Monthly Labor Review • February 2008 51

Youth Enrollment and Employment

Teresa L. Morisi

Current Population Survey data show that teenagers are attending 

school at higher rates than ever before; at the same time, teens 

are less frequently employed during the school year

Youth enrollment and employment 

during the school year

Having a job as a teenager can be a 

valuable experience, teaching responsibility, and organizational and 

time management skills, along with providing a paycheck.1

 Teens, though, must balance 

their school requirements with their work 

preferences during the school year. The Current Population Survey (CPS) of the Bureau 

of Labor Statistics (BLS) produces data on 

school enrollment and employment for teens. 

These data show that teens are enrolled in 

school at increasingly higher rates since the 

mid 1980s (when the CPS began collecting 

monthly enrollment data for persons aged 

16–24), while fewer teens are employed during the school year than in the past. Both 

teens who are in school and those who are 

not in school saw their employment rates 

decline; however, the decline for students 

has been greater than for nonstudents. 

This article analyzes changes in school enrollment and employment patterns for teens 

who are between the ages of 16 and 19. The 

data are analyzed separately for youths aged 

16–17 and 18–19, and by sex, race, and ethnicity. Both students in high school and students enrolled in college are included; of those 

16- to 19-year-olds enrolled in 2007, about 

three-quarters were in high school, with the 

remainder in college. As noted, data on youth 

enrollment and employment come from the 

CPS, a monthly survey of about 60,000 households, and are averages for the 9 months that 

youths normally attend school (January–May 

and September–December, referred to hereafter as “school months”).2

 Youths considered to be not working or not employed in 

this analysis either are unemployed or do not 

participate in the labor force. CPS data on the 

enrollment and working status of youths are 

published annually as part of America’s Children: Key National Indicators of Well Being, a 

report from the Federal Interagency Forum 

on Child and Family Statistics, of which BLS 

is a member.3

Interviewers from the U.S. Census Bureau 

collect the CPS data for BLS. The interviewers 

query households with regard to the labor 

force status of household members aged 15 

years and older during the reference week, 

which is the calendar week that includes 

the 12th day of the month. Only the civilian noninstitutional population is eligible to 

participate. Questions regarding school enrollment status are asked each month solely 

of persons between the ages of 16 and 24, 

regardless of their labor force status. Schools 

are defined as public or private institutions 

that confer academic degrees; included are 

high schools, community or junior colleges, 

4-year colleges, universities, and graduate 

or professional schools of learning. School 

attendance, as counted by the CPS, can be 

either full time or part time. 

In the CPS, persons are counted as employed if they did any work for pay or profit 

during the reference week. Persons who are 

absent from their jobs due to reasons such 

as illness or vacations are still counted as 

employed. Unpaid family workers, who are 

Teresa L. Morisi 

is an economist

in the Office

of Employment and

Unemployment

Statistics, Bureau

of Labor Statistics.

E-mail: Morisi.Teri@

bls.gov
Youth Enrollment and Employment

52 Monthly Labor Review • February 2008

those working 15 or more hours during the reference 

week without pay in a family-operated enterprise, also are 

counted as employed. Persons who are unemployed must 

not have been employed, must have been actively searching for work during the previous 4 weeks, and must have 

been available for work. Persons who are neither employed nor unemployed are considered to be not in the 

labor force (NILF). 

Changes in enrollment and employment 

The proportion of 16- to 19-year-olds enrolled in school 

during regular school months grew from 72.8 percent in 

1985 to 82.5 percent in 2007. At the same time, the rate 

of employment, officially known as the employment-topopulation ratio, fell to 33.2 percent during school months 

in 2007, down from 41.5 percent in 1985. In the intervening years, employment rates for both students and nonstudents showed similar trends. The rate of employment 

rose for both groups from 1985 to 1989, trended downward until 1992, and then began to move upward once 

again until 2000. The employment rates for both groups 

dropped sharply after 2000. (See chart 1, page 53.) 

The sections that follow analyze changes in enrollment 

and employment for all youths aged 16–19 and for major 

demographic groups. There are four possible combinations of enrollment and employment status:

1. Enrolled and employed

2. Enrolled and not employed

3. Not enrolled and employed

4. Not enrolled and not employed

Youths aged 16–19 

Between 2000 and 2007, the proportion of 16- to 19-yearolds who were enrolled and not employed during regular 

school months grew by 11 percentage points, from 48 

percent to 59 percent. This proportion had changed little 

throughout the 1990s before moving upward in the early 

2000s; then it remained fixed at either 57 percent or 58 

percent from 2003 to 2006. A little less than one-quarter 

of teenagers (24 percent) were both enrolled and employed 

during the 2007 school months. The ratio was down from 30 

percent in 2000, after having edged up during the 1990s. 

Youths who were not enrolled and were employed made 

up 10 percent of the population aged 16–19 during the 

2007 school months. This proportion is lower than it was 

in 1985 (16 percent). Teens who were neither enrolled in 

school nor working at a job (sometimes referred to in the 

literature as “disconnected” youths4) were 8 percent of the 

16- to 19-year-old population during school months in 

2007, a rate that was down from about 10 percent in the 

early 1990s. (See table 1 and chart 2, pages 54 and 55.) 

The younger teens. The enrollment rate for teens aged 

16–17 moved upward slightly, from 92 percent of the 

population in 1985 to 95 percent in 2007. The status of 

the majority of teens in this age group is “enrolled and not 

working.” During school months in 2007, 73 percent of 

16- to 17-year-olds were nonworking students; a proportion that was up from 63 percent in 2000 (the same as it 

was in 1985). The proportion of 16- to 17-year-olds who 

were both enrolled and employed was 21 percent in 2007, 

down by 10 percentage points since 2000. 

The older teens. The 18- to 19-year-old age group includes youths who are in high school and those who are 

in college. After graduating from high school, a higher 

proportion of youths is moving onto college or other advanced education than had been in the past. (See later in 

this article.) During the 2007 school months, 68 percent 

of young adults aged 18–19 were enrolled in school, while 

in 1985, a little more than half were enrolled. Nonworking students made up the largest proportion of 18- to 

19-year-olds. In 2007, 42 percent of 18- to 19-year-olds 

were nonworking students, up from 34 percent in 2000; 

the proportion had been little changed through the 

1990s. Employed students were 26 percent of the 18- to 

19-year-old population in 2007, down from 30 percent in 

2000 and equal to proportions seen in the early 1990s.

Young adults who worked and did not attend school 

were 19 percent of the 18- to 19-year-old population 

during the 2007 school months, down from 24 percent 

in 2000; the proportion had remained relatively stable 

through the 1990s. The share of young adults aged 18–19 

who were neither enrolled in school nor working at a job 

was 13 percent in 2007, about the same as in 2000 and 

down from 17 percent in 1985. (See table 2, page 56.)

Young women and young men

A larger proportion of 16- to 19-year-old women was 

enrolled during the 2007 school months than men (84 

percent and 81 percent, respectively.) Female 16- to 19-

year-old students worked at a higher rate than did male 

students in 2007 (26 percent, as opposed to 21 percent). 

A slightly higher percentage of young men than young 

women (11 percent and 9 percent respectively) held a 

job, but were not students during school months in 2007. 
Monthly Labor Review • February 2008 53

Both proportions have moved downward in the last 20 

years. The proportion of female teens who were neither 

enrolled nor employed was 8 percent in 2007, about the 

same proportion as males. The share of “disconnected” 

female teens has moved downward in the last 20 years. 

(See table 3, page 57.) The adolescent birthrate for 

young women ages 15–19 was 59.9 births per 1,000 females in 1990, and it declined to 40.5 births per 1,000 

in 2005.5

Race and Hispanic ethnicity 

A number of differences in employment and enrollment patterns may be observed among black, white, and 

Hispanic teens.6 Although the employment rates for all 

three groups have moved downward in recent years, white 

youths continue to be employed at greater rates than black 

or Hispanic youths. Various researchers have studied this 

issue, and a number of reasons for the difference have been 

suggested, including the effects of family characteristics, 

such as the employment behavior of other household 

members; neighborhood and geographic factors, such as 

the industrial composition of the area and the availability 

of transportation; and individual characteristics, such as 

criminal activity.7 The enrollment rates for all three groups 

have been rising, with the rates for black and white youths 

remaining higher than for Hispanic youths. Hispanics do 

have a higher high school dropout rate than either blacks 

or whites have: in 2005, among persons 16 to 24 years 

old, the percentage of high school dropouts (the “status” 

dropout rate) was 6.0 percent for whites, 10.4 percent for 

blacks, and 22.4 percent for Hispanics.8

The proportion of black youths between the ages of 

16 and 19 who were enrolled in school and who did not 

hold jobs remained higher in 2007 than that for Hispanic 

youths and white youths. During 2007, 69 percent of black 

youths were enrolled and not employed during school 

months, as opposed to 59 percent of Hispanic youths and 

56 percent of white youths. This gap between black teens, 

on the one hand, and Hispanic and white teens, on the 

other, has remained fairly consistent over time. 

A greater share of white teens between the ages of 16 

and 19 than either blacks or Hispanics was both enrolled 

and employed in 2007. During the 2007 school months, 

29 percent of white youths were students and held jobs, 

compared with 13 percent of blacks and 17 percent of 

Hispanics. The proportions for blacks and whites trended 

downward after 2000.

Chart 1. Employment-population ratios by enrollment status of youths aged 16–19, school months in 1985–2007

	1985	 1987	 1989	 1991	 1993	 1995	 1997	 1999	 2001	 2003	 2005	 2007

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

Percent

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

Percent

Enrolled

Not enrolled

NOTE: Yearly data are 9-month averages for the months youths are normally in school: January through May and September through December. 
Youth Enrollment and Employment

54 Monthly Labor Review • February 2008

A larger proportion of Hispanic 16- to 19-year-olds 

than either blacks or whites was not enrolled and employed. At 14 percent during the 2007 school months, 

this proportion for Hispanics was down from 20 percent in 2000. The proportion of white teens who worked 

and were not enrolled was higher in 2007 (10 percent) 

than the proportion of black teens (7 percent). The share 

of white teens who were not enrolled yet held jobs was 

little changed through the 1990s and then began to move 

downward in the early 2000s. The share of black youths 

who were not enrolled and employed has ranged between 

7 percent and 10 percent for the last 20 years. 

During the 2007 school months, 11 percent of black 

teens and 11 percent of Hispanic teens between 16 and 

19 years old were not enrolled and not working, compared 

with 6 percent of white teens. The proportions for all 

three groups have moved downward since 1985, particularly for blacks and Hispanics, but the latter two groups’ 

proportions of disconnected youths have remained nearly 

twice that for whites. (See table 4, page 58.)

Why are teens working less? 

The data clearly show that teens are working less during 

the school year. In particular, since 2000, teens are increasingly moving into the status “enrolled and not employed,” 

and this is true for all of the major teenage demographic 

groups. At the same time, declines have occurred in the 

proportions of teens employed among both those enrolled 

and those not enrolled (though to a lesser degree than 

enrolled teens). There are several possible reasons that 

teens are choosing to work less, and these are examined 

in the next two sections. The first section concentrates on 

school-related reasons, and the second, on reasons unrelated to education. 

Greater school pressures

A number of factors indicate that pressure to achieve in 

school has increased for youths. Academic requirements 

for graduation have become more stringent, and many students are subject to high school exit examinations. Students 

are taking advanced academic courses at greater rates than 

ever before, and are taking more Advanced Placement® 

(AP) exams. Requirements and incentives for community 

service among students also appear to be rising. In addition, 

because college enrollment has been trending upward, high 

school students may be applying themselves more toward 

their academic studies in order to increase their chances of 

being accepted to college. All of these factors can lessen 

the amount of time students have available for work and 

may serve to place a greater emphasis on the importance of 

school rather than on working. 

More courses and higher level courses. In the early 1980s, 

States began to increase the number of courses required 

to graduate from high school. Indeed, data from the 

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) show 

that the average number of Carnegie units (a standard 

measurement for the amount of time spent on a subject) 

earned by public high school graduates was 21.7 for 1982 

graduates and 25.8 for graduates in 2004 (the most current 

 Percentage of youths aged 16–19 by enrollment/employment status during school months, selected years, 

1985–2007

Table 1.

Status 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Enrolled in 

 school

 Enrolled and 

 employed ........ 26 28 26 26 27 29 29 29 29 31 30 30 28 26 25 25 25 25 24

 Enrolled and not 

 employed ........ 47 47 50 52 52 50 49 50 50 49 49 48 50 54 57 58 58 57 59

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed .......... 16 15 13 12 12 12 13 12 13 13 13 14 13 12 10 10 10 10 10

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed .. 11 10 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 9 9 8 8 8 8 8

NOTE: Yearly data are 9-month averages for the months that youths are normally in school: January through May and September 

through December.
Monthly Labor Review • February 2008 55

data available).9 High school graduates also are taking more 

advanced courses; NCES data show that the proportion of 

high school graduates taking advanced-level courses was 

higher in 2004 than in 1990. One-half of high school graduates completed advanced mathematics courses in 2004, while 

a little less than one-third did so in 1990. Advanced science 

courses were taken by 68.4 percent of graduates in 2004, compared with about one-half of graduates in 1990. About onethird of high school graduates took advanced English courses 

and advanced foreign language courses in 2004 (32.7 percent 

and 34.5 percent, respectively). In 1990, about one-fifth of 

graduates took courses in each.10 (See table 5, page 59.) 

Thus, in recent years, ever more high school seniors are 

graduating having earned credits in increasingly difficult 

curricula. In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education, as part of the report, “A Nation at 

Risk,” recommended that at a minimum, college-bound 

students take four units of English, three of social studies, 

three of science, three of mathematics, one-half unit of 

computer science, and two units of a foreign language.11

In 2005 (the most current year available), 36 percent of 

high school graduates earned this level of achievement, 

compared with 2 percent in 1982.12

High school exit examinations. Since the 1990s, States 

have been revising or implementing standards for achievement. By 2006, public high school students in 22 States 

(accounting for two-thirds of the Nation’s public school 

students) were required to pass exit examinations in order 

to receive a high school diploma, and by 2012, three additional States expect that students will be required to pass 

exit exams in order to graduate.13

More students are taking AP exams. AP programs offer 

both advanced courses that allow high school students 

to gain experience in college-level work, and exams that 

enable students to earn college credits and attain college 

placement, sometimes at a higher-than-freshman level. 

The number of students taking AP exams has been increasing in recent years. (See chart 3, page 59.) From 1996 

to 2007, the number of students taking AP exams nearly 

tripled, from 537,000 to 1.5 million. 14

High school graduates are attending college at greater 

rates. CPS data show that the college enrollment rate of 

high school graduates in the October following graduation has been trending upward since 2001.15 In October 

Chart 2. Percentage of youths aged 16–19 by enrollment and employment status, school months in 1985–2007

NOTE: Yearly data are 9-month averages for the months youths are normally in school: January through May and September through December. 

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percent

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percent

Enrolled and not employed

Enrolled and employed

Not enrolled and employed

Not enrolled and not employed

	1985	 1987	 1989	 1991	 1993	 1995	 1997	 1999	 2001	 2003	 2005	 2007
Youth Enrollment and Employment

56 Monthly Labor Review • February 2008

2006, the college enrollment rate for recent high school 

graduates was 65.8 percent; in October 2001, it was 61.6 

percent. Because the number of recent high school graduates who go on to attend college is greater than in the past, 

it is likely that they are spending more time on schoolwork (and thereby leaving less time for working) in order 

to enhance their chances for acceptance. Also, because 

financial aid for college has become more available, it may 

be that working to pay for college during one’s teen years 

has become less common as a method of financing one’s 

education. During 1992–93, about 59 percent of full-time, 

full-year undergraduates received some form of financial 

aid, whether it was from a Federal, State, or institutional 

source or through an employer. By 2003–04, the figure 

had increased to 76 percent.16 The receipt of financial aid 

was up from the 1992–93 rate among part-time, part-year 

undergraduates as well. There are several reasons that dependence on financial aid has grown. First, revisions to the 

Higher Education Act in 1992 made it easier for students 

to become eligible for aid, allowed students to borrow 

more, and made Federally guaranteed, unsubsidized loans 

available, regardless of students’ need.17 Second, average 

tuition rates and fees for college (adjusted for inflation) 

have risen substantially, resulting in more families being 

eligible for aid. Third, more grant and loan programs are 

available. One such program is the HOPE scholarship, 

which provides financial assistance to students attending 

State universities; in some cases, recipients receive free 

tuition. Begun in Georgia in 1993, HOPE scholarships 

have spread in some form or other to 15 more States. In 

their 2006 study on teen labor force participation, Daniel 

Aaronson, Kyung-Hong Park, and Daniel Sullivan found 

that, between 2000 and 2004, labor force participation 

among 16- to 17-year-olds in HOPE States fell more than 

participation did for teens in non-HOPE States. 18

Requirements and incentives for community service. There 

is some evidence that requirements and incentives for 

community service are becoming more prevalent at both 

the high school and college levels. If students either are 

choosing or are required to spend more time on volunteer work, then they will have less time available for paid 

work. In recent years, legislative reforms such as modifying State and local graduation requirements to include 

 Percentage of youths aged 16–17 and aged 18–19 by enrollment/employment status during school months, 

selected years, 1985–2007

Table 2.

Status 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Aged 16–17

Enrolled in 

 school

 Enrolled and 

 employed ....... 29 29 27 26 27 30 30 30 29 31 31 31 28 25 24 23 23 23 21

 Enrolled and not 

 employed ....... 63 63 66 68 67 64 64 64 64 63 63 63 65 69 71 72 72 72 73

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed ....... 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed .. 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4

Aged 18–19

Enrolled in 

 school

 Enrolled and 

 employed ........ 23 26 25 26 26 28 28 28 28 30 30 30 28 28 27 27 28 28 26

 Enrolled and not 

 employed ........ 31 33 35 36 36 35 34 35 35 34 34 34 35 37 40 41 41 40 42

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed ........ 29 26 24 23 23 22 23 22 23 23 24 24 23 21 20 19 19 20 19

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed . 17 15 16 16 15 15 15 15 14 13 13 12 13 14 14 13 13 13 13

NOTE: Yearly data are 9-month averages for the months that youths are normally in school: January through May and September 

through December. 
Monthly Labor Review • February 2008 57

volunteer work or community service, and Federal programs such as AmeriCorps and USA Freedom Corps, have 

helped to emphasize community service activities among 

youths. Community service performed by students is often referred to as “service-learning” when it incorporates 

classroom instruction. The most recent U.S. Department 

of Education survey on service-learning and community 

service was published in 1999. Covering the 1998–99 

academic year, it found that 83 percent of public high 

schools had students participating in community-service projects recognized or arranged by the school, and 

nearly 50 percent had students involved in service-learning.19 The authors noted that tentative evidence existed 

that service-learning had become more widespread since 

the early 1980s. They mentioned a 1985 survey by F. M. 

Newmann and R. A. Rutter, which found that 27 percent 

of all high schools (both public and private) offered some 

type of community service and 9 percent offered servicelearning.20 A more recent survey on teen volunteering was 

conducted in 2005 by the Corporation for National and 

Community Service in collaboration with the U.S. Census Bureau. A sample of youths aged 12 through 18 were 

asked if they had ever performed community service as 

part of a school requirement or activity; 38 percent replied 

that they had. Of those who answered yes, 65 percent took 

part in service-learning activities, which were defined by 

the survey as either helping to plan the activity or writing 

about the experience.21

Other factors 

Slow recovery of the teen employment rate following the 

2001 recession. Part of the decline in employment rates 

among teens in recent years is likely related to weakness in 

the economy stemming from the March–November 2001 

recession.22 The reason is that a downturn in the economy 

can cause workers to leave the labor force and return to or 

stay in school to enhance their skills. In previous recession 

and recovery periods (except for the short 1980 recession), 

the employment-to-population ratio for ages 16–19 be-

 Percentage of youths aged 16–19 by sex and enrollment/employment status during school months, 

selected years, 1985–2007

Table 3.

Status 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Men

Enrolled in 

 school

 Enrolled and 

 employed......... 26 27 25 26 26 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 26 24 23 22 23 23 21

 Enrolled and not 

 employed......... 48 48 52 53 53 51 51 51 51 50 49 50 52 55 58 59 59 59 60

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed ........ 17 17 15 13 14 13 14 13 14 14 15 15 14 13 11 11 10 11 11

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed... 9 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 8 8 8 7 7 7 8

Women

Enrolled in 

 school

Enrolled and 

 employed......... 26 28 28 27 27 30 30 30 30 33 32 32 30 28 27 27 27 27 26

 Enrolled and not 

 employed......... 46 46 48 50 50 48 48 48 49 47 48 47 49 52 55 56 56 56 58

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed......... 15 14 12 11 11 11 11 11 12 11 11 12 12 10 9 9 9 9 9

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed... 13 12 13 12 11 11 11 11 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8

NOTE: Yearly data are 9-month averages for the months that youths are normally in school: January through May and September 

through December. 
Youth Enrollment and Employment

58 Monthly Labor Review • February 2008

gan to turn upward within a year or so after the recessions ended. By contrast, following the 2001 recession, the 

teenage employment-to-population ratio did not begin to 

turn upward until 2006, and then it moved downward in 

2007. (See chart 4, page 60.) 

Recent decrease in real wages for teens. Teen workers gener-

 Percentage of youths aged 16–19 by race and Hispanic ethnicity and by enrollment/employment status 

during school months, selected years, 1985–2007

Table 4.

Status 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

White non-

 Hispanic

Enrolled in 

 school

 Enrolled and 

 employed......... 30 33 32 31 32 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 34 31 30 30 31 31 29

 Enrolled and not 

 employed......... 44 44 46 48 48 45 45 45 46 45 45 45 47 51 53 54 54 54 56

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed......... 17 16 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 11 10 10 9 10 10

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed... 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6

Black non-

 Hispanic

Enrolled in 

 school

 Enrolled and 

 employed ........ 12 15 12 13 13 16 16 15 16 19 17 19 16 15 14 14 13 15 13

 Enrolled and not 

 employed......... 60 60 62 63 65 63 61 61 61 59 60 59 60 62 67 70 68 67 69

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed ........ 10 10 9 8 7 7 8 10 9 9 10 10 10 9 7 7 8 8 7

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed .. 18 15 17 17 15 14 14 15 14 13 13 13 14 14 12 10 12 11 11

Hispanic origin1

Enrolled in 

 school

 Enrolled and 

 employed ........ 15 17 16 17 16 17 16 17 17 18 18 19 20 17 15 16 17 17 17

 Enrolled and not 

 employed......... 51 46 50 52 52 52 52 52 53 50 49 49 48 52 58 58 58 58 59

Not enrolled in 

 school

 Not enrolled and 

 employed......... 17 20 18 15 16 15 16 15 16 18 18 20 19 18 14 14 13 15 14

 Not enrolled and 

 not employed... 17 17 16 17 16 16 16 16 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11

1

 Persons of Hispanic origin can be of any race.

NOTE: Yearly data are 9-month averages for the months that youths 

are normally in school: January through May and September through 

December. 

ally earn low wages. Real median hourly earnings for workers 

aged 16–19 who were paid hourly rates declined from 1979 

until 1987, changed little until the later 1990s, and then drifted upward until 2002. Real median hourly earnings for teens 

moved downward by about 50 cents between 2002 and 2006, 

from $7.74 to $7.23. (See chart 5, page 60.) Falling real wages 

during this period may have had some effect on teens’ inclina-
Monthly Labor Review • February 2008 59

tion to work, but the rate of teens’ working began to trend 

downward in 2000, when real wages were still rising. 

Decline in jobs held by teens in retail trade and restaurants. 

As CPS data show, both retail trade and restaurants employ more teens than other industries do. Yet, from 2000 

to 2007, these two industries’ shares of teen workers declined. Together, retail trade and restaurants accounted 

Table 5. Percentage of high school graduates who completed advanced coursework, 1990 and 2004

Year Advanced 

mathematics

Advanced 

science

1990................................................................ 30.6 49.5 19.6 21.7

2004................................................................ 50.0 68.4 32.7 34.5

Advanced

English

Advanced

foreign

language

NOTES: Advanced academic courses in mathematics include 

Algebra III, algebra/trigonometry, algebra/analytical geometry, trigonometry, trigonometry/solid geometry, analytical geometry, linear algebra, 

probability, probability/statistics, statistics (other), independent study, 

statistics, precalculus, AP calculus, calculus, calculus/analytical 

geometry, and introduction to analysis. Advanced science courses 

include chemistry, physics, and advanced biology. Advanced courses 

in English include honors level classes. Advanced foreign language 

courses include years 3 and 4 and advanced placement.

SOURCE: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 

America’s Children in Brief: Key National Indicators of Well Being 2007, 

Indicator Tables ED3.A, ED3.B, ED3.C, ED3.D.

for about 55 percent of all employed 16- to 19-year-olds 

in 2007. Both industries added workers between 2000 

and 2007. Employment in retail among all persons aged 

16 and older increased by 807,000 over the period, while 

the number of 16- to 19-year-olds employed in retail fell 

by 419,000 and their share of retail employment declined 

from 12 percent to 9 percent. Restaurant employment grew 

by about 1 million from 2000 to 2007, while the number 

Chart 3. Number of students taking Advanced Placement tests, 1996–2007

SOURCE: The College Board, New York, NY, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Reports. 

	 1996	 1997	 1998	 1999	 2000	 2001	 2002	 2003	 2004	 2005	 2006	 2007

1,600

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

In thousands

1,600

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

In thousands
Youth Enrollment and Employment

60 Monthly Labor Review • February 2008

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

Percent

Chart 5. Average hourly earnings for youths aged 16–19 paid hourly rates in constant 2006 dollars, 1979–2006

NOTE: The Consumer Price Index research series using current methods (CPI-U-RS) is used to convert current dollars to constant 2006 dollars. 

$8.50

8.00

7.50

7.00

6.50

6.00

5.50

5.00

	1979	 1981	 1983	 1985	 1987	 1989	 1991	 1993	 1995	 1997	 1999	 2001	 2003	 2005

$8.50

8.00

7.50

7.00

6.50

6.00

5.50

5.00

Chart 4. Employment-population ratio for youths aged 16–19, school months in 1948–2007

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

Percent

	1948	 1951	 1954	 1957	 1960	 1963	 1966	 1969	 1972	 1975	 1978	 1981	 1984	 1987	 1990	 1993	 1996	 1999	 2002	 2005

NOTE: Yearly data are 9-month averages for the months youths are normally in school: January through May and September through December. 

Shaded areas denote years with recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). 

2007

2006
Monthly Labor Review • February 2008 61

of teens aged 16–19 employed in restaurants was about 

unchanged (–2,000); their share of restaurant employment 

declined from 25 percent to 22 percent. Within retail, 

employment gains of 365,000 and 385,000, respectively, 

came in the age groups of 20–24 and 45–54; in addition, an 

increase of 553,000 occurred among 55- to 64-year-olds. 

Within restaurants, young persons aged 20–24 increased 

their employment levels by 351,000, those aged 25–34 saw 

their employment rise by 287,000, and employment of 45 to 

54-year-olds grew by 191,000. A recent analysis by Andrew 

Sum, Ishwar Khatiwada, and Sheila Palma ventured that 

teens are facing intense competition for jobs from young 

adults, older adults, and recent immigrants.23

Education pays dividends in the workplace 

CPS data indicate that higher educational attainment is 

associated with lower unemployment and higher earnings. CPS data on persons aged 25 and older show that the 

unemployment rate in 2007 for persons with less than a 

high school diploma, 7.1 percent, was higher than the rates 

for high school graduates (4.4 percent), for persons with 

some college (3.6 percent), and for college graduates (2.0 

percent). In addition, the data demonstrate that median 

weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary workers increase as one’s educational attainment increases. In 2006, 

median weekly earnings for full-time workers aged 25 and 

older with a bachelor’s degree or higher were $1,039, compared with $692 for workers with some college, $595 for 

high school graduates, and $419 for persons with less than 

a high school diploma. When median weekly earnings are 

adjusted to constant 2006 dollars, they show that earnings 

for college graduates have trended upward since 1979 (although they have moved downward somewhat recently), 

while earnings for the lower education levels are below what 

they were in 1979; constant-dollar median weekly earnings 

for those with less than a high school diploma have declined by the most among the three education groups. (See 

chart 6.) Aaronson, Park, and Sullivan theorize that teens 

may be studying harder and graduating more frequently in 

recognition of the growing value of education; as a corollary, they may be lowering their rate of participation in 

the labor force. 24

IN SUM, TEENS ARE ATTENDING SCHOOL at higher rates 

than ever before. At the same time, they are less likely to 

Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers aged 25 and older by educational 

attainment, in constant 2006 dollars, 1979–2006

Chart 6.

College graduates

Some college

High school graduates

Less than high school

$1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

$1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

NOTE: The Consumer Price Index research series using current methods (CPI-U-RS) is used to convert current dollars to constant dollars. Since 1992, 

data on educational attainment have been based on the “highest diploma or degree received” rather than the “number of years of school completed.”

	 1979	 1981	 1983	 1985	 1987	 1989	 1991	 1993	 1995	 1997	 1999	 2001	 2003	 2005 2006
Youth Enrollment and Employment

62 Monthly Labor Review • February 2008

work during school months. This trend is apparent among 

both sexes and among blacks, whites, and Hispanics. 

Greater academic pressure and stricter education requirements may have made it more difficult and costly, in terms 

of time spent away from education, for teens to pursue 

paid work. Declines in real earnings also may have made 

concentrating on education more attractive to young 

people. 

Notes

1Some studies and policy recommendations have encouraged teenagers to work, while others have espoused the negative effects of teen 

employment. Donna S. Rothstein summarizes these issues and presents 

original research in “High School Employment and Youths’ Academic 

Achievement,” Journal of Human Resources, Winter 2007, pp. 194–213.

2The CPS enrollment data analyzed in this article are from the basic 

monthly survey and may differ from enrollment data collected through 

the CPS October school enrollment supplement. 

3Data on the well-being of youths can be accessed at the Internet 

site of the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics: 

www.childstats.gov (visited Feb. 5, 2008). The Forum is a working 

group of Federal agencies that collect, analyze, and report data on issues related to children and families. The Forum has partners from 20 

Federal agencies, as well as partners in private research organizations. 

4See, for example, Charles Dervarics, “Minorities Overrepresented 

Among America’s ‘Disconnected’ Youth,” (Washington, DC, Population Reference Bureau, August 2004), on the Internet at www.prb.

org/Articles/2004/MinoritiesOverrepresentedAmongAmericaDisconnectedYouth.aspx (visited Feb. 27, 2008); or Rima Shore, 

“Reducing the Number of Disconnected Youth,” Kids Count Indicator 

Brief (Baltimore, MD, The Annie E. Casey Foundation, July 2003), on 

the Internet at www.aecf.org/upload/publicationfiles/brief%20disc

onnected20%youth.pdf (visited Feb. 27, 2008).

5 “Births: Final Data for 2005,” National Vital Statistics Reports (Atlanta, GA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Dec. 5, 2007), 

on the Internet at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr56/nvsr56_

06.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

6The racial groups are white alone, non-Hispanic; black alone, nonHispanic; and Hispanic. (Thus, persons of Hispanic origin can be of any 

race.) The definitions of the racial and ethnic groups for 2003 through 

2007 differ from those of earlier years. Before 2003, the 1977 Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) standards on race and ethnicity were 

used to classify persons into racial groups. For 2003 and later data, the 

revised 1997 OMB standards were used; two major changes were that 

individuals were allowed to choose more than one racial category and 

that individuals were asked whether they were of Hispanic ethnicity 

before being asked about their race. Data from 2003 onward categorized by race and ethnicity are not strictly comparable with data for 

earlier years. 

7Rosella M. Gardecki reviews these factors and provides new research 

using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 ( NLSY97) in “Racial differences in youth employment,” Monthly Labor Review, August 

2001, pp. 51–67; on the Internet at www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2001/08/

art6full.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

8The Condition of Education 2007, NCES 2007–064 (Washington, DC, 

National Center for Education Statistics, June 2007), on the Internet at

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/2007064.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

9High School Coursetaking: Findings from The Condition of Education 

2007, NCES 2007–065, Table SA–3, on the Internet at http://nces.

ed.gov/programs/coe/2007/analysis/2007065.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

10Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, America’s Children in Brief: Key National Indicators of Well Being 2007, Indicator 

Tables ED3.A, B, C, and D: “Percentage of high school graduates who 

completed high-level coursework in mathematics, science, English, 

and foreign language, selected years 1982–2004,” on the Internet at: 

http://childstats.gov/americaschildren/tables.asp (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

11A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (U.S. 

Department of Education, National Commission on Excellence in 

Education, April 1983), on the Internet at www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/index.html (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

12Digest of Education Statistics 2006, NCES 2007–017 (Washington, 

DC, National Center for Education Statistics), Table 140, “Percentage 

of public and private high school graduates earning minimum credits 

in selected combinations of academic courses, by sex and race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1982 through 2005,” on the Internet at http://nces.

ed.gov/programs/digest/d06/tables/dt06_140.asp (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

13State High School Exit Exams: A Challenging Year (Washington, 

DC Center on Education Policy, Aug. 1, 2006). 

14National Summary Reports (New York, NY, The College Board, 

Advanced Placement Program, 2007), on the Internet at www.

collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/exgrd_sum/2007.html

(visited Feb. 5, 2008). 

15See “College Enrollment and Work Activity of 2006 High School 

Graduates” (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Apr. 26, 2007), on the Internet 

at www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/hsgec.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

16Digest of Education Statistics 2006, Table 327, “Percentage of fulltime, full-year, undergraduates receiving aid, by type and source of aid 

received and control and type of institution: Selected years, 1992–93 

through 2003–04,” on the Internet at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/

digest/d06/tables/dt06_327.asp (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

17Susan P. Choy, Paying for College: Changes Between 1990 and 2000 

for Full-Time Dependent Undergraduates, Findings from the Condition of 

Education 2004, NCES 2004–075 (Washington, DC, National Center 

for Education Statistics, June 2004), on the Internet at http://nces.

ed.gov/pubs2004/2004075.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

18Daniel Aaronson, Kyung-Hong Park, and Daniel Sullivan, “The 

decline in teen labor force participation,” Economic Perspectives (Chicago, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, IL, first quarter, 2006), on the 

Internet at www.chicagofed.org/publications/economicperspectives/

ep_1qtr2006_part1_aaronson_et_al.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

19 “Service-Learning and Community Service in K–12 Public 

Schools” (Washington, DC, National Center for Education Statistics, September 1999), on the Internet at http://nces.ed.gov/

pubs99/1999043.pdf (visited Feb. 5. 2008).

20F. M. Newmann and R. A. Rutter, “A Profile of High School 

Community Service Programs [1985]” (Washington, dc, U.S. Department of Education), in Advances in Education Research, vol. 3, Fall 1998, 

pp. 7–23. Originally published in Educational Leadership, December 

1986/January 1986, pp. 65–71. For more information, see the citation 
Monthly Labor Review • February 2008 63

on the Internet at www.nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000028.pdf (visited 

Feb. 27, 2008).

21Youth Helping America: Building Active Citizens: The Role of Social 

Institutions in Teen Volunteering (Washington, DC, Corporation for National and Community Service, November 2005), on the Internet at 

www.worldvolunteerweb.org/fileadmin/docdb/pdf/2006/05_1130_

LSA_YHA_study.pdf (visited Feb. 5, 2008).

22The National Bureau of Economic Research is generally recognized as the official arbiter of recessions in the United States. The organization determined that the most recent recession lasted from March 

2001 to November 2001. 

23Andrew Sum, Ishwar Khatiwada, and Sheila Palma, “The Age Twist 

in Employment Rates in the U.S., 2000–2004: The Steep Tilt Against 

Young Workers in the Nation’s Labor Markets” (Boston, Center for Labor 

Market Studies, Northeastern University, January 2005), on the Internet 

at www.aypf.org/publications/EmploymentRatesofyoungworkers.pdf 

(visited Feb. 27, 2008).

24Aaronson, Park, and Sullivan, “The decline in teen labor force 

participation.”

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