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Transportation Fatalities in the Mining Sector: 2004—2008

by Christopher A. Janicak

Indiana University of Pennsylvania

Originally Posted: July 20, 2011

Transportation accidents are the leading cause of occupational fatalities in the mining industry. The younger the worker is,

the greater the likelihood of the worker becoming a victim of these types of fatalities. A substantial portion of transportation

fatalities result from jackknifed and overturned vehicle accidents. This study identifies some of the factors associated with

these high fatality rates.

The mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction sector is composed of employers in oil and gas extraction, coal mining,

metal ore mining, nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, other types of mining, and mining support activities. It has been

identified as one of the more hazardous industries in terms of occupational fatality rates. In 2007 for example, when the

United States industry-wide fatality rate was 4.3 fatalities per 100,000 employed persons, the mining sector experienced a

fatality rate of 21.4 fatalities per 100,000 workers. During this period, the subsector fatality rates ranged from 13.3 fatalities

per 100,000 workers in the oil and gas extraction subsector to as high as 24.8 fatalities per 100,000 workers in the coal

mining subsector.1

Mining subsectors. The variability in subsector fatality rates is due, in part, to the differences in the types of activities found

in the different subsectors and their inherent hazards. The oil and gas extraction sector industries operate and develop oil

and gas field properties. Activities may include exploration for crude petroleum and natural gas; drilling, completing, and

equipping wells; operating separators, emulsion breakers, desilting equipment, and field gathering lines for crude petroleum

and natural gas; and all other activities in the preparation of oil and gas up to the point of shipment from the producing

property.2

The term mining is used in the broad sense to include ore extraction, quarrying, and beneficiating (e.g., crushing, screening,

washing, sizing, concentrating, and flotation), all of which are customarily done at the mine site.3 The mining sector, as

defined by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), includes coal mining, metal ore mining and

nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying. Industries in the mining (except oil and gas) subsector primarily engage in mining,

mine site development, and beneficiating (i.e., preparing) metallic minerals and nonmetallic minerals, including coal. Of these

subsectors, there has been extensive research conducted on coal mining. BLS data show that employees in coal mining are

more likely to be killed or to incur a nonfatal injury or illness, and their injuries are more likely to be severe than workers in

private industry as a whole.4

The NAICS defines the subsector support activities for mining as establishments primarily providing support services, on a

contract or fee basis, required for the mining and quarrying of minerals and for the extraction of oil and gas. Establishments

performing exploration (except geophysical surveying and mapping) for minerals, on a contract or fee basis, are included in

this subsector.5

Events. Previous research has identified differences in the events that resulted in an occupational fatality across the various

mining industry subsectors. Because the nature of the work varies greatly across subsectors, so do the hazards the workers

are exposed to on the job. For example, the leading causes of injuries in surface mine environments include materials

handling, slips and falls, machinery, hand-tool use, power haulage, and electrical source contact.6 A study conducted by the

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health found that power haulage events were involved in most fatalities in

surface mining work locations and fall-of-ground events occurred most often in underground mining locations.7

In the oil and gas industry, the three most frequent fatal events in 2008 were transportation incidents (41 percent), contact

with objects and equipment (25 percent), and fires and explosions (15 percent).8 Support activities for oil and gas operations

(NAICS code 213112) accounted for about half of fatal work injuries in oil and gas industries, on average, with 69 fatal work
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injuries recorded in 2008, while drilling oil and gas wells (NAICS code 213111) averaged 34 fatal work injuries over the 5-

year period, with 37 percent resulting from contact with objects and equipment.9

Worker age and occupational fatalities. The relationship between the age of a worker and the likelihood that he or she will

sustain an occupational fatality has been confirmed in a number of studies.10 This relationship may exist for a number of

reasons including a lack of work experience by the victim, increased exposure to hazards from assigning younger workers

more dangerous job tasks, and a reduced chance for older workers to survive a serious injury. Relationships between the

age of the worker and specific events leading to the fatality have also been identified in a number of studies. For example,

relationships have been identified between the victims age and involvement in fatal transportation accidents, electrocutions,

and fatal falls.11

Although it has been well documented that workers in the mining industry experience injuries and fatalities at much higher

rates than those in other industry sectors in the United States, the purpose of this study is to identify factors that are

associated with these higher rates. Factors examined in this study include the age of the worker, the differences in fatality

experiences across mining subsectors, and the events that led to a fatal transportation incident in the industry.

Method

Data. This study uses data from the BLS Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI). The CFOI is an official, systematic,

verifiable count of all fatal occupational injuries that occur during the year. It has been adopted by the National Safety Council

and other organizations as the authoritative source for a complete count of fatal work injuries in the United States.12

To ensure that the fatalities are work related, cases are substantiated with two or more source documents or a source

document and a follow-up questionnaire. The work-related deaths were classified as such if a work relationship could be

established. Such a relationship was established if an event or exposure resulted in a fatal injury or illness of a person on the

employers premises and the person was there to work. A work relationship was also established if the fatal injury or illness

occurred off the employers premises and the person was there to work, or the event or exposure was related to the

persons work or status as an employee.13

In this study, fatalities that occurred in the mining sector during the period from January 1, 2004, to December 31, 2008, were

analyzed. The mining sector was defined as cases reported in mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction (NAICS code 21),

as defined by the North American Industry Classification System. The cases were further classified into industry subsectors

following the methods outlined in the NAICS manual.14 To be included in this analysis, the workers had to be 16 years or

older at the time of the event. For each case, data pertaining to the industry sector classification, year of the event, age of the

victim, and transportation event descriptors were analyzed. The victim age classifications and fatality events were defined

using the methods described in the Occupational Injury and Illness Classification Manual.15

Descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics include the frequencies and percentages of cases by fatality event, age of the

worker, and mining industry subsector. Fatality rates were calculated using the number of fatalities as determined by the

CFOI data and the number of persons employed by detailed industry, sex, and age, as determined by data from the Current

Population Survey (CPS).

Rate ratios. The rate ratio (RR) is a measure of association based on mortality rates. The methods for calculating the rate

ratios and confidence intervals (CI) obtained in this study were those described by Kelsey and others.16 Rate ratios and 95-

percent confidence intervals were calculated by age group, comparing the fatality rate resulting from a particular event for the

mining sector to the fatality rate that results from the same event for all other industries combined. The fatality rates were

calculated using the number of fatality cases and the person-years of exposure as determined by the total number of

employed persons for the 5-year analysis period. The 95-percent confidence intervals were used to determine whether

significant associations exist between the fatality rates and industry sector across age groups.

Proportionate mortality ratios. A proportionate mortality ratio (PMR) was calculated for each NAICS industry classification

following the procedures described by Spiegelman, Wang, and Wegman in their 1983 study, as well as those of Mantel and
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Haenszel.17 Mantel-Haenszel chi-square tests of significance were performed to determine if the proportion of observed

jackknife and turnover deaths are significantly different from what would be expected.

Results

From January 1, 2004, to December 31, 2008, there were 862 fatalities identified in the CFOI data for the mining industry

involving workers 16 years old and older. Approximately 92 percent of all fatalities were due to four events. Transportation

accidents accounted for the largest percentage of fatalities, accounting for approximately 38 percent of all deaths, followed

closely by fatalities involving contact with objects and equipment (34 percent). Table 1 provides a summary of the number of

fatalities by event category. The fatality data for the four top event categories was further examined to determine fatality rates

and rate ratios.

Table 1. Frequency of mining industry fatalities, by major event group, age 16 years and over, 2004-2008

Event Frequency Percent

Transportation 326 37.8

Contact with objects/equipment 291 33.8

Fires and explosions 96 11.1

Exposure to harmful environments 78 9.0

All other events 71 8.2

Total 862 100.0

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

The exposure measure used in this study was the number of employed persons as determined by the Current Population

Survey (CPS). During the 5-year analysis period, the number of persons employed in the mining industry increased from

approximately 539,000 in 2004 to approximately 819,000 in 2008. (See table 2.) The largest increase in employment

occurred in the subsector support activities for mining—from 256,000 in 2004 to 498,000 in 2008, a 95-percent increase.18

Table 2. Employment in mining, age 16 years and over, 2004-2008

Industry 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Total

Oil and gas extraction 66,000 89,000 107,000 96,000 76,000 434,000

Coal mining 87,000 82,000 95,000 95,000 100,000 459,000

Metal ore mining 17,000 18,000 35,000 36,000 36,000 142,000

Nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying 107,000 99,000 105,000 107,000 101,000 519,000

Type of mining not specfied 5,000 5,000 4,000 9,000 7,000 30,000

Support activities for mining 256,000 330,000 341,000 393,000 498,000 1,818,000

Total 538,000 624,000 687,000 736,000 818,000 3,402,000

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

Subsector analysis. Fatality rates were calculated for select mining subsectors using employment figures and the number of

fatality cases for those subsectors. Fatality rates ranged from 18.5 fatalities per 100,000 person-years in the nonmetallic

mineral mining and quarrying subsector to 32.5 fatalities per 100,000 person-years in the coal mining subsector. (See table

3.)
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Table 3. Frequency of fatalities and fatality rates in selected mining industries, by major event group, age 16 years and

over, 2004-2008

Industry Frequency Percent Fatality rate (deaths per 100,000 person-years)

Oil and gas extraction (NAICS 211) 104 12.1 24.0

Coal mining (NAICS 2121) 149 17.3 32.5

Metal ore mining (NAICS 2122) 34 4.0 22.5

Nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying (NAICS 2123) 96 11.1 18.5

Support activities for mining (NAICS 213) 476 55.2 26.2

Total 862 100.0 25.5

Note: Total may include subcategories not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

Transportation fatalities. As mentioned previously, transportation fatalities accounted for the greatest percentage of

fatalities in the mining industry, with approximately 38 percent of all deaths. Over the 5-year period, 326 fatalities occurred in

the mining industry, compared with 11,531 in all other industries. The fatality rate involving transportation accidents for the

mining industry was 9.6 deaths per 100,000 person-years, compared with 1.6 deaths per 100,000 person-years for all other

industries. (See table 4.)

Table 4. Frequency of fatalities and fatality rates due to transportation accidents, age 16 years and over, 2004-2008

Industry Mining industry All other industries

Transportation fatalities (N) 326 11,531

Percent of all fatalities 37.8 41.0

Transportation fatality rate (per 100,000 person-years) 9.6 1.6

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

A further breakdown of the transportation fatalities by event shows that, within the mining industry, highway accidents

accounted for approximately 59 percent of all transportation deaths followed by nonhighway accidents (except rail, air, and

water) with approximately 17 percent. (See table 5.)

Table 5. Frequency of transportation fatalities by event category, age 16 years and over, 2004-2008

Event Frequency Percent

Highway accidents 193 59.2

Nonhighway accidents (except rail, air, water) 55 16.9

Pedestrian, nonpassenger 33 10.1

Aircraft accident 20 6.1

Water vehicle accident 16 4.9

Railway accident 9 2.8

Total 326 100.0

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

To determine if there were increased risks for fatalities involving transportation accidents in the mining industry by age group,

rate ratios and 95-percent confidence intervals were calculated. The rate ratios compared the fatality rate in the mining

industry with the fatality rate for all other industries combined for a particular event. The rate ratios indicated that for all age
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groups, the fatality rates for transportation accidents in the mining industry were significantly greater than the rates for all

other industries. In addition, the rate ratio was greatest for workers in the 16- to 19-year age group (RR = 13.7; CI = 5.7, 33.3)

and decreased as the workers age increased. The rate ratios and confidence intervals for all age groups appear in table 6.

Table 6. Rate ratios for transportation fatalities in the mining industry compared with all other industries by age group,

age 16 years and over, 2004-2008

Age group Rate ratio 95-percent confidence interval

16-19 years old 13.7 (5.7, 33.3)

20-24 years old 10.6 (7.5, 14.9)

25-34 years old 7.4 (5.8, 9.3)

35-44 years old 6.1 (4.8, 7.8)

45-54 years old 5.1 (4.1, 6.4)

55-64 years old 4.6 (3.4, 6.1)

65 years and over 4.5 (2.9, 7.1)

The 10 most frequent events that led to an occupational fatality were identified and are summarized in table 7. These 10

events accounted for 243 fatalities and approximately 83 percent of all transportation fatalities in the mining sector during the

analysis period. Accidents involving jackknifed or overturned vehicles on the highway were the most frequently identified

event, accounting for approximately 22 percent of all mining sector transportation fatalities. Approximately 39 percent of the

jackknifed or overturned vehicle fatalities involved tractor trailers, while another 36 percent involved pickup trucks.

Table 7. Top 10 leading events for transportation fatalities in the mining industry, age 16 years and over, 2004-2008

Event Frequency Percent of All Transportation Fatalities

Jackknifed or overturned (no collision) highway accident 70 21.5

Moving in opposite directions, oncoming 43 13.2

Vehicle struck stationary object or equipment in roadway 32 9.8

Overturned vehicle, nonhighway accident 26 8.0

Pedestrian struck by vehicle 26 8.0

Re-entrant accident, moving in intersection 16 4.9

Aircraft accident 16 4.9

Re-entrant accident, moving in same direction 15 4.6

Vehicle struck stationary object, other than a vehicle 13 4.0

Fall from ship, boat 12 3.7

Total 243 82.5

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

To determine how the proportion of jackknife transportation fatalities in the mining industry compares with that of all other

industries, proportionate mortality ratios (PMRs) were calculated along with the appropriate chi-squared significance tests.19

(See table 8.) Results indicate that the mining industry, along with the wholesale trade industry and the transportation and

warehousing industry, experienced significantly greater-than-expected proportions of jackknifed and overturned vehicle

accidents, but the mining industrys observed proportion was the largest by a substantial margin. The PMR for mining was

197.19 (X2 = 37.57, p < .05), whereas the PMR for the wholesale trade industry was 158.16 (X2 = 22.70, p < .05), and the

PMR for the transportation and warehousing industry was 113.19 (X2 = 9.48, p < .05). The PMR of 197.19 indicates that the

mining industry experienced approximately 197 percent of the number of jackknifed and overturned vehicle accidents in all

industries.
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Table 8. Proportionate mortality ratios by NAICS code comparing jackknifed and overturned vehicle deaths with all

transportation deaths

Industry NAICS

Code

Jackknifed or

overturned vehicle

fatalities

Total

transportation

fatalities

Fatalities,

other Expected Variance X

2 PMR

Agriculture, forestry,

fishing, & hunting 11 125 1,581 1,456 172.16 133.06 17.07 *72.61

Mining 21 70 326 256 35.5 30.77 37.57 *197.19

Utilities 22 8 76 68 8.28 7.33 0.08 96.67

Construction 23 189 1,624 1,435 176.84 136.11 1 106.88

Manufacturing 31 75 591 516 64.35 54.51 1.89 116.54

Wholesale trade 42 93 540 447 58.8 50.03 22.7 *158.16

Retail trade 44 50 506 456 55.1 47.02 0.67 90.75

Transportation and

warehousing 48 406 3,294 2,888 358.69 231.25 9.48 *113.19

Information, real

estate, finance 51-56 134 1,339 1,205 145.8 115.33 1.31 91.9

Education and

healthcare 61-62 31 603 572 65.66 55.55 22.25 *47.21

Arts, recreation,

food services 71 18 330 312 35.93 31.14 10.91 *50.09

Other services 81 17 251 234 27.33 23.84 4.92 *62.20

Public

administration 92 81 850 769 92.56 76.6 1.9 87.51

Total 1,297 11,911 10,614 1,297.00 n/a n/a n/a

* PMR is significant at the .05 level.

Discussion

From 2004 to 2008, fatality rates in the mining sector were much higher than those in other industries in the United States.

The fatality rates ranged from 18.5 fatalities per 100,000 persons employed in nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying to

32.5 fatalities per 100,000 persons employed in coal mining.

The leading event for fatalities across all of the mining subsectors was transportation incidents. A primary reason for these

kinds of fatalities is an increased level of workplace exposures to hazards. In other words, one could reasonably conclude

that a majority of mining fatalities resulted from transportation accidents and contact with equipment because of the large

extent to which transportation and production equipment are used in the industry.

Transportation accidents accounted for the greatest number of deaths for all age groups in mining and also resulted in

significantly higher fatality rate ratios compared with all other industries. The majority of all transportation fatalities involved

over-the-road vehicles and highway accidents, and the fatality rate ratios were greatest for the youngest age group and

lowest for the oldest. The fatality rate ratios were statistically significant across all age groups. These significant rate ratios

across age groups indicate that in the mining industry, the number of highway transportation accidents per person employed

is significantly higher than in other industries. The highest rate ratios occurred among younger workers, and the ratios

decreased as age increased. The higher fatality rate ratios for the younger age groups in mining could be related to their

relative lack of experience with transportation equipment that is unique to the mining industry and because younger workers

are more likely to operate this kind of equipment. Both of these factors are likely to decrease as age increases.
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One important finding in this study is the relationship between the age of the victims and their transportation fatality

experience. The transportation fatality rates and corresponding rate ratios identified significant differences in the fatality rates

across age groups when the mining sector is compared with all other industries. Younger workers in the mining sector have

significantly greater transportation fatality rates than their counterparts in other industries. Fatality rates generally decreased

as worker age increased. However, the low rates that were found for the oldest age group were still many times greater than

the rates for all other industries.

There are a number of possible reasons why the mining industry fatality rates decline as age increases. First, the trends

might be related to differences in job tasks and hazard exposure. Younger workers may be more likely to work in a job task

that exposes them to the kind of hazards that result in fatalities. As workers age, their responsibilities change and they are

less likely to perform the more hazardous jobs.

Experience may also play a role in the fatality rate ratio trends. The youngest workers may be more likely to take risks or

perform their job tasks in an unsafe manner because of a lack of experience. Numerous studies have indicated a negative

relationship between time on the job and the likelihood of being involved in an accident. As the workers gain more experience

on the job, they may be reducing their exposure to the job hazards by following safe procedures and taking fewer risks.

A second important finding of this study is the significantly greater proportion of fatalities due to jackknifed and overturned

vehicles in the mining sector compared with all other industries combined. One plausible reason for this increased proportion

of fatalities could in part be due to the types of vehicles being used in the mining industry and the types of loads being

transported. As previously identified, approximately 39 percent of the jackknifed and overturned vehicle fatalities involved

tractor trailers and approximately 36 percent involved pickup trucks. Accident descriptions indicated that a number of

accidents involved vehicles that were loaded with material, as well as water tank trucks and vehicles towing mining

equipment. Shifting material and liquids being hauled at the time may be a reason for the increased risk for a jackknifed or

overturned vehicle involving the tractor trailers and tank trucks.

A large percentage of turnover accidents involving pickup trucks were the result of the vehicle leaving the roadway and then

rolling over. In some cases, the reason for the pickup truck leaving the roadway was identified and in others it was not. Some

examples of why the vehicle overturned included an inability to negotiate a curve and then leaving the roadway, swerving to

avoiding another vehicle, and overcorrecting once the vehicle left the roadway.

Conclusion

The results from this study indicate that transportation fatality rates for workers are significantly greater for the mining industry

compared with all other industries, with younger workers experiencing significantly higher rates than their counterparts in

other industries. While accident prevention activities are necessary for all workers of all ages in mining, efforts should be

focused on the younger workers engaged in the more hazardous job tasks that involve exposure to transportation equipment.

It may be that the younger workers face greater exposure to these hazards; they also tend to have less experience on the

job. These factors might help explain the higher fatality rates among younger workers.

Examples of prevention measures to stress include the use of engineering strategies to eliminate the hazards associated with

fatalities involving contact with equipment and objects. Utilizing proper machine guarding techniques along with equipment

maintenance programs to ensure guarding and safety devices remain in place and operable can go a long way toward

eliminating many of the struck-by fatalities. But safeguarding and inspection programs should not just stop with equipment

and machinery. The engineering and inspection programs should also focus on the mine structure itself to ensure that mine

structure and its supports are adequate to prevent collapse of the walls, roof, and structure components.

Because it appears that fatality rates are greatest with younger workers, one method of offsetting the increased chances of a

fatality due to inexperience is with hazard recognition training. This training can serve two purposes. First, because the

younger workers lack work experience and have greater risk-taking behaviors, the training can make them aware of the

potential hazards and control measures to follow. It may also be part of the mining and oil-and-gas-drilling culture to have the
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new workers learn on the job rather than through formal instruction. But this lack of formal safety training may be contributing

to the significantly higher fatality rates among younger workers.

Another possibility might be that the younger workers are exposed to some of the more deadly hazards on the job because of

the manner in which work tasks are assigned in the mining sector. Exposing workers who are youngest and least

experienced to the more dangerous jobs could help explain the higher fatality rates. Control measures could be implemented

to eliminate the hazards where possible, reduce the likelihood of accidents, and train workers on the ways to recognize and

avoid hazardous conditions, as well as to understand the consequences of performing job tasks in an unsafe manner, and

the methods and techniques to follow in order to perform a job task safely.

The results from this study also identified significantly greater proportions of fatalities that result from jackknife and rollover

accidents. Training and education programs for vehicle equipment operators could help reduce the likelihood of these

jackknife and turnover accidents. Such training would include specific driving techniques to be used when hauling material,

driving water tank trucks, and towing equipment. The hazards associated with driving tank trucks and tractor-trailers are well

known—as evidenced, for example, by the special licensing requirements needed to obtain a commercial drivers license in

the United States.

Defensive driving should be an integral part of all mining safety programs to reduce the accidents and fatalities involving

pickup truck turnovers. Information contained in the accident descriptions suggests that, in many cases, if defensive driving

skills had been used, the number of these types of fatalities might have been substantially reduced. One area needing

additional research is in the investigation of the root causes for jackknife and turnover accidents.

Christopher A. Janicak

Professor of Safety Sciences, Department of Safety Sciences, Indiana University of Pennsylvania.

Telephone: (724) 357-3274; E-mail: cjanicak@iup.edu. Notes

1 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities Fact Sheet: Coal Mining (April 2010), on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/

iif/oshwc/osh/os/osar0012.pdf. 2 U.S. Census Bureau, North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), on the Internet at http://www.census.gov/eos/www/naics/. 3 Ibid.

4 Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities Fact Sheet: Coal Mining. 5 U.S. Census Bureau, North American Industry Classification System (NAICS).

6 Jeanne Mager Stellman, Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th ed., vol. 3; Thomas A. Hethmon and Kyle B. Dotson, Surface

Mining Methods (International Labour Office, 1998), 74.18—74.21.

7 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH Mining Safety and Health Research: Mining Fatalities (November 4, 2009), on

the Internet at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/statistics/fatalities.htm. 8 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities Fact Sheet: Oil and Gas Industry (April 2010), on the Internet at http://

www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/osh/os/osar0013.pdf. 9 Ibid.

10 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH Update: Job Death Rates for 16-, 17-Year-Olds Comparable to or Higher than

Adult Rates for Leading Causes, NIOSH Finds (December 16, 1997), on the Internet at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/updates/chlddeth.html; Karen

B. Mulloy, Stephanie Moraga-McHaley, Cameron Crandall, and Denece O. Kesler, “Occupational injury mortality: New Mexico 1998—2002,” 

American Journal of Industrial Medicine 50, no. 12 (December 2007), 910—920; Gerald McGwin Jr., Francesca Valent, Allison J. Taylor,

Harrison J. Howard, Gregory G. Davis, Robert M. Brissie, Loring W. Rue III, “Epidemiology of fatal occupational injuries in Jefferson County,

Alabama,” Southern Medical Journal 95, no. 11 (November 2002): 1300—1311.

11 National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, National Evaluation of Graduated Driver Licensing Programs (2006), on the Internet

at http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/NewDriver/GDLReport/images/GDLReport.pdf; J. Eberhard, “Older Drivers High Per-Mile Crash

Involvement: The Implications for Licensing Authorities,” Traffic Injury Prevention 9 (2008), 284—290; J. Duke, M. Guest, and M. Boggess,

“Age-related safety in professional heavy vehicle drivers: A literature review,” Accident Analysis and Prevention 42 (2010), 364—371;

electrocutions, C. Chi, C. Yang, and Z. Chen, “In-depth accident analysis of electrical fatalities in the construction industry,” International
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS COMPENSATION AND WORKING CONDITIONS

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Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 39 (2009), 635—644; C. Janicak, “Occupational fatalities due to electrocutions in the construction industry,” 

Journal of Safety Research, 39 (2008), 617—621; fatal falls, Ohio Department of Public Health, “Fatal Occupational Injuries” (2010), on the

Internet at http://www.odh.ohio.gov/odhprograms/hprr/occup/occup1.aspx. 12 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries: CFOI Research File User Reference (Washington, DC, U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1997).

13 Ibid.

14 U.S. Census Bureau, North American Industry Classification System (NAICS).

15 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Injury and Illness Classification Manual (Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, 1992).

16 J. Kelsey, A. Whittemore, A. Evans, and W. Thompson, Methods in Observational Epidemiology, (New York, Oxford University Press,

1996).

17 D. Spiegelman, J. D. Wang, and D. Wegman, “Epidemiologic programs for computers and calculators,” American Journal of Epidemiology

118 (1983), 599—607; N. Mantel and W. Haenszel, “Statistical aspects of the analysis of data from retrospective studies of disease,” Journal

of the National Cancer Institute 22 (1958), 719—748.

18 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey (CPS), table 16, “Employed persons by detailed industry, sex and age, Annual

Averages, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008; for more information, see CPS page of BLS website at http://www.bls.gov/cps/. 19 A proportionate mortality ratio (PMR) is the number of deaths from a specific cause in a specific period of time per 100 deaths from all

causes in the same period. See Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

website, on the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/OCEPAterms/. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics | Division of Information and Marketing Services, PSB Suite 2850, 2 Massachusetts Avenue, NE Washington, DC

20212-0001 | www.bls.gov/OPUB | Telephone: 1-202-691-5200 | Contact Us