 250 16 – 16 3.7 – 6.5

 Sales occupations .................................................................. 1,431 562 870 233 46 187 16.3 8.3 21.5

 Administrative support, including clerical ................................ 2,355 545 1,810 156 23 133 6.6 4.2 7.3

Service occupations ................................................................. 3,286 1,159 2,127 584 101 482 17.8 8.8 22.7

 Private household ................................................................... 128 5 123 27 – 27 21.2 – 21.9

 Protective service ................................................................... 538 381 157 28 6 22 5.2 1.6 13.8

 Service, except private household and protective .................. 2,620 773 1,847 529 95 434 20.2 12.3 23.5

Precision production, craft, and repair ...................................... 1,187 1,016 171 59 52 7 5.0 5.2 3.9

Operators, fabricators, and laborers ......................................... 2,882 2,131 750 283 165 117 9.8 7.8 15.7

 Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .................... 1,135 634 501 107 40 67 9.4 6.3 13.3

 Transportation and material moving occupations ................... 833 749 84 73 54 19 8.7 7.2 22.5

 Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers ............ 913 748 165 104 72 32 11.4 9.6 19.2

Farming, forestry, and fishing ................................................... 188 173 14 55 52 3 29.1 30.1 3 ( )

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force

for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year. 2 Includes a small number of persons whose last job was in the Armed

Forces. 3 Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.

 NOTE: Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement

to the Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data

for 1997 and earlier years because of the introduction in January 1999 of

revised population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see

"Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the

February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings. Dash represents or rounds

to zero.

8
Table 5. Persons in families and unrelated individuals: Poverty status and work experience, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Poverty status and work

experience

Total

persons

In married-couple families In families maintained by

women In families maintained by men Unrelated

individuals Husbands Wives

Related

children

under 18

Other

relatives

Householder

Related

children

under 18

Other

relatives

Householder

Related

children

under 18

Other

relatives

TOTAL

 All persons ............................ 207,038 54,184 54,725 5,384 17,109 12,781 1,904 9,641 3,958 433 3,858 43,061

With labor force activity ............ 146,570 43,299 36,131 2,510 12,765 9,462 785 6,553 3,225 167 2,608 29,065

 1 to 26 weeks ......................... 14,838 1,566 3,810 1,484 2,815 973 520 1,027 173 100 276 2,094

 27 weeks or more ................... 131,731 41,734 32,320 1,026 9,950 8,489 264 5,526 3,052 67 2,332 26,971

With no labor force activity ....... 60,468 10,884 18,595 2,874 4,344 3,319 1,120 3,088 733 266 1,250 13,995

At or above poverty level

 All persons ............................ 184,813 51,338 51,851 5,027 16,434 8,953 1,265 8,192 3,484 391 3,522 34,355

With labor force activity ............ 136,666 41,565 35,162 2,412 12,482 7,084 655 5,981 2,937 157 2,479 25,753

 1 to 26 weeks ......................... 12,093 1,380 3,499 1,422 2,715 330 418 825 107 91 243 1,063

 27 weeks or more ................... 124,573 40,184 31,663 990 9,766 6,754 238 5,156 2,830 65 2,237 24,690

With no labor force activity ....... 48,147 9,773 16,689 2,615 3,952 1,869 610 2,211 547 235 1,043 8,603

Below poverty level

 All persons ............................ 22,225 2,846 2,874 357 675 3,828 639 1,449 474 42 336 8,705

With labor force activity ............ 9,903 1,735 968 97 284 2,378 129 572 288 11 128 3,313

 1 to 26 weeks ......................... 2,745 186 311 62 100 643 103 202 65 9 33 1,031

 27 weeks or more ................... 7,158 1,549 657 36 184 1,735 27 370 223 2 95 2,281

With no labor force activity ....... 12,322 1,111 1,906 259 391 1,450 510 877 186 31 208 5,393

Poverty rate1

 All persons ............................ 10.7 5.3 5.3 6.6 3.9 29.9 33.6 15.0 12.0 9.7 8.7 20.2

With labor force activity ............ 6.8 4.0 2.7 3.9 2.2 25.1 16.5 8.7 8.9 6.5 4.9 11.4

 1 to 26 weeks ......................... 18.5 11.9 8.2 4.1 3.6 66.1 19.7 19.7 37.7 9.2 12.0 49.2

 27 weeks or more ................... 5.4 3.7 2.0 3.5 1.8 20.4 10.1 6.7 7.3 2.6 4.1 8.5

With no labor force activity ....... 20.4 10.2 10.2 9.0 9.0 43.7 45.5 28.4 25.4 11.7 16.6 38.5

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor

force.

 NOTE: Data refer to persons 16 years and older. Data for 1998, which

were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population

Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier years

because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised population controls

used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions in the Current

Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of

Employment and Earnings.

9
Table 6. Primary families: Poverty status, presence of related children, and work experience of family members

in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic Total families At or above

poverty level

Below poverty

level Poverty rate1

 Total primary families ....................................................... 59,621 55,602 4,019 6.7

With related children under 18 .................................................. 34,201 30,728 3,473 10.2

Without children ........................................................................ 25,420 24,874 546 2.1

With one member in the labor force ......................................... 24,442 21,122 3,320 13.6

With two or more members in the labor force ........................... 35,179 34,481 698 2.0

 With two members .................................................................. 29,356 28,713 643 2.2

 With three or more members .................................................. 5,823 5,768 55 1.0

Married-couple families:

With related children under 18 .............................................. 25,428 23,939 1,489 5.9

Without children .................................................................... 20,721 20,385 336 1.6

With one member in the labor force ..................................... 15,141 13,841 1,300 8.6

 Husband ............................................................................. 11,429 10,381 1,048 9.2

 Wife .................................................................................... 3,014 2,817 196 6.5

 Relative ............................................................................... 698 643 56 8.0

With two or more members in the labor force ....................... 31,008 30,483 525 1.7

 With two members .............................................................. 25,915 25,433 482 1.9

 With three or more members .............................................. 5,093 5,050 43 .8

Families maintained by women:

With related children under 18 .............................................. 6,896 5,135 1,761 25.5

Without children .................................................................... 3,084 2,921 163 5.3

With one member in the labor force ..................................... 7,191 5,405 1,786 24.8

 Householder ....................................................................... 5,987 4,371 1,616 27.0

 Relative ............................................................................... 1,204 1,034 170 14.1

With two or more members in the labor force ....................... 2,789 2,651 138 5.0

Families maintained by men:

With related children under 18 .............................................. 1,876 1,654 223 11.9

Without children .................................................................... 1,615 1,568 47 2.9

With one member in the labor force ..................................... 2,110 1,875 235 11.1

 Householder ....................................................................... 1,784 1,589 194 10.9

 Relative ............................................................................... 326 286 40 12.4

With two or more members in the labor force ....................... 1,382 1,347 35 2.5

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in

the labor force for 27 weeks or more.

 NOTE: Data relate to primary families with at least one member

in the labor force for 27 weeks or more. Data for 1998, which

were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current

Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for

1997 and earlier years because of the introduction in January

1999 of revised population controls used in the survey. For

additional information, see "Revisions in the Current Population

Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of

Employment and Earnings.

10
Table 7. Unrelated individuals in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status by age, sex, race, Hispanic origin, and

living arrangement, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic Total At or above

poverty level

Below poverty

level Poverty rate1

Age and sex

 Total unrelated individuals ........................................................................................... 26,971 24,690 2,281 8.5

16 to 19 years ....................................................................................................................... 545 348 197 36.1

20 to 24 years ....................................................................................................................... 3,514 2,862 652 18.6

25 to 64 years ....................................................................................................................... 21,825 20,429 1,397 6.4

65 years and older ................................................................................................................ 1,086 1,051 36 3.3

Men ....................................................................................................................................... 15,137 13,946 1,191 7.9

Women ................................................................................................................................. 11,834 10,744 1,090 9.2

Race and Hispanic origin

White .................................................................................................................................... 22,673 20,836 1,838 8.1

 Men .................................................................................................................................... 12,828 11,842 987 7.7

 Women .............................................................................................................................. 9,845 8,994 851 8.6

Black ..................................................................................................................................... 3,237 2,863 375 11.6

 Men .................................................................................................................................... 1,731 1,551 181 10.4

 Women .............................................................................................................................. 1,506 1,312 194 12.9

Hispanic origin ...................................................................................................................... 2,233 1,850 383 17.2

 Men .................................................................................................................................... 1,497 1,227 270 18.0

 Women .............................................................................................................................. 735 622 113 15.4

Living arrangement

Living alone .......................................................................................................................... 14,382 13,573 810 5.6

Living with others .................................................................................................................. 12,589 11,117 1,472 11.7

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor

force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year.

 NOTE: Detail for race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals

because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics

are included in both the white and black population groups. Data for 1998,

which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current

Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997

and earlier years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised

population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see

"Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the

February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.

Table 8. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status and labor market problems of full-time wage and

salary workers, 1998

(Numbers in thousands)

Poverty status and labor market problems Total At or above

poverty level

Below poverty

level Poverty rate1

 Total, full-time wage and salary workers ......................................................................... 102,752 98,971 3,781 3.7

No unemployment, involuntary part-time employment, or low earnings2 ............................. 84,410 83,760 650 .8

Unemployment only .............................................................................................................. 5,489 5,141 348 6.3

Involuntary part-time employment only ................................................................................. 2,001 1,969 32 1.6

Low earnings only ................................................................................................................. 7,357 5,662 1,695 23.0

Unemployment and involuntary part-time employment ........................................................ 969 885 84 8.6

Unemployment and low earnings ......................................................................................... 1,428 822 606 42.4

Involuntary part-time employment and low earnings ............................................................ 656 485 171 26.0

Unemployment, involuntary part-time employment, and low earnings ................................. 443 247 196 44.2

1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor

force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year. 2 The low earnings threshold in 1998 was $239.91 per week.

 NOTE: Data refer to persons 16 years and older. Data for 1998, which

were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population

Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier

years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised population

controls used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions in

the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February

1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.

11