For release 10:00 a.m. (EDT) Thursday, August 22, 2019 USDL-19-1520 

Technical information: (202) 691-7410 • nls_info@bls.gov • www.bls.gov/nls 

Media contact: (202) 691-5902 • PressOffice@bls.gov 

(NOTE: BLS reissued this news release on October 7, 2020, to correct microdata errors associated with 

creating hourly wage variables. The corrections affected data points presented in table 5 and the text of 

this news release.)

NUMBER OF JOBS, LABOR MARKET EXPERIENCE, AND

EARNINGS GROWTH: RESULTS FROM A NATIONAL LONGITUDINAL SURVEY

Individuals born in the latter years of the baby boom (1957-1964) held an average of 12.3 jobs from age 18 to 

age 52, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Nearly half of these jobs were held from ages 18 to 24. 

These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, a survey of 9,964 men and women 

who were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979 and ages 51 to 60 when interviewed most recently in 

2016-17. These respondents were born in the years 1957 to 1964, the latter years of the baby boom that 

occurred in the United States from 1946 to 1964. The survey spans thirty-seven years and provides information 

on work and nonwork experiences, education, training, income and assets, health, and other characteristics. The 

information provided by respondents, who were interviewed annually from 1979 to 1994 and biennially since 

1994, can be considered representative of all men and women born in the late 1950s and early 1960s and living 

in the United States when the survey began in 1979. 

This release of the latest data from the longitudinal survey focuses on the number of jobs held, job duration, 

labor force participation, and earnings growth. Highlights from the survey include: 

• Individuals born from 1957 to 1964 held an average of 12.3 jobs from ages 18 to 52. These baby boomers 

held an average of 5.7 jobs while ages 18 to 24. The average fell to 4.5 jobs from ages 25 to 34, to 2.9 jobs 

from ages 35 to 44, and to 1.9 jobs from ages 45 to 52. Jobs that span more than one age group were 

counted once in each age group, so the overall average number of jobs held from age 18 to age 52 is less 

than the sum of the number of jobs across the individual age groups. (See table 1.) 

• Although job duration tended to be longer the older a worker was when starting the job, these baby boomers 

continued to have large numbers of short-duration jobs. Among jobs started by 35 to 44 year olds, 36 

percent ended in less than a year, and 75 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. (See table 2.) 

• On average, individuals were employed during 78 percent of the weeks from age 18 to age 52. Generally, 

men spent a larger percent of weeks employed than did women (84 percent versus 72 percent). Women 

spent much more time out of the labor force (24 percent of weeks) than did men (11 percent of weeks). (See 

table 3.)
-2- 

• The average annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings was highest during a worker’s late 

teens and early twenties. Growth rates in earnings generally were higher for college graduates than for 

workers with less education. (See table 5.) 

Number of Jobs Held 

Individuals held an average of 12.3 jobs from ages 18 to 52, with nearly half of these jobs held before age 25. In 

this news release, a job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work with a particular employer. (See the 

Technical Note for additional information on the definition of a job.) On average, men held 12.5 jobs and 

women held 12.1 jobs from age 18 to age 52. Men held 5.9 jobs from age 18 to age 24, compared with 1.9 jobs 

from age 45 to age 52. The reduction in the average number of jobs held in successive age groups was similar 

for women. (See table 1.) Chart 1 shows the cumulative number of jobs held from age 18 to age 52, by sex and 

age. The decline in the slope of these curves indicates a decrease in the rate at which workers change jobs as 

they age.

On average, men without a high school diploma held 13.3 jobs from ages 18 to 52, while men with a bachelor’s 

degree and higher held 11.6 jobs between these ages. In contrast, women without a high school diploma held 

9.9 jobs from ages 18 to 52, while women with a bachelor’s degree and higher held 13.1 jobs between these 

ages.

From age 18 to age 24, Whites held more jobs than Blacks, or Hispanics or Latinos. On average, Whites held 

5.9 jobs between the ages of 18 and 24, while Blacks held 4.8 jobs and Hispanics or Latinos held 5.1 jobs. 

Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos held between 4.3 and 4.6 jobs from age 25 to age 34 and between 2.9 

and 3.1 jobs from age 35 to age 44. From age 45 to age 52, Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos all held an 

average of 1.9 jobs. 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

18 23 28 33 38 43 48

Number of Jobs Held

Age

Chart 1. Cumulative number of jobs held from age 18 to 

52, by sex and age

Men

Women
-3- 

Duration of Employment Relationships 

The length of time a worker remains with an employer increased with the age at which the worker began the 

job. Of the jobs that workers began when they were 18 to 24 years of age, 70 percent of those jobs ended in less 

than a year and 93 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. Among jobs started by 35 to 44 year olds, 36 percent 

ended in less than a year, and 75 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. (See table 2.) 

Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force 

On average, the youngest baby boomers (born 1957-1964) were employed during 78 percent of all the weeks 

from age 18 to age 52. They were unemployed—that is, without jobs but seeking work—5 percent of the weeks. 

They were not in the labor force—that is, neither working nor seeking work—18 percent of the weeks. (See 

table 3.) 

The amount of time spent employed differed substantially between those without a high school diploma and 

those who had graduated from high school or attained higher levels of education. Individuals with less than a 

high school diploma (as of the 2016-17 survey) spent 59 percent of weeks employed and 33 percent of weeks 

out of the labor force from age 18 to age 52. By comparison, high school graduates spent 76 percent of weeks 

employed and 18 percent of weeks out of the labor force, while those with a bachelor’s degree and higher spent 

84 percent of weeks employed and 13 percent of weeks out of the labor force.

White high school graduates with no college were employed a higher percentage of weeks and out of the labor 

force a smaller percentage of weeks than similarly educated Blacks, or Hispanics or Latinos. Between the ages of 

18 and 52, White high school graduates with no college spent 79 percent of weeks employed and 16 percent of 

weeks out of the labor force, while similarly educated Blacks spent 65 percent of weeks employed and 25 percent 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Less than a high school

diploma

High school graduates, no

college

Some college or associate

degree

Bachelor's degree and higher

Percent of weeks 

Chart 2. Percent of weeks employed from age 18 to age 52, by 

educational attainment, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

White non-Hispanic Black non-Hispanic Hispanic or Latino
-4- 

of weeks out of the labor force and Hispanic or Latino high school graduates with no college spent 73 percent of 

weeks employed and 21 percent of weeks out of the labor force. Among those with a bachelor’s degree and 

higher, however, there was little difference among racial and ethnic groups in labor market attachment; each 

group spent between 83 percent and 85 percent of weeks employed. (See chart 2.) 

The amount of time spent in the labor force differs by sex, with women at every educational level spending 

fewer weeks in the labor force than men. Overall, men were out of the labor force 11 percent of weeks from age 

18 to age 52; at these same ages, women were out of the labor force 24 percent of weeks. Women’s labor force 

participation increased with their education level. Women without a high school diploma spent nearly half (49 

percent) of all weeks between age 18 and age 52 out of the labor force, while those with a high school diploma 

were out of the labor force 26 percent of weeks, those with some college were out of the labor force 23 percent 

of weeks, and women with a bachelor’s degree and higher were out of the labor force only 18 percent of weeks. 

Among men, those without a high school diploma were out of the labor force about 22 percent of weeks, while 

men in the top three education categories were out of the labor force only 9 percent to 12 percent of weeks. (See 

table 3.) 

While on average women spent fewer weeks in the labor force than men, the labor force participation patterns 

of men and women were fairly similar. For both men and women, time spent out of the labor force was greatest 

between the ages of 18 and 24, reflecting the transition from education and training to the work force, for both, 

time spent out of the labor force was lower between the ages of 25 and 44, and increased for men between the 

ages of 45 and 52, but remained nearly the same as at 35 to 44 for women. For women, time spent out of the 

labor force decreased from 30 percent of weeks between the ages of 18 and 24 to 25 percent between the ages 

of 25 and 34 to 21 percent between the ages of 35 and 44, and then remained nearly unchanged at 22 percent 

between the ages of 45 and 52. Men were out of the labor force fewer than 9 percent of weeks from age 25 to 

age 44; from age 45 to age 52, they increased their time out of the labor force to almost 13 percent of weeks. So 

while the percent of weeks out of the labor force followed a similar trend, women in each age range spent more 

weeks out of the labor force than their male counterparts. (See table 4. and chart 3.)

The percentage of weeks in which women were employed increased from 63 percent in the 18 to 24 age group 

to a peak of 76 percent in the 35 to 44 age group and then decreased slightly to 74 percent in the 45 to 52 age 

group. Following a similar pattern, the percentage of weeks in which men were employed increased from 73 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Age 18 to 24 Age 25 to 34 Age 35 to 44 Age 45 to 52

Percent of Weeks 

Chart 3. Percent of weeks not in the labor force from age 18 to 52, 

by sex and age

Men Women
-5- 

percent in the 18 to 24 age group to a peak of 88 percent in both the 25 to 34 and the 35 to 44 age categories. 

The percent of weeks employed then dipped to 83 percent in the 45 to 52 age group. (See table 4.) 

Percent Growth in Real Earnings

The inflation-adjusted earnings of workers born in the latter years of the baby boom (1957-1964) increased 

most rapidly while they were young. Hourly earnings grew by an average of 6.4 percent per year from ages 18 

to 24. The earnings growth rate slowed to 3.3 percent annually from age 25 to age 34 and then to 1.7 percent 

annually from age 35 to age 44. From ages 45 to 52, earnings were stagnant (-0.1 percent). 

In every age category, growth rates of inflation-adjusted hourly earnings generally were higher for workers with 

more education. Earnings growth for 18 to 24 year olds with less than a high school diploma was 3.1 percent, 

while those with a bachelor’s degree and higher saw their earnings grow by 9.5 percent at the same ages. On 

average, 45- to 52-year-olds with less than a high school diploma experienced negative earnings growth (-1.0 

percent), while at the same ages earnings among those with a bachelor’s degree and higher increased by 0.6 

percent. This pattern in earnings growth reflects, in part, the state of the U.S. economy during the years in which 

survey participants were in each age group. (See table 5.) 

Additional data are available at www.bls.gov/nls/y79supp.htm. 
Technical Note 

The estimates in this release were obtained using data 

from the first 27 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey 

of Youth 1979 (NLSY79). This survey is conducted by the 

National Opinion Research Center at the University of 

Chicago and the Center for Human Resource Research at The 

Ohio State University under the direction and sponsorship of 

the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

Sample 

The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 

12,686 young men and women who were 14 to 22 years of age 

when first surveyed in 1979. This survey sample was initially 

composed of three subsamples: 

• A cross-sectional sample of 6,111 youths that was 

designed to represent the noninstitutionalized, 

civilian population of young people living in the U.S. 

in 1979 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 

1964. 

• A supplemental sample of 5,295 youths designed to 

oversample noninstitutionalized, civilian Black, 

Hispanic or Latino, and economically disadvantaged 

nonblack, non-Hispanic or Latino youths living in the 

U.S. in 1979 and born between Jan. 1, 1957, and Dec. 

31, 1964. 

• A military sample of 1,280 youths born between Jan. 

1, 1957, and Dec. 31, 1961, and enlisted in the Army, 

Air Force, Navy, or Marine Corps as of September 

30, 1978. 

In 1985, the military sample was discontinued, and, in 

1991, the economically disadvantaged nonblack, non-Hispanic 

youths were dropped from the supplemental sample. As a 

result, the NLSY79 sample now includes 9,964 individuals 

from the cross-sectional sample and the Black and Hispanic or 

Latino supplemental samples. (This sample size is not adjusted 

for sample members who have died.) 

Individuals were surveyed annually from 1979 to 1994 

and biennially since 1994. In 2016-17, 6,912 individuals 

responded to the survey, for a retention rate of 69 percent 

(representing a 76 percent response rate among those sample 

members who are still living). Only these individuals are 

included in the estimates in this release. All results are 

weighted using the 2016-17 survey weights that correct for the 

oversampling, interview nonresponse, and permanent attrition 

from the survey. When weighted, the estimates represent all 

persons born in the years 1957 to 1964 and living in the U.S. 

when the survey began in 1979. Not represented by the survey 

are U.S. immigrants who were born from 1957 to 1964 and

moved to the U.S. after 1979. 

Work history data 

The total number of jobs that people hold during their 

work life is an easy concept to understand but a difficult one to 

measure. Reliable estimates require a survey that interviews 

the same people over the course of their entire work life and 

also keeps track of all the jobs they ever held. The NLSY79 

tracks the number of jobs that people have held, but most of 

the respondents in this survey are still working and have more 

years of work life ahead of them. As the cohort continues to 

age, more complete information will become available. 

A unique feature of the NLSY79 is that it collects the 

beginning and ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent so 

that a longitudinal history can be constructed of each 

respondent’s work experiences. The NLSY79 work history 

data provide a week-by-week work record of each respondent 

from Jan. 1, 1978, through the most recent survey date. These 

data contain information on the respondent’s labor force status 

each week, the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, and 

earnings for all jobs. If a respondent worked at more than one 

job in any week, hours and earnings are obtained for additional 

jobs. When a respondent who missed one or more consecutive 

survey rounds is interviewed again, he or she is asked to 

provide information about all time since the last interview. 

Interaction between time and age in a longitudinal 

survey 

Because the NLSY79 is a longitudinal survey, meaning 

the same people are surveyed over time, the ages of the 

respondents change with each survey round. It is important to 

keep in mind this inherent link between the calendar years and 

the ages of the respondents. For example, table 5 reports 

earnings growth from age 45 to age 52. The youngest 

respondents in the sample (birth year 1964) were these ages 

during 2009-16, whereas the oldest respondents (birth year 

1957) were these ages during 2002-09. 

Although participants in the NLSY79 were ages 51 to 60

during the 2016-17 interviews, this release covers only the 

period while the respondents were ages 18 to 52. The reason 

for not including older ages is that the sample sizes were still 

too small to provide statistically reliable estimates for age 

groups older than 52. As the NLSY79 continues to be 

administered and the respondents age, subsequent rounds of 

the survey will enable analyses to be conducted for older age 

groups.
As with age, the educational attainment of individuals 

may change from year to year. In the tables and analysis 

presented in this report, educational attainment is defined as of 

the 2016-17 survey. This definition is used even when data on 

age and educational attainment are presented together. For 

example, table 1 reports the number of jobs held during 

different age categories. Suppose that a respondent had 

completed a bachelor’s degree at age 52. That respondent 

would be included in the “Bachelor’s degree and higher” 

educational category in all age categories shown on the table, 

even though he or she did not have a bachelor’s degree at any 

point from age 18 to age 51. 

Definitions 

Job. A job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work 

with a particular employer. Jobs are therefore employer-based, 

not position-based. If a respondent indicates that he or she left 

a job but in a subsequent survey returned to the same job, it is 

counted as a new job. For example, if an individual worked in 

a retail establishment during the summer, quit at the end of 

summer to return to school, and then resumed working for the 

same employer the following spring, this sequence would 

count as two jobs, rather than one. For self-employed workers, 

each “new” job is defined by the individuals themselves. 

Unemployment. If respondents indicate a gap between 

employers, they are asked how many of those weeks they spent 

searching for employment or on layoff. For that number of 

weeks, they are considered unemployed. For the remaining 

weeks, they are coded as not in the labor force. No probing for 

intensity of job search is done. 

Usual earnings. Respondents can report earnings over 

any time frame (hour, day, week, month, year). For those who 

do not report an hourly wage, one is constructed using usual 

hours worked over that time frame. Wages greater than $100 

per hour and less than $1 per hour (in 1979 dollars) were not 

included in the analysis of earnings growth because the 

reported earnings levels were almost certainly in error. For the 

same reason, individuals who had inflation-adjusted earnings 

growth greater than 100 percent were not included in the 

analysis. 

Race and ethnicity groups. In this release, the findings are 

reported for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic Blacks, and 

Hispanics or Latinos. These three groups are mutually 

exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are 

included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because 

their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently 

large to provide statistically reliable estimates. In other BLS 

publications, estimates usually are published for Whites, 

Blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos, but these groups are not 

mutually exclusive. The term Hispanic or Latino is considered 

to be an ethnicity group, and Hispanics or Latinos can be of 

any race. Most other BLS publications include Hispanics or 

Latinos in the White and Black race groups in addition to the

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity group.

Information in this release will be made available to 

sensory impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: 

(202) 691-5200; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. 
Total 1 Ages 18 to 

24 2 

Ages 25 

to 34

Ages 35

to 44

Ages 45 to 

52 3 

Total .................................................. 12.3 5.7 4.5 2.9 1.9

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 11.9 5.1 4.6 2.8 1.5

 High school graduates, no college 4 ...... 12.0 5.3 4.5 3.0 1.9

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.8 5.7 4.6 3.0 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 5 ........... 12.4 6.3 4.4 2.8 2.1

Men .................................................... 12.5 5.9 4.7 2.9 1.9

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 13.3 6.0 5.5 3.1 1.6

 High school graduates, no college 4 ...... 12.6 5.8 4.8 2.9 1.9

 Some college or associate degree ......... 13.0 6.0 4.7 2.9 2.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 5 ........... 11.6 5.9 4.3 2.8 2.0

Women ............................................... 12.1 5.4 4.3 2.9 2.0

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 9.9 3.8 3.5 2.5 1.3

 High school graduates, no college 4 ...... 11.4 4.8 4.0 3.0 1.8

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.6 5.6 4.5 3.0 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 5 ........... 13.1 6.6 4.5 2.8 2.1

White non-Hispanic............................. 12.4 5.9 4.5 2.9 1.9

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 12.6 5.6 5.0 3.0 1.5

 High school graduates, no college 4 ...... 12.2 5.5 4.5 2.9 1.8

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.8 5.9 4.5 2.9 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 5 ........... 12.3 6.4 4.4 2.8 2.0

Black non-Hispanic .............................. 11.8 4.8 4.6 3.1 1.9

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 10.3 3.9 4.0 2.5 1.3

 High school graduates, no college 4 ...... 11.4 4.5 4.6 3.1 1.9

 Some college or associate degree ......... 12.5 5.0 4.8 3.4 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 5 ........... 12.8 5.6 4.7 3.2 2.4

Hispanic or Latino................................ 12.1 5.1 4.3 3.0 1.9

 Less than a high school diploma ............ 11.4 4.5 4.1 2.8 1.6

 High school graduates, no college 4 ...... 11.7 5.1 4.2 3.0 1.9

 Some college or associate degree ......... 13.3 5.4 4.5 3.2 2.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher 5 ........... 11.7 5.3 4.5 2.8 1.9

 Note: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 

1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 51 to 60 in 2016-

17. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2016-17 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups 

are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not 

shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide 

statistically reliable estimates.

Table 1. Number of jobs held by individuals from ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016 by educational attainment, 

sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

Average number of jobs for individuals ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016

Characteristic

 1 Jobs held in more than one age category were counted in each, but only once in the total column. The total 

excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 53 when 

interviewed in 2016-17.

 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 53 when interviewed in 2016-17. 4 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent. 5 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.
Less than 1 

year

Less than 2 

years

Less than 5 

years

Less than 10 

years

Less than 15 

years

Ages 18 to 24 1 .................. 70.1 83.5 93.0 96.4 97.5 1.0

 Men .................................... 70.4 83.7 92.7 96.2 97.4 1.1

 Women ............................... 69.6 83.2 93.3 96.6 97.7 0.9

 White non-Hispanic ............ 69.8 83.3 92.9 96.3 97.4 1.0

 Black non-Hispanic ............. 72.2 85.2 94.0 97.0 98.0 0.8

 Hispanic or Latino ............... 69.9 82.6 92.5 96.4 97.6 0.9

Ages 25 to 34 ..................... 53.0 69.6 85.4 92.1 94.5 3.4

 Men .................................... 52.8 69.3 84.5 91.2 93.7 3.9

 Women ............................... 53.3 70.1 86.3 93.1 95.3 2.7

 White non-Hispanic ............ 51.7 68.3 84.6 91.6 94.1 3.6

 Black non-Hispanic ............. 57.6 74.6 88.3 94.0 96.0 2.2

 Hispanic or Latino ............... 55.6 72.2 86.5 93.1 95.3 3.0

Ages 35 to 44 ..................... 35.8 53.8 74.8 (*) (*) 9.6

 Men .................................... 34.5 52.9 74.0 (*) (*) 10.4

 Women ............................... 37.0 54.7 75.5 (*) (*) 8.7

 White non-Hispanic ............ 34.5 52.4 73.2 (*) (*) 10.3

 Black non-Hispanic ............. 39.4 58.6 80.2 (*) (*) 7.0

 Hispanic or Latino ............... 38.8 56.1 78.6 (*) (*) 7.8

Ages 45 to 52 2 .................. 29.4 46.3 (*) (*) (*) 25.3

 Men .................................... 26.8 43.9 (*) (*) (*) 26.6

 Women ............................... 31.8 48.5 (*) (*) (*) 24.0

 White non-Hispanic ............ 28.2 44.9 (*) (*) (*) 26.4

 Black non-Hispanic ............. 34.0 52.5 (*) (*) (*) 21.3

 Hispanic or Latino ............... 31.6 49.0 (*) (*) (*) 22.5

 Note: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 

and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 51 to 60 in 2016-17. Race and 

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the 

overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide 

statistically reliable estimates.

(*) Estimates are not presented for these categories because most sample members were not yet

old enough at the time of the 2016-17 survey to have completed jobs of these durations.

Table 2. Duration of employment relationships with a single employer for all jobs started from ages 18 to 52 in 1978-

2016 by age at start of job, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Cumulative percent distribution of duration

 of completed employment relationships Age at the start of job and 

characteristic

Percent of 

jobs ongoing 

in 2016

 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. 

 2 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 53 when interviewed in 2016-17.
Total, ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016........................................... 77.7 4.6 17.8

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 58.8 7.9 33.3

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 76.3 5.6 18.0

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 78.8 4.0 17.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 84.3 2.4 13.3

Men ......................................................................................... 83.6 5.0 11.3

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 69.1 9.4 21.5

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 82.2 6.1 11.7

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 86.7 4.0 9.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 88.7 2.5 8.8

Women .................................................................................... 71.6 4.1 24.3

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 44.8 5.8 49.4

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 69.4 5.1 25.6

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 72.7 4.0 23.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 80.0 2.3 17.6

White non-Hispanic ................................................................. 79.8 3.8 16.4

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 63.1 7.1 29.9

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 79.3 4.7 16.0

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 79.3 3.4 17.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 84.3 2.2 13.5

Black non-Hispanic ................................................................. 69.0 8.4 22.7

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 48.7 11.1 40.2

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 65.1 9.6 25.2

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 76.4 6.9 16.7

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 83.2 4.7 12.1

Hispanic or Latino ................................................................... 71.9 5.8 22.2

 Less than a high school diploma ........................................... 56.7 8.0 35.3

 High school graduates, no college 1 ................................ 72.5 6.3 21.2

 Some college or associate degree ........................................ 77.2 4.6 18.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 2 ....................................... 85.4 2.5 12.1

 Note: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, and who had not yet turned age 53 

when interviewed in 2016-17.

 1 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent.

 2 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.

 Note: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 

and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 51 to 60 in 2016-17. Educational 

attainment is defined as of the 2016-17 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but 

not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their 

representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Table 3. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from ages 18 to 52 

in 1978-2016 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Percent of total weeks while ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016

Characteristic

Employed Unemployed Not in labor force
Total, ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016 1

 ........................ 77.7 4.6 17.8

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2 .............................. 68.1 8.0 24.0

 Ages 25 to 34 in 1982-1998 .............................. 79.7 4.1 16.2

 Ages 35 to 44 in 1992-2008 .............................. 82.1 3.2 14.7

 Ages 45 to 52 in 2002-2016 3 .............................. 78.4 4.2 17.4

Men, ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016 1 ........................... 83.6 5.0 11.3

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2 .............................. 72.6 9.0 18.4

 Ages 25 to 34 in 1982-1998 .............................. 88.0 4.6 7.4

 Ages 35 to 44 in 1992-2008 .............................. 88.2 3.4 8.4

 Ages 45 to 52 in 2002-2016 3 .............................. 82.9 4.5 12.6

Women, ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016 1 ..................... 71.6 4.1 24.3

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2 .............................. 63.3 6.9 29.8

 Ages 25 to 34 in 1982-1998 .............................. 71.2 3.6 25.2

 Ages 35 to 44 in 1992-2008 .............................. 75.8 3.0 21.3

 Ages 45 to 52 in 2002-2016 3 .............................. 73.7 3.9 22.4

White non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016 1 ...... 79.8 3.8 16.4

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2 .............................. 70.8 6.9 22.3

 Ages 25 to 34 in 1982-1998 .............................. 81.9 3.3 14.7

 Ages 35 to 44 in 1992-2008 .............................. 83.7 2.6 13.8

 Ages 45 to 52 in 2002-2016 3 .............................. 80.4 3.6 16.1

Black non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016 1 ...... 69.0 8.4 22.7

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2 .............................. 55.9 13.2 30.9

 Ages 25 to 34 in 1982-1998 .............................. 70.8 8.2 21.0

 Ages 35 to 44 in 1992-2008 .............................. 75.5 6.2 18.3

 Ages 45 to 52 in 2002-2016 3 .............................. 70.1 7.5 22.4

Hispanic or Latino, ages 18 to 52 in 1978-2016 1 ......... 71.9 5.8 22.2

 Ages 18 to 24 in 1978-1988 2 .............................. 63.2 9.0 27.8

 Ages 25 to 34 in 1982-1998 .............................. 73.0 5.0 22.0

 Ages 35 to 44 in 1992-2008 .............................. 77.6 4.4 18.0

 Ages 45 to 52 in 2002-2016 3 .............................. 73.9 5.1 20.9

 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 53 when interviewed in 2016-17.

 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978 and who had not yet turned age 53 

when interviewed in 2016-17.

 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978.

 Note: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-

64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 51 to 60 in 2016-17. Race 

and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are 

included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not 

sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Table 4. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from ages 18 to 

52 in 1978-2016 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Age and characteristic

Employed Not in labor force

Percent of total weeks

Unemployed
Ages 18 to 

24 1

Ages 25 

to 34

Ages 35

to 44 Ages 45 to 52 2

Total ........................................................... 6.4 3.3 1.7 -0.1

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 3.1 1.5 1.0 -1.0

 High school graduates, no college 3 ............... 5.0 2.2 1.6 -0.4

 Some college or associate degree .................. 6.1 3.4 1.5 0.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4

 ....................... 9.5 5.2 2.3 0.6

Men .......................................................... 7.0 3.6 1.8 -0.1

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 3.2 1.5 0.5 -1.6

 High school graduates, no college 3 ............... 5.8 2.3 1.6 -0.6

 Some college or associate degree .................. 7.8 3.8 1.6 0.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4

 ....................... 9.7 6.3 2.6 1.0

Women ...................................................... 5.8 2.9 1.7 0.0

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 2.9 1.5 1.8 0.2

 High school graduates, no college 3 ............... 4.0 2.1 1.6 -0.2

 Some college or associate degree .................. 4.8 3.0 1.4 0.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ....................... 9.3 4.1 2.0 0.2

White non-Hispanic ....................................... 6.8 3.4 1.8 -0.1

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 3.9 1.6 0.9 -1.0

 High school graduates, no college 3 ............... 5.2 2.1 1.6 -0.5

 Some college or associate degree .................. 6.0 3.5 1.5 0.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ....................... 9.8 5.2 2.3 0.6

Black non-Hispanic ....................................... 4.4 2.9 1.5 0.0

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 1.6 0.8 0.8 -0.4

 High school graduates, no college 3 ............... 3.2 2.3 1.8 -0.2

 Some college or associate degree .................. 6.2 3.4 1.3 0.2

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ....................... 6.6 5.1 1.4 0.3

Hispanic or Latino.......................................... 5.9 2.7 1.8 -0.4

 Less than a high school diploma ................... 1.7 1.6 1.5 -1.4

 High school graduates, no college 3 ............... 5.8 2.6 1.1 -0.5

 Some college or associate degree .................. 7.1 2.5 1.9 -0.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher 4 ....................... 9.3 4.9 4.1 1.1

 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. 

Note: The CPI-U-RS was used to adjust hourly earnings to constant dollars, prior to calculating the growth 

rates. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the 

years 1957-64 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 51 to 60 

in 2016-17. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2016-17 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino 

ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the 

overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently 

large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

 2 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 53 when interviewed in 2016-17.

Table 5. Average annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings from 1978-2016 by 

educational attainment, sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

Average annual percent growth in hourly earnings

Characteristic

 3 Includes individuals with a high school diploma or equivalent.

 4 Includes individuals with bachelor's, master's, professional, or doctoral degrees.