Monthly Labor Review August 2001 25

Working while in School

Students who worked 20 or fewer hours per week

during the school year were more likely to attend college;

youths who worked a greater percentage of weeks

during the school year worked more consistently

when they reached ages 18 to 30

Donna S. Rothstein

Youth employment during school:

results from two longitudinal surveys

Donna S. Rothstein is

a research economist

in the Office of

Employment and

Unemployment

Statistics, Bureau of

Labor Statistics. E-mail:

According to a popular perception, youths

work more today than in the past and

their employment may not always lead to

desirable consequences. The concern is that a

young person’s employment, particularly when

the individual works many hours, may reduce

study time, increase school lateness and absenteeism rates, and adversely affect grades. However, a youth’s employment also may provide

some positive benefits, teaching about workplace

norms and responsibilities and helping to ease

the person’s subsequent transition from school

to work full time. In addition, these costs and benefits associated with a person’s working while

young could have an impact on the individual’s

long-term educational and labor market outcomes.

The first part of this article compares the employment of today’s youth with that of a youth

cohort from nearly 20 years ago. It asks whether

15- and 16-year-olds are, in fact, more likely to

work today and examines whether the likelihood

of a young person’s being employed while attending school varies across youths with different demographic characteristics. Also examined

in this part is how the distribution of hours of

work of 16-year-olds varies across the two cohorts.

Data come from the first round of a new survey of

youth—the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth

1997 (NLSY97)—and from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79). In the first

round of each survey, 15- and 16-year-olds answered similar questions about their current employment status and hours of work. In addition,

many demographic measures that may be associated with youths’ decisions to work are similar

across the two surveys.

The second part of the article looks at the relationship between the employment of 16- and 17-

year-old youths attending school and their future

academic and labor market outcomes—specifically,

college attendance, weeks of work from ages 18

through 30, and number of jobs held from ages

18 through 30. Data are from the NLSY79, which

has followed the lives of survey respondents for

more than 20 years. As the NLSY97 cohort ages,

researchers will be able to use that survey to

study how today’s school-enrolled youths’ employment affects their long-term educational and

labor market experiences.

Background

Youths may choose to work while they are enrolled in school for a variety of reasons. They

may want to earn income to support their family,

pay for personal expenses (for example, a car), or

save for college. Parents may encourage youths

to work because they believe that working will

teach them responsibility and punctuality. In addition, youths (particularly those who are not bound

for college) may want to obtain job experience that

will assist them in their subsequent transition from

school to work. A goal of the 1994 School-to-Work

rothstein_d@bls.gov Opportunities Act is to strengthen the relation-
26 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

ship between schooling and work. However, youths’ employment may, in fact, decrease their time for completing homework, cause them to come to school tired and less focused on

schoolwork, and, thus, adversely affect their academic

achievement.

Many earlier studies that examined the impact of youth

employment failed to take into account that the choice to

work while attending school and the consequences of working are intertwined. Youths who choose to work may be systematically different from youths who do not work. In addition,

youths who work a high number of hours may be different (even

before they begin to work) from those who work a moderate

number of hours. The differences may be related to observable characteristics, such as one’s family background, or to

unobservable characteristics, such as one’s motivation.

Thus, in itself, working while attending school may not be

the cause of particular positive or negative consequences;

rather, youths who choose to work may have some preexisting differences and would have had those outcomes anyway.

This factor complicates any evaluation of the impact of youth

employment.1

A few recent studies by economists have attempted to account for potential underlying differences between youths

who work and youths who do not work in analyzing the effects of employment on high school youths. Three studies in

particular used the NLSY79. Gerald S. Oettinger found that

intensive employment (in terms of either weeks or hours) during the school year has a negative impact on minority students’ grade point averages.2 Audrey Light, using a sample

of male terminal high school graduates, examined the impact

of high school employment on subsequent wages over a 9-

year period and concluded that such employment has a positive effect on wages only for the first 6 years after graduation

from high school.3 In contrast, Christopher J. Ruhm found

that employment during high school has a positive impact on

earnings 6 to 9 years after the student’s senior year.4 Although

both Ruhm and Light used NLSY79 data, they did so on different samples: Ruhm did not restrict his sample to those with no

postsecondary education and included both male and female

youths in his sample.

The article begins by looking at differences in characteristics of youths who worked while they were in school in 1979

and in 1997. It then examines the relationship between NLSY79

youths’ employment and their long-term educational and labor market outcomes. As noted earlier, this relationship does

not necessarily imply cause and effect.

Youth employment in 1979 and 1997

Data and variables. This section compares the employment

of two groups of 15- and 16-year-olds born nearly 20 years

apart. It uses two data sets that focus specifically on youth:

the NLSY79 and the new NLSY97. The NLSY79 consists of data

on more than 12,000 youths aged 14 through 21 as of December 31, 1978. The NLSY97 data set has information on 9,000

youths aged 12 through 16 as of December 31, 1996. The discussion that follows uses information on the employment of

15- and 16-year-olds from the first interview year of each of

the two surveys.5

In comparing youth employment over time, it is important

to have a measure that is based on similar questions with the

same reference period. This is possible with the NLSY79 and

the NLSY97, because both cohorts received a section that

consists of questions from the Current Population Survey

(CPS) on their employment status and hours of work in the

week prior to the interview. Only NLSY97 respondents who

were aged 15 and older received these questions, while all

NLSY79 youths received them. Thus, this measure can be constructed for 15- and 16-year-olds across both surveys.6 Because the focus in this article is on the employment of youths

during the school term, only enrolled youths who were interviewed during the months of January through May are included in tabulations.

Studies have found that gender, race, ethnicity, family income, family structure, and maternal employment are predictors of the likelihood of a person’s working while young.7

Similar measures of these factors were constructed across the

two surveys, and the tables that follow tabulate youth employment by the various factors. For example, past studies

have found that white males are more likely to work than other

groups. Comparable measures of gender, race, and ethnicity

can be formed for both cohorts. Grade might also be a factor.

Holding age constant (at 15 or 16), being in a higher grade,

perhaps with peers who are older and thus more likely to work,

could increase the likelihood of a youth’s working while he or

she is in school.

Household income can have an ambiguous effect on

the likelihood of working. On the one hand, those in households with lower income may be more likely to work because they need to help support their families. On the other

hand, youths in low-income households may live in areas

with less economic opportunity and have less access to

transportation, decreasing the likelihood of their working.

The NLSY79 contains a measure of family income in the

year prior to the survey, and the NLSY97 has a measure of

household income in the previous year. The two measures

are fairly similar and are categorized into four income levels in the analysis that follows.

Maternal employment and family structure may affect the

likelihood of youths’ employment. Families in which the

mother is employed may place a stronger emphasis on work

among all household members. Both the NLSY79 and the

NLSY97 have measures of whether the mother worked during

the previous year. Measures of family structure are con-
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 27

structed as of the date of the interview for both cohorts.8

Youths who have engaged in certain behaviors may be more

likely to work. For example, youths who have smoked cigarettes or used marijuana may be more anxious to enter the

adult world, which includes working. Round 1 of the NLSY97

asked youths whether they had ever used marijuana or ever

smoked a cigarette. The 1984 interview of the NLSY79

asked the age when the youth first smoked a cigarette and

the year the youth first used marijuana. These questions are

used to construct a measure of whether those who ever

engaged in the behavior at issue did so by the date of their

1979 interview.9

The effect of having ever been suspended from school on

the likelihood of working is ambiguous. On the one hand,

youths who have received suspensions may enjoy school

less than others and be more likely to want to enter the world

of work. On the other hand, if potential employers check with

the school as a reference, youths who have received suspensions may be less likely to be offered a job. The NLSY97 round1 interview asked whether the youth had ever been suspended.

In the 1980 interview, the NLSY79 asked for the number of

times the youth had ever been suspended and the date of the

most recent suspension. The questions are used to determine

whether the youth had ever been suspended by the date of

the 1979 interview.10

Employment of 15- and 16-year-olds. Are youths working

more now than in the past? NLSY79 and NLSY97 data suggest

that the answer is no. About equal percentages (25 percent to

26 percent) of 15-year-olds who were enrolled in school

worked during the reference week—that is, the week prior to

the NLSY79 and NLSY97 survey interviews. (See table 1.) The

percentage of school-enrolled 16-year-olds who worked during the reference week was also nearly the same in the two

survey years (36 percent and 38 percent; see table 2.)11 There

is a clear step up of more than 10 percentage points in the

percent of youths working at age 15 to the percent working at

age 16. In part, this may be due to legal restrictions on the

types of work that 15-year-olds can perform. In addition, most

youths may obtain a driver’s license at age 16, which can

increase their access to jobs and also motivate them to work

to pay for the expenses of having a car.12 The actual number

of hours worked in the week prior to the interview among

youths who did work were also fairly similar across the two

cohorts (numbers not shown in table). The average was 10.6

for 15-year-olds in 1979 and 8.4 for 15-year-olds in 1997, a

small decrease over time. Average hours of work per week

were higher for 16-year-olds: 15.2 in 1979 and 14.6 in 1997.

Turning first to 15-year-olds, table 1 shows that the likelihood of a youth’s working while in school varies by many

background characteristics. The direction of many of the effects is similar across the two cohorts. For example, whites

were more likely to work than were blacks or Hispanics.13

Also, blacks were more than 40 percent more likely to work

while in school in 1997 than in 1979. In both cohorts, youths

in eighth grade or lower were less likely to work than youths

in higher grades. Youths who had ever smoked were more

likely to work than other youths. Youths in households with

lower income were generally less likely to work, possibly because, as mentioned earlier, they may have lived in more depressed areas and have had less access to public transportation.

The table also shows that youths in both types of two-parent

families were more likely to work than those in female-parent

families. Only in the NLSY97 sample were youths who had

ever been suspended substantially less likely to work. In the

NLSY79, 15-year-old female youths were less likely to work

than their male counterparts, but the gender difference between the percent of youths working was not significant in

the NLSY97.

Sixteen-year-old female youths were also significantly less

likely to work than males were in the NLSY79, but not the

NLSY97. (See table 2.) In both cohorts, whites were more likely

to work than were blacks or Hispanics. Black 16-year-olds in

1997 were almost 40 percent more likely to work than in 1979.

The school grade appears to matter for both cohorts: youths

in the 11th grade were more likely to work than youths in the

10th grade. In the NLSY79 cohort only, youths who had ever

smoked or used marijuana were significantly more likely to

work. In both survey cohorts, youths in households with less

than $25,000 income were less likely to work, and in both cohorts, youths in households where the mother worked were

more likely to work themselves.

The information in tables 1 and 2 suggests that young workers in 1979 and 1997 shared many characteristics. Particularly

interesting are the hours of work among 16-year-olds in both

cohorts.

Hours of work of 16-year-olds. In 1998, a National Research

Council panel recommended that the number of hours of work

for 16-year-olds during the school term be limited.14 The Fair

Labor Standards Act imposes a maximum of 18 hours of work in

a school week for 14- and 15-year-olds engaged in nonagricultural jobs.15 Although the National Research Council does not

recommend a particular maximum number of hours for 16-yearolds, it does note that research indicates that working more than

20 hours per school week can have a negative impact on youths’

academic outcomes. Table 3 shows that similar percentages of

youths enrolled in school in the two cohorts worked more than

20 hours during the week prior to the survey (8.4 percent in the

NLSY79 and 10.5 percent in the NLSY97).

As with the employment of 15- and 16-year-olds, gender

differences are seen in hours of work in the NLSY79 cohort

only. Male 16-year-olds in the NLSY79 were more likely to

work more than 20 hours per week than were their female
28 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

counterparts. Female youths in the NLSY97 cohort were about

70 percent more likely to work more than 20 hours per week

than female youths in the NLSY79 cohort. Racial differences

in employment are found in both cohorts, with whites more

likely than blacks to work more than 20 hours per week as

well as between 1 and 20 hours per week.

In both cohorts, youths in the 11th grade were nearly twice

as likely to work more than 20 hours per week than youths in

the 10th grade. With respect to delinquent behavior, youths

in both cohorts who had ever been suspended were more

likely to work 21 or more hours per week. In the NLSY79 cohort only, 16-year-olds who had ever smoked a cigarette were

significantly more likely to work more than 20 hours per week,

and those who had ever used marijuana were much more

Percent of school-enrolled 15-year-olds who

worked during the week prior to the interview,1

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY),

1979 and 1997, by sex, race or Hispanic

origin, grade in school, delinquent behavior,

household income, family structure, and

Characteristic NLSY79 NLSY97

 Total ....................................................... 25.2 25.8

Sex:

Male.............................................................. 27.8 27.9

Female .......................................................... 22.4 23.7

Race or ethnicity:

White ............................................................ 28.7 30.3

Black ............................................................ 10.6 15.3

Hispanic origin .............................................. 15.0 17.1

Grade in school:

Less than 9 .................................................. 20.1 15.0

9 ................................................................... 21.5 25.8

 10 ................................................................. 29.2 29.5

Delinquent behavior:

Ever suspended?

Yes ............................................................ 24.4 18.5

 No.............................................................. 25.4 28.7

Ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes ............................................................ 28.9 28.3

No .............................................................. 21.0 23.2

Ever used marijuana?

Yes ............................................................ 28.5 29.5

No .............................................................. 24.2 24.4

Household income (in 1996 dollars):

Less than $25,000 ....................................... 18.7 23.3

$25,000–$44,999.......................................... 19.9 18.7

$45,000–$69,999.......................................... 30.1 34.6

$70,000 or more ........................................... 28.4 30.1

Family structure and mother’s work status:

Two-biological-parent family .......................... 26.4 30.2

Two-parent family.......................................... 34.4 26.5

Female-parent family .................................... 19.0 18.7

Not living with parent .................................... 12.9 18.3

Mother worked in previous calendar year?

Yes ............................................................ 27.9 28.8

No .............................................................. 21.9 20.2

1

 The interview took place in any of the months from January through May,

in 1979 or 1997.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December

31, 1978. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996.

Table 1. Percent of school-enrolled 16-year-olds who

worked during the week prior to the interview,1

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY),

1979 and 1997, by sex, race or Hispanic

origin, grade in school, delinquent behavior,

household income, family structure, and

Characteristic NLSY79 NLSY97

 Total .................................................... 36.4 38.4

Sex:

Male............................................................ 39.3 39.7

Female ........................................................ 33.6 36.9

Race or ethnicity:

White .......................................................... 40.4 45.0

Black .......................................................... 17.8 24.5

Hispanic origin ............................................ 26.1 29.7

Grade in school:

Less than 10 .............................................. 23.8 19.1

10 ............................................................... 29.5 37.1

11 ............................................................... 43.3 48.0

Delinquent behavior:

 Ever suspended?

Yes .......................................................... 40.7 37.4

No ............................................................ 35.7 38.8

Ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes .......................................................... 39.8 40.8

No ............................................................ 31.9 35.2

Ever used marijuana?

Yes .......................................................... 44.5 39.8

No ............................................................ 32.1 37.7

Household income (in 1996 dollars):

Less than $25,000 ..................................... 23.3 26.4

$25,000–$44,999........................................ 34.7 45.7

$45,000–-$69,999 ...................................... 47.7 42.6

$70,000 or more ......................................... 42.8 40.9

Family structure and mother’s work status:

Two-biological-parent family ........................ 37.6 41.3

Two-parent family........................................ 42.8 42.3

Female-parent family .................................. 33.3 31.4

Not living with parent .................................. 16.6 24.4

Mother worked in previous calendar year?

Yes .......................................................... 40.7 42.7

No ............................................................ 31.5 27.1

1

 The interview took place in any of the months from January through May,

in 1979 or 1997.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December

31, 1978. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996.

Table 2.

mother’s work status mother’s work status
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 29

likely to work between 1 and 20 hours per week. Also in the

NLSY79 cohort only, youths in households with an annual

income of less than $25,000 were much less likely to work

more than 20 hours per week than were youths in households with higher incomes. However, youths in households

in the lower income category in both cohorts were generally

less likely than youths in households with higher incomes to

work between 1 and 20 hours per week. These results suggest that 16-year-olds in lower income households are not

shouldering a larger burden of work hours than are 16-yearolds in households with higher incomes.

In sum, 15- and 16-year-olds were as likely to work while

attending school in 1997 as they were nearly 20 years earlier,

according to information from the first interviews of the two

surveys of youths. Youths also worked about the same average number of hours in 1997 as they did in 1979. In both

cohorts, from age 15 to age 16, there is a significant increase

in the percentage of youths working and the average number

of hours they worked.

In both cohorts, the likelihood of working while young

varies across numerous background characteristics. Many

patterns of youth employment are similar for 15- and 16-year

olds across both cohorts. In general, whites tend to be more

likely to work than blacks or Hispanics. Also, youths in higher

grade levels are more likely to be employed, as are youths

who have participated in delinquent activities. Further,

NLSY79 NLSY97

 Total ......................................................................... 63.6 28.0 8.4 61.6 27.9 10.5

Sex:

Male................................................................................... 60.7 28.4 10.9 60.3 29.1 10.7

Female ............................................................................... 66.4 27.7 6.0 63.1 26.7 10.2

Race or ethnicity:

White ................................................................................. 59.6 31.1 9.3 55.0 32.7 12.3

Black ................................................................................. 82.2 13.8 4.0 75.5 18.3 6.2

Hispanic origin ................................................................... 73.9 18.2 8.0 70.3 21.7 8.0

Grade in school:

Less than 10 ..................................................................... 76.2 18.3 5.5 80.9 13.5 5.6

10 ...................................................................................... 70.5 23.9 5.7 62.9 28.8 8.3

11 ...................................................................................... 56.7 32.4 10.9 52.0 31.8 16.1

Delinquent behavior:

Ever suspended?

Yes ................................................................................. 59.3 29.2 11.5 62.6 23.1 14.4

No ................................................................................... 64.3 28.1 7.6 61.2 29.9 8.9

Ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes ................................................................................. 60.2 29.9 9.8 59.2 29.3 11.6

No ................................................................................... 68.1 26.1 5.7 64.8 26.2 9.0

Ever used marijuana?

Yes ................................................................................. 55.5 34.4 10.1 60.2 27.8 12.0

No ................................................................................... 67.9 24.9 7.3 62.3 28.0 9.6

Household income (in 1996 dollars)

Less than $25,000 ............................................................ 76.7 20.5 2.8 73.6 18.7 7.7

$25,000–$44,999............................................................... 65.3 25.7 9.0 54.3 35.1 10.6

$45,000–$69,999............................................................... 52.3 35.8 11.9 57.4 29.0 13.5

$70,000 or more ................................................................ 57.2 32.5 10.3 59.1 33.2 7.7

Family structure and mother’s work status:

Two-biological-parent family ............................................... 62.4 28.6 9.0 58.7 31.4 9.9

Two-parent family............................................................... 57.2 29.4 13.4 57.7 28.8 13.5

Female-parent family ......................................................... 66.7 27.2 6.0 68.6 21.7 9.6

Not living with parent ......................................................... 83.4 14.6 2.1 75.6 23.3 1.1

Mother worked in previous calendar year?

Yes ................................................................................. 59.3 32.0 8.7 57.3 31.5 11.3

No ................................................................................... 68.5 22.4 9.1 72.9 20.1 6.9

Characteristic

0

hours

0

hours

Table 3.

20 or

fewer

hours

21 or

more

hours

20 or

fewer

hours

21 or

more

hours

1

 The interview took place in any of the months from January through May,

in 1979 or 1997.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December

31, 1978. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996.

Hours worked per week by school-enrolled 16-year-olds in the week prior to the interview,1

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), 1979 and 1997, by sex, race or Hispanic origin, grade

in school, delinquent behavior, household income, family structure, and mother’s work status
30 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

youths in households with low income are less likely to work.

Gender differences are found in the NLSY79 cohort only: male

youths are more likely to be employed and to work more hours

than female youths. An interesting result is also found with

respect to race: blacks in the NLSY97 are more likely to work

than blacks in the NLSY79 cohort.

Youth employment and long-term outcomes

Data. This section examines the relationship between the

number of hours and weeks a 16- or 17-year-old works during

school weeks and later outcomes in terms of college attendance, weeks worked each year, and the number of jobs held

from ages 18 through 30. Data are from the NLSY79, a sample

of more than 12,000 men and women born in the years 1957

through 1964. These individuals were first interviewed in 1979,

when they were ages 14 to 22; they were interviewed annually

through 1994 and are now surveyed biennially. The analysis

that follows uses data for members of the sample who were

born in 1962–64, for whom a week-by-week employment history is available from age 16 on.

In contrast to the previous section, in which youth work

experience is defined for the week prior to the interview date,

work experience in this section exploits the longitudinal nature of the NLSY79 data and is measured over school weeks

while youths were ages 16 and 17.16 To differentiate between

effects of the number of weeks worked and effects of the

number of hours worked per week, youths’ work behavior at

ages 16 and 17 is divided into five mutually exclusive categories of intensity:

1. did not work during school weeks at age 16 or 17;

2. worked less than 50 percent of school weeks and averaged 20 or fewer hours of work per week;

3. worked less than 50 percent of school weeks and averaged more than 20 hours of work per week;

4. worked more than 50 percent of school weeks and averaged 20 or fewer hours of work per week;

5. worked more than 50 percent of school weeks and averaged more than 20 hours of work per week.17

The analysis that follows explores the association between

youths’ early work behavior and longer term educational and

labor market experiences.18 The education outcome is whether

the individual received some college education by age 30. Detailed work history data are used to create two employment outcome measures: percent of weeks of work from ages 18 through

30 and number of jobs held from ages 18 through 30.19 Note that

this analysis of youth employment and longer term labor market

and educational experiences cannot imply causality. Indeed,

youths within each of the foregoing five categories may be systematically different from one another even before they begin

working. However, the unique longitudinal NLSY79 data can

provide valuable insights into the possible relationship between

individuals’ working while they are young and the outcomes

they attain as adults.

Youth employment at ages 16 and 17. Eighty percent of

youths worked at ages 16 and 17 at some point while school was

in session. (See table 4.) About 41 percent of youths worked

Work status during the school year of youths aged 16 to 17 years in 1978–82,1 by sex, race or Hispanic origin,

and family income

Worked 50 percent or less Worked more than 50 percent

of school weeks of school weeks

Averaged 20 or fewer Averaged 21 or more Averaged 20 or fewer Averaged 21 or more

hours per week hours per week hours per week hours per week

 Total ................................... 20.0 19.6 18.0 22.0 18.8

Sex:

Male........................................ 17.5 17.9 20.3 20.7 21.7

Female .................................... 22.5 21.3 15.6 23.4 15.9

Race or ethnicity:

White ...................................... 15.3 20.1 17.0 24.8 21.1

Black ...................................... 40.8 19.2 20.4 10.3 8.4

Hispanic origin ........................ 26.0 17.8 24.6 14.4 16.5

Family income in 1979 (in 1996

dollars):

 Less than $25,000 ................ 31.6 18.8 22.3 12.4 13.7

 $25,000 to $44,999 ............... 23.6 19.3 17.0 19.7 18.8

 $45,000 to $69,999 ............... 11.2 22.3 16.8 24.7 23.4

$70,000 or more .................... 11.4 21.2 14.8 33.8 17.9

Did not work Age in 1978–82

and characteristic

 1Individuals aged 14 to 16 on December 31, 1978.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December

31, 1978. The table excludes individuals who turned 16 before 1978. Rows do

not add to 100, due to the nonreporting of information on hours and weeks of

work for a small number of working respondents.

Table 4.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 31

more than half of all school weeks. These youths were fairly

evenly split between averaging 20 or fewer hours per week

and averaging more than 20 hours per week. The same was

true of those who worked a relatively low percentage of school

weeks (50 percent or less). Note that the work undertaken at

ages 16 and 17 for this group born in 1962–64 occurred during

1978–82, a period that included the last 2 years of a business

cycle expansion and both the 1980 and 1981–82 recessions.

Male youths were more likely than female youths to have

worked during school weeks at ages 16 and 17 (83 percent and

78 percent, respectively). In addition, working male youths

were more likely than female youths to average 21 or more

hours per week.

White and Hispanic 16- and 17-year-olds were much more

likely to have worked during school weeks (85 percent and 74

percent, respectively) than were blacks (59 percent). Hispanics were more likely to work a high average number of hours

and a relatively low percentage of weeks, compared with

whites and blacks. Whites were more likely to average a high

number of hours per week and to work a relatively high percentage of weeks, compared with blacks and Hispanics.

Differences in 16- and 17-year-olds’ work behavior while

they were in school were also found with respect to family

income categories. Youths in families with incomes of less

than $25,000 were less likely to work than youths in families

in higher income categories. Youths in families with incomes

of $70,000 or more were more likely both to average a low

number of hours per week and to work a high percentage of

school weeks, compared with youths in lower family income

categories.

Educational attainment at age 30. More than half of those

who averaged 20 or fewer hours of work per school week at

ages 16 and 17 had at least some college education by age 30.

(See chart 1.) By contrast, by age 30, less than half of those

who did not work at all or who worked more than 20 hours a

week at ages 16 and 17 had attained at least some college

education. These findings hold regardless of whether one

worked more or less than 50 percent of school weeks, and the

same pattern is also generally found for 30-year-old men and

women separately. (See chart 2.)

The findings apply to whites as well (see chart 3), but the

educational attainment of blacks and Hispanics is not as

clearly related to the hours they worked at 16 and 17. With one

exception, blacks who did not work at all at those ages were

significantly less likely than blacks who did work to have at

least some college education by age 30. The lone exception is

the group that worked 50 percent or less of school weeks and

averaged 21 or more hours per week. More than 60 percent of

Hispanics who worked more than 50 percent of school weeks,

but fewer than 20 hours a week, had some college education

by age 30, whereas much less than half of Hispanics in each of

the other weeks-and-hours-of-work categories had any college education.

Work experience, ages 18 through 30. The NLSY79 collects

extensive employment data from respondents. The analysis

that follows uses this detailed work history information to

examine the percentage of weeks worked by individuals over

the years when they are aged 18 through 30. The analysis

continues to focus on groups divided by hours and weeks of

work undertaken by those attending school at ages 16 and

17.

The data show a general pattern: each step up in the percentage of school weeks worked at the aforementioned ages

is associated with a step up in the percentage of weeks

worked during the next 13 years, regardless of the category

of hours worked per week. More specifically, individuals who

did not work during school weeks at ages 16 and 17 worked

64 percent of weeks from ages 18 through 30 (see table 5),

and those who worked 50 percent or less of school weeks at

ages 16 and 17 worked an average of 74 percent of weeks

from ages 18 to 30. The percentage was even higher (between 82 percent and 84 percent, depending on the category

of hours worked per week) for youths who worked more than

50 percent of school weeks at those ages. This overall stepup pattern also holds over ages 18 through 30 for both men

and women and regardless of race or ethnicity. Furthermore,

the pattern essentially holds for the narrower age ranges of

18 to 22, 23 to 26, and 27 to 30. In general, the percentage of

weeks worked rises from ages 18 to 22 to ages 23 to 26 and

then remains steady at ages 27 to 30.

Tables in this article indicate that white youths tend to work

more than black youths. Whites also typically work more

weeks from ages 18 to 30 than do blacks, regardless of the

number of hours or weeks they work while they are in school.

The sole exception is that, for those individuals who worked

more than 50 percent of school weeks and averaged 21 or

more hours per week while they were young, there was no

significant difference between the percentage of weeks

worked by blacks and whites from ages 18 through 30.

From ages 23 through 30, individuals who attained some

college education by age 30 worked a higher percentage of

weeks than did individuals with no college education. For

those 18 through 22, however, the pattern was reversed, probably because individuals with some college education pursued their college careers during those years. The overall pattern that each step up in the number of school weeks a person

worked at ages 16 and 17 is associated with a step up in the

number of weeks that person worked when he or she was

older generally holds for those in both the higher and lower

educational groups. For individuals with some college, however, the percentage of weeks worked at ages 27 through 30
32 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Percent of individuals with at least some college education at age 30, by average hours

worked during school weeks at ages 16 and 17 in 1978–82

Percent of individuals with at least some college education at age 30, by average hours

worked during school weeks at ages 16 and 17 in 1978–82, by sex

Percent of individuals with at least some college education at age 30, by average hours

worked during school weeks at ages 16 and 17 in 1978–82

Chart 1.

Chart 2.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Percent Percent

SOURCE: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979.

Did not work Averaged 20 or fewer 

hours per week

Averaged 21 or more 

hours per week

Averaged 20 or fewer 

hours per week

Averaged 21 or more 

hours per week

Worked 50 percent or less of weeks Worked more than 50 percent of weeks

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Men

Women

Percent Percent

Did not work Averaged 20 or fewer 

hours per week

Averaged 21 or more 

hours per week

Averaged 20 or fewer 

hours per week

Averaged 21 or more 

hours per week

SOURCE: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979.

Worked 50 percent or less of weeks Worked more than 50 percent of weeks
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 33

differs little among those who had different work experiences

while they were young.

Number of jobs held, ages 18 through 30. The analysis concludes with an examination of the number of jobs individuals

held during various periods when they were aged 18 through

30. Again, individuals are grouped by hours and percent of

school weeks worked at ages 16 and 17. Young workers tend

to have a high level of job mobility during their early years in

the labor market and thus hold a relatively high number of

jobs. Early job mobility may represent job shopping and may

be beneficial for a variety of reasons. For example, it can allow

young workers to learn about different work environments.

However, as workers age, they often have less job mobility,

which may represent better matching between workers and

their jobs.20

From ages 18 through 30, individuals who did not work

while they were 16 and 17 held a lower average number of jobs

than persons who worked at those ages. (See table 6.) Although this relationship also held for the narrower range from

age 18 to age 22, across the older age ranges, the number of

jobs was fairly similar across all categories of hours and weeks

worked while the individual was young.

Men held an average of 8.9 jobs, and women held an average

of 8.4 jobs, from ages 18 through 30. At ages 18 through 22, men

and women held about the same number of jobs within all categories of hours and weeks of work while they were 16 and 17.

From ages 27 to 30, however, men held a significantly higher

number of jobs than women did within most of the categories.

Whites held more jobs (8.7) than did blacks or Hispanics

(8.3 and 8.2, respectively) from ages 18 through 30. Whites

also held more jobs from ages 18 to 22 than did blacks across

the aforementioned work categories. However, from ages 27

to 30, whites generally held either the same or fewer jobs than

blacks did within each category.

Individuals with at least some college education held 9.1

jobs from ages 18 through 30, in contrast to 8.2 jobs held by

those with a high school or lower education level. Over those

ages, within both education categories, individuals who did

not work at ages 16 and 17 generally held a lower average

number of jobs than those who worked during the school

term at those ages.

Percent of individuals with at least some college education at age 30, by average hours

worked during school weeks at ages 16 and 17 in 1978–82, by race and Hispanic origin

Chart 3.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

White Black Hispanic origin

Percent Percent

Did not work Averaged 20 or 

fewer hours per 

week

Averaged 21 or 

more hours per 

week

Averaged 20 or 

fewer hours per 

week

Averaged 21 or 

more hours per 

week

Worked 50 percent or less of weeks Worked more than 50 percent of 

weeks

SOURCE: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979.
34 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Percent of weeks employed by individuals aged 18 to 30 years in 1980–95, by age, education, sex, race or

Hispanic origin, and percent of school weeks and number of hours worked at ages 16 and 17

 Total, 18 to 30 years in 1980–95 ...................... 75.7 63.8 74.3 74.3 81.8 83.9

Sex:

Men ......................................................................... 81.3 70.1 79.6 78.1 87.1 89.0

Women .................................................................... 70.0 58.7 69.8 69.2 77.0 76.6

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 78.1 67.7 75.7 76.5 82.5 83.9

Black ....................................................................... 64.6 56.2 66.7 68.0 72.1 82.5

Hispanic origin ......................................................... 72.7 62.7 72.9 70.7 79.9 84.8

Education:

High school or less ................................................. 73.3 59.5 71.8 72.0 82.5 83.0

Some college or more .............................................. 78.3 70.0 76.6 77.3 81.2 85.0

 Total, 18 to 22 years in 1980–87 ...................... 65.9 48.0 63.5 63.0 75.5 78.8

Sex:

Men ......................................................................... 69.2 52.8 64.6 65.0 76.7 83.0

Women .................................................................... 62.5 44.1 62.5 60.2 74.5 73.1

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 68.9 52.0 65.6 64.7 76.6 78.8

Black ....................................................................... 51.3 40.0 51.4 58.9 60.3 75.7

Hispanic origin ......................................................... 62.8 47.9 63.5 58.6 74.4 82.0

Education:

High school or less..................................................... 67.4 48.4 65.3 65.2 80.7 81.2

Some college or more ................................................. 64.2 47.2 61.9 60.1 71.5 76.0

 Total, 23 to 26 years in 1985–91 ...................... 80.5 70.5 79.8 80.1 85.0 87.1

Sex:

Men ......................................................................... 86.5 78.0 85.7 84.0 90.3 92.8

Women .................................................................... 74.5 64.6 74.8 74.9 80.4 79.3

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 82.8 74.7 81.1 82.4 85.7 87.2

Black ....................................................................... 70.6 62.2 74.6 74.2 77.1 85.9

Hiispanic origin ........................................................ 76.5 69.1 74.2 76.7 79.9 87.5

Education:

High school or less ................................................. 76.2 64.4 75.3 75.9 82.8 84.8

Some college or more .............................................. 85.2 79.8 83.7 85.6 86.7 89.9

 Total, 27 to 30 years in 1989–95 ...................... 80.8 73.2 79.7 80.1 85.0 85.8

Sex:

Men ......................................................................... 88.2 80.4 88.7 85.3 93.5 91.5

Women .................................................................... 73.4 67.6 72.0 73.1 77.3 77.8

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 82.8 76.8 80.7 82.7 85.5 86.0

Black ....................................................................... 71.7 66.2 74.1 71.0 78.2 86.2

Hispanic origin ......................................................... 78.2 71.7 79.8 76.7 82.5 84.8

Education:

High school or less ................................................. 76.4 66.3 74.8 75.1 83.7 83.5

Some college or more .............................................. 85.7 83.4 84.0 86.8 85.9 88.7

Age in 1980–95 and characteristic Total Did not work

Worked 50 percent

or less

of school weeks

Worked more than 50 percent

 of school weeks

Averaged 20

or fewer

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

Averaged 20

or fewer

hours per week

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December 31, 1978.

The table excludes individuals who turned 16 before 1978.

Table 5.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 35

Number of jobs held by individuals aged 18 to 30 years in 1980–95, by age, education, sex, race or Hispanic

origin, and percent of school weeks and number of hours worked at ages 16 and 17

Total, 18 to 30 years in 1980–95 ................. 8.6 7.7 9.0 9.2 8.8 8.4

Sex:

Men ....................................................................... 8.9 8.3 9.3 9.3 8.8 8.8

Women .................................................................. 8.4 7.2 8.8 9.1 8.8 7.9

Race or ethnicity:

White ..................................................................... 8.7 8.1 9.1 9.3 8.7 8.4

Black ..................................................................... 8.3 7.4 8.5 9.3 8.7 9.0

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 8.2 6.2 9.5 8.4 9.5 8.6

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 8.2 7.1 8.9 9.2 8.0 8.1

Some college or more ............................................ 9.1 8.5 9.1 9.3 9.5 8.9

Total, 18 to 22 years in 1980–87 ................. 4.5 3.5 4.7 4.7 4.9 4.6

Sex:

Men ....................................................................... 4.5 3.7 4.7 4.7 4.9 4.6

Women .................................................................. 4.4 3.4 4.7 4.7 5.0 4.5

Race or ethnicity

White ..................................................................... 4.6 3.9 4.8 4.8 5.0 4.6

Black ..................................................................... 3.7 3.0 4.1 4.4 4.3 4.2

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 4.2 2.8 5.0 4.3 5.0 4.5

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 4.1 3.2 4.4 4.6 4.5 4.3

Some college or more ............................................ 4.8 4.0 4.9 4.8 5.3 5.0

Total, 23 to 26 years in 1985–91 ................. 3.0 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0

Sex:

Men ....................................................................... 3.1 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.2

Women .................................................................. 2.8 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.1 2.6

Race or ethnicity:

White ..................................................................... 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 2.9

Black ..................................................................... 2.9 2.7 3.0 3.1 2.8 3.2

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 2.8 2.4 3.0 2.7 3.1 3.0

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 2.7 2.5 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.8

Some college or more ............................................ 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.2

Total, 27 to 30 years in 1989–95 ................. 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.3 2.8 2.9

Sex:

Men ....................................................................... 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 2.9 3.2

Women .................................................................. 2.8 2.8 2.9 3.2 2.7 2.6

Race or ethnicity:

White ..................................................................... 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.3 2.7 2.9

Black ..................................................................... 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.4 3.2 3.5

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 2.9 2.4 3.1 3.0 3.2 3.0

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 3.0 2.8 3.3 3.4 2.7 3.0

Some college or more ............................................ 3.0 3.1 2.9 3.3 2.9 2.9

Worked 50 percent

or less

of school weeks

Worked more than 50 percent

of school weeks

Age in 1980–95 and characteristic Total

Did

not

work Averaged 20

 or fewer

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

Averaged 20

 or fewer

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December 31, 1978.

The table excludes individuals who turned 16 before 1978.

Table 6.
36 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

In sum, 80 percent of youths born in 1962–64 worked at

some point during the school term while they were ages 16

and 17. Youths who worked an average of 20 or fewer hours

per school week were more likely to have at least some college

education by age 30 than those who did not work or those

who averaged more than 20 hours of work per school week. In

addition, the data show an interesting pattern with respect to

a person’s work experience while he or she was young and the

person’s later employment experience: each step up in the

percentage of school weeks worked while the individual was

young is associated with a step up in the percentage of weeks

the person worked from ages 18 through 30, regardless of the

amount of hours per week the person worked while he or she

was young. As noted throughout this article, without controlling for other factors that can influence the longer term outcomes—in particular, the characteristics of those who choose

to work (and of those who choose to work more intensively)

during high school—the findings do not imply that youth

employment caused those outcomes. However, they do afford an insight into the possible relationship between youth

employment and longer term educational and labor market

outcomes.

Notes

1

 See Christopher J. Ruhm, “Is High School Employment Consumption or Investment?” Journal of Labor Economics, October 1997, pp.

735–76; and National Research Council, Protecting Youth at Work

(Washington, National Academy Press, 1998), for extensive reviews of

the literature on the impact of youth employment. In general, the

literature shows mixed results regarding whether youth employment

affects academic outcomes. It does, however, generally suggest that

working while enrolled in school positively affects subsequent labor

market outcomes.

2

 Gerald S. Oettinger, “Does High School Employment Affect High

School Academic Performance?” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, October 1999, pp. 136–51.

3

 Audrey Light, “High School Employment, High School Curriculum, and Post-school Wages,” Economics of Education Review, June

1999, pp. 291–309.

4

 Ruhm, “Is High School Employment Consumption or Investment?”

5

 The years 1979 and 1997 both saw an upturn in the economy.

Economic expansion peaked in 1979, just prior to the 1980 recession.

Another strong economic expansion had 1997 in its midst. Note that,

subsequent to the release of round-1 NLSY97 data, some duplicate observations were discovered. The NLSY97 round-1 sample size then fell

from 9,022 to 8,984. Sample weights at the time this article was begun

were based on all 9,022 observations, and tabulations in the article use

the full round-1 sample. Also, tabulations based on data in both surveys

use round-1 sampling weights, thereby ensuring that the data are nationally representative of each youth cohort.

6

 Most youths surveyed in the NLSY97 had not yet turned 17, so

their employment is not examined. Both the NLSY79 and the NLSY97

contain detailed, week-by-week employment histories. However, these

are available for the younger NLSY79 respondents only from age 16

forward and for the NLSY97 respondents only from age 14 forward. At

this point, there is not much age overlap in the histories across the two

surveys. However, the next section uses the employment histories in

the NLSY79 solely to examine the relationship between youth employment and long-term outcomes.

7

 Mark Schoenhals, Marta Tienda, and Barbara Schneider, “The

Educational and Personal Consequences of Adolescent Employment,”

Social Forces, December 1998, pp. 723–62, provide a brief summary

of the literature on the subject.

8

 Family structure is defined as five mutually exclusive categories:

(1) families with two biological parents or two adoptive parents (called,

for simplicity, two-biological-parent families), (2) families with one

biological parent and one step- or adoptive parent (called simply twoparent families), (3) families with one female biological parent and no

other parent (female-parent families), (4) families with one male biological parent and no other parent (male-parent families), and (5)

families consisting of children living with foster parents, grandparents and no parents, or other relatives and no parents; families of

children living in group quarters; and other family arrangements (all

lumped together as children not living with parents). Due to the small

sample size of male-parent families, the tables that follow exclude

that category.

9

 If, for example, the youth was 15 years old at the date of the

interview, he or she is considered to have ever smoked if smoking

occurred by age 14 or younger. If the youth used marijuana before 1979,

he or she is considered to have ever used marijuana. In the NLSY97,

youths answered the smoking and marijuana questions in a special selfadministered section. Youths in the NLSY79 were asked these questions

directly by the interviewer.

10 The NLSY79 suspension variable is constructed as follows: if the

most recent suspension occurred before the 1979 interview, the youth

is considered to have ever been suspended. If the most recent suspension occurred on or after the 1979 interview and the youth had been

suspended only one time, then the youth is considered not to have ever

been suspended. Otherwise, if the youth received more than one suspension (two suspensions) and the most recent one occurred in 1979

(1980), then the youth is considered to have ever been suspended.

11 CPS data show an actual decline in employment-to-population

ratios of youths between the late 1970s and the late 1990s, as well as a

significantly lower percentage of youths working than the NLSY97 data

depict. The difference may be due to the CPS data containing mostly

proxy responses for the youths, while the NLSY surveys are answered by

the youths themselves. (See “A Comparison of CPS and NLSY97 Information about Youth Employment,” Report on the Youth Labor Force,

Appendix to Chapter 4 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, November 2000),

pp. 47–51.

12 Neither survey asks the youths whether they own or have access

to a car.

13 In all tables and charts in this article, the racial and Hispanic origin

groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asians and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately.

14 Protecting Youth at Work (National Research Council, 1998).

15 States, however, may adopt more or less stringent standards than

the Fair Labor Standards Act imposes. However, when both the Federal

Act and State laws apply, the Act requires the use of the more stringent

standard. (See National Research Council, Protecting Youth at Work, for

details on State standards.)

16 The expression “while youths were ages 16 and 17” refers to

the 2-year period between the youth’s 16th and 18th birthdays.

School weeks are weeks other than those in June, July, or August,

the last week in December, and the first week in January. If a youth

dropped out or graduated from high school at age 17, only those
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 37

school weeks prior to that event are used in employment calculations. Youths who dropped out or graduated from high school at

age 16 are excluded from the analysis.

17 Hours are averaged over school weeks in which the youth worked

and are defined according to the following methodology: Survey respondents report the usual number of hours they worked per week as of

each job’s termination date (or as of the interview date for ongoing

jobs). Hours reported for each job are then filled in back to the job’s

starting date. Thus, a total number of hours worked across all jobs is

reported for each week a youth worked. Hours per week are then averaged over the number of weeks the youth worked at ages 16 and 17

during the school year (prior to dropping out or graduating from school).

Given this methodology, work hours from other periods (for example,

during the summer, after the youth turned 18, and after the youth

dropped out or graduated from school) are sometimes filled back into

school-year weeks. This can lead to an overstatement of the average

number of hours worked. On average, about one-third (32 percent) of

weeks worked at ages 16 and 17 during the school year were filled back

with hours from another period: 8 percent with summer hours, 15

percent with information on hours worked after the youth turned 18,

and 9 percent with information on work hours from other periods, such

as times subsequent to dropping out or graduating from school.

18 See also Report on the Youth Labor Force.

19 All results are weighted by using the 1996 survey weights (the

latest year’s data available when this analysis began) that correct for

oversampling, nonresponse to the interview, and permanent attrition

from the survey. When weighted, the data represent all persons living

in the United States in 1978 and born between 1962 and 1964.

20 For a further discussion of the topic, see Work and Family: Jobs

Held and Weeks Worked by Young Adults, Report 827 (Bureau of Labor

Statistics, August 1992).
38 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 39
40 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 41
42 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Percent of school-enrolled 15-year-olds who

worked during the week prior to the interview,1

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY),

1979 and 1997, by sex, race or Hispanic

origin, grade in school, delinquent behavior,

household income, family structure, and

mother’s work status

Characteristic NLSY79 NLSY97

 Total ....................................................... 25.2 25.8

Sex:

Male.............................................................. 27.8 27.9

Female .......................................................... 22.4 23.7

Race or ethnicity:

White ............................................................ 28.7 30.3

Black ............................................................ 10.6 15.3

Hispanic origin .............................................. 15.0 17.1

Grade in school:

Less than 9 .................................................. 20.1 15.0

9 ................................................................... 21.5 25.8

 10 ................................................................. 29.2 29.5

Delinquent behavior:

Ever suspended?

Yes ............................................................ 24.4 18.5

 No.............................................................. 25.4 28.7

Ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes ............................................................ 28.9 28.3

No .............................................................. 21.0 23.2

Ever used marijuana?

Yes ............................................................ 28.5 29.5

No .............................................................. 24.2 24.4

Household income (in 1996 dollars)

Less than $25,000 ....................................... 18.7 23.3

$25,000–$44,999.......................................... 19.9 18.7

$45,000–$69,999.......................................... 30.1 34.6

$70,000 or more ........................................... 28.4 30.1

Family structure and mother’s work status:

Two-biological-parent family .......................... 26.4 30.2

Two-parent family.......................................... 34.4 26.5

Female-parent family .................................... 19.0 18.7

Not living with parent .................................... 12.9 18.3

Mother worked in previous calendar year? ...

Yes ............................................................ 27.9 28.8

No .............................................................. 21.9 20.2

1

 The interview took place in any of the months from January through May,

in 1979 or 1997, as the case may be.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December

31, 1978. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 12 to 16 onDecember 31, 1996.

Table 1. Percent of school-enrolled 16-year-olds who

worked during the week prior to the interview,1

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY),

1979 and 1997, by sex, race or Hispanic

origin, grade in school, delinquent behavior,

household income, family structure, and

mother’s work status

Characteristic NLSY79 NLSY97

 Total .................................................... 36.4 38.4

Sex:

Male............................................................ 39.3 39.7

Female ........................................................ 33.6 36.9

Race or ethnicity:

White\ ......................................................... 40.4 45.0

Black .......................................................... 17.8 24.5

Hispanic origin ............................................ 26.1 29.7

Grade in school:

Less than 10 .............................................. 23.8 19.1

10 ............................................................... 29.5 37.1

11 ............................................................... 43.3 48.0

Delinquent behavior

 Ever suspended?

Yes .......................................................... 40.7 37.4

No ............................................................ 35.7 38.8

Ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes .......................................................... 39.8 40.8

No ............................................................ 31.9 35.2

Ever used marijuana?

Yes .......................................................... 44.5 39.8

No ............................................................ 32.1 37.7

Household income (in 1996 dollars)

Less than $25,000 ..................................... 23.3 26.4

$25,000–$44,999........................................ 34.7 45.7

$45,000–-$69,999 ...................................... 42.8 40.9

Family structure and mother’s work status:

Two-biological-parent family ........................ 37.6 41.3

Two-parent family........................................ 42.8 42.3

Female-parent family .................................. 33.3 31.4

Not living with parent .................................. 16.6 24.4

Mother worked in previous calendar year?

Yes .......................................................... 40.7 42.7

No ............................................................ 31.5 27.1

1

 The interview took place in any of the months from January through May,

in 1979 or 1997, as the case may be.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December

31, 1978. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996.

Table 2.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 43
44 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Percent of school-enrolled 16-year-olds who

worked during the week prior to the interview,1

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY),

1979 and 1997, by sex, race or Hispanic

origin, grade in school, delinquent behavior,

household income, family structure, and

mother’s work status

Characteristic NLSY79 NLSY97

 Total ................................................ 36.4 38.4

Sex:

Male........................................................ 39.3 39.7

Female .................................................... 33.6 36.9

Race or ethnicity:

White\ ..................................................... 40.4 45.0

Black ...................................................... 17.8 24.5

Hispanic origin ........................................ 26.1 29.7

Grade in school:

Less than 10 .......................................... 23.8 19.1

10 ........................................................... 29.5 37.1

11 ........................................................... 43.3 48.0

Delinquent behavior

 Ever suspended?

Yes ...................................................... 40.7 37.4

No ........................................................ 35.7 38.8

Ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes ...................................................... 39.8 40.8

No ........................................................ 31.9 35.2

Ever used marijuana?

Yes ...................................................... 44.5 39.8

No ........................................................ 32.1 37.7

Household income (in 1996 dollars)

Less than $25,000 ................................. 23.3 26.4

$25,000-$44,999 .................................... 34.7 45.7

$45,000-$69,999 .................................... 42.8 40.9

Family structure and mother’s work status:

Two-biological-parent family .................... 37.6 41.3

Two-parent family.................................... 42.8 42.3

Female-parent family .............................. 33.3 31.4

Not living with parent .............................. 16.6 24.4

Mother worked in previous calendar year?

Yes ...................................................... 40.7 42.7

No ........................................................ 31.5 27.1

1

 The interview took place in any of the months from January through May,

in 1979 or 1997, as the case may be.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December

31, 1978. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 45
46 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Hours worked per week by school-enrolled 16-year-olds in the week prior to the interview,1 National

Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), 1979 and 1997, by sex, race or Hispanic origin, grade in school,

delinquent behavior, household income, family structure, and mother’s work status

NLSY79 NLSY97

Hours worked per week

20 or 21 or 20 or 21 or

fewer more fewer more

 Total ......................................................................... 63.6 28.0 8.4 61.6 27.9 10.5

Sex:

Male................................................................................... 60.7 28.4 10.9 60.3 29.1 10.7

Female ............................................................................... 66.4 27.7 6.0 63.1 26.7 10.2

Race or ethnicity:

White ................................................................................. 59.6 31.1 9.3 55.0 32.7 12.3

Black ................................................................................. 82.2 13.8 4.0 75.5 18.3 6.2

Hispanic origin ................................................................... 73.9 18.2 8.0 70.3 21.7 8.0

Grade in school:

Less than 10 ..................................................................... 76.2 18.3 5.5 80.9 13.5 5.6

10 ...................................................................................... 70.5 23.9 5.7 62.9 28.8 8.3

11 ...................................................................................... 56.7 32.4 10.9 52.0 31.8 16.1

Delinquent behavior:

Ever suspended?

Yes ................................................................................. 59.3 29.2 11.5 62.6 23.1 14.4

No ................................................................................... 64.3 28.1 7.6 61.2 29.9 8.9

Ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes ................................................................................. 60.2 29.9 9.8 59.2 29.3 11.6

No ................................................................................... 68.1 26.1 5.7 64.8 26.2 9.0

Ever used marijuana?

Yes ................................................................................. 55.5 34.4 10.1 60.2 27.8 12.0

No ................................................................................... 67.9 24.9 7.3 62.3 28.0 9.6

Household income (in 1996 dollars)

Less than $25,000 ............................................................ 76.7 20.5 2.8 73.6 18.7 7.7

$25,000–$44,999............................................................... 65.3 25.7 9.0 54.3 35.1 10.6

$45,000–$69,999............................................................... 52.3 35.8 11.9 57.4 29.0 13.5

$70,000 or more ................................................................ 57.2 32.5 10.3 59.1 33.2 7.7

Family structure and mother’s work status:

Two-biological-parent family ............................................... 62.4 28.6 9.0 58.7 31.4 9.9

Two-parent family............................................................... 57.2 29.4 13.4 57.7 28.8 13.5

Female-parent family ......................................................... 66.7 27.2 6.0 68.6 21.7 9.6

Not living with parent ......................................................... 83.4 14.6 2.1 75.6 23.3 1.1

Mother worked in previous calendar year?

Yes ................................................................................. 59.3 32.0 8.7 57.3 31.5 11.3

No ................................................................................... 68.5 22.4 9.1 72.9 20.1 6.9

Characteristic

0 0

Table 3.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 47
48 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Work status during the school year of youths aged 16 to 17 years in 1978–82, by sex, race or Hispanic origin, and

family income1

Worked 50 percent or less Worked more than 50 percent

of school weeks of school weeks

Averaged 20 or fewer Averaged 21 or more Averaged 20 or fewer Averaged 21 or more

hours per week hours per week hours per week hours per week

 Total ................................... 20.0 19.6 18.0 22.0 18.8

Sex:

Male........................................ 17.5 17.9 20.3 20.7 21.7

Female .................................... 22.5 21.3 15.6 23.4 15.9

Race or ethnicity:

White ...................................... 15.3 20.1 17.0 24.8 21.1

Black ...................................... 40.8 19.2 20.4 10.3 8.4

Hispanic origin ........................... 26.0 17.8 24.6 14.4 16.5

Family income in 1979 (in 1996

dollars):

 Less than $25,000 ................ 31.6 18.8 22.3 12.4 13.7

 $25,000 to $44,999 ............... 23.6 19.3 17.0 19.7 18.8

 $45,000 to $69,999 ............... 11.2 22.3 16.8 24.7 23.4

$70,000 or more .................... 11.4 21.2 14.8 33.8 17.9

Did not work Age in 1978–82

and characteristic

Table 4.

 1Individuals aged 14 to 16 on December 31, 1978.

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79)

surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on

December 31, 1978. The table excludes individuals who turned 16 before 1978. Rows

do not add to 100, due to the nonreporting of information on hours and weeks of

work for a small number of working respondents.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 49
50 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Percent of weeks employed by individuals aged 18 to 30 in 1980–95, by age, education, sex, race or Hispanic

origin, and percent of school weeks and number of hours worked at age 16 and 17

 Total, 18 to 30 in 1980–95 ................................ 75.7 63.8 74.3 74.3 81.8 83.9

Sex:

Men ......................................................................... 81.3 70.1 79.6 78.1 87.1 89.0

Women .................................................................... 70.0 58.7 69.8 69.2 77.0 76.6

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 78.1 67.7 75.7 76.5 82.5 83.9

Black ....................................................................... 72.7 62.7 72.9 70.7 79.9 84.8

Education:

High school or less ................................................. 73.3 59.5 71.8 72.0 82.5 83.0

Some college or more .............................................. 78.3 70.0 76.6 77.3 81.2 85.0

 Total, 18 to 22 in 1980–87 ................................ 65.9 48.0 63.5 63.0 75.5 78.8

Sex:

Men ......................................................................... 69.2 52.8 64.6 65.0 76.7 83.0

Women .................................................................... 62.5 44.1 62.5 60.2 74.5 73.1

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 68.9 52.0 65.6 64.7 76.6 78.8

Black ....................................................................... 51.3 40.0 51.4 58.9 60.3 75.7

Hispanic origin ......................................................... 62.8 47.9 63.5 58.6 74.4 82.0

Education:

High school or less ..................................................... 67.4 48.4 65.3 65.2 80.7 81.2

Some college or more ................................................. 64.2 47.2 61.9 60.1 71.5 76.0

 Total, 23 to 26 in 1985–91 ................................ 80.5 70.5 79.8 80.1 85.0 87.1

Sex

Men ......................................................................... 86.5 78.0 85.7 84.0 90.3 92.8

Women .................................................................... 74.5 64.6 74.8 74.9 80.4 79.3

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 82.8 74.7 81.1 82.4 85.7 87.2

Black ....................................................................... 70.6 62.2 74.6 74.2 77.1 85.9

Hiispanic origin ........................................................ 76.5 69.1 74.2 76.7 79.9 87.5

Education:

High school or less ................................................. 76.2 64.4 75.3 75.9 82.8 84.8

Some college or more .............................................. 85.2 79.8 83.7 85.6 86.7 89.9

 Total, 27 to 30 in 1989–95 ................................ 80.8 73.2 79.7 80.1 85.0 85.8

Sex:

Men ......................................................................... 88.2 80.4 88.7 85.3 93.5 91.5

Women .................................................................... 73.4 67.6 72.0 73.1 77.3 77.8

Race or ethnicity:

White ....................................................................... 82.8 76.8 80.7 82.7 85.5 86.0

Black ....................................................................... 71.7 66.2 74.1 71.0 78.2 86.2

Hispanic origin ......................................................... 78.2 71.7 79.8 76.7 82.5 84.8

Education:

High school or less ................................................. 76.4 66.3 74.8 75.1 83.7 83.5

Some college or more .............................................. 85.7 83.4 84.0 86.8 85.9 88.7

Age in 1980–95 and characteristic Total Did not work

Worked less than or

equal to 50 percent

of school weeks

Worked more than 50 percent

 of school weeks

Averaged 20

or fewer

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

Averaged 20

or fewer

hours per week

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79)

surveyed male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on

December 31, 1978.

The table excludes individuals who turned 16 before 1978.

Table 5.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 51
52 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School

Number of jobs held by individuals aged 18 to 30 in 1980–95, by age, education, sex, race or Hispanic origin,

and percent of school weeks and number of hours worked at age 16 and 17

Total, 18 to 30 in 1980-95 ............................ 8.6 7.7 9.0 9.2 8.8 8.4

Sex:

Men ....................................................................... 8.9 8.3 9.3 9.3 8.8 8.8

Women .................................................................. 8.4 7.2 8.8 9.1 8.8 7.9

Race or ethnicity:

White ..................................................................... 8.7 8.1 9.1 9.3 8.7 8.4

Black ..................................................................... 8.3 7.4 8.5 9.3 8.7 9.0

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 8.2 6.2 9.5 8.4 9.5 8.6

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 8.2 7.1 8.9 9.2 8.0 8.1

Some college or more ............................................ 9.1 8.5 9.1 9.3 9.5 8.9

Total, 18 to 22 in 1980–87 ........................... 4.5 3.5 4.7 4.7 4.9 4.6

Sex

Men ....................................................................... 4.5 3.7 4.7 4.7 4.9 4.6

Women .................................................................. 4.4 3.4 4.7 4.7 5.0 4.5

Race or ethnicity

White ..................................................................... 4.6 3.9 4.8 4.8 5.0 4.6

Black ..................................................................... 3.7 3.0 4.1 4.4 4.3 4.2

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 4.2 2.8 5.0 4.3 5.0 4.5

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 4.1 3.2 4.4 4.6 4.5 4.3

Some college or more ............................................ 4.8 4.0 4.9 4.8 5.3 5.0

Total, 23 to 26 in 1985–91 ........................... 3.0 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0

Sex:

Men ....................................................................... 3.1 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.2

Women .................................................................. 2.8 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.1 2.6

Race or ethnicity:

White ..................................................................... 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 2.9

Black ..................................................................... 2.9 2.7 3.0 3.1 2.8 3.2

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 2.8 2.4 3.0 2.7 3.1 3.0

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 2.7 2.5 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.8

Some college or more ............................................ 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.2

Total, 27 to 30 in 1989–95 ........................... 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.3 2.8 2.9

Sex:

Men ....................................................................... 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 2.9 3.2

Women .................................................................. 2.8 2.8 2.9 3.2 2.7 2.6

Race or ethnicity:

White ..................................................................... 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.3 2.7 2.9

Black ..................................................................... 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.4 3.2 3.5

Hispanic origin ....................................................... 2.9 2.4 3.1 3.0 3.2 3.0

Education:

High school or less ............................................... 3.0 2.8 3.3 3.4 2.7 3.0

Some college or more ............................................ 3.0 3.1 2.9 3.3 2.9 2.9

Worked less than or

equal to 50 percent

of school weeks

Worked more than 50 percent

of school weeks

Age in 1980–95 and characteristic Total

Did

not

work Averaged 20

 or fewer

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

Averaged 20

 or fewer

hours per week

Averaged 21

or more

hours per week

NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) surveyed

male and female youths who were aged 14 to 21 years on December 31, 1978.

The table excludes individuals who turned 16 before 1978.

Table 6.
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 53
54 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 55
56 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School
Monthly Labor Review August 2001 57
58 Monthly Labor Review August 2001

Working while in School