Compensation and Working Conditions Summer 2000 37

When It Comes to Pay, Does Location Matter?

SIDNEY W. SAMUEL

When It Comes To Pay,

Does Location Matter?

When it comes to pay, does it matter where you work?

Do metropolitan workers receive higher wages than their

nonmetropolitan counterparts? National Compensation

Survey data provide some interesting answers.

Sidney W. Samuel is an economist in the Division

of Compensation Data Analysis and Planning,

Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Telephone: (202) 691-6280

E-mail: Samuel_S@bls.gov

The National Compensation Survey1 (NCS) provides data onoccupational earnings, rates of

change in compensation costs, the

availability of benefits, and detailed

benefit provisions. The survey provides local, regional, and national estimates, as well as wage data for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas.

Nationwide, workers in metropolitan

areas earned an average of $15.73 per

hour in 1997, while their counterparts

in nonmetropolitan areas earned an average of $11.84 per hour. (See table 1.)

The NCS program collects data in

154 areas,2 although data are not published for all areas separately.3 Of

these areas, 81 are metropolitan and

73 are nonmetropolitan areas.

NCS uses the U.S. Office of Management and Budget’s area definitions,

which include:

• Metropolitan Statistical Areas

(MSAs), areas with a central city

of 50,000 or more inhabitants

and a total area population of at

least 100,000. An MSA usually

consists of one or more counties

with close economic and social

ties, as defined by commuting

patterns and population density.

• Primary Metropolitan Statistical Areas (PMSAs), a large urbanized county or cluster of counties that demonstrate very strong

internal economic and social links,

with a population of 250,000 to

999,999 people.

• Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Areas (CMSAs), large,

integrated areas of 1 million

people or more consisting of two

or more contiguous PMSAs.

There are 18 CMSAs in the

United States.

• Nonmetropolitan areas, areas of

population that consist of individual counties or parishes that

are not included in any of the

above areas.

This article highlights 1997 NCS

estimates of occupational pay in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. It examines average hourly pay

for workers by worker, establishment,

and geographic characteristics and by

selected occupations. While the article considers many factors in comparing pay in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, it does not look at

the interactions of these factors or at

any differences in the occupational mix

between geographic areas.

The 1997 NCS covered 16,046 establishments chosen to represent

335,300 establishments employing

nearly 67 million workers, 83.7 percent of whom worked in metropolitan

areas, with the remaining 16.3 percent

working in nonmetropolitan areas.4
38 Compensation and Working Conditions Summer 2000

TABLE 1. Mean hourly earnings and weekly hours worked in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, by selected worker and

establishment characteristics, National Compensation Survey, August 1997

Worker and establishment 

characteristics and

 geographic areas

Total Metropolitan areas1 Nonmetropolitan areas1

Number of

workers3

Mean2

Number of

workers3

Mean2

Number of

workers3

Mean2

Hourly

earnings

Weekly

hours

worked

Hourly

earnings

Weekly

hours

worked

Hourly

earnings

Weekly

hours

worked

Total ...................................................................... 66,970,200 $15.09 36.5 56,056,300 $15.73 36.3 10,913,900 $11.84 37.1

Private industry ................................................. 52,053,400 14.39 36.4 44,040,800 15.06 36.3 8,012,600 10.84 37.2

State and local government .............................. 14,916,900 17.82 36.5 12,015,600 18.46 36.5 2,901,300 15.07 36.5

Worker characteristic:

White collar ............................................................... 35,582,800 18.59 36.7 31,176,000 19.07 36.6 4,406,800 15.15 37.0

Professional specialty and technical ..................... 13,598,200 22.89 36.3 11,858,700 23.34 36.3 1,739,500 19.63 36.5

Executive, administrative, and managerial ........... 5,682,700 27.00 40.1 5,143,700 27.40 40.1 539,100 23.15 39.7

Sales ..................................................................... 4,810,400 12.78 33.0 4,099,500 13.55 32.6 710,900 8.72 35.3

Administrative support .......................................... 11,491,400 11.53 36.9 10,074,100 11.73 36.9 1,417,400 10.10 37.4

Blue collar ................................................................. 18,852,100 12.36 38.3 14,963,600 12.78 38.2 3,888,400 10.74 38.8

Precision production, craft, and repair .................. 5,332,100 15.86 39.8 4,366,700 16.44 39.7 965,400 13.27 39.9

Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors .. 6,018,000 11.03 39.6 4,430,400 11.39 39.6 1,587,500 10.04 39.7

Transportation and material moving ..................... 2,629,700 13.24 37.5 2,252,800 13.46 37.6 376,900 11.85 36.7

Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and

laborers ............................................................... 4,872,300 9.34 35.5 3,913,700 9.48 35.1 958,600 8.81 37.0

Service ...................................................................... 12,535,400 9.09 33.0 9,916,700 9.40 32.6 2,618,700 8.00 34.5

Full time4 .................................................................. 55,141,300 15.77 39.6 45,770,800 16.51 39.6 9,370,500 12.15 39.7

Part time4 ................................................................. 11,829,000 8.89 21.0 10,285,500 9.01 21.1 1,543,400 8.09 20.6

Union ........................................................................ 15,256,500 16.91 36.9 13,289,800 17.32 36.7 1,966,700 14.20 38.1

Nonunion .................................................................. 51,713,700 14.56 36.3 42,766,600 15.25 36.2 8,947,200 11.32 36.8

Time5 ........................................................................ 64,759,800 15.05 36.4 54,081,300 15.69 36.3 10,678,400 11.87 37.0

Incentive5 ................................................................. 2,210,500 16.21 38.3 1,975,000 16.87 38.2 235,500 10.74 38.8

Establishment characteristic:6

Goods producing ...................................................... 15,997,200 15.45 39.8 12,526,200 16.40 39.8 3,471,000 12.06 39.9

Service producing ..................................................... 36,056,200 13.85 34.9 31,514,500 14.44 34.9 4,541,700 9.77 35.2

Establishment size:7

50-99 ....................................................................... 11,149,100 12.52 35.3 9,142,900 13.02 35.3 2,006,200 10.23 35.3

100-499 ................................................................... 25,141,100 13.68 36.2 20,538,600 14.10 36.1 4,602,500 11.78 36.5

500-999 ................................................................... 8,816,800 16.15 37.4 6,984,600 16.65 37.2 1,832,200 14.29 38.2

1000-2499 ............................................................... 10,117,900 15.54 36.7 7,812,200 17.03 36.0 2,305,700 10.91 38.6

2500 or more ............................................................ 11,745,300 19.32 37.2 11,578,000 19.34 37.2 167,300 18.23 39.3

Geographic areas:8

New England ............................................................ 3,217,600 16.96 35.1 2,799,900 17.42 35.2 417,700 13.75 34.0

Middle Atlantic .......................................................... 10,364,000 17.42 35.7 9,749,200 17.75 35.7 614,700 12.22 36.1

East North Central .................................................... 12,243,100 15.45 36.2 10,347,800 15.90 36.2 1,895,300 12.98 36.4

West North Central ................................................... 5,118,000 14.44 36.3 3,730,900 15.40 36.3 1,387,100 11.82 36.2

South Atlantic ........................................................... 11,953,400 13.73 37.0 9,948,400 14.17 36.9 2,005,000 11.56 37.4

East South Central ................................................... 5,046,800 11.88 37.8 2,546,200 13.60 37.0 2,500,500 10.22 38.7

West South Central .................................................. 6,694,400 13.82 37.2 5,752,800 14.13 37.2 941,600 11.88 37.3

Mountain ................................................................... 3,559,800 14.04 36.5 2,845,800 14.17 36.4 714,000 13.51 36.6

Pacific ....................................................................... 8,773,100 16.88 36.2 8,335,200 17.06 36.2 437,900 13.37 36.1

1 A metropolitan area can be a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), a

Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area (PMSA), or a Consolidated Metropolitan

Statistical Area (CMSA), as defined by the Office of Management and

Budget, 1994. Nonmetropolitan areas are counties that do not fit the

definitions above.

2 Earnings are the straight-time hourly wages or salaries paid to

employees. They include incentive pay, cost-of-living adjustments, and

hazard pay. Excluded are premium pay for overtime, vacations, and

holidays; nonproduction bonuses; and tips. Mean hourly earnings are

computed by totaling the pay of all workers and dividing by the number of

workers, weighted by hours. Mean weekly hours worked are computed by

totaling the hours worked by all workers and dividing by the number of

workers.

3 Estimates of the number of workers provide a description of size and

composition of the labor force included in the survey. However, estimates

are not intended for comparison with other statistical series to measure

employment trends or levels. 4 Employees are classified as working either a full- or part-time schedule

based on the definition used by each establishment. 5 Wages of time workers are based solely on an hourly rate or salary;

incentive workers are those whose wages are at least partially based on

productivity payments such as piece rates, commissions, and production

bonuses.

6 Classification of establishments into goods- and service-producing

industries applies to private industry only. 7 Establishment size is determined by the number of workers.

Establishments classified with 50 to 99 workers may contain establishments

with fewer than 50 workers due to reduction in staff between the time of

sampling and data collection. 8 For a complete breakout of the census divisions, see "Appendix E:

Census Division and Survey Areas," National Compensation Survey:

Occupational Wages in the United States, 1997, Bulletin 2519 (Bureau of

Labor Statistics, September, 1999). This appendix lists the 9 census

divisions, the States included in each division, and the 149 metropolitan and

nonmetropolitan areas surveyed.
 Compensation and Working Conditions Summer 2000 39

When It Comes to Pay, Does Location Matter?

nonmetropolitan areas made up nearly

7 percent of the total workforce and

averaged $15.15 per hour. Blue-collar workers in metropolitan areas (22

percent of the total work force) averaged $12.78 per hour, compared with

$10.74 per hour for workers in

nonmetropolitan areas (6 percent of

the total work force). Service workers

in metropolitan areas (15 percent of

the workforce) averaged $9.40 an

hour, compared with $8 per hour for

workers in nonmetropolitan areas (4

percent of the workforce). Among occupational groups, service occupations

had the smallest difference between

0

5

10

15

20

25

White-Collar Blue-Collar S ervice Full-time Part-time Union Nonunion Time Incentive

Worker characteristics

Metropolitan

Nonmetropolitan

CHART 1. Mean hourly earnings by selected worker characteristics in metropolitan

and nonmetropolitan areas, National Compensation Survey, 1997

Mean hourly earnings

Metroplitan

Worker characteristic

White

Collar

IncentiveBlue

Collar Service Full

time

Part

time Union Nonunion

Time

(Dollars)

Nonmetropolitan

TABLE 2. Percent and number of workers by selected characteristics, National Compensation Survey, 1997

Total workers ............................................ 66,970,235 100.0 56,056,315 83.7 10,913,920 16.3

Private industry ................................... 52,053,375 77.8 44,040,751 65.8 8,012,623 12.0

State and local government ................ 14,916,840 22.3 12,015,564 18.0 2,901,296 4.3

Worker characteristic:

White collar .............................................. 35,582,750 53.2 31,175,959 46.6 4,406,791 6.6

Blue collar ................................................ 18,852,080 28.2 14,963,635 22.4 3,888,445 5.8

Service ..................................................... 12,535,405 18.8 9,916,722 14.8 2,618,683 4.0

Census division:

New England ............................................ 3,217,612 4.8 2,799,926 4.2 417,686 0.6

Middle Atlantic .......................................... 10,363,969 15.5 9,749,240 14.6 614,729 .9

West South Central .................................. 6,694,424 10.0 5,752,782 8.6 941,642 1.4

East South Central ................................... 5,046,758 7.5 2,546,221 3.8 2,500,537 3.7

South Atlantic ........................................... 11,953,396 17.8 9,948,433 14.9 2,004,963 3.0

West North Central ................................... 4,109,340 6.1 2,722,197 4.1 1,387,143 2.1

East North Central .................................... 13,251,782 19.8 11,356,470 17.0 1,895,313 2.8

Pacific ...................................................... 8,773,132 13.1 8,335,227 12.4 437,906 .7

Mountain .................................................. 3,559,821 5.3 2,845,819 4.2 714,002 1.1

NOTE: Because of rounding, sum of individual items may not equal totals.

Total Metropolitan Nonmetropolitan

Number Percent Number Number Percent Percent

Characteristic

(See table 2.) Private industry workers in metropolitan areas (who constituted 66 percent of all workers) earned

$15.06 per hour, on average; their

nonmetropolitan counterparts (12 percent of all workers) averaged $10.84

an hour. State and local government

workers in metropolitan areas (18 percent of all workers) earned an average

$18.46 per hour, while their

nonmetropolitan counterparts (4 percent of all workers) earned $15.07.

Worker characteristics

The NCS classifies data on workers

into three broad occupational categories: White collar, blue collar, and service. Data are further categorized into

full or part time, union or nonunion,

and time or incentive.5

Workers in white-collar occupations received higher average hourly

earnings than did those in blue-collar

and service occupations. (See chart 1.)

In metropolitan areas, wages of workers in all three occupational classifications were higher than those of their

counterparts in nonmetropolitan areas.

White-collar workers in metropolitan

areas, who made up nearly 47 percent

of the total workforce, averaged $19.07

per hour, while their counterparts in
40 Compensation and Working Conditions Summer 2000

metropolitan and nonmetropolitan

area pay.

Pay in metropolitan areas for fulland part-time, union, nonunion, time,

and incentive workers was higher than

that for their counterparts in nonmetropolitan areas. In metropolitan areas,

full-time workers made up 68 percent

of the total workforce and averaged

$16.51 per hour; their counterparts in

nonmetropolitan areas (14 percent)

averaged $12.15. Part-time employees, on average, were paid higher

wages in metropolitan areas than in

nonmetropolitan areas, $9.01 and

$8.09, respectively. One reason is that

part-time employees in State and local governments made nearly $4 an

hour more ($12.27) than their counterparts in private industry ($8.37).6

Out of nearly 15 million State and local government workers, 81 percent

were in metropolitan areas. Union

workers’ average hourly earnings were

higher in metropolitan areas ($17.32)

than in nonmetropolitan areas ($14.20).

Nonunion workers, who made less than

their union counterparts, averaged

$15.25 an hour in metropolitan areas

and $11.32 in nonmetropolitan areas.

Time workers in metropolitan areas

averaged $15.69 an hour, and their

counterparts in nonmetropolitan areas

averaged $11.87. Workers receiving incentive pay averaged $16.87 an hour in

metropolitan areas and $10.74 in nonmetropolitan areas.

Establishment characteristics

Data for private sector employees are

classified into two broad industry

groupings—goods producing and service producing. Workers in goods-producing industries made up 31 percent

of private industry workers, while the

remaining 69 percent were in serviceproducing industries. (Data for State

and local governments are not categorized by goods- and service-producing

industries.) Average hourly rates for

private sector workers in goods-producing industries in metropolitan

($16.40) and nonmetropolitan ($12.06)

areas were higher than those for workers in service-producing industries

($14.44 and $9.77, respectively).

In metropolitan areas, as the establishment size increased, so did the

earnings, except for establishments

employing 500 to 999 workers and

1,000 to 2,499 workers; the differences

in the estimates for these two establishment sizes were not statistically

significant.7 When pay is compared

by establishment size, establishments

with 50 to 99 workers had the lowest

average hourly pay rates in both metropolitan ($13.02) and nonmetropolitan ($10.23) areas. Establishments

employing 2,500 workers or more had

the highest average pay rates in both

metropolitan ($19.34) and nonmetropolitan ($18.23) areas.

When it comes to measuring

change in pay or comparing wages, a

well-used tool is the Employment Cost

Index (ECI).8 The ECI measures the

change in the cost of labor, free from

the influence of employment shifts

among occupations and industries.

The December 1997 ECI for total compensation for private industry workers by bargaining status, region, and

area showed that, since 1989, when the

index equaled 100, pay for workers in

metropolitan areas increased 35.1 percent, compared with a 35.3-percent

increase for workers in nonmetropolitan areas. For the 5-year period

1994 through 1998, the ECI for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas

showed differences no larger than 0.4

percent between the two types of areas.

Based on ECI historical data, there

were no significant changes that might

have affected the pay between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan workers.

Geographic characteristics

One could ask, “For pay purposes, does

it matter where I work?” Of course

the answer would be yes, if you were

comparing New York and Iowa. This

section examines average earnings in

various geographic areas.

The NCS provides occupational pay

data for nine census divisions: New

England, Middle Atlantic, East North

Central, West North Central, South

Atlantic, East South Central, West

South Central, Mountain, and Pacific.9

Pay in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas varied among the census

divisions. (See charts 2 through 4.) For

metropolitan areas, the Middle Atlantic, New England, and Pacific census

divisions had the highest average hourly

earnings; the East South Central division had the lowest average hourly earnings for both metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas.

Overall, average hourly pay in metropolitan areas in the nine census divisions ranged from $13.60 (East South

Central) to $17.75 (Middle Atlantic).

In nonmetropolitan areas, it ranged

from $10.22 (East South Central) to

$13.75 (New England). On average,

in all nine census regions, white-collar workers were paid more than bluecollar workers and blue-collar workers were paid more than service workers.

Within these groups, metropolitan

workers earned more than their

nonmetropolitan counterparts.

NCS data also provide a view of

average hourly earnings nationally

(metropolitan and nonmetropolitan

areas combined). Within white-collar occupations, the highest paid occupation in both metropolitan and

nonmetropolitan areas generally was

airplane pilots and navigators, for

which pay ranged from $53.85 to

$85.98 per hour.10 In contrast, the

lowest paid white-collar occupations

generally were sales clerks and cashiers, at around $7 per hour. Within

blue-collar occupations, supervisors of

electricians and power transmission

installers generally were the highest

paid workers in both metropolitan and

nonmetropolitan areas, with pay ranging from around $23 to $29 per hour.

Laundry and dry cleaning machine

operators generally made the least, at

roughly $6 to $7 an hour. In service

occupations, supervisors of police and

detectives generally had the highest

average wage ($17 to $29 an hour),

and waiters and waitresses had the

lowest ($3 to $4.50 an hour) in both metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas.

Selected occupations

Other populous occupations also offered insight into geographic wage differences. For example, data on pay
 Compensation and Working Conditions Summer 2000 41

When It Comes to Pay, Does Location Matter?

-

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

United States New England Middle Atlantic East South

Central

South Atlantic Pacific Mountain West South

Central

West North

Central

East North

Central

Geographic area

Registered Nurses Met

Registered Nurses Nonmet

for registered nurses was available for

all the metropolitan areas and most of

the nonmetropolitan areas. (See chart

2.) Registered nurses in metropolitan

areas averaged hourly wages roughly $2

to $3 higher than those of their counterparts in nonmetropolitan areas. This

pay differential between metropolitan

and nonmetropolitan areas was smallest in the Mountain division, $1.50. In

metropolitan areas, average hourly pay

was the highest in the Pacific ($23.51)

and the Middle Atlantic ($23.17) census divisions, and the lowest in the East

South Central ($17.50) and West North

Central ($18.14) divisions.

Secretaries in metropolitan areas

were paid $1.55 to $3.45 an hour more

than those in nonmetropolitan areas,

except in the South Atlantic division,

where secretaries in nonmetropolitan

areas averaged higher hourly wages

than did those in metropolitan areas

($12.56 and $12.26, respectively).

(See chart 3.) In metropolitan areas,

secretarial pay was highest in the New

England and Middle Atlantic divisions

(both averaging $14.58 an hour) and

in the Pacific division ($14.22) and

lowest in the East South Central division ($11.35). In nonmetropolitan

areas, the New England division had

the highest average pay at $13.03 an

hour and the West South Central division, the lowest ($8.99).

Within the census divisions, average hourly pay for janitors and cleaners was roughly the same in both metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas.

(See chart 4.) For example, in the

Middle Atlantic division, hourly pay

averaged $10.30 (the highest rate) for

workers in metropolitan areas, compared with $8.71 for their nometropolitan counterparts. In contrast, in

the West South Central division, janitors and cleaners in metropolitan areas earned less than did their nonmetropolitan counterparts, $6.67 (the

lowest rate) compared to $7.07.

Conclusion

When it comes to pay, location matters.11 Overall, pay in metropolitan areas was higher than pay in nonmetropolitan areas. Among the census

divisions, the Middle Atlantic and New

England divisions had the highest pay

for workers in metropolitan areas, while

the East South Central had the lowest

pay for such workers. In nonmetropolitan areas, workers in the New England division again had the highest

average hourly pay, while their counterparts in the East South Central division again had the lowest.

CHARt 2. Mean hourly earnings for registed nurses in metropolitan and

nonmetropolitan areas, National Compensation Survey, 1997

Geographic area

United

States

New

England

Middle

Atlantic

East

South

Central

South

Atlantic Pacific Mountain

West

South

Central

West

North

Central

East

North

Central

Metropolitan

Mean hourly earnings Nonmetropolitan

25

20

15

10

5

0

(Dollars)
42 Compensation and Working Conditions Summer 2000

$0

$2

$4

$6

$8

$10

$12

$14

$16

United

States

New

England

Middle

Atlantic

East South

Central

South

Atlantic

Pacific Mountain West

South

Central

West North

Central

East North

Central

Secretaries Met

Secretaries Nonmet

Mean hourly earnings

$-

$2

$4

$6

$8

$10

$12

$14

$16

United States New England Middle Atlantic East South

Central

South Atlantic Pacific Mountain West South

Central

West North

Central

East North

Central

Geogaphic area

Janitors and cleaners Met

Janitors and cleaners Nonmet

CHARt 3. Mean hourly earnings for secretaries in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan

areas, National Compensation Survey, 1997

United

States

East

South

Central

New

England

Middle

Atlantic

South

Atlantic Pacific Mountain

West

South

Central

West

North

Central

East

North

Central

Nonmetropolitan

Metropolitan

Geographic area

Mean hourly earnings

CHARt 4. Mean hourly earnings for janitors and cleaners in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, National Compensation Survey, 1997

United

States

New

England

East

South

Central

Middle

Atlantic

South

Atlantic Pacific Mountain

West

South

Central

West

North

Central

East

North

Central

Metropolitan

Nonmetropolitan

Geographic area

(Dollars)

(Dollars)

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2

0

0
 Compensation and Working Conditions Summer 2000 43

When It Comes to Pay, Does Location Matter?

1

 Information on procedures and concepts of

the National Compensation Survey can be found

in Appendixes A through E of the National Compensation Survey: Occupational Wages in the

United States, 1997, Bulletin 2519 (Bureau of

Labor Statistics, September 1999). 2

 In the 1997 National Compensation Survey, only 149 areas were included. Since then,

five areas have been added (two in Hawaii and

three in Alaska). 3

 Data for some areas were not published because they were unavailable or represented too

small a number of establishments. Also, the

sample may have been reduced due to refusals and

nonresponse. 4

 Estimates of the number of workers provide

a description of size and composition of the labor

force included in the survey. However, estimates

are not intended for comparison with other statistical series to measure employment trends or levels. 5

 Each establishment defines which workers

are full or part time. Union workers are classified

as such when they meet the following conditions:

(1) a labor organization is recognized as the bargaining agent for all workers in the occupation;

(2) wage and salary rates are determined through

collective bargaining or negotiations; and (3)

settlement terms, which must include earnings

provisions and may include benefit provisions, are

embodied in a signed, mutually binding collective bargaining agreement. Time-based workers

are employees whose earnings are tied to an hourly

rate or salary, and not to a specific level of production. Incentive workers are employees whose

earnings are tied, at least in part, to commissions,

piece rates, production bonuses, or other incentives based on production or sales. 6

 See National Compensation Survey, table 1-1.

7

 For detailed information on data reliability,

see Appendix A of the National Compensation

Survey. 8

 For detailed information on the Employment

Cost Index, see Appendix A of Employment Cost

Indexes, 1975-98, Bulletin 2514 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, August 1999). 9

 For a complete breakout of the census divisions, see “Appendix E: Census Division and Survey Areas,” National Compensation Survey. This

appendix lists the nine census divisions, the States

included in each division, and the 149 metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas surveyed. 10 For complete breakout of data, see National

Compensation Survey, table 8-2. 11 For a comprehensive analysis of interarea

comparisons of compensation and prices, see Report on the American Workforce (U.S. Department of Labor, 1997), chap. 2.

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