For release 10:00 a.m. (EDT) Tuesday, April 17, 2018 USDL-18-0588 

Technical information: (202) 691-7410 • nls_info@bls.gov • www.bls.gov/nls 

Media contact: (202) 691-5902 • PressOffice@bls.gov

LABOR MARKET ACTIVITY, EDUCATION, AND PARTNER STATUS AMONG AMERICANS 

AT AGE 31: RESULTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY

Americans born in the early 1980s held an average of 7.8 jobs from age 18 through age 30, the U.S. 

Bureau of Labor Statistics reported today. Individuals held more jobs at younger ages, and the number 

of jobs held declined as individuals aged. Young adults held an average of 4.6 jobs from ages 18 to 22 

compared with 2.2 jobs from ages 27 to 30. While ages 18 to 30, women with more education held more 

jobs than women with less education. Regardless of education, men held a similar number of jobs. 

These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, a nationally representative 

survey of about 9,000 men and women who were born during the years 1980 to 1984. These respondents 

were ages 12 to 17 when first interviewed in 1997 and ages 30 to 36 when interviewed for the 17th time 

in 2015-16. The survey provides information on work and nonwork experiences, training, schooling, 

income, assets, and other characteristics. The information provided by respondents is representative of 

all men and women born in the early 1980s and living in the United States when the survey began in 

1997. 

This release focuses on the educational attainment, employment experiences, and partner status of these 

individuals from their 18th birthday until they turned 31. Highlights from the longitudinal survey 

include: 

• At their 25th birthday, 28 percent of women had received a bachelor’s degree and higher, compared 

with 21 percent of men. By age 31, almost 36 percent of women held a bachelor’s degree and higher, 

compared with 28 percent of men. Seventy-four percent of women had at least attended some 

college by age 31 compared with 65 percent of men. (See table 1.)

• These individuals held an average of 7.8 jobs from ages 18 through 30, with over half of these jobs 

being held between the ages of 18 and 22. (See table 2.) 

• Fifty-eight percent of jobs started while ages 18 to 24 ended in less than a year, compared with 33 

percent of jobs started while ages 25 to 30. In this older age range, job duration is significantly 

longer for those with more education. Of jobs started while 25 to 30 years of age, 45 percent of those 

started by individuals with less than a high school education lasted less than 1 year compared to 27 

percent for individuals with a bachelor’s degree and higher. (See table 3.) 

• Women with less than a high school diploma were employed an average of 40 percent of weeks 

from ages 18 to 30, while men with less than a high school diploma were employed 64 percent of 
- 2 - 

weeks. Among individuals with a bachelor’s degree and higher, women were employed an average 

of 80 percent of weeks, while men were employed 78 percent of weeks. (See table 4.) 

• Individuals were employed for an average of 74 percent of weeks from ages 18 to 30. This varied 

across age brackets: from ages 18 to 22 individuals were employed 68 percent of weeks, from

ages 23 to 26 and from ages 27 to 30 individuals were employed 78 percent of weeks. (See 

table 5.) 

• At the time of their 31st birthday, 45 percent of individuals were married, 19 percent were 

cohabiting, and 37 percent were single. The percent of individuals who were married varied by 

education; those with higher levels of education were more likely to be married and less likely to be 

cohabiting than those with lower levels of education. (See table 6.) 

• Men who were single at age 31 were employed 70 percent of the weeks from ages 18 to 30, 

compared with 83 percent for those who were married and 77 percent for those who were 

cohabiting. The percentage of weeks employed did not vary substantially by partner status for 

women. (See table 7.) 

Educational Attainment at Age 31 

At 31 years of age, 32 percent of individuals had received a bachelor’s degree and higher while 38 

percent had attended some college or received an associate degree. Twenty-four percent had a high 

school diploma or General Education Development (GED) credential and no further schooling. (See 

table 1.) 

Women were more likely than men to have received a bachelor’s degree by age 25 and this gap did not 

significantly decrease by age 31. Twenty-one percent of men had earned a bachelor’s degree by age 25, 

compared with 28 percent of women. By 31 years of age, 28 percent of men had earned a bachelor’s 

degree compared to 36 percent of women. In total, 65 percent of men had either attended some college 

or received a bachelor’s degree, compared with 74 percent of women. In addition to being more likely 

to attend college, women were more likely to have finished their college degree. Of the 74 percent of 

women who started college, 48 percent received a bachelor's degree by age 31. In comparison, of the 65 

percent of men who started college, 43 percent had received a bachelor's degree.

At age 31, there was a large difference in educational attainment among racial and ethnic groups. NonHispanic Blacks and Hispanics or Latinos were more likely than Whites to have dropped out of high 

school. In comparison, Whites were more likely to have ever attended college (72 percent of Whites, 

compared to 62 percent of Blacks and 60 percent of Hispanics or Latinos) and nearly twice as likely to 

have graduated and received a bachelor's degree by this age. Thirty-six percent of Whites had received a 

bachelor's degree at age 31, compared with 19 percent of both Blacks and Hispanics or Latinos. 

Within each racial and ethnic group examined, women were more likely to have a bachelor’s degree 

than men. White women were more likely than White men to have received a bachelor’s degree (40 

percent versus 32 percent), Black women were more likely than Black men (23 percent versus 14 

percent), and Hispanic or Latino women were more likely than Hispanic or Latino men (21 percent 

versus 17 percent). 
- 3 - 

Employment Experiences from Age 18 through Age 30 

Americans born in 1980-84 held an average of 7.8 jobs from ages 18 through 30, with over half of these 

jobs held from ages 18 to 22. Men held an average of 7.7 jobs and women held an average of 7.9 jobs. 

Women at higher levels of educational attainment held more jobs than women at lower levels. Women 

with a bachelor’s degree held 8.4 jobs from ages 18 through 30, compared with 6.2 jobs for female high 

school dropouts. Men held a similar number of jobs regardless of their level of educational attainment. 

Men with a bachelor’s degree held 7.5 jobs from ages 18 through 30, compared to 7.5 jobs for male high 

school dropouts and 7.6 jobs for high school graduates. (See table 2.) In this news release, a job is 

defined as a period of work, including gaps, with a particular employer. (See the Technical Note for 

additional information on the definition of a job.) 

Examining employment experiences by smaller age brackets shows individuals held fewer jobs in each 

subsequent age bracket. Individuals held an average of 4.6 jobs in the 5-year period from ages 18 to 22. 

The number of jobs individuals held dropped to 2.9 in the 4-year period from ages 23 to 26, and then 

dropped further to 2.2 in the 4-year period from ages 27 to 30. The pattern of individuals holding fewer 

jobs as they aged was similar across all sexes, racial and ethnic groups, and levels of educational 

attainment. Chart 1 shows the decline in rate at which workers change jobs as they get older by age and 

sex.

Duration of Employment Relationships 

The length of time a worker remains with an employer increased with the age at which the worker 

began the job. Of the jobs that workers began when they were 18 to 24 years of age, 58 percent of 

those jobs ended in less than a year and 91 percent ended in less than 6 years. Among jobs started by 

25 to 30 year olds, 33 percent ended in less than a year, and 61 percent ended in less than 6 years. 

Job duration is also related to education. Sixty-five percent of jobs started by high school dropouts 

0

2

4

6

8

10

18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Number of Jobs Held

Age

Chart 1. Cumulative number of jobs held from age 18 through age 

30 by sex and age

Men

Women
- 4 - 

while age 18 to 24 ended within a year, compared to 55 percent of jobs started by those with a 

bachelor’s degree. (See table 3.) 

Of all jobs started by those with less than a high school diploma when they were 25 to 30 years of age, 

45 percent ended in less than a year and 73 percent ended in less than 6 years, while only 27 percent of 

jobs started by those with a bachelor’s degree ended under 1 year and 56 percent ended in less than 6 

years.

Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force 

On average, individuals born in 1980-84 were employed during 74 percent of all the weeks from age 18 

through age 30, unemployed—that is, without a job but seeking work—6 percent of the weeks, and not 

in the labor force—that is, neither working nor seeking work—20 percent of the weeks. (See table 4.)

As a whole, individuals with higher levels of educational attainment were employed for a higher 

percentage of weeks and unemployed for a lower percentage of weeks than individuals with lower levels 

of education. The percentage of weeks not in the labor force generally decreased with an individual’s 

level of educational attainment.

Men were more active in the labor market than women from ages 18 to 30. As a whole, they spent less 

time not in the labor force than women (16 percent versus 23 percent) and more time employed (77

percent versus 71 percent). This relationship held at all levels of educational attainment except among 

those with a bachelor’s degree. Women with a bachelor's degree and higher spent a larger proportion of 

weeks employed than did similarly educated men (80 percent versus 78 percent) and less time not in the 

labor force (17 percent versus 19 percent). (See chart 2.) 

0

20

40

60

80

100

Less than a high school

diploma

High school graduates, no

college

Some college or associate

degree

Bachelor's degree and higher

Percent of weeks

Chart 2. Percent of weeks employed from age 18 through age 30 by 

educational attainment and sex

Men Women
- 5 - 

Employment gaps existed between racial and ethnic groups. On average, Whites were employed during 

77 percent of the weeks that occurred from age 18 through age 30, Hispanics or Latinos were employed 

during 73 percent of the weeks, and Blacks were employed during 64 percent of the weeks. 

The employment gap between Whites and Blacks is more pronounced at lower levels of educational 

attainment. White high school dropouts spent 57 percent of weeks employed from ages 18 through 30, 

while Black dropouts spent 38 percent of weeks employed during these ages. The gap is smaller among 

those who held a bachelor's degree. White college graduates spent 80 percent of weeks employed, while 

Black college graduates spent 77 percent of weeks employed. (See chart 3.)

The employment gap between Hispanics or Latinos and Blacks is also more pronounced at lower levels 

of educational attainment. Hispanic or Latino dropouts spent 59 percent of weeks employed from ages 

18 through 30, while Black dropouts spent 38 percent of weeks employed during these ages. Hispanic or 

Latino and Black college graduates spent a similar percentage of weeks employed (78 percent versus 77 

percent). 

Individuals spent 68 percent of weeks employed from ages 18 to 22, 78 percent of weeks employed from 

ages 23 to 26, and 78 percent of weeks employed from ages 27 to 30. Men spent a higher percentage of 

weeks employed in each subsequent age bracket, but this was not the case for women. Men spent 69 

percent of weeks employed from ages 18 to 22; this increased to 81 percent of weeks from ages 23 to 26 

and held nearly constant at 82 percent from ages 27 to 30. Women spent 67 percent of weeks employed 

from ages 18 to 22; this increased to 75 percent of weeks from ages 23 to 26, but decreased slightly to 

73 percent from ages 27 to 30. Men were employed a higher percentage of weeks than women within all 

age brackets. (See table 5.)

0

20

40

60

80

100

Less than a high school

diploma

High school graduates, no

college

Some college or associate

degree

Bachelor's degree and

higher

Percent of weeks

Chart 3. Percent of weeks employed from age 18 through age 30 

by educational attainment, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

White non-Hispanic Black non-Hispanic Hispanic or Latino
- 6 -

The employment gap between racial and ethnic groups also existed within each age bracket analyzed.

Within all age brackets, Whites were employed a higher percentage of weeks than both Blacks and 

Hispanics or Latinos, and Hispanics or Latinos were employed a higher percentage of weeks than

Blacks. 

As these individuals aged, men spent less time out of the labor force. Men spent 24 percent of weeks not 

in the labor force from 18 to 22 years of age, 12 percent of weeks from ages 23 to 26, and 11 percent 

from ages 27 to 30. Women had a similar but less pronounced trend, spending 27 percent of weeks out 

of the labor force from ages 18 to 22, but 20 percent and 21 percent of weeks out of the labor force at 

ages 23 to 26 and ages 27 to 30, respectively. At older ages, women were nearly twice as likely as men

to not be in the labor force. 

Partner Status and Employment Experiences

At 25 years of age, 27 percent of Americans born during 1980-84 were married, 21 percent were 

unmarried and living with a partner, and 53 percent were single, that is, not married and not living with a 

partner. Comparatively, at 31 years of age, 45 percent were married, 19 percent were cohabiting, and 37 

percent were single. (See table 6.)

At age 31, those with higher levels of education were more likely to be married and less likely to be 

cohabiting than those with lower levels of education. At the time of their 31st birthday, 34 percent of 

high school dropouts, 40 percent of high school graduates with no college, 43 percent of individuals 

with some college or an associate degree, and 54 percent of college graduates were married. Twentynine percent of those with less than a high school degree were cohabiting, compared with only 13 

percent of those with a bachelor’s degree and higher. (See chart 4.) 

Partner status varied greatly by race and ethnicity. Blacks were more likely to be single than either

Whites or Hispanics or Latinos. At 31 years of age, 58 percent of Blacks were single, compared with 31 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Age 25 Age 31 Age 25 Age 31 Age 25 Age 31

Single Married Cohabiting

Percent

Chart 4. Partner status of individuals at age 25 in 2005-09 and at 

age 31 in 2011-15 by educational attainment

Less than a high school diploma High school graduates, no college

Some college or associate degree Bachelor's degree and higher
- 7 - 

percent of Whites and 37 percent of Hispanics or Latinos. Blacks were also significantly less likely to be

married than either Whites or Hispanics or Latinos (25 percent versus 51 percent and 41 percent, 

respectively).

At both ages 25 and 31, women were significantly more likely to be married and less likely to be single 

than men. At age 31, 49 percent of women were married, 32 percent were single, and 18 percent were 

cohabiting, while 41 percent of men were married, 41 percent were single, and 19 percent were 

cohabiting. Women were also more likely to be married than men at each level of educational 

attainment.

Compared with individuals who were single at age 31, those who were married worked more weeks 

from ages 18 to 30, spent fewer weeks unemployed, and spent fewer weeks not in the labor force. From 

ages 18 to 30, single individuals spent 70 percent of weeks employed, 8 percent of weeks unemployed, 

and 22 percent of weeks not in the labor force, while those who were married spent 78 percent of weeks

employed, 4 percent of weeks unemployed, and 18 percent of weeks not in the labor force. Cohabiting 

individuals spent 74 percent of weeks employed, 8 percent of weeks unemployed, and 19 percent of 

weeks not in the labor force. (See table 7.) 

Men accounted for most of the variation in employment experiences by partner status. Married men 

worked more weeks, were unemployed fewer weeks, and were less likely to be not in the labor force 

than either single or cohabiting men. Married men spent 83 percent of weeks employed, compared with

70 percent for single men and 77 percent for cohabiting men. They spent less than 5 percent of weeks 

unemployed, compared with 8 percent for single men and 9 percent for cohabiting men. Married men 

spent 12 percent of weeks out of the labor force, compared with 21 percent for single men and 15 

percent for cohabiting men. In contrast, there were limited differences in the employment experiences

of women by partner status. Married women were slightly more likely to be employed than nonmarried women (73 percent versus 70 percent for both single and cohabiting women) and were less 

0

20

40

60

80

100

Men Women White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic or Latino

Percent

Chart 5. Percent of weeks individuals were employed from age 18 

through age 30 by partner status, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity 

Single Married Cohabiting
- 8 - 

likely to be unemployed than either single or cohabiting women (4 percent versus 8 percent and 7 

percent, respectively). (See chart 5.) 

Married individuals also worked more weeks than single individuals when comparing within racial and 

ethnic groups. Married Whites spent a higher percentage of weeks employed than single Whites (79 

percent versus 74 percent), married Blacks spent a higher percentage of weeks employed than single 

Blacks (71 percent versus 62 percent), and married Hispanics or Latinos spent a higher percentage of 

weeks employed than single Hispanics or Latinos (76 percent versus 71 percent). 
Technical Note

The estimates in this release were obtained using data 

from the first 17 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey 

of Youth 1997 (NLSY97). This survey is conducted by the 

Center for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State 

University and the National Opinion Research Center at the 

University of Chicago under the direction and sponsorship of 

the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Sample

The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 is a 

nationally representative sample of 8,984 young men and 

women who were ages 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996. This 

sample is composed of the following groups: 

• A cross-sectional sample designed to represent the

noninstitutionalized, civilian segment of young

people living in the U.S. in 1997 and born between

January 1, 1980, and December 31, 1984.

• Supplemental samples of Hispanic or Latino and

Black youths living in the U.S. in 1997 and 

born between January 1, 1980, and December 31, 

1984. 

This sample size is not adjusted for sample members who have 

died.

Individuals were surveyed annually from 1997–2011 and 

biennially since 2011. In 2015-16, 7,103 individuals responded 

to the survey, for a retention rate of 79 percent. Only these 

individuals are included in the estimates in this release. This 

release examines the period from respondents’ 18th birthday

until their 31st birthday. All results are weighted using the 

survey weights from the round in the year the respondents 

turned 31. The survey weights correct for interview 

nonresponse and permanent attrition from the survey. When 

weighted, the data represent all people who were born in the 

years 1980 to 1984 and living in the U.S. in 1997. Not 

represented by the survey are U.S. immigrants who were born 

from 1980 to 1984 and moved to the U.S. after 1997. NLSY97 

sample members remain eligible to be interviewed during 

military service or if they become incarcerated or 

institutionalized.

Work history data

The total number of jobs that people hold during their 

work life is an easy concept to understand but a difficult one 

to measure. Reliable estimates require a survey that interviews 

the same people over the course of their entire work life and 

also keeps track of all the jobs they ever held. The NLSY97 

tracks the number of jobs that people have held, but the 

respondents in this survey are still young and have many years 

of work life ahead of them. As the cohort continues to age, 

however, more complete information will become available.

A unique feature of the NLSY97 is that it collects the 

beginning and ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent so 

that a longitudinal history can be constructed of each 

respondent’s work experiences. The NLSY97 work history 

data provide a week-by-week work record of each respondent 

from January 1, 1994, through the most recent survey date.

These data contain information on the respondent’s labor force 

status each week, the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, 

and earnings for all jobs. If a respondent worked at more than 

one job in any week, hours and earnings are obtained for 

additional jobs. When a respondent who missed one or more 

consecutive survey rounds is interviewed again, he or she is 

asked to provide information about all time since the last 

interview.

Interaction between time and age in a longitudinal 

survey

Because the NLSY97 is a longitudinal survey, meaning 

the same people are surveyed over time, the ages of the 

respondents change with each survey round. It is important to 

keep in mind this inherent link between the calendar years and 

the ages of the respondents. The youngest respondents in the 

sample (birth year 1984) turned 31 during calendar year 2015, 

whereas the oldest respondents (birth year 1980) turned 31

during calendar year 2011. Some respondents may not be used 

in all tables if information about their work history is 

incomplete. 

As with age, the education attainment of individuals may 

change from year to year. Educational attainment is taken at 

the time of the respondents’ 31st birthday. If a respondent had 

not earned a high school diploma or General Educational 

Development (GED) credential, he or she is counted as a high 

school dropout. Individuals with an associate degree or any 

enrollment in college after high school are counted as having 

some college.

Definitions

Job. A job is defined as a period of work with a particular 

employer. Jobs are therefore employer-based, not positionbased. If a respondent indicates that he or she left a job but in 

a subsequent survey returned to the same job, it would not be 

counted as a new job. For self-employed workers, each “new” 

job is defined by the individuals themselves

Employed. The NLSY97 collects employment histories

for civilian jobs and military service. Respondents are 

classified as employed if they did any work during the 

specified time period as paid employees, as self-employed 

proprietors of their own businesses, as unpaid workers in a 

business owned by a member of their family, or if they were 

serving in the Armed Forces. 

Unemployed. Respondents are classified as unemployed 

if they did not work during the specified time period but
reported that they looked for work or were on layoff from a

job. No probing for intensity of job search is done.

Not in the labor force. Respondents are classified as not 

in the labor force if they did not work or look for work during 

the specified time period. 

Partner Status. Partner status is determined during the 

month the individual turned 31. Respondents who are married 

but not living with their spouses are counted as married. To be 

marked as cohabitating, the respondent must be living with an 

individual of either gender for at least one month in a sexual 

relationship. Living with roommates or parents would not 

affect partner status. Respondents who are not married and not 

cohabitating are counted as single.

Race and ethnic groups. In this release, the findings are 

reported for non-Hispanic Whites, non-Hispanic Blacks, and 

Hispanics or Latinos. These groups are mutually exclusive but 

not exhaustive. Other groups, which are included in the overall 

totals, are not shown separately because their representation in 

the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide 

statistically reliable estimates. In other BLS publications, 

estimates usually are published for Whites, Blacks, 

and Hispanics or Latinos, but these groups are not 

mutually exclusive. The term Hispanic or Latino is 

considered to be an ethnicity group, and Hispanics or 

Latinos can be of any race. Most other BLS publications 

include estimates for Hispanics or Latinos in the White and 

Black race groups in addition to the Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity group. 

Information in this release will be made available to 

sensory-impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: 

(202) 691-5200; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339.
Total

High 

school 

diploma

General 

Educational 

Development 

(GED) 

recipients

Total Some 

college

Bachelor's 

degree and 

higher 1

Total, age 25 in 2005-09.............. 9.1 26.1 18.6 7.5 63.6 39.0 24.7

White, non-Hispanic ..................... 7.5 26.1 19.3 6.8 66.3 37.0 29.2

Black, non-Hispanic ..................... 13.5 31.2 20.0 11.3 54.7 42.5 12.2

Hispanic or Latino ........................ 13.4 30.9 23.7 7.2 55.2 43.5 11.7

Men ................................................... 9.6 30.9 22.0 8.9 59.3 38.2 21.1

White, non-Hispanic ..................... 7.8 29.8 22.1 7.7 62.3 36.7 25.6

Black, non-Hispanic ..................... 14.9 37.7 22.6 15.1 46.7 38.0 8.8

Hispanic or Latino ........................ 13.9 34.0 25.1 8.9 51.9 42.6 9.3

Women ............................................ 8.7 23.0 16.9 6.0 68.1 39.7 28.3

White, non-Hispanic ..................... 7.1 22.4 16.5 6.0 70.2 37.4 32.8

Black, non-Hispanic ..................... 12.2 24.9 17.4 7.5 62.6 47.0 15.6

Hispanic or Latino ........................ 13.0 27.4 22.1 5.4 59.0 44.5 14.5

Total, age 31 in 2011-15 ................ 7.1 23.5 16.1 7.4 69.3 37.7 31.6

White, non-Hispanic ..................... 6.0 22.4 16.3 6.2 71.5 35.5 36.0

Black, non-Hispanic ..................... 9.6 27.6 15.9 11.7 62.2 43.6 18.6

Hispanic or Latino ........................ 11.0 28.6 19.5 9.1 60.0 41.3 18.8

Men ................................................... 7.7 27.5 18.4 9.1 64.6 36.7 27.9

White, non-Hispanic ..................... 6.5 26.2 19.0 7.2 67.2 35.2 32.0

Black, non-Hispanic ..................... 11.2 35.0 18.3 16.7 53.2 39.0 14.2

Hispanic or Latino ........................ 11.9 31.0 20.3 10.6 56.7 40.0 16.7

Women ............................................ 6.4 19.3 13.7 5.6 74.2 38.7 35.5

White, non-Hispanic ..................... 5.5 18.5 13.4 5.1 75.9 35.7 40.2

Black, non-Hispanic ..................... 8.0 20.1 13.4 6.6 71.3 48.3 23.0

Hispanic or Latino ........................ 9.9 25.9 18.6 7.3 63.9 42.7 21.1

 NOTE: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 consists of young men and women who were ages 12 to 16 

on December 31, 1996. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other 

race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the 

survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates. Educational attainment is determined 

during the month of the respondent's 25th or 31st birthday.

 1 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degrees.

Table 1. Highest grade completed by individuals at ages 25 and 31 in 2005-15 by sex, race, and Hispanic or 

Latino ethnicity 

 Characteristic

Educational Attainment

High 

school 

dropouts

High School Graduates College
Total 2 Ages 18 

to 22

Ages 23

to 26

Ages 27

to 30

Total, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015........................ 7.8 4.6 2.9 2.2

 Less than a high school diploma ........................ 6.9 3.9 2.5 1.8

 High school graduates, no college 3

 ..................... 7.3 4.4 2.7 2.0

 Some college or associate degree ...................... 8.0 4.7 3.0 2.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ........................... 8.0 4.7 3.2 2.3

Men ................................................................... 7.7 4.4 2.9 2.2

 Less than a high school diploma ........................ 7.5 4.4 2.8 2.0

 High school graduates, no college 3

 ..................... 7.6 4.5 2.9 2.1

 Some college or associate degree ...................... 7.9 4.5 2.9 2.3

 Bachelor's degree or higher 4

 .............................. 7.5 4.2 3.0 2.3

Women .................................................................. 7.9 4.7 2.9 2.1

 Less than a high school diploma ........................ 6.2 3.4 2.2 1.6

 High school graduates, no college 3 ..................... 6.8 4.2 2.5 1.8

 Some college or associate degree ...................... 8.1 4.9 3.0 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ........................... 8.4 5.0 3.3 2.4

White, non-Hispanic................................................ 8.0 4.8 3.0 2.2

 Less than a high school diploma ........................ 7.7 4.5 2.7 1.9

 High school graduates, no college 3 ..................... 7.4 4.6 2.7 2.0

 Some college or associate degree ...................... 8.2 4.9 3.0 2.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ........................... 8.2 4.8 3.2 2.3

Black, non-Hispanic ............................................... 7.4 4.1 2.9 2.1

 Less than a high school diploma ........................ 5.3 2.8 2.1 1.4

 High school graduates, no college 3 ..................... 6.9 4.0 2.6 1.8

 Some college or associate degree ...................... 8.1 4.4 3.1 2.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ........................... 7.7 4.3 3.0 2.4

Hispanic or Latino................................................ 7.0 4.1 2.7 2.0

 Less than a high school diploma ........................ 6.7 3.7 2.5 2.0

 High school graduates, no college 3 ..................... 6.9 3.9 2.7 2.0

 Some college or associate degree ...................... 7.1 4.2 2.7 2.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ........................... 7.2 4.1 2.9 2.1

 4 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degrees.

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 31 when interviewed in 2015-16. The National 

Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 consists of young men and women who were ages 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996. 

Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are 

included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not 

sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates. Educational attainment is determined during the month of 

the respondent's 31st birthday.

Table 2. Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 through age 30 in 1998-2015 by educational 

attainment, sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

Characteristic

Average number of jobs for persons ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015 1

 1 Time span includes up to the month before the respondent's 31st birthday. 2 Jobs that were held in more than one of the age categories were counted in each appropriate column, but only once 

in the total column.

 3 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent (General Education Development (GED)) credential.
Less than 1 

year

Less than 2 

years

Less than 3 

years

Less than 6 

years 

Less than 

12 years

Total, ages 18 to 24 in 1998-2009............... 57.7 74.2 81.7 90.7 93.8 6.1

Men ......................................................... 57.3 73.4 80.9 89.8 93.1 6.8

Women ................................................... 58.2 75.1 82.6 91.7 94.6 5.4

White, non-Hispanic ................................ 57.1 73.5 81.1 90.3 93.7 6.3

Black, non-Hispanic ................................. 62.5 78.5 85.3 92.6 94.9 5.0

Hispanic or Latino .................................... 55.3 72.6 80.3 89.9 92.9 6.9

Less than a high school diploma .............. 64.9 80.2 85.4 92.1 95.3 4.6

High school graduates, no college 1 

............. 57.2 73.0 80.2 89.0 93.1 6.8

Some college or associate degree ........... 58.9 75.2 82.4 91.0 94.0 5.9

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 55.3 72.6 81.2 91.2 93.8 6.1

Total, ages 25 to 30 in 2005-15................... 32.8 46.5 53.1 61.4 61.6 38.4

Men ......................................................... 31.4 44.5 50.7 59.0 59.2 40.8

Women ................................................... 34.3 48.5 55.6 64.0 64.0 36.0

White, non-Hispanic ................................ 32.4 45.5 52.0 60.6 60.8 39.2

Black, non-Hispanic ................................. 36.9 51.5 58.5 65.9 65.9 34.1

Hispanic or Latino .................................... 30.6 45.8 52.9 61.0 61.4 38.6

Less than a high school diploma .............. 45.2 58.9 65.1 73.1 73.2 26.8

High school graduates, no college 1 ............. 33.7 47.7 53.6 61.8 62.0 38.0

Some college or associate degree ........... 34.9 49.0 55.3 63.6 63.8 36.2

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 27.2 40.2 47.7 56.2 56.3 43.7

 1 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent (General Education Development (GED)) credential.

 2 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degrees.

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 31 when interviewed in 2015-16. The National Longitudinal 

Survey of Youth 1997 consists of young men and women who were ages 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996. Race and Hispanic or 

Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are 

not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable 

estimates. Educational attainment is determined during the month of the respondent's 31st birthday.

Characteristic

Table 3. Duration of employment relationship with a single employer for all jobs started from age 18 through age 30 in 

1998-2015 by age at start of job, educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Cumulative percent distribution of duration

 of completed employment relationships Percent of 

jobs 

ongoing 

at age 31
Total, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015 ......................... 74.2 6.2 19.6

Less than a high school diploma ......................... 53.2 12.0 34.8

High school graduates, no college 1 ...................... 71.0 8.3 20.7

Some college or associate degree .................... 75.7 6.6 17.7

Bachelor's degree and higher2 ............................... 79.4 3.0 17.7

Men ............................................................................. 76.8 6.8 16.4

Less than a high school diploma ........................ 63.5 13.0 23.5

High school graduates, no college 1 

...................... 75.5 8.9 15.6

Some college or associate degree .................... 79.4 6.7 13.9

Bachelor's degree and higher2 ............................... 78.4 3.1 18.5

Women .............................................................. 71.4 5.6 23.0

Less than a high school diploma ....................... 40.3 10.6 49.1

High school graduates, no college 1 ...................... 64.4 7.4 28.2

Some college or associate degree .................... 72.0 6.5 21.5

Bachelor's degree and higher2 ............................... 80.1 2.9 17.0

White, non-Hispanic ............................................... 76.8 5.1 18.1

Less than a high school diploma ......................... 57.4 11.2 31.5

High school graduates, no college 1 ...................... 75.4 7.0 17.6

Some college or associate degree .................... 77.5 5.4 17.1

Bachelor's degree and higher2 ............................... 80.3 2.6 17.2

Black, non-Hispanic ................................................... 64.2 11.0 24.8

Less than a high school diploma ........................ 38.2 16.6 45.2

High school graduates, no college 1 ...................... 58.6 12.3 29.1

Some college or associate degree .................... 68.0 11.5 20.5

Bachelor's degree and higher2 ............................... 77.1 5.1 17.9

Hispanic or Latino ..................................................... 73.1 6.6 20.3

Less than a high school diploma ........................... 58.8 9.3 31.9

High school graduates, no college 1 ...................... 69.2 8.5 22.2

Some college or associate degree.................... 77.2 5.6 17.2

Bachelor's degree and higher2 ............................... 78.3 4.3 17.4

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 31 when interviewed in 2015-16. The 

National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 consists of young men and women who were ages 12 to 16 on 

December 31, 1996. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. 

Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their 

representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates. 

Educational attainment is determined during the month of the respondent's 31st birthday.

Table 4. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18 

through age 30 in 1998-2015 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Characteristic

Percent of total weeks while ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015

Employed Unemployed Not in labor force

 1 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent (General Education Development (GED)) 

credential.

 2 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degrees.
Total, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015..................................... 74.2 6.2 19.6

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1998-2007 ............................................ 68.1 6.4 25.5

 Ages 23 to 26 in 2003-2011................................................. 78.1 5.8 16.1

 Ages 27 to 30 in 2007-2015 ............................................ 77.8 6.5 15.7

Men, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015 ..................................... 76.8 6.8 16.4

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1998-2007 ............................................ 68.9 7.0 24.1

 Ages 23 to 26 in 2003-2011................................................. 81.2 6.4 12.4

 Ages 27 to 30 in 2007-2015 ............................................ 82.3 7.0 10.8

Women, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015 ............................... 71.4 5.6 23.0

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1998-2007 ............................................ 67.3 5.8 26.9

 Ages 23 to 26 in 2003-2011................................................. 74.8 5.2 20.0

 Ages 27 to 30 in 2007-2015 ............................................ 73.2 6.0 20.9

White, non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015 ........... 76.8 5.1 18.1

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1998-2007 ............................................ 71.4 5.2 23.4

 Ages 23 to 26 in 2003-2011................................................. 80.3 4.9 14.7

 Ages 27 to 30 in 2007-2015 ............................................ 80.0 5.2 14.7

Black, non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015 ............ 64.2 11.0 24.8

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1998-2007 ............................................ 56.7 11.1 32.2

 Ages 23 to 26 in 2003-2011................................................. 69.2 10.0 20.8

 Ages 27 to 30 in 2007-2015 ............................................ 68.6 12.1 19.3

Hispanic or Latino, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015 ............... 73.1 6.6 20.3

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1998-2007 ............................................ 67.2 7.3 25.5

 Ages 23 to 26 in 2003-2011................................................. 77.4 5.8 16.8

 Ages 27 to 30 in 2007-2015 ............................................ 76.0 6.5 17.5

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 31 when interviewed in 2015-16. The National

Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 consists of young men and women who were ages 12 to 16 on December 31, 

1996. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, 

which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey

sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Table 5. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 

18 through age 30 in 1998-2015 by age, educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity

Age and characteristic

Percent of total weeks 

Employed Unemployed Not in labor force
Total ................................................................. 52.6 27.0 20.5 36.6 45.0 18.5

Less than a high school diploma ................. 46.4 25.0 28.7 37.6 33.5 29.0

High school graduates, no college 1 

................ 46.4 28.9 24.8 38.5 39.6 21.9

Some college or associate degree .............. 52.7 29.0 18.3 38.0 43.0 19.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ........................ 61.5 22.4 16.2 33.2 53.8 13.0

Men ............................................................... 59.6 21.9 18.5 40.5 40.9 18.6

Less than a high school diploma ................. 53.9 20.6 25.5 37.6 34.4 28.0

High school graduates, no college 1 ................ 52.6 23.7 23.7 42.5 35.9 21.6

Some college or associate degree .............. 60.8 23.4 15.8 42.6 39.1 18.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ........................ 70.3 17.2 12.6 36.6 50.1 13.3

Women .......................................................... 45.5 32.1 22.5 32.4 49.2 18.4

Less than a high school diploma ................. 37.9 29.9 32.2 37.5 32.2 30.3

High school graduates, no college 1 ................ 37.8 35.9 26.3 32.5 45.1 22.4

Some college or associate degree .............. 44.9 34.4 20.7 33.5 46.9 19.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ........................ 54.8 26.3 18.9 30.4 56.8 12.8

White, non-Hispanic ...................................... 48.8 30.3 20.9 30.8 50.9 18.3

Less than a high school diploma ................. 37.9 33.1 29.0 31.0 37.9 31.1

High school graduates, no college 1 ................ 41.0 32.6 26.4 31.9 44.7 23.4

Some college or associate degree .............. 48.6 33.0 18.5 32.4 48.7 18.9

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ........................ 58.9 24.2 17.0 28.6 59.1 12.3

Black, non-Hispanic ........................................ 68.6 12.8 18.6 57.7 25.3 17.0

Less than a high school diploma ................. 73.0 6.0 21.1 55.4 21.4 23.2

High school graduates, no college 1 ................ 67.4 11.9 20.6 62.1 21.6 16.3

Some college or associate degree .............. 66.8 14.9 18.4 55.8 25.0 19.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ........................ 72.9 15.2 11.9 56.9 33.5 9.7

Hispanic or Latino .......................................... 48.7 30.0 21.2 37.4 41.0 21.6

Less than a high school diploma ................. 38.2 24.8 37.0 35.7 33.3 31.0

High school graduates, no college 1 ................ 43.2 34.2 22.6 37.2 39.5 23.3

Some college or associate degree .............. 52.3 30.1 17.6 38.7 41.6 19.7

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ........................ 62.2 24.7 13.1 35.7 46.7 17.6

Cohabiting

1 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent (General Education Development (GED)) credential.

2 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degrees.

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 31 when interviewed in 2015-16. The National

Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 consists of young men and women who were ages 12 to 16 on December 31,

1996. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups,

which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey

sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates. Educational attainment and partner status 

are determined during the month of the respondent's 25th or 31st birthday.

Table 6. Partner status at age 25 and age 31 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity

Characteristic

Percent of individuals

 Age 25 in 2005-09 Age 31 in 2011-15 

Single Married Cohabiting Single Married
Characteristic

Total, ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015................. 70.3 8.0 21.7 77.6 4.2 18.2 73.5 7.7 18.8

Less than a high school diploma .............. 46.6 13.2 40.2 58.6 10.5 30.9 55.7 12.0 32.3

High school graduates, no college 1 ............. 65.9 10.2 23.9 74.9 6.1 19.0 73.0 9.0 18.0

Some college or associate degree ........... 72.3 8.6 19.1 78.8 4.3 16.9 75.2 7.9 16.9

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 77.3 3.9 18.8 80.5 2.2 17.2 79.7 3.7 16.6

Men .............................................................. 70.3 8.4 21.3 83.3 4.5 12.2 76.7 8.5 14.8

Less than a high school diploma .............. 52.7 14.3 33.1 71.5 11.5 17.1 68.1 13.4 18.5

High school graduates, no college 1 ............. 67.2 10.7 22.1 85.0 6.4 8.6 76.0 9.7 14.3

Some college or associate degree ........... 73.2 8.4 18.4 86.2 4.2 9.6 79.2 8.3 12.5

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 74.6 4.0 21.4 81.2 2.3 16.5 78.4 3.9 17.6

Women ........................................................ 70.2 7.5 22.3 72.7 4.0 23.4 70.0 7.0 23.0

Less than a high school diploma .............. 38.9 11.9 49.2 41.1 9.3 49.6 41.3 10.4 48.3

High school graduates, no college 1 ............. 63.4 9.2 27.5 62.9 5.8 31.3 68.8 7.9 23.3

Some college or associate degree ........... 71.2 8.8 20.0 72.7 4.4 22.9 71.5 7.6 20.8

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 79.9 3.9 16.2 80.1 2.2 17.7 80.9 3.5 15.7

White, non-Hispanic .................................... 73.9 6.4 19.7 78.9 3.6 17.5 75.7 7.2 17.1

Less than a high school diploma .............. 51.2 10.9 37.9 61.0 10.9 28.0 59.0 11.8 29.2

High school graduates, no college 1 ............. 72.5 8.8 18.8 76.9 5.2 17.9 76.3 8.3 15.4

Some college or associate degree ........... 73.9 7.0 19.1 80.2 3.6 16.3 76.6 7.6 15.8

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 79.0 3.3 17.7 80.8 2.0 17.2 80.7 3.4 15.8

Black, non-Hispanic ..................................... 61.6 11.9 26.5 70.5 8.6 20.9 63.5 11.6 24.9

Less than a high school diploma .............. 35.5 18.6 45.9 39.6 13.6 46.8 43.3 14.6 42.1

High school graduates, no college 1 ............. 54.4 12.3 33.3 69.2 11.5 19.3 60.5 13.2 26.3

Some college or associate degree ........... 66.8 12.6 20.6 71.2 9.1 19.6 67.0 11.7 21.4

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 74.5 6.3 19.2 80.6 3.4 16.0 79.7 3.8 16.5

Hispanic or Latino ........................................ 70.9 8.5 20.6 75.5 4.8 19.7 72.2 6.8 21.0

Less than a high school diploma .............. 55.2 10.9 33.9 62.8 7.2 30.0 58.5 9.7 31.7

High school graduates, no college 1 ............. 65.8 11.0 23.2 71.2 7.0 21.8 71.2 7.3 21.5

Some college or associate degree ........... 76.3 7.2 16.5 78.2 4.0 17.8 76.6 6.0 17.4

Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ................... 75.2 6.1 18.6 81.1 2.7 16.2 77.1 4.8 18.1

Table 7. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18 through age 30 in 1998-2015 by partner status, educational 

attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Percent of total weeks while ages 18 to 30 in 1998-2015

Single Married Cohabiting

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 31 when interviewed in 2015-16. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 consists of young men and 

women who were ages 12 to 16 on December 31, 1996. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are 

included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates. 

Educational attainment and partner status are determined during the month of the respondent's 31st birthday.

Not in labor 

force Employed Unemployed Not in labor force Employed Unemployed Not in labor force Employed Unemployed

1 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent (General Education Development (GED)) credential.

2 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degrees