Monthly Labor Review • July 2010 21

Multiple Jobholding

Multiple jobholding during the 2000s

Multiple jobholding has held steady in recent years; 

most workers who moonlight do so for economic reasons 

Steven F. Hipple

Steven F. Hipple is an economist in the Division of Labor 

Force Statistics at the Bureau of 

Labor Statistics. Email: hipple.

steve@bls.gov

I

n 2009, 7.3 million workers held 

more than one job, and the multiple 

jobholding rate—the proportion of 

total employment made up of multiple 

jobholders—was 5.2 percent. Both the 

number of multiple jobholders and the 

rate of multiple jobholding have been 

stable in recent years and remain below 

the levels recorded during the mid-1990s. 

Among most of the major demographic 

groups, “moonlighting” has become less 

common in recent years compared with 

the mid-to-late 1990s.

Information on multiple jobholding 

is available from the Current Population 

Survey (CPS).1 Since 1994, data on multiple jobholding have been collected on 

a monthly basis in the CPS. Before 1994, 

data on multiple jobholding were collected periodically in CPS supplemental 

surveys. The availability of monthly estimates allows for better examination of the 

characteristics of multiple jobholders and 

for the determination of whether multiple jobholding is responsive to recent 

cyclical changes in economic conditions.2 

This article discusses the measurement of 

multiple jobholding, addresses historical 

trends, and provides an overview of the 

characteristics of multiple jobholders.

Recent trends in multiple jobholding

A number of earlier studies found that the 

multiple jobholding rate moved in a “procyclical” fashion, rising during economic 

expansions when job growth was strong and 

declining during economic downturns when 

jobs were more difficult to find.3 However, 

since regular monthly estimates of multiple 

jobholding became available in 1994, the multiple jobholding rate has shown no clear cyclical pattern. As the data in chart 1 show, in 

contrast to the unemployment rate, the multiple jobholding rate has remained relatively 

stable since 1994. The multiple jobholding rate 

reached its most recent peak (6.2 percent) during 1995–96. (See table 1.) However, as the 

economy continued to expand during the latter half of the 1990s, the rate began to recede 

and declined to 5.3 percent by 2002, a year of 

sluggish labor market conditions following 

the 2001 recession. From 2003 to 2007, as the 

economy expanded and the unemployment 

rate fell, the multiple jobholding rate held 

steady and never returned to its prerecession 

high. Since the start of the most recent recession in December 2007, the multiple jobholding rate has hovered around 5 percent.4

Multiple jobholding rates for most of the 

major demographic groups—men, women, 

Whites, and Blacks—have exhibited a similar 

pattern over the 1994–2009 period; the rates 

for these groups began to decline by the late 

1990s and early 2000s, but have since remained 

close to the levels recorded just after the 2001 

recession. During the 1990s and early 2000s, 

the multiple jobholding rates of men and 

women were similar, but since 2002, the gap in 

rates between men and women has widened as 

men have worked multiple jobs at a lower rate 

than women have. (See chart 2 and table 1.) 
Multiple Jobholding

22 Monthly Labor Review • July 2010

Demographic characteristics

Although similar numbers of men and women held multiple jobs in 2009, the multiple jobholding rate for women 

(5.6 percent) was higher than that for men (4.8 percent). 

For both men and women, multiple jobholding rates were 

lowest for those age 16 to 19 and age 65 and over. (See 

table 2.) 

Table 3 shows multiple jobholding rates for men and 

women by age since 1994. After holding fairly steady during 

the 1994–2005 period, the incidence of multiple jobholding among both male and female teenagers (age 16 to 19) 

has declined in recent years. For men and women between 

the ages of 20 and 54, multiple jobholding rates in nearly 

every age group declined during the late 1990s and early 

2000s; since 2002, however, rates for workers in most of 

these age groups have remained relatively stable. Compared 

with 15 years earlier, the incidence of multiple jobholding 

among women age 55 and over was higher in 2009. 

In 2009, married men were somewhat more likely to 

hold more than one job than were men without a spouse. 

(See table 2.) Among women (during the same year), the 

multiple jobholding rate was highest for those who were 

widowed, divorced, or separated (6.5 percent). Among the 

major race and ethnic groups, Whites were most likely to 

hold more than one job. In 2009, the multiple jobholding 

rate for Whites was 5.4 percent, while the rates for Blacks 

and Hispanics were 4.8 percent and 3.3 percent, respectively. The rate for Asians was 3.2 percent.

Workers who were natives of the United States were 

more likely than the foreign born to hold more than one 

job. The multiple jobholding rate for the native born was 

5.5 percent, compared with 3.3 percent for the foreign 

born. Foreign-born workers who were naturalized citizens 

had a somewhat higher probability of holding multiple 

jobs than their counterparts who were noncitizens; the 

multiple jobholding rate for naturalized citizens was 3.9 

percent, compared with 2.9 percent for noncitizens. 

How is multiple jobholding measured?

Since January 1994, employed respondents have been 

asked the following question in the monthly CPS: “Last 

week, did you have more than one job (or business), including part-time, evening, or weekend work?” If they 

answer “yes,” they are also asked how many jobs (or 

businesses) they had altogether and how many hours 

they worked each week at all their jobs.1 The primary 

job is defined as one at which the greatest number of 

hours were worked. Each month, additional questions 

on the industry and occupation of the secondary job 

also are asked of a quarter of the CPS respondents.2 For 

workers who held more than two jobs, the information on the industry, occupation, and class of worker for 

their second job is collected only for the job at which 

they worked the second-greatest number of hours. Of 

the 7.3 million multiple jobholders in 2009, 92 percent 

held two jobs, 7 percent held three jobs, and the remainder held four or more jobs. 

In the CPS, a multiple jobholder is defined as an 

individual who responds affirmatively to the initial 

question stated earlier and (1) had a job as a wage and 

salary worker with two or more employers, (2) combined a wage and salary job with self-employment, or 

(3) combined a wage and salary job with one as an unpaid family worker. Excluded are people who were selfemployed or unpaid family workers on their primary 

job and held a secondary job as a self-employed worker 

or an unpaid family worker. 

Notes

1 Data on hours worked relate to the actual number of hours 

worked during the reference week. For example, people who 

normally work 40 hours a week but were off on the New Year’s Day 

holiday would be reported as working 32 hours, even though they 

were paid for the holiday. 

2 Each month, the questions on the occupation and industry of 

the secondary job are asked of respondents in the outgoing rotation 

groups, which are groups of people who are in their fourth or eighth 

month as part of the sample.
Monthly Labor Review • July 2010 23

 Chart 1. Multiple jobholding rate and unemployment rate, January 1994 to June 2010, seasonally adjusted

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Percent

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

Percent

NOTE: Shaded areas denote recessions as defined by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). NBER has not yet designated an 

endpoint for the recession that began in December 2007.

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

Multiple jobholding rate

Unemployment rate

 Multiple jobholding levels and rates, by selected characteristics, 1994–2009 annual averages

[Levels in thousands; rates in percent]

Year

Total

employed

Multiple jobholders Multiple jobholding rate1

Total Men Women

Women

as a 

percent 

of total

Total Men Women White

Black or

African 

American

Asian Hispanic or

Latino

1994........... 123,060 7,260 3,924 3,336 46.0 5.9 5.9 5.9 6.1 4.9 – 3.7

1995........... 124,900 7,693 4,139 3,554 46.2 6.2 6.1 6.2 6.4 5.2 – 3.9

1996........... 126,708 7,832 4,192 3,640 46.5 6.2 6.1 6.2 6.4 5.2 – 3.8

1997........... 129,558 7,955 4,237 3,718 46.7 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 5.4 – 3.9

1998........... 131,463 7,926 4,178 3,748 47.3 6.0 5.9 6.2 6.2 5.5 – 3.8

1999........... 133,488 7,802 4,104 3,698 47.4 5.8 5.7 6.0 5.9 5.5 – 3.6

2000........... 136,891 7,604 3,996 3,608 47.4 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.7 5.3 3.9 3.4

2001........... 136,933 7,357 3,834 3,523 47.9 5.4 5.2 5.5 5.5 5.0 4.0 3.4

2002........... 136,485 7,291 3,734 3,557 48.8 5.3 5.1 5.6 5.5 4.8 3.9 3.5

2003........... 137,736 7,315 3,716 3,599 49.2 5.3 5.1 5.6 5.5 4.4 3.4 3.2

2004........... 139,252 7,473 3,835 3,638 48.7 5.4 5.1 5.6 5.5 4.7 3.8 3.4

2005........... 141,730 7,546 3,855 3,691 48.9 5.3 5.1 5.6 5.4 5.0 4.1 3.1

2006........... 144,427 7,576 3,822 3,753 49.5 5.2 4.9 5.6 5.3 5.2 3.8 3.0

2007........... 146,047 7,655 3,833 3,822 49.9 5.2 4.9 5.6 5.4 4.7 3.6 3.1

2008........... 145,362 7,620 3,837 3,783 49.6 5.2 5.0 5.6 5.4 4.7 3.7 3.3

2009........... 139,877 7,271 3,530 3,741 51.5 5.2 4.8 5.6 5.4 4.8 3.2 3.3

NOTE: Dashes indicate data not available. 1 Multiple jobholding rates are calculated by dividing the number ofmultiple jobholders in a specified worker group by total employment in 

the same group.

 Table 1. 
Multiple Jobholding

24 Monthly Labor Review • July 2010

The incidence of multiple jobholding generally increases 

as workers achieve higher levels of education. (See table 2 

and chart 3.) Among workers age 25 and older, those with 

less than a high school diploma had a low multiple jobholding rate (2.4 percent). The rate was much higher (7.0 

percent) for workers with an advanced degree, especially 

those with a master's degree or a doctoral degree. 

Industry and occupation of the primary job

In 2009, the multiple jobholding rate for workers with 

primary jobs in nonagricultural industries was 5.2 percent, 

compared with 4.3 percent for their counterparts in agricultural industries. Among industries within the nonagricultural sector, there was variation in multiple jobholding 

rates. For instance, multiple jobholding rates were lowest 

for workers with primary jobs in mining (3.3 percent) and 

construction (3.1 percent); by comparison, rates were much 

higher for workers in education and health services (7.6 percent) and public administration (7.2 percent). (See table 4.) 

Among the occupational groups, the multiple jobholding 

rates were highest for workers in professional and related occupations (7.1 percent) and service occupations (6.0 percent). 

The following tabulation shows the occupations with the 

highest multiple jobholding rates among men and women.

 Sex and occupation Multiple jobholding

rate (percent)

Men

Firefighters................................................ 28.6 

Emergency medical technicians and 

 paramedics.............................................. 20.1 

Secondary school teachers......................... 14.0 

Social workers............................................ 13.5 

Elementary and middle school teachers...... 11.5 

Women

Dental hygienists....................................... 12.9 

Psychologists ............................................. 12.5 

Postsecondary teachers .............................. 11.9 

Physical therapists..................................... 11.7 

Therapists, all other.................................... 11.5 

Many professional and related occupations, such as 

teachers and college faculty, have predictable or flexible 

hours that would allow for second jobs. The same holds 

for healthcare occupations and firefighters.5

 Chart 2. Multiple jobholding rates for men and women, 1994–2009, annual averages

Percent

7.0

6.5

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

Percent

Men

Women

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

7.0

6.5

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0
Monthly Labor Review • July 2010 25

The second jobs

The vast majority (96 percent) of multiple jobholders 

held secondary jobs in nonagricultural industries in 2009. 

Of the total number of multiple jobholders, 18 percent 

held secondary jobs as self-employed workers in nonagricultural industries.6

 Slightly more than three-fourths of 

Multiple jobholding levels and rates, by sex and other selected characteristics, 2009 annual averages

[Levels in thousands; rates in percent]

Characteristic

Total employed Multiple jobholders Multiple jobholding rate1

Both

sexes Men Women Bothsexes Men Women Bothsexes Men Women

Age

 Total, 16 years and over......................... 139,877 73,670 66,208 7,271 3,530 3,741 5.2 4.8 5.6

16 to 19 years.................................................. 4,837 2,328 2,509 186 71 115 3.8 3.1 4.6

20 to 24 years.................................................. 12,764 6,510 6,254 710 307 403 5.6 4.7 6.4

25 to 34 years.................................................. 30,014 16,223 13,791 1,546 795 750 5.1 4.9 5.4

35 to 44 years.................................................. 31,517 16,918 14,599 1,675 822 853 5.3 4.9 5.8

45 to 54 years.................................................. 33,613 17,443 16,170 1,903 907 996 5.7 5.2 6.2

55 years and over........................................... 27,132 14,247 12,885 1,251 627 623 4.6 4.4 4.8

 55 to 64 years................................................ 21,019 10,890 10,128 1,039 507 532 4.9 4.7 5.2

 65 years and over......................................... 6,114 3,357 2,757 212 120 92 3.5 3.6 3.3

Marital status

Single ................................................................. 38,428 20,628 17,800 1,989 890 1,099 5.2 4.3 6.2

Married, spouse present.............................. 79,205 43,998 35,207 3,993 2,212 1,781 5.0 5.0 5.1

Widowed, divorced, or separated............ 22,244 9,043 13,201 1,289 429 861 5.8 4.7 6.5

Race/ethnicity

White.................................................................. 114,996 61,630 53,366 6,166 3,016 3,150 5.4 4.9 5.9

Black or African American........................... 15,025 6,817 8,208 714 319 395 4.8 4.7 4.8

Asian................................................................... 6,635 3,551 3,084 210 111 100 3.2 3.1 3.2

Hispanic or Latino.......................................... 19,647 11,640 8,007 643 354 289 3.3 3.0 3.6

Country of birth and U.S.

citizenship status

U.S. born............................................................ 118,269 60,905 57,364 6,557 3,139 3,418 5.5 5.2 6.0

Foreign born.................................................... 21,608 12,765 8,844 714 391 323 3.3 3.1 3.7

 U.S. citizen ...................................................... 9,658 5,108 4,550 372 192 180 3.9 3.8 4.0

 Not a U.S. citizen........................................... 11,951 7,657 4,293 342 199 143 2.9 2.6 3.3

Educational attainment

 Total, 25 years and over........................ 122,277 64,831 57,445 6,375 3,152 3,223 5.2 4.9 5.6

Less than a high school diploma.............. 10,371 6,569 3,802 253 152 102 2.4 2.3 2.7

High school diploma, no college ............. 34,487 19,085 15,402 1,362 709 654 4.0 3.7 4.2

Some college, no degree ............................ 21,016 10,772 10,244 1,187 588 599 5.7 5.5 5.8

Associate’s degree ......................................... 12,872 5,864 7,008 811 356 456 6.3 6.1 6.5

Bachelor's degree .......................................... 27,964 14,368 13,597 1,677 824 853 6.0 5.7 6.3

Advanced degree........................................... 15,567 8,174 7,393 1,083 524 560 7.0 6.4 7.6

 Master's degree............................................ 11,019 5,288 5,731 808 350 458 7.3 6.6 8.0

 Professional degree .................................... 2,574 1,644 930 133 88 46 5.2 5.3 4.9

 Doctoral degree ........................................... 1,974 1,242 732 142 86 56 7.2 6.9 7.6

1 Multiple jobholding rates are calculated by dividing the number of 

multiple jobholders in a specified worker group by total employment in 

the same group.

NOTE: Estimates for the race groups in the table (White, Black or African 

American, Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for 

all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may 

be of any race.

 Table 2. 

multiple jobholders held secondary wage and salary jobs 

in nonagricultural industries, with 22 percent working in 

education and health services, 15 percent in leisure and 

hospitality, and 12 percent in retail trade. (See table 5.)

There were differences between men and women with 

regard to the types of secondary jobs they held. For example, men were more likely than women to hold secondary 
Multiple Jobholding

26 Monthly Labor Review • July 2010

jobs in agriculture—7 percent of multiple jobholding men 

did so, compared with 2 percent of women with multiple 

jobs. Men also were more likely than women to be selfemployed on the second job; the proportions of male and 

female multiple jobholders who were self-employed on the 

second jobs were 27 percent and 16 percent, respectively. 

In regard to industries, 14 percent of male multiple 

jobholders held secondary wage and salary jobs in the 

education and health services industry and the same percentage held secondary wage and salary jobs in the leisure 

and hospitality industry. Another 10 percent of men with 

multiple jobs worked at secondary jobs in retail trade. By 

comparison, 29 percent of female multiple jobholders held 

secondary wage and salary jobs in education and health 

Multiple jobholding rates1 of men and women, age 16 and over, 1994–2009 annual averages

[In percent]

Year Total 16 to

19 years

20 to

24 years

25 to

34 years

35 to

44 years

45 to 

54 years

55 years 

and over

Men

1994.................................... 5.9 4.1 6.3 6.4 6.1 6.2 4.3

1995.................................... 6.1 4.7 6.1 6.7 6.5 6.4 4.3

1996.................................... 6.1 4.4 6.1 6.6 6.5 6.5 4.7

1997.................................... 6.1 4.2 5.9 6.2 6.7 6.4 4.8

1998.................................... 5.9 3.9 5.5 6.3 6.3 6.2 4.9

1999.................................... 5.7 4.1 5.1 6.1 6.3 6.0 4.9

2000.................................... 5.5 3.9 4.7 5.6 5.9 5.9 4.9

2001.................................... 5.2 3.6 4.8 5.3 5.7 5.5 4.7

2002.................................... 5.1 3.6 4.8 5.0 5.6 5.6 4.3

2003.................................... 5.1 3.7 5.0 4.9 5.3 5.6 4.6

2004.................................... 5.1 3.6 5.2 5.1 5.4 5.5 4.6

2005.................................... 5.1 4.0 5.1 4.9 5.4 5.4 4.6

2006.................................... 4.9 3.4 4.6 5.0 5.2 5.2 4.7

2007.................................... 4.9 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.1 5.3 4.7

2008.................................... 5.0 3.4 4.6 4.9 5.2 5.3 4.7

2009.................................... 4.8 3.1 4.7 4.9 4.9 5.2 4.4

Women

1994.................................... 5.9 5.9 7.6 6.1 6.0 6.0 3.6

1995.................................... 6.2 6.3 7.3 6.1 6.4 6.6 4.1

1996.................................... 6.2 5.9 7.4 6.3 6.5 6.5 4.1

1997.................................... 6.2 5.7 7.3 6.0 6.5 6.8 4.4

1998.................................... 6.2 5.7 7.2 6.0 6.3 6.7 4.6

1999.................................... 6.0 5.5 6.7 5.9 6.1 6.5 4.7

2000.................................... 5.7 5.6 6.5 5.6 5.7 6.1 4.6

2001.................................... 5.5 5.4 6.3 5.4 5.7 5.8 4.4

2002.................................... 5.6 5.4 6.4 5.2 5.9 5.9 4.6

2003.................................... 5.6 5.7 6.7 5.1 5.7 5.9 4.8

2004.................................... 5.6 5.7 6.5 5.6 5.6 5.9 4.8

2005.................................... 5.6 5.9 6.5 5.5 5.6 6.0 4.7

2006.................................... 5.6 5.4 6.7 5.2 5.6 6.2 4.7

2007.................................... 5.6 5.1 6.5 5.6 5.7 5.9 4.9

2008.................................... 5.6 4.6 6.5 5.0 5.9 6.1 4.9

2009.................................... 5.6 4.6 6.4 5.4 5.8 6.2 4.8

1 Multiple jobholding rates are calculated by dividing the number of multiple jobholders in a specified worker group by total employment

in the same worker group.

 Table 3. 
Monthly Labor Review • July 2010 27

 Chart 3. Multiple jobholding rates by sex and educational attainment, 2009 annual averages

Total, age 25 Less than a High school Some Associate’s Bachelor’s Advanced

 and over high school diploma, no college, no degree degree degree

diploma college degree

Percent

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

Percent

Women Men

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

services. Relatively large proportions of female multiple 

jobholders had secondary jobs in leisure and hospitality 

(16 percent) and retail trade (14 percent). 

For both men and women, the occupational distribution of their secondary jobs was similar to that of their 

primary jobs. Men were more likely than women to have 

secondary jobs in management, business, and financial 

occupations; construction and extraction occupations; 

installation, maintenance, and repair occupations; and 

transportation and material moving occupations. Compared with male multiple jobholders, larger proportions of 

female multiple jobholders had secondary jobs in service 

occupations; sales and related occupations; and office and 

administrative support occupations. 

Work schedules

Multiple jobholders worked an average of 46.8 hours per 

week in 2009.7 By comparison, those with one job worked 

fewer hours on average (35.8 hours per week).8 This pattern holds across all of the major demographic groups. For 

multiple jobholders, there is variation among the various 

demographic groups in terms of hours spent working at 

their jobs. Workers in the central age group (25 to 54 

years) were most likely to work full time at their primary 

job and part time at their secondary job; 58 percent of 

these workers had such a work pattern.9 By comparison, 

workers under the age of 25 were more likely to work 

part time at both their primary and secondary jobs. For 

example, 72 percent of multiple jobholders age 16 to 19 

and 45 percent of those ages 20 to 24 worked part time at 

both their primary and secondary jobs. Multiple jobholders age 65 and older were more likely than those in the 

other age groups to report that their hours varied. In addition, a relatively large proportion (36 percent) of workers 

age 65 and older reported working part time at both their 

primary and secondary jobs. (See table 6.)

Women who moonlight were nearly twice as likely as 

men to work at multiple part-time jobs. Thirty-three percent of female multiple jobholders had two part-time jobs 

in 2009, compared with 17 percent of their male counterparts. Although the incidence of multiple jobholding 

among women in 2009 was lower than it was a decade 

earlier, the proportion of female multiple jobholders who 

held two part-time jobs (1 in 3) was about the same. Over 

the 1994–2009 period, men were more likely than women 

to work full time at the primary job and part time at the 

secondary job. 
Multiple Jobholding

28 Monthly Labor Review • July 2010

Multiple jobholders by occupation, industry, and 

class of worker of the primary job, 2009 annual 

averages

[Levels in thousands; rates in percent]

Occupation, industry, and 

class of worker of primary job

Total

employed

Multiple

jobholders

Multiple

jobholding

rate1

 Total, 16 years and over............. 139,877 7,271 5.2

Occupation

Management, professional, and

 related occupations.................. 52,219 3,193 6.1

 Management, business, and 

 financial operations 

 occupations................................ 21,529 1,012 4.7

 Professional and related 

 occupations................................ 30,690 2,181 7.1

Service occupations...................... 24,598 1,471 6.0

Sales and office occupations..... 33,787 1,643 4.9

 Sales and related occupations. 15,641 708 4.5

 Office and administrative 

 support occupations.............. 18,146 935 5.2

Natural resources, 

 construction, and 

 maintenance occupations........ 13,323 401 3.0

 Farming, fishing, and forestry

 occupations................................ 926 36 3.9

 Construction and extraction

 occupations................................ 7,439 188 2.5

 Installation, maintenance, 

 and repair occupations............ 4,957 177 3.6

Production, transportation, and

 material moving occupations.. 15,951 562 3.5

 Production occupations........... 7,654 263 3.4

 Transportation and material

 moving occupations................ 8,297 298 3.6

Industry and class of worker

Agriculture and related

 industries............................................ 2,103 91 4.3

 Wage and salary workers.......... 1,242 52 4.2

 Self-employed workers............. 836 38 4.5

 Unpaid family workers.............. 25 1 (2)

Nonagricultural industries......... 137,775 7,181 5.2

 Wage and salary workers.......... 128,713 6,882 5.3

 Mining, quarrying, and oil 

 and gas extraction................ 689 23 3.3

 Construction............................... 7,994 251 3.1

 Manufacturing ........................... 13,871 471 3.4

 Wholesale trade......................... 3,636 152 4.2

 Retail trade .................................. 15,070 700 4.6

 Transportation and utilities... 6,839 278 4.1

 Information ................................. 3,094 161 5.2

 Financial activities..................... 8,950 406 4.5

 Professional and business 

 services........................................ 13,001 585 4.5

 Education and health 

 services....................................... 30,712 2,344 7.6

 Leisure and hospitality............ 12,091 694 5.7

 Other services............................. 5,891 322 5.5

 Public administration .............. 6,875 497 7.2

 Self-employed workers............. 8,995 297 3.3

 Unpaid family workers.............. 66 1 1.5

 1 Multiple jobholding rates are calculated by dividing the number of 

multiple jobholders in a specified worker group by total employment in 

the same group.

 2 Estimate not shown because base is fewer than 50,000 persons.

 NOTE: Items may not sum to totals because of rounding.

 Table 4. Multiple jobholders by sex and by occupation, 

industry, and class of worker of the secondary 

job, 2009 annual averages

[Percent distribution]

Occupation, industry, and class of 

worker of secondary job Total Men Women

 Total, 16 years and over................. 100.0 100.0 100.0

Occupation

Management, professional, and 

 related occupations......................... 39.6 43.7 35.9

 Management, business, and

 financial operations 

 occupations..................................... 13.8 19.2 8.7

 Professional and related 

 occupations..................................... 25.9 24.6 27.1

Service occupations........................... 27.1 22.5 31.3

Sales and office occupations.......... 23.6 17.1 29.6

 Sales and related occupations.... 14.6 12.4 16.6

 Office and administrative 

 support occupations................... 9.0 4.7 13.0

Natural resources, construction, 

 and maintenance occupations.... 4.3 8.4 .4

 Farming, fishing, and forestry

 occupations..................................... .6 1.0 .2

 Construction and extraction 

 occupations..................................... 2.0 3.9 .1

 Installation, maintenance, and

 repair occupations........................ 1.7 3.4 .1

Production, transportation, and 

 material moving occupations...... 5.5 8.3 2.8

 Production occupations................ 1.9 2.2 1.5

 Transportation and material

 moving occupations..................... 3.6 6.1 1.3

Industry and class of worker

Agriculture and related industries 4.5 7.1 2.1

 Wage and salary workers............... 1.1 1.8 .5

 Self-employed workers................... 3.4 5.3 1.6

 Unpaid family workers.................... 0 0 0

Nonagricultural industries............... 95.5 92.9 97.9

 Wage and salary workers............... 77.7 71.6 83.4

 Mining, quarrying, and oil and

 gas extraction ............................... .0 .1 0

 Construction..................................... 1.6 2.6 .8

 Manufacturing................................. 1.4 1.8 1.1

 Wholesale trade............................... 1.0 1.3 .7

 Retail trade........................................ 12.0 10.0 13.8

 Transportation and utilities......... 2.3 3.4 1.3

 Information....................................... 1.7 2.2 1.2

 Financial activities.......................... 3.3 4.1 2.7

 Professional and business 

 services............................................. 7.0 7.8 6.3

 Education and health services... 22.0 14.1 29.4

 Leisure and hospitality.................. 15.2 14.0 16.4

 Other services.................................. 7.2 6.7 7.7

 Public administration.................... 2.8 3.7 1.9

 Self-employed workers................... 17.8 21.3 14.5

 Unpaid family workers.................... 0 0 0

 Table 5. 
Monthly Labor Review • July 2010 29

Reasons for multiple jobholding

Surveys of multiple jobholding have consistently shown 

that economic factors are the primary reasons for moonlighting.10 Information on reasons for multiple jobholding 

is not collected monthly, but data are available from periodic CPS supplements. In May 2004, the last time information on reasons for multiple jobholding was collected, 

38 percent of people who had multiple jobs reported 

that they did so in order to earn extra money; another 

26 percent said they had more than one job in order to 

meet expenses or pay off debt.11 Among the other common reasons for working multiple jobs, enjoyment of the 

second job was reported by 18 percent of moonlighters, 

and 4 percent of moonlighters mainly wanted to build a 

business or get experience in a different job. (See table 7.)

The reasons for multiple jobholding varied noticeably 

among demographic groups. For instance, the proportion 

working more than one job for economic reasons—that is, 

to meet expenses or pay off debt or to earn extra money—

declined with age. For example, three-fourths of multiple 

jobholders age 16 to 24 had economic reasons, compared 

with half of their counterparts age 55 and over. Conversely, the share of workers who moonlighted because they 

enjoyed the second job tended to increase with age. For 

example, only 11 percent of multiple jobholders age 16 to 

24 reported that they moonlighted because they enjoyed 

the second job, compared with 27 percent of workers age 

55 and over. 

Among multiple jobholders, Hispanics and Blacks 

were more likely than Whites to report economic reasons 

for holding more than one job; 73 percent of Black and 

77 percent of Hispanic multiple jobholders had economic 

reasons in May 2004, compared with 63 percent of Whites. 

Eighteen percent of Whites had multiple jobs because they 

enjoyed the second job, compared with 12 percent of Blacks 

Multiple jobholders by age, sex, race/ethnicity, work schedule, and weekly hours of work at the primary and 

secondary jobs, 2009 annual averages

Characteristic

Total 

multiple

jobholders

(in 

thousands)

Percent distribution Average weekly hours

Total

Usually full

time on

primary job,

part time on

secondary

job(s)

Usually part

time on 

primary and

secondary

job(s)

Usually full

time on 

primary and

secondary

job(s)

Hours

vary

All

jobs

Primary

job

Secondary

job(s)

 Total, 16 years

 and over............... 7,271 100.0 53.2 25.0 3.4 17.7 46.8 33.6 13.1

16 to 24 years............. 896 100.0 30.9 50.7 1.8 15.8 39.4 27.0 12.4

 16 to 19 years............ 186 100.0 12.9 71.5 .5 15.1 30.7 20.7 10.0

 20 to 24 years........... 710 100.0 35.6 45.2 2.1 16.1 41.7 28.7 13.0

25 to 54 years............. 5,124 100.0 57.8 20.7 3.7 17.1 48.5 35.0 13.5

 25 to 34 years............ 1,546 100.0 57.8 22.4 3.4 15.7 47.7 34.5 13.1

 35 to 44 years........... 1,675 100.0 57.9 20.2 3.6 17.6 49.0 35.4 13.6

 45 to 54 years........... 1,903 100.0 57.6 19.9 4.1 17.8 48.7 35.1 13.6

55 years and over ..... 1,251 100.0 50.4 24.3 3.3 21.5 45.0 32.7 12.3

 55 to 64 years........... 1,039 100.0 53.9 21.8 3.4 20.3 46.3 33.8 12.5

 65 years and 

 over............................ 212 100.0 33.0 36.3 2.8 27.4 38.9 27.5 11.4

Men................................ 3,530 100.0 57.8 17.0 4.4 19.9 50.9 36.7 14.2

Women......................... 3,741 100.0 48.8 32.7 2.5 15.6 42.8 30.8 12.1

White............................. 6,166 100.0 52.1 26.0 3.1 18.2 46.2 33.5 12.8

Black or African 

 American.................. 714 100.0 60.9 17.5 6.0 14.6 51.5 35.4 16.0

Asian.............................. 210 100.0 57.1 24.3 4.3 13.3 47.9 33.4 14.5

Hispanic or Latino.... 643 100.0 56.3 24.1 6.8 11.8 49.3 33.9 15.4

NOTE: Estimates for the race groups in the table (White, Black or African 

American, Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for 

all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may

be of any race. The total includes a small number of persons who work 

part time at their primary job and full time at their secondary job(s); these 

persons are not shown separately.

 Table 6. 
Multiple Jobholding

30 Monthly Labor Review • July 2010

Multiple jobholders by main reason for working more than one job and by other selected characteristics, May 2004

Characteristic

Percent distribution by reason

To meet

expenses

or pay off

debt

To earn 

extra

money

To build a 

business or

get experience

in a different job

Enjoys the

second

job

Other

reasons

Reason not

available

Age and sex

Total, 16 years and over....................... 25.6 38.1 3.7 17.6 12.5 2.4

 16 to 24 years........................................ 23.8 50.8 5.6 10.6 7.7 1.6

 25 to 34 years........................................ 28.4 41.4 3.7 13.7 10.6 2.2

 35 to 44 years........................................ 27.9 37.6 3.9 15.1 12.5 3.0

 45 to 54 years........................................ 23.4 33.9 3.9 22.8 13.8 2.2

 55 years and over................................. 22.1 28.0 1.3 26.9 18.7 3.0

Men, 16 years and over........................ 23.7 37.5 4.1 19.8 12.7 2.1

 16 to 24 years........................................ 16.6 57.8 8.4 10.9 6.1 .2

 25 to 34 years........................................ 27.2 40.4 4.9 11.8 13.3 2.4

 35 to 44 years........................................ 26.4 37.7 3.9 17.0 12.4 2.5

 45 to 54 years........................................ 22.4 32.4 3.3 27.7 12.0 2.3

 55 years and over................................. 21.5 24.1 1.0 31.8 19.3 2.4

Women, 16 years and over................. 27.5 38.7 3.3 15.5 12.3 2.6

 16 to 24 years........................................ 29.2 45.5 3.4 10.4 8.9 2.6

 25 to 34 years........................................ 29.8 42.5 2.3 15.7 7.7 2.0

 35 to 44 years........................................ 29.7 37.5 3.9 13.0 12.5 3.4

 45 to 54 years........................................ 24.5 35.5 4.5 17.9 15.6 2.0

 55 years and over................................. 23.0 32.3 1.7 21.7 17.9 3.4

Marital status

Men:

 Single ....................................................... 20.4 50.1 5.6 13.1 8.6 2.1

 Married, spouse present.................... 24.2 32.4 3.6 23.6 14.3 1.9

 Other marital status1........................... 27.7 38.5 4.3 12.6 12.8 4.0

Women:

 Single ....................................................... 32.5 42.8 3.4 10.7 8.2 2.5

 Married, spouse present.................... 19.7 38.4 3.8 20.9 14.7 2.4

 Other marital status1........................... 37.1 33.7 2.2 10.2 13.8 3.0

Race/ethnicity

White.......................................................... 25.4 37.1 3.8 18.4 13.2 2.1

Black or African American................... 28.7 43.8 3.4 11.8 8.3 4.0

Asian........................................................... 18.0 51.5 4.3 13.3 11.2 1.7

Hispanic or Latino.................................. 35.9 41.1 2.7 10.8 8.6 .8

Country of birth and U.S. 

citizenship status

U.S. born.................................................... 24.9 37.9 3.8 18.0 13.0 2.3

Foreign born............................................ 32.5 40.1 3.0 13.8 7.7 2.9

 U.S. citizen .............................................. 27.7 40.7 1.5 17.2 11.7 1.2

 Not a U.S. citizen................................... 37.2 39.6 4.4 10.4 4.4 4.1

Educational attainment

 Total, 25 years and over................. 25.9 36.1 3.4 18.8 13.3 2.5

Less than a high school diploma...... 44.6 34.6 2.1 9.6 6.7 2.5

High school diploma, no college ........ 33.2 38.1 1.2 14.0 11.0 2.5

Some college, no degree .................... 24.5 41.7 3.2 14.3 13.0 3.2

Associate’s degree ................................. 22.3 39.7 2.9 16.4 16.6 2.0

Bachelor's degree .................................. 23.5 34.5 3.5 22.7 14.0 1.9

Advanced degree................................... 18.8 25.6 7.7 29.8 15.1 2.9

 Master's degree.................................... 19.8 29.9 7.0 28.0 12.8 2.5

 Professional degree ............................ 18.0 16.4 7.0 38.3 19.5 .8

 Doctoral degree ................................... 13.7 10.7 12.2 32.1 23.7 7.6

1 Includes married, spouse absent; and widowed, divorced, or separated.

 Table 7. 
Monthly Labor Review • July 2010 31

and 11 percent of Hispanics. (See table 7.)

With regard to country of birth and U.S. citizenship 

status, the proportion of foreign-born multiple jobholders 

who had an economic reason for holding more than one job 

(73 percent) was higher than the corresponding proportion 

of native-born multiple jobholders (63 percent). The native born and the foreign born who were U.S. citizens were 

more likely than noncitizens to cite enjoyment of the second job as the main reason for multiple jobholding; roughly 

18 percent of both the native born and foreign born who 

were U.S. citizens reported such a reason, compared with 

10 percent of noncitizens. 

Primary reasons for holding more than one job differed by educational attainment. As educational attainment increases, the proportion of multiple jobholders who 

moonlighted for economic reasons declines. Conversely, as 

educational attainment increases, multiple jobholders are 

more likely to have worked more than one job because they 

enjoyed the second job or because they wanted to build a 

business or get experience. It is possible that workers with 

more education are more apt to work at secondary jobs 

that involve intellectual pursuits that they enjoy, whereas 

secondary jobs held by less-educated people might be held 

mainly to increase incomes. Indeed, 37 percent of multiple 

jobholders with advanced degrees held secondary jobs in 

management occupations or in education, training, and 

library occupations. In contrast, among multiple jobholders with less than a high school diploma, 41 percent held 

secondary jobs in food preparation and serving occupations 

or in building and grounds maintenance occupations. 

BOTH THE NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF WORKERS

with multiple jobs have held fairly steady in recent years, 

but moonlighting among most of the major demographic 

groups was less common in 2009 than it was during the 

mid-to-late 1990s. As was the case in the past, women, 

Whites, and workers with more education were more 

likely to hold more than one job in 2009. Workers whose 

primary job was in public administration or in education and health services had the greatest likelihood of 

moonlighting. Economic factors continued to predominate among the reasons for having multiple jobs. In 2004, 

nearly two-thirds of multiple jobholders reported that 

they did so primarily for an economic reason, although a 

sizeable proportion (nearly 1 in 5) cited enjoyment of the 

second job as their primary reason. 

Notes

1 The CPS is a nationwide sample survey of about 60,000 households 

that is conducted monthly by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of 

Labor Statistics. The CPS collects information about the demographic 

characteristics and employment status of the civilian noninstitutional 

working-age population (age 16 and over).

2 The regular collection of data on multiple jobholding has proven to 

be useful in reconciling the differences in employment levels and trends 

between data from the CPS and those from the Current Employment 

Statistics (CES) survey. For more information on reconciling data from 

the CPS and the CES survey, see Employment from the BLS household and 

payroll surveys: summary of recent trends (Bureau of Labor Statistics), on 

the Internet at www.bls.gov/web/ces_cps_trends.pdf (visited July 1, 

2010).

3 John F. Stinson, Jr. documented the rise of multiple jobholding 

during the 1970s and 1980s. See John F. Stinson, Jr., “Moonlighting 

by women jumped to record highs,” Monthly Labor Review, November 

1986, pp. 22–25, on the Internet at www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1986/11/

art4full.pdf (visited Mar. 19, 2010); John F. Stinson, Jr., “Multiple 

jobholding up sharply in the 1980’s,” Monthly Labor Review, July 

1990, pp. 3–10, on the Internet at www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1990/07/

art1full.pdf (visited Mar. 19, 2010); and John F. Stinson, Jr., “New 

data on multiple jobholding available from the CPS,” Monthly Labor 

Review, March 1997, pp. 3–8, on the Internet at www.bls.gov/opub/

mlr/1997/03/art1full.pdf (visited Mar. 19, 2010). Using data from 

the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Catalina AmuedoDorantes and Jean Kimmel found that both men and women exhibit 

procyclical moonlighting tendencies. See Catalina Amuedo-Dorantes 

and Jean Kimmel, Moonlighting Behavior over the Business Cycle 

(Bonn, Germany, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) Discussion 

Paper 1671, July 2005), on the Internet at http://papers.ssrn.com/

sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=761664 (visited July 1, 2010). Jean 

Kimmel and Lisa M. Powell conducted research on the causes of the 

rise in multiple jobholding in Canada and the United States during 

the 1980s and 1990s. The authors argue that the increase in multiple 

jobholding during this period can be attributed to three broad 

reasons—changes in the composition of the labor force, supply-side 

factors, and demand-side factors. See Jean Kimmel and Lisa M. 

Powell, “Moonlighting Trends and Related Policy Issues in Canada 

and the United States,” Canadian Public Policy – Analyse de Politiques, 

June 1999, pp. 207–31.

4 The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), the generally 

recognized arbiter of business cycles in the United States, designated 

December 2007 as the start date of the most recent recession. The 

NBER has not yet determined an endpoint for this recession.

5 Data from the May 2004 CPS Work Schedules and Work at 

Home Supplement show that the incidence of shift work was very 

high among workers in health care support and protective service 

occupations. 

6 As previously mentioned, for workers who held more than two 

jobs, the information on the industry, occupation, and class of worker 

(wage and salary, self-employed, or unpaid family worker) for their 

second job is collected only for the job at which they worked the 

second-highest number of hours. 

7 The data on hours worked refer to the hours of work on all jobs, 

even if more than two jobs were held. 

8 Data from the American Time Use Survey also show that 

multiple jobholders work longer hours than single jobholders.

9 A full-time job is one in which a person usually works 35 hours 
Multiple Jobholding

32 Monthly Labor Review • July 2010

or more per week, and a part-time job is one in which a person usually 

works 1 to 34 hours per week.

10 Information on reasons for holding multiple jobs also was collected 

in CPS supplements conducted in May 1985, May 1991, May 1997, May 

2001, and May 2004. In each of these surveys, economic reasons were 

those most often cited as the primary reasons for moonlighting. For 

further information on reasons for holding multiple jobs from the May 

2001 CPS supplement, see Jennifer L. Hallmartel, “Twenty-first century 

moonlighters,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 02–07 (Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, September 2002), on the Internet at www.bls.gov/opub/ils/

pdf/opbils50.pdf (visited Mar. 19, 2010). For information on reasons for 

multiple jobholding from the May 1997 CPS supplement, see Jennifer 

Martel, “When one job is not enough,” Issues in Labor Statistics, Summary 

00–15, (Bureau of Labor Statistics, August 2000), on the Internet at 

www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils40.pdf (visited Mar. 19, 2010). Data 

for May 1991 were published in Multiple Jobholding Unchanged in May 

1991, USDL 91-547 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Oct. 28, 1991). For data 

on reasons for holding multiple jobs from the May 1985 CPS supplement, 

see Stinson, “Moonlighting by women jumped to record highs.”

11 In the May 2004 CPS Work Schedules Supplements, multiple 

jobholders were asked: “What is the MAIN reason you worked at more 

than one job?” Respondents were asked to choose among the following 

response options: meet expenses or pay off debt, earn extra money, build 

a business or get experience in a different job, enjoy the second job, or 

some other reason. In the May 2001 CPS Work Schedules Supplement, 

the same set of questions was asked of respondents. The proportions 

from the May 2001 and May 2004 CPS Work Schedules Supplement 

are similar.