For release 10:00 a.m. (EDT) Friday, September 10, 2010 USDL-10-1243 

Technical information: (202) 691-7410 • nls_info@bls.gov • www.bls.gov/nls 

Media contact: (202) 691-5902 • PressOffice@bls.gov 

NUMBER OF JOBS HELD, LABOR MARKET ACTIVITY, AND 

EARNINGS GROWTH AMONG THE YOUNGEST BABY BOOMERS:

RESULTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY 

The average person born in the latter years of the baby boom held 11 jobs from age 18 to age 44, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor. More than three-fifths of 

these jobs were held from ages 18 to 27. 

These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, a survey of 9,964 men and 

women who were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979 and ages 43 to 52 when interviewed 

most recently during the 2008-09 period. These respondents were born in the years 1957 to 1964, the 

latter years of the baby boom that occurred in the United States from 1946 to 1964. The survey spans 3 

decades and provides information on work and nonwork experiences, education, training, income and 

assets, health, and other characteristics. The information provided by respondents, who were interviewed 

annually from 1979 to 1994 and biennially since 1994, can be considered representative of all men and 

women born in the late 1950s and early 1960s and living in the United States when the survey began 

in 1979. 

This release of the latest data from the longitudinal survey focuses on the number of jobs held, job 

duration, labor force participation, and earnings growth. Highlights from the survey include: 

 Individuals born from 1957 to 1964 held an average of 11 jobs from age 18 to age 44. These 

baby boomers held an average of 4.4 jobs while ages 18 to 22. The average number of jobs fell 

to 3.2 while ages 23 to 27 and to 2.6 while ages 28 to 32. These individuals held an average of 

2.4 jobs while ages 33 to 38 and 2.0 jobs while ages 39 to 44. Jobs that span more than one age 

group were counted once in each age group, so the overall average number of jobs held from age 

18 to age 44 is less than the sum of the number of jobs across the individual age groups. (See 

table 1.) 

 Although job duration tends to be longer the older a worker is when starting the job, these baby 

boomers continued to have large numbers of short-duration jobs even at middle age. Among jobs 

started by 39- to 44-year-olds, 33 percent ended in less than a year, and 68 percent ended in 

fewer than 5 years. (See table 2.) 

 The average person was employed during 77 percent of the weeks from age 18 to age 44. 

Generally, men spent a larger percent of weeks employed than did women (84 versus 70 
- 2 - 

percent). Women spent much more time out of the labor force (25 percent of weeks) than did 

men (11 percent of weeks). (See tables 3 and 4.) 

 The annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings was fastest when workers were 

in their late teens and early twenties. Growth rates in earnings generally were higher for college 

graduates than for workers with less education. (See table 5.) 

Number of Jobs Held 

Individuals held an average of 11 jobs from age 18 to age 44, with the majority of the jobs being held 

before age 27. In this report, a job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work with a particular employer. (See the Technical Note for additional information on the definition of a job.) On average, men 

held 11.4 jobs and women held 10.7 jobs from age 18 to age 44. Men held 4.5 jobs from age 18 to age 

22, compared with 2.0 jobs from age 39 to age 44. The reduction in the average number of jobs held in 

successive age groups was similar for women. (See table 1.) 

On average, the least-educated men held more jobs than the most-educated men, while the opposite is 

true among women. Men without a high school diploma held 13.3 jobs from ages 18 to 44, while men 

with a bachelor's degree or more education held 11.0 jobs. Women with at least a bachelor's degree held 

11.7 jobs from ages 18 to 44, compared to an average of 9.7 jobs for women without a high school 

diploma. 

From age 18 to age 44, whites held more jobs than blacks or Hispanics or Latinos, although the difference is concentrated among 18- to 22-year-olds. On average, whites held 4.6 jobs between the ages of 18 

and 22, while blacks held 3.5 jobs and Hispanics or Latinos held 4.0 jobs. From age 23 to age 44, there 

was no significant difference in the average number of jobs held by whites and the average number of 

jobs held by blacks or Hispanics or Latinos. 

Duration of Employment Relationships 

The length of time a worker remains with the same employer increases with the age at which the worker 

began the job. Of the jobs that workers began when they were 18 to 22 years of age, 72 percent of those 

jobs ended in less than a year and 94 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. Among jobs started by 39- to 

44-year-olds, 33 percent ended in less than a year and 68 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. (See table 

2.) 

Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force 

On average, the baby boomers represented by the survey sample were employed during 77 percent of 

all the weeks occurring from age 18 to age 44. They were unemployed—that is, without jobs but seeking work—4 percent of the weeks. They were not in the labor force—that is, neither working nor seeking work—18 percent of the weeks. (See table 3.) 

The amount of time spent employed differs substantially between educational-attainment groups. Blacks 

with less than a high school diploma (as of the 2008-09 survey) spent 47 percent of weeks employed 

from age 18 to age 44. By comparison, black high school graduates spent 68 percent of weeks employed. Hispanic or Latino high school dropouts spent 59 percent of weeks employed, compared with 74 

percent of weeks for Hispanic or Latino high school graduates. White high school dropouts spent 64 

percent of weeks employed, and white high school graduates spent 80 percent of weeks employed. 
- 3 - 

Among those with a bachelor's degree, there was little difference between racial and ethnic groups in 

labor market attachment; each group spent 80 to 82 percent of weeks employed. 

The amount of time spent in the labor force also differs by sex, with women at every educational level 

and at every age spending fewer weeks either employed or unemployed than men. Men with less than a 

high school diploma spent 69 percent of weeks employed from age 18 to age 44. These men also spent 

9 percent of weeks unemployed. By comparison, women with less than a high school diploma spent 46 

percent of weeks employed and 7 percent of weeks unemployed from age 18 to age 44. Women without 

a high school diploma spent more time out of the labor force, 47 percent of weeks, than employed. The 

differences between men and women in labor force attachment were much smaller among those with a 

bachelor's degree or more education, but men still spent a larger proportion of weeks employed than did 

women (86 versus 78 percent). 

Labor force attachment varies by age for both men and women. The amount of time men participated 

in the labor force increased as they aged until peaking at 89 percent of weeks while ages 33 to 38. From 

ages 39 to 44, men spent slightly less time in the labor force, 87 percent of weeks. The amount of time 

women participated in the labor force increased in each successive age group. Women ages 18 to 22 

were employed or unemployed 68 percent of weeks, compared with 78 percent of weeks while ages 39 

to 44. (See table 4.) 

Percent Growth in Real Earnings 

The inflation-adjusted earnings of workers increased most rapidly while they were young. Hourly earnings grew by an average of 6.8 percent per year from ages 18 to 22 and by 5.2 percent per year from 

ages 23 to 27. The earnings growth rate slowed to 3.1 percent annually from age 28 to age 32, then 

increased to 3.5 percent annually from age 33 to age 38. From ages 39 to 44, hourly earnings grew an 

average of 1.4 percent per year. This pattern in earnings growth reflects, in part, the state of the U.S. 

economy during the years in which survey participants were in each age group. For men and women in 

nearly every age category, growth rates in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings generally were higher for 

workers with more education. Inflation-adjusted earnings actually declined at a rate of 0.5 percent per 

year for 39- to 44-year-old men with less than a high school diploma. (See table 5.) 
Technical Note 

The estimates in this release were obtained using data 

from the first 23 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey 

of Youth 1979 (NLSY79). This survey is conducted by the 

Center for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State 

University and the National Opinion Research Center at the 

University of Chicago under the direction and sponsorship of 

the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Sample 

The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 

12,686 young men and women who were 14 to 22 years of 

age when first surveyed in 1979. This survey sample was 

initially composed of three subsamples: 

 A cross-sectional sample of 6,111 youths that was 

designed to represent the noninstitutionalized, 

civilian population of young people living in the 

U.S. in 1979 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and 

Dec. 31, 1964. 

 A supplemental sample of 5,295 youths designed to 

oversample noninstitutionalized, civilian black, 

Hispanic or Latino, and economically disadvantaged 

nonblack, non-Hispanic youths living in the U.S. in 

1979 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 

1964. 

 A military sample of 1,280 youths born between Jan. 

1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 1961, and enlisted in the 

Army, Air Force, Navy, or Marine Corps as of 

September 30, 1978. 

In 1985, the military sample was discontinued, and, in 

1991, the economically disadvantaged nonblack, nonHispanic youths were dropped from the supplemental sample. 

As a result, the NLSY79 sample now includes 9,964 

individuals from the cross-sectional sample and the black and 

Hispanic or Latino supplemental samples. (This sample size 

is not adjusted for sample members who have died.) 

Individuals were surveyed annually from 1979 to 1994 

and biennially since 1994. In 2008-09, 7,757 individuals 

responded to the survey, for a retention rate of 78 percent. 

Only these individuals are included in the estimates in this 

release. All results are weighted using the 2008-09 survey 

weights that correct for the oversampling, interview 

nonresponse, and permanent attrition from the survey. When 

weighted, the estimates represent all persons born in the years 

1957 to 1964 and living in the U.S. when the survey began in 

1979. Not represented by the survey are U.S. immigrants who 

were born from 1957 to 1964 and moved to the U.S. after 

1979. 

Work history data 

The total number of jobs that people hold during their 

work life is an easy concept to understand but a difficult one 

to measure. Reliable estimates require a survey that 

interviews the same people over the course of their entire 

work life and also keeps track of all the jobs they ever held. 

The NLSY79 tracks the number of jobs that people have 

held, but the respondents in this survey are still relatively 

young, ages 43 to 52 in 2008-09, and have many years of 

work life ahead of them. As the cohort continues to age, 

however, more complete information will become available. 

A unique feature of the NLSY79 is that it collects the 

beginning and ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent 

so that a longitudinal history can be constructed of each 

respondent’s work experiences. The NLSY79 work history 

data provide a week-by-week work record of each respondent 

from Jan. 1, 1978, through the most recent survey date. These 

data contain information on the respondent’s labor force 

status each week, the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, 

and earnings for all jobs. If a respondent worked at more than 

one job in any week, hours and earnings are obtained for 

additional jobs. When a respondent who missed one or more 

consecutive survey rounds is interviewed again, he is asked to 

provide information about all time since the last interview. 

Interaction between time and age in a longitudinal 

survey 

Because the NLSY79 is a longitudinal survey, meaning 

the same people are surveyed over time, the ages of the 

respondents change with each survey round. It is important to 

keep in mind this inherent link between the calendar years 

and the ages of the respondents. For example, table 5 reports 

earnings growth from age 23 to age 27. The youngest 

respondents in the sample (birth year 1964) were these ages 

during 1987-91, whereas the oldest respondents (birth year 

1957) were these ages during 1980-84. 

Although participants in the NLSY79 were ages 43 to 

52 during the 2008-09 interviews, this release covers only the 

period while the respondents were ages 18 to 44. The reason 

for not including older ages is that the sample sizes were still 

too small to provide statistically reliable estimates for age 

groups older than 44. As the NLSY79 continues to be 

administered and the respondents age, subsequent rounds of 

the survey will enable analyses to be conducted for older age 

groups. 

As with age, the educational attainment of individuals 

may change from year to year. In the tables and analysis 

presented in this report, educational attainment is defined as 

of the 2008-09 survey. This definition is used even when data 

on age and educational attainment are presented together. For 
example, table 1 reports the number of jobs held during 

different age categories. Suppose that a respondent had 

completed a bachelor’s degree at age 28. That respondent 

would be included in the “Bachelor’s degree and higher” 

educational category in all age categories shown on the table, 

even though he or she did not have a bachelor’s degree at any 

point from age 18 to age 27. 

Definitions 

Job. A job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work 

with a particular employer. Jobs are therefore employerbased, not position-based. If a respondent indicates that he or 

she left a job but in a subsequent survey returned to the same 

job, it is counted as a new job. For example, if an individual 

worked in a retail establishment during the summer, quit at 

the end of summer to return to school, and then resumed 

working for the same employer the following spring, this 

sequence would count as two jobs, rather than one. For selfemployed workers, each “new” job is defined by the 

individuals themselves. 

Unemployment. If respondents indicate a gap between 

employers, they are asked how many of those weeks they 

spent searching for employment or on layoff. For that number 

of weeks, they are considered unemployed. For the remaining 

weeks, they are coded as not in the labor force. No probing 

for intensity of job search is done. 

Usual earnings. Respondents can report earnings over 

any time frame (hour, day, week, month, year). For those 

who do not report an hourly wage, one is constructed using 

usual hours worked over that time frame. Wages greater than 

$100 per hour and less than $1 per hour were not included in 

the analysis of earnings growth because the reported earnings 

levels were almost certainly in error. For the same reason, 

individuals who had inflation-adjusted earnings growth 

greater than 100 percent were not included in the analysis. 

These exclusions from the analysis affected 77 respondents. 

Race and ethnicity groups. In this release, the findings 

are reported for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, 

and Hispanics or Latinos. These three groups are mutually 

exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are 

included in the overall totals, are not shown separately 

because their representation in the survey sample is not 

sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates. In 

other BLS publications, estimates usually are published for 

whites, blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos, but these groups are 

not mutually exclusive. The term "Hispanic or Latino" is 

considered to be an ethnicity group, and Hispanics or Latinos 

can be of any race. Most other BLS publications include 

Hispanics or Latinos in the white and black race groups in 

addition to the Hispanic or Latino ethnicity group. 

Information in this release will be made available to 

sensory impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: 

(202) 691-5200; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. 
Ages 18 

to 22

Ages 23 

to 27

Ages 28 

to 32

Ages 33 

to 38

Ages 39

to 44

Total .................................................. 11.0 4.4 3.2 2.6 2.4 2.0

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 11.8 4.0 3.4 2.7 2.6 1.9

 High school graduates, no college 2 ...... 10.4 4.1 2.9 2.5 2.4 2.0

 Some college or associate degree ......... 11.4 4.4 3.3 2.7 2.5 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.3 4.9 3.5 2.6 2.3 2.0

Men .................................................... 11.4 4.5 3.4 2.8 2.5 2.0

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 13.3 4.6 4.0 3.0 2.7 2.1

 High school graduates, no college 2

 ...... 10.7 4.3 3.2 2.7 2.4 1.9

 Some college or associate degree ......... 11.8 4.6 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.0 4.6 3.5 2.6 2.5 2.0

Women ............................................... 10.7 4.2 3.1 2.4 2.4 2.0

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 9.7 3.1 2.5 2.2 2.3 1.7

 High school graduates, no college 2

 ...... 10.0 3.8 2.7 2.3 2.4 2.0

 Some college or associate degree ......... 11.1 4.3 3.2 2.5 2.5 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3

 ........... 11.7 5.2 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.9

White non-Hispanic.............................. 11.1 4.6 3.3 2.6 2.4 2.0

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 12.7 4.4 3.7 2.8 2.7 2.0

 High school graduates, no college 2 ...... 10.4 4.2 3.0 2.5 2.3 1.9

 Some college or associate degree ......... 11.4 4.6 3.4 2.7 2.5 2.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.3 5.0 3.5 2.6 2.3 1.9

Black non-Hispanic .............................. 10.7 3.5 3.1 2.7 2.5 2.1

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 9.7 2.8 2.8 2.3 2.2 1.7

 High school graduates, no college 2 ...... 10.3 3.3 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.0

 Some college or associate degree ......... 11.5 3.9 3.2 2.8 2.7 2.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3 ........... 11.5 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.5 2.3

Hispanic or Latino................................. 10.7 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.4 2.1

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 10.4 3.6 2.8 2.4 2.4 2.0

 High school graduates, no college 2

 ...... 10.4 4.0 2.9 2.4 2.3 2.0

 Some college or associate degree ......... 11.4 4.2 3.1 2.7 2.4 2.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 3

 ........... 10.7 4.2 3.3 2.7 2.5 2.0

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 45 when 

interviewed in 2008-09. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the 

years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 43 to 52 in 2008-09. 

Educational attainment is defined as of the 2008-09 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually 

exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because 

Table 1. Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to age 44 in 1978-2008 by educational attainment, sex, race, 

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

Average number of jobs for persons ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008

 1 Jobs that were held in more than one of the age categories were counted in each appropriate column, but only once in the 

total column.

Characteristic

Total 1

 2 Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent. 3 Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.
Less than 1 

year

Less than 2 

years

Less than 5 

years

Less than 10 

years

Less than 15 

years

Ages 18 to 22 ........................ 71.8 84.5 93.8 96.9 97.8 1.2

 Men ...................................... 72.2 84.7 93.5 96.8 97.7 1.3

 Women ................................ 71.2 84.3 94.1 97.0 98.0 1.2

 White non-Hispanic ............. 71.5 84.4 93.7 96.8 97.7 1.3

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 73.9 86.1 94.7 97.7 98.4 1.0

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 71.4 83.9 93.1 97.2 98.2 1.0

Ages 23 to 27......................... 59.0 75.7 88.5 93.8 95.7 3.3

 Men ...................................... 58.9 75.6 87.8 93.1 95.2 3.8

 Women ................................ 59.1 75.8 89.2 94.5 96.3 2.6

 White non-Hispanic ............. 58.1 74.9 88.0 93.5 95.5 3.4

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 62.6 78.8 90.5 94.8 96.4 2.8

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 61.0 77.3 89.3 94.1 96.1 3.1

Ages 28 to 32 ........................ 51.4 68.1 84.3 91.3 93.8 5.7

 Men ...................................... 51.3 67.5 83.7 90.5 93.2 6.3

 Women ................................ 51.5 68.8 85.1 92.2 94.4 5.0

 White non-Hispanic ............. 49.9 66.6 83.4 90.6 93.3 6.2

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 57.1 74.0 88.1 93.7 95.5 4.0

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 53.6 69.9 85.5 92.8 95.1 4.2

Ages 33 to 38......................... 41.3 58.4 78.8 87.7 (

1

) 11.1

 Men ...................................... 40.1 57.7 77.8 86.8 (

1

) 11.8

 Women ................................ 42.4 59.1 79.8 88.6 (

1

) 10.4

 White non-Hispanic ............. 39.7 56.7 77.5 86.9 (

1

) 11.9

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 46.5 64.8 83.9 90.9 (

1

) 8.2

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 43.8 60.5 80.1 88.5 (

1

) 10.4

Ages 39 to 44......................... 33.5 50.9 67.6 (

1

) (1) 28.5

 Men ...................................... 32.4 50.2 67.2 (

1

) (1) 29.1

 Women ................................ 34.6 51.6 68.0 (

1

) (1) 27.9

 White non-Hispanic ............. 35.5 53.3 73.0 (

1

) (1) 24.2

 Black non-Hispanic .............. 35.5 54.1 72.3 (

1

) (1) 23.8

 Hispanic or Latino ................ 35.5 53.3 73.0 (

1

) (1) 24.2

 1

 Estimates are not presented for these categories because most sample members were not yet old enough at the time

of the 2008-09 survey to have completed jobs of these durations.

Table 2. Duration of employment relationships with a single employer for all jobs started from age 18 to age 44 

in 1978-2008 by age at start of job, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Cumulative percent distribution of duration

 of completed employment relationships Age at the start of job and 

characteristic

Percent of 

jobs ongoing 

in 2008

 NOTE: The age category of 18 to 22 excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. The National 

Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 

to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 43 to 52 in 2008-09. Race and Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, 

are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide 

statistically reliable estimates.
Total, ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008............................................ 77.2 4.4 17.6

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 59.9 8.1 30.9

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 77.8 4.9 16.6

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 79.8 4.0 15.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 82.3 2.5 14.7

Men ......................................................................................... 83.8 4.9 10.5

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 69.4 9.3 20.1

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 86.1 5.2 8.0

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 86.7 4.2 8.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 86.4 2.6 10.5

Women .................................................................................... 70.3 4.0 25.0

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 45.9 6.5 46.8

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 68.9 4.6 25.8

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 73.9 3.8 21.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 78.2 2.3 18.9

White non-Hispanic ................................................................. 79.3 3.7 16.3

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 63.9 7.4 27.6

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 80.2 4.1 15.1

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 81.1 3.2 14.8

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 82.4 2.3 14.8

Black non-Hispanic ................................................................. 68.7 8.2 22.2

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 47.2 11.5 40.6

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 68.3 9.0 21.7

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 74.7 7.3 17.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 82.0 4.0 13.1

Hispanic or Latino ................................................................... 71.9 5.4 21.8

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 59.4 7.9 31.5

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 74.4 5.2 19.6

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 78.3 4.1 16.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 79.8 2.9 16.6

Table 3. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18 to age 44 

in 1978-2008 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Percent of total weeks while ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008

Characteristic

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 45 

when interviewed in 2008-09. Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment 

status cannot be determined for all weeks. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women 

who were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 

43 to 52 in 2008-09. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2008-09 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity 

groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not 

shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable 

estimates.

Employed Unemployed Not in labor force

 1 Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.

 2 Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.
Total, ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008 1

 ........................... 77.2 4.4 17.6

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-1986 2

 .................................. 64.5 8.8 26.3

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1980-1991 ................................... 77.2 5.5 16.9

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1996 .................................... 79.3 3.7 16.3

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-2002 .................................... 81.8 2.9 14.8

 Ages 39 to 44 in 1996-2008 3

 ................................. 81.5 2.9 14.3

Men, ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008 1

 .............................. 83.8 4.9 10.5

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-1986 2

 .................................. 68.8 9.8 20.7

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1980-1991 ................................... 84.8 6.4 8.3

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1996 .................................... 88.0 4.1 7.1

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-2002 .................................... 89.3 3.0 7.1

 Ages 39 to 44 in 1996-2008 3

 ................................. 87.3 3.1 8.4

Women, ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008 1

 ........................ 70.3 4.0 25.0

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-1986 2

 .................................. 59.9 7.6 32.0

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1980-1991 ................................... 69.3 4.6 25.8

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1996 .................................... 70.3 3.4 25.9

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-2002 .................................... 74.1 2.7 22.8

 Ages 39 to 44 in 1996-2008 3

 ................................. 75.6 2.8 20.5

White non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008 1 .......... 79.3 3.7 16.3

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-1986 2

 .................................. 67.3 7.7 24.5

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1980-1991 ................................... 79.5 4.6 15.4

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1996 .................................... 81.3 3.0 15.1

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-2002 .................................... 83.5 2.2 13.8

 Ages 39 to 44 in 1996-2008 3

 ................................. 82.9 2.4 13.5

Black non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008 1 ......... 68.7 8.2 22.2

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-1986 2

 .................................. 51.8 14.4 33.4

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1980-1991 ................................... 67.8 10.2 21.5

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1996 .................................... 70.8 7.5 20.8

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-2002 .................................... 75.1 5.9 18.6

 Ages 39 to 44 in 1996-2008 3

 ................................. 75.6 5.6 17.6

Hispanic or Latino, ages 18 to 44 in 1978-2008 1 ............ 71.9 5.4 21.8

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-1986 2

 .................................. 59.9 9.4 30.2

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1980-1991 ................................... 70.7 6.3 22.4

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1996 .................................... 74.0 4.4 20.8

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-2002 .................................... 77.0 3.7 18.4

 Ages 39 to 44 in 1996-2008 3

 ................................. 78.4 3.7 16.2

 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 45 when interviewed in 2008-09.

Table 4. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18

to age 44 in 1978-2008 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Age and characteristic

Employed Not in labor force

 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 45 when

interviewed in 2008-09.

 NOTE: Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment status cannot be 

determined for all weeks. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in 

the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 43 to 52 in 2008-

09. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which 

are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not 

sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Percent of total weeks

Unemployed
Ages 28 

to 32

Ages 33 

to 38

Ages 39

to 44

Total ........................................................... 6.8 5.2 3.1 3.5 1.4

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 5.1 1.8 1.9 3.1 .4

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 5.7 3.7 2.3 3.1 1.4

 Some college or associate degree .................. 7.0 4.8 3.1 3.6 1.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 8.9 8.9 4.8 4.2 1.7

Men .......................................................... 7.0 5.8 3.3 3.8 1.2

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 4.6 2.4 1.7 3.0 -.5

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 7.0 4.2 2.1 3.0 1.2

 Some college or associate degree .................. 7.4 5.7 3.3 3.8 1.5

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 7.9 10.0 5.6 5.2 1.8

Women ...................................................... 6.7 4.5 3.0 3.2 1.5

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 6.1 .6 2.3 3.2 1.8

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 4.2 3.0 2.5 3.1 1.7

 Some college or associate degree .................. 6.6 4.0 2.9 3.4 1.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 9.8 7.8 4.0 3.1 1.6

White non-Hispanic ....................................... 7.1 5.4 3.2 3.5 1.4

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 5.7 1.7 1.9 3.4 .4

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 5.8 3.6 2.3 3.1 1.6

 Some college or associate degree .................. 7.3 5.0 3.1 3.5 1.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 9.0 9.0 4.8 4.1 1.6

Black non-Hispanic ....................................... 5.3 4.6 3.0 3.3 .9

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 3.9 2.0 2.9 2.2 -.3

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 4.7 4.1 2.5 3.3 .4

 Some college or associate degree .................. 5.1 4.2 3.1 3.2 1.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 8.3 8.2 4.3 4.6 2.2

Hispanic or Latino.......................................... 6.6 3.9 2.3 3.2 2.2

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 3.8 3.0 .5 2.9 1.1

 High school graduates, no college 1

 ............... 7.0 3.3 2.0 2.0 2.0

 Some college or associate degree .................. 8.0 3.8 3.1 4.2 1.7

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2

 ....................... 7.8 6.9 4.4 4.4 5.4

Table 5. Average annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings from 1978-2008 by educational 

attainment, sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

Average annual percent growth in hourly earnings

 NOTE: The first column excludes individuals who turned age 18 before 1978. The last column excludes individuals 

who were not yet age 45 when interviewed in 2008-09. The CPI-U-RS was used to adjust hourly earnings to 2008 dollars, 

prior to calculating the growth rates. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who 

were born in the years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 43 to 

52 in 2008-09. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2008-09 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups 

are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown 

separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable 

estimates.

Characteristic

 1 Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.

 2 Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.

Ages 18 

to 22

Ages 23 

to 27