Internet address:  http://stats.bls.gov/newsrels.htm
Technical information:  (202) 691-7409  USDL 00-119

                                        For release:  10:00 A.M. EDT
Media contact:                691-5902  Tuesday, April 25, 2000


         NUMBER OF JOBS HELD, LABOR MARKET ACTIVITY, AND EARNINGS
       GROWTH OVER TWO DECADES:  RESULTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY
     
     
   The average person in the U.S. holds 9.2 jobs from age 18 to age 34,
according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of
Labor.  More than half of these jobs were held between the ages of 18 and 24.
   
   These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979
(NLSY79), a survey of 9,964 young men and women who were born between 1957
and 1964.  These respondents were 14 to 22 years of age when first
interviewed in 1979 and 33 to 41 when interviewed most recently in 1998.
The survey spans nearly two decades and provides information on work and
nonwork experiences, training, schooling, income and assets, health
conditions, and other characteristics.  The information provided by
respondents, who were interviewed annually from 1979 to 1994 and biennially
since 1994, can be considered representative of all men and women born in
the late 1950s and early 1960s and living in the United States in 1978.
   
   This release of the latest data from the longitudinal survey focuses on
four aspects of labor market behavior:  number of jobs held, labor force
participation, earnings growth, and promotions.  Highlights from the survey
include:

--Individuals born between 1957 and 1964 held an average of 5.6 jobs while
ages 18 to 24.  The average fell to 3.0 jobs while ages 25 to 29 and to 2.4
jobs while ages 30 to 34.  Since jobs that span age groups were counted
once in each age group, the overall average number of jobs held from age 18
to age 34 (9.2 jobs) is less than the sum of the number of jobs across the
individual age groups.

--The average individual was employed during 75 percent of the weeks
occurring from age 18 to age 34.  Generally, men spent a larger percent of
weeks employed than did women (83 percent versus 68 percent) and a smaller
percent of weeks out of the labor force (11 percent versus 27 percent).

--Over 87 percent of both men and women experienced at least one period of
unemployment from age 18 to age 34, with the percent of individuals
reporting an unemployment spell decreasing sharply with age.

--The annual percent growth in real hourly earnings was fastest during the 
ages of 18 to 24.  Growth rates in real hourly earnings were always higher 
for those who obtained more education.

--Over 24 percent of employed individuals ages 30 to 40 received a promotion
between 1995 and 1997.

                                  - 2 -

Number of Jobs Held
   
   Individuals held an average of 9.2 jobs from age 18 to age 34, with
over half of the jobs being held before age 25.  On average, men held 9.6
jobs and women held 8.8 jobs from age 18 to age 34.  Men held 5.8 jobs from
age 18 to age 24, but only 2.6 jobs from age 30 to age 34.  The reduction
in the number of jobs held was similar for women.  (See table 1.)
   
   For women, blacks, and Hispanics, those who obtained a college degree
usually held more jobs than those who ended their education with a high
school diploma or less.  College-educated women held more jobs than women
without a college degree and, on average, held more jobs than college-
educated men.
   
   Differences in the number of jobs held also are apparent between race
and ethnic groups.  From age 18 to age 34, whites held more jobs than
either blacks or Hispanics.  The difference is most pronounced at younger
ages; whites held 5.8 jobs from age 18 to age 24, compared with 4.7 jobs
for blacks and 5.0 jobs for Hispanics.  These racial differences nearly
disappeared at older ages; whites and Hispanics ages 30 to 34 held an
average of 2.4 jobs, and blacks in that age group held 2.5 jobs.
   
Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force
   
   On average, individuals were employed during 75 percent of all the
weeks occurring from age 18 to age 34, were unemployed 5 percent of the
weeks, and were not in the labor force 19 percent of the weeks.  The amount
of time spent out of the labor force differs greatly by education,
especially among women.  Female high school dropouts spent 48 percent of
the weeks out of the labor force from age 18 to age 34.  By comparison,
female high school graduates spent 28 percent of the weeks out of the labor
force, and female college graduates spent 20 percent of the weeks out of
the labor force.  Among men, high school dropouts and college graduates
spent a similar percent of weeks out of the labor force from age 18 to age
34 (14 and 15 percent, respectively).  Male high school dropouts spent a
much larger percent of weeks unemployed than did college graduates.  (See
table 2.)
   
   Labor force activity also is related to age, with the percent of weeks
employed increasing and the percent of weeks unemployed or not in the labor
force falling as individuals grow older.  While all race and ethnic groups
had increasing labor force participation with age, the age differential for
blacks was most pronounced.  From age 18 to age 24, blacks, on average,
spent 39 percent of the weeks employed, 17 percent of the weeks unemployed,
and 43 percent of the weeks out of the labor force.  By comparison, from
age 25 to age 29, blacks, on average, spent 70 percent of the weeks
employed, 9 percent of the weeks unemployed, and 21 percent of the weeks
out of the labor force.  (See table 3.)

                                  - 3 -

Unemployment
   
   The percent of men and women reporting at least one unemployment spell
from age 18 to age 34 was similar except among high school dropouts.  In
every age range, female high school dropouts were less likely than male
dropouts to have experienced an unemployment spell.  (See table 4.)
   
   Blacks were more likely than whites or Hispanics to have experienced an
unemployment spell, regardless of age or educational attainment.  Over 94
percent of blacks reported at least one unemployment spell from age 18 to
age 34, compared with 86 percent of whites and 90 percent of Hispanics.
Among all three race-ethnic groups, the likelihood of experiencing a spell
of unemployment decreased as age and educational attainment rose, but a
greater percent of college-educated blacks reported at least one
unemployment spell from age 30 to age 34 than did their white or Hispanic
counterparts.
   
Percent Growth in Real Earnings
   
   The real earnings of individuals increased more rapidly at young ages
compared with older ages.  From the ages of 18 to 24, real hourly earnings
grew an average of 6.6 percent per year.  The earnings growth rate slowed
to 4.0 percent annually from age 25 to age 29, then to 2.4 percent annually
from age 30 to age 34.  In every age category, growth rates in real hourly
earnings always were higher for those with more education.  (See table 7.)
   
Promotions
   
   Over 24 percent of employed individuals ages 30 to 40 reported
receiving a promotion during the 1995 to 1997 period.  Overall, men were
slightly more likely than women to have received a promotion (26 percent
versus 23 percent).  Promotion rates were similar among men and women with
a high school diploma or less education, but, among college graduates, men
were considerably more likely than women to have received a promotion 
(36 percent versus 24 percent).  (See table 8.)
   
   Promotion rates were similar for whites, blacks, and Hispanics.  Among
high school dropouts, whites were more likely than blacks or Hispanics to
have received a promotion, but among employed persons with a high school
diploma or more education, the differences in promotion rates among the
three race-ethnic groups virtually disappeared.
   
Explanatory Note

   The estimates in this release were obtained using data from the
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79).  This survey is
conducted by the Center for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State
University and the National Opinion Research Center at the University of
Chicago under the direction and sponsorship of the U.S. Department of
Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics.
   
Sample

   The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 is a nationally
representative sample of 12,686 young men and women who were 14 to 22 years
of age when first surveyed in 1979.  This sample of over 12,000 youths was
initially composed of three subsamples:  a cross-sectional sample designed
to be representative of the noninstitutionalized, civilian segment of young
people living in the U.S. in 1978 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec.
31, 1964; a supplemental sample of youths designed to oversample
noninstitutionalized, civilian Hispanic, black, and economically
disadvantaged white youths living in the U.S. and born between Jan. 1,
1957, and Dec. 31, 1964; and a military oversample of youths born between
Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 1964, and enlisted in one of the four branches
of active military forces.  In 1985, the military oversample was
discontinued, and in 1991, the disadvantaged white youths were dropped from
the supplemental sample.  As a result, the NLSY79 sample now contains 9,964
individuals.  Individuals were surveyed annually until 1994 and are now
surveyed every other year.

   In 1998, 8,399 individuals responded to the survey, for a retention
rate of 84 percent.  Only these individuals are included in the estimates
in this release.  All results are weighted using the 1998 survey weights
that correct for the oversampling, interview nonresponse, and permanent
attrition from the survey.  When weighted, the data are representative of
all persons living in the U.S. in 1978 and born between 1957 and 1964.  
Not represented by the survey are U.S. immigrants who were born between 
1957 and 1964 and moved to the United States after 1978.
   
Work History Data

   The total number of jobs that people hold during their work life is an
easy concept to understand but a difficult one to measure.  Reliable
estimates require a survey that interviews the same people over the course
of their entire work life and also keeps track of all the jobs they ever
held.  The NLSY79 tracks the number of jobs that people have held, but the
respondents in this survey are still relatively young, ages 33 to 41 in
1998, and have many years of work life ahead of them.  As the cohort
continues to age, however, more complete information will become available.

   A unique feature of the NLSY79 is that it collects the beginning and
ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent so that a longitudinal
history can be constructed of each respondent's work experiences.  The
NLSY79 work history data provide a week-by-week work record of each
respondent from Jan. 1, 1978, through the most recent survey date.  These
data contain information on the respondent's labor force status each week,
the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, and earnings for all jobs.  
If a respondent worked at more than one job in any week, hours and earnings
are obtained for up to four additional jobs.  When a respondent who missed
one or more consecutive survey rounds is interviewed again, he is asked to
provide information about all time since the last interview.

Interaction Between Time and Age in a Longitudinal Survey

   Because the NLSY79 is a longitudinal survey, meaning the same people
are surveyed over time, the ages of the respondents change with each survey
round.  It is important to keep in mind this inherent link between the
calendar years and the ages of the respondents.  For example, table 7
reports earnings growth from age 25 to age 29.  The youngest respondents in
the sample (birth year 1964) were these ages during 1989-93, whereas the
oldest respondents (birth year 1957) were these ages during 1982-86.

   As with age, the educational attainment of individuals may change from
year to year.  In the tables and analysis presented in this report,
educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey.  This definition
is used even when data on age and educational attainment are presented
together.  For example, table 1 reports the number of jobs held during
different age categories.  Suppose that a respondent had completed a
bachelor's degree at age 27.  That respondent would be included in the
"Bachelor's degree or more" educational category in all age categories
shown on the table, even though he or she did not have a bachelor's degree
at any point from age 18 to age 24.
   
Definitions

   Job.  A job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work with a
particular employer.  Jobs are therefore employer-based, not position-
based.  If a respondent indicates that he or she left a job but in a
subsequent survey returns to the same job, it is counted as a new job.  
For example, if an individual worked in a retail establishment during 
the summer, quit at the end of summer to return to school, and then re-
sumed working for the same employer the following spring, this sequence 
would count as two jobs, rather than one.  For self-employed workers, 
each new job is defined by the individuals themselves.

   Unemployment.  If respondents indicate a gap between employers, they
are asked how many of those weeks they spent searching for employment or on
layoff.  For that number of weeks, they are considered unemployed.  For the
remaining weeks, they are coded as not in the labor force.  No probing for
intensity of job search is done.  An unemployment spell is defined as one
or more consecutive weeks of unemployment.

   Usual earnings.  Respondents can report earnings over any time frame
(hour, day, week, month, year).  For those who do not report an hourly
wage, one is constructed using usual hours worked over that time frame.
Wages greater than $100 per hour and less than $1 per hour were not
included in the analysis of earnings growth because the reported earnings
levels were almost certainly in error.  For the same reason, individuals
who had real earnings growth greater than 100 percent were not included in
the analysis.  These exclusions from the analysis affected 279 respondents.

   Promotions.  Respondents are asked a series of questions about
promotions received from their current employer.  In particular,
respondents are asked if they had been promoted by their current employer
since they began working for that employer or since the date of the last
interview, whichever is more recent.  These statistics are self-reported by
the respondents.

   Race and ethnic groups.  The race and ethnic categories used in the
NLSY79 are different from those used in other BLS surveys.  In other BLS
surveys, estimates usually are published for whites, blacks, and persons 
of Hispanic origin, but these groups are not mutually exclusive because
Hispanics are considered to be an ethnic group rather than a racial group.
Hispanics therefore can be included in any racial category.  In the NLSY79,
the estimates are reported for three mutually exclusive groups:  non-
Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and Hispanics.  Although these three
groups are mutually exclusive, they are not exhaustive.  American Indians,
Alaskan natives, and Asians and Pacific Islanders are included in the
totals but are not shown separately because of the small numbers of sample
members in these racial categories.
   
   Information in this release will be made available to sensory impaired
individuals upon request.  Voice phone:  202-691-5200; TDD message referral
phone:  1-800-877-8339.
Table 1.  Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to 34 in
1978-98 by educational attainment, sex, race, Hispanic origin,
and age
                                
                            Average number of jobs for persons age 
                                      18 to 34 in 1978-98

    Characteristic                                
                                
                                Total(1)    Age     Age     Age
                                           18-24   25-29   30-34
                                
Total............................ 9.2       5.6     3.0     2.4
 Less than a high school diploma. 9.3       5.2     3.0     2.4
 High school grad., no college... 8.7       5.2     2.8     2.4
 Less than a bachelor's degree... 9.6       5.8     3.2     2.5
 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.7       6.3     3.0     2.4
                                
Men.............................. 9.6       5.8     3.2     2.6
 Less than a high school diploma.10.7       6.1     3.5     2.8
 High school grad., no college... 9.1       5.5     3.1     2.5
 Less than a bachelor's degree...10.0       6.0     3.4     2.6
 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.3       6.0     2.9     2.4
                                
Women............................ 8.8       5.4     2.8     2.3
 Less than a high school diploma. 7.4       4.0     2.2     2.0
 High school grad., no college... 8.2       4.8     2.5     2.3
 Less than a bachelor's degree... 9.2       5.6     3.0     2.4
 Bachelor's degree or more.......10.1       6.6     3.1     2.3
                                
White............................ 9.4       5.8     3.0     2.4
 Less than a high school diploma. 9.8       5.6     3.1     2.6
 High school grad., no college... 8.7       5.3     2.8     2.4
 Less than a bachelor's degree... 9.9       6.0     3.2     2.5
 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.8       6.4     3.0     2.3
                                
Black............................ 8.5       4.7     2.9     2.5
 Less than a high school diploma. 8.0       3.9     2.7     2.2
 High school grad., no college... 8.4       4.5     2.9     2.5
 Less than a bachelor's degree... 8.5       5.0     2.9     2.4
 Bachelor's degree or more....... 9.4       6.0     3.1     2.7
                                
Hispanic origin.................. 8.7       5.0     2.9     2.4
 Less than a high school diploma. 8.8       4.9     2.8     2.2
 High school grad., no college... 8.6       5.0     2.8     2.4
 Less than a bachelor's degree... 8.6       5.1     3.0     2.3
 Bachelor's degree or more....... 8.9       5.3     2.7     2.6
                                
                                
  1  Jobs that were held in more than one of the age categories
were counted in each appropriate column, but only once in the
total column.  
  NOTE:  The first two columns exclude individuals who turned
age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978. The first and last columns exclude
individuals who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed
in 1998.
  The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists
of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were
age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals
were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attainment is defined
as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are
mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan
Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately.
 
Table 2.  Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed,
or not in the labor force from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 
by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic origin
                        
                                       Percent of total weeks
                                    while age 18 to 34 in 1978-98
                        
        Characteristic                                 Not in the
                                   Employed Unemployed labor force
                        
                        
Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98.....  75.2      5.4        18.8
 Less than a high school diploma...  62.3      9.2        27.8
 High school graduates, no college.  75.4      6.0        18.0
 Less than a bachelor's degree.....  77.7      4.9        16.9
 Bachelor's degree or more.........  79.3      2.9        17.5
                        
Men................................  82.5      6.0        10.9
 Less than a high school diploma...  75.0     10.8        13.5
 High school graduates, no college.  84.2      6.5         8.6
 Less than a bachelor's degree.....  85.7      5.0         8.9
 Bachelor's degree or more.........  81.3      3.1        15.2
                         
Women..............................  67.7      4.7        27.0
 Less than a high school diploma...  44.3      7.0        48.1
 High school graduates, no college.  66.0      5.4        28.1
 Less than a bachelor's degree.....  71.0      4.7        23.6
 Bachelor's degree or more.........  77.3      2.6        19.8
                        
White..............................  77.6      4.5        17.4
 Less than a high school diploma...  66.5      8.4        24.4
 High school graduates, no college.  78.5      4.9        16.0
 Less than a bachelor's degree.....  79.4      3.9        16.2
 Bachelor's degree or more.........  79.4      2.7        17.5
                        
Black..............................  64.7     10.2        24.4
 Less than a high school diploma...  47.7     13.2        38.4
 High school graduates, no college.  63.0     11.4        25.0
 Less than a bachelor's degree.....  71.2      9.1        19.1
 Bachelor's degree or more.........  78.0      4.7        16.8
                        
Hispanic origin....................  70.5      5.6        23.3
 Less than a high school diploma...  59.9      8.0        31.4
 High school graduates, no college.  70.5      5.7        23.1
 Less than a bachelor's degree.....  76.1      4.3        19.0
 Bachelor's degree or more.........  79.6      2.8        16.8
                        
                        
  NOTE:  This table excludes individuals who turned
age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned
age 35 when interviewed in 1998.
  Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number
of respondents whose employment status cannot be
determined for all weeks.
  The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists
of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and
were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These
individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attain-
ment is defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-
origin groups are mutually exclusive. Totals include
American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific
Islanders, not shown separately.
 
Table 3.  Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed,
or not in the labor force from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 by age,
sex, race, and Hispanic origin
                                                        
                                      Percent of total weeks

    Age and Characteristic
                                                       Not in the
                                 Employed  Unemployed  labor force
                                                        
                                                        
Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 75.2       5.4         18.8
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 68.4       7.8         23.3
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 78.4       4.4         16.6
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 79.6       3.7         16.2
                                                                
Men, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1)... 82.5       6.0         10.9
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 73.3       8.8         17.4
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 87.1       5.2          7.1
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 88.4       4.0          6.9
                                                         
Women, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 67.7       4.7         27.0
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 63.3       6.8         29.6
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 69.4       3.7         26.4
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 70.5       3.3         25.7
                                                        
White, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 77.6       4.5         17.4
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 71.3       6.8         21.5
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 80.7       3.6         15.2
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 81.4       3.1         15.0
                                                        
Black, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1). 64.7      10.2         24.4
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 39.4      17.0         43.1
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 69.6       8.7         21.0
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 71.3       7.0         20.9
                                                      
Hispanic origin, age 18 to 34      
 in 1978-98(1).................... 70.5       5.6         23.3
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)...... 63.8       8.1         27.5
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94......... 72.4       5.1         21.8
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)...... 75.6       3.9         19.5
                                                        
                                                        
  1  This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before
Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned 35 when interviewed
in 1998.
  2  This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before
Jan. 1, 1978.
  3  This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned
age 35 when interviewed in 1998.
  NOTE:  Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number
of respondents whose employment status cannot be determined for
all weeks.
  The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists
of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age
14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were
age 33 to 41 in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of
the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually
exclusive. Totals include American American Indians, Alaskan
Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately.
 
Table 4.  Percent of individuals age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 who
reported at least one spell of unemployment by age, educational
attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic origin
                                                
                                   Percent reporting at least
                                   one spell of unemployment                                        

   Age and characteristic
                                                
                            Total  Men  Women  White Black  Hispanic
                                                            origin
                                                
                                                
Age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).. 87.6  87.1  88.1  86.2  94.4   89.6
 Less than a H.S. diploma... 93.0  95.5  89.4  92.1  96.1   93.2
 High school grad., no coll. 86.9  86.0  87.8  85.1  94.5   91.6
 Less than a bach. degree... 85.3  84.0  86.3  82.8  93.5   87.7
 Bach. degree or more....... 88.3  86.6  89.9  88.2  93.7   78.2
                                                
Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2).. 81.4  81.6  81.1  79.9  88.9   81.7
 Less than a H.S. diploma... 87.1  91.8  80.3  87.1  88.9   85.0
 High school grad., no coll. 80.3  80.7  79.9  78.0  89.9   84.5
 Less than a bach. degree... 80.2  78.7  81.4  78.2  88.2   78.3
 Bach. degree or more....... 81.3  79.4  83.1  81.2  86.4   71.6
                                                
Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94..... 46.3  45.8  46.8  43.2  60.9   49.7
 Less than a H.S. diploma... 59.5  62.2  55.8  56.3  71.0   58.2
 High school grad., no coll. 48.3  48.2  48.3  44.6  63.8   51.1
 Less than a bach. degree... 44.6  41.5  47.1  41.3  57.9   47.2
 Bach. degree or more....... 38.0  35.9  40.1  37.7  42.5   33.9
                                                
Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3).. 35.4  35.3  35.5  32.7  48.9   38.4
 Less than a H.S. diploma... 51.8  55.2  47.2  50.1  59.8   47.3
 High school grad., no coll. 40.0  39.8  40.3  37.2  54.7   42.0
 Less than a bach. degree... 32.5  30.6  34.0  29.9  43.3   33.2
 Bach. degree or more....... 22.0  20.6  23.5  21.7  25.3   22.0
        
                                        
  1  This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before
Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 35 when interviewed
in 1998.
  2  This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before
Jan. 1, 1978.
  3  This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age
35 when interviewed in 1998.
  NOTE:  The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists
of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were age 
14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were
age 33 to 41 when interviewed in 1998. Educational attainment is
defined as of the 1998 survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups
are mutually exclusive. Totals include American Indians, Alaskan
Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. 
 
Table 5.  Number of unemployment spells experienced by individuals
from age 18 to 34 in 1978-98 who reported at least one spell of
unemployment by educational attainment, sex, race, and
Hispanic origin
                                
                                          Percent distribution

         Characteristic                                
                               Average    One    Two      Three
                               number    spell  spells   or more
                              of spells                  spells
                                
Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98.. 5.1     15.2    14.5     70.3
  Less than a H.S. diploma...... 6.7      8.4     9.1     82.5
  High school grad., no college. 5.5     15.1    13.4     71.5
  Less than a bach. degree...... 5.1     16.7    13.8     69.6
  Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8     17.9    19.9     62.2
                                
Men............................. 5.4     16.1    13.6     70.3
  Less than a H.S. diploma...... 7.3      5.4     6.7     87.9
  High school grad., no college. 5.7     15.8    13.2     71.0
  Less than a bach. degree...... 5.1     20.7    12.6     66.7
  Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8     19.8    19.9     60.2
                                 
Women........................... 4.9     14.4    15.3     70.3
  Less than a H.S. diploma...... 5.8     12.9    12.7     74.4
  High school grad., no college. 5.2     14.3    13.5     72.1
  Less than a bach. degree...... 5.1     13.3    14.8     71.9
  Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8     16.0    19.9     64.0
                                
White........................... 5.3     16.9    11.7     71.4
  Less than a H.S. diploma...... 6.4     13.1     8.0     79.0
  High school grad., no college. 5.3     16.1    13.2     70.7
  Less than a bach. degree...... 4.6     21.9    11.1     67.0
  Bach. degree or more.......... 4.3     15.4    16.7     68.0
                                
Black........................... 6.5      7.8     9.0     83.2
  Less than a H.S. diploma...... 7.9      7.1     4.1     88.7
  High school grad., no college. 6.8      6.1     8.6     85.3
  Less than a bach. degree...... 6.1      8.8     9.7     81.5
  Bach. degree or more.......... 4.5     12.2    15.6     72.2
                                
Hispanic origin................. 4.8     16.6    15.8     67.6
  Less than a H.S. diploma...... 6.4      8.0    10.8     81.2
  High school grad., no college. 5.1     17.0    14.4     68.6
  Less than a bach. degree...... 4.8     18.3    15.5     66.2
  Bach. degree or more.......... 3.8     18.5    20.2     61.3


  NOTE:  This table excludes individuals who turned age
18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age
35 when interviewed in 1998.
  The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979
consists of men  and women  who were  born  in the years
1957-64 and  were  age 14 to 22  when first interviewed 
in 1979.  These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998.
Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey.
Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually exclusive.
Totals include  American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and
and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. 
 
Table 6.  Number of unemployment spells experienced by individuals
who reported at least one spell of unemployment from age 18 to 34
in 1978-98 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin
                                
                                        Percent distribution

     Age and characteristic       Average                   Three
                                  number of  One   Two     or more
                                  spells    spell  spells  spells
                                
                                
Total, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).  5.1     15.2    14.5    70.3
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)......  3.5     22.6    20.3    57.1
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94.........  2.2     44.5    24.5    31.0
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)......  2.1     46.2    23.4    30.5
                                
Men, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1)...  5.4     16.1    13.6    70.3
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)......  3.6     22.0    19.2    58.8
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94.........  2.5     39.9    24.1    36.0
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)......  2.3     41.5    23.9    34.6
                                 
Women, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).  4.9     14.4    15.3    70.3
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)......  3.3     23.3    21.3    55.4
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94.........  2.0     49.2    24.9    26.0
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)......  2.0     50.9    22.9    26.2
                                
White, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).  5.3     16.9    11.7    71.4
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)......  3.4     24.3    21.1    54.6
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94.........  2.1     47.5    24.0    28.5
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)......  2.1     48.1    22.3    29.6
                                
Black, age 18 to 34 in 1978-98(1).  6.5      7.8     9.0    83.2
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)......  4.0     15.1    16.2    68.8
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94.........  2.5     34.9    25.6    39.5
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)......  2.3     39.9    26.3    33.8
                                
Hispanic origin, age 18 to 34       
 in 1978-98(1)....................  4.8     16.6    15.8    67.6
  Age 18 to 24 in 1978-89(2)......  3.6     22.0    18.9    59.0
  Age 25 to 29 in 1983-94.........  2.3     39.0    27.8    33.3
  Age 30 to 34 in 1988-98(3)......  2.1     44.9    28.1    27.0


  1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18
before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 35
when interviewed in 1998.
  2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18
before Jan. 1, 1978.
  3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet
turned age 35 when interviewed in 1998.
  NOTE:  The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years
1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 
1979. These individuals were age 33 to 41 when interviewed
in 1998. Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998
survey. Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually
exclusive.  Totals include American Indians, Alaskan Natives,
and Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. 
 
Table 7.  Average annual percent growth in real hourly earnings
from 1978 to 1998 by educational attainment, sex, race,
Hispanic origin, and age
                        
                                  Average annual percent growth
                                       in hourly earnings

           Characteristic                        

                                      Age       Age      Age
                                     18-24     25-29    30-34
                        
Total...............................  6.6       4.0      2.4
  Less than a high school diploma...  4.2       2.7      1.0
  High school graduates, no college.  5.6       2.8      1.5
  Less than a bachelor's degree.....  5.9       4.5      2.9
  Bachelor's degree or more.........  9.9       6.0      4.1
                                
Men.................................  6.9       4.2      2.4
  Less than a high school diploma...  3.7       2.3      0.9
  High school graduates, no college.  6.3       3.1      1.1
  Less than a bachelor's degree.....  7.1       5.0      2.9
  Bachelor's degree or more.........  9.5       6.8      4.8
                        
Women...............................  6.3       3.6      2.4
  Less than a high school diploma...  5.0       3.7      1.2
  High school graduates, no college.  4.7       2.4      2.0
  Less than a bachelor's degree.....  5.0       4.1      2.8
  Bachelor's degree or more......... 10.3       5.1      3.2
                        
White...............................  6.9       4.1      2.4
  Less than a high school diploma...  5.0       2.9      1.5
  High school graduates, no college.  5.6       2.9      1.3
  Less than a bachelor's degree.....  6.1       4.7      2.8
  Bachelor's degree or more......... 10.1       6.0      4.0
                        
Black...............................  5.1       3.6      2.3
  Less than a high school diploma...  2.4       2.3      0.1
  High school graduates, no college.  5.1       2.9      2.0
  Less than a bachelor's degree.....  5.0       3.9      2.4
  Bachelor's degree or more.........  7.9       6.4      5.2
                        
Hispanic origin.....................  5.8       3.0      2.6
  Less than a high school diploma...  3.0       2.6      0.7
  High school graduates, no college.  6.1       1.5      2.7
  Less than a bachelor's degree.....  6.1       4.1      3.3
  Bachelor's degree or more.........  9.6       5.8      3.8


  NOTE:  The first column excludes individuals who
turned age 18 before 1978.  The last column excludes
individuals who were not yet age 35 when interviewed
in 1998.
  The  CPI-UX1 (research index) was used to deflate
hourly earnings to 1998 dollars, prior to calculating the
growth rates.
  The  National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979
consists of men and women who were born in the years
1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first interviewed in
1979.  These individuals were age 33 to 41 in 1998.
Educational attainment is defined as of the 1998 survey.
Race and Hispanic-origin groups are mutually  exclusive.
Totals include  American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and
Asian and Pacific Islanders, not shown separately. 
 
Table 8.  Percent of employed individuals who were promoted by
their current employer from 1995 to 1997 by educational
attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic origin
                
        Characteristic                        Percent who were
                                              promoted, 1995-97
                
                
Total........................................      24.2
  Less than a high school diploma............      19.7
  High school graduates, no college..........      22.1
  Less than a bachelor's degree..............      23.9
  Bachelor's degree or more..................      30.2
                
Men..........................................      25.6
  Less than a high school diploma............      19.4
  High school graduates, no college..........      21.4
  Less than a bachelor's degree..............      26.2
  Bachelor's degree or more..................      35.7
                
Women........................................      22.7
  Less than a high school diploma............      20.3
  High school graduates, no college..........      22.9
  Less than a bachelor's degree..............      21.9
  Bachelor's degree or more..................      23.9
                
White........................................      24.4
  Less than a high school diploma............      22.1
  High school graduates, no college..........      22.1
  Less than a bachelor's degree..............      22.6
  Bachelor's degree or more..................      30.2
                
Black........................................      23.0
  Less than a high school diploma............      13.5
  High school graduates, no college..........      20.6
  Less than a bachelor's degree..............      28.7
  Bachelor's degree or more..................      30.0
                
Hispanic origin..............................      23.8
  Less than a high school diploma............      15.8
  High school graduates, no college..........      26.2
  Less than a bachelor's degree..............      25.1
  Bachelor's degree or more..................      27.0


  NOTE:  Since 1994, respondents have been asked
if they had been promoted by their current employer
since they began working for that employer or since 
the last interview, whichever is more recent.
  These individuals were age 30 to 40 during the
years 1995 to 1997.
  The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979
consists of men and women who were born in the
years 1957-64 and were age 14 to 22 when first
interviewed in 1979.  These individuals were age 33 to
41 in 1998.  Educational attainment is defined as of the
1998 survey.  Race and Hispanic-origin groups are
mutually  exclusive.  Totals include American Indians,
Alaskan Natives, and Asian and Pacific Islanders, 
not shown separately.