Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 3

U.S. Labor Market in 2011

U.S. labor market shows

gradual improvement in 2011

Most major employment and unemployment indicators

signaled improvement in the labor market in 2011;

the unemployment level and rate fell, and employment

was up over the year

Eleni Theodossiou

Eleni Theodossiou is an economist 

in the Division of Labor Force 

Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Email: theodossiou.eleni@

bls.gov

I

n 2011, the U.S. labor market continued to recover from the 2007–2009 

recession.1

 Employment growth accelerated while unemployment continued 

to trend downward. Still, despite the overall improvement, unemployment rates for 

most worker groups remained quite high 

at the end of the year, and the proportion 

of unemployed persons who had been 

without work for exceptionally long periods held close to historically high levels.

The number of employed persons 16 

years and older, as measured by the Current 

Population Survey (CPS), grew by about 

twice as much in 2011 as in 2010, reaching 

140.6 million in the fourth quarter of the 

year.2

 (For a comparison of the employment measures available from the CPS and 

the Current Employment Statistics survey 

(CES), see the box on page 4.) The employment–population ratio edged up over 

the year, to 58.5 percent.3

 In the fourth 

quarter of 2011, 13.4 million persons were 

unemployed and the unemployment rate 

was 8.7 percent, nearly 1 percentage point 

lower than a year earlier. The civilian labor 

force—the sum of the employed and the 

unemployed—was about unchanged in 

2011. Given the rise in the civilian noninstitutional population, the labor force participation rate declined by 0.4 percentage 

point over the year, to 64.0 percent. 

This article examines changes in key labor 

market measures from the CPS in 2011 and 

takes a detailed look at these changes as regards various demographic characteristics, 

including age, gender, race and ethnicity, and 

educational attainment. The article also covers changes in earnings and in the duration of 

unemployment, and reviews the employment 

situations of veterans, persons with a disability, 

and the foreign born.

Among the major demographic groups, both the 

number of unemployed persons and the unemployment rate declined in 2011. Largely reflecting 

a drop in the first quarter, unemployment fell 

by 1.3 million over the year, to 13.4 million in 

the fourth quarter. The unemployment rate also 

exhibited a large drop in the first quarter of the 

year, falling from 9.6 percent in the fourth quarter of 2010 to 9.0 percent in the first quarter of 

2011. After holding steady at or near 9.1 percent 

for much of the summer, the unemployment rate 

resumed its trend downward for the remainder 

of the year. The rate was 8.7 percent in the fourth 

quarter of 2011, nearly a percentage point lower 

than its year-earlier level of 9.6 percent. (See 

table 1.) Compared with its behavior in previous recoveries following the deep and prolonged 

economic contractions of the mid-1970s and 

early 1980s, however, the unemployment rate has 

shown a relatively gradual improvement thus far 

during the current recovery.4

 (See chart 1.)
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

4 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, the Bureau) 

produces two monthly employment series that are 

independently obtained: the estimate of total nonfarm jobs, derived from the Current Employment 

Statistics (CES) survey, also called the establishment 

or payroll survey; and the estimate of total civilian employment, based on the Current Population 

Survey (CPS), also called the household survey. The 

two surveys use different definitions of employment, as well as different survey and estimation 

methods. The CES survey is a survey of employers 

that provides a measure of the number of payroll 

jobs in nonfarm industries. The CPS is a survey of 

households that provides a measure of employed 

people ages 16 years and older in the civilian noninstitutional population. Employment estimates from 

the CPS give information about workers in both 

the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors and in 

all types of work arrangements: workers with wage 

and salary jobs (including employment in a private 

household), those engaging in self-employment, 

and those doing unpaid work for at least 15 hours 

a week in a business or farm operated by a family 

member. CES payroll employment estimates are restricted to nonagricultural wage and salary jobs and 

exclude private household workers. As a result, employment estimates from the CPS are higher than 

those from the CES survey. In the CPS, however, 

employed people are counted only once, regardless 

of whether they hold more than one job during the 

survey reference period. By contrast, because the 

CES survey counts the number of jobs rather than 

the number of people, each nonfarm job is counted 

once, even when two or more jobs are held by the 

same person.

The reference periods for the surveys also differ. In the CPS, the reference period is the calendar 

week that includes the 12th day of the month. In 

the CES survey, employers report the number of 

workers on their payrolls for the pay period that 

includes the 12th of the month. Because pay periods vary in length among employers and may be 

longer than 1 week, the CES employment estimates 

can reflect longer reference periods.

For purposes of comparison, however, some adjustments can be made to CPS employment estimates 

to make them more similar in definitional scope to 

CES employment figures. The Bureau routinely carries out these adjustments to evaluate how the two 

employment series are tracking. The long-term 

trends in the two surveys’ employment measures are 

quite comparable. Nonetheless, throughout the history of the surveys, there have been periods when the 

short-term trends diverged or when growth in one 

series significantly outpaced growth in the other. For 

example, following the end of the 2001 recession, 

CPS employment began to trend upward while CES

employment continued to decline for a number of 

months.

The Bureau publishes a monthly report with 

the latest trends and comparisons of employment 

as measured by the CES survey and the CPS. (See 

“Employment from the BLS household and payroll 

surveys: summary of recent trends,” www.bls.gov/

web/ces_cps_trends.pdf.) This report includes a 

summary of possible causes of differences in the 

surveys’ employment trends, as well as links to additional research on the topic.

The CPS and the CES Survey
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 5

Table 1. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and older, by age and selected 

characteristics, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 2010–2011

Characteristic

2011 Change, 

fourth 

quarter, 2010, 

to fourth 

quarter, 2011

 Fourth 

quarter, 2010 First 

quarter

Second 

quarter 

Third 

quarter

Fourth 

quarter

Total, 16 years and older

Civilian labor force 153,788 153,314 153,510 153,679 153,960 172

 Participation rate 64.4 64.2 64.1 64.1 64.0 –.4

 Employed 139,077 139,549 139,607 139,770 140,567 1,490

 Employment–population ratio 58.3 58.4 58.3 58.3 58.5 .2

 Unemployed 14,711 13,766 13,903 13,908 13,393 –1,318

 Unemployment rate 9.6 9.0 9.1 9.1 8.7 –.9

Men, 20 years and older

Civilian labor force 78,907 78,744 79,072 79,103 79,389 482

 Participation rate 73.7 73.4 73.5 73.3 73.4 –.3

 Employed 71,344 71,804 72,028 72,123 72,769 1,425

 Employment–population ratio 66.6 66.9 67.0 66.9 67.3 .7

 Unemployed 7,563 6,940 7,044 6,980 6,621 –942

 Unemployment rate 9.6 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.3 –1.3

Women, 20 years and older

Civilian labor force 69,049 68,838 68,769 68,826 68,813 –236

 Participation rate 60.1 60.0 59.8 59.7 59.6 –.5

 Employed 63,394 63,423 63,301 63,328 63,398 4

 Employment–population ratio 55.2 55.3 55.1 55.0 54.9 –.3

 Unemployed 5,656 5,414 5,468 5,498 5,415 –241

 Unemployment rate 8.2 7.9 8.0 8.0 7.9 –.3

Total, 16 to 19 years

Civilian labor force 5,831 5,733 5,669 5,750 5,758 –73

 Participation rate 34.7 34.0 33.8 34.3 34.5 –.2

 Employed 4,339 4,322 4,278 4,319 4,400 61

 Employment–population ratio 25.8 25.7 25.5 25.8 26.3 .5

 Unemployed 1,492 1,411 1,391 1,431 1,358 –134

 Unemployment rate 25.6 24.6 24.5 24.9 23.6 –2.0

White

Civilian labor force 124,795 124,351 124,660 124,621 124,666 –129

 Participation rate 64.8 64.6 64.6 64.5 64.4 –.4

 Employed 113,971 114,403 114,620 114,673 115,074 1,103

 Employment–population ratio 59.2 59.4 59.4 59.3 59.4 .2

 Unemployed 10,824 9,948 10,040 9,948 9,593 –1,231

 Unemployment rate 8.7 8.0 8.1 8.0 7.7 –1.0

Black or African American

Civilian labor force 17,968 17,827 17,773 17,889 18,037 69

 Participation rate 62.3 61.5 61.2 61.4 61.6 –.7

Employed 15,106 15,050 14,900 15,000 15,250 144

 Employment–population ratio 52.3 51.9 51.3 51.4 52.1 –.2

Unemployed 2,863 2,777 2,872 2,889 2,787 –76

 Unemployment rate 15.9 15.6 16.2 16.1 15.5 –.4

See notes at end of table.

[Levels in thousands]
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

6 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

Continued—Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and older, by age and selected 

characteristics, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 2010–2011

Characteristic

2011 Change, 

fourth 

quarter, 2010, 

to fourth 

quarter, 2011

 Fourth 

quarter, 2010 First 

quarter

Second 

quarter 

Third

quarter

Fourth

quarter

Asian1

Civilian labor force 7,336 7,372 7,352 7,357 7,462 126

 Participation rate 64.6 65.0 64.7 64.2 64.4 –.2

 Employed 6,802 6,859 6,858 6,803 6,949 147

 Employment–population ratio 59.9 60.5 60.3 59.4 59.9 .0

 Unemployed 534 513 494 554 513 –21

 Unemployment rate 7.3 7.0 6.7 7.5 6.9 –.4

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Civilian labor force 22,852 22,639 22,790 22,910 23,248 396

 Participation rate 67.0 66.4 66.4 66.3 66.8 –.2

 Employed 19,917 20,006 20,117 20,324 20,625 708

 Employment–population ratio 58.4 58.7 58.6 58.8 59.3 .9

 Unemployed 2,935 2,633 2,673 2,586 2,624 –311

 Unemployment rate 12.8 11.6 11.7 11.3 11.3 –1.5

1 Data for Asians are not seasonally adjusted.

NOTE: Estimates for race and Hispanic ethnicity do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races and because persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity may be of any race and are also included in the race

groups. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the 

release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 1.

[Levels in thousands]

Percent Percent

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

Unemployment rate for persons 16 years and older, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted,

1969–2011

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011

 Chart 1. 

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 7

2010 QIV

2011 QIV

.

A disproportionately larger share of the decline in 

unemployment in 2011 occurred among adult men, 

whose jobless rate dropped by 1.3 percentage points, 

to 8.3 percent in the fourth quarter. In comparison, the 

rate for adult women declined by 0.3 percentage point, 

to 7.9 percent. Although men experienced a greater 

decline in their unemployment rate than did women 

over the year, their rate continued to be higher than 

that of women, a pattern that has been in place since 

the rates began to diverge in mid-2008. The jobless 

rate for teenagers 16 to 19 years of age fell 2.0 percentage points over the year, to 23.6 percent in the fourth 

quarter.

The unemployment rates for Whites and persons of 

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity declined in 2011, while 

the rates for Blacks and Asians were little changed.5

The unemployment rates for Whites and Hispanics 

fell to 7.7 percent and 11.3 percent, respectively, in the 

fourth quarter. The unemployment rate for Blacks was 

15.5 percent, and the rate for Asians (not seasonally 

adjusted) was 6.9 percent.

The unemployment rate declined for persons at all 

levels of educational attainment in 2011. (See chart 

2.) Among workers 25 years and older, the jobless rate 

of persons with less than a high school diploma showed the 

largest over-the-year decline among the major educational 

attainment categories. Despite the large decline, the rate of 

persons with less than a high school diploma remained in 

double digits, at 13.6 percent, in the fourth quarter of the 

year. The unemployment rate for high school graduates fell 

to 9.0 percent, while the rates for persons with some college 

and for those with at least a bachelor’s degree declined to 7.9 

percent and 4.3 percent, respectively. (See table 2.)

The proportion of persons unemployed for long periods remained 

high by historical standards. Following 3 years of sizable 

increases, the number of long-term unemployed (persons 

who were jobless for 27 weeks or longer) fell by more than a 

half million, to 5.7 million, in 2011.6

 Although the number 

of long-term unemployed declined, their share of total unemployment was little changed, at about 43 percent, in the 

fourth quarter of 2011. (See table 3 and chart 3.)

After expanding for 3 consecutive years and reaching 

a record-high 4.5 million (not seasonally adjusted) in the 

second quarter of 2010, the number of persons unemployed 

for a year or longer declined by 338,000 in 2011, to 4.0 

million in the fourth quarter. Their proportion of total unemployment, however, reached a series high of 31.9 percent 

 Chart 2. 

Percent Percent

Unemployment rate for persons 25 years and older, by educational attainment, seasonally adjusted, 

fourth quarter, 2010, and fourth quarter, 2011

Total, 25 years Less than a high school High school graduates, Some college or College graduate

 and older diploma no college associate’s degree

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

2010 2011

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

8 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

in the second quarter of the year and held close to that 

level for the remainder of the year.7

 The number of persons who were jobless for 99 weeks or longer (1.9 million in the fourth quarter of 2011) increased by 428,000 

over the year. Indeed, at the end of 2011, about 1 in 7 

unemployed persons had been jobless for about 2 years 

or longer.

Overall, the median duration of unemployment 

edged down to 21.1 weeks by the end of 2011. Prior 

to reaching a series high of 23.2 weeks in the second 

quarter of 2010, the median duration of unemployment 

had increased by nearly 15 weeks since the onset of the 

2007–2009 recession.

The number of persons unemployed because they lost their job 

declined for the second consecutive year. The number of 

unemployed job losers declined by 1.4 million in 2011, 

to 7.7 million in the fourth quarter. Job losers are split 

into two categories: persons on temporary layoff who 

expect to be recalled to their jobs and those not on temporary layoff. Persons in the latter category, who do not 

expect to be recalled, are further categorized as either 

permanent job losers or persons who have completed 

temporary jobs. A decline in permanent job losers accounted for about three-quarters of the decline in the 

total number of unemployed job losers in 2011. (See 

table 3 and chart 4.)

Table 2. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 25 years and older, by educational attainment, 

quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 2010–2011

Characteristic

2011 Change, 

fourth 

quarter, 2010, 

to fourth 

quarter, 2011

 Fourth 

quarter, 2010 First 

quarter

Second 

quarter

Third 

quarter

Fourth 

quarter

Less than a high school diploma

Civilian labor force 11,749 11,468 11,490 11,716 11,720 –29

 Participation rate 46.4 45.6 45.3 46.8 47.0 .6

 Employed 9,940 9,871 9,825 10,039 10,127 187

 Employment–population ratio 39.3 39.3 38.7 40.1 40.6 1.3

 Unemployed 1,808 1,597 1,665 1,678 1,593 –215

 Unemployment rate 15.4 13.9 14.5 14.3 13.6 –1.8

High school graduates, no college

Civilian labor force 37,894 37,446 37,557 37,264 37,119 –775

 Participation rate 61.0 60.3 60.4 60.4 60.2 –.8

 Employed 34,130 33,897 33,901 33,732 33,773 –357

 Employment–population ratio 54.9 54.6 54.5 54.7 54.7 –.2

 Unemployed 3,764 3,549 3,656 3,532 3,347 –417

 Unemployment rate 9.9 9.5 9.7 9.5 9.0 –.9

Some college or associate's degree

Civilian labor force 37,042 36,690 36,741 36,954 36,941 –101

 Participation rate 70.1 69.7 69.7 69.2 68.9 –1.2

 Employed 33,949 33,847 33,806 33,896 34,039 90

 Employment–population ratio 64.2 64.3 64.2 63.5 63.5 –.7

 Unemployed 3,093 2,844 2,935 3,058 2,903 –190

 Unemployment rate 8.3 7.8 8.0 8.3 7.9 –.4

Bachelor's degree and higher

Civilian labor force 46,261 46,606 46,899 46,796 47,085 824

 Participation rate 76.5 76.7 77.0 76.1 75.9 –.6

 Employed 44,040 44,596 44,818 44,800 45,073 1,033

 Employment–population ratio 72.9 73.4 73.6 72.9 72.7 –.2

 Unemployed. 2,221 2,010 2,081 1,997 2,012 –209

 Unemployment rate 4.8 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.3 –.5

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

[Levels in thousands] 
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 9

The number of unemployed reentrants to the labor 

force, 3.4 million in the fourth quarter of 2011, was about 

unchanged from its year-earlier level. Reentrants are persons who had been in the labor force previously, had spent 

time out of the labor force, and were actively seeking work 

once again. Reentrants accounted for about 1 in 4 unemployed persons at the end of 2011. The number of unemployed job leavers, persons who voluntarily left their jobs, 

Unemployed persons, by reason and duration of unemployment, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 

2010–2011

Reason and duration

2011 Change, 

fourth 

quarter, 

2010, to 

fourth 

quarter, 

2011

 Fourth 

quarter, 2010 First 

quarter

Second 

quarter

Third 

quarterI

Fourth 

quarter

Reason for unemployment

Job losers and persons who completed

temporary jobs 9,085 8,348 8,221 8,098 7,708 –1,377

 On temporary layoff 1,359 1,237 1,237 1,226 1,208 –151

 Not on temporary layoff 7,726 7,111 6,984 6,872 6,501 –1,225

 Permanent job losers 6,193 5,723 5,572 5,470 5,143 –1,050

 Persons who completed temporary jobs 1,533 1,388 1,412 1,402 1,358 –175

Job leavers 876 906 945 960 1,008 132

Reentrants 3,447 3,328 3,418 3,476 3,380 –67

New entrants 1,286 1,329 1,259 1,282 1,282 –4

Percent distribution:

 Job losers and persons who completed

 temporary jobs

61.8 60.0 59.4 58.6 57.6 –4.2

 On temporary layoff 9.2 8.9 8.9 8.9 9.0 –.2

 Not on temporary layoff 52.6 51.1 50.4 49.7 48.6 –4.0

 Job leavers 6.0 6.5 6.8 7.0 7.5 1.5

 Reentrants 23.5 23.9 24.7 25.2 25.3 1.8

 New entrants 8.8 9.6 9.1 9.3 9.6 .8

Duration of unemployment

Less than 5 weeks 2,747 2,501 2,826 2,718 2,619 –128

5 to 14 weeks 3,282 3,006 2,940 2,995 3,013 –269

15 or more weeks 8,675 8,263 8,084 8,193 7,754 –921

 15 to 26 weeks 2,357 2,146 1,975 2,068 2,052 –305

 27 or more weeks 6,319 6,116 6,109 6,125 5,702 –617

Average (mean) duration, in weeks 34.5 37.8 39.2 40.3 40.3 5.8

Median duration, in weeks 21.7 21.5 21.6 21.5 21.1 –.6

Percent distribution:

 Less than 5 weeks 18.7 18.2 20.4 19.5 19.6 .9

 5 to 14 weeks 22.3 21.8 21.2 21.5 22.5 .2

 15 or more weeks 59.0 60.0 58.4 58.9 57.9 –1.1

 15 to 26 weeks 16.0 15.6 14.3 14.9 15.3 –.7

 27 or more weeks 43.0 44.4 44.1 44.0 42.6 –.4

NOTE: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the 

release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 3.

[Levels in thousands]
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

10 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

increased by 132,000, to 1.0 million, in the fourth quarter, 

while the number of new entrants to unemployment was 

about unchanged over the year.

The persistently high level of unemployment in 2011 is reflected in labor force status flow data. Each month, the 

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, the Bureau) reports on 

the number of persons employed, the number unemployed, and the number not in the labor force, as measured by the CPS. A great deal of underlying movement 

contributes to the relatively small over-the-month net 

changes that typically occur between the different labor 

force statuses. These gross movements are captured by 

labor force status flow data, which show that millions of 

people move between employment and unemployment 

each month while millions of others leave or enter the 

labor force.8

 In 2011, 17.6 million people, or 7.3 percent 

of the population, changed their labor force status in an 

average month.

A greater understanding of the continued high level 

of unemployment in 2011 can be obtained by examining the current status (employed, unemployed, or not 

in the labor force) of persons who were unemployed in 

the previous month. Chart 5 shows the proportions of 

unemployed persons who found employment, remained 

unemployed, and left the labor force. Historically, data 

indicate that persons are more likely to remain unemployed from one month to the next than to either find 

employment or leave the labor force. This pattern became 

more pronounced during the 2007–2009 recession and 

has persisted throughout the current recovery. Nonetheless, the share of unemployed persons who remained 

unemployed, about 62 percent in December 2011 (calculated as a 3-month moving average), continued to edge 

down over the year. The likelihood of unemployed persons finding employment edged up over the year, while 

the share of the unemployed who quit looking and left 

the labor force was unchanged in 2011. In December, the 

likelihood of unemployed persons finding employment 

was 18.3 percent, while the probability of them abandoning their search and leaving the labor force was slightly 

higher, at 19.9 percent.

The number of persons employed part time for economic reasons 

declined to 8.5 million in 2011. Also referred to as involuntary part-time employment, this measure of underem-

 Chart 3. 

Percent Percent

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

 Long-term unemployed as a percentage of total unemployed, quarterly averages, 1990–2011

NOTE: Data for 27 weeks or longer are seasonally adjusted. Data for 52 weeks or longer are not seasonally adjusted. Shaded regions 

represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Percent unemployed 52 weeks or longer

Percent unemployed 27 weeks or longer
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 11

ployment ended the fourth quarter 456,000 lower than its 

year-earlier level.9

 Historically, slack work or unfavorable 

business conditions, rather than an inability to find fulltime work, has been the primary reason for working part 

time involuntarily. Even with the decline in 2011, the number of persons employed part time involuntarily remained 

relatively high by historical standards. (See chart 6.)

The number of persons who were not in the labor force, but 

wanted a job, continued to trend upward in 2011; however, 

the number of discouraged workers declined following 3 consecutive years of large gains (not seasonally adjusted).10 Persons not in the labor force are neither employed nor unemployed. The number of persons not in the labor force 

totaled 86.7 million in the fourth quarter of 2011. Persons 

65 years and older continued to make up about 40 percent 

of those not in the labor force. The number of persons not 

in the labor force who wanted a job, but were not looking for one, edged up from its level a year earlier, to 6.1 

million in the fourth quarter of 2011. (See table 4.) The 

proportion of persons not in labor force who wanted a job, 

however, was unchanged over the year, at 7.0 percent in 

the fourth quarter. 

Among persons who wanted a job but currently were 

not looking for one, 2.6 million (not seasonally adjusted) 

had searched for work sometime in the previous year and 

were available to work had a job been offered to them. 

This group of persons, known as “persons marginally 

attached to the labor force,” are not counted as unemployed because they had not actively searched for work 

in the 4 weeks preceding the survey week.11 Among 

marginally attached individuals, some were currently not 

looking for work specifically because they felt that no 

jobs were available for them. This subset of the marginally attached is defined as “discouraged workers.” The 

number of discouraged workers declined by 271,000 in 

2011, to 1.0 million in the fourth quarter. The number of 

discouraged workers had risen nearly fourfold from the 

fourth quarter of 2007 (344,000) to the fourth quarter of 

2010 (1.3 million).

The remaining 1.6 million persons marginally attached 

to the labor force in the fourth quarter of 2011—those 

who had not searched for work in the 4 weeks preceding 

the survey for reasons such as school attendance or family 

responsibilities—increased by 251,000 in 2011.

Paralleling the unemployment rate, all five alternative measures of labor underutilization declined in 2011. The Bu-

 Chart 4. 

Thousands Thousands

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Reasons for unemployment, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 1990–2011

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Reentrants

New entrants

Job leavers

Job losers

Reentrants
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

12 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

 Chart 6. 

Thousands Thousands

9,600

8,600

7,600

6,600

5,600

4,600

3,600

2,600

1,600

600

Persons employed part time for economic reasons, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 

1969–2011

1969 1973 1977 1981 1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. 

Beginning in 1994, data are affected by the redesign of the Current Population Survey (denoted by vertical black line) and are not strictly comparable 

with data for previous years.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Finding employment

9,600

8,600

7,600

6,600

5,600

4,600

3,600

2,600

1,600

600

Slack work

Part time for economic reasons

Could only find part-time work

5 Chart 5. 

Percent Percent

Percentage of the unemployed who found employment, remained unemployed, or left the labor 

force, 3-month moving average, seasonally adjusted, April 1990–December 2011

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER).

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Left the labor force

Remained unemployed

Found employment
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 13

Persons not in the labor force, quarterly averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2007–2011

Category

Fourth 

quarter, 

2007

Fourth 

quarter, 

2008

Fourth 

quarter, 

2009

Fourth 

quarter, 

2010

Fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Change, 

fourth 

quarter, 

2010, to 

fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Total not in the labor force 79,185 80,164 83,450 85,210 86,717 1,507

 Persons who currently want a job 4,289 5,019 5,726 5,971 6,096 125

 Marginally attached to the labor force1 1,357 1,831 2,394 2,581 2,562 –19

 Discouraged workers2 344 578 866 1,273 1,002 –271

 Other persons marginally attached to the labor force3 1,013 1,253 1,528 1,308 1,559 251

1 Data refer to persons who want a job, have searched for work during 

the previous 12 months, and were available to take a job during the reference week, but had not looked for work in the past 4 weeks. 2 Includes those who did not actively look for work in the past 4 weeks 

for reasons such as they thought that no work was available, they could 

not find work, they lacked schooling or training, their employer thought 

that they were too young or too old, and other types of discrimination.

3 Includes those who did not actively look for work in the past 4 weeks 

for reasons such as school or family responsibilities, ill health, and transportation problems, as well as a number for whom their reason for nonparticipation was not determined.

NOTE: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the 

release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 4.

[Levels in thousands]

reau uses CPS data to construct alternative measures of 

labor underutilization.12 Known as U–1, U–2, and U–4 

through U–6 (U–3 is the official unemployment rate), 

these measures tend to show similar cyclical patterns, yet 

provide additional insight into the degree to which labor 

resources are being underutilized. Like the official unemployment rate, the alternative measures are presented as a 

percentage of the labor force (adjusted as necessary). Alternative measure U–1 shows the number of individuals 

unemployed 15 weeks or longer, while U–2 presents job 

losers and persons who completed temporary jobs. U–4 

through U–6 are broader than the official measure: to the 

unemployed, U–4 adds in discouraged workers, U–5 all 

persons marginally attached to the labor force, and U–6 

all persons marginally attached to the labor force plus persons employed part time for economic reasons.

For the first time in the history of the U–1 through U–6 

series, U–1 and U–2 were essentially the same (5.3 percent) throughout 2011. Like the official unemployment 

rate (U–3), alternative measures U–4 to U–6 declined 

over the year. By the end of 2011, U–4 had declined to 9.3 

percent, U–5 to 10.2 percent, and U–6 to 15.6 percent. 

(See chart 7.)

The civilian labor force was little changed in 2011, at 154.0 

million, while the working-age population continued to expand. As a result, the labor force participation rate continued 

to trend downward. After falling a full percentage point 

in 2009, the labor force participation rate—the proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years 

and older that is in the labor force—declined by about 

one-half of a percentage point in 2011 for the second consecutive year. (See chart 8.)

The labor force participation rates for most of the major race and ethnicity groups edged down or showed little 

change in 2011, with the exception of Whites, whose rate 

declined by 0.4 percentage point, to 64.4 percent, in the 

fourth quarter. The rate for Blacks edged down to 61.6 

percent. The rates for Asians and Hispanics showed little 

change over the year, finishing at 64.4 percent (not seasonally adjusted) and 66.8 percent, respectively, in the 

fourth quarter. (See table 1.)

Labor force participation rates and over-the-year percentage-point changes also varied by age, as the following 

tabulation of seasonally adjusted data shows:

 Labor force participation

 rate (percent)

 Fourth Fourth Percentage-

 quarter, quarter, point

 Age 2010 2011 change

Total, 16 years and older... 64.4 64.0 –0.4

 16 to 19 years.............. 34.7 34.5 –.2

 20 to 24 years.............. 71.4 71.8 .4
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

14 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

 25 to 34 years.............. 81.9 81.5 –.4

 35 to 44 years.............. 82.9 82.4 –.5

 45 to 54 years.............. 80.9 80.4 –.5

 55 years and older....... 40.1 40.4 .3

Teens (16 to 19 years old) tend to have a relatively low 

labor force participation rate. The teen labor force participation rate has been trending down since the late 1980s, 

with the pace of decline intensifying during recessions. 

Increased school enrollment, poor labor market conditions, and increased job competition from both older 

workers and recent immigrants have been identified in 

the economic literature as factors that have contributed to 

the long-term decline in teen labor force participation.13 

In contrast, the participation rate for those 55 years and 

older continued to trend upward in 2011, reaching 40.4 

percent in the fourth quarter of 2011.14

Total civilian employment grew faster in 2011 than in 2010.

As measured in the CPS, or household survey, employment 

reached 140.6 million in the fourth quarter of 2011. The 

number of employed persons rose by 1.5 million in 2011, 

twice as much as in 2010. Although adult men make up 

about half of total employment, they accounted for nearly 

all of the over-the-year growth in employment in 2011. 

By comparison, employment among adult women and 

teens remained essentially unchanged for the second consecutive year. Note, however, that the steep employment 

losses that occurred during the recent recession were concentrated among adult men.

The employment–population ratio for all persons 

ages 16 and older edged up over the year. The employment–population ratio is the proportion of the civilian 

noninstitutional population 16 years and older that is 

employed. After falling by 4.4 percentage points from 

2007 to 2009 and remaining essentially flat in 2010, the 

employment–population ratio edged up by 0.2 percentage point in 2011, to 58.5 percent in the fourth quarter. (See chart 8.) The employment–population ratio for 

adult men increased by 0.7 percentage point over the 

year, to 67.3 percent, while the ratio for adult women 

edged down by 0.3 percentage point, to 54.9 percent. 

(See table 1.) In 2011, the employment–population ratio 

among teenagers was about unchanged over the year, at 

26.3 percent. From the fourth quarter of 2007 through 

 Chart 7. 

Percent Percent

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Measures of labor underutilization, U-1 to U-6, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 1994–2011

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning point are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

U–6

U–5

U–4

U–2

U–1

U–3
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 15

 Chart 8. 

Percent Percent

68

66

64

62

60

58

56

Labor force participation rate and employment–population ratio, quarterly averages, seasonally 

adjusted, 2000–2011

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

NOTE: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

68

66

64

62

60

58

56

the end of 2010, the ratio for teenagers had declined by 

8.9 percentage points. 

During 2011, the employment–population ratio for 

Whites edged up, to 59.4 percent in the fourth quarter, 

while the ratio for Hispanics increased over the year, to 

59.3 percent. The ratios for Blacks (52.1 percent) and 

Asians (59.9 percent, not seasonally adjusted) showed 

little or no change. 

The number of workers holding more than one job, 7.0 

million in the fourth quarter of 2011, edged up 197,000 

over the year, breaking a 4-year downward trend. The percentage of the employed that were multiple jobholders, 

however, held steady at about 5.0 percent throughout the 

year, following a decline in 2010.

The total number of self-employed workers, including 

both those whose businesses were incorporated and those 

whose businesses were not, continued to trend downward 

in 2011. In the fourth quarter of 2011, 14.4 million (not 

seasonally adjusted) were self-employed. The proportion 

of total employment made up of the self-employed was 

10.2 percent. Of all self-employed persons, 9.3 million, 

or nearly two-thirds, had unincorporated businesses while 

the remaining 5.1 million had incorporated businesses. 

During 2011, the total number of self-employed, as well 

as their share of total employment, edged down. However, 

from the fourth quarter of 2007 to the fourth quarter of 

2011, the number of self-employed fell by 1.5 million; 

over the same period, their proportion of all workers fell 

from 10.8 percent to 10.2 percent.15

In the fourth quarter of 2011, about 2 of 5 workers were 

employed in management, professional, and related occupations; by comparison, 24 percent of employed persons were 

concentrated in sales and office occupations, 12 percent were in 

production, transportation, and material moving occupations, 

and 9 percent were in natural resources, construction, and 

maintenance occupations. Employment in service occupations 

accounted for about 18 percent of total employment. Beginning with data for January 2011, CPS occupation estimates 

reflect the introduction of the 2010 Census occupation 

classification system into the household survey. (Historical data have not been revised.) Consequently, data beginning with January 2011 are not strictly comparable 

with data for earlier years, and an over-the-year analysis 

Labor force participation rate

Employment–population ratio
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

16  Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

of employment changes by occupation is not presented in 

this section.

In 2011, women made up slightly more than half of all 

persons employed in management, professional, and related occupations, somewhat more than their share of total 

employment (47 percent). Employed men were overrepresented in natural resources, construction, and maintenance 

occupations and in production, transportation, and material 

moving jobs.In the fourth quarter of 2011, men accounted 

for 97 percent of all persons employed in construction and 

extraction jobs while women accounted for 87 percent of 

persons employed in health care support jobs. (See table 5.)

Median weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary workers increased in 2011, but at a considerably slower pace than 

inflation, as measured by the Consumer Price Index for All 

Urban Consumers(CPI-U). Median weekly earnings were 

$756 in 2011, up 1.2 percent from 2010. (The data in this 

section are annual averages.) During the same period, inflation increased by 3.2 percent. Real median usual weekly 

earnings (adjusted with the use of the CPI-U) showed one 

of the largest declines in the history of the series, down 

1.8 percent from 2010. (See table 6.)

Men’s median weekly earnings were little changed in 

2011, while women’s earnings increased by 2.2 percent 

Table 5. Employment, by occupational group and gender, fourth quarter, 2011, averages and percent distribution, not 

seasonally adjusted 

 Occupation

Total Men Women

Fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Percent 

distribution

Fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Percent 

distribution

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Percent 

distribution

 Total, 16 years and older 140,912 100.0 74,975 100.0 65,937 100.0

Management, professional, and related occupations 52,820 37.5 25,675 34.2 27,144 41.2

Management, business, and financial operatio

occupations 21,839 15.5 12,459 16.6 9,380 14

Professional and related occupations 30,981 22.0 13,217 17.6 17,764 26

Service occupations 24,856 17.6 10,965 14.6 13,891 21.1

Health care support occupations 3,377 2.4 442 .6 2,936 4

Protective service occupations 3,168 2.2 2,541 3.4 626 

Food preparation and serving related occupations 7,778 5.5 3,580 4.8 4,197 6

Building and grounds cleaning and maintenan

occupations 5,559 3.9 3,359 4.5 2,200 3

Personal care and service occupations 4,975 3.5 1,043 1.4 3,932 6

Sales and office occupations 33,178 23.5 12,616 16.8 20,562 31.2

Sales and related occupations 15,585 11.1 8,001 10.7 7,584 11

Office and administrative support occupations 17,593 12.5 4,615 6.2 12,978 19

Natural resources, construction, and maintenance

occupations 13,216 9.4 12,678 16.9 538 .8

Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations 985 .7 791 1.1 194 

Construction and extraction occupations 7,261 5.2 7,067 9.4 195 

Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations 4,969 3.5 4,820 6.4 150 

Production, transportation, and material moving

occupations 16,843 12.0 13,041 17.4 3,802 5.8

Production occupations 8,408 6.0 5,965 8.0 2,443 3

Transportation and material moving occupations 8,435 6.0 7,076 9.4 1,359 2

NOTE:  Data may not sum to totals because of rounding.

Updated population controls are introduced annually with the

release of January data. Beginning with data for January 2011, occupation estimates reflect the introduction of the 2010 Census

occupation classification system into the household survey. This system is derived

from the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification system. Historical data have

not been revised.

SOURCE:  U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

[Levels in thousands]
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 17

Table 6. Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, annual averages, 

2010–2011

Characteristic

Current dollars Constant (1982–1984) dollars

2010 2011

Percent change, 

2010–2011 2010 2011

Percent change, 

2010–2011

Total, 16 years and older $747 $756 1.2 $342 $336 –1.8

 Men 824 832 1.0 378 370 –2.1

 Women 669 684 2.2 307 304 –1.0

 White 765 775 1.3 351 344 –2.0

 Men 850 856 .7 390 381 –2.3

 Women 684 703 2.8 313 313 .0

 Black or African American 611 615 .7 280 274 –2.1

 Men 633 653 3.2 290 290 .0

 Women 592 595 .5 271 264 –2.6

 Asian 855 866 1.3 392 385 –1.8

 Men 936 970 3.6 429 431 .5

 Women 773 751 –2.8 355 334 –5.9

 Hispanic or Latino ethnicity 535 549 2.6 245 244 –.4

 Men 560 571 2.0 257 254 –1.2

 Women 508 518 2.0 233 230 –1.3

Total, 25 years and older- 782 797 1.9 359 354 –1.2

 Less than a high school diploma 444 451 1.6 204 200 –1.5

 High school graduates, no college 626 638 1.9 287 284 –1.2

 Some college or associate’s degree 734 739 .7 337 329 –2.4

 Bachelor's degree or higher 1,144 1,150 .5 525 511 –2.6

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey and Consumer Price Index.

over the year. This difference resulted in a further narrowing of the earnings gap between the genders: the women’s-to-men’s earnings ratio increased to 82.2 percent in 

2011 from 81.2 percent in 2010. In 1979, the first year 

for which comparable data on usual weekly earnings are 

available, women’s earnings were 62.3 percent of men’s 

earnings. (See chart 9.)

Among the major race and ethnicity groups, median 

weekly earnings increased by 1.3 percent and 2.6 percent 

for Whites and Hispanics, respectively, in 2011. (See table 

6.) Earnings for Blacks ($615) and Asians ($866) were 

about unchanged for the year.

Of all education groups, workers 25 years and older 

with only a high school diploma saw the largest overthe-year increase in median weekly earnings, 1.9 percent, 

to $638 in 2011. Earnings of workers with less than a 

high school diploma edged up 1.6 percent, to $451 per 

week. Workers with some college or an associate’s degree 

earned $739 per week, and those with a bachelor’s degree 

or higher earned $1,150, with both figures little changed 

from a year earlier. 

In 2011, the unemployment rate for veterans (not seasonally 

adjusted) edged down over the year. From the fourth quarter of 2010 to the fourth quarter of 2011, the unemployment rate for all veterans edged down by 0.8 percentage 

point, to 7.6 percent. (See table 7.) In the CPS, veterans are 

defined as men and women 18 years and older who have 

previously served on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces 

and who are civilians at the time the survey is conducted.16

Veterans are more likely than nonveterans to be men and 

older. In part, this difference reflects the characteristics 

of veterans who served during World War II, the Korean 

War, and the Vietnam era. Veterans who served during 

these wartime periods account for about one-half of the 

total veteran noninstituational population. 
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

18 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

 Chart 9. 

Percent Percent

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

Women’s median usual weekly earnings as a percentage of men’s, full-time wage and salary workers, 

annual averages, 1979–2011

1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

Among Gulf War–era II veterans—veterans who served 

in the military at any time since September 2001—15 

percent were women, compared with 3 percent of veterans 

from the combined World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam era. In the fourth quarter of 2011, the unemployment 

rate for male Gulf War–era II veterans was 11.4 percent 

while that of their female counterparts was 16.8 percent; 

rates for both groups were not statistically different from 

a year earlier. (See table 7.)

The employment–population ratio for all male veterans 

continued to trend downward in 2011. Among male Gulf 

War–era II veterans, the employment–population ratio 

was 74.7 percent in the fourth quarter of 2011.

The labor force participation rate for persons with a disability was little changed from its year-earlier level. The labor 

force participation rate for persons with a disability was 

20.9 percent in the fourth quarter of 2011. In contrast, the 

rate for those without a disability was much higher, 69.4 

percent. (See table 8.) The low labor force participation 

rate among persons with a disability is due partly to the 

fact that a large proportion of the population of those with 

a disability is 65 years and older, an age group that, in general, has a low rate of labor force participation. However, 

both men and women 16 to 64 years old with a disability 

also were much less likely to be in the labor force than were 

their counterparts with no disability.

The unemployment rate for persons with a disability 

continued to be higher than the rate for those with no disability—13.2 percent versus 8.1 percent in the fourth quarter of 2011. The rates for both groups declined over the year.

Both foreign-born and native-born individuals experienced a decline in their unemployment rates in 2011. By 

the end of the year, the unemployment rate for the foreign born was 8.7 percent while that for the native born 

was 8.3 percent. (See table 9.) Foreign-born workers 

are persons who reside in the United States, but were 

born outside the country or outside one of its outlying 

areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam, to parents neither 

of whom was a U.S. citizen. The foreign born comprise 

legally admitted immigrants; refugees; temporary resi-
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 19

Employment status of persons 18 years and older, by veteran status, period of service, and gender, quarterly 

averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2010–2011

Employment 

status, veteran 

status, and period 

of service 

Total Men Women

Fourth

quarter, 

2010

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Change,

fourth 

quarter,

 2010, 

to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2010

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Change,

fourth 

quarter,

 2010, 

to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2010

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Change,

fourth 

quarter,

 2010, 

to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Veterans, 18 years 

and older

 Civilian labor force 11,571 11,154 –417 10,458 10,049 –409 1,113 1,105 –8

 Participation rate 52.9 52.0 –.9 52.1 51.1 –1.0 62.1 61.2 –.9

 Employed 10,599 10,305 –294 9,564 9,285 –279 1,035 1,020 –15

 Employment–population

 ratio 48.5 48.0 –.5 47.6 47.2 –.4 57.7 56.5 –1.2

 Unemployed 973 849 –124 894 764 –130 79 85 6

 Unemployment rate 8.4 7.6 –.8 8.5 7.6 –.9 7.1 7.7 .6

Gulf War–era II veterans

 Civilian labor force 1,862 1,957 95 1,606 1,708 102 257 250 –7

 Participation rate 81.8 82.2 .4 84.3 84.4 .1 69.0 69.8 .8

 Employed 1,662 1,721 59 1,432 1,513 81 231 208 –23

 Employment–population 

 ratio 73.0 72.2 –.8 75.2 74.7 –.5 62.0 58.1 –3.9

 Unemployed 200 237 37 174 195 21 26 42 16

 Unemployment rate 10.7 12.1 1.4 10.8 11.4 .6 10.1 16.8 6.7

Gulf War–era I veterans

 Civilian labor force 2,489 2,482 –7 2,149 2,130 –19 340 352 12

 Participation rate 87.0 84.1 –2.9 88.4 86.3 –2.1 78.8 73.0 –5.8

 Employed 2,321 2,344 23 2,005 2,006 1 317 338 21

 Employment–population

 ratio 81.1 79.5 –1.6 82.5 81.3 –1.2 73.3 70.0 –3.3

 Unemployed 167 138 –29 144 123 –21 24 14 –10

 Unemployment rate 6.7 5.5 –1.2 6.7 5.8 –.9 6.9 4.1 –2.8

 World War II, Korean 

War, and Vietnam–era 

veterans

 Civilian labor force 3,886 3,321 –565 3,767 3,226 –541 120 95 –25

 Participation rate 35.8 32.4 –3.4 35.9 32.5 –3.4 33.8 29.5 –4.3

 Employed 3,542 3,095 –447 3,430 3,002 –428 112 93 –19

 Employment–population

 ratio 32.6 30.2 –2.4 32.7 30.3 –2.4 31.7 28.8 –2.9

 Unemployed 345 227 –118 337 224 –113 8 2 –6

 Unemployment rate 8.9 6.8 –2.1 8.9 7.0 –1.9 6.4 2.5 –3.9

Veterans of other 

service periods

 Civilian labor force 3,334 3,393 59 2,937 2,985 48 397 408 11

 Participation rate 56.8 57.6 .8 56.1 56.9 .8 62.5 63.4 .9

 Employed 3,073 3,145 72 2,698 2,763 65 375 382 7

 Employment–population

 ratio 52.3 53.4 1.1 51.5 52.6 1.1 59.1 59.3 .2

 Unemployed 261 248 –13 239 222 –17 22 26 4

 Unemployment rate 7.8 7.3 –.5 8.1 7.4 –.7 5.5 6.4 .9

See notes at end of table.

Table 7.

[Levels in thousands]
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

20 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

dents, such as students and temporary workers; and undocumented immigrants.

In the fourth quarter of 2011, the foreign born represented 16 percent of the U.S. civilian labor force. The labor 

force participation rate of the foreign born, 67.3 percent in 

the fourth quarter, was little changed over the year, while 

that for the native born declined to 63.3 percent. From the 

fourth quarter of 2010 to the fourth quarter of 2011, the 

employment–population ratio of the foreign born, 61.4 

percent, also was little changed, while that of native-born 

workers edged up to 58.1 percent.

IN SUM, MOST MAJOR EMPLOYMENT and unemployment measures from the CPS continued to point to improvement in the U.S. labor market in 2011. The unemployment level and the unemployment rate declined over 

the year, although the proportion of unemployed persons 

who had been jobless for long periods held close to historically high levels. Employment, as measured by the CPS, 

showed a notably greater increase than in the previous year, 

while the employment–population ratio edged up for the 

first time in 5 years. The number of persons employed part 

time for economic reasons declined in 2011, but remained 

high by historical standards. Median weekly earnings for all 

full-time wage and salary workers increased, but at a considerably slower pace than inflation.

Continued—Employment status of persons 18 years and older, by veteran status, period of service, and gender, 

quarterly averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2010–2011

Employment 

status, veteran 

status, and period 

of service 

Total Men Women

Fourth

quarter, 

2010

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Change, 

fourth

quarter,

 2010,

 to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2010

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Change, 

fourth

quarter,

 2010, 

 to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter, 

2010

Fourth

quarter, 

2011

Change, 

fourth

quarter,

 2010, 

to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Nonveterans, 

18 years and older

 Civilian labor force 140,048 140,782 734 70,248 71,182 934 69,799 69,600 –199

 Participation rate 67.4 67.0 –.4 77.2 76.9 –.3 59.8 59.2 –.6

 Employed 127,462 129,253 1,791 63,387 65,092 1,705 64,076 64,162 86

 Employment–

 population ratio 61.4 61.5 .1 69.7 70.3 .6 54.9 54.6 –.3

 Unemployed 12,585 11,529 –1,056 6,862 6,090 –772 5,724 5,439 –285

 Unemployment

 rate 9.0 8.2 –.8 9.8 8.6 –1.2 8.2 7.8 –.4

period of service. Veterans who served in more than one wartime period 

are classified only in the most recent one. Veterans who served during one 

of the selected wartime periods and another period are classified only in 

the selected period. Updated population controls are introduced annually 

with the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 7.

[Levels in thousands]

NOTE: Veterans served on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces and 

were not on active duty at the time of the survey. Nonveterans never served 

on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces. Veterans could have served anytime (and anywhere) during the following periods of service: Gulf War era 

II (September 2001–present), Gulf War era I (August 1990–August 2001), 

Vietnam era (August 1964–April 1975), Korean War (July 1950–January 

1955), World War II (December 1941– December 1946), and any other
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 21

Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, by gender, age, and disability status, quarterly 

averages, not seasonally adjusted, 2010–2011

Employment status, gender, 

and age

Persons with a disability Persons with no disability

Fourth 

quarter,

2010

Fourth 

quarter, 

2011

Change, fourth 

quarter, 2010,

to fourth 

quarter, 2011

Fourth 

quarter,

2010

Fourth 

quarter,

2011

Change, fourth 

quarter, 2010,

to fourth 

quarter, 2011

Total, 16 years and older

 Civilian labor force 5,715 5,710 –5 147,787 148,005 218

 Participation rate 21.3 20.9 –.4 69.7 69.4 –.3

 Employed 4,885 4,955 70 134,556 135,958 1,402

 Employment–population ratio 18.2 18.2 .0 63.5 63.8 .3

 Unemployed 830 755 –75 13,231 12,047 –1,184

 Unemployment rate 14.5 13.2 –1.3 9.0 8.1 –.9

Men, 16 to 64 years

 Civilian labor force 2,625 2,618 –7 75,217 75,328 111

 Participation rate 35.5 34.6 –.9 82.3 82.4 .1

 Employed 2,206 2,217 11 67,874 68,899 1,025

 Employment–population ratio 29.9 29.3 –.6 74.3 75.3 1.0

 Unemployed 418 401 –17 7,343 6,429 –914

 Unemployment rate 15.9 15.3 –.6 9.8 8.5 –1.3

Women, 16 to 64 years

 Civilian labor force 2,303 2,215 –88 66,518 66,204 -314

 Participation rate 31.0 30.0 –1.0 71.1 70.6 –.5

 Employed 1,955 1,931 –24 61,018 61,005 –13

 Employment–population ratio 26.4 26.2 –.2 65.2 65.0 –.2

 Unemployed 348 285 –63 5,500 5,199 –301

 Unemployment rate 15.1 12.9 –2.2 8.3 7.9 –.4

Total, 65 years and older

 Civilian labor force 787 877 90 6,052 6,473 421

 Participation rate 6.6 7.1 .5 22.4 23.2 .8

 Employed 723 807 84 5,664 6,053 389

 Employment–population ratio 6.0 6.5 .5 21.0 21.7 .7

 Unemployed 63 69 6 388 419 31

 Unemployment rate 8.1 7.9 –.2 6.4 6.5 .1

NOTE: A person with a disability has at least one of the following conditions: is deaf or has serious difficulty hearing; is blind or has serious difficulty seeing, even when wearing glasses; has serious difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions because of a physical, mental, 

or emotional condition; has serious difficulty walking or climbing stairs:

has difficulty dressing or bathing; or has difficulty doing errands alone, 

such as visiting a doctor’s office or shopping, because of a physical, mental, or emotional condition. Updated population controls are introduced 

annually with the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 8.

[Levels in thousands]
U.S. Labor Market in 2011

22 Monthly Labor Review • March 2012

Table 9.

[Levels in thousands]

Employment status of the foreign- and native-born populations by gender, quarterly averages, not seasonally 

adjusted, 2010–2011

Employment status 

Total Men Women

Fourth

quarter,

2010

Fourth

quarter,

2011

Change, 

fourth

quarter, 

2010, 

to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter,

2010

Fourth

quarter,

2011

Change, 

fourth

quarter, 

2010, 

to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Fourth

quarter,

2010

Fourth

quarter,

2011

Change, 

fourth

quarter, 

2010, 

to fourth

quarter, 

2011

Foreign born, 

16 years and older

 Civilian labor force 24,700 24,794 94 14,410 14,493 83 10,290 10,301 11

 Participation rate 67.8 67.3 –.5 79.8 79.4 –.4 56.1 55.4 –.7

 Employed 22,274 22,642 368 12,984 13,301 317 9,290 9,342 52

 Employment–

 population ratio 61.2 61.4 .2 71.9 72.8 .9 50.6 50.2 –.4

 Unemployed 2,427 2,152 –275 1,427 1,193 –234 1,000 959 –41

 Unemployment

 rate 9.8 8.7 –1.1 9.9 8.2 –1.7 9.7 9.3 –.4

Native born, 

16 years and older

 Civilian labor force 128,802 128,921 119 67,200 67,567 367 61,602 61,354 –248

 Participation rate 63.7 63.3 –.4 68.9 68.6 –.3 58.8 58.4 –.4

 Employed 117,167 118,270 1,103 60,595 61,674 1,079 56,572 56,596 24

 Employment–

 population ratio 57.9 58.1 .2 62.1 62.6 .5 54.0 53.9 –.1

 Unemployed 11,634 10,651 –983 6,605 5,893 –712 5,029 4,758 –271

 Unemployment

 rate 9.0 8.3 –.7 9.8 8.7 –1.1 8.2 7.8 –.4

NOTE: The foreign born are those residing in the United States who 

were not U.S. citizens at birth. That is, they were born outside the United 

States or one of its outlying areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam, to parents, neither of whom was a U.S. citizen. The native born are persons 

who were born in the United States or one of its outlying areas, such as

Puerto Rico or Guam, or who were born abroad of at least one parent who 

was a U.S. citizen. Updated population controls are introduced annually with 

the release of January data.

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Notes

1 The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), generally 

recognized as the official arbiter of recessions in the United States, 

determined that the recent recession began in December 2007 and 

ended in June 2009.

2 The data in this article are based on information collected in 

the Current Population Survey (CPS)—also called the household 

survey—a monthly sample survey of about 60,000 households nationwide that is conducted by the Census Bureau for the Bureau 

of Labor Statistics. Although the CPS is a monthly survey, the data 

analyzed throughout the article are seasonally adjusted quarterly averages, unless otherwise noted. All over-the-year changes are comparisons of fourth-quarter data from 2010 with fourth-quarter data 

from 2011.

3 Effective with the data for January 2011, updated population 

estimates were used in the household survey. Each year, the Census 

Bureau updates the population estimates to reflect new information 

and assumptions about the growth of the population during the decade. In accordance with usual practice, the Bureau of Labor Statistics 

did not revise the official household survey estimates for December 

2010 and earlier months. (For additional information on the population adjustments and their effect on national labor force estimates, see 

“Adjustments to Household Survey Population Estimates in January 

2011” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, February 2011), www.bls.gov/

cps/cps11adj.pdf.)

4 For more information on the labor market’s performance during the most recent recession, see James M. Borbely, “Sizing up the 
Monthly Labor Review • March 2012 23

2007–09 recession: comparing two key labor market indicators with 

earlier downturns,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 10–11 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2010), www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/

opbils88.pdf. 

5 Persons of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity may be of any race. 

About 90 percent of persons of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity identify 

themselves as White in the CPS.

6 The duration of joblessness is the length of time (through the 

current reference week) that people classified as unemployed have been 

looking for work. This measure refers to the duration of the current 

spell of unemployment, rather than to that of a completed spell.

7 For additional information, see Thomas Luke Spreen, “Ranks of 

those unemployed for a year or more up sharply,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 10–10 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, October 2010), 

www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils87.pdf. 

8 For more information and analysis of recent data, see Randy E. 

Ilg, “How long before the unemployed find jobs or quit looking,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 11–1 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

May 2011), www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils89.pdf; Harley J. Frazis, 

“Labor force flows in the most recent recession,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 10–08 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, July 2010), 

www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils85.pdf; and Harley J. Frazis and 

Randy E. Ilg, “Trends in labor force flows during recent recessions,” 

Monthly Labor Review, April 2009, pp. 3–18, www.bls.gov/opub/

mlr/2009/04/art1full.pdf. 

9 For additional information, see Emy Sok, “Involuntary part-time 

work on the rise,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 08–08 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2008), www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/

opbils71.pdf. 

10 “Persons not in the labor force who want a job” is a measure of 

persons who reported wanting a job without having necessarily looked 

for one; this group includes all persons who responded “yes” to the 

question, “Do you currently want a job, either full or part time?”

11 For additional analysis of persons marginally attached to the 

labor force, see Sharon Cohany, “Ranks of Discouraged Workers and 

Others Marginally Attached to the Labor Force Rise During Recession,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 09–04 (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, April 2009), http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils74.

pdf. 

12 For further information, see Steven E. Haugen, “Measures of 

Labor Underutilization from the Current Population Survey,” Working Paper 424 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 2009), www.bls.

gov/osmr/pdf/ec090020.pdf. 

13 See Teresa L. Morisi, “The early 2000s: a period of declining 

teen summer employment rates,” Monthly Labor Review, May 2010, 

pp. 23–35, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/05/art2full.pdf; and 

“Youth enrollment and employment during the school year,” Monthly 

Labor Review, February 2008, pp. 51–63, http://www.bls.gov/opub/

mlr/2008/02/art3full.pdf. 

14 For more information about workers by age, see Emy Sok, “Record 

unemployment among older workers does not keep them out of the job 

market,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 10–04 (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, March 2010), http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/summary_10_04/

older_workers.htm; and Abraham Mosisa and Steven Hipple, “Trends in 

labor force participation in the United States,” Monthly Labor Review, October 2006, pp. 35–57, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2006/10/art3full.

pdf. 

15 For additional analysis, see Steven F. Hipple, “Self-employment 

in the United States,” Monthly Labor Review, September 2010, pp. 

17–32, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/09/art2full.pdf. 

16 Veterans who served in more than one wartime period are classified into only the most recent one.