1

Mary Dorinda Allard

allard.dorinda@bls.gov

Mary Dorinda Allard is a division chief in the 

Office of Employment and Unemployment 

Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Vernon Brundage Jr.

brundage.vernon@bls.gov

Vernon Brundage Jr. is an economist in the Office 

of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

American Indians and Alaska Natives in the U.S. 

labor force

Using data from the Current Population Survey, we 

examine the labor force characteristics of American Indians 

and Alaska Natives (AIANs) during the 2016–18 period. We 

find that AIANs had a younger age profile, a higher 

unemployment rate, and a lower labor force participation 

rate than the overall U.S. population. In addition, the 

unemployment rate was higher for AIANs who lived in an 

AIAN area—that is, a federal or state American Indian 

reservation or off-reservation trust land, tribal statistical 

area, or Alaska Native village statistical area—than for 

AIANs who lived elsewhere.

According to data from the Current Population Survey 

(CPS), the country’s 2.9 million American Indians and 

Alaska Natives (AIANs) accounted for 1.1 percent of the 

U.S. civilian noninstitutional population age 16 and older in 

2018.[1] The unemployment rate of AIANs was 6.6 percent, 

considerably higher than the rate of 3.9 percent for the 

country as a whole. At the same time, AIANs were less 

likely to be working or looking for work—59.6 percent of 

them participated in the labor force, compared with 62.9 

percent for the total population. Furthermore, compared 

with the total population, AIANs have had higher 

unemployment rates and lower labor force participation 

rates throughout the history of the series (comparable data 

for AIANs are available back to 2003).[2] (See figures 1 and 

2.) A closer look at how these measures vary by 

demographic and other characteristics—such as age, educational attainment, and area of residence—can shed 

light on how AIANs are faring in the labor market.

November 2019
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Because the sample size for AIANs is relatively small, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) does not routinely 

tabulate detailed data on their demographic and labor market characteristics. The AIAN population is extremely 

diverse; its members have origins in hundreds of distinct and culturally diverse peoples from throughout North and 

South America. Well over 500 tribes are federally recognized within the contiguous 48 states and Alaska,[3] and 

many more are either not recognized or are recognized by states only.

In the remainder of this article, we pool multiple years of data from the monthly CPS to examine the labor market 

characteristics of AIANs. By increasing sample size, this pooling allows for a more indepth examination of AIAN 

data. Unless otherwise noted, the CPS estimates presented in this article are 36-month averages for the period 

January 2016–December 2018 and describe the civilian noninstitutional population age 16 and older. In the CPS, 

individuals are asked what race they consider themselves to be; AIAN status is based on responses to this 

question rather than on tribal membership.[4]

We first describe the demographic characteristics of AIANs. Next, we examine their labor force participation by a 

variety of characteristics. We then turn to employment—focusing on occupation, public-sector employment, and 

hours of work—and to unemployment. Finally, we discuss people who, while not in the labor force, want a job and 

thus may have some labor market attachment even though they are not looking for work. Consistent with other 

CPS published data on race, the estimates in this article are for people who consider their race to be AIAN only. 

(Selected statistics for the broader group—AIAN alone or in combination with another race—are not part of our 

analysis but are shown in the appendix.)
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Characteristics of the AIAN population

Because labor market behavior can be influenced by demographic and other factors, it is useful to examine the 

characteristics of the AIAN population. This section explores a variety of demographic and other characteristics of 

AIANs.

Age

In 2016–18, AIANs had a younger age profile than the population overall, as they were more likely to fall into the 

youth category (ages 16 to 24) or the prime-working-age group (ages 25 to 54). Twenty percent of AIANs were 

ages 16 to 24, which is 5 percentage points higher than the estimate for the population overall. AIANs were also 

more likely to be ages 25 to 54, with 55 percent of them falling into this age category, compared with 49 percent of 

the population overall. By contrast, 25 percent of AIANs were age 55 and older, 11 percentage points below the 

average for the country. (See table 1.) According to data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

the life expectancy of AIANs is 5.5 years lower than that of the population overall.[5]

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Disability

Category

American Indian and Alaska 

Native

Total population

Total Men Women Total Men Women

Civlian noninstiutional population (in thousands) 2,887 1,414 1,473 255,469 123,484 131,985

Age

Total, 16 years and over 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

16 to 24 years 19.6 20.7 18.6 15.0 15.6 14.4

25 to 54 years 55.3 55.5 55.2 49.3 50.2 48.5

55 years and over 25.0 23.8 26.3 35.7 34.2 37.2

Disability

With a disability 15.9 15.2 16.5 11.8 11.3 12.2

With no disability 84.1 84.8 83.5 88.2 88.7 87.8

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Hispanic or Latino 33.3 35.4 31.2 16.3 16.8 15.8

Non-Hispanic 66.7 64.6 68.8 83.7 83.2 84.2

Nativity

Native born 84.9 83.5 86.3 83.6 83.5 83.7

Foreign born 15.1 16.5 13.7 16.4 16.5 16.3

Educational attainment

Total, 25 years and over 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Less than a high school diploma 19.7 21.6 18.0 10.5 10.9 10.1

High school graduates, no college 33.9 36.6 31.4 28.7 29.7 27.7

Some college or associate’s degree 29.6 26.9 32.2 26.4 25.2 27.4

Bachelor’s degree and higher 16.7 14.9 18.4 34.5 34.2 34.8

Table 1. Percent distribution of American Indians and Alaska Natives and total population, by selected 

characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18
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The likelihood of having a disability increases with age.[6] Therefore, it is striking that, despite their younger age 

profile, AIANs in 2016–18 were more likely to have a disability (16 percent) than the overall population (12 

percent). When examined further by age, the differences are even more noticeable. Among AIANs age 55 and 

older, 34 percent had a disability, compared with 23 percent for the overall population in that age range. The 

incidence of disability among younger age groups was also higher for AIANs. (See figure 3.)

School enrollment and educational attainment

Traditionally, people ages 16 to 24 are the most likely to be enrolled in school. Among AIANs in this age group, 42 

percent were enrolled in high school or college in 2016–18, much lower than the national average of 53 percent for 

16- to 24-year-olds. Mirroring the pattern for the country as a whole, young AIAN women were slightly more likely 

than young AIAN men to be enrolled in school. (See figure 4.)
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Most people have completed their education by age 25. In 2016–18, AIANs had lower levels of educational 

attainment than the population as a whole. Two in 10 AIANs age 25 and older had less than a high school diploma, 

compared with about 1 in 10 for the population overall. Seventeen percent of AIANs had a bachelor’s degree or 

higher, just under half of the national average. (See table 1.)

As was the case for the overall population, AIAN women tended to have greater educational attainment than AIAN 

men. About half (51 percent) of AIAN women had at least some college or a postsecondary degree, compared with 

42 percent of AIAN men. However, AIAN men and women both had lower levels of educational attainment than the 

national average.

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

In 2016–18, AIANs were more likely to be Hispanic (33 percent) than the population overall (16 percent). As 

defined in the Office of Management and Budget standards for the classification of federal data on race and 

ethnicity, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity is distinct from race.[7] Therefore, people of Hispanic ethnicity may be of any 

race.

Nativity

In 2016–18, 15 percent of AIANs were foreign born.[8] This share was about the same as that for the total 

population (16 percent). The AIAN race category refers to individuals with origins in any of the original peoples of 

North and South America (including Central America).[9] Thus, it is perhaps not surprising that, in 2016–18, the 

majority of foreign-born AIANs were born in Mexico, with smaller shares born in other Central American countries, 
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Canada, and South America. Foreign-born AIANs were much more likely to be Hispanic (about 9 in 10) than were 

native-born AIANs (about 1 in 4).

Area of residence

Most AIANs do not reside in AIAN areas—that is, federal or state American Indian reservations or off-reservation 

trust lands, tribal statistical areas, or Alaska Native village statistical areas.[10] In 2016–18, just over one-quarter 

(28 percent) of AIANs resided in such areas.[11]

AIANs residing in an AIAN area tended to be older than AIANs living elsewhere. Thirty percent of AIANs residing in 

AIAN areas were age 55 and older, compared with 23 percent of AIANs who lived elsewhere. (See figure 5.)

Labor force participation

In 2016–18, AIANs were less likely to participate in the labor force (that is, to work or look for work) than the overall 

population—60.3 percent, compared with 62.8 percent. (See table 2.) However, participation rates varied 

considerably by demographic characteristics.
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Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Age

Among 16- to 24-year-olds, labor force participation is closely tied to school enrollment, as youth enrolled in school 

are much less likely to participate in the labor force than youth who are not enrolled. Nevertheless, among both 

those enrolled and those not enrolled in school, AIAN youth were less likely to participate in the labor force than 

were youth overall. Enrolled AIAN youth had a participation rate of 29.5 percent in 2016–18, 6.3 percentage points 

lower than the rate for enrolled youth overall. The rate for nonenrolled AIAN youth, at 69.9 percent, was 7.1 

percentage points lower than that for nonenrolled youth overall. However, the rate for all AIAN youth, including the 

enrolled and the nonenrolled, was 52.7 percent, just 2.6 percentage points lower than that for all 16- to 24-yearolds. (See figure 6.)

Category

American Indian and Alaska 

Native

Total population

Total Men Women Total Men Women

Labor force, 16 years and over (in thousands) 1,742 927 815 160,527 85,332 75,195

Age

Total, 16 years and over 60.3 65.6 55.3 62.8 69.1 57.0

16 to 24 years 52.7 53.7 51.7 55.3 56.4 54.2

25 to 54 years 74.3 81.5 67.2 81.7 88.7 74.9

55 years and over 35.5 38.7 32.7 40.0 46.1 34.7

Disability

With a disability 22.6 24.3 21.0 20.5 24.0 17.4

With no disability 67.4 73.0 62.0 68.5 74.9 62.5

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Hispanic or Latino 67.7 75.8 58.9 66.1 75.8 56.4

Non-Hispanic 56.7 60.0 53.7 62.2 67.7 57.1

Nativity

Native born 58.7 62.4 55.3 62.3 67.4 57.5

Foreign born 69.5 81.8 55.3 65.6 77.9 54.1

Educational attainment

Total, 25 years and over 62.2 68.7 56.1 64.2 71.5 57.4

Less than a high school diploma 49.5 60.4 37.4 45.9 58.4 33.4

High school graduates, no college 60.0 67.1 52.2 57.6 67.7 47.6

Some college or associate’s degree 66.1 71.5 61.9 65.9 72.3 60.4

Bachelor’s degree and higher 74.6 79.4 71.0 73.9 78.3 69.9

Table 2. Labor force participation rates for American Indians and Alaska Natives and total population, by 

selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18
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Why is the disparity in labor force participation smaller for all youth than for either the enrolled or the nonenrolled? 

The reason has to do with the share of youth enrolled in school. As mentioned in the preceding section, the 

percentage of AIAN youth not enrolled in school was higher than that for youth overall. Because nonenrolled youth 

are more likely to participate in the labor force, the rate for all AIAN 16- to 24-year-olds was higher than it would 

have been had the AIAN enrollment rate been the same as the national average.

For both AIANs and the population as a whole, labor force participation rates were highest among 25- to 54-yearolds. AIANs in this prime-working-age group had a participation rate of 74.3 percent, more than 20 percentage 

points higher than the rate for AIAN youth. However, this rate was lower than the rate of 81.7 percent for the total 

population ages 25 to 54. (See table 2.)

Individuals in the 55-and-older age group are less likely to be labor force participants than people in the primeworking-age group. In 2016–18, 35.5 percent of AIANs age 55 and older participated in the labor force. As with 

other age groups, this rate was lower than the national average for people age 55 and older (40.0 percent).

Age is often a factor in explaining differences in labor force participation between groups. For example, two groups 

may differ in participation rates simply because they have a different age composition, and the rates of populations 

with a large share of 25- to 54-year-olds tend to be higher than those of populations less concentrated in that age 

range. However, age does not help explain the low labor force participation of AIANs. AIANs have a younger age 

profile than the population overall, yet their participation rate is lower than the national average. In fact, the 

disparity in participation rates is less stark than it would be if AIANs had the same age profile as the country as a 

whole. In 2016–18, the labor force participation rate of AIANs was 2.5 percentage points lower than that of the 
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population overall. However, the rate for 25- to 54-year-olds was 7.4 percentage points lower for AIANs than for 

the overall population, and the rate for people age 55 and older was 4.5 percentage points lower.

Gender

Labor force participation rates differ sharply by gender. As was the case for the population overall, AIAN men were 

more likely to participate in the labor force than AIAN women—65.6 percent versus 55.3 percent. For both men 

and women, participation rates for AIANs were below the national average.

Disability

In general, people with disabilities are much less likely to participate in the labor force than people without 

disabilities,[12] and AIANs with disabilities were no exception. In 2016–18, 22.6 percent of AIANs with a disability 

were either working or looking for work, about a third of the rate for AIANs with no disability (67.4 percent). 

Although the participation rates for AIANs with and without disabilities were not statistically different from the 

national averages for those with and without disabilities, it is worth bearing in mind that AIANs were more likely to 

have a disability than the population overall. The higher prevalence of disabilities among AIANs may be a 

contributing factor in explaining their lower likelihood of participating in the labor force.

Educational attainment

Longstanding historical data show that labor force participation tends to be higher for people with greater 

educational attainment, and this pattern holds for AIANs. Among AIANs age 25 and older in 2016–18, those with a 

bachelor’s degree or higher were much more likely to be in the labor force (74.6 percent) than were those with less 

than a high school diploma (49.5 percent).

Participation rates for AIANs with lower levels of educational attainment were higher than the rates for the 

population overall. For example, the rate for AIANs with less than a high school diploma was 49.5 percent, higher 

than the rate of 45.9 percent for the total population with less than a high school diploma. By contrast, among 

those with a bachelor’s degree or higher, the AIAN labor force participation rate was fairly similar to that of the 

overall population.

Nativity

In 2016–18, foreign-born AIANs were more likely to be in the labor force (69.5 percent) than native-born AIANs 

(58.7 percent). Although this pattern was consistent with that for the population as a whole, foreign-born AIANs 

were more likely to participate in the labor force than the foreign born overall, while native-born AIANs were less 

likely to participate than the native born overall. Thus, the gap between foreign- and native-born participation rates 

was wider for AIANs (10.8 percentage points) than for the population as a whole (3.3 percentage points). As 

discussed above, foreign-born AIANs are overwhelmingly Hispanic. The relatively high labor force participation 

rate for foreign-born AIANs reflects the characteristics of foreign-born Hispanics, who have higher rates than the 

foreign born overall.[13]

Foreign-born AIAN men had a labor force participation rate of 81.8 percent, almost 20 percentage points higher 

than that of their native-born counterparts (62.4 percent). For the population overall, foreign-born men were also 
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more likely to be labor force participants than were native-born men (77.9 percent versus 67.4 percent), but the 

gap between the two groups was about half of that for AIANs.

Foreign- and native-born AIAN women were equally likely to participate in the labor force: the rate was 55.3 

percent for both groups. By contrast, foreign-born women in the overall population were less likely to be working or 

looking for work than were native-born women (54.1 percent versus 57.5 percent).

Area of residence

In 2016–18, 52.0 percent of AIANs who resided in AIAN areas were working or looking for work. (See table 3.) By 

contrast, the labor force participation rate for AIANs who did not live in AIAN areas was 63.6 percent, not 

statistically different than the rate for the total population (62.8 percent).

Note: American Indian and Alaska Native areas include federal American Indian reservations and off-reservation trust lands, joint-use federal American Indian 

reservations, Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, joint-use Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, Alaska Native village statistical areas, tribal-designated statistical 

areas, state American Indian reservations, and state-designated tribal statistical areas.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Regardless of where they lived, AIANs had younger age profiles than the overall population. However, those living 

in AIAN areas tended to be older than those living elsewhere. (See figure 5.) This age disparity likely explains, in 

part, the lower participation rate for those living in AIAN areas. However, for both men and women and for all age 

ranges, AIANs living in AIAN areas were less likely to participate in the labor force than were AIANs living 

elsewhere.

Category

American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN)

Total population

Total Residing in AIAN area Not residing in AIAN area

Labor force participation rates

Age

Total, 16 years and over 60.3 52.0 63.6 62.8

16 to 24 years 52.7 42.9 57.0 55.3

25 to 54 years 74.3 67.8 76.4 81.7

55 years and over 35.5 32.2 37.2 40.0

Gender

Men 65.6 53.8 70.2 69.1

Women 55.3 50.2 57.3 57.0

Unemployment rates

Age

Total, 16 years and over 7.8 11.4 6.6 4.4

16 to 24 years 13.9 22.4 11.2 9.4

25 to 54 years 6.9 10.2 5.9 3.7

55 years and over 5.0 5.2 4.9 3.3

Gender

Men 8.2 14.6 6.2 4.4

Women 7.4 8.1 7.1 4.3

Table 3. Labor force participation rates and unemployment rates for American Indians and Alaska Natives 

and total population, by area of residence, averages for the combined years 2016–18
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Employment

The following section investigates some of the employment characteristics of AIANs and how they differ from those 

of the overall population. It also examines selected characteristics of AIAN workers by area of residence.

Occupation

In 2016–18, AIANs were much less likely than the overall population to work in management, professional, and 

related occupations (25 percent versus 40 percent). (See table 4.) This difference may partially reflect the lower 

educational attainment and younger age profile of the AIAN population. The likelihood of being employed in 

management, professional, and related occupations increases with educational attainment, and relatively few 16- 

to 24-year-old workers are employed in this occupational group.

Category American Indian and Alaska Native Total population

Total employed, 16 years and over (in thousands) 1,606 153,511

Percent of total employed 100.0 100.0

Occupation

Management, professional, and related occupations 25.4 39.7

Management, business, and financial operations 

occupations 10.7 16.5

Professional and related occupations 14.7 23.1

Service occupations 24.8 17.5

Sales and office occupations 22.2 21.8

Sales and related occupations 9.6 10.3

Office and administrative support occupations 12.6 11.5

Natural resources, construction, and maintenance 

occupations 12.9 9.2

Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations 1.2 0.7

Construction and extraction occupations 7.9 5.3

Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations 3.8 3.2

Production, transportation, and material moving 

occupations 14.7 11.8

Production occupations 6.9 5.6

Transportation and material moving occupations 7.7 6.2

Class of worker[1]

Public-sector wage and salary workers[2] 18.3 13.6

Private-sector wage and salary workers 73.1 76.3

Self-employed workers[3] 8.5 10.0

Full- or part-time status

Full-time workers 81.9 82.1

Part-time workers 18.1 17.9

Usual weekly earnings

Total, full-time wage and salary workers 100.0 100.0

$0–$499 25.9 17.1

$500–$749 29.0 23.3

$750–$1,199 26.5 28.0

Table 4. Percent distribution of employed American Indians and Alaska Natives and total population, by 

selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

See footnotes at end of table.
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[1] Numbers do not sum to total because a small number of unpaid family workers are included in the total but not shown separately.

[2] Includes federal, state, local, or tribal government.

[3] Includes all self-employed workers, whether or not their businesses are incorporated or unincorporated.

Notes: Employed full-time workers are people who usually work 35 hours or more per week. Employed part-time workers are those who usually work less than 

35 hours per week.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

AIANs were more likely than the overall population to work in service occupations (25 percent versus 18 percent), 

an occupational group in which younger workers and workers with lower educational attainment are 

disproportionately employed. AIANs were also somewhat more likely to work in natural resources, construction, 

and maintenance occupations (13 percent versus 9 percent) and in production, transportation, and material 

moving occupations (15 percent versus 12 percent).

Public-sector employment

In 2016–18, the proportion of workers employed in the public sector—that is, in federal, state, local, or tribal 

government—was higher among AIANs than for the population overall (18 percent versus 14 percent). (See figure 

7.) One-third of employed AIANs who resided in AIAN areas worked in the public sector. By contrast, the 

proportion of employed AIANs not living in AIAN areas was the same as the national average.

Category American Indian and Alaska Native Total population

$1,200 or more 18.7 31.6

Table 4. Percent distribution of employed American Indians and Alaska Natives and total population, by 

selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18
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Tribal governments—that is, American Indian or Alaska Native governments—differ in some respects from federal, 

state, and local governments. While tribal governments operate many establishments that are inherently 

governmental—such as police departments, courts, and schools—they also often operate for-profit businesses 

that provide funds for their American Indian tribe or Alaska Native entity. Revenues from these businesses are 

used to fund tribal government operations, provide for the general welfare of tribal members, and promote tribal 

economic development.[14] Thus, individuals working for a tribal government may be employed in what might be 

considered traditional government jobs as well as jobs more often associated with the private sector.

The range of activities done by tribal governments can be examined with data from the BLS Quarterly Census of 

Employment and Wages (QCEW) program. This program obtains quarterly counts of the number of establishments 

covered by Unemployment Insurance (UI) or Unemployment Compensation for Federal Employees (UCFE), as 

well as monthly counts of employment in covered establishments. These administrative data are collected for tax 

purposes and cover more than 95 percent of U.S. jobs.[15] The QCEW identifies tribal establishments—that is, 

establishments owned and operated by American Indian tribes or Alaska Native villages.[16]

Note that employment in tribal establishments is not a count of employed AIANs, as establishments owned and 

operated by American Indian tribes or Alaska Native villages may employ people who are not AIANs. The research 

data in table 5, generated specifically for this article, should not be considered a complete count of establishments 

owned and operated by American Indian tribes or Alaska Native villages.[17] Nevertheless, these data can 

illustrate the range of industries in which these establishments operate.
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Notes: Includes workers covered by Unemployment Insurance and Unemployment Compensation for Federal Employees programs. Tribal establishments are 

establishments that are owned and operated by American Indian tribes or Alaska Native villages. The other private industry category includes natural 

resources and mining, construction, manufacturing, information, and other services.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages.

The number of tribal establishments by industry are shown in table 5. In the fourth quarter of 2017, 45 percent of 

the 2,300 tribal establishments were in public administration, with the vast majority in tribal government. (Tribal 

government includes AIAN councils, courts, and law enforcement bodies.) Smaller shares were in other sectors, 

including 19 percent in leisure and hospitality, 12 percent in education and health services, and 10 percent in 

trade, transportation, and utilities. The other 14 percent of tribal establishments were distributed across the 

remaining industry sectors.

When we look at employment in tribal establishments, the industry distribution is somewhat different. (Again, 

people employed by tribal establishments are not necessarily AIANs.) Although just 19 percent of tribal 

establishments were in leisure and hospitality, 55 percent of all employment in tribal establishments was in this 

sector. Within leisure and hospitality, the majority of jobs were in casinos and casino hotels, which accounted for 

half of all employment in tribal establishments. Another 34 percent of employment in tribal establishments was in 

public administration.

Part-time workers

Most employed people usually work full time, defined in the CPS as 35 hours or more per week. However, a 

substantial share of the employed usually work a part-time schedule. In 2016–18, AIANs were just as likely as the 

population overall to work part time—18 percent. (See table 4.) Mirroring the pattern for the population as a whole, 

employed AIAN women were about twice as likely to be working part time as were AIAN men (24 percent versus 

13 percent).

Industry

Establishments, fourth quarter 2017 Employment, December 2017

Total (in 

thousands)

Percent of total 

establishments

Total (in 

thousands)

Percent of total 

employment

Total 2.3 100.0 334.5 100.0

Private industry 1.3 55.5 220.7 66.0

Trade, transportation, 

and utilities 0.2 10.1 6.0 1.8

Financial activities 0.1 4.5 2.8 0.8

Professional and 

business services 0.1 4.4 3.7 1.1

Education and health 

services 0.3 12.2 19.1 5.7

Leisure and hospitality 0.4 19.4 185.1 55.3

Casinos and casino 

hotels 0.3 12.7 168.0 50.2

Other private industry 0.1 4.9 4.0 1.2

Public administration 1.0 44.5 113.8 34.0

Tribal government 0.9 38.7 110.4 33.0

Table 5. Covered establishments and employment in tribal establishments, fourth quarter 2017
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One group of part-time workers—people who worked less than 35 hours per week for economic reasons, also 

referred to as involuntary part-time workers—garners considerable attention among labor market analysts. 

Involuntary part-time workers are defined as those working less than 35 hours per week because their hours have 

been reduced or because they are unable to find full-time jobs. The percentage of all workers who work part time 

involuntarily often serves as a measure of labor market difficulty. Among employed AIANs, 5.2 percent were 

involuntary part-time workers in 2016–18, higher than the 3.6 percent of workers overall. Employed AIANs who 

lived in AIAN areas were slightly less likely than AIANs living elsewhere to be employed part time for economic 

reasons. (See figure 8.)

Usual weekly earnings

Among full-time wage and salary workers in 2016–18, AIANs tended to have lower earnings than the population as 

a whole. (See table 4.) Twenty-six percent of AIANs earned less than $500 per week, compared with 17 percent 

for the total population. At the higher end of the earnings spectrum, 19 percent of AIANs earned $1,200 or more 

per week, considerably lower than the 32 percent for the population overall. (Differences in earnings reflect many 

factors, such as variations in educational attainment, occupation, industry, and geographic region.)

Unemployment
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In 2016–18, the unemployment rate for AIANs was 7.8 percent, 3.4 percentage points higher than the rate of 4.4 

percent for the population overall. (See table 6.) Like other measures, the unemployment rate differed across a 

variety of characteristics.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Demographic characteristics

For virtually all major demographic characteristics, 2016–18 unemployment rates of AIANs and the overall 

population followed the same general pattern. For both groups, people with a disability had higher rates than those 

without a disability, and jobless rates were higher among youth than among older workers. In addition, people with 

a bachelor’s degree or higher had lower rates than those with less education, and jobless rates for men and 

women were not statistically different. Jobless rates were higher for AIANs than for the overall population for nearly 

all major demographic characteristics. As with the labor force participation rate, some characteristics of AIANs may 

Category American Indian and Alaska Native Total population

Unemployed, 16 years and over (in thousands) 136 7,016

Age and gender

Total, 16 years and over 7.8 4.4

16 to 24 years 13.9 9.4

25 to 54 years 6.9 3.7

55 years and over 5.0 3.3

Men, 16 years and over 8.2 4.4

16 to 24 years 16.2 10.4

25 to 54 years 6.7 3.6

55 years and over 5.9 3.3

Women, 16 years and over 7.4 4.3

16 to 24 years 11.4 8.4

25 to 54 years 7.1 3.8

55 years and over 4.1 3.2

Disability

With a disability 13.2 9.2

With no disability 7.5 4.2

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Hispanic or Latino 5.5 5.2

Non-Hispanic 9.1 4.2

Nativity

Native born 8.5 4.5

Foreign born 4.5 4.0

Educational attainment

Total, 25 years and over 6.5 3.6

Less than a high school diploma 8.3 6.5

High school graduates, no college 8.3 4.6

Some college or associate’s degree 6.0 3.7

Bachelor’s degree and higher 3.1 2.3

Table 6. Unemployment rates for American Indians and Alaska Natives and total population, by selected 

characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18
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help explain their higher unemployment rates. In particular, jobless rates tend to be higher for younger people, 

people with disabilities, and people with lower educational attainment.

Area of residence

AIANs residing in AIAN areas had a jobless rate of 11.4 percent in 2016–18. This rate was considerably higher 

than that of AIANs who did not live in AIAN areas (6.6 percent). Among AIANs, rates were higher for those living in 

AIAN areas than for those who lived elsewhere for three groups: men, people ages 16 to 24, and people ages 25 

to 54. Rates for AIAN women and AIANs age 55 and older were not statistically different by area of residence. 

(See table 3.)

Reasons for and duration of unemployment

During the 2016–18 period, the distribution of the jobless by reason for unemployment was roughly similar for 

AIANs and the population overall. (See table 7.) Among AIANs, the share of the unemployed who were job losers

—that is, those who had lost jobs or who had completed temporary jobs—was 45 percent. Another 33 percent of 

unemployed AIANs were reentrants, defined as unemployed people who had previously worked but were not in the 

labor force prior to beginning their job search. Smaller proportions of the AIAN unemployed were job leavers 

(people who voluntarily left their jobs) and new entrants (unemployed people who never previously worked)—13 

percent and 9 percent, respectively.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Duration of joblessness is another measure that can illuminate how different groups fare relative to one another in 

the labor market. Among the unemployed, almost 1 in 4 AIANs had been jobless for 27 weeks or longer in 2016–

18. This proportion was about the same as that for the population overall.

People not in the labor force who want a job

Category American Indian and Alaska Native Total population

Unemployed, 16 years and over (in thousands) 136 7,016

Percent of total unemployed 100.0 100.0

Reason for unemployment

Job losers and people who completed temporary 

jobs 45.1 48.3

Job leavers 12.6 11.5

Reentrants 33.2 30.1

New entrants 9.1 10.1

Duration of unemployment

Less than 5 weeks 33.0 32.3

5 to 14 weeks 29.1 29.0

15 to 26 weeks 14.6 14.7

27 weeks and over 23.3 24.0

Table 7. Reason for and duration of unemployment among American Indians and Alaska Natives and total 

population, percent distribution, averages for the combined years 2016–18
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Some researchers have questioned the appropriateness of the CPS definition of unemployment for the AIAN 

population—in particular, the requirement that a person needs to be actively looking for work in order to be 

classified as unemployed.[18] Active job search methods are those that could result in a job offer without further 

action on the part of the job seeker, such as filling out a job application, interviewing for a job, or contacting an 

employer directly about a job.[19] Even if they would like to work, people who are not employed and not actively 

looking for work are not counted as unemployed in the CPS; instead, they are classified as not in the labor force.

However, some researchers have suggested that in small, economically depressed communities—such as certain 

remote American Indian reservations and isolated Alaskan Native villages—people may not actively look for work 

when they know there are no jobs available, instead relying on informal networks to find information on possible 

employment opportunities. Thus, many AIANs who live in those areas, although they would like jobs, may not look 

for work because they know there is no point in doing so. When job opportunities become available in such areas, 

people can find out quickly through word of mouth. In fact, some analyses of the labor market situation of AIANs do 

not use the CPS definition of unemployment and instead measure the number of people who are not working but 

want a job.[20]

While the CPS does measure the number of people who are not in the labor force but want a job, this measure is 

not used in official unemployment estimates for two reasons. First, the question about how to measure 

unemployment has been debated for many years, but a number of internal and external reviews of CPS 

methodology have concluded that whether people want a job is inherently subjective. A measure based on whether 

people want a job would not account for many factors people consider before taking a job, such as the nature of 

the work, hours, and location. In addition, whether a person wants a job may vary with changing labor market 

conditions or personal circumstances.[21] Second, the primary use of the unemployment rate is to measure the 

health of the economy, so one of its key features is its sensitivity to the business cycle. That is, the unemployment 

rate increases during economic downturns and decreases during expansions. The number of people not in the 

labor force who want a job is much less cyclically sensitive. Classifying these individuals as unemployed could 

dampen the sensitivity of the unemployment rate.

Nonetheless, we can examine CPS estimates of people not in the labor force who want a job to determine how the 

inclusion of this category would compare with the official measures. As was the case for the population as a whole, 

only a small minority of AIANs who were not in the labor force wanted a job in 2016–18. (Many people who are not 

in the labor force are retired, stay-at-home parents, or students and do not want a job.) However, a greater 

proportion of them wanted a job than the general population: in 2016–18, 9.2 percent of AIANs who were not in the 

labor force wanted a job, higher than the 5.8 percent for the population overall. (See table 8.)

Category

American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN)

Total population

Total Residing in AIAN area Not residing in AIAN area

Labor force 1,742 422 1,320 160,527

Unemployed 136 48 88 7,016

Unemployment rate 7.8 11.4 6.6 4.4

Table 8. Selected labor force measures for American Indians and Alaska Natives and total population, 

averages for the combined years 2016–18 (numbers in thousands)

See footnotes at end of table.
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Notes: American Indian and Alaska Native areas include federal American Indian reservations and off-reservation trust lands, joint-use federal American Indian 

reservations, Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, joint-use Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, Alaska Native village statistical areas, tribal-designated statistical 

areas, state American Indian reservations, and state-designated tribal statistical areas.The alternative measure is defined as unemployed plus all people not in 

the labor force who want a job, as a percentage of the labor force plus all people not in the labor force who want a job.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The percentage was higher for AIANs residing in AIAN areas than for those who did not live in such areas—10.6 

percent versus 8.5 percent. However, in both AIAN areas and non-AIAN areas, only a small percentage of AIANs 

not in the labor force wanted a job. 

What if those who wanted a job were considered among the unemployed? BLS has a long history of producing 

alternative measures of labor underutilization to provide insight into a broad range of labor market problems 

encountered by workers. Such measures define unemployment both more broadly and more narrowly than the 

official unemployment rate. One regularly calculated rate even includes people who are employed part time for 

economic reasons, a group widely considered underemployed.[22] While no measure currently produced includes 

people who want a job along with the unemployed, such a measure could be produced by following the same 

basic idea as that for existing measures. Such a measure would be calculated thus:

A measure that includes people not in the labor force who want a job is, not surprisingly, higher than the 

unemployment rate. It is especially high for those residing in AIAN areas. However, the alternative measure is also 

higher than the unemployment rate for the population overall. In percentage terms, the increases for AIANs and for 

the total population are of similar size. We note that, although a measure such as this can certainly be constructed, 

it is a little less sensitive to economic cycles than the unemployment rate.[23]

Summary

This article has examined the labor force characteristics of AIANs by a variety of demographic and other 

characteristics, primarily using CPS data from 2016 through 2018. During this period, AIANs had a younger age 

profile than the population as a whole, and younger people, particularly those in the prime working ages of 25 to 

54, are more likely to be working or looking for work than people in older age groups. However, AIANs also were 

more likely to have a disability and to have lower educational attainment; both of these characteristics are 

Category

American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN)

Total population

Total Residing in AIAN area Not residing in AIAN area

Not in the labor force 1,145 390 756 94,942

People who currently 

want a job 105 41 64 5,538

As a percent of all 

people not in the labor 

force

9.2 10.6 8.5 5.8

Alternative measure of labor 

underutilization (percent) 13.1 19.3 11.0 7.6

Table 8. Selected labor force measures for American Indians and Alaska Natives and total population, 

averages for the combined years 2016–18 (numbers in thousands)
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21

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associated with lower labor force participation. A closer look at AIANs reveals that their labor force participation 

was lower than that of the population as a whole across most gender and age groups, although AIAN rates were 

higher than the national average for the foreign born and people with less educational attainment. Among AIANs, 

people residing in AIAN areas had lower labor force participation rates than those who lived elsewhere.

A greater share of employed AIANs worked in service occupations than the national average, and a smaller share 

worked in management, professional, and related occupations. AIANs living in AIAN areas were considerably more 

likely than the population as a whole to work in the public sector—including federal, state, local, and tribal 

governments.

In general, AIAN unemployment rates were higher than those of the total population for most of the characteristics 

examined in this article. Among AIANs, rates were particularly high for 16- to 24-year-olds, people with disabilities, 

and people residing in AIAN areas. The duration of unemployment for AIANs was similar to that of the population 

overall.

Finally, while this article investigated the official unemployment rate, some researchers question the usefulness of 

this measure for AIANs. This article presents a possible alternative measure that takes into account people who 

are not employed but want a job. While this alternative measure produced higher estimates than the official 

unemployment rate for both AIANs and the total population in the 2016–18 period, the increases for AIANs and for 

the population as a whole were of roughly similar size in percentage terms.

Appendix

Generally, CPS data on race are tabulated for people who identify themselves as being of one race only. Thus, all 

estimates previously cited in this article are for people who identified as AIAN alone, not as AIAN in addition to 

another race. However, many researchers prefer to use AIAN data that include all those who identify as AIAN, 

including those who consider themselves as being of more than one race. Selected statistics for this broader group

—commonly referred to as AIAN alone or in combination[24]—are presented in this appendix to aid researchers.

Category Total Men Women

Civlian noninstiutional population (in thousands) 5,086 2,470 2,615

Age

Total, 16 years and over 100.0 100.0 100.0

16 to 24 years 19.3 20.3 18.4

25 to 54 years 53.3 53.5 53.2

55 years and over 27.4 26.3 28.4

Disability

With a disability 17.4 16.7 18.1

With no disability 82.6 83.3 81.9

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Hispanic or Latino 30.6 32.6 28.7

Non-Hispanic 69.4 67.4 71.3

Nativity

Table A-1. Percent distribution of the American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in combination 

population, by selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

See footnotes at end of table.
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Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Category Total Men Women

Native born 86.6 85.1 88.0

Foreign born 13.4 14.9 12.0

Educational attainment

Total, 25 years and over 100.0 100.0 100.0

Less than a high school diploma 17.5 19.3 15.8

High school graduates, no college 32.0 34.6 29.6

Some college or associate’s degree 31.5 28.7 34.1

Bachelor’s degree and higher 19.1 17.4 20.6

Table A-1. Percent distribution of the American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in combination 

population, by selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

Category Total Men Women

Labor force, 16 years and over (in thousands) 3,117 1,640 1,477

Age

Total, 16 years and over 61.3 66.4 56.5

16 to 24 years 54.9 56.7 53.0

25 to 54 years 76.3 83.1 69.9

55 years and over 36.6 39.9 33.6

Disability

With a disability 25.5 27.1 24.1

With no disability 68.9 74.3 63.6

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Hispanic or Latino 67.9 75.6 59.6

Non-Hispanic 58.4 61.9 55.2

Nativity

Native born 59.7 63.3 56.5

Foreign born 71.3 84.3 56.2

Educational attainment

Total, 25 years and over 62.8 68.9 57.3

Less than a high school diploma 51.1 61.6 39.3

High school graduates, no college 59.1 66.7 51.0

Some college or associate’s degree 65.9 70.5 62.3

Bachelor’s degree and higher 74.7 78.6 71.7

Table A-2. Labor force participation rates for the American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in 

combination population, by selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

Category Total Residing in AIAN area Not residing in AIAN area

Table A-3. Labor force participation rates and unemployment rates for the American Indian and Alaska 

Native (AIAN) alone or in combination population, by area of residence, averages for the combined years 

2016–18

See footnotes at end of table.
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Note: American Indian and Alaska Native areas include federal American Indian reservations and off-reservation trust lands, joint-use federal American Indian 

reservations, Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, joint-use Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, Alaska Native village statistical areas, tribal-designated statistical 

areas, state American Indian reservations, and state-designated tribal statistical areas.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Category Total Residing in AIAN area Not residing in AIAN area

Labor force participation rates

Age

Total, 16 years and over 61.3 52.6 63.3

16 to 24 years 54.9 43.0 57.8

25 to 54 years 76.3 69.4 77.7

55 years and over 36.6 32.0 37.7

Gender

Men 66.4 54.7 69.0

Women 56.5 50.7 57.8

Unemployment rates

Age

Total, 16 years and over 7.2 10.9 6.6

16 to 24 years 12.4 21.2 10.7

25 to 54 years 6.5 9.8 5.9

55 years and over 4.9 5.1 4.8

Gender

Men 7.6 13.3 6.6

Women 6.8 8.3 6.6

Table A-3. Labor force participation rates and unemployment rates for the American Indian and Alaska 

Native (AIAN) alone or in combination population, by area of residence, averages for the combined years 

2016–18

Category Percent distribution

Total employed, 16 years and over (in thousands) 2,891

Percent of total employed 100.0

Occupation

Management, professional, and related occupations 27.6

Management, business, and financial operations occupations 11.2

Professional and related occupations 16.4

Service occupations 24.1

Sales and office occupations 22.2

Sales and related occupations 9.8

Office and administrative support occupations 12.4

Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations 11.8

Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations 1.1

Construction and extraction occupations 6.7

Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations 3.9

Production, transportation, and material moving occupations 14.3

Production occupations 6.8

Table A-4. Percent distribution of the employed American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in 

combination population, selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

See footnotes at end of table.
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[1] Numbers do not sum to total because a small number of unpaid family workers are included in the total but not shown separately.

[2] Includes federal, state, local, or tribal government.

[3] Includes all self-employed workers, whether or not their businesses are incorporated or unincorporated.

Notes: Employed full-time workers are people who usually work 35 hours or more per week. Employed part-time workers are those who usually work less than 

35 hours per week.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Category Percent distribution

Transportation and material moving occupations 7.5

Class of worker[1]

Public-sector wage and salary workers[2] 16.1

Private-sector wage and salary workers 75.1

Self-employed workers[3] 8.7

Full- or part-time status

Full-time workers 80.5

Part-time workers 19.5

Usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers

Total, full-time wage and salary workers 100.0

$0–$499 23.1

$500–$749 29.4

$750–$1,199 27.1

$1,200 or more 20.4

Table A-4. Percent distribution of the employed American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in 

combination population, selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

Category Total

Unemployed, 16 years and over (in thousands) 226

Age and gender

Total, 16 years and over 7.2

16 to 24 years 12.4

25 to 54 years 6.5

55 years and over 4.9

Men, 16 years and over 7.6

16 to 24 years 13.7

25 to 54 years 6.4

55 years and over 6.0

Women, 16 years and over 6.8

16 to 24 years 10.9

25 to 54 years 6.6

55 years and over 3.8

Disability

With a disability 12.5

With no disability 6.8

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Table A-5. Unemployment rates for the American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in combination 

population, by selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

See footnotes at end of table.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Category Total

Hispanic or Latino 5.5

Non-Hispanic 8.1

Nativity

Native born 7.8

Foreign born 4.1

Educational attainment

Total, 25 years and over 6.2

Less than a high school diploma 8.4

High school graduates, no college 7.7

Some college or associate’s degree 5.8

Bachelor’s degree and higher 3.2

Table A-5. Unemployment rates for the American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in combination 

population, by selected characteristics, averages for the combined years 2016–18

Category Percent distribution

Unemployed, 16 years and over (in thousands) 226

Percent of total unemployed 100.0

Reason for unemployment

Job losers and people who completed temporary jobs 45.1

Job leavers 11.9

Reentrants 33.3

New entrants 9.7

Duration of unemployment

Less than 5 weeks 33.3

5 to 14 weeks 28.4

15 to 26 weeks 14.5

27 weeks and over 23.9

Table A-6. Reason for and duration of unemployment in the American Indian and Alaska Native alone or in 

combination population, averages for the combined years 2016–18

Category Total Residing in AIAN area Not residing in AIAN area

Labor force 3,117 494 2,623

Unemployed 226 54 172

Unemployment rate 7.2 10.9 6.6

Not in the labor force 1,969 445 1,524

People who currently want 

a job 173 44 129

As a percent of all people 

not in the labor force 8.8 9.8 8.5

Table A-7. Selected labor force measures for the American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) alone or in 

combination population, averages for the combined years 2016–18 (numbers in thousands)

See footnotes at end of table.
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Notes: American Indian and Alaska Native areas include federal American Indian reservations and off-reservation trust lands, joint-use federal American Indian 

reservations, Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, joint-use Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, Alaska Native village statistical areas, tribal-designated statistical 

areas, state American Indian reservations, and state-designated tribal statistical areas. The alternative measure is defined as unemployed plus all people not 

in the labor force who want a job, as a percentage of the labor force plus all people not in the labor force who want a job.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors would like to thank Dave Talan and Kevin Cooksey for their assistance with 

data from the QCEW program.

SUGGESTED CITATION

Mary Dorinda Allard and Vernon Brundage Jr., "American Indians and Alaska Natives in the U.S. labor force," 

Monthly Labor Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, November 2019, https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2019.24

NOTES

1 The Current Population Survey (CPS), a monthly sample survey of about 60,000 eligible households, is the source for the official 

national unemployment rate and many other U.S. labor force statistics. For more information about the CPS, see the BLS Handbook 

of methods (https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/cps/home.htm). References to the civilian noninstitutional population age 16 and older 

include AIANs.

2 In accordance with the 1997 Office of Management and Budget standards for the classification of federal data on race and ethnicity, 

the CPS collects information about five race categories: White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian and Alaska Native, 

and Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Individuals may list all the race groups that they or other household members 

consider themselves to be, allowing for the identification of those who are of more than one race. The 1997 standards were 

implemented in the CPS in 2003. Prior to 2003, respondents could identify only one race category. In addition, the AIAN category 

included people having origins in any of the original peoples of North America; in the 1997 standards, the definition was expanded to 

include original peoples of Central and South America. See “Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race 

and Ethnicity” (Office of Management and Budget, October 30, 1997), https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/

Revisions-to-the-Standards-for-the-Classification-of-Federal-Data-on-Race-and-Ethnicity-October30-1997.pdf.

3 For a list of federally recognized Indian tribal entities and Alaska Native entities, see “Indian entities recognized by and eligible to 

receive services from the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs,” Federal Register, vol. 84, no. 22, February 2019, https://

www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2019-02-01/pdf/2019-00897.pdf.

4 Respondents are asked, “Please choose one or more races that you consider yourself to be. For this survey, Hispanic origin is not a 

race.” If there are multiple people living in the household, respondents are asked about the race of each household member. For more 

information, see pages C3-27 to C3-31 of the Current Population Survey interviewing manual (U.S. Census Bureau, April 2015), 

https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/methodology/intman/CPS_Manual_April2015.pdf.

5 See “Indian health disparities” (Indian Health Service, October 2019), https://www.ihs.gov/newsroom/factsheets/disparities/. 

6 For more information about how disability status is measured in the CPS, see “Frequently asked questions about disability 

data” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics), https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsdisability_faq.htm.

Category Total Residing in AIAN area Not residing in AIAN area

Alternative measure of labor 

underutilization (percent) 12.1 18.1 11.0

Table A-7. Selected labor force measures for the American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) alone or in 

combination population, averages for the combined years 2016–18 (numbers in thousands)
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7 See “Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity.”

8 The CPS defines the foreign born as people residing in the United States who were not U.S. citizens at birth. Specifically, they were 

born outside the United States or one of its outlying areas such as Puerto Rico or Guam, and neither parent was a U.S. citizen. The 

foreign born include legally admitted immigrants, refugees, temporary residents such as students and temporary workers, and 

undocumented immigrants. However, the survey data do not specifically identify people in these categories.

9 See “Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity.”

10 As defined for the estimates presented in this article, American Indian and Alaska Native areas include federal American Indian 

reservations and off-reservation trust lands, joint-use federal American Indian reservations, Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, joint-use 

Oklahoma tribal statistical areas, Alaska Native village statistical areas, tribal-designated statistical areas, state American Indian 

reservations, and state-designated tribal statistical areas. For more information on the definition of AIAN areas, see “American Indian, 

Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian areas,” Glossary (U.S. Census Bureau), https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/geography/

about/glossary.html#par_textimage_1. A map showing AIAN areas appears in figure 4 of Tina Norris, Paula L. Vines, and Elizabeth M. 

Hoeffel, “The American Indian and Alaska Native population: 2010,” 2010 Census Briefs (U.S. Census Bureau, January 2012), https://

www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf.

11 Many non-AIANs resided in AIAN areas. In 2016–18, 3.8 million people resided in AIAN areas; 812,000, or 21 percent, were 

AIANs. (Note that this estimate of AIANs includes people who identify as AIAN alone and not as AIAN and another race; 939,000 

people who identified as AIAN alone or in combination resided in AIAN areas.)

12 For more information about the labor force characteristics of people with disabilities, see Persons with a disability: labor force 

characteristics—2018, USDL-19-0326 (U.S. Department of Labor, February 26, 2019), https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/

disabl.pdf.

13 For more information about labor force characteristics of the foreign born, see Foreign-born workers: labor force characteristics—

2018, USDL-19-0812 (U.S. Department of Labor, May 16, 2019), https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/forbrn.pdf.

14 For example, the National Indian Gaming Commission requires that net revenues from any tribal gaming operation be used for the 

following purposes: funding tribal government operations or programs, providing for the general welfare of the Indian tribe and its 

members, promoting tribal economic development, donating to charitable organizations, or helping fund operations of local 

government agencies. If a tribe is able to adequately provide these services, it may also be able to distribute net revenue in the form 

of a per capita payment to its members. See “What happens to the profits from Indian gaming operations?,” The Commission: FAQs

(National Indian Gaming Commission), https://www.nigc.gov/commission/faqs/detail/what-is-the-commissions-role-in-regulatingindian-gaming (accessed November 15, 2019).

15 For more information on the QCEW program, see the BLS Handbook of methods (https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/cew/home.htm). 

16 To reflect how Indian tribes are treated under the Federal Unemployment Tax Act (FUTA), the QCEW program assigns tribal 

governments and related establishments to local government ownership. The FUTA requires federally recognized Indian tribes to be 

treated similarly to state and local governments. Under the law, “Indian tribe” is defined as “any Indian tribe, band, nation, or other 

organized group or community, including any Alaska Native village or regional or village corporation as defined in or established 

pursuant to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, which is recognized as eligible for the special programs and service provided by 

the U.S. to Indians because of their status as Indians.” For more information about the law, see https://oui.doleta.gov/dmstree/uipl/

uipl2k1/uipl_1401.htm.

17 For several reasons, the QCEW data presented in this article should not be regarded as a complete count of establishments 

owned and operated by Indian tribes or Alaska Native entities. First, not all establishments owned and operated by Indian tribes or 

Alaska Native entities are required to file Unemployment Insurance (UI) tax and may not appear in administrative UI records. (See 

https://oui.doleta.gov/dmstree/uipl/uipl2k1/uipl_1401.htm.) Second, establishments owned and operated by Indian tribes or Alaska 

Native entities can be difficult to identify. State UI departments are typically not required to identify such establishments in their 

administrative records. Also, an Indian tribe or Alaska Native entity may have jurisdiction over land in more than one state and may 

operate establishments outside of the state in which it is primarily located. See “How can a tribe operate a casino on land that is in 
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

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another state?,” The Commission: FAQs (National Indian Gaming Commission), https://www.nigc.gov/commission/faqs/detail/what-isthe-commissions-role-in-regulating-indian-gaming (accessed November 15, 2019). Third, the QCEW identifies as tribal 

establishments only those establishments that are owned and operated by federally recognized tribes; establishments owned and 

operated by state-recognized tribes or by tribes that are not recognized are not identified. Finally, while the QCEW attempts to identify 

all individual worksites, sometimes reporting establishments do not break out all of their individual worksites. For example, the QCEW 

may receive one record with the total employment for a tribal council, a school, and a casino. In this case, the record would be coded 

to the dominant industry code and would not identify all three units with their correct industry codes.

18 For example, see Judith Kleinfeld and John A. Kruse, “Native Americans in the labor force: hunting for an accurate measure,” 

Monthly Labor Review, July 1982, pp. 47–51, https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1982/07/rpt3full.pdf.

19 For more information about classification of active job search methods, see pages B2-3 and B2-4 of the Current Population Survey 

interviewing manual.

20 For example, see 2013 American Indian population and labor force report (U.S. Department of the Interior, January 16, 2014), 

https://www.bia.gov/sites/bia.gov/files/assets/public/pdf/idc1-024782.pdf. It is legislatively stipulated that this report provide estimates 

of the “proportion of people who are available for work but who are not working.” There is no stipulation that unemployment numbers 

be included, and the report does not include them because data on the size of the labor force within tribal service populations are not 

available.

21 For a discussion of the history of the unemployment rate, see Megan Dunn, Steven E. Haugen, and Janie-Lynn Kang, “The 

Current Population Survey—tracking unemployment in the United States for over 75 years,” Monthly Labor Review, January 2018, 

https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2018.4.

22 For more information about the development of alternative measures, see Steven E. Haugen, “Measures of labor underutilization 

from the Current Population Survey,” Working Paper 424 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 2009), https://www.bls.gov/osmr/

research-papers/2009/pdf/ec090020.pdf.

23 The 2013 American Indian population and labor force report used a different alternative to the unemployment rate—the number of 

people who are available for work but not working as a percentage of the population. This measure is estimated by defining “available 

for work but not working” as anyone age 16 and older who is not working and is either (1) actively looking for work or (2) not actively 

looking for work but who wants a job. (In the CPS, people are classified as unemployed if they (1) were not employed during the 

survey reference week; (2) were available for work during the survey reference week, except for temporary illness; and (3) made at 

least one specific, active effort to find a job during the 4-week period ending with the survey reference week or were temporarily laid 

off and expecting to be recalled to their job.) Compared with the unemployment rate, this indicator is less sensitive to economic cycles 

and more sensitive to changes in the age composition of the population (for example, the measure is likely to decline as the 

population ages).

24 For detailed information about the “AIAN alone,” “AIAN in combination,” and “AIAN alone or in combination” populations from the 

2010 census, see Norris, Vines, and Hoeffel, “The American Indian and Alaska Native population: 2010.”

RELATED CONTENT

Related Articles

Labor force characteristics by race and ethnicity, 2018, BLS Reports, October 2019.

Race, economics, and social status, Spotlight on Statistics, May 2018.

Native Americans in the labor force: hunting for an accurate measure, Monthly Labor Review, July 1982.

Related Subjects
 U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

Race and ethnicity Current population survey Labor force Unemployment Employment