1

Technical information: (202) 691-7410

 http://www.bls.gov/nls/

Media contact: 691-5902

USDL 04-1678

For release: 10:00 A.M. EDT

Wednesday, August 25, 2004

NUMBER OF JOBS HELD, LABOR MARKET ACTIVITY, AND

 EARNINGS GROWTH AMONG YOUNGER BABY BOOMERS:

RECENT RESULTS FROM A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY

The average person born in the later years of the baby boom held 10 jobs from age 18 to age 38, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor. More than two-thirds of these

jobs were held in the first half of the period, from ages 18 to 27. However, baby boomers continued to

have a relatively large number of short-duration jobs even as they approached middle age.

These findings are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, a survey of 9,964 young men

and women who were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979 and ages 37 to 45 when interviewed

most recently in 2002. These respondents were born in the years 1957 to 1964, the later years of the “baby

boom” that occurred in the United States from 1946 to 1964. The survey spans over two decades and provides information on work and nonwork experiences, training, schooling, income and assets, health conditions, and other characteristics. The information provided by respondents, who were interviewed annually

from 1979 to 1994 and biennially since 1994, can be considered representative of all men and women born

in the late 1950s and early 1960s and living in the United States when the survey began in 1979.

This release of the latest data from the longitudinal survey focuses on the number of jobs held and job

duration, labor force participation, and earnings growth. Highlights from the survey include:

 • Persons born from 1957 to 1964 held an average of 10.2 jobs from ages 18 to 38. These baby

boomers held an average of 4.4 jobs while ages 18 to 22. The average fell to 3.3 jobs while ages 23

to 27, to 2.6 jobs while ages 28 to 32, and to 2.5 jobs from ages 33 to 38. Jobs that span more than

one age group were counted once in each age group, so the overall average number of jobs held from

age 18 to age 38 is less than the sum of the number of jobs across the individual age groups.

 • Although job duration tends to be longer the older a worker is when starting a job, these baby

boomers continued to have large numbers of short-duration jobs even as they approached middle age.

Among jobs started by workers when they were ages 33 to 38, 39 percent ended in less than a year,

and 70 percent ended in fewer than 5 years.

 • The average person was employed during 76 percent of the weeks from age 18 to age 38. Generally,

men spent a larger percent of weeks employed than did women (84 versus 69 percent). Women spent

much more time out of the labor force (26 percent of weeks) than did men (11 percent of weeks).
2

 • The annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings was fastest from ages 18 to 22.

Growth rates in earnings generally were higher for those who obtained more education.

Number of Jobs Held

Individuals held an average of 10.2 jobs from ages 18 to 38, with over two-thirds of the jobs being held

before age 28. In this report, a job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work with a particular employer.

(See the Technical Note for additional information on the definition of a job.) On average, men held 10.4

jobs and women held 9.9 jobs from age 18 to age 38. Men held 4.5 jobs from age 18 to age 22, but only

2.5 jobs from age 33 to age 38. The reduction in the number of jobs held in successive age groups was

similar for women. (See table 1.)

On average, college-educated women held more jobs than women without a college degree and also

held more jobs than college-educated men. Women with a college degree held 11.1 jobs from age 18 to

38 compared with 10.0 jobs for similarly educated men and 8.5 jobs for women with less than a high school

diploma. However, men without a high school diploma had more jobs than more educated men.

Differences in the number of jobs held also are apparent between race and ethnicity groups. From ages

18 to 38, whites held more jobs than either blacks or Hispanics or Latinos. The difference was most pronounced at younger ages; these racial differences nearly disappeared at older ages. From ages 33 to 38,

whites, blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos all held an average of about 2.5 jobs.

Duration of Employment Relationships

The length of time a worker remained with the same employer increased with the age at which the worker began the job. Of the jobs that workers began when they were ages 18 to 22, 71 percent of those jobs

ended in less than a year, and 94 percent ended in fewer than 5 years. Among jobs started by workers

when they were ages 28 to 32, 50 percent ended in less than a year, and 82 percent ended in fewer than

5 years. (See table 2.)

Percent of Weeks Employed, Unemployed, and Not in the Labor Force

On average, the baby boomers represented by the survey sample were employed during 76 percent of

all the weeks occurring from age 18 to age 38. They were unemployed—that is, without jobs but actively

seeking work—5 percent of the weeks. They were not in the labor force—that is, neither working nor

seeking work—18 percent of the weeks. (See table 3.)

The amount of time spent employed differed substantially between educational-attainment groups, especially among blacks and Hispanics or Latinos. Blacks with less than a high school diploma (as of the 2002

survey) spent 52 percent of weeks employed and 35 percent of weeks out of the labor force from age 18 to

age 38. By comparison, black high school graduates spent 64 percent of weeks employed and 25 percent

of weeks out of the labor force. Hispanic or Latino high school dropouts spent 59 percent of weeks employed, compared with 71 percent of weeks for Hispanic or Latino high school graduates. White high school

dropouts spent 69 percent of weeks employed, and white high school graduates spent 79 percent of weeks

employed. Among college graduates, there was little difference between racial and ethnic groups in labor

market attachment. Black, Hispanic or Latino, and white college graduates all spent about 81 percent of

weeks employed.

The amount of time spent in the labor force also differs by sex, with women at every educational level

and at every age spending fewer weeks in the labor force than men. Men with less than a high school

diploma spent 76 percent of weeks employed from age 18 to age 38. These men also spent 10 percent
3

of weeks unemployed. By comparison, women with less than a high school diploma spent just 47 percent

of weeks employed and 6 percent of weeks unemployed from age 18 to age 38. Women without a high

school diploma spent nearly as much time out of the labor force as they they did employed (46 versus 47

percent). The differences between men and women in labor force attachment were much smaller among

those with a bachelor’s degree or more, but men still spent a larger proportion of weeks employed than did

women (84 versus 78 percent).

Labor force attachment is related to age for both men and women, with the percent of weeks employed

increasing and the percent of weeks unemployed or not in the labor force falling as individuals grow older.

From ages 18 to 22, men spent 21 percent of weeks out of the labor force, and women spent 32 percent

of weeks out of the labor force. This age range is a period when large proportions of men and women

attend college or receive vocational training, and, as a result, they spend less time in the labor force than they

eventually will. Indeed, when these same men reached ages 33 to 38, they spent only 7 percent of weeks

out of the labor force. (See table 4.)

Like men, women were more likely to participate in the labor force as they aged, but the reduction in

the percent of weeks spent out of the labor force was much smaller among women than among men. In

fact, after age 22, women spent, on average, three times as many weeks out of the labor force as men of

their same generation. From ages 23 to 27, women spent 26 percent of weeks out of the labor force, the

same percent of weeks spent out of the labor force when these women were ages 28 to 32. Women ages

33 to 38 spent 23 percent of weeks out of the labor force.

Percent Growth in Real Earnings

The inflation-adjusted earnings of workers in the survey increased most rapidly while they were young.

From the ages of 18 to 22, hourly earnings grew by an average of 6.7 percent per year. The earnings

growth rate slowed to 5.0 percent annually from age 23 to age 27, then to 2.7 percent annually from age

28 to age 32. From ages 33 to 38, however, average annual wage growth rose to 3.3 percent. This pattern in earnings growth reflects, in part, the state of the U.S. economy during the years in which survey

participants were in each age group. In every age category, growth rates in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings generally were higher for workers with more education. (See table 5.)
Technical Note

The estimates in this release were obtained using data from

the first 20 rounds of the National Longitudinal Survey of

Youth 1979 (NLSY79). This survey is conducted by the Center

for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State University

and the National Opinion Research Center at the University of

Chicago under the direction and sponsorship of the U.S.

Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Sample

The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 12,686

young men and women who were 14 to 22 years of age when

first surveyed in 1979. This survey sample was initially

composed of three subsamples:

• A cross-sectional sample of 6,111 youths that was

designed to represent the noninstitutionalized, civilian

population of young people living in the U.S. in 1979 and

born between January 1, 1957, and December 31, 1964

• A supplemental sample of 5,295 youths designed to

oversample noninstitutionalized, civilian black, Hispanic

or Latino, and economically disadvantaged nonblack,

non-Hispanic youths living in the U.S. in 1979 and born

between January 1, 1957, and December 31, 1964

• A military sample of 1,280 youths born between January 1,

1957, and December 31, 1961, and enlisted in the Army, Air

Force, Navy, or Marine Corps as of September 30, 1978

In 1985, the military sample was discontinued, and, in 1991,

the economically disadvantaged nonblack, non-Hispanic

youths were dropped from the supplemental sample. As a

result, the NLSY79 sample now includes 9,964 individuals from

the cross-sectional sample and the black and Hispanic or Latino

supplemental samples. (This sample size is not adjusted for

sample members who have died.)

Individuals were surveyed annually from 1979 to 1994 and

biennially since 1994. In 2002, 7,724 individuals responded to

the survey, for a retention rate of 76 percent. Only these

individuals are included in the estimates in this release. All

results are weighted using the 2002 survey weights that correct

for the oversampling, interview nonresponse, and permanent

attrition from the survey. When weighted, the estimates

represent all persons born in the years 1957 to 1964 and living

in the U.S. when the survey began in 1979. Not represented

by the survey are U.S. immigrants who were born from 1957 to

1964 and moved to the United States after 1979.

Work history data

The total number of jobs that people hold during their work

life is an easy concept to understand but a difficult one to

measure. Reliable estimates require a survey that interviews

the same people over the course of their entire work life and

also keeps track of all the jobs they ever held. The NLSY79

tracks the number of jobs that people have held, but the

respondents in this survey are still relatively young, ages 37

to 45 in 2002, and have many years of work life ahead of them.

As the cohort continues to age, however, more complete

information will become available.

A unique feature of the NLSY79 is that it collects the

beginning and ending dates of all jobs held by a respondent

so that a longitudinal history can be constructed of each

respondent’s work experiences. The NLSY79 work history data

provide a week-by-week work record of each respondent from

January 1, 1978, through the most recent survey date. These

data contain information on the respondent’s labor force status

each week, the usual hours worked per week at all jobs, and

earnings for all jobs. If a respondent worked at more than one

job in any week, hours and earnings are obtained for additional

jobs. When a respondent who missed one or more consecutive

survey rounds is interviewed again, he is asked to provide

information about all time since the last interview.

Interaction between time and age in a longitudinal survey

Because the NLSY79 is a longitudinal survey, meaning the

same people are surveyed over time, the ages of the

respondents change with each survey round. It is important

to keep in mind this inherent link between the calendar years

and the ages of the respondents. For example, table 5 reports

earnings growth from age 23 to age 27. The youngest

respondents in the sample (birth year 1964) were these ages

during 1987-92, whereas the oldest respondents (birth year

1957) were these ages during 1980-85.

Although participants in the NLSY79 were ages 37 to 45

during the 2002 interviews, the tables in this release cover only

the period while the respondents were ages 18 to 38. The

reason for not including older ages in these tables is that the

sample sizes were still too small to provide statistically reliable

estimates for age groups older than 38. As the NLSY79

continues to be administered and the respondents age,

subsequent rounds of the survey will enable analyses to be

conducted for older age groups.

As with age, the educational attainment of individuals may

change from year to year. In the tables and analysis presented

in this report, educational attainment is defined as of the 2002

survey. This definition is used even when data on age and

educational attainment are presented together. For example,

table 1 reports the number of jobs held during different age

categories. Suppose that a respondent had completed a

bachelor’s degree at age 28. That respondent would be

included in the “Bachelor’s degree or more” educational

category in all age categories shown on the table, even though

he or she did not have a bachelor’s degree at any point from

age 18 to age 27.

Definitions

Job. A job is defined as an uninterrupted period of work

with a particular employer. Jobs are therefore employer-based,

not position-based. If a respondent indicates that he or she left
a job but in a subsequent survey returned to the same job, it

is counted as a new job. For example, if an individual worked

in a retail establishment during the summer, quit at the end of

summer to return to school, and then resumed working for the

same employer the following spring, this sequence would

count as two jobs, rather than one. For self-employed

workers, each “new” job is defined by the individuals

themselves.

Unemployment. If respondents indicate a gap between

employers, they are asked how many of those weeks they spent

searching for employment or on layoff. For that number of

weeks, they are considered unemployed. For the remaining

weeks, they are coded as not in the labor force. No probing

for intensity of job search is done.

Usual earnings. Respondents can report earnings over any

time frame (hour, day, week, month, year). For those who do

not report an hourly wage, one is constructed using usual

hours worked over that time frame. Wages greater than $100

per hour and less than $1 per hour were not included in the

analysis of earnings growth because the reported earnings

levels were almost certainly in error. For the same reason,

individuals who had inflation-adjusted earnings growth

greater than 100 percent were not included in the analysis.

These exclusions from the analysis affected 75 respondents.

Race and ethnicity groups. In this release, the findings are

reported for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and

Hispanics or Latinos. These three groups are mutually

exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are

included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because

their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently

large to provide statistically reliable estimates. In other BLS

publications, estimates usually are published for whites,

blacks, and Hispanics or Latinos, but these groups are not

mutually exclusive. The terms “Hispanic or Latino” are

considered to be an ethnicity group, and Hispanics or Latinos

can be of any race. Most other BLS publications include

Hispanics or Latinos in the white and black race groups in

addition to the Hispanic or Latino ethnicity group.

Information in this release will be made available to sensory

impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: 202-691-

5200; TDD message referral phone: 1-800-877-8339.
Total1 Ages 18 to 22 Ages 23 to 27 Ages 28 to 32 Ages 33 to 38

Total ..................................................... 10.2 4.4 3.3 2.6 2.5

 Less than a high school diploma ............. 10.3 3.9 3.2 2.6 2.5

 High school graduates, no college .......... 9.7 4.2 3.0 2.6 2.5

 Less than a bachelor's degree ............... 10.5 4.6 3.7 2.7 2.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher ................. 10.6 5.0 3.5 2.6 2.3

Men ..................................................... 10.4 4.5 3.5 2.8 2.5

 Less than a high school diploma ............. 11.6 4.6 3.8 3.0 2.7

 High school graduates, no college .......... 10.2 4.5 3.4 2.8 2.4

 Less than a bachelor's degree ............... 10.6 4.6 3.4 2.9 2.7

 Bachelor's degree and higher ................. 10.0 4.6 3.4 2.6 2.4

Women ................................................ 9.9 4.3 3.1 2.4 2.4

 Less than a high school diploma ............. 8.5 3.0 2.4 2.1 2.2

 High school graduates, no college .......... 9.2 3.8 2.7 2.3 2.5

 Less than a bachelor's degree ............... 10.4 4.6 3.3 2.5 2.5

 Bachelor's degree and higher ................. 11.1 5.4 3.7 2.7 2.2

White non-Hispanic................................. 10.3 4.6 3.3 2.6 2.5

 Less than a high school diploma ............. 10.8 4.3 3.3 2.7 2.6

 High school graduates, no college .......... 9.7 4.3 3.1 2.6 2.5

 Less than a bachelor's degree ............... 10.8 4.8 3.5 2.7 2.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher ................. 10.6 5.1 3.5 2.6 2.3

Black non-Hispanic .................................. 9.6 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.6

 Less than a high school diploma ............. 9.1 2.9 2.9 2.6 2.3

 High school graduates, no college .......... 9.7 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.5

 Less than a bachelor's degree ............... 9.7 3.8 3.1 2.6 2.7

 Bachelor's degree and higher ................. 9.9 4.2 3.6 2.8 2.7

Hispanic or Latino ................................... 9.6 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.4

 Less than a high school diploma ............. 9.6 3.9 3.0 2.4 2.3

 High school graduates, no college .......... 9.5 3.9 2.9 2.5 2.4

 Less than a bachelor's degree ............... 9.5 4.2 3.0 2.5 2.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher ................. 10.5 4.5 3.4 2.8 2.5

Table 1. Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to age 38 in 1978-2002 by educational attainment, sex, 

race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

 The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64

and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 37 to 45 in 2002. Educational 

attainment is defined as of the 2002 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but 

not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their 

representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Average number of jobs for persons ages 18 to 38 in 1978-2002

 1 Jobs that were held in more than one of the age categories were counted in each appropriate column, but only once in 

the total column.

 NOTE: The first two columns exclude individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978. The first and last 

columns exclude individuals who had not yet turned age 39 when interviewed in 2002.

Characteristic
Less than 1 

year

Less than 2 

years

Less than 5 

years

Less than 10 

years

Less than 15 

years

Ages 18 to 22 ................... 71.0 84.3 93.7 96.7 97.4 2.2

 Men .............................. 71.5 84.3 93.4 96.5 97.2 2.4

 Women ......................... 70.5 84.2 94.0 96.9 97.6 2.1

 White non-Hispanic .......... 70.6 84.1 93.6 96.6 97.3 2.3

 Black non-Hispanic ............ 73.7 86.3 94.5 97.3 97.9 1.9

 Hispanic or Latino ............ 70.6 83.4 93.3 96.8 97.5 2.1

Ages 23 to 27 ................... 58.0 74.8 87.9 92.9 94.0 5.7

 Men .............................. 57.9 74.7 87.3 92.3 93.5 6.1

 Women ......................... 58.2 74.9 88.7 93.5 94.6 5.1

 White non-Hispanic .......... 57.2 74.0 87.4 92.7 93.9 5.8

 Black non-Hispanic ............ 61.9 78.5 90.3 93.1 94.7 5.0

 Hispanic or Latino ............ 59.4 75.6 88.5 92.7 93.7 6.1

Ages 28 to 32 ................... 50.4 66.6 81.7 86.5 87.2 12.7

 Men .............................. 50.5 66.6 81.4 86.1 86.9 13.1

 Women ......................... 50.3 66.5 82.0 86.9 87.6 12.4

 White non-Hispanic .......... 49.2 65.3 80.9 85.9 86.8 13.3

 Black non-Hispanic ............ 55.3 72.4 85.0 89.0 89.7 10.3

 Hispanic or Latino ............ 51.6 67.8 82.6 87.1 87.4 12.6

Ages 33 to 38 ................... 38.7 54.0 70.1 (

1

) (1) 26.5

 Men .............................. 37.8 53.8 69.8 (

1

) (1) 26.8

 Women ......................... 39.6 54.1 70.3 (

1

) (1) 26.2

 White non-Hispanic .......... 37.7 52.9 69.1 (

1

) (1) 27.4

 Black non-Hispanic ............ 42.3 58.2 73.6 (

1

) (1) 23.0

 Hispanic or Latino ............ 40.2 55.2 71.3 (

1

) (1) 24.8

 The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and 

were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 37 to 45 in 2002. Race and Hispanic or 

Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall 

totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide 

statistically reliable estimates.

Table 2. Duration of employment relationships with a single employer for all jobs started from age 18 to

age 38 by persons born in the years 1957-64 and living in the United States in 1979, by age at start of job, 

sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Cumulative percent distribution of duration of 

completed employment relationships

 NOTE: The age category of 18 to 22 excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978.

Age at the start of job and 

characteristic

Percent of 

jobs ongoing 

in 2002

 1 Estimates are not presented for these categories because most sample members were not yet old enough at the time of 

the 2002 survey to have completed jobs of these durations.
 to age 38 in 1978-2002 by educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

Total, ages 18 to 38 in 1978-2002 .................................... 76.4 4.8 18.3

 Less than a high school diploma ...................................... 64.1 8.0 27.4

 High school graduates, no college ................................... 75.7 5.6 18.2

 Less than a bachelor's degree ......................................... 78.8 4.3 16.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher ............................................. 81.0 2.6 16.1

Men ............................................................................ 83.7 5.3 10.5

 Less than a high school diploma ...................................... 76.3 9.7 13.6

 High school graduates, no college ................................... 84.0 5.9 9.4

 Less than a bachelor's degree ......................................... 91.1 2.7 5.8

 Bachelor's degree and higher ............................................. 84.1 2.7 12.9

Women ....................................................................... 69.0 4.4 26.3

 Less than a high school diploma ...................................... 47.4 5.8 46.4

 High school graduates, no college ................................... 66.7 5.3 27.6

 Less than a bachelor's degree ......................................... 71.8 4.2 23.4

 Bachelor's degree and higher ............................................. 78.0 2.4 19.3

White non-Hispanic ....................................................... 78.8 4.0 16.8

 Less than a high school diploma ...................................... 69.3 7.0 23.3

 High school graduates, no college ................................... 78.6 4.6 16.3

 Less than a bachelor's degree ......................................... 80.3 3.5 15.7

 Bachelor's degree and higher ............................................. 81.1 2.4 16.2

Black non-Hispanic ......................................................... 66.9 9.4 23.3

 Less than a high school diploma ...................................... 51.8 12.2 35.4

 High school graduates, no college ................................... 64.3 10.7 24.5

 Less than a bachelor's degree ......................................... 73.1 7.9 18.5

 Bachelor's degree and higher ............................................. 80.5 4.4 14.7

Hispanic or Latino ............................................................ 70.8 5.3 23.4

 Less than a high school diploma ...................................... 58.6 7.6 33.4

 High school graduates, no college ................................... 71.2 5.4 22.8

 Less than a bachelor's degree ......................................... 77.2 3.9 18.3

 Bachelor's degree and higher ............................................. 80.9 3.2 15.6

Table 3. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18

 The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 and 

were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 37 to 45 in 2002. Educational attainment 

is defined as of the 2002 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. 

Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the 

survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Percent of total weeks while ages 18 to 38 in 1978-2002

 Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment status cannot be 

determined for all weeks.

Characteristic

 NOTE: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 39 

when interviewed in 2002.

Employed Unemployed Not in the 

labor force
Total, ages 18 to 38 in 1978-20021

 .............................. 76.4 4.8 18.3

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-19872

 .................................. 64.5 8.8 26.3

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1983-1992 ................................... 77.0 5.5 17.0

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1997 .................................... 79.2 3.8 16.5

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-20023

 .................................... 81.8 2.9 14.9

Men, ages 18 to 38 in 1978-20021

 .............................. 83.7 5.3 10.5

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-19872

 .................................. 69.1 9.9 20.5

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1983-1992 ................................... 84.8 6.4 8.3

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1997 .................................... 88.1 4.1 7.2

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-20023

 .................................... 89.6 3.1 6.9

Women, ages 18 to 38 in 1978-20021

 ........................ 69.0 4.4 26.3

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-19872

 .................................. 59.6 7.7 32.3

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1983-1992 ................................... 69.0 4.1 26.1

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1997 .................................... 70.0 3.4 26.1

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-20023

 .................................... 73.8 2.7 23.2

White non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 38 in 1978-20021 .......... 78.8 4.0 16.8

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-19872

 .................................. 67.5 7.7 24.4

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1983-1992 ................................... 79.5 4.6 15.5

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1997 .................................... 81.3 3.1 15.1

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-20023

 .................................... 83.6 2.3 13.8

Black non-Hispanic, ages 18 to 38 in 1978-20021 ......... 66.9 9.4 23.3

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-19872

 .................................. 51.4 14.7 33.5

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1983-1992 ................................... 67.2 10.4 22.0

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1997 .................................... 70.1 7.5 21.5

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-20023

 .................................... 74.4 6.0 19.3

Hispanic or Latino, ages 18 to 38 in 1978-20021 ............ 70.8 5.3 23.4

 Ages 18 to 22 in 1978-19872

 .................................. 60.1 9.3 30.1

 Ages 23 to 27 in 1983-1992 ................................... 70.7 6.2 22.5

 Ages 28 to 32 in 1985-1997 .................................... 74.2 4.3 20.6

 Ages 33 to 38 in 1990-20023

 .................................... 77.3 3.6 18.4

 2 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978.

 3 This category excludes individuals who had not yet turned age 39 when interviewed in 2002.

Table 4. Percent of weeks individuals were employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force from age 18 to 

age 38 in 1978-2002 by age, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity

 1 This category excludes individuals who turned age 18 before January 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 39 

when interviewed in 2002.

 NOTE: Totals do not add to 100 percent due to a small number of respondents whose employment status cannot 

be determined for all weeks.

 The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 

and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 37 to 45 in 2002. Race and 

Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in 

the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to

provide statistically reliable estimates.

Age and characteristic

Employed Unemployed Not in the 

labor force

Percent of total weeks
Ages 18 to 22 Ages 23 to 27 Ages 28 to 32 Ages 33 to 38

Total .............................................................. 6.7 5.0 2.7 3.3

 Less than a high school diploma ..................... 4.8 2.4 1.3 3.5

 High school graduates, no college ................... 5.7 3.2 1.9 2.8

 Less than a bachelor's degree ........................ 6.3 4.8 2.5 3.5

 Bachelor's degree and higher ........................... 9.6 9.1 4.7 4.1

Men .............................................................. 6.7 5.6 2.8 3.5

 Less than a high school diploma ..................... 3.9 2.9 1.3 2.9

 High school graduates, no college ................... 6.4 3.7 1.5 2.7

 Less than a bachelor's degree ........................ 6.9 5.7 3.0 4.1

 Bachelor's degree and higher ........................... 8.5 10.3 5.6 4.7

Women ........................................................ 6.8 4.3 2.6 3.2

 Less than a high school diploma ..................... 6.6 1.6 1.4 4.5

 High school graduates, no college ................... 4.8 2.5 2.4 2.9

 Less than a bachelor's degree ........................ 5.8 4.1 2.0 3.0

 Bachelor's degree and higher ........................... 10.6 8.0 3.7 3.4

White non-Hispanic ......................................... 7.1 5.2 2.7 3.4

 Less than a high school diploma ..................... 5.5 2.4 1.1 4.3

 High school graduates, no college ................... 5.7 3.0 1.9 2.7

 Less than a bachelor's degree ........................ 6.6 5.1 2.4 3.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher ........................... 9.8 9.2 4.6 4.0

Black non-Hispanic ......................................... 5.2 4.3 2.4 3.3

 Less than a high school diploma ..................... 3.5 2.5 1.6 1.4

 High school graduates, no college ................... 5.0 3.7 1.8 3.6

 Less than a bachelor's degree ........................ 5.3 3.9 2.6 3.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher ........................... 7.4 8.5 5.1 4.0

Hispanic or Latino ............................................. 6.3 3.9 2.7 2.6

 Less than a high school diploma ..................... 3.8 3.1 0.8 2.7

 High school graduates, no college ................... 7.2 3.2 1.5 1.7

 Less than a bachelor's degree ........................ 6.0 3.3 3.2 2.6

 Bachelor's degree and higher ........................... 8.0 8.1 4.0 5.1

Table 5. Average annual percent growth in inflation-adjusted hourly earnings from 1978 to 2002 by educational 

attainment, sex, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, and age

 The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 1957-64 

and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were age 37 to 45 in 2002. Educational 

attainment is defined as of the 2002 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but 

not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their 

representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.

Average annual percent growth in hourly earnings

 NOTE: The first column excludes individuals who turned age 18 before 1978. The last column excludes individuals 

who were not yet age 39 when interviewed in 2002.

 The CPI-U-X1 (research index) was used to adjust hourly earnings to 2002 dollars prior to calculating the growth 

rates.

Characteristic