Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000 15

Are Animals Occupational Hazards?

DINO DRUDI

Are Animals Animals Animals

Occupational Hazards? Occupational Hazards?

Dino Drudi is an economist in the Office of

Safety, Health and Working Conditions, Bureau of Labor Statistics. William McCarthy,

a supervisory statistician, Janice Windau, an

epidemiologist, and Linda Garris, Eric

Sygnatur, Timothy Webster, and Mark Zak,

economists in that office, assisted with data

development.

Telephone: (202) 691-6175

E-mail: Drudi_D@bls.gov

Working with animals requires attention to the unique

hazards each one poses—otherwise, results can be

deadly for workers. Using multi-year data, BLS’

comprehensive overview of occupational hazards posed

by animals may be the first to focus on so wide a variety

of animals, from livestock to wild animals to pets

to insects.

While animals serve human

needs, they can turn on

humans with deadly consequences. From 1992-97, animals directly inflicted or contributed to 375

fatal occupational injuries—1 percent

of all the fatal injuries reported to the

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). BLS

also estimates that, during this timespan, there were 75,000 animal-related

nonfatal cases in the private sector of

the economy.1 These 75,000 cases account for 0.6 percent of all nonfatal injuries and illnesses involving 1 or more

days away from work to recuperate.2

On average, there are 63 fatal injuries

and 12,500 nonfatal injuries and illnesses involving animals each year.

Historically, research on occupational hazards associated with animals

has tended to focus on one particular

occupation, animal, or group of animals

such as farm animals, often subsumed

under more general research.3 Data for

1992-97 from the BLS Census of Fatal

Occupational Injuries (CFOI) and Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII) enable BLS to undertake

a pioneering, comprehensive overview

of occupational hazards posed by a

wide variety of animals. (See tables 1

and 2 for the kinds of animals involved

in fatal work injuries and in nonfatal

work injuries and illnesses, respectively.) This article presents some of

the results of that research.

All live animals, as well as some dead

animals, are included within the scope

of this discussion. However, once animal carcasses go beyond the initial

stages of veterinary autopsy or food

processing, they lose their status as

animals for BLS classification purposes,

and are considered animal products,

meat, or waste. At that point they are

no longer within the scope of this article.4 Allergic reactions to animal products, such as feathers or dander, also

are not addressed here.

Separate sections devoted to fatal

occupational injuries and nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses specific to birds, fish, insects and arachnids, dogs and cats, and cattle and

equine comprise the body of the article.

The numbers of fatal and nonfatal cases

reported for sheep, swine, rodents, and

snakes and other reptiles are too small

to support such a detailed analysis.5

The major causes of animal-related

work fatalities are analyzed. Comparisons among different animal categories

are then explored, followed by a summary of major findings and a brief conclusion.

Birds

Between 1992-97, there were approxi-
16 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000

TABLE 2. Animals involved in nonfatal

occupational injuries and illnesses,

number and percent, 1992-97

Total ............. 75.0 100

Animals, unspecified 1.0 1

Birds ..................... 1.2 2

Chickens ........... .5 1

Turkeys ............. .5 1

Other birds ........ - -

Fish (includes

 shellfish) ............... 2.5 3

Insects, arachnids . 36.1 48

Mammals

 (nonhuman) .......... 32.5 43

Dogs .................. 13.8 18

Cats ................... 4.6 6

Cattle (bovine) ... 5.3 7

Equine ............... 5.1 7

Sheep ................ - -

Swine ................. 1.9 3

Rats, rodents .... .2 0

Other mam-

 mals ................. .6 1

Reptiles, snakes .... 1.1 1

Other animals ......... .6 1

 NOTE: Dash indicates data that do not

meet publication criteria. Numbers may not

add to totals due to rounding and the application of publication criteria.

incidents are rare, birds can pose a particular hazard for aviation, and have the

potential for causing incidents involving multiple fatalities. Birds can be

sucked into aircraft engines, causing

the engines to fail in flight.

Fish (including shellfish)

Although there are virtually no fatalities associated with fish, they account

for 2,500 nonfatal occupational injuries

and illnesses over the 6-year study

period. Manufacturing accounts for

most of these cases; nonprecision machine operator, handler, and laborer

occupations typically associated with

manufacturing account for two-fifths

of the fish-related nonfatal injuries and

illnesses.7

About half of fish-related nonfatal

cases result from contact with objects,

such as being struck by a several-hundred pound fish being unloaded for

processing. A fish this size need not

even be alive to cause such an injury

or illness—it need only slip off a conveyor belt and land on a worker’s foot.

Overexertion (as may occur in lifting or

wielding a heavy fish to put it on a conveyor belt) and exposure to harmful

substances (as when dermatitis results

from handling fish) account for the vast

majority of the remaining cases. Fish

also inflict a wide variety of injuries and

illnesses such as sprains, and punctures other than bites—some species’

fins, for example, can be very sharp.

Insects and arachnids8

Insects caused 42 fatalities during 1992-

97. Of these, 39 were the result of venomous bee, wasp, or hornet stings.

Because many persons are allergic to

bee, wasp, and hornet venom, they can

quickly succumb to such conditions as

anaphylactic shock, or even heart failure, unless promptly treated. Although

arachnids did not account for any fatalities during this period, arachnids

and insects inflicted 36,100 nonfatal

occupational injuries and illnesses.9

Venomous stings and bites were the

most common.

Bees, wasps, and hornets are prevalent throughout the country, and pose

a threat to workers, particularly when

they are active during warmer times of

the year. Unless stung dozens or even

hundreds of times, nonallergic individuals tend to survive bee, wasp, and

hornet stings. Although more rare,

workers also encounter poisonous spiders whose venom is more dangerous—even to those workers who are

not allergic. In the southwestern parts

of the country, scorpions, whose sting

is more venomous than most spider

bites, can be a hazard, but workers are

less likely to encounter these nocturnal arachnids. Fire ants, which are becoming increasingly common in the

southeastern parts of the country, also

can inflict serious injury.10

Another, less common hazard associated with insects and arachnids is

the transmission of diseases to humans. Workers bitten by ticks, for example, can contract diseases such as

Lyme Disease and Rocky Mountain

Spotted Fever, which can cause long

periods of disability unless the condition is promptly diagnosed and properly treated.11 Insects and arachnids

can also play a contributory role in seTABLE 1. Animals involved in fatal

occupational injuries, number and

percent, 1992-97

Total ............. 375 100

Animals,

 unspecified ........... - -

Birds ........................ - -

Chickens ........... - -

Turkeys ............. - -

Other birds ........ - -

Fish (includes

 shellfish) ............... - -

Insects, arachnids . 42 11

Mammals

 (nonhuman) .......... 303 81

Dogs .................. 8 2

Cats ................... - -

Cattle (bovine) ... 141 38

Equine ............... 104 28

Sheep ................ - -

Swine ................. - -

Rats, rodents .... - -

Other mam-

 mals ................. 41 11

Reptiles, snakes .... - -

Other animals ......... - -

 1 Deer account for more than half of these

fatalities, followed by elephants, which account for one-eighth.

 NOTE: Dash indicates fewer than five fatalities or data that do not meet publication

criteria. Numbers may not add to totals

due to rounding and the application of publication criteria.

Fatal occupational

injuries

Number Percent

Animal

1

mately 1,200 nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses involving birds.

Poultry (almost entirely chickens and

turkeys, but also ducks and geese) account for nearly nine-tenths of these

cases. Manufacturing, which often includes poultry slaughter and initial processing, accounts for two-fifths of the

cases involving birds. Agriculture and

retail trade also account for large numbers of cases. Workers in three occupations—farmworkers, nonconstruction laborers, and butchers and meat

cutters—experienced nearly half the

bird-related nonfatal cases.

Chickens and turkeys make up

nearly the entire stock of farm poultry.

During the 1992-97 period, the number

of chickens averaged 388 million, and

the number of turkeys averaged 293

million, per year.6 Table 2 shows that,

despite these large numbers, poultry

accounts for a very small portion of

nonfatal cases.

Although the data suggest that such

Nonfatal occupational injuries

and illnesses

Number

(thousands)Percent

Animal
 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000 17

Are Animals Occupational Hazards?

vere injuries, such as a worker falling

off a ladder because of a wasp attack.

Outdoor workers account for threequarters of fatal insect injuries, with 27

reported in the agriculture and construction industries over the study period. Outdoor workers, such as construction and nonconstruction

laborers, truck drivers, groundskeepers, and farm workers, also are among

the workers most frequently victims of

nonfatal insect and arachnid injuries

and illnesses. But so are some indoor

workers, including machine operators,

janitors, nurses aides and orderlies, and

even cashiers.

It is not surprising that stings and

bites are most common on the upper

extremities, as these are the most exposed body parts. Outdoor workers,

and some indoor workers such as machine operators and janitors, often wear

short sleeves or roll up their sleeves,

and generally do not wear gloves during warmer weather when these insects

are active. An insect or arachnid might,

moreover, be able to sting or bite

through many summer shirt or blouse

fabrics.

The lower extremities are inherently

more vulnerable to insect stings and

bites than are the upper extremities because the surface area of the lower extremities is greater, and because parts

of the lower extremities are more difficult to swat. Nevertheless, stings and

bites are inflicted on the lower extremities barely half as often as on the upper extremities. One explanation might

be that it is harder for these insects to

sting or bite through such common

work pant fabrics as denim. Moreover,

although some workers wear shorts or

skirts outdoors in warmer weather,

when exposure to stings and bites is

more likely, most do not; some employers even prohibit or discourage such

attire.

Because the head is one of the most

sensitive body parts, a worker stung

or bitten on the head would be more

aware of the injury and, consequently,

be better able to take preventive measures such as swatting the attacking

insect or arachnid. The head, one of

the most exposed body parts, accounts

for one-tenth of cases involving insects and arachnids.

Of greater potential concern, however, is that one-third of the cases involving the head are in the eye region,

where swelling from even a mosquito

bite might keep a worker away from the

job by impairing vision until the swelling subsides. These 1,300 cases, however, tend to be minor, with a short recuperation time. One-fifth of them

involve a foreign body—a small insect,

such as a mosquito or gnat—getting

caught in the eye without biting the

worker.

Dogs and cats

Dogs. Dogs were involved in eight

occupational fatalities—six of which

resulted from highway and nonindustrial offroad vehicle crashes in which

the vehicle went out of control after

hitting, or swerving to avoid hitting,

the dog.12

Dogs also were involved in 13,800

nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses involving days away from work,

three-quarters of which resulted from

animal attacks. Overexertion, primarily

overexertion in lifting, accounts for

nearly all the remainder—hardly surprising because a number of dog breeds

are quite heavy and unwieldy.13

Two-fifths of nonfatal cases associated with dogs involve the upper extremities, compared with just over onefifth of injuries and illnesses overall.

Almost all of these cases involve the

hand (including the fingers), and generally result from dog bites. Bites comprise three-fifths of all dog-related nonfatal cases. In addition, there is a small

number of more serious dog bites that

transmit diseases. Sprains are the next

most frequent type of case, accounting for one-fifth of the dog-related nonfatal cases.

Dog-related nonfatal injuries and illnesses affect a wide range of occupations, although nonfarm animal caretakers account for one-third of these

cases, followed by truck drivers, who

account for one-tenth, and veterinary

technicians and meter readers, who

each account for one-twentieth.14

Cats. During the 1992-97 period, there

were no occupational fatalities associated with cats, although cats account

for 4,600 nonfatal occupational injuries

and illnesses involving days away from

work.15 Almost all injuries and illnesses

inflicted by cats are animal attacks, such

as cat bites or scratches. Bites alone

account for more than two-thirds of all

cat-related cases. In addition, there is

a small number of more serious cat bites

that transmit diseases. Because cats

are uniquely equipped to scratch, they

account for more abrasions severe

enough to require days away from work

for recuperation than any other mammal.

Four-fifths of injuries and illnesses

associated with cats involve the upper

extremities, compared with just over

one-fifth of injuries and illnesses overall. The arms, wrists, and hands are

often the easiest body part for a cat to

bite or scratch. Animal-handling occupations—particularly nonfarm

animal caretakers, veterinary technicians, and veterinarians—have the largest numbers of cat-related nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses. The

number of nonfatal cases involving

veterinary technicians is about the

same for cats as for dogs, but cats inflicted almost twice as many nonfatal

injuries to veterinarians as did dogs

during the 6-year study period.

Comparisons between dogs and cats. Comparisons between dogs and cats.

As we have seen, the number of occupational injuries and illnesses associated with dogs is several times that of

cats. While there were no fatal work

injuries involving cats during the 6-year

period, dogs accounted for eight fatalities. There were 3 times as many nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses

for dogs as for cats. Divergent estimates of the numbers of dogs and cats

in the United States confound quantification efforts, although the number

of cats appears to at least equal the

number of dogs.16 Consequently, it

appears safe to conclude that dogs

pose a larger work hazard than cats.

As the following tabulation illustrates, the 1992-97 gender distribution

of nonfatal injuries and illnesses involving these two common pets contrasts
18 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000

with the gender distribution of nonfatal cases overall:

Men Men

Dogs .......... 6,584 7,174 48 52

Cats ........... 1,002 3,644 22 78

Although, overall, men sustain twice

as many nonfatal occupational injuries

and illnesses as women, despite being

barely a majority of the workforce,

women account for a majority of the

cases for dogs and for cats. Their share

of cases involving cats, four-fifths, is

particularly large. Nonfarm animal caretakers, such as might work in a

veterinarian’s office, pet store, or kennel, account for the largest number of

injuries and illnesses inflicted by dogs

and cats alike. According to data from

the Current Population Survey, women

make up two-thirds of employment in

this occupation.17 While this might

help explain why women predominate

among dog- and cat-related nonfatal

cases, it does not explain why women

account for a greater share of cat-related cases than of dog-related cases.

Even after adjusting for truck drivers

and meter readers—male-dominated

occupations that are among the most

common for dog-related cases, but that

are negligible for cat-related cases—

women’s share of dog-related cases

remains much less than their share of

cat-related cases.

Sprains and strains, which account

for more than two-fifths of nonfatal injuries and illnesses overall,18 are considerably less prevalent for cat-related

cases than for dog-related cases, comprising one-fifth of cases for dogs and

a negligible share for cats. Cats typically average 5 to 6 pounds,19 while

dogs usually weigh much more. While

this might explain why sprains and

strains are inflicted with greater frequency by dogs than by cats, and why

women account for a greater share of

nonfatal injuries and illnesses inflicted

by dogs than of nonfatal injuries and

illnesses overall, it cannot explain why

women suffer disproportionately more

cat-related cases.

Cattle (bovine) and equine

Cattle. Cattle include bovine in general, such as dairy and beef cows,

calves, heifers, steers, and bulls; bison,

which are being introduced as a commercial beef animal (more commonly

referred to as “buffalo”); beefalo, a cowbison hybrid; and exotic bovine such

as water buffalo.

Cattle account for more fatal work

injuries than any other animal. These

141 cases comprise two-fifths of the

375 worker fatalities associated with

animals, and nearly half of the 303 fatalities associated with mammals, during the 1992-97 period. However, cattle

account for only 7 percent of nonfatal

injuries and illnesses associated with

animals, 5,300 cases, during these 6

years.20

The fatality risk is disproportionately localized in a small segment of the

cattle population. Bulls, which are only

about 2 percent of the cattle population, account for about half the cattlerelated fatalities, 68 of the 141. But, at

calving time, cows, which are two-fifths

of the cattle population,21 pose another,

albeit less prevalent, peril: workers experienced five fatalities related to

birthing or maternal defensiveness,

such as cows attacking farmers trying

to midwife them.

Animal attacks account for fourfifths of the cattle-related job fatalities,

114 of the 141. The 14 vehicle crashes

resulting from collisions with cattle account for about half the remaining

cases, with most of the rest being

struck-against incidents, such as 6

cases involving cattle knocking a gate

or panel into the worker.

Agriculture accounts for three-quarters of the total cattle-related fatalities.

It also accounts for most of the cattlerelated nonfatal cases, followed by

manufacturing (including meatpacking,

which involves slaughtering live animals), transportation, and wholesale

trade. Farm workers suffered nearly

half the cattle-inflicted nonfatal cases.

Truck drivers, butchers, and nonconstruction laborers account for most of

the remaining cases.

More than nine-tenths of fatal injuries and nonfatal injuries and illnesses

inflicted by cattle involve men.

Nonhispanic whites comprise twothirds of cattle-related nonfatal cases

for which race and ethnic origin were

reported, with Hispanics accounting for

virtually all the remainder.

Bruises (either alone or in combination with other injuries and illnesses)

comprise about a third of cattle-related

nonfatal cases, compared with oneninth of all nonfatal cases. Fractures

(either alone or in combination with

other injuries and illnesses) comprise

about a sixth of cattle-related nonfatal

cases, compared with under one-tenth

of all nonfatal cases. However, sprains

and strains (either alone or in combination with other injuries and illnesses)

also comprise about a sixth of cattlerelated nonfatal cases, compared with

more than two-fifths of all nonfatal

cases. While sprains and strains are

much less prevalent among cattle-related cases than in nonfatal cases overall, fractures, bruises, and contusions

are much more prevalent.

Equine. Equine, which include horses,

ponies, mules, burros, and donkeys,

account for more fatal work injuries

than any animal other than cattle.22 The

104 fatal work injuries associated with

equine comprise more than one-quarter of the 375 animal fatalities, and onethird of the 303 fatalities associated

with mammals, that occurred during the

1992-97 period. The 5,100 nonfatal

equine cases, however, account for

only 7 percent of nonfatal injuries and

illnesses involving animals during

these 6 years.23

There were 53 animal attacks accounting for half of the equine-related

job fatalities. There also were 25

nonattack fatalities which resulted from

the rider falling off the horse,24 16 fatal

animal-drawn vehicle incidents (such

as falling off a horse-drawn hay cart),

and 9 vehicle crashes resulting from

collisions with equine or swerving to

Nonfatal occupational

injuries and illnesses

Number Percent

Animal

Women Women
 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000 19

Are Animals Occupational Hazards?

avoid colliding with them.

The 64 cases involving workers in

farming occupations constitute the

majority of equine-related job fatalities,

followed by those involving jockeys,

rodeo riders, and animal trainers, which

together account for 20 cases during

this 6-year period. Agriculture accounts for two-thirds of the equine-related fatalities, with amusement and recreation services, such as racetracks,

accounting for another one-fifth. Two

industry divisions, agriculture and services, account for almost all equine-related nonfatal cases. Farm workers account for one-third of the equine-inflicted injuries and illnesses; nonfarm animal caretakers account for one-quarter.

Bruises (either alone or in combination with other injuries and illnesses)

comprise about three-tenths of equinerelated nonfatal cases, compared with

one-ninth of all nonfatal cases. Fractures (either alone or in combination

with other injuries and illnesses) also

account for about three-tenths of

equine-related nonfatal cases, compared with under one-tenth of all nonfatal cases. However, sprains and

strains (either alone or in combination

with other injuries and illnesses) comprise less than one-fifth of equine-related nonfatal cases, compared with

slightly more than two-fifths of all nonfatal cases. Whereas fractures account

for only one-sixth of cases involving

cattle, they are the leading injury involving equine, accounting for threetenths of cases.

Comparisons between cattle and

equine. A unique feature of both cattleand equine-related cases is that an unusually high portion of trunk injuries

involve locations other than the back

or shoulder. For nonfatal cases overall, the back and shoulder account for

four-fifths of trunk cases. In contrast,

for cattle- and equine-related cases, the

back and shoulder account for only half

of the trunk cases.

Almost three-fifths of cattle-related

nonfatal injuries involve the worker

being attacked by cattle. Being struck

by objects, as when a worker is hit by a

gate nudged by a cow passing through

it, accounts for an additional one-fifth

of nonfatal cattle-related cases. Similarly, more than half of the equine-related cases also involve animal attacks.

Being struck by objects accounts for

three-tenths of nonfatal equine-related

cases.

As the following tabulation

shows,25 for 1992-97, the peril cattle

pose to workers is proportionate to their

share of farm mammals overall:

Total ................... 174 249

Cattle ...................... 101 141

Swine ...................... 59 -

Sheep ..................... 9 -

Equine ..................... 5 104

 NOTE: Dash indicates fewer than five

cases or data that do not meet publication

criteria.

Cattle account for three-fifths of the

work fatalities involving farm mammals,

and for three-fifths of farm mammals.

However, the fatality hazard for equine

is different: while equine comprise only

3 percent of all farm mammals, they

account for two-fifths of the work fatalities involving farm mammals. Swine

make up one-third of farm mammals,

but account for few fatalities. Sheep,

which are only about 5 percent of farm

mammals, account for a negligible

number of fatalities.26 In addition to

the differences in purpose of the various animals, this may reflect the relative physical size of sheep and swine,

compared with horses and bulls.

Table 3 shows the percent distribution of fatal nonvehicle-related injuries

inflicted by cattle and equine. Internal

and intracranial injuries account for

more than two-thirds of fatal cases for

both cattle and equine. Injuries of this

character and magnitude reflect these

animals’ sheer size and weight. Intracranial injuries play a larger role in fatal injuries for equine than for cattle,

most likely because one of the most

typical uses of horses is as riding animals. Riders falling off horses, horses

falling while being ridden, and riders

being bucked off horses are common

causes of equine-related work fatalities.27 On the other hand, internal injuries play a larger role in fatal injuries

involving cattle than in those involving equine.

Major causes of fatal work-related

fatalities

Three-fifths of the 375 work fatalities

involving animals are the result of being attacked by an animal, or being

stung or bitten by a venomous animal.

These 227 incidents are divided into

two main categories: Animal attacks,

such as being gored by a bull or thrown

from a horse carriage by a spooked

horse, which account for 186 job fatalities; and venomous stings and bites,

which account for 41 job fatalities.28

Bee, wasp, and hornet stings account

for nearly all the venomous stings and

bites; cattle and equine account for the

vast majority of animal attacks. Table 4

shows the kinds of animals most frequently involved in these incidents.

Fatal highway and nonindustrial,

offroad vehicle crashes involving animals typically result from collision with

an animal or swerving to avoid it; these

75 cases account for a fifth of animalrelated fatalities. The following tabulation shows the number of cases attributable to the kinds of animals

most frequently involved in fatal highway and nonindustrial, offroad vehicle

incidents.

Animal Number

of cases

 Total .............................. 75

Deer .................................. 24

Equine ............................... 20

Cattle ................................ 15

Dogs ................................. 6

Other ................................ 10

Cattle-related vehicle fatalities invariably involve collisions with cattle

in the roadway: two-thirds of these

cattle-related fatalities involve trucks,

and half involve tractor-trailer trucks.

Equine-related vehicle fatalities usually

involve animal-drawn vehicles, such as

horse carriages and hay wagons. In

most vehicle crashes involving other

animals, the crashes resulted because

drivers attempted to swerve to avoid

them. Trucks also were involved in

half of these crashes, but tractor-trailer

trucks were involved in only one-sixth.

Numbers

of head

(millions)

Animal Fatalities
20 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000

Combined, the 75 fatalities resulting

from highway and nonindustrial,

offroad vehicle crashes involving animals, and the 227 fatal animal attacks

and venomous stings and bites, total 302

cases, four-fifths of the animal-related

fatalities during the 1992-97 period.

Major findings

A number of key findings emerged from

this analysis of the 1992-97 data:

• The risk that cattle pose to workers is proportional to their share of farm

mammals overall. In contrast, equine

comprise 3 percent of all farm mammals,

but account for two-fifths of the workrelated fatalities involving farm mammals. Swine and sheep pose a smaller

risk than their share of farm mammals

overall.

• Internal and intracranial injuries

make up more than two-thirds of workrelated fatalities involving cattle and

equine. Intracranial injuries play a larger

role in fatal injuries involving equine

than in those involving cattle, while

internal injuries play a larger role in fatal injuries involving cattle than in

those involving equine.

• For both cattle and equine-related cases, a high proportion of trunk

injuries involve locations other than the

back or shoulder.

• The number of fatal and nonfatal

cases associated with dogs is much

greater than that for cats, demonstrating that dogs pose a larger work hazard than cats.

• Although men suffer a majority

of nonfatal occupational injuries overall, women account for four-fifths of

nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses involving cats.

• Outdoor workers account for

three-quarters of fatal insect injuries.

• Three-fifths of the animal-related

work fatalities involved attacks by aniTABLE 3. Percent distribution of fatal nonvehicle-related injuries involving cattle

and equine, 1992-97

Internal .................................................................................. 39 26

Intracranial ............................................................................ 25 41

Multiple, involving both internal and intracranial .................. 5 7

Multiple, except those involving both internal

 and intracranial ................................................................... 16 6

Other .................................................................................... 15 20

NOTE: Data exclude vehicular crashes.

Injury Cattle Equine

TABLE 4. Fatalities involving animal attacks or venomous stings and bites, 1992-97

Total ................................................................................................. 227

Animal attacks ...................................................................................... 186

Cattle ............................................................................................... 114

Equine ............................................................................................. 53

Exotic mammals ............................................................................. 9

Other animals ................................................................................. 10

Venomous stings and bites .................................................................. 41

Bees, wasps, hornets .................................................................... 39

Number

1

mals or stings or bites by venomous

animals. Another fifth resulted from

highway and nonindustrial, offroad vehicle crashes involving animals.

• Few, if any, work-related fatalities

involved snakes or other reptiles,

sheep, swine, or rodents.

Conclusion

Animals pose unique hazards to workers, such as being stung by bees or

trampled by cattle. Although animals

can pose hazards common to work-related injuries and illnesses overall, such

as knocking a gate or panel into a

worker in much the same way a gust of

wind might do, these incidents are the

exception. Animals also pose hazards

that have both common and unique

features. For example, deer darting into

traffic to cross the road can cause

crashes as vehicles swerve to avoid

them, in much the same way that vehicles weaving in and out of traffic can

cause crashes. However, unlike vehicles, deer often dart suddenly out of

the roadside brush. Although some

animals are large and heavy enough to

be potent vehicle collision hazards in

and of themselves, even collisions with

smaller animals, such as dogs, can

cause drivers to lose control of their

vehicles.

Animals are among the few animate

objects with which workers interact,

and this places them in a special class

of workplace hazards. To illustrate: the

weight within a cabinet could shift were

the shelves to fall out as furniture movers maneuver the piece up the stairs,

straining a worker’s back; but wielding

a dog can cause a similar injury to a

veterinary assistant were the dog to

decide to shift its own weight. Similarly, inanimate objects do not attack a

worker in the same way that a bull might

gore a farmer or an elephant trample its

trainer. Working with, or in the presence of, a particular animal requires

special attention to the unique hazards

it poses.

1

 This category includes such mammals

as elephants, tigers, and giraffes, which

are not native to the United States and which

are not included in the other specific categories. Elephants account for more than

half of the fatalities inflicted by exotic mammals.

NOTE: Subcategories might not sum to

totals due to subcategories not shown.

Type
 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000 21

Are Animals Occupational Hazards?

1

 Data on fatal work injuries are from the

Bureau of Labor Statistics Census of Fatal

Occupational Injuries (CFOI), 1992-97. This

program, which has collected occupational

fatality data nationwide since 1992, uses diverse data sources to identify, verify, and profile fatal work injuries. Information about

each workplace fatality (occupation and other

worker characteristics, equipment being used,

and circumstances of the event) is obtained

by cross-referencing source documents, such

as death certificates, workers’ compensation

records, and reports to Federal and State agencies. This method ensures that counts are as

complete and accurate as possible. CFOI data

do not include fatal work illnesses.

Data on nonfatal work injuries are from

the Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII), 1992-97. This program collects information on nonfatal work-related

injuries and illnesses from a random sample

of about 250,000 establishments representing most of private sector wage and salary

employment. The self-employed and farms

with fewer than 11 employees are excluded.

Worker characteristics are collected only for

those workers sustaining injuries and illnesses

that require days away from work to recuperate.

Because the scope and methodology of

CFOI and SOII are different, comparison of

the fatal and nonfatal data is problematic.

More information on CFOI and SOII is

available at http://stats.bls.gov/oshhome.htm. 2

 A fatal injury was included in this study

if an animal was the source or secondary

source of the injury, or if the case’s narrative

description identified an animal as playing

an active role in the fatal incident. Because

secondary source was not published for the

nonfatal SOII data, and narrative descriptions

are not included in the SOII database, nonfatal occupational injuries or illnesses were included only if the animal was the source. The

source identifies the object, substance, bodily

motion, or exposure that directly produced

or inflicted the injury or illness, whereas the

secondary source identifies the object, substance, or person that generated the source

of injury or illness or that contributed to the

event or exposure. Each case must have a

source, but many cases do not have a secondary source associated with them. Fatal injuries with source as an animal account for 0.6

percent of all injury fatalities, approximately

the same percentage as for nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses with source as an

animal. When fatal injuries with a source

other than an animal, but with a secondary

source as an animal or with a narrative description identifying an animal as playing an

active role in the fatal incident, are included,

fatal injuries involving animals rise to 1 percent of fatal injuries. 3

 Examples of such occupation or animal-specific research include A. SteeleBodger, “Hazards of Animal Handling,” Annals of Occupational Hygiene, vol. 12, no.

2, 1969, pp. 79-85, which deals with farm

animals; T.H. Cogbill and H.M. Busch, Jr.,

“The Spectrum of Agricultural Trauma,”

Journal of Emergency Medicine, vol. 3, no.

3, 1985, pp. 205-10; H.M. Busch, Jr., T.H.

Cogbill, J. Landercasper, and B.O.

Landercasper, “Blunt Bovine and Equine

Trauma,” Journal of Trauma, vol. 26, no. 6,

1986, pp. 559-60; J. Landercasper, T.H.

Cogbill, P.J. Strutt, and B.O. Landercasper,

“Trauma and the Veterinarian,” Journal of

Trauma, vol. 28, no. 8, 1988, pp. 1255-59;

T.H. Cogbill, P.J. Strutt, J. Landercasper, and

B.O. Landercasper, “Injuries from Horses and

Cows,” Complications in Orthopedics, vol.

4, no. 4, 1989, pp. 112-14, 120; and P. Freta,

“Injuries from Farm Animals,” Principles of

Health and Safety in Agriculture (Boca Raton,

FL, CRC Press, Inc., 1989), pp. 365-66. 4 Occupational Injury and Illness Classification Manual (Washington, Bureau of

Labor Statistics, December 1992) pp. DS55-

DS56. 5 Encyclopedia Americana reports, “Fatal snake bites are extremely rare in the

United States...probably fewer than 10 such

deaths annually....” Unlike Asia, where annual snake bite deaths are estimated at 30,000

to 40,000 because large populations live in

close proximity to dangerously venomous

snakes, the United States has only a few species of venomous snakes, and their habitats

are usually isolated from population centers.

Only 15 percent of snake species worldwide

are venomous. Moreover, even when venomous snakes do bite, half the time they do

not inject venom. (Encyclopedia Americana,

vol. 25 (Danbury, CT, Grolier, Inc., 1999),

p. 104.)

Attacks by other reptiles, such as gila

monsters and alligators, also are rare, perhaps because these creatures are becoming

less common as the consequence of property

development, or because workers know how

to avoid places that they frequent.

Bats are now the primary rabies vectors

(organisms that transmit pathogens) to humans. Since 1980, 25 persons have caught

rabies in the United States, all but three of

them from bats. (“Bat Bites Cause Most

U.S. Rabies Cases,” Washington Times, Nov.

3, 1999, p. C5.) 6 Agricultural Statistics, 1999 (Washington, U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, 1999),

pp. VIII-30 and VIII-40-VIII-41. 7

 Due to vagaries of coverage requirements

and reporting practices for some offshore

operations, some nonfatal cases in the fishing industry may not be included. 8

 Insects are six-legged arthropods whose

bodies consist of three segments—head, thorax, and abdomen—whereas arachnids are

eight-legged arthropods whose bodies consist

of only two segments—head and abdomen.

Bees, hornets, and wasps are insects, whereas

spiders, scorpions, and ticks are arachnids. 9

 Because small farms with fewer than 11

employees are excluded from SOII coverage,

the actual number of nonfatal cases involving insects and arachnids is likely to be greater

than the 36,100 reported to the SOII. 10 For more information on venomous

stings and bites, see Matthew Cahill, ed., Diseases (Springhouse, PA, Springhouse Corp.,

1993), pp. 266-67.

11 See Cahill, Diseases, pp. 135-37, 184-

86, and 189-92. See also “Lyme Disease

Facts,” Hazard Information Bulletin (Washington, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Apr.

20, 2000). 12 Dogs, in the BLS Occupational Injury

and Illness Classification System, refer

strictly to domestic dogs. Other members of

the dog family, such as wolves, are subsumed

under other mammals. SOII does not contain sufficient detail to ascertain the number

of nonfatal cases attributable to other members of the dog family. 13 A number of dog breeds are heavy and

unwieldy. Saint Bernards, for example, can

reach as much as 200 pounds. (See Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 9, p. 234.) BLS data

are not sufficiently detailed to afford any

breed-specific conclusions. 14 Because the SOII does not include government employment, nonfatal animal-related injuries and illnesses to public sector

employees, such as animal-control officers,

police officers, and letter carriers, are not

available from BLS. Data for some of these

occupations might be available from other

sources, such as the U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration for Federal Government employees, and the U.S. Postal Service for postal

workers. See also “Risks of the Route,” The

Washington Post, June 12, 2000, p. A19. 15 Cats, in the BLS Occupational Injury

and Illness Classification System, refer

strictly to domestic cats. Other members of

the cat family, such as tigers, which account

for a small number of fatal occupational injuries, are subsumed under other mammals.

SOII does not contain sufficient detail to ascertain the number of nonfatal cases attributable to other members of the cat family. 16 There is no apparent consensus about

the numbers of cats and dogs in the United

States. Colliers Encyclopedia estimates that

there are 50 million cats, 10 million of which

are feral (Colliers Encyclopedia, vol. 5 (New

York, P.F. Collier, 1994), p. 539), but only

25 million dogs (vol. 8, p. 292). Encyclopedia Americana reports that there are 25 million cats (vol. 5, p. 801), while elsewhere

reports cats are believed to outnumber dogs,

which it estimates at 29 to 35 million (vol.

9, p. 234). World Book Encyclopedia estimates 58 million cats (World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 3 (Chicago, World Book, 1989),

p. 284) and 49 million dogs (vol. 5, p. 264).

The American Veterinary Medicine Association estimates there were 53 million dogs

and 59 million cats in the United States as of

the end of 1996 (US Pet Ownership and Demographics Sourcebook (Schaumburg, IL,

American Veterinary Medicine Association,

1997), p. 3; and “Cats, Dogs Live Longer

with Up-to-Date Care,” Washington Times,

Nov. 15, 1999, p. A2). The Pet Food Institute estimates there were 56 million dogs and

68 million cats in the country in 1996 (“Pet

Incidence Trend Report” (Washington, The

Pet Institute, 1999), p. 6). 17 See Employment and Earnings, January issues for 1993-98, which contain annual
22 Compensation and Working Conditions Fall 2000

average employment data for 1992-97. 18 Timothy Webster, “Putting a Strain on

Workers’ Health,” Compensation and Working Conditions, Spring 1999, p. 29. 19 Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 5, p.

801.20 Because small farms with fewer than 11

employees are excluded from SOII coverage,

the actual number of nonfatal cases involving cattle is likely to be greater than the 5,300

reported to the SOII. Other studies that include small farms find farm animals account

for as much as one-third of traumatic nonfatal agricultural injuries. See Cogbill and Busch,

“The Spectrum of Agricultural Trauma,” pp.

205-10; T.L. Napier, W.R. Goe, and A.R.

Pugh, “Incidence and Predictive Factors Associated with Farm Accidents in Ohio,” Research Circular 287 (Wooster, OH, Ohio State

University, 1985); and T.H. Cogbill, E.S.

Steenlage, J. Landercasper, and P.J. Strutt,

“Death and Disability from Agricultural Injuries in Wisconsin: A 12-year Experience

with 739 Patients,” Journal of Trauma, vol.

31, no. 12, 1991, pp. 1632-37. 21 Agricultural Statistics, 1999, p. VII-1. 22 “U.S. Equine Inventory Up 1.3 Percent,” Agriculture Department Bulletin Eq 1

(Washington, U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service,

Mar. 2, 1999). 23 Because small farms with fewer than 11

employees are excluded from SOII coverage,

the actual number of nonfatal cases involving equine is likely to be greater than the

5,100 reported to the SOII. See note 20 for

further discussion of the role of farm animals

in traumatic nonfatal agricultural injuries. 24 Examples of animal attacks involving

equine include a horse bucking its rider; a horse

seeing a rattlesnake and rearing back in fright,

causing the rider to fall off; a horse being

broken in dragging its trainer; horses trampling a jockey who falls off his horse during a

race; and a mule kicking a farm worker standing near it. Examples of falls from equine

that are not animal attacks include a horse

losing its footing and falling, even falling on

top of the rider; a rider falling off, even if

merely as a consequence of the horse galloping too fast; and a rider losing her balance for

reasons unrelated to the motion or behavior

of the horse. 25 Cattle, swine, and sheep data are from

Agricultural Statistics, 1999, pp. VII-1,

VII-19, and VII-29. The Agriculture Department began releasing equine data in

1999; consequently, equine data are from

“U.S. Equine Inventory Up 1.3 Percent.”

Because of a lack of data for earlier years,

the equine estimate represents the number

reported as of January 1, 1998. 26 The nonfatal SOII data exclude farms

with fewer than 11 workers, rendering comparison of the prevalence of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses for particular

kinds of farm animals inappropriate. Totals for fatalities involving various kinds of

farm animals include those from farms with

fewer than 11 workers, while totals for nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses do

not.27 For discussion of a similar concept for

farm youth, see D.B. Reed, S. Novak, and

R.L. Heath, “Farm Youth and Horse-related

Injuries: A Case for Safety Helmets,” Journal of Agromedicine, vol. 5, no. 1, 1998, pp.

45-57. 28 The following explanation might help

clarify the distinction between venomous

stings and bites versus other animal attacks:

A snake bite, for example, would be classified as a venomous bite for a poisonous

snake such as a copperhead (presuming

venom is injected), whereas it would be an

animal attack for a nonpoisonous snake such

as a king snake.