Internet address: http://www.bls.gov USDL 07-0283 

Technical information: (202) 691-5654 For Release: 10:00 A.M. EST 

Media contact: (202) 691-5902 Thursday, February 22, 2007 

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF MANUFACTURING PRODUCTIVITY 

AND UNIT LABOR COST TRENDS 2005, REVISED 

Manufacturing labor productivity increased in all 16 economies covered by the U.S. 

Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2005. The Republic of Korea and 

Taiwan had the largest productivity increases (+8.5 and +7.1 percent, respectively). The 

U.S. increase of 3.3 percent placed it eighth among the 16 economies compared. Data for 

Spain are included in this news release for the first time. 

The U.S. increase of 3.3 percent was less than its average annual growth rate since 

1979. Nevertheless, since 1995, of the 16 economies studied only the Republic of Korea 

and Sweden have had greater productivity growth than the United States. 

The data presented here differ from those appearing in the BLS Productivity and 

Costs news releases. (See technical notes.) Average annual growth rates for selected 

measures are shown in tables A and B. 

Chart 1. Percent change in

 manufacturing output per hour, 2004–2005

3.3

3.7

1.9

2.4

7.1

2.8

2.0

3.9

5.6

0.2

4.1

2.8

0.8

6.2

2.6

8.5

0

2

4

6

8

United States

Canada

Australia

Japan

Korea, Rep. of

Taiwan

Belgium

Denmark

France

Germany

Italy

Netherlands

Norway

Spain

Sweden

United Kingdom

(Percent)
- 2 -

Manufacturing unit labor costs declined in seven of the economies and increased in 

nine, on both a national currency and U.S. dollar basis. However, changes in the dollar's 

exchange rate reversed the direction of movement in two countries. The Republic of 

Korea had the greatest shift, from a decline in unit labor costs in national currency (-2.2 

percent) to an increase in unit labor costs expressed in U.S. dollars (+9.5 percent). This 

shift can be explained by the relative appreciation of the won. Denmark, on the other 

hand, experienced a slight increase expressed in kroner, and a slight decrease expressed 

in U.S. dollars, because of a small relative depreciation of the krone. 

Chart 2. Percent change in manufacturing unit labor costs, 

2004-2005

1.9

-3.6

3.2

0.7

-0.8

2.9

-4.2

-1.2

0.1

1.5

-5.2

-2.2

-0.8

4.2

0.2

1.3

1.2

-5.2

3.3

5.4

-0.7

3.0

-4.1

-1.1

-0.1

1.5

-1.5

9.5

-2.6

7.9

7.6

1.3

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

United Kingdom

Sweden

Spain

Norway

Netherlands

Italy

Germany

France

Denmark

Belgium

Taiwan

Korea, Rep. of

Japan

Australia

Canada

United States

National currency basis U.S. dollar basis
- 3 -

 Table A. Output per hour, hourly compensation, unit labor costs, and related measures 

 Manufacturing, 16 countries or areas, 2004-2005 

 Percent change 

 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Output Total Hourly Unit Labor Costs 

 Country per Total Employ- Average compen- compen- National U.S. Exchange 

 or area Hour Output hours ment hours sation sation currency dollars rate(1) 

 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 United States 3.3 2.2 -1.1 -0.5 -0.6 3.5 4.6 1.3 1.3 -- 

 Canada 3.7 0.7 -2.8 -1.6 -1.3 0.9 3.9 0.2 7.6 7.4 

 Australia 1.9 0.0 -1.9 -1.7 -0.2 4.2 6.2 4.2 7.9 3.6 

 Japan 2.4 1.1 -1.3 -0.7 -0.6 0.3 1.6 -0.8 -2.6 -1.8 

 Korea, Republic of 8.5 7.0 -1.4 -0.8 -0.6 4.7 6.2 -2.2 9.5 11.9 

 Taiwan 7.1 6.5 -0.6 0.4 -1.0 1.0 1.6 -5.2 -1.5 3.9 

 Belgium 2.8 -0.5 -3.2 -0.9 -2.3 0.9 4.2 1.5 1.5 0.1 

 Denmark 2.0 1.6 -0.4 -2.0 1.7 1.7 2.0 0.1 -0.1 -0.1 

 France 3.9 1.5 -2.4 -2.3 0.0 0.3 2.7 -1.2 -1.1 0.1 

 Germany 5.6 3.3 -2.2 -1.7 -0.5 -1.1 1.1 -4.2 -4.1 0.1 

 Italy 0.2 -2.0 -2.2 -1.4 -0.8 0.8 3.0 2.9 3.0 0.1 

 Netherlands 4.1 0.2 -3.8 -2.3 -1.5 -0.6 3.3 -0.8 -0.7 0.1 

 Norway 2.8 2.4 -0.3 -0.8 0.5 3.2 3.5 0.7 5.4 4.6 

 Spain 0.8 0.3 -0.5 1.0 -1.5 3.5 4.1 3.2 3.3 0.1 

 Sweden 6.2 4.1 -2.0 -2.2 0.2 0.3 2.3 -3.6 -5.2 -1.6 

 United Kingdom 2.6 -1.1 -3.6 -3.6 -0.1 0.8 4.6 1.9 1.2 -0.7 

 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 

 (1) Value of foreign currency relative to the U.S. dollar. 

Spain 

With this news release, Spain becomes the sixteenth economy included in the BLS 

international comparisons of manufacturing productivity and unit labor costs. The main 

source of Spain's economic data is Spain’s National Statistics Institute. The data comply 

with international standards of national accounts and industrial classification. Current 

and constant price output series are available from 1964 forward. Employment, hours, 

and compensation data are available from 1979 forward. 

Additional data available

Annual indexes of these variables are estimated for the time period 1950-2005 and 

are available at the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Foreign Labor Statistics 

website at http://www.bls.gov/fls/home.htm. However, for analytical purposes, the 

international comparisons in this release go back to 1979. 

For further information, contact the Office of Productivity and Technology by phone 

at 202-691-5654, by e-mail at flspr@bls.gov, or by mail at Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

2 Massachusetts Avenue, NE, Room 2150, Washington, DC 20212. 
- 4 -

Manufacturing productivity, output, and labor input

The U.S. manufacturing productivity increase of 3.3 percent was eighth among the 16 

economies compared, behind the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Sweden, Germany, 

Netherlands, France, and Canada. Italy, which had the lowest productivity growth in 

2005, is also the only economy to experience a productivity decline over the last five 

years. 

The Republic of Korea and Taiwan continued to be among the leaders in the growth 

of manufacturing output, as they have been for the last decade. Sweden, also a leader in 

manufacturing growth over the decade, had more modest output growth in 2005. U.S. 

manufacturing output growth, like that of most of the economies, also slowed in 2005. 

In addition to the growth of manufacturing output, a decline in total work hours was 

strongly evident in 2005. While 12 of the economies had increases in output, all 16 

economies had reductions in hours. The Netherlands had the greatest decline (-3.8 

percent) in hours in 2005, followed closely by the United Kingdom (-3.6 percent) and 

Belgium (-3.2 percent). 

For most economies, the pace of decline in hours worked accelerated between 1995-

2000 and 2000-2005. The United States experienced the steepest decline, followed by 

the United Kingdom and Denmark. 

Manufacturing employment declined in 14 of the 16 economies in 2005. Spain and 

Taiwan are the only economies that experienced manufacturing employment growth. 

Generally, 2005 was a year of decreases in average hours worked. Twelve of the 

sixteen economies experienced decreases in 2005, compared to only three in 2004. 

Belgium had the greatest decline in average hours worked in 2005 (-2.3 percent). The 

U.S. decrease of 0.6 percent was below its trend over the 1979-2005 period, which is a 

0.1 percent annual increase. 

Manufacturing hourly compensation and unit labor costs

Total labor compensation in U.S. manufacturing increased by 3.5 percent in 2005. 

This was almost the same as the average annual rate of increase over the 1979-2005 

period. Of the 15 economies for which comparable data are available, the United States 

is the only one that did not have a considerably smaller increase in 2005 than its average 

for the entire period since 1979. (See tables A and B.) 

Australia and the Republic of Korea had the highest rate of increase in hourly 

compensation among the economies compared, followed by the United States and United 

Kingdom. The increase in hourly compensation in U.S. manufacturing in 2005 was more 

than twice the increase in 2004, yet about the same as over the past decade. 
- 5 -

With hourly compensation increasing more than labor productivity, unit labor costs in 

the United States increased 1.3 percent in 2005. Seven economies, led by Taiwan, had 

declines in unit labor costs, expressed in national currency units. 

The U.S. dollar depreciated less against major European currencies than it had over 

the past two years. Consequently, manufacturing unit labor costs did not uniformly rise 

on a dollar basis. In 2005, seven countries had decreases in their unit labor costs on a 

dollar basis. Sweden was the leader among economies experiencing such decreases, 

followed by Germany and Japan. 

The influence of exchange rates was not entirely absent from the unit labor cost 

changes. The currencies of the Republic of Korea, Canada, Norway, Taiwan, and 

Australia all appreciated against the dollar. Consequently, except for Taiwan, they all 

experienced increases in dollar-denominated unit labor costs. 

.
- 6 -

 Table B. Output per hour, hourly compensation, unit labor costs, and related measures 

 Manufacturing, 16 countries or areas, 1979-2005 

 Average annual rates of change(1) 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Country or area 1979-2005 1979-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2003-2004 2004-2005 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Output per hour 

 United States 4.1 2.8 3.7 5.7 r5.6 r7.0 r3.3 

 Canada r2.3 2.0 3.8 r3.3 r0.6 r0.1 r3.7 

 Australia 2.9 2.8 2.9 r3.7 r2.4 r-0.6 1.9 

 Japan 3.5 3.8 3.3 3.5 3.2 5.7 2.4 

 Korea, Republic of NA NA 9.4 10.8 7.1 11.5 8.5 

 Taiwan 5.6 6.1 4.7 5.6 r5.4 4.7 r7.1 

 Belgium r3.4 4.2 r3.1 r2.2 r2.9 r4.9 2.8 

 Denmark r2.3 2.2 2.7 1.8 r2.8 r7.3 r2.0 

 France 4.3 4.2 4.6 5.0 3.6 3.6 3.9 

 Germany (2) 2.8 2.1 2.9 3.7 r3.2 r3.5 r5.6 

 Italy 1.8 r2.8 r2.7 0.9 -0.6 0.9 r0.2 

 Netherlands 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.4 2.9 5.0 4.1 

 Norway 2.0 r1.9 r0.1 r1.4 r4.6 r5.9 2.8 

 Spain 2.4 3.3 3.1 0.8 1.4 1.5 0.8 

 Sweden r4.8 2.5 5.8 7.2 r6.5 r11.5 r6.2 

 United Kingdom r3.6 4.1 r3.1 2.6 3.7 5.6 r2.6 

 Output 

 United States 2.9 2.2 3.6 5.4 r1.3 r6.5 r2.2 

 Canada r2.3 1.8 2.4 5.9 r-0.3 r1.9 r0.7 

 Australia 1.5 1.6 r0.9 r2.4 r1.2 r-0.1 r0.0 

 Japan 2.4 4.7 0.4 1.2 0.7 4.6 1.1 

 Korea, Republic of 8.9 10.7 8.2 7.9 6.6 11.1 7.0 

 Taiwan r5.9 7.4 4.4 5.8 r4.0 9.4 r6.5 

 Belgium r1.7 2.6 0.6 r2.1 0.3 r4.0 r-0.5 

 Denmark r1.2 1.2 2.1 1.7 r-0.1 r3.4 r1.6 

 France 2.1 2.0 1.7 3.9 1.2 1.7 1.5 

 Germany (2) r1.0 1.2 -1.0 2.2 r1.4 r3.4 r3.3 

 Italy 1.3 2.6 1.6 0.7 -1.2 0.8 r-2.0 

 Netherlands 2.0 2.5 1.8 3.3 0.1 1.6 0.2 

 Norway 0.6 r-0.5 r0.7 r1.4 r2.0 r5.7 r2.4 

 Spain 2.1 2.1 0.6 5.0 0.9 0.4 0.3 

 Sweden r3.7 1.8 3.8 7.4 r4.2 r10.2 r4.1 

 United Kingdom 0.6 0.9 0.5 1.3 -0.6 2.0 -1.1 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Continued on next page 
- 7 -

 Table B. Output per hour, hourly compensation, unit labor costs, and related measures 

 Manufacturing, 16 countries or areas, 1979-2005 

 Average annual rates of change(1) 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Country or area 1979-2005 1979-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2003-2004 2004-2005 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Total hours 

 United States -1.1 -0.6 -0.1 -0.2 -4.1 -0.5 -1.1 

 Canada 0.0 -0.2 -1.3 r2.6 r-0.9 r1.9 r-2.8 

 Australia -1.3 -1.2 -2.0 -1.2 -1.2 0.5 -1.9 

 Japan -1.1 0.8 -2.8 -2.2 -2.4 -1.0 -1.3 

 Korea, Republic of NA NA -1.1 -2.6 -0.5 -0.4 -1.4 

 Taiwan 0.2 1.2 -0.3 0.1 -1.3 4.5 -0.6 

 Belgium r-1.6 -1.6 r-2.4 -0.1 -2.5 -0.9 -3.2 

 Denmark r-1.1 -1.0 -0.7 -0.1 r-2.9 r-3.6 r-0.4 

 France -2.1 -2.1 -2.8 -1.1 -2.3 -1.8 -2.4 

 Germany (2) -1.7 -0.9 -3.8 -1.4 -1.8 -0.1 -2.2 

 Italy -0.4 -0.2 r-1.0 -0.2 -0.6 -0.2 -2.2 

 Netherlands -1.3 -1.0 -1.7 -0.1 -2.7 -3.2 -3.8 

 Norway -1.4 -2.3 0.6 r0.0 r-2.5 r-0.2 -0.3 

 Spain -0.3 -1.2 -2.4 4.1 -0.5 -1.1 -0.5 

 Sweden -1.0 -0.7 -1.9 0.3 r-2.1 r-1.1 r-2.0 

 United Kingdom r-2.9 -3.1 r-2.6 -1.3 -4.1 -3.4 r-3.6 

 Employment 

 United States -1.2 -0.8 -0.5 -0.1 -3.7 -1.3 -0.5 

 Canada -0.1 -0.2 -1.5 r2.2 r-0.6 r-0.1 r-1.6 

 Australia -1.4 -1.3 -2.3 -1.1 -1.1 0.6 -1.7 

 Japan -0.8 1.0 -1.6 -2.0 -2.5 -2.1 -0.7 

 Korea, Republic of NA NA -0.8 -2.5 0.5 0.8 -0.8 

 Taiwan 0.8 2.0 -0.3 0.4 -0.3 3.2 0.4 

 Belgium r-1.5 -1.6 -2.2 -0.6 r-1.7 r-2.2 r-0.9 

 Denmark r-1.2 -0.4 -1.2 -1.2 r-2.7 r-4.2 r-2.0 

 France -1.6 -1.6 -2.5 -0.3 -1.8 -3.1 -2.3 

 Germany (2) -1.3 -0.1 -4.2 -0.8 -1.5 -1.5 -1.7 

 Italy -0.8 r-0.8 r-1.9 -0.2 -0.2 -1.1 -1.4 

 Netherlands -1.1 -0.8 -1.6 0.1 -2.6 -4.2 -2.3 

 Norway -1.3 -2.2 r0.4 r0.2 -2.6 r-3.5 -0.8 

 Spain 0.1 -0.7 -2.0 3.3 0.9 1.1 1.0 

 Sweden r-1.5 -1.0 -3.5 0.0 r-1.8 r-2.6 r-2.2 

 United Kingdom -2.8 -2.9 -2.6 r-1.2 r-4.4 r-4.3 r-3.6 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Continued on next page 
- 8 -

 Table B. Output per hour, hourly compensation, unit labor costs, and related measures 

 Manufacturing, 16 countries or areas, 1979-2005 

 Average annual rates of change(1) 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Country or area 1979-2005 1979-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2003-2004 2004-2005 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Average hours 

 United States 0.1 0.2 0.4 -0.2 -0.3 0.8 -0.6 

 Canada 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.4 -0.2 r2.0 -1.3 

 Australia 0.1 0.1 0.3 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 r-0.2 

 Japan -0.3 -0.2 -1.3 -0.2 0.1 1.1 -0.6 

 Korea, Republic of NA NA -0.2 -0.1 -1.0 -1.2 -0.6 

 Taiwan -0.6 -0.8 0.0 -0.3 -1.0 1.3 -1.0 

 Belgium -0.1 0.0 r-0.2 0.5 r-0.8 r1.3 r-2.3 

 Denmark 0.1 -0.5 0.6 1.1 r-0.2 r0.6 r1.7 

 France -0.5 -0.5 -0.3 -0.8 -0.5 1.3 0.0 

 Germany (2) -0.5 -0.9 0.4 -0.6 -0.3 r1.4 -0.5 

 Italy 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.0 -0.3 0.9 -0.8 

 Netherlands -0.2 -0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.2 1.0 -1.5 

 Norway 0.0 -0.1 r0.2 -0.2 0.2 r3.4 0.5 

 Spain -0.4 -0.5 -0.4 0.8 -1.4 -2.2 -1.5 

 Sweden 0.5 0.3 1.7 0.2 r-0.3 r1.6 r0.2 

 United Kingdom r-0.1 -0.2 r0.0 r-0.1 r0.3 r1.0 -0.1 

 Total labor compensation(3): National currency basis 

 United States 3.6 4.9 3.4 4.4 0.4 1.5 3.5 

 Canada r4.6 6.5 2.4 5.2 r2.1 r3.1 r0.9 

 Australia NA NA r3.2 r3.1 r3.7 r3.2 r4.2 

 Japan 1.8 5.5 0.7 -1.0 -2.1 -0.6 0.3 

 Korea, Republic of 13.9 19.6 17.6 5.4 7.2 13.8 4.7 

 Taiwan r7.4 13.5 6.8 3.6 r-0.7 2.1 r1.0 

 Belgium 2.7 4.4 1.3 1.9 r1.2 r1.3 0.9 

 Denmark 4.2 7.0 2.3 2.8 r1.2 r-0.4 r1.7 

 France 3.8 7.3 1.7 1.7 0.8 0.5 0.3 

 Germany (2) 2.7 4.6 2.4 1.6 r0.1 r0.4 r-1.1 

 Italy 6.5 11.4 r3.9 2.6 2.5 3.0 0.8 

 Netherlands 2.8 3.1 2.8 3.4 1.3 0.1 -0.6 

 Norway r4.9 r6.4 r4.1 r5.1 r2.0 r3.0 r3.2 

 Spain 7.0 10.1 5.5 5.6 3.3 2.3 3.5 

 Sweden r5.3 8.4 2.0 5.3 r1.9 r1.6 r0.3 

 United Kingdom 4.0 7.1 1.3 3.4 0.4 1.2 r0.8 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Continued on next page 
- 9 -

 Table B. Output per hour, hourly compensation, unit labor costs, and related measures 

 Manufacturing, 16 countries or areas, 1979-2005 

 Average annual rates of change(1) 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Country or area 1979-2005 1979-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2003-2004 2004-2005 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Hourly compensation(3): National currency basis 

 United States 4.8 5.5 3.5 4.7 4.6 2.0 4.6 

 Canada 4.6 6.8 3.8 r2.6 r2.9 r1.2 r3.9 

 Australia NA NA r5.4 4.3 r4.9 r2.7 r6.2 

 Japan 2.9 4.6 3.6 1.2 0.4 0.5 1.6 

 Korea, Republic of NA NA 18.9 8.1 7.7 14.2 6.2 

 Taiwan 7.2 12.1 7.1 3.4 r0.5 -2.3 r1.6 

 Belgium 4.4 6.1 r3.8 r2.0 r3.8 r2.2 r4.2 

 Denmark r5.3 8.1 2.9 2.9 r4.2 r3.3 r2.0 

 France 6.1 9.6 4.6 2.8 3.2 2.3 2.7 

 Germany (2) 4.5 5.6 6.4 3.1 r1.9 0.5 r1.1 

 Italy r6.9 r11.6 5.0 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.0 

 Netherlands 4.1 4.1 4.5 3.5 4.2 3.5 3.3 

 Norway 6.3 9.0 3.4 5.2 r4.6 r3.3 r3.5 

 Spain 7.3 11.4 8.2 1.4 3.9 3.4 4.1 

 Sweden 6.4 9.1 4.0 5.1 r4.1 r2.7 r2.3 

 United Kingdom 7.0 10.6 r4.0 4.8 r4.8 4.7 r4.6 

 Unit labor costs(3): National currency basis 

 United States 0.7 2.7 -0.2 -0.9 r-0.9 r-4.7 r1.3 

 Canada r2.3 4.7 0.0 -0.7 r2.4 r1.1 r0.2 

 Australia NA NA r2.4 r0.6 r2.5 r3.3 r4.2 

 Japan -0.6 0.8 0.3 -2.2 -2.7 -5.0 -0.8 

 Korea, Republic of 4.6 8.1 8.7 -2.4 0.5 2.4 -2.2 

 Taiwan r1.5 5.6 2.3 -2.1 r-4.6 -6.7 r-5.2 

 Belgium r1.0 1.8 0.7 r-0.2 r0.9 r-2.6 r1.5 

 Denmark r2.9 5.7 0.2 1.1 r1.4 r-3.7 r0.1 

 France 1.7 5.2 0.0 -2.1 -0.4 -1.2 -1.2 

 Germany (2) 1.7 3.3 3.4 -0.5 r-1.3 r-2.9 r-4.2 

 Italy 5.1 8.5 r2.3 1.9 3.7 2.3 r2.9 

 Netherlands 0.7 0.6 1.0 0.1 1.2 -1.5 -0.8 

 Norway r4.3 6.9 r3.4 r3.7 r0.0 r-2.5 r0.7 

 Spain 4.8 7.8 4.9 0.5 2.4 1.9 3.2 

 Sweden r1.5 6.5 -1.7 -1.9 r-2.2 r-7.9 r-3.6 

 United Kingdom 3.3 6.2 0.8 2.1 1.0 -0.8 r1.9 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Continued on next page 
- 10 -

 Table B. Output per hour, hourly compensation, unit labor costs, and related measures 

 Manufacturing, 16 countries or areas, 1979-2005 

 Average annual rates of change(1) 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Country or area 1979-2005 1979-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2003-2004 2004-2005 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 Unit labor costs(3): U.S. dollar basis 

 United States 0.7 2.7 -0.2 -0.9 r-0.9 r-4.7 r1.3 

 Canada r2.1 4.7 -3.2 -2.2 r6.6 r8.8 r7.6 

 Australia NA NA r1.3 r-4.1 r8.2 r16.7 r7.9 

 Japan 2.1 4.6 9.4 -4.9 -3.2 1.9 -2.6 

 Korea, Republic of 1.6 4.4 6.9 -9.5 2.5 6.6 9.5 

 Taiwan r1.9 8.5 2.7 -5.3 r-5.1 -3.8 r-1.5 

 Belgium r0.6 0.6 3.3 r-7.7 r7.1 r7.0 1.5 

 Denmark r2.4 4.2 2.2 -6.1 r7.6 r5.8 r-0.1 

 France 0.8 2.9 1.8 -8.8 5.8 8.6 -1.1 

 Germany (2) 2.3 4.5 5.9 -8.0 r4.8 r6.6 r-4.1 

 Italy 2.6 5.0 r-3.8 -3.1 10.1 12.4 r3.0 

 Netherlands 1.2 1.5 3.6 -7.6 7.5 8.3 -0.7 

 Norway r3.3 4.9 r3.1 r-2.9 r6.5 r2.4 r5.4 

 Spain 2.0 3.8 0.8 -6.6 8.7 11.9 3.3 

 Sweden r-0.6 3.4 -5.3 -6.7 r1.9 r1.3 r-5.2 

 United Kingdom 2.7 4.5 -1.6 1.3 r4.8 11.2 r1.2 

 Exchange rates(4) 

 United States -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 

 Canada -0.1 0.0 -3.2 -1.6 4.2 7.6 7.4 

 Australia -1.5 -3.2 -1.1 -4.7 5.6 12.9 3.6 

 Japan 2.7 3.8 9.1 -2.7 -0.4 7.2 -1.8 

 Korea, Republic of -2.8 -3.4 -1.7 -7.3 2.0 4.1 11.9 

 Taiwan 0.4 2.7 0.3 -3.3 -0.5 3.1 3.9 

 Belgium -0.4 -1.2 2.5 -7.6 6.2 9.9 0.1 

 Denmark -0.5 -1.5 2.0 -7.1 6.2 9.8 -0.1 

 France -0.8 -2.2 1.8 -6.8 6.2 9.9 0.1 

 Germany (2) 0.6 1.1 2.5 -7.5 6.2 9.9 0.1 

 Italy -2.4 -3.3 -6.0 -4.9 6.2 9.9 0.1 

 Netherlands 0.5 0.9 2.6 -7.6 6.2 9.9 0.1 

 Norway -0.9 -1.9 -0.3 -6.4 6.5 5.1 4.6 

 Spain -2.6 -3.7 -3.9 -7.1 6.2 9.9 0.1 

 Sweden -2.1 -2.9 -3.7 -4.9 4.2 9.9 -1.6 

 United Kingdom -0.6 -1.6 -2.4 -0.8 3.7 12.1 -0.7 

 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

 r=revised NA=data not available 

 (1) Rates of change based on the compound rate method. 

 (2) Data for years before 1991 pertain to the former West Germany. 

 (3) Adjusted for employment taxes and government subsidies to estimate the actual cost to employers. 

 (4) Value of foreign currency relative to the U.S. dollar. 
- 11 -

Trade-weighted unit labor costs

BLS constructs indexes of U.S. unit labor cost trends relative to a trade-weighted 

average of unit labor cost trends in the other economies to take account of differences in 

the relative importance of foreign economies to U.S. trade in manufactured goods. 

Relative trade-weighted unit labor cost indexes are calculated on both a national currency 

and a U.S. dollar basis. 

In this release, the relative U.S. trade-weighted indexes are estimated against 14 

economies for which comparable data are available over the period of comparison; the 

indexes underlying this chart are shown in table C. 

Chart 3 begins in 1979, a year in which U.S. manufacturing output reached a business 

cycle peak. 

Chart 3. U.S. manufacturing unit labor 

costs relative to 14(1) other economies, 1979-2005

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005

(1979 = 100)

 U.S. dollar

basis

National 

currency basis

(1) Australia has been omitted from this chart because data are not available before 1990.

In the chart, the solid line indicates that U.S. unit labor costs rose faster than the costs 

in other economies from 1979 to 1985 on a U.S. dollar basis. In most years from 1986 to 

1996, U.S. costs either rose at a slower rate than in other economies or fell at a faster rate. 

From 1997, however, the strength of the U.S. dollar caused relative U.S. unit labor costs 

to rise. After a dip in 1999, the index of relative U.S. unit labor costs rose in 2000 and 

2001, only to decline again after 2001 with the weakening of the U.S. dollar. 
- 12 -

 Table C. U.S. manufacturing unit labor 

 costs relative to 14(1) other economies, 1979-2005 

 ----------------------------------------------------------------

 Unit Labor Costs Unit Labor Costs 

 National Currency Basis U.S. Dollar Basis 

 Year Own Competitors' Own Competitors' 

 Index Index Ratio Index Index Ratio

 ----------------------------------------------------------------

 1979 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

 1980 112.7 111.9 100.7 112.7 110.4 102.1

 1981 117.6 121.7 96.7 117.6 109.7 107.2

 1982 127.4 131.2 97.1 127.4 108.6 117.3

 1983 122.7 133.3 92.0 122.7 106.5 115.2

 1984 123.8 134.1 92.3 123.8 100.6 123.1

 1985 126.2 135.7 93.0 126.2 98.0 128.8

 1986 130.1 141.4 92.0 130.1 117.3 110.8

 1987 125.4 144.8 86.6 125.4 134.2 93.4

 1988 126.5 147.0 86.1 126.5 146.2 86.5

 1989 129.4 150.9 85.8 129.4 148.2 87.4

 1990 133.4 158.2 84.3 133.4 162.0 82.3

 1991 136.8 165.9 82.5 136.8 171.2 79.9

 1992 137.8 169.4 81.4 137.8 175.5 78.5

 1993 136.9 170.0 80.5 136.9 168.0 81.5

 1994 134.2 167.1 80.3 134.2 164.7 81.5

 1995 131.9 168.6 78.2 131.9 173.9 75.9

 1996 129.0 171.2 75.4 129.0 170.7 75.6

 1997 127.1 168.4 75.5 127.1 156.4 81.3

 1998 125.7 169.8 74.0 125.7 146.5 85.8

 1999 124.4 166.2 74.9 124.4 146.4 85.0

 2000 125.8 161.9 77.7 125.8 138.2 91.0

 2001 127.4 167.7 76.0 127.4 134.7 94.6

 2002 123.5 168.1 73.5 123.5 136.4 90.6

 2003 124.3 167.7 74.1 124.3 152.7 81.4

 2004 118.4 165.7 71.5 118.4 162.9 72.7

 2005 120.0 164.5 72.9 120.0 167.0 71.8

 ----------------------------------------------------------------

 (1) Australia has been omitted from this table because data are 

 not available before 1990. 
- 13 -

Technical Notes

The comparisons in this release are based on data available to the Bureau of Labor 

Statistics as of the end of December 2006 from the national statistical offices of the 16 

economies compared. 

Definitions. Labor productivity is defined as real output per hour worked. Although the 

labor productivity measure presented in this release relates output to the hours worked of 

persons employed in manufacturing, it does not measure the specific contributions of 

labor as a single factor of production. Rather, it reflects the joint effects of many 

influences, including new technology, capital investment, capacity utilization, energy use, 

and managerial skills, as well as the skills and efforts of the workforce. 

Unit labor costs are defined as the cost of labor input required to produce one unit of 

output. They are computed as compensation in nominal terms divided by real output. 

Unit labor costs can also be computed by dividing hourly compensation by output per 

hour, that is, by labor productivity. 

Methodology. BLS constructs trends of manufacturing labor productivity, hourly 

compensation costs, and unit labor costs from three basic aggregate measures: output, 

total labor hours, and total compensation. The hours and compensation measures refer to 

employees (wage and salary earners) in Belgium and Taiwan. For all other economies, 

the measures refer to all employed persons, including employees, self-employed persons, 

and unpaid family workers. 

In general, the measures relate to total manufacturing as defined by the International 

Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC). However, the measures for France include parts 

of mining. Data for the United States are in accordance with the North American Industry 

Classification System (NAICS 97), except compensation data before 1987. Canadian 

output, employment, and hours data are in accordance with NAICS 97 beginning in 1997 

while compensation data are also in accordance with NAICS 1997 starting in 1961. 

The data for the most recent years are based on the United Nations System of National 

Accounts 1993 (SNA 93) or its sub-system, the European System of Integrated National 

Accounts (ESA 95). For earlier years, data were compiled according to previously used 

systems. 

To obtain historical time series, BLS may link together data series which were compiled 

according to different accounting systems by national statistical offices. 

Output. For most economies, the output measures are real value added in manufacturing 

from national accounts. However, output for Japan prior to 1970 and for the Netherlands 

prior to 1960 are indexes of industrial production. The manufacturing value added 

measures for the United Kingdom are essentially identical to their indexes of industrial 

production. 
- 14 -

Most economies now estimate manufacturing real output using moving price weights, as 

recommended by SNA 93. However, many earlier time periods within the historical real 

output series have been estimated using fixed price weights, with the weights updated 

periodically (for example, every 5 or 10 years). Taiwan and Korea still use fixed price 

weights to estimate real output. 

Measures of real output also may differ among economies because of different 

approaches to estimating the prices of high-technology products like computers and, in 

general, of products that undergo rapid quality change. 

For the United States, the output measure for the manufacturing sector is a chainweighted index of real gross product originating (deflated value added) produced by the 

Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) of the U.S. Department of Commerce. For more 

information on the U.S. measure, see "Improved Estimates of Gross Product by Industry 

for 1947-98," Survey of Current Business, June 2000, pp. 24-38 and "Gross Domestic 

Product by Industry for 1947-86. New Estimates Based on the North American Industry 

Classification System," Survey of Current Business, December 2005, pp. 70-84. 

The U.S. output series used for international comparisons differs from the manufacturing 

output series that BLS publishes as part of its major sector productivity and costs 

measures for the United States. The international comparisons program uses a value 

added output concept, while the major sector series is on a sectoral output basis. Sectoral 

output is gross output less intrasector sales and transfers. The U.S. major sector 

productivity and costs measures can be found at http://www.bls.gov/lpc/home.htm. For 

information on sectoral output, see "Measurement of productivity growth in U.S. 

manufacturing," Monthly Labor Review, July 1995, pp. 13-28. 

Value added measures have been used for the international comparisons series because 

the data are more readily available from the economies' national accounts, whereas 

sectoral output would require a complex estimation procedure. Even though BLS has 

determined that sectoral output is the correct concept for U.S. measures of productivity, 

there are other considerations that may make value added a better concept for 

international comparisons of labor productivity, such as differences among economies in 

the extent of vertical integration of industries. 

Labor Input. For all of the economies for the most recent years, the term "hours" refers to 

hours worked. For some earlier years, BLS uses other hours measures. 

For the United States, the employment and hours data series beginning with 1987 are 

taken from the NAICS-based manufacturing all-employed series published by BLS as 

part of the major sector productivity and cost measures. For the period before 1987, 

these series are linked to NAICS-based, employees-only data from the Current 

Employment Statistics (CES) program. 

For most other economies, recent years' aggregate hours series are obtained from national 

statistical offices, usually from national accounts. However, for some economies and for 
- 15 -

earlier years, BLS calculates the aggregate hours series using employment figures 

published with the national accounts, or other comprehensive employment series, and 

data on average hours worked. 

Compensation (Labor Cost). The compensation measures are from national accounts 

data and are in nominal terms. Compensation includes employer expenditures for legally 

required insurance programs and contractual and private benefit plans, in addition to all 

payments made in cash or in kind directly to employees. When data for the self-employed 

are not available, total compensation is estimated by assuming the same average 

compensation for the self-employed as for employees. 

Labor cost is defined as compensation plus employment taxes minus employment 

subsidies, i.e. the cost to employers of hiring labor. For most economies, labor cost is the 

same as compensation. However, for Australia, Canada, France, and Sweden, 

compensation is increased to account for important taxes on payroll or employment. For 

the United Kingdom, compensation is reduced between 1967 and 1991 to account for 

subsidies. 

Data for Germany. German data prior to 1991 pertain to the former West Germany. The 

data series are linked in 1991. 

Data for Australia. Australian data are published by fiscal years, which run from July 1 

through June 30. The Australian Bureau of Statistics provides unpublished calendar-year 

data for real value added, employment, and hours worked. For compensation, BLS 

estimates calendar-year series using two-year moving averages of the data for fiscal 

years. Manufacturing compensation data are not available for years prior to 1990. 

Data for Recent Years. The measures for recent years may be based on current indicators 

of output (such as industrial production indexes), employment, average hours, and hourly 

compensation until national accounts and other statistics, normally used for the long-term 

measures, become available. 

Trade-Weighted Measures. The trade weights used to calculate the relative unit labor cost 

indexes of the United States and the other economies are based on the relative dollar 

value of U.S. trade in manufactured commodities (exports plus imports) with each 

economy in 2005. The trade data are compiled by the U.S. Census Bureau. 

The following weights were used for the entire period for which trade-weighted unit 

labor cost measures are produced: 
- 16 -

 Weight Weight 

 

 Canada 36.80 Germany 10.33 

 Japan 16.59 Italy 3.65 

 Korea 6.20 Netherlands 3.37 

 Taiwan 4.89 Norway 0.42 

 Belgium 2.70 Spain 1.23 

 Denmark 0.60 Sweden 1.52 

 France 4.73 United Kingdom 6.97 

Level Comparisons. The BLS measures are limited to trend comparisons. BLS does not 

prepare level comparisons of manufacturing productivity and unit labor costs because of 

data limitations and technical problems in comparing the levels of manufacturing output 

among economies. Each economy measures manufacturing output in its own currency 

units. To compare outputs among economies, a common unit of measure is needed. 

Market exchange rates are not suitable as a basis for comparing output levels. What is 

needed are purchasing power parities, which are the number of foreign currency units 

required to buy goods and services equivalent to what can be bought with one unit of 

U.S. currency. 

Purchasing power parities are available for total gross domestic product (GDP) from the 

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). However, these 

parities are derived for expenditures made by consumers, business, and government for 

goods and services - not for value added by industry. Therefore, they do not provide 

purchasing power parities by industry. The parities developed for total GDP are not 

suitable for each component industry, such as manufacturing. 

European exchange rates. On Jan. 1, 1999, 11 European countries joined the European 

Monetary Union (EMU). In subsequent years they were joined by Greece and Slovenia. 

The euro, the official currency of the EMU, was established at fixed conversion rates to 

the previous national currencies of EMU members. Data on manufacturing value added 

and labor compensation for euro-area countries are now reported in euros. 

In order to maintain historical continuity of data series, data for euro-area countries for 

years before 1999 have been converted to euros by applying the fixed euro/national 

currency conversion rates. For countries and years where output, compensation, and 

exchange rates are converted from national currency units into euros, the following fixed 

conversion rates are used: 

1 euro equals: 40.3399 Belgian francs 1936.27 Italian lire 

 6.55957 French francs 2.20371 Netherlands guilders 

 1.95583 German marks 166.386 Spanish pesetas 

The currency exchange rates cited in this publication are annual averages of daily buying 

rates in New York City.