For release 10:00 a.m. (EDT) Tuesday, March 31, 2015 USDL-15-0528 

Technical information: (202) 691-7410 • nls_info@bls.gov • www.bls.gov/nls 

Media contact: (202) 691-5902 • PressOffice@bls.gov 

NUMBER OF JOBS HELD, LABOR MARKET ACTIVITY, AND

EARNINGS GROWTH AMONG THE YOUNGEST BABY BOOMERS: 

RESULTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY

The average person born in the latter years of the baby boom (1957-1964) held 11.7 jobs from age 18 to 

age 48, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Nearly half of these jobs were held from ages 

18 to 24. 

These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979; a survey of 9,964 men and 

women who were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979 and ages 47 to 56 when interviewed 

most recently in 2012-13. These respondents were born in the years 1957 to 1964, the latter years of the 

“baby boom” that occurred in the United States from 1946 to 1964. The survey spans more than three 

decades and provides information on work and nonwork experiences, education, training, income and 

assets, health, and other characteristics. The information provided by respondents, who were interviewed 

annually from 1979 to 1994 and biennially since 1994, can be considered representative of all men and 

women born in the late 1950s and early 1960s and living in the United States when the survey began in 

1979. 

This release of the latest data from the longitudinal survey focuses on the number of jobs held, job 

duration, labor force participation, and earnings growth. Highlights from the survey include: 

 Individuals born from 1957 to 1964 held an average of 11.7 jobs from ages 18 to 48. These baby 

boomers held an average of 5.5 jobs while ages 18 to 24. The average fell to 3 jobs from ages 25 

to 29, to 2.4 jobs from ages 30 to 34, and to 2.1 jobs from ages 35 to 39. From ages 40 to 48 the 

average person held 2.4 jobs. Jobs that span more than one age group were counted once in each 

age group, so the overall average number of jobs held from age 18 to age 48 is less than the sum 

of the number of jobs across the individual age groups. (See table 1.) 

 Although job duration tended to be longer the older a worker was when starting the job, these 

baby boomers continued to have large numbers of short-duration jobs. Among jobs started by 40 

to 48 year olds, 32 percent ended in less than a year, and 69 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. 

(See table 2.) 

 The average person was employed during 78 percent of the weeks from age 18 to age 48. 

Generally, men spent a larger percent of weeks employed than did women (84 percent versus 71 

percent). Women spent much more time out of the labor force (25 percent of weeks) than did 

men (11 percent of weeks). (See table 3.) 
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7

8

9

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11

12

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Number of Jobs Held

Age

Chart 1. Cumulative number of jobs held from age 18 to age 48, by sex and age

Men

Women

 The average annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings grew the most during a 

workers late teens and early twenties. Growth rates in earnings generally were higher for college 

graduates than for workers with less education. (See table 5.) 

Number of Jobs Held 

Individuals held an average of 11.7 jobs from ages 18 to 48, with nearly half of these jobs held before 

age 25. In this news release, a job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work with a particular 

employer. (See the Technical Note for additional information on the definition of a job.) On average, 

men held 11.8 jobs and women held 11.5 jobs from age 18 to age 48. Men held 5.7 jobs from age 18 to 

age 24, compared with 2.4 jobs from age 40 to age 48. The reduction in the average number of jobs held 

in successive age groups was similar for women. (See table 1.) Chart 1 shows the cumulative number of 

jobs held from age 18 to age 48, by sex and age. The decline in the slope of these curves indicates a 

decrease in the rate at which workers change jobs as they age. 

On average, men without a high school diploma held 12.9 jobs from ages 18 to 48, while men with a 

bachelor’s degree held 11.2 jobs between these ages. In contrast, women without a high school diploma 

held 9.6 jobs from ages 18 to 48, while women with a bachelor’s degree held 12.5 jobs between these 

ages. 

From age 18 to age 24, whites held more jobs than blacks or Hispanics. On average, whites held 5.7 jobs 

between the ages of 18 and 24, while blacks held 4.6 jobs and Hispanics held 4.9 jobs. From age 25 to 

age 48, there was no significant difference in the average number of jobs held by whites and the average 

number of jobs held by blacks or Hispanics. 
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20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Less than a high school diploma High school graduates Some college Bachelor's degree or more

Chart 2. Percent of weeks employed from age 18 to age 48, by educational attainment, race, and

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

White, non‐Hispanic Black, non‐Hispanic Hispanic or Latino

Duration of Employment Relationships 

The length of time a worker remains with the same employer increased with the age at which the worker 

began the job. Of the jobs that workers began when they were 18 to 24 years of age, 69 percent of those 

jobs ended in less than a year and 93 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. Among jobs started by 40 to 

48 year olds, 32 percent ended in less than a year and 69 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. (See 

table 2.) 

Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force 

On average, baby boomers (born 1957-1964) were employed during 78 percent of all the weeks 

occurring from age 18 to age 48. They were unemployed—that is, without jobs but seeking work—5 

percent of the weeks. They were not in the labor force—that is, neither working nor seeking work—18 

percent of the weeks. (See table 3.) 

The amount of time spent employed differed substantially between those without a high school diploma 

and those who had graduated from high school or attained higher levels of education. Individuals with 

less than a high school diploma (as of the 2012-13 survey) spent 60 percent of weeks employed and 32 

percent of weeks out of the labor force from age 18 to age 48. By comparison, high school graduates 

spent 77 percent of weeks employed and 18 percent of weeks out of the labor force, while those with a 

bachelor’s degree or higher spent 84 percent of weeks employed and 14 percent of weeks out of the 

labor force. 

White high school graduates with no college were employed a higher percentage of weeks and out of the 

labor force a smaller percentage of weeks than similarly educated blacks or Hispanics. Between the ages 
- 4 - 

of 18 and 48, white high school graduates with no college spent 80 percent of weeks employed and 16 

percent of weeks out of the labor force, while similarly educated blacks spent 66 percent of weeks 

employed and 24 percent of weeks out of the labor force and Hispanic high school graduates with no 

college spent 73 percent of weeks employed and 22 percent of weeks out of the labor force. Among 

those with a bachelor’s degree or higher, however, there was little difference among racial and ethnic 

groups in labor market attachment; each group spent between 83 percent and 85 percent of weeks 

employed. (See chart 2.) 

The amount of time spent in the labor force differs by sex, with women at every educational level 

spending fewer weeks in the labor force than men. Overall, men were out of the labor force 11 percent 

of weeks from age 18 to age 48; at these same ages, women were out of the labor force 25 percent of 

weeks. Women’s labor force participation increased with their education level. Women without a high 

school diploma spent almost half (48 percent) of all weeks between age 18 and age 48 out of the labor 

force, while those with a high school diploma were out of the labor force 26 percent of weeks, those 

with some college were out of the labor force 22 percent of weeks, and women with a bachelor’s degree 

or more were out of the labor force only 18 percent of weeks. Among men, those without a high school 

diploma were out of the labor force about 20 percent of weeks, while men in the top three education 

categories were out of the labor force only 9 percent to 11 percent of weeks. (See table 3.) 

The labor force participation patterns of men and women differed. For both groups, time spent out of the 

labor force was greatest between the ages of 18 and 24, reflecting the transition from education and 

training to the work force. For women, time spent out of the labor force decreased in each successive 

age range, from 30 percent of weeks between the ages of 18 and 24 to 21 percent between the ages of 40 

and 48. In comparison, men were out of the labor force fewer than 8 percent of weeks from age 25 to 

age 39; from age 40 to age 48, they increased their time out of the labor force to 10 percent of weeks. So 

while the percent of weeks out of the labor force trended in different directions for the two sexes after 

age 24, women in each age range still spent an average of two to three times as many weeks out of the 

labor force as their male counterparts. (See table 4.) 

The percentage of weeks in which women were employed increased steadily from 63 percent in the 18 

to 24 age group to 76 percent in the 40 to 48 age group. The percentage of weeks in which men were 

employed increased from 73 percent in the 18 to 24 age group to a peak of 89 percent in the 35 to 39 age 

category and then decreased slightly to 86 percent in the 40 to 48 age group. (See table 4 and chart 3.) 
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5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Ages 18 to 24 Ages 25 to 29 Ages 30 to 34 Ages 35 to 39 Ages 40 to 48

Chart 3. Percent of weeks not in the labor force from age 18 to age 48, by sex and age

Men Women

Percent Growth in Real Earnings 

The inflation-adjusted earnings of workers born in the latter years of the baby boom (1957-1964) 

increased most rapidly while they were young. Hourly earnings grew by an average of 6.2 percent per 

year from ages 18 to 24 and 4.1 percent per year from ages 25 to 29. The earnings growth rate slowed to 

3.3 percent annually from age 30 to age 34 and 3.1 percent annually from age 35 to age 39. From ages 

40 to 48, hourly earnings grew an average of 0.7 percent per year. In every age category, growth rates of 

inflation-adjusted hourly earnings generally were higher for workers with more education. Earnings 

growth for 18 to 24 year olds with less than a high school diploma was 3.0 percent, while those with a 

bachelor’s degree or more saw their earnings grow by 9.4 percent at the same ages. Earnings growth was 

stagnant (0.0 percent) for 40- to 48-year-olds with less than a high school diploma while earnings among 

those with a bachelor’s degree or more increased by 1.3 percent at the same ages. This pattern in 

earnings growth reflects, in part, the state of the U.S. economy during the years in which survey 

participants were in each age group. (See table 5.) 

Additional data are available at www.bls.gov/nls/y79supp.htm. 
Technical Note 

The estimates in this release were obtained using data 

from the first 25 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey 

of Youth 1979 (NLSY79). This survey is conducted by the 

National Opinion Research Center at the University of 

Chicago and the Center for Human Resource Research at The 

Ohio State University under the direction and sponsorship of 

the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Sample 

The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 

12,686 young men and women who were 14 to 22 years of 

age when first surveyed in 1979. This survey sample was 

initially composed of three subsamples: 

 A cross-sectional sample of 6,111 youths that was 

designed to represent the noninstitutionalized, 

civilian population of young people living in the 

U.S. in 1979 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and 

Dec. 31, 1964. 

 A supplemental sample of 5,295 youths designed to 

oversample noninstitutionalized, civilian black, 

Hispanic or Latino, and economically disadvantaged 

nonblack, non-Hispanic youths living in the U.S. in 

1979 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 

1964. 

 A military sample of 1,280 youths born between Jan. 

1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 1961, and enlisted in the 

Army, Air Force, Navy, or Marine Corps as of 

September 30, 1978. 

In 1985, the military sample was discontinued, and, in 

1991, the economically disadvantaged nonblack, nonHispanic youths were dropped from the supplemental sample. 

As a result, the NLSY79 sample now includes 9,964 

individuals from the cross-sectional sample and the black and 

Hispanic supplemental samples. (This sample size is not 

adjusted for sample members who have died.) 

Individuals were surveyed annually from 1979 to 1994 

and biennially since 1994. In 2012-13, 7,301 individuals 

responded to the survey, for a retention rate of 73 percent 

(representing a 79 percent response rate among those sample 

members who are still living). Only these individuals are 

included in the estimates in this release. All results are 

weighted using the 2012-13 survey weights that correct for 

the oversampling, interview nonresponse, and permanent 

attrition from the survey. When weighted, the estimates 

represent all persons born in the years 1957 to 1964 and 

living in the U.S. when the survey began in 1979. Not 

represented by the survey are U.S. immigrants who were born 

from 1957 to 1964 and moved to the U.S. after 1979. 

Work history data 

The total number of jobs that people hold during their 

work life is an easy concept to understand but a difficult one 

to measure. Reliable estimates require a survey that 

interviews the same people over the course of their entire 

work life and also keeps track of all the jobs they ever held. 

The NLSY79 tracks the number of jobs that people have 

held, but most of the respondents in this survey are still in 

their prime working years, ages 47 to 56 in 2012-13, and still 

have more years of work life ahead of them. As the cohort 

continues to age, however, more complete information will 

become available. 

A unique feature of the NLSY79 is that it collects the 

beginning and ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent 

so that a longitudinal history can be constructed of each 

respondent’s work experiences. The NLSY79 work history 

data provide a week-by-week work record of each respondent 

from Jan. 1, 1978, through the most recent survey date. These 

data contain information on the respondent’s labor force 

status each week, the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, 

and earnings for all jobs. If a respondent worked at more than 

one job in any week, hours and earnings are obtained for 

additional jobs. When a respondent who missed one or more 

consecutive survey rounds is interviewed again, he is asked to 

provide information about all time since the last interview. 

Interaction between time and age in a longitudinal 

survey 

Because the NLSY79 is a longitudinal survey, meaning 

the same people are surveyed over time, the ages of the 

respondents change with each survey round. It is important to 

keep in mind this inherent link between the calendar years 

and the ages of the respondents. For example, table 5 reports 

earnings growth from age 25 to age 29. The youngest 

respondents in the sample (birth year 1964) were these ages 

during 1989-93, whereas the oldest respondents (birth year 

1957) were these ages during 1982-86. 

Although participants in the NLSY79 were ages 47 to 

56 during the 2012-13 interviews, this release covers only the 

period while the respondents were ages 18 to 48. The reason 

for not including older ages is that the sample sizes were still 

too small to provide statistically reliable estimates for age 

groups older than 48. As the NLSY79 continues to be 

administered and the respondents age, subsequent rounds of 

the survey will enable analyses to be conducted for older age 

groups. 

As with age, the educational attainment of individuals 

may change from year to year. In the tables and analysis 

presented in this report, educational attainment is defined as 

of the 2012-13 survey. This definition is used even when data 

on age and educational attainment are presented together. For 
example, table 1 reports the number of jobs held during 

different age categories. Suppose that a respondent had 

completed a bachelor’s degree at age 40. That respondent 

would be included in the “Bachelor’s degree or more” 

educational category in all age categories shown on the table, 

even though he or she did not have a bachelor’s degree at any 

point from age 18 to age 39. 

Definitions 

Job. A job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work 

with a particular employer. Jobs are therefore employerbased, not position-based. If a respondent indicates that he or 

she left a job but in a subsequent survey returned to the same 

job, it is counted as a new job. For example, if an individual 

worked in a retail establishment during the summer, quit at 

the end of summer to return to school, and then resumed 

working for the same employer the following spring, this 

sequence would count as two jobs, rather than one. For selfemployed workers, each “new” job is defined by the 

individuals themselves. 

Unemployment. If respondents indicate a gap between 

employers, they are asked how many of those weeks they 

spent searching for employment or on layoff. For that number 

of weeks, they are considered unemployed. For the remaining 

weeks, they are coded as not in the labor force. No probing 

for intensity of job search is done. 

Usual earnings. Respondents can report earnings over 

any time frame (hour, day, week, month, year). For those 

who do not report an hourly wage, one is constructed using 

usual hours worked over that time frame. Wages greater than 

$100 per hour and less than $1 per hour (in January 1979 

dollars, 100=283.70 in December 2010 dollars) were not 

included in the analysis of earnings growth because the 

reported earnings levels were almost certainly in error. For 

the same reason, individuals who had inflation-adjusted 

earnings growth greater than 100 percent were not included 

in the analysis. These exclusions from the analysis affected 

37 respondents. 

Race and ethnicity groups. In this release, the findings 

are reported for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, 

and Hispanics or Latinos. These three groups are mutually 

exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are 

included in the overall totals, are not shown separately 

because their representation in the survey sample is not 

sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates. In 

other BLS publications, estimates usually are published for 

whites, blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos, but these groups are 

not mutually exclusive. The term "Hispanic or Latino" is 

considered to be an ethnicity group, and Hispanics or Latinos 

can be of any race. Most other BLS publications include 

Hispanics or Latinos in the white and black race groups in 

addition to the Hispanic or Latino ethnicity group. 

Information in this release will be made available to 

sensory impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: 

(202) 691-5200; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. 
Ages 18 

to 24

Ages 25 

to 29

Ages 30 

to 34

Ages 35 

to 39

Ages 40

to 48

Total .................................................. 11.7 5.5 3.0 2.4 2.1 2.4

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 11.5 5.0 2.9 2.4 2.0 2.1

 High school graduates, no college 2 ...... 11.2 5.1 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.3

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.3 5.8 3.1 2.5 2.1 2.5

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.8 6.1 3.0 2.4 2.1 2.3

Men .................................................... 11.8 5.7 3.1 2.5 2.1 2.4

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 12.9 5.7 3.5 2.6 2.1 2.5

 High school graduates, no college 2

 ...... 11.7 5.5 3.1 2.6 2.1 2.3

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.4 6.0 3.2 2.7 2.1 2.5

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.2 5.8 2.8 2.4 2.2 2.3

Women ............................................... 11.5 5.3 2.8 2.3 2.1 2.4

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 9.6 4.0 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.7

 High school graduates, no college 2

 ...... 10.7 4.6 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.3

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.3 5.6 3.0 2.4 2.2 2.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3

 ........... 12.5 6.4 3.2 2.3 2.0 2.4

White non-Hispanic.............................. 11.7 5.7 3.0 2.4 2.1 2.3

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 12.1 5.4 3.1 2.6 2.1 2.2

 High school graduates, no college 2 ...... 11.4 5.3 2.9 2.4 2.1 2.3

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.3 5.9 3.1 2.5 2.1 2.5

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.8 6.2 3.0 2.3 2.0 2.3

Black non-Hispanic .............................. 11.4 4.6 2.9 2.5 2.1 2.5

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 10.1 3.7 2.6 2.2 1.7 1.9

 High school graduates, no college 2 ...... 10.9 4.4 2.8 2.5 2.2 2.4

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.6 5.1 3.1 2.6 2.4 2.8

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.9 5.6 3.0 2.6 2.1 2.8

Hispanic or Latino................................. 11.4 4.9 2.8 2.3 2.1 2.4

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 10.9 4.3 2.8 2.1 1.9 2.3

 High school graduates, no college 2

 ...... 10.9 4.9 2.7 2.3 2.1 2.4

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.5 5.2 3.1 2.5 2.3 2.8

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3

 ........... 11.6 5.5 2.8 2.5 2.2 2.1

Table 1. Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to age 48 in 1978-2012 by educational attainment, sex, race, 

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

Average number of jobs for persons ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012

 1 Jobs that were held in more than one of the age categories were counted in each appropriate column, but only once in the 

total column.

Characteristic

Total 1

 2 Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent. 3 Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 49 when 

interviewed in 2012-13. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the 

years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 47 to 56 in 2012-13. 

Educational attainment is defined as of the 2012-13 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually 

exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because 

their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.
Less than 1 

year

Less than 2 

years

Less than 5 

years

Less than 10 

years

Less than 15 

years

Ages 18 to 24 ........................ 69.1 82.8 92.8 96.3 97.5 1.4

 Men ...................................... 69.2 82.8 92.5 96.1 97.2 1.5

 Women ................................ 69.0 82.8 93.2 96.6 97.7 1.2

 White non-Hispanic ............. 68.8 82.6 92.7 96.2 97.3 1.5

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 71.4 84.9 93.9 97.1 98.0 1.0

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 68.8 82.1 92.4 96.5 97.7 1.2

Ages 25 to 29......................... 56.1 72.9 86.8 92.7 94.9 3.3

 Men ...................................... 55.7 72.3 85.7 91.8 94.2 3.9

 Women ................................ 56.6 73.6 88.0 93.8 95.8 2.7

 White non-Hispanic ............. 54.8 71.7 86.0 92.2 94.6 3.5

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 60.8 77.1 89.7 94.3 95.9 2.5

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 60.6 76.3 88.1 93.7 95.9 2.8

Ages 30 to 34 ........................ 47.8 64.5 82.9 90.9 93.7 5.4

 Men ...................................... 47.6 64.0 82.2 90.0 93.1 6.0

 Women ................................ 47.9 65.1 83.5 91.9 94.3 4.8

 White non-Hispanic ............. 46.2 62.8 81.9 90.3 93.2 5.8

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 53.1 71.1 86.5 93.3 95.8 3.5

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 49.7 66.7 84.2 92.0 94.3 4.6

Ages 35 to 39......................... 37.8 55.5 76.3 86.6 89.6 10.2

 Men ...................................... 36.7 55.2 75.5 85.9 89.0 10.7

 Women ................................ 38.9 55.8 77.1 87.2 90.2 9.7

 White non-Hispanic ............. 36.5 54.0 74.7 85.5 88.7 11.1

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 42.3 60.9 82.1 90.7 92.9 6.7

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 42.4 58.9 80.0 88.7 91.5 8.3

Ages 40 to 48......................... 32.0 50.0 69.0 (

1

) (1) 23.5

 Men ...................................... 30.1 47.5 67.6 (

1

) (1) 24.6

 Women ................................ 33.9 52.3 70.3 (

1

) (1) 22.3

 White non-Hispanic ............. 31.1 48.9 67.3 (

1

) (1) 24.8

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 35.6 54.9 74.9 (

1

) (1) 18.4

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 32.6 50.5 73.6 (

1

) (1) 19.7

 1

 Estimates are not presented for these categories because most sample members were not yet old enough at the time 

of the 2012-13 survey to have completed jobs of these durations.

Table 2. Duration of employment relationships with a single employer for all jobs started from age 18 to age 48 

in 1978-2012 by age at start of job, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Cumulative percent distribution of duration

 of completed employment relationships Age at the start of job and 

characteristic

Percent of 

jobs ongoing 

in 2012

 NOTE: The age category of 18 to 24 excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. The National Longitudinal 

Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first 

interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 47 to 56 in 2012-13. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually 

exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their 

representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.
Total, ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012............................................ 77.8 4.7 17.6

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 59.7 8.0 32.3

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 76.8 5.6 17.6

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 79.3 4.3 16.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 83.8 2.4 13.9

Men ......................................................................................... 84.0 5.2 10.8

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 70.7 9.6 19.7

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 83.4 6.1 10.5

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 86.3 4.5 9.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 87.9 2.4 9.6

Women .................................................................................... 71.2 4.2 24.6

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 45.8 6.1 48.2

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 68.8 5.0 26.2

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 73.5 4.2 22.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 79.7 2.3 18.0

White non-Hispanic ................................................................. 79.9 3.9 16.2

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 63.7 7.2 29.1

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 79.6 4.7 15.7

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 80.4 3.6 16.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 83.8 2.2 14.0

Black non-Hispanic ................................................................. 68.7 8.7 22.6

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 47.7 11.5 40.8

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 65.9 10.1 24.0

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 74.9 7.6 17.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 83.2 4.1 12.7

Hispanic or Latino ................................................................... 72.4 5.5 22.1

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 58.4 7.7 33.9

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 72.6 5.8 21.6

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 77.9 4.4 17.7

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 84.7 2.7 12.6

Not in labor force

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 49 

when interviewed in 2012-13. Totals may not add to 100 percent due to rounding. The National Longitudinal Survey of 

Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first 

interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 47 to 56 in 2012-13. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2012-

13 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, 

which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not 

sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Unemployed

 1 Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent. 2 Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.

Table 3. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18 to age 48 

in 1978-2012 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Percent of total weeks while ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012

Characteristic

Employed
Total, ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012 1

 ........................... 77.8 4.7 17.6

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2

 .................................. 68.1 8.0 23.9

 Ages 25 to 29 in 1982-1993 ................................... 78.6 4.6 16.9

 Ages 30 to 34 in 1987-1998 .................................... 80.2 3.6 16.1

 Ages 35 to 39 in 1992-2003 .................................... 82.5 2.8 14.6

 Ages 40 to 48 in 1997-2012 3

 ................................. 80.8 3.5 15.6

Men, ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012 1

 .............................. 84.0 5.2 10.8

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2

 .................................. 72.8 9.1 18.1

 Ages 25 to 29 in 1982-1993 ................................... 87.0 5.4 7.6

 Ages 30 to 34 in 1987-1998 .................................... 88.4 4.1 7.5

 Ages 35 to 39 in 1992-2003 .................................... 89.2 3.0 7.8

 Ages 40 to 48 in 1997-2012 3, 4

 ................................. 85.8 4.0 10.2

Women, ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012 1

 ........................ 71.2 4.2 24.6

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2

 .................................. 63.2 6.9 29.9

 Ages 25 to 29 in 1982-1993 ................................... 69.8 3.8 26.4

 Ages 30 to 34 in 1987-1998 .................................... 71.8 3.2 25.0

 Ages 35 to 39 in 1992-2003 .................................... 75.7 2.7 21.7

 Ages 40 to 48 in 1997-2012 3

 ................................. 75.7 3.1 21.2

White non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012 1 .......... 79.9 3.9 16.2

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2

 .................................. 70.9 7.0 22.1

 Ages 25 to 29 in 1982-1993 ................................... 80.8 3.7 15.5

 Ages 30 to 34 in 1987-1998 .................................... 82.2 3.0 14.8

 Ages 35 to 39 in 1992-2003 .................................... 84.2 2.2 13.7

 Ages 40 to 48 in 1997-2012 3

 ................................. 82.4 3.0 14.6

Black non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012 1 ......... 68.7 8.7 22.6

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2

 .................................. 55.7 13.5 30.7

 Ages 25 to 29 in 1982-1993 ................................... 69.7 8.9 21.4

 Ages 30 to 34 in 1987-1998 .................................... 71.7 7.3 21.0

 Ages 35 to 39 in 1992-2003 .................................... 75.7 5.9 18.4

 Ages 40 to 48 in 1997-2012 3

 ................................. 73.7 6.6 19.8

Hispanic or Latino, ages 18 to 48 in 1978-2012 1 ............ 72.4 5.5 22.1

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2

 .................................. 63.2 8.6 28.1

 Ages 25 to 29 in 1982-1993 ................................... 71.4 5.5 23.1

 Ages 30 to 34 in 1987-1998 .................................... 74.9 4.1 21.0

 Ages 35 to 39 in 1992-2003 .................................... 78.1 4.0 17.9

 Ages 40 to 48 in 1997-2012 3

 ................................. 77.3 4.5 18.2

 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 49 when interviewed in 2012-13. 4 Male employment and labor force participation starts to decline within this age grouping.

 NOTE: Totals may not add to 100 percent due to rounding. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists 

of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These 

individuals were ages 47 to 56 in 2012-13. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not 

exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their 

representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Table 4. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18

to age 48 in 1978-2012 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Age and characteristic

Employed Not in labor force

 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 49 when

interviewed in 2012-13.

Percent of total weeks

Unemployed
Ages 30 

to 34

Ages 35 

to 39

Ages 40

to 48

Total ........................................................... 6.2 4.1 3.3 3.1 0.7

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 3.0 2.4 1.9 2.2 0.0

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 4.8 2.6 2.4 2.9 0.4

 Some college or associate degree .................. 6.2 4.7 3.4 2.8 0.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 9.4 6.2 4.9 3.9 1.3

Men .......................................................... 6.9 4.5 3.6 3.1 0.6

 Less than a high school diploma 3

.................. 3.6 2.1 2.2 1.7 -0.4

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 5.5 3.0 2.3 2.9 0.5

 Some college or associate degree .................. 7.5 5.3 4.1 2.6 0.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 9.8 7.5 5.9 4.5 1.5

Women ...................................................... 5.6 3.6 2.9 3.0 0.7

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 1.9 2.8 1.4 2.9 0.5

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 3.8 2.1 2.6 2.8 0.3

 Some college or associate degree .................. 5.1 4.3 2.8 3.0 0.9

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 9.0 4.9 3.9 3.3 1.2

White non-Hispanic ....................................... 6.6 4.2 3.3 3.1 0.7

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 3.5 2.0 2.2 2.4 0.1

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 5.0 2.6 2.2 2.8 0.5

 Some college or associate degree .................. 6.2 4.9 3.4 2.7 0.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 9.7 6.3 5.0 4.0 1.4

Black non-Hispanic ....................................... 4.3 3.7 3.1 2.8 0.3

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 1.8 3.3 0.8 1.8 -0.7

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 3.2 2.9 3.2 3.1 -0.1

 Some college or associate degree .................. 5.6 4.2 3.1 2.6 1.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 7.0 5.8 4.4 2.8 0.3

Hispanic or Latino.......................................... 5.9 3.2 3.5 3.0 0.9

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.0 0.1

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 5.6 2.4 3.5 2.8 0.5

 Some college or associate degree .................. 7.1 3.8 3.7 3.4 1.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 9.4 5.5 4.2 4.0 2.1

 3 Males without high school degrees experienced a decline in wages

 NOTE: The first column excludes individuals who turned age 18 before 1978. The last column excludes individuals 

who were not yet age 49 when interviewed in 2012-13. The CPI-U-RS was used to adjust hourly earnings to 2010 dollars, 

prior to calculating the growth rates. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who 

were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 47 

to 56 in 2012-13. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2012-13 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity 

groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not 

shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable 

estimates.

Table 5. Average annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings from 1978-2012 by educational 

attainment, sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

Average annual percent growth in hourly earnings

Characteristic

 1 Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.

 2 Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.

Ages 18 

to 24

Ages 25 

to 29