U.S. Department of Labor

Alexis M. Herman, Secretary

June 2000

Revised, November 2000

Report on the Youth

Labor Force

This excerpt contains only the fourth chapter of the report

Trends in Youth Employment: Data from the CPS
v

Acknowledgments

This Report on the Youth Labor Force provides a detailed,

overall look at youth labor in the United States, including

regulations on child labor, current work experience of youths

and how it has changed over time, and the outcomes of this

experience. It draws on a variety of Department of Labor

data sources in developing this picture.

The report was prepared under the overall direction of

Marilyn Manser, an associate commissioner with the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), who also was responsible

for the introduction. The second chapter describes the history of child labor in the United States, and details the current Federal and State regulations covering child labor. It

was written by Art Kerschner, Jr., leader, Child Labor and

Special Employment Team, with the Labor Department’s

Employment Standards Administration. The third chapter,

contributed by Donna Rothstein, a research economist at

BLS, and Diane Herz, an economist also at BLS, provides

a detailed current look at the work experiences of youth

aged 15 and under. The fourth chapter examines the current employment and unemployment status of youths aged

15 to 17, and looks at how this youth employment and unemployment has changed over the past 20 years. It was prepared by Diane Herz and Karen Kosanovich, also an economist with BLS. The appendix to chapter 4, which compares results from the National Longitudinal Survey of

Youth and the Current Population Survey, was written by

Donna Rothstein and Diane Herz. The fifth chapter takes a

separate look at youth employment in agriculture, a sector

in which young workers have characteristics that are, on

average, different from those of their counterparts in other

industries and face different regulations. It was prepared by

Ruth Samardick, survey statistician with the Labor Department’s Assistant Secretary for Policy; Susan M. Gabbard, a

senior associate with Aguirre International; and Melissa

A. Lewis, a research associate also with Aguirre International. The sixth chapter, written by Anthony Barkume, research economist with BLS, addresses the health and safety

of young workers. The final chapter, contributed by Donna

Rothstein and Marilyn Manser, provides data on the relationship between work intensity at ages 16 and 17 and later

college attendance and the amount of work experience from

age 18 through 30. It also reviews the extensive research

literature on the effect of working while young on later educational and labor market outcomes.
30

Chapter 4.

Trends in Youth Employment:

Data from the Current

Population Survey

Introduction

This chapter provides a look at trends

in the employment of youths aged 15

to 17 from the Current Population Survey (CPS), a monthly labor force survey of 50,000 households. Each

month, interviewed households are

asked a series of questions to determine employment status and other employment-related information about all

persons aged 15 or older during the

week of the 12th. CPS data normally

are published only for the population

aged 16 and older. For this special report on youths, data for 15-year-olds

were tabulated to provide new knowledge on youth employment patterns.

Like the preceding chapter, which

used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97),

this chapter presents data from the

CPS on incidence and type of employment for youths in various demographic and income groups. It also

provides information on youth unemployment, hours of work, and earnings, and examines differences between youths enrolled in school and

dropouts. Unlike the previous chapter, this chapter focuses on trends, as

the CPS is the only BLS survey that

provides information on youth employment over many years. Differences between the NLSY97 and the

CPS are discussed in detail in the appendix at the end of this chapter.

Time frames for

comparison

This chapter looks at employment during the 1978-98 period. Through

much of this chapter, data were pooled

across several years in order to bolster

the sample sizes and thereby improve

the reliability of estimates.1 In most

sections, data are described in 3-year

combinations reflecting the periods

1977-79, 1987-89, and 1996-98. The

periods for the pooled data were selected because they reflect similar

points in the business cycle: they all

occur well into economic expansions.

Thus, fluctuations in youth employment from period to period that might

have been attributable to business cycle

changes are minimized. For some

analyses, annual average data are used

to show trends over time. Other portions of the discussion rely on monthly

data from special supplements to the

CPS.

Because youth employment is much

more common in the summer than in

school months, averages of weekly

youth employment figures are analyzed for school months and summer

months separately, whenever possible.

The CPS permits school-month versus summer-month comparisons in

nearly all cases. Annual averages are

presented only when school and summer months show similar patterns.2

Unless otherwise specified, data in the

text refer to the school months of the

1996-98 period.

How many youths work?

Employment. During the 1996-98

period, 2.9 million youths aged 15 to

17 worked during school months, and

4.0 million worked during the summer months.3

 Each month, the CPS

determines the employment status of

youths (and other workers) by determining whether they worked for pay

or had a job from which they were

temporarily absent in the week prior

to the week during which they were

interviewed. These data are gathered

for all persons aged 15 and older

through personal interviews and computer-assisted telephone interviews.4

Those who worked for pay at least 1

hour during the reference week, and

those who worked for no pay in a family business for at least 15 hours, are

considered employed.

Among youths, employment increased markedly with age. During

the school months of 1996-98, the CPS

found that only 9 percent of 15-yearolds were employed in an average

month, compared with 26 percent of

those a year older and 39 percent of

17-year-olds. Youths in each age group

were more likely to work in the summer, during which employment rates

increased to 18, 36, and 48 percent at

each age, respectively. The very low

rates for 15-year-olds in part reflect

legal restrictions on the types and

hours of employment allowed for persons under age 16. (See chapter 2 on

legal issues.)

The CPS showed that male and female youths had similar employmentpopulation ratios. In 1996-98, about

a fourth of both male and female

youths were employed during average

school months. During the summer,

about a third of both male and female

youths worked. (See table 4.1.) There

were substantial differences in employment rates across race/ethnicity groups.5

The 1996-98 employment-population

ratio of white youths—28 percent during the school months and 38 percent

during the summer—was about twice

that of black (13 and 20 percent) and

Excerpted from:

Report on the Youth Labor Force, 2000

U.S. Department of Labor
31

Hispanic (15 and 20 percent) youths.

This pattern has persisted for many

years.

Despite popular perceptions that

youths work more than they did in the

past, the proportion of 15- to 17-yearolds who work has declined over time.

As shown in chart 4.1, employmentpopulation ratios declined with economic downturns in the early 1980s

and 1990s. After the decline in the

early 1990s, however, the rates did not

return to earlier levels. During the

most recent 3-year period, 1996-98, a

quarter of youths worked during the

school months, down from 30 percent

in 1977-79. Just over a third worked

during the summer, down from 43

percent during the late 1970s.

Additionally, the potential pool of

young workers declined over the period. In 1977-79, the population of

youths aged 15 to 17 totaled 12.4 million. That level fell during the 1980s,

as the last members of the baby-boom

generation moved into their twenties.

The number of youths rose again during the mid- and late-1990s; in 1996-

98, there were about 11.7 million

youths aged 15 to 17. The combination of the declines in the youth population and declines in the proportion

working led to reductions in the overall number of youths with jobs. The

2.9 million employed youths in the

school months of 1996-98 represented

a 28-percent decline from 1977-79.

Employment-population ratios fell

among youths at each age, but the drop

was largest among 15-year-olds. The

proportion of 15-year-olds who worked

fell from 30 to 18 percent during the

summer months and from 17 to 9 percent during the school year. Employment declined for workers of both

sexes, but the drop was more pronounced among male youths. As a

result, employment-population ratios

that had been higher for male than for

female youths in 1977-79 were about

the same as those for female youths in

the 1996-98 period. Employment also

declined between 1977-79 and 1996-

98 for white and Hispanic youths.

Black youths’ employment-population

ratios, by comparison, were down only

slightly during the summer months,

and actually increased during the

school year.

Unemployment. The CPS provides

information on jobseeking by youths

as well as their employment. In the

CPS, persons are identified as “unemployed” if they: 1) did not work during the reference week (the week before the survey), 2) were available to

work that week, and 3) had actively

sought work during the past 4 weeks.

Youths who were not employed during the week and also did not fit all of

the above criteria are classified as out

of the labor force. In the summer

months of 1996-98, an average of 2.9

million youths aged 15 to 17 were

employed and 665,000 were unemployed. By far the largest group—8.2

million—was out of the labor force.

Unemployment rates equal the

number of unemployed persons as a

percent of the labor force (the employed plus unemployed), and are typically used as indicators of labor market difficulty of various groups. Those

persons who are out of the labor force

are not included in the calculation.

Youth unemployment rates are

much higher than the rates for other

groups. Combining summer and

school months, the annual average

unemployment rate of 15- to 17-yearolds in 1996-98 was 19 percent. That

compared with 14 percent for persons

aged 18 and 19, and 4 percent for those

aged 20 and older. The higher rates

for youths may reflect the limited

range of jobs available to persons with

the least experience in the labor market and the most limited job skills.

They also reflect the more transitory

nature of youth employment. For example, some youths work at summer

jobs, but stop working or seek a different employment arrangement during the school year. These transitions

mean that they might be seeking work

more frequently than are others and,

hence, be identified as unemployed.

Others might be exploring their interests or complementing a school schedule. As a result, youths often have repeated spells of unemployment during

the year and are, therefore, more likely

to be counted among the unemployed

in any month.

Unemployment rates among youths

are about the same during the school

and summer months. In 1996-98,

male youths were slightly more likely

than female youths to be unemployed

— 20 versus 17 percent (in both school

and summer months). Rates declined

with age. In the school months of

1996-98, the unemployment rate was

24 percent for 15-year-olds; it fell to

21 percent among 16-year-olds and to

16 percent among 17-year-olds. (See

table 4.2.)

As shown in chart 4.2, black and

Hispanic youths had much higher unemployment rates than did white youths.

During the school months of 1996–98,

35 percent of black youths and 30 percent of Hispanic youths aged 15 to 17

were unemployed, compared with 17

percent of whites.

Over the 1977-98 period, unemployment fluctuated, increasing during economic downturns and declining during expansions. When analysis

is limited to the three expansionary

periods to reduce the effect of business cycles, table 4.2 shows that schoolmonth unemployment rates were

about unchanged for male youths between the 1977-79 and 1996-98 periods, while they were down slightly for

female youths. While rates for white

and Hispanic youths were relatively

stable over the period, the unemployment rate for blacks dropped from 44

to 35 percent. The estimates for summer months showed a similar pattern.

Factors affecting youth

employment and

unemployment

Employment-population ratios and

unemployment rates of youths vary by

characteristics such as family income

and type, school enrollment status, and

country of origin. These factors are

discussed below.

Family income. Each year, the March

supplement to the Current Population

Survey includes questions on total

family income. Table 4.3 includes the
32

Chart 4.1. Employment-population ratios of persons 15 to 17 

years of age, school and summer months, 1977-98

Percent 

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

NOTE: Shaded areas are recessionary periods, as designated by the National Bureau of Economic 

Research.

School months

Summer months

1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

White Black Hispanic

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Male Female

Chart 4.2. Unemployment rates of persons 15 to 17 years of

age by sex, race, and Hispanic origin, school months, 1996-98

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

Percent 

1 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 or more

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

School months Summer months

Chart 4.3. Percent distribution of employed persons 15 to 17

years of age by average hours worked per week, school and

summer months, 1996-98

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

Percent 

Hours at work

NOTE: Shaded areas are recessionary periods, as designated by the National Bureau of Economic

Research.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.
33

data from the March 1999 supplement,

showing employment status during

March 1999 and family income by

quartile in 1998.6 Like the NLSY97

data, CPS data show that youths in

higher-income families are more likely

to work than are those in lower-income

families.

Only 15 percent of youths whose

families had incomes in the lowest

quartile of the distribution were employed in March 1999. The employment-population ratio rose to 22 percent among those in the second quartile and to 30 percent in the third and

fourth family income groups. A similar pattern emerged within each race/

ethnicity group; however, not all differences between income groups were

statistically significant, as small samples for some race/ethnicity groups

within income groups resulted in wide

variances on the estimates.

Unemployment rates among youths

decline as family income increases. In

March 1999, 31 percent of youths who

were in the labor force and from families in the lowest income quartile (in

1998) were unemployed. By contrast,

only 12 percent of those whose families had incomes in the top quarter of

the distribution were unemployed.

Data for March 1990 and March 1980

(family income in 1989 and 1979, respectively) also are shown in table 4.3,

and suggest that these patterns in employment and unemployment have

existed for many years.

Family type. Youths in marriedcouple families and those not living

with relatives were more likely to be

employed than were those in singleparent families. (See above tabulation.)

In the school months of 1996-98, 27

percent of youths in married-couple

families and 29 percent of those living alone held a job, compared with

19 and 23 percent of those in families

maintained by an unmarried woman

or man. The unemployment rate for

youths in married-couple families was

the lowest among the groups—15 percent, compared with 29 percent for

those in families maintained by

women and 23 percent in families

maintained by men.

As mentioned in chapter 3, families with more adults are generally

more affluent than are those with fewer adults. Youths in families with

more adults or higher incomes may

have greater access to a car or to an

adult who will drive them to a place

of work. It may also be easier for

youths from higher-income families to

find employment. Youths in more affluent communities may also benefit

from relatively tight local labor markets.

It is also possible that nonmarket

work, such as housework and unpaid

child care, more often falls to youths

in single-parent families than to those

in married-couple families. This

would make youths in single-parent

families relatively less available for

market work—or available only for

specific schedules. Their higher unemployment rates indicate, however,

that even among those who are available to work, youths in those families

are less successful at finding employment.

School enrollment status. Each October, the CPS includes supplementary

questions on the school enrollment status of members of the household.

From this supplement, it is possible to

look at the employment patterns of

youths enrolled in high school compared with the patterns of those who

dropped out between the October when

they were surveyed and the previous

October. Table 4.4 shows that the influence of dropping out of high school

affects employment differently for

male and female youths. In October

1996–98, male dropouts were much

more likely to work than were those

who were still in school—40 versus

26 percent, respectively. Female dropouts, by contrast, were about as likely

to work as were their enrolled counterparts. This probably reflects different reasons for dropping out by gender. Female dropouts often leave

school to have a child; caring for the

child restricts their labor force availability.7 Race comparisons were not

possible, as there were too few black

high school dropouts (48,000) to produce reliable estimates. Employmentpopulation ratios for the three expansionary periods in this study indicate

that employment was down both

among youths enrolled in high school

and among dropouts.

Unemployment was higher for high

school dropouts than for those enrolled

in school. (See tabulation below.)

Sample sizes are large enough to compare some selected subgroups of

Unemployment rates of persons 15 to 17 years of age by school enrollment status,

October 1996-98

Total, 15 to 17 years ...................... 281 31.6 15.8

Male ......................................... 138 29.9 16.8

Female ..................................... 143 34.3 14.7

White........................................ 220 27.5 13.9

Total, age 17 .................................. 183 31.2 12.6

Employment status of persons 15 to 17 years of age by family type, school months,

1996-98

Employment-population ratio... 24.7 26.7 19.1 22.9 28.6

Unemployment rate................. 18.7 15.0 29.1 23.1 —

Dash indicates data not shown where base is less than 50,000.

 In marriedcouple

families

Total

 In families

maintained

by women

 In families

maintained

by men

Not living

with

relatives

 Number of high

school dropouts

(in thousands)

Unemployment

rate, high school

dropouts

Unemployment

rate, youths

enrolled in high

school

Group

Measure
34

youths.8 As shown, dropouts’ overall

unemployment rate is nearly twice that

of youths still enrolled in school, and

substantially higher rates occur among

dropouts than among enrollees for all

the groups shown.

Country of birth. As was found in the

NLSY97, the CPS also showed that

youths who were not born in the

United States were less likely to be

employed than were those born in

the United States. Of the 15- to 17-

year-old foreign-born youths, 15 percent were working when surveyed in

1994-98, compared with 28 percent

of U.S.-born youths.9 Unemployment rates also were substantially

higher for foreign-born youths: 27

percent, versus 19 percent for those

born in the United States. As mentioned in chapter 3, these patterns

may reflect a combination of factors

that could reduce the relative success

of foreign-born youths at finding employment, such as problems speaking

English, lower relative job search

skills, fewer employment contacts, or

employment discrimination.10

How much do youths

work?

One strength of the CPS is that it collects information on hours worked per

week. CPS respondents are asked to

report the total hours they actually

worked during the week prior to the

survey. Employed youths work fewer

hours per week during the school

months than during the summer. (See

table 4.5.) In 1996-98, employed

youths (who were at work during the

survey week) aged 15 to 17 worked an

average of about 17 hours a week during the school months and 23 hours

during the summer months.

Like employment, average hours

worked increased with age. During

the school months of 1996-98, employed 15-year-olds worked 12 hours

per week, 16-year-olds worked 16

hours, and 17-year-olds worked 18

hours. The summer-month figures

were 19, 23, and 25 hours, respectively. In 1996-98, employed male

youths worked more hours than did

female youths in both the school and

summer months. White youths were

most likely to hold jobs, but employed

Hispanic youths worked the most

hours per week—21 hours during the

school months, compared with 16

hours for white youths and 18 hours

for black youths.

High school dropouts worked many

more hours than did those enrolled in

high school. In 1996-98, employed

dropouts worked an average of 34

hours per week, while those enrolled

in school worked 15 hours per week.

The number of employed dropouts is

not large enough to make comparisons

by age, sex, or race. Employed youths

born outside the United States work

more hours than do their U.S.-born

peers. As shown in the tabulation

above, in 1994-98, foreign-born youths

worked an average of 24 hours, compared with 18 hours worked by those

born in the United States. Differences

persist across groups for which a comparison could be made.

Chart 4.3 shows a distribution of

weekly work hours among youths during the summer and school months.

During the school year, many employed youths worked a small number

of hours. About 25 percent of employed youths worked 9 or fewer hours

during the school months, compared

with 13 percent during the summer.

Only 6 percent of employed youths

worked full-time (35 hours or more

per week) during the school year,

compared with 20 percent during the

summer.

Over time, the average number of

hours worked by youths fell during the

summer months; hours worked during

the school months were relatively flat.

Chart 4.4 shows annual average hours

trends for employed youths (at work)

aged 15 to 17. Hours dropped subAverage hours at work per week of persons 15 to 17 years of age by country of birth,

1994–98

Total, 15 to 17 years ................... 108 23.8 18.2

Male ....................................... 63 25.8 19.1

White ...................................... 73 25.5 18.1

Hispanic ................................. 56 27.8 20.4

Total, age 17 ............................... 64 25.1 19.9

Number of

employed foreignborn youths

(in thousands)

Average hours,

foreign-born

youths

 Average hours,

youths born

in the United

States

Group

Chart 4.4 Avs 15 to 17 years of

age, school and summer months, 1977-98

Chart 4.4. Average hours at work of persons 15 to 17 

years of age, school and summer months, 1977-98

Hours

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

NOTE: Shaded areas are recessionary periods, as designated by the National Bureau of Economic 

Research.

School months

Summer months

1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

NOTE: Shaded areas are recessionary periods, as designated by the National Bureau of Economic

Research.

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.
35

stantially in the late 1970s and during

the downturns of the early 1980s.

They climbed a bit in the expansionary period in the 1980s but did not return to 1970s levels. Hours dropped

again during the subsequent downturn

in the early 1990s. Hours of work

during school months returned to

prerecession levels, but summer

months did not.

Table 4.5 compares the specified 3-

year periods to minimize the influence

of business cycle fluctuations. As

shown, average hours during the

school year were relatively flat at about

17 percent in each period, while summer-month work hours dropped from

27 to 23 hours between the 1977-79

and 1996-98 periods. Male youths

worked more hours than did female

youths in both the school and summer

months in all three periods. The pattern of longer work hours for Hispanic

youths than for white or black youths

also persisted in the school months of

all three periods studied.

How much do youths

earn?

The minimum wage often is associated with young workers first entering the labor force. CPS data indicate

that earnings were above the minimum

wage for most youths. The minimum

was $5.15 in 1998.11 The CPS measures hourly earnings of wage and salary workers paid hourly rates. Of the

3.3 million youths employed in 1998,

2.9 million (89 percent) were included

in this hourly pay calculation.

Hourly earnings in the school and

summer months are about the same.

Thus, annual averages are used for

comparisons in this section. In 1998,

median earnings of 15- to 17-year-olds

combined were $5.57 per hour. In

1998, hourly earnings increased with

age: 15-year-olds earned a median of

$5.38 per hour, 16-year-olds earned

$5.52, and 17-year-olds earned $5.65

per hour. Earnings varied slightly

across sex and race groups. Hispanic

and white males had the highest median hourly earnings; Hispanic and

black females had the lowest. (See

table 4.6.) Chart 4.5 shows the earnings distribution of youths by single

year of age. As shown, the vast majority of workers at each age have earnings between $5 and $7 an hour.

Even among 15-year-olds, most

young workers earned more than the

1998 minimum wage of $5.15. As

shown in the tabulation above, more

than half of 15-year-olds earned more

than the minimum wage. A quarter

earned less than the minimum wage,

as some occupations—including many

food service jobs—are exempt from the

minimum wage or may pay a training

wage for a specified period. The proportion of employed youths who

earned more than the minimum wage

increased to 71 percent of 16-year-olds

and to three-fourths of those aged 17.

Earnings of youths in 1998 were

lower in real terms than in 1979 and

higher than in 1989.12 The Federal

minimum wage in force in 1989 was

set in 1981, and the minimum was not

raised until 1990.13 Over that period,

earnings of youths declined in real

terms.

Where do youths work?

In a similar fashion to chapter 3, the

following section examines the types

of work youths perform. Data are

again pooled across 3-year periods from

1977-79, 1987-89, and 1996-98 and are

reported separately for school and

summer months. Class of worker, industry, and occupation distributions of

employed youth are examined.

Class of worker. In 1996-98, 97 percent of employed youths aged 15 to 17

were classified in the CPS as wage and

salary workers. Only 2 percent of the

2.9 million youths aged 15 to 17 working in the school months of the period

were self-employed, and fewer than 1

percent were classified as unpaid family workers. (See table 4.7.)

Persons who work for profit or fees

in their own business, shop, or farm

are classified as self-employed in the

Hourly earnings of persons 15 to 17 years of age, 1998

Total, 15 to 17 years .............. 2,908 17 12 71

15 years ............................ 353 27 14 59

16 years ............................ 980 17 13 71

17 years ............................ 1,574 15 11 74

Total paid by

the hour

(in thousands)

Percent paid:

Below the

minimum wage

 At the

minimum wage

 Above the

minimum

wage

Age

Under $4.00 $4.00-$4.99 $5.00-$5.99 $6.00-$6.99 $7.00-$7.99 $8.00 or more

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Age 15 Age 16 Age 17

Chart 4.5. Percent distribution of hourly earnings of employed 

wage and salary workers 15 to 17 years of age who were paid 

hourly rates by single year of age, 1998 annual averages

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

Percent 

Hourly earnings Hours at work
36

CPS. Work on an odd-job or casual

basis is typically reported as work for

a private company, business, or individual. In general, persons who work

in another person’s home, such as

groundskeepers and gardeners or child

care providers, are reported in the CPS

as wage and salary employees—that

is, they work for a private employer.

Such persons are not self-employed

unless they own a business that provides such services.

Male youths were more likely to be

self-employed than were female

youths—3 percent versus 2 percent,

respectively—in the school months of

the 1996-98 period. Self-employment

declined with age: about 6 percent of

working 15-year-olds were self-employed, compared with only 2 percent

of 16-year-olds and 1 percent of 17-

year-olds. Self-employment increased

in the summer months, particularly in

agricultural industries and among

male youths, although such work still

accounted for only a fraction of all work

by youths, and was mostly lawn care.

While reported as self-employed,

most such youths fell into jobs traditionally held by young persons: lawn

care (groundskeepers and gardeners—

22 percent of employed youths in the

school months of the 1996-98 period),

babysitting (family child care providers—19 percent), and newspaper delivery (news vendors—12 percent).

Not surprisingly, a large proportion of

self-employed male youths performed

lawn care—34 percent in the school

months and 64 percent in the summer

months. More than 2 in 5 self-employed female youths were employed

in family child care—47 percent in

school months and 43 percent in summer months.

Fewer than 1 percent of all employed youths in the school months of

1996-98 were unpaid family workers,

that is, persons working more than 15

hours per week in a family-owned

business. Unpaid family work was

more common in agriculture than in

nonagricultural industries. In the

school months of 1996-98, 9 percent

of youths 15 to 17 years of age who

were employed in agriculture worked

for no pay on a family farm. The percentage of employed youths who were

unpaid family workers fell from the

1977-79 period, when 2 percent of all

employed youths and 27 percent of

youths employed in agriculture were

unpaid family workers.

Industry. About 62 percent of youths

aged 15 to 17 employed during the

school months of the 1996-98 period

worked in retail trade, more than in

any other major industry. Within retail trade, eating and drinking places

accounted for the greatest share of employed youths, about one-third of all

employed 15- to 17-year-olds. Another 1 in 4 youths was employed in

service industries. In the summer,

youth employment was less concentrated in retail trade and youths were

employed in a wider variety of industries than during the school

months. Retail trade still accounted

for about half, services increased to

30 percent, and employment in agriculture and goods-producing industries (mining, construction, and

manufacturing) increased. This seasonal pattern of employment also

was present in earlier periods.

The concentration of youth employment in retail trade increased from 48

percent in the 1977-79 period to 59

percent in 1987-89 and to 62 percent

in 1996-98. The share of youths employed in eating and drinking places

also increased. The percent of youths

employed in services fell from the

1977-79 to 1996-98 period, largely

Agriculture 

Eating and drinking 

Other retail

Services

Other

Agriculture 

Mining, construction

Eating and drinking 

Other retail Services

Other

places 

(31 percent)

(29 percent) (19 percent)

(4 percent)

(8 percent)

and manufacturing 

 (17 percent)

Chart 4.6. Distribution of employed youths 15 to 17 years of age 

by sex and industry, school months, 1996-98

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

Retail trade

(60 percent)

Males

places 

(33 percent)

(31 percent)

(29 percent)

(3 percent)

(2 percent)

Mining, construction,

and manufacturing 

 (2 percent)

Retail trade

(60 percent)

Females

(63 percent)

(9 percent)

Male

Female

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.

Eating and drinking

places

(33 percent)
37

because employment in private households fell from 12 to 3 percent of employed youths. The proportion of

youths employed in entertainment and

recreation services doubled from 3 to

6 percent of employed youths (from 4

to 9 percent in the summer months).

(See table 4.8.)

Male youths were far more likely

to work in agriculture (8 percent) and

goods-producing industries such as

mining, construction, and manufacturing (9 percent combined) than were

female youths (2 percent each). Female youths were more likely to work

in retail trade (63 percent) and services

(29 percent) than their male counterparts (60 and 19 percent, respectively)

and also were more likely to be employed in private households (6 percent) than were male youths (1 percent). (See chart 4.6.)

Table 4.9 lists the top 10 industries

in which male and female youths

worked in the school months of the

1996-98 period. Four of the ten most

common detailed industries in which

employed male youths worked and six

of the top ten industries in which female youths worked were in retail

trade. Eating and drinking places and

grocery stores were the largest employers of both male youths (accounting

for 31 and 14 percent, respectively)

and female youths (33 and 10 percent).

Black youths were more likely to

be employed in retail trade (71 percent) than were white or Hispanic

youths (61 and 62 percent, respectively). Black youths were less likely

to be employed in goods-producing

industries (3 percent) than were white

or Hispanic youths (6 and 8 percent,

respectively). White youths were more

likely to be employed in agriculture

and private households than were their

black or Hispanic counterparts.

The percentage of youths employed

in retail trade increased between ages

15 and 16, and was driven by increases

in the proportion of youths employed

in eating and drinking places. The 15-

year-olds were more likely to work in

agriculture (male youths) and private

household services (female youths)

than were older employed youths. ReManagerial,

Other sales

Cashiers

Other service

Managerial,

Other sales

Other service Cashiers

Food preparation

Precision 

Handlers and

professional, 

and technical 

 (3 percent)

Chart 4.7. Distribution of employed youths 15 to 17 years of age

by sex and occupation, school months, 1996-98

SOURCE: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997.

Service 

occupations 

(37 percent)

Males

Farming, forestry,

and fishing 

 (9 percent)

laborers 

 (21 percent)

production,

operators, and 

transportation 

 (7 percent)

and service 

 (29 percent)

Sales 

occupations 

(8 percent) (18 percent)

(8 percent) Administrative

support 

(4 percent)

(10 percent)

professional, 

and technical 

 (3 percent)

Service 

occupations 

(41 percent)

Females

Farming, forestry,

and fishing 

 (2 percent)

Handlers and

laborers 

(4 percent)

Precision 

production,

operators, and 

transportation 

 (2 percent)

Food preparation

and service 

 (26 percent)

Sales 

occupations 

(15 percent) (37 percent)

(13 percent)

Administrative

support 

(11 percent)

(24 percent)

strictions on types of work available

to younger youths, a greater desire for

more casual employment arrangements, and legal driving ages that restrict the mobility of 15-year-olds may

be responsible for these differences.

Occupation. Occupational data provide a slightly different perspective on

youth employment patterns. In the

1996-98 school months, 39 percent of

employed youths worked in service

occupations and 27 percent worked in

sales. Twenty seven percent of working youths were employed in food

preparation and service occupations.

Thirteen percent of youths were employed in general labor occupations

(handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers) and 8 percent were

in administrative, including clerical,

occupations. In the summer months,

more youths were employed in farming occupations and fewer were in

sales. (See table 4.10.)

Between the 1987-89 and 1996-98

periods, employment in sales occupations increased slightly from 24 percent to 27 percent.14 The proportion

of youths working as cashiers rose

from 12 percent to 17 percent. Employment in services fell slightly from

1987-89 to 1996-98. Within services,

a smaller proportion of youths performed child care, but employment in

food preparation and service increased.

Youth employment in other skilled

(precision production occupations,

operators, and transportation occupations) and general labor trades deSOURCE: Current Population Survey.

Female

Male

SOURCE: Current Population Survey.
38

creased over the period.

Male and female youths were about

equally likely to work in food preparation and service occupations (29 and

26 percent, respectively). Much larger

percentages of male youths were employed in production (7 percent), general labor (21 percent), and farm (9

percent) occupations than was the case

for female youths (2, 4, and 2 percent,

respectively). Female youths were

more likely to be employed in sales occupations (37 percent), particularly as

cashiers (24 percent), than were male

youths (18 and 10 percent, respectively). Female youths also were more

likely to work in administrative support occupations (11 percent) and in

child care (7 percent) than were male

youths (4 and 1 percent, respectively).

(See chart 4.7.)

Table 4.11 shows employment in

the 10 largest occupations by gender

for the school months of the 1996-98

period. Stock handlers and baggers

(13 percent of all working 15- to 17-

year-old male youths) and cooks (12

percent) topped the list of occupations

among male youths. About 1 of 4

working female youths was a cashier.

In the summer months more male

youths worked as landscapers and gardeners and more female youths worked

as child care providers.

A larger percentage of black youths

were employed in sales (38 percent)

than was the case for white or Hispanic youths (26 and 27 percent, respectively). White youths were more

likely to provide child care than were

black or Hispanic youths. More white

youths (6 percent) were employed in

farm occupations (primarily as

groundskeepers and gardeners) than

was the case for Hispanic (4 percent)

or black (1 percent) youths.

As noted in chapter 3 and in the

industry discussion earlier in this

chapter, youths moved out of more casual employment relationships into

more formal arrangements as they

aged. One in five female youths

worked in private household occupations at age 15, but only 5 percent of

16-year-olds and 3 percent of 17-yearolds did so. Among male youths, 18

percent of working 15-year-olds held

farming occupations (primarily lawn

care). That share fell to 9 percent

among 16-year-olds, and 7 percent

among 17-year-olds. Older youths

were more likely to work in food

preparation and service and administrative support occupations than were

younger youths. Only 19 percent of

working 15-year-olds held sales jobs,

compared with 28 percent of 16-yearolds and 29 percent of 17-year-olds. A

larger percentage of 17-year-olds

worked in skilled trade occupations

than was the case for their younger

counterparts.

Summary

Current Population Survey data show

that employment and unemployment

patterns among 15- to 17-year-olds

vary by demographic characteristics

such as age, sex, race, and Hispanic

origin. Over the 1977-98 period, the

proportion of youths holding a job and

their hours of work have declined.

The likelihood of youths working

or being unemployed is influenced by

many factors, including age, race,

family type, family income, school-enrollment status, and country of birth.

Youths are employed in a variety of

occupations and industries, moving out

of more casual employment arrangements—such as babysitting and lawn

care—to more formal employment

arrangements as they get older.
39

allows proxy responses. In fact, household members other than the youths were the primary respondents in 92 percent of households with

youths aged 15 to 17. The proportion of households with such proxy response declines as the

young person’s age increases. In 1998, other

members were primary respondents in 94 percent of households with 15-year-olds. The rates

were 92 percent and 90 percent in households

with 16- and 17-year-olds, respectively. More

discussion on the effect of proxy responses on

employment estimates is available in the CPSNLSY comparison in the appendix. 5

 Detail for the white, black, and Hispanic-origin groups presented in this chapter will not sum

to totals because data for the “other races” group

are not presented and Hispanics are included in

both the white and black population groups. The

NLSY97 data presented in chapter 3 are not

strictly comparable, as they report mutually

exlcusive categories of white (non-Hispanic),

black (non-Hispanic), and Hispanic origin. 6

 Annual income figures are available only

from the March supplement. Therefore, employment-population ratios shown in table 4.3 also are

derived from the March supplement. As a result

of the small 1-month sample size, the variances of

these ratios are higher than those of annual averages or 3-year averages presented elsewhere in the

article. Rates should be used to discern patterns

by income group. Pooled data are a better source

of information for overall representations of

youths’ work activity. 7

 For information on high school dropout rates

and reasons, see Dropout Rates in the United

States: 1998 (Washington, National Center for

Education Statistics, December 1, 1999). Also,

see A Comparison of High School Dropout

Rates in 1982 and 1992 (Washington, National

Center for Education Statistics, October 1996).

Both reports are available on the NCES Internet

site at http://nces.ed.gov. 8

 The text table shows comparisons for those

groups with at least 50,000 youths (weighted count)

in the labor force (employed plus unemployed). 9

 Data on country of birth have been available

since the 1994 redesign of the CPS. Data discussed

are pooled for 1994-98 to maximize the sample. 10 For a discussion of the labor force characteristics of foreign-born workers, see Joseph R.

Meisenheimer, “How do immigrants fare in the

U.S. labor market?” Monthly Labor Review,

December 1992, pp. 3-19. 11 In 1996, Congress amended the Fair Labor Standards Act, creating Section 6(g)(1),

which allows employers to pay any employee

who is under age 20 a minimum wage of $4.25

per hour during the employee’s first 90 calendar

days of employment. 12 The $5.57 median in 1998 can be compared

with $4.96 in 1989 and $6.21 in 1979. The 1979

minimum wage of $2.90 is equal to $6.10 in 1998

dollars. The CPI-U-RS is used to adjust these figures. This research index is discussed in Kenneth

Stewart and Stephen Reed, “CPI research series

using current methods, 1978-98,” Monthly Labor Review, June 1999, pp. 29-38. 13 Historical changes to the minimum wage

are presented on the Department of Labor, Employment Standards Administration website on the

Internet at: http://www.dol.gov/dol/esa/public/

minwage/chart.htm. 14 Occupational data from the 1977-79 period

are not reported due to major changes in the occupational classification system starting in the CPS

in 1983.

This chapter was contributed by Diane Herz

and Karen Kosanovich, economists with the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. The authors thank Martha Duff, Yen-chun

Kuo, Robert McIntire, Patricia Merritt, Josephyne

Price, and Edwin Robison for their assistance in

the preparation of data for this report. 1 In an average month in 1998, data were collected for 5,500 youths aged 15, 16, and 17, split

about evenly among the three ages. The sample

included 4,515 whites, 671 blacks, and 611 Hispanics. Dividing the data into employment status

and occupational and industry categories reduces

the accuracy of the estimates. When 3 years of

data are pooled, variances on estimates of levels

and changes are reduced by about two-thirds. 2

 The actual dates when youths attend school

and take summer vacations vary across States and

some local areas. For this analysis, approximate

months of attendance were chosen. School months

in a particular year refer to a combination of data

from January through May and from September to

December of the calendar year. Summer months

are defined as June through August. 3

 The employment-population ratio is shown

here, rather than the commonly presented labor

force participation rate. This choice was made

because the components of the labor force—employment and unemployment—vary widely for

youths. They are discussed separately. The CPS

employment measure is an average of employment during each of the 3 summer months or the

9 school months; it is not a measure of work at

any time across the 3-month or 9-month period

(as is the NLSY97 measure of employment during one’s 14th or 15th year). 4

 Unlike the NSLY97, which interviews youths

about their own employment experience, the CPS
40

Table 4.1. Employment-population ratios of persons 15 to 17 years of age by

selected characteristics, school and summer months, 1977-79, 1987-89, and

1996-98

Total, 15 to 17 years ................ 29.8 27.6 24.7 42.6 39.6 33.8

Male ....................................... 31.4 27.4 24.3 47.7 41.8 34.3

Female .................................. 28.1 27.9 25.2 37.4 37.4 33.3

 Age 15 .................................... 17.3 13.7 9.4 29.9 24.5 17.7

 Age 16 .................................... 29.5 27.7 25.8 43.2 41.4 36.0

 Age 17 .................................... 42.6 40.4 39.0 54.5 51.9 47.8

White, 15 to 17 years ........... 33.2 30.9 27.8 46.1 43.3 37.6

Male .................................... 34.8 30.5 27.3 51.2 45.3 38.1

Female ............................... 31.5 31.2 28.4 40.8 41.3 37.0

Black, 15 to 17 years ........... 10.7 12.9 12.8 22.8 23.8 20.1

Male .................................... 12.3 13.4 12.0 27.4 27.2 20.0

Female ............................... 9.2 12.4 13.7 18.2 20.3 20.2

 Hispanic origin,

 15 to 17 years .................... 19.8 17.1 14.6 30.4 24.2 19.6

Male .................................... 23.5 18.9 15.4 34.6 26.7 22.1

Female ............................... 15.7 15.3 13.7 26.4 21.8 16.7

Sex, age, race, and

Hispanic origin

School months Summer months

1977-79 1987-89 1996-98 1977-79 1987-89 1996-98

NOTE: School months are January to May and September to December. Summer months are June,

July, and August.

Total, 15 to 17 years ................ 19.1 18.3 18.7 19.6 18.2 19.1

Male ....................................... 19.6 19.8 20.2 18.6 18.3 20.2

Female .................................. 18.6 16.6 17.1 20.9 18.1 17.8

Age 15 ................................... 17.4 19.1 23.5 19.6 19.0 21.9

Age 16 ................................... 22.3 20.7 21.2 20.9 19.7 20.3

 Age 17 .................................. 17.5 16.2 15.6 18.6 16.7 17.0

White, 15 to 17 years ........... 17.1 16.2 16.5 16.7 15.5 16.2

Male.................................... 17.7 17.9 18.0 16.0 15.5 17.2

Female ............................... 16.4 14.4 14.8 17.7 15.4 15.1

Black, 15 to 17 years ........... 44.3 37.3 35.0 43.3 35.9 37.0

Male.................................... 42.6 36.9 37.1 40.1 35.0 39.4

Female ............................... 46.4 37.7 32.9 47.5 37.0 34.4

Hispanic origin,

 15 to 17 years .................... 28.8 27.2 29.5 28.7 30.2 30.4

Male.................................... 26.1 27.3 29.6 29.2 30.5 28.9

Female ............................... 32.8 27.2 29.3 28.0 29.9 32.5

NOTE: School months are January to May and September to December. Summer months are June,

July, and August.

Sex, age, race, and

Hispanic origin

School months Summer months

1977-79 1987-89 1996-98 1977-79 1987-89 1996-98

Table 4.2. Unemployment rates of persons 15 to 17 years of age by selected

characteristics, school and summer months, 1977-79, 1987-89, and 1996-98
41

Table 4.3. Employment status of persons 15 to 17 years of age by family income in previous year,

March 1980, 1990, and 1999

 Employment-population ratio

Total, 15 to 17 years, March 1999 ........................ 23.9 15.0 22.1 29.5 29.5

Male .................................................................... 23.3 14.2 21.5 29.0 28.5

Female ............................................................... 24.6 15.9 22.6 30.0 30.5

Age 15 ................................................................ 9.7 6.2 9.7 12.1 10.9

Age 16 ................................................................ 24.8 16.0 21.8 32.3 29.7

Age 17 ................................................................ 37.0 23.1 36.1 42.3 45.6

White, 15 to 17 years ........................................ 26.9 17.3 25.4 32.1 30.4

Black, 15 to 17 years ........................................ 11.9 9.9 8.5 16.9 21.4

Hispanic origin, 15 to 17 years .......................... 14.6 10.9 15.4 19.6 22.1

Total, 15 to 17 years:

March 1990 ........................................................ 26.6 16.5 27.0 29.7 35.3

March 1980 ........................................................ 28.4 17.6 26.8 34.5 36.9

 Unemployment rate

Total, 15 to 17 years, March 1999 ........................ 18.7 30.6 22.8 13.9 12.0

Male .................................................................... 20.1 34.7 24.8 13.7 13.1

Female ............................................................... 17.1 26.3 20.7 14.2 10.9

Age 15 ................................................................ 22.3 37.1 27.7 15.8 9.5

Age 16 ................................................................ 20.8 29.9 31.0 11.1 15.1

Age 17 ................................................................ 16.2 29.1 14.3 15.4 10.5

White, 15 to 17 years ........................................ 16.4 26.8 18.9 12.9 12.5

Black, 15 to 17 years ........................................ 38.5 45.0 51.9 26.3 11.1

Hispanic origin, 15 to 17 years .......................... 24.1 32.4 20.8 19.9 11.8

Total, 15 to 17 years:

March 1990 ........................................................ 17.8 29.6 18.9 15.2 9.9

March 1980 ........................................................ 19.3 30.1 20.5 16.3 13.1

NOTE: Income divisions were determined using quartiles in 1998. Divisions for earlier years were determined by deflating

1998 income categories by the CPI-U-RS.

$27,300-

$50,999

Family income in 1998 dollars

$51,000-

$79,999

Total in

families More than

$79,999

Indicator and characteristic Less than

$27,300

Total, 15 to 17 years

 (in thousands) ........................ 10,882 9,398 10,902 295 200 281

Total, 15 to 17 years (percent). 30.3 29.2 25.8 42.0 35.6 31.7

Male ....................................... 32.0 28.6 25.4 54.4 47.9 40.1

Female .................................. 28.6 29.9 26.1 31.6 25.8 23.6

Age 15 ................................... 18.1 15.8 10.5 – – –

Age 16 ................................... 31.8 30.6 27.4 28.6 30.5 30.3

Age 17 ................................... 43.5 41.3 40.5 47.4 39.4 35.2

White, 15 to 17 years ........... 34.0 32.4 28.8 44.2 38.0 35.8

Male.................................... 35.6 31.9 28.3 56.0 51.6 45.0

Female ............................... 32.4 32.9 29.3 34.0 27.0 26.3

Black, 15 to 17 years ........... 9.6 14.6 14.4 – – –

Hispanic origin,

 15 to 17 years .................... 18.2 16.7 13.7 – 31.2 35.5

NOTE: Dash indicates data not shown where base is less than 50,000.

1 Recent dropouts are persons who dropped out of high school between October of the survey year

and the previous October.

Sex, age, race,

and Hispanic origin

Enrolled in high school Recent dropouts1

1977-79 1987-89 1996-98 1977-79 1987-89 1996-98

Employment-population ratio

Table 4.4. Employment of persons 15 to 17 years of age by school enrollment

status and selected characteristics, October 1977-79, 1987-89, and 1996-98
42

Table 4.5. Average hours at work per week of persons 15 to 17 years of age by

selected characteristics, school and summer months, 1977-79, 1987-89, and

1996-98

Total, 15 to 17 years ................. 17.4 16.5 16.5 26.7 24.7 23.0

Male ........................................ 18.7 17.4 17.2 28.4 25.8 24.2

Female ................................... 16.0 15.6 15.8 24.5 23.3 21.6

Age 15 .................................... 11.7 11.6 11.6 21.9 20.3 18.9

Age 16 .................................... 16.3 15.5 15.7 26.2 24.0 22.4

Age 17 .................................... 20.6 18.6 18.2 29.7 27.1 24.9

White, 15 to 17 years ............ 17.4 16.4 16.4 26.9 24.7 23.0

Male ..................................... 18.8 17.3 17.1 28.7 25.9 24.3

Female ................................ 15.9 15.4 15.6 24.5 23.2 21.5

Black, 15 to 17 years ............ 17.8 17.7 18.1 25.0 24.7 22.8

Male ..................................... 17.8 18.1 18.2 24.6 24.9 23.7

Female ................................ 17.6 17.3 18.1 25.5 24.5 21.9

Hispanic origin,

 15 to 17 years ..................... 21.8 21.4 21.0 28.5 27.3 25.1

Male ..................................... 22.8 22.4 22.3 29.3 28.3 26.2

Female ................................ 20.2 20.2 19.3 27.4 26.1 23.4

NOTE: School months are January to May and September to December. Summer months are

June, July, and August.

Table 4.6. Median hourly earnings of employed wage and salary workers

15 to 17 years of age paid hourly rates by selected characteristics, annual

averages, 1998, 1989, and 1979

Total, 15 to 17 years ..................................... 2,908 $5.57 $4.96 $6.21

Male ............................................................ 1,430 5.60 5.09 6.33

Female ....................................................... 1,477 5.54 4.83 6.07

Age 15 ........................................................ 353 5.38 4.69 5.60

Age 16 ........................................................ 980 5.52 4.89 6.18

Age 17 ........................................................ 1,574 5.65 5.08 6.34

White, 15 to 17 years ................................ 2,558 5.57 4.96 6.20

Male......................................................... 1,259 5.61 5.10 6.34

Female .................................................... 1,298 5.54 4.80 6.05

Black, 15 to 17 years ................................ 264 5.47 4.81 6.24

Male......................................................... 123 5.43 4.77 6.20

Female .................................................... 140 5.51 4.86 6.29

Hispanic origin, 15 to 17 years .................. 248 5.59 5.24 6.30

Male......................................................... 140 5.73 5.29 6.34

 Female .................................................... 108 5.41 5.17 6.25

Total paid by

the hour

in 1998

(in thousands)

Sex, age, race, and Hispanic origin

Median hourly earnings

 (constant 1998 dollars)

1998 1989 1979

School months Summer months Sex, age, race, and

Hispanic origin 1977-79 1987-89 1996-98 1977-79 1987-89 1996-98
43

Table 4.7. Employed persons 15 to 17 years of age by class of worker and selected characteristics, school and summer

months, 1996-98, 1987-89, and 1977-79

 1996-98

Total, 15 to 17 years ............................... 2,896 97.1 2.3 0.6 3,969 95.9 3.3 0.8

Male ...................................................... 1,460 96.3 2.9 0.8 2,070 94.7 4.3 1.1

Female ................................................. 1,437 97.8 1.8 0.3 1,899 97.2 2.2 0.6

Age 15 .................................................. 366 92.3 6.3 1.4 694 90.3 8.2 1.4

Age 16 .................................................. 1,011 97.2 2.2 0.6 1,412 96.0 3.0 0.9

Age 17 .................................................. 1,520 98.1 1.4 0.4 1,862 97.9 1.6 0.5

White, 15 to 17 years .......................... 2,569 97.0 2.4 0.6 3,474 95.7 3.5 0.8

Black, 15 to 17 years .......................... 240 98.8 1.3 0.0 376 98.4 1.3 0.5

Hispanic origin, 15 to 17 years ............ 225 97.3 1.8 0.9 309 96.8 1.6 1.6

Total, 15 to 17 years:

1987-89 ................................................ 2,926 97.0 2.0 1.0 4,203 96.2 2.4 1.4

1977-79 ................................................ 3,696 95.0 2.8 2.2 5,274 94.5 2.4 3.1

NOTE: School months are January to May and September to December. Summer months are June, July, and August.

School months Summer months

Sex, age, race, and

Hispanic origin

Percent distribution

Total

employed

(in thousands)

Percent distribution

Total

employed

(in thousands)

Selfemployed

workers

Wage and

salary

workers

Unpaid

family

workers

Wage and

salary

workers

Selfemployed

workers

Unpaid

family

workers

Table 4.8. Distribution of employed persons 15 to 17 years of age by industry and sex, school and

summer months, 1977-79, 1987-89, and 1996-98

Total, 15 to 17 years .................................................. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture ............................................................... 6.4 4.5 4.8 10.6 7.7 7.7

Mining, construction, and manufacturing ................ 10.9 6.5 5.6 12.7 8.4 6.7

Retail ....................................................................... 48.2 58.9 61.6 37.4 47.7 51.1

Eating and drinking places ................................... 21.9 28.2 31.9 18.2 24.2 27.1

Other retail ........................................................... 26.3 30.7 29.7 19.2 23.5 24.0

Services .................................................................. 29.3 25.7 24.2 31.5 30.1 29.7

Other industries ....................................................... 5.1 4.2 3.8 7.8 6.1 4.7

Male, 15 to 17 years .................................................. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture ............................................................... 9.9 7.2 7.7 14.5 12.1 12.1

Mining, construction, and manufacturing ................ 16.2 9.7 9.0 18.3 12.7 10.4

Retail ....................................................................... 47.9 59.3 59.9 34.8 44.7 47.7

Eating and drinking places ................................... 19.4 27.5 31.3 14.5 21.4 25.7

Other retail ........................................................... 28.6 31.7 28.6 20.3 23.4 22.0

Services .................................................................. 20.5 19.4 19.4 24.0 24.0 24.4

Other industries ....................................................... 5.6 4.4 4.1 8.5 6.5 5.3

Female, 15 to 17 years ............................................. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture ............................................................... 2.4 1.8 1.9 5.4 2.6 3.0

Mining, construction, and manufacturing ................ 5.1 3.3 2.2 5.4 3.4 2.7

Retail ....................................................................... 48.6 58.6 63.4 40.7 51.2 54.9

Eating and drinking places ................................... 24.9 29.0 32.6 22.9 27.5 28.6

Other retail ........................................................... 23.7 29.6 30.8 17.8 23.7 26.3

Services .................................................................. 39.4 32.2 29.0 41.3 37.1 35.6

Other industries ....................................................... 4.6 4.1 3.4 7.2 5.7 3.8

School months Summer months

Industry

1977-79 1987-89 1987-89 1996-98 1977-79 1996-98

NOTE: School months are January to May and September to

December. Summer months are June, July, and August. Industry

detail may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

1

 Other industries include transportation, communication, and

utilities and sanitary services; wholesale trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; and public administration.

1

1

1
44

Table 4.9. Industries that employ the largest share of employed persons 15 to 17

years of age by sex, school months, 1996-98

Eating and drinking places ....................................................................... 31.3

Grocery stores ......................................................................................... 13.6

Miscellaneous entertainment and recreation services ............................. 4.5

Agricultural production, livestock ............................................................. 3.6

Construction ............................................................................................. 3.6

Department stores ................................................................................... 3.1

Landscape and horticultural services ...................................................... 2.2

Newspaper publishing and printing ........................................................... 1.9

Agricultural production, crops .................................................................. 1.5

Gasoline service stations ........................................................................ 1.3

 Female

Eating and drinking places ....................................................................... 32.6

Grocery stores ......................................................................................... 9.9

Private households .................................................................................. 5.7

Department stores ................................................................................... 4.4

Miscellaneous entertainment and recreation services ............................. 4.0

Stores, apparel and accessory, except shoe .......................................... 3.6

Drug stores .............................................................................................. 1.9

Nursing and personal care facilities ........................................................ 1.7

Retail bakeries ......................................................................................... 1.5

Child day care services........................................................................... 1.4

NOTE: School months are January to May and September to December.

Percent of total

employed youths

Male

 Industry
45

Table 4.10. Distribution of employed persons 15 to 17 years of age by occupation

and sex, school and summer months, 1987-89 and 1996-98

Total, 15 to 17 years ........................................ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Executive, professional, and technical ........ 2.4 3.3 2.5 2.9

Sales ............................................................. 24.3 27.3 18.7 21.9

Cashiers ..................................................... 12.0 16.9 9.7 13.6

Other sales ................................................ 12.3 10.5 9.0 8.3

Administrative support, including

 clerical ........................................................ 7.9 7.6 7.8 7.9

Service .......................................................... 40.2 38.8 39.5 39.9

Food preparation and service .................... 25.3 27.4 22.1 24.0

Other service ............................................. 14.8 11.4 17.4 15.9

Precision production, operators, and

 transportation ............................................. 5.3 4.5 6.3 5.0

Handlers and laborers ................................... 13.9 12.9 13.7 12.4

Farm, forestry, and fishing .......................... 6.0 5.6 11.6 9.9

Male, 15 to 17 years ........................................ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Executive, professional, and technical ........ 2.2 3.1 2.5 3.0

Sales ............................................................. 14.6 17.7 10.5 13.2

Cashiers ..................................................... 5.0 9.6 4.1 7.1

Other sales ................................................ 9.6 8.2 6.4 6.1

 Administrative support, including

 clerical ........................................................ 4.4 4.3 4.1 4.4

Service .......................................................... 35.9 37.1 32.0 35.3

Food preparation and service .................... 26.4 28.7 21.0 23.8

 Other service ............................................. 9.5 8.3 11.0 11.6

Precision production, operators, and

 transportation ............................................. 8.5 7.3 9.5 7.9

Handlers and laborers ................................... 24.2 21.4 22.5 20.3

Farm, forestry, and fishing .......................... 10.2 9.1 18.9 15.8

Female, 15 to 17 years ................................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Executive, professional, and technical ........ 2.6 3.3 2.5 2.8

Sales ............................................................. 34.2 37.1 28.3 31.4

Cashiers ..................................................... 19.1 24.3 16.2 20.7

Other sales ................................................ 15.0 12.8 12.1 10.7

Administrative support, including

 clerical ........................................................ 11.6 11.0 12.0 11.8

Service .......................................................... 44.6 40.5 48.2 44.8

Food preparation and service .................... 24.3 26.1 23.4 24.3

Other service ............................................. 20.3 14.5 24.8 20.6

Precision production, operators, and

 transportation .............................................. 2.0 1.8 2.4 1.9

Handlers and laborers ................................... 3.4 4.4 3.4 3.9

Farm, forestry, and fishing .......................... 1.7 1.9 3.1 3.5

Occupation

School months Summer months

1996-98 1987-89 1996-98

NOTE: School months are January to May

and September to December. Summer months

are June, July, and August.

Occupational data from the 1977-79 period

are not reported due to major changes in the

occupational classification system starting in the

CPS in 1983.

 Occupation detail may not sum to 100 due to

rounding.

1987-89
46

Table 4.11. Occupations that employ the largest share of employed persons 15 to

17 years of age by sex, school months, 1996-98

Stock handlers and baggers ................................................................... 13.4

Cooks ...................................................................................................... 12.0

Cashiers .................................................................................................. 9.6

Waiters’ and waitresses’ assistants ....................................................... 5.2

Miscellaneous food preparation occupations .......................................... 5.1

Farm workers .......................................................................................... 4.7

Janitors and cleaners .............................................................................. 4.2

Food counter, fountain, and related occupations ................................... 3.5

Groundskeepers and gardeners, except farm ........................................ 3.3

Sales workers, other commodities .......................................................... 2.3

Cashiers .................................................................................................. 24.3

Food counter, fountain, and related occupations ................................... 6.5

Waiters and waitresses ........................................................................... 6.4

Sales workers, other commodities .......................................................... 5.1

Child care workers, private household .................................................... 4.9

Cooks ...................................................................................................... 4.4

Stock handlers and baggers ................................................................... 3.3

Sales workers, apparel ............................................................................ 3.2

Supervisors, food preparation and service occupations ........................ 3.1

Waiters’ and waitresses’ assistants ....................................................... 2.9

NOTE: School months are January to May and September to December.

Percent of total

employed youths

Male

Female

 Occupation
47

Chapters 3 and 4 present information

on youth employment from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth

1997 (NLSY97) and the Current Population Survey (CPS), respectively.

Table 4.A1 includes the percent of

youths employed from table 3.1 in

chapter 3 (NLSY97 data) and table 4.1

in chapter 4 (CPS data). According

to the CPS, during the 1996-98 period,

an average of 18 percent of 15-yearolds worked during summer months

and 9 percent worked during school

months. By comparison, the NLSY97

estimated that 64 percent of youths had

participated in some type of work activity at some point during the year

they were aged 15.

Previous research also has found

differences in youth employment data

from longitudinal surveys such as the

older National Longitudinal Survey

(NLS) cohorts and cross-sectional surveys such as the CPS.1

 This appendix

explores possible reasons for the differences in these estimates, and also

provides some empirical evidence on

their possible effects.

Reasons for the differences in

youth employment between the

CPS and NLSY97

Why do the two surveys exhibit such

large differences in the employmentpopulation ratios of youths at these

ages? As discussed below, the divergence in estimates partly reflects differences in the concepts—especially

the reference periods for employment—

being measured by the two surveys.

Also, differences in survey design—

such as the degree of probing in the

interview protocol, the use of personal

or proxy respondents, and difference

in the mode of data collection—may

be contributing factors.

Different reference periods. A primary reason for the divergence is that

data from the two surveys refer to very

different reference periods. The data

for the NLSY97 in table 4.A1 refer to

the 52-week periods during which

youths were aged 14 (the year between

their 14th and 15th birthdays) and

aged 15 (the year between their 15th

and 16th birthdays). The youths essentially are asked whether they held

a job during any of the 52 weeks they

were, for example, aged 15. In contrast, data for the CPS survey (table

4.A1) refer to a 1-week period, the

week before the survey. The 1-week

measures, for which data are obtained

each month in the CPS, are averaged

for all 15-year-old youths for the

months June through August, to derive summer estimates, or for January

through May and September through

December to determine school-month

estimates. It is very reasonable that

the incidence of employment from a

1-week measure is much lower than

that from a 52-week measure. As the

remainder of this appendix indicates,

however, not all of the divergence is

the result of the difference in survey

reference periods.

Different interview protocols. Another

reason for the divergence of the estimates in the two surveys is the use of

different interview protocols. The

NLSY97 has a specific youth employment focus. The interview includes

substantial and repeated probes to fill

in a detailed employment history, and

it uses a calendar visual aid as a

prompting device for the respondent.

The NLSY97 interview protocol

defines two types of jobs to respondents: employee jobs (in which the

youth has an ongoing relationship with

a particular employer, such as working in a supermarket or restaurant) and

freelance jobs (doing one or a few tasks

without a specific “boss,” for example,

babysitting or mowing lawns or working for oneself).

In the NLSY97, respondents are

first asked to list all employee jobs held

from the age of 14 to the date of the

interview. The interviewer fills out a

calendar and shows it to the respondent to confirm all start and stop dates

of employee jobs, as well as gaps

within employee jobs. Substantial

probing is done by the interviewer to

ensure a complete calendar listing.

Then, respondents are asked to list all

freelance jobs held from the age of 14

Appendix: A Comparison of CPS and

NLSY97 Information about Youth

Employment

Table 4.A1. Percent of youths employed

14 ........................................ - - 57.2 23.8 42.8

15 ........................................ 17.7 9.4 63.7 37.6 39.8

16 ........................................ 36.0 25.8 - - -

17 ........................................ 47.8 39.0 - - -

All

jobs

Freelance

jobs

 CPS, 1996-98 NLSY97, 1994-97

Summer

months

 Age School

months

Employee

jobs

NOTE: Dashes indicate data not available or small sample sizes.
48

to the date of the interview. Again, a

calendar is used to confirm all start

and stop dates of freelance jobs. The

freelance measure is somewhat less

specific than the employee jobs measure, as information on gaps within

freelance jobs is not collected, due to

the sporadic nature of these jobs.2

In contrast, the CPS survey does not

have a specific youth focus. It is designed to gather a wide range of data

for multiple members within the same

household. Therefore, the question

sequences for each respondent are

shorter and the CPS does not provide

the same level of detail on work histories as does the NLSY97. The monthly

CPS survey protocol for measuring

each household member’s employment

status is based on a short set of questions. These questions determine

whether the household member (aged

15 or older) did any work for pay “last

week” (the week before the survey),

was temporarily absent from a job, or

worked for no pay in a family business. Given this very different interview protocol, CPS and NLSY97 employment measures would be expected

to differ.

Self versus proxy response. Another

important reason employment measures may differ between the CPS and

the NLSY97 is the use of self responses

versus proxy responses. In the CPS,

more than 90 percent of the time, a

person other than the youth is the primary respondent (person who answers

the CPS survey questions) for the

household.3

 The NLSY97 survey is

always answered by youths themselves.

Should this difference across the

two surveys be expected to lead to differences in employment-population

ratios? The literature suggests that it

may. A study by Richard Freeman and

James L. Medoff examined differences

between mothers’ reports of the employment of their teenage sons, and

self-reports by these sons and found

that mothers underreported the employment of their sons.4

Parents (or other household members) may not always be aware of the

employment activities of their children, particularly if the employment

is sporadic, as is often true with babysitting and yard work, common “occupations” of youths. Proxy respondents also may not consider such

freelance jobs to be “real work.” For

these reasons, allowing proxy respondents in the CPS survey may cause

youth employment to be underestimated.

Personal visit versus telephone survey

administration. A fourth reason why

the NLSY97 and CPS employment figures may differ is the use of personal

visits versus telephone surveys. The

NLSY97 is a personal-visit survey

with very infrequent telephone interviewing. In the CPS, the personal-visit

protocol is used during the large majority of first month-in-sample interviews and, to a lesser extent, in the

fifth month-in-sample. Telephone interviewing is typical in subsequent

interviews.5

 These different methods

of survey administration, while appropriate to the purposes of the two surveys, may contribute to differences in

the measures of youth employment in

the NLSY97 and CPS. However, it is

difficult to isolate the impact of this

factor from the impact of different reference periods, different interview protocols, and self versus proxy response.

Measures of the impact of differences in the CPS and NLSY97 on

youth employment rates

The possible contributions of the above

factors to observed differences in employment-population ratios between

the NLSY97 and the CPS are examined next. By construction, the

NLSY97 has some unique survey elements that permit this type of examination. Three exercises explore these

elements of the NLSY97 interview and

isolate, to the extent possible, the impact of the reasons discussed above for

the divergence in the employmentpopulation ratio estimates from the

CPS and the NLSY97 surveys.

Exercise 1: A comparison of the CPS

section of NLSY97 to CPS monthly

estimates. Before the rather intensive

probing questions on employment

were asked in the 1997 NLSY97 interview, respondents were asked the

CPS questions on labor force status.

The reference period in the NLSY97

“CPS section” pertains to labor force

activity during the prior week,

which is not necessarily the week

including the 12th, as in the CPS.

Although not exactly identical, it is

possible to compare the magnitude

of differences in estimates between

the two surveys when the actual

question wording and reference periods are nearly the same.

Percent of youths employed, FebruaryMay 1997

15 .................. 9.2 10.4 26.6

16 .................. 23.8 25.6 38.9

The tabulation above shows the

percent of youths employed during a

1-week reference period, averaged

over the months of February through

May of 1997, as a majority of NLSY97

respondents were interviewed during

those months. The NLSY97 estimate

of 26.6 percent of youths employed at

age 15 (1-week reference period) is

much lower than the estimate for age

15 reported in table 4.A1 (63.7 percent), which uses a 52-week reference

period. Differences between the

NLSY97 and CPS are thus reduced

considerably when the questions and

reference period are the same. The

difference in magnitude of NLSY97

and CPS estimates shown in the above

tabulation decreases substantially from

age 15 to age 16. Even for age 16,

however, the estimates are statistically

different across the two surveys. The

numbers in column 2 refer to first

month-in-sample, during which the

CPS administered a personal-visit survey rather than a telephone survey.

The use of first month-in-sample only

(personal interview) slightly increases

the CPS estimates.

This type of exercise also was carried out by Norman Bowers with the

Age

CPS—

total

sample

CPS—

first

month in

sample

NLSY97

(CPS)
49

older NLS cohorts and the CPS. He,

too, found differences in the incidence

of youth employment between the CPS

and NLS. He found that differences

are more pronounced for youths aged

16 and 17 than for older youths, and

for young people whose major activity in the prior week is school attendance than for those whose major activity is something else (such as

working or looking for work).6 Bowers suggested this may be due to the

more marginal nature of the labor

market activity of young teenagers and

those whose major activity is attending school.

Although the employment figures

in the tabulation above are based on

nearly the same survey questions and

are for the same reference period, the

issue of self-report versus proxy still

exists because NLSY97 responses are

self reports and CPS responses are

mostly proxy reports.7 It is possible

that proxy respondents in the CPS

underreport youth employment because they do not consider the work

activities of youths to be “real work,”

or are unaware of the timing of the

employment of the youths.8 Exercise

2 sheds some light on this issue.

Exercise 2: Use of NLSY97 data to examine the impact of self versus proxy

response. The issue of self versus proxy

reporting also can be explored using

the NLSY97 survey data. The NLSY97

survey administered a screening interview to determine sample eligibility for

the survey. The screening interview

was conducted with a household informant, generally a parent, and included fairly simple questions on the

current employment status of household members. Although the questions

do not replicate the CPS questions, the

reference period is similar, and the interview results permit a comparison of

estimates of each youth’s current employment status from the household informant proxy to the estimates self reported by the youth during the CPS

portion of the NLSY97 interview.

In the first interview of the

NLSY97, a screener questionnaire was

administered to a household member

aged 18 or older. The questionnaire

gathered information on the dates of

birth of household members, which

were used to determine whether there

were any youths present in the household who were eligible for the

NLSY97 survey. In households with

eligible youths, the household member also was asked for additional information about household members

including the employment status of all

household members aged 16 and

older. The respondent was first asked

how many weeks the household member worked in self-employment or for

someone else for pay in the 1996 calendar year. The respondent then was

asked to provide that household

member’s usual hours of work per

week, and was asked whether that

household member was “currently employed.”

The youth respondent was asked a

“CPS section”—questions that are

taken nearly verbatim from the

monthly CPS—at the beginning of the

NLSY97 youth questionnaire. The

interviewer asked whether the youth

did any work for pay in the previous

week. In addition, the youth provided

an employee job history later in the

survey.

The tabulation below shows household member response (proxy response) about whether the youth is currently employed and two corresponding youth self reports: a report of

whether one worked for pay in the

week prior to the interview from the

“CPS section” and a report of whether

one worked in an employee job in that

same week. The sample is restricted

to include only youths who received

the NLSY97 youth questionnaire 1

week after the screener questionnaire

was administered. Thus, the data

show employment-population ratios

for the same 1-week reference period

from reports of the household member and of the youth on youth employment. This enables us to examine differences in self versus proxy reporting

of youth employment.

According to household member

responses, 33.5 percent of youths ages

16 and 17 are currently working. In

the “CPS section” of the NLSY97,

43.1 percent of youths reported being

employed. And, finally, in the employee job history, 32.7 percent of

youths reported being employed (in

employee jobs) during that same week.

The household member report matches

well with the youth report regarding

employee jobs, but understates employment based on the response to the

CPS questions given by the youth

(which should cover all jobs, including more casual/informal employment

relationships). Thus, it is possible that

the household member is not including freelance jobs in the report about

youth employment. The question the

household member receives is not exactly the same as the CPS question (it

asks whether the youth is “currently

employed,” while the CPS asks

whether the youth did “any work for

Household

member

response

Youth

response:

CPS section

Youth

response:

employee job

history

Percent employed the week of the 12th

Percent of youths aged 16 and aged 17

employed in week before the interview,

1997

33.5 43.1 32.7

Aged15: CPS .............................. 8.5 18.2 10.0 8.9

 NLSY97 ....................... 17.1 23.5 16.3 14.8

Aged 16: CPS ............................. 24.6 36.9 27.5 23.4

 NLSY97 ...................... (1) (1) 35.2 32.9

Jan.-May,

1996

June-Aug.,

1996

Sept.-Dec.,

1996 Age and survey Jan.-Apr.,1997

1

 Numbers not included due to small sample sizes (the oldest birth year in the NLSY97

turned 16 in 1996; thus, only information from the later months in 1996 and early 1997 is

included).
50

pay”), but the results are suggestive.

In particular, this exercise suggests

that having a proxy respondent in the

CPS survey may cause employment

among youths to be understated due

to underreporting of work of youths

in freelance jobs.

Exercise 3: Using the NLSY97 data

on employee jobs to simulate the CPS

reference period. A variant of the approach in exercise 1 can also be used

to hold the reference periods constant

between the two surveys. Because the

NLSY97 includes a week-by-week

employee-job history starting at age

14, it is possible to use these data to

determine the labor force status of each

youth during the week including the

12th of each month—the CPS reference week.9

The numbers in the tabulation at

the top of the prior page depict the percent employed during the reference

week averaged over different months

for both the NLSY97 and the CPS. In

all cases, the NLSY97 employee job

history shows a greater incidence of

employment than do estimates from

the CPS. The differences in magnitude are, however, not quite as great

as in the tabulation in exercise 1, particularly for 15-year-olds. Unlike in

exercise 1, the NLSY97 estimates presented in this exercise do not include

freelance jobs, which are included in

the CPS estimates.10 To the extent that

the CPS does a better job picking up

employee jobs than freelance jobs, the

CPS employment-population ratios are

closer to the NLSY97 ratios reported

on the top of the prior page than they

otherwise would be. The differences

that do remain are again probably due

to the fact that the CPS relies mostly on

proxy response and to the different interview protocols across the two surveys.

Expected differences in employment-population ratios as the

NLSY97 cohort ages

In exploring the differences between

CPS and NLSY97 estimates of employment-population ratios of youths,

one of the key aspects that has not been

explored is the possibility that the impact of different survey methodology

factors such as reference period, proxy

versus self response, extent of probing, and mode of collection all interact importantly with the fact that employment spells at young ages tend to

be frequent and of short duration. If,

as respondents age, a very high percentage of employment spells are of

relatively long duration, such longer

spells of employment are less apt to

be forgotten by respondents. This

would be the case whether the respondent is a proxy or self respondent, or

whether the interview is administered

by phone or in person. In addition, as

youths age, they are less likely to do

freelance work and more likely to have

“employee” jobs. Thus, not only may

the proxy respondent be more aware

of the household member’s work, but

he or she may also be more likely to

consider it “real work.”

As a result, we would expect the

employment-population ratios for the

NLSY97 cohort and similarly defined

ratios for the CPS survey to converge

as the cohort ages. To examine this

possibility, we compare statistics from

the CPS and from the “CPS section”

of the National Longitudinal Survey

of Youth 1979 interviews to see if the

divergence between the CPS and the

NLSY79 measures of employmentpopulation ratios closed as the cohort

aged.11 Table 4.A2 shows the results.

In the table, the statistics are calculated for particular months, years, and

age groups. These choices reflect both

the ages of the NLSY79 respondents

in each interview year, and the months

in which relatively large numbers of

interviews took place with NLSY79

respondents of those ages. The table

reports the comparison of the CPS average estimates with NLSY79 CPS

module estimates for these same age

group/periods.

As the table indicates, there is substantial convergence between the employment-population ratios from the

two surveys, especially by the time the

NLSY79 cohort reached their thirties—although for women, a small but

persistent difference between the estimates from the two surveys remains

even at those ages.

Conclusion

Chapters 3 and 4 report information

on employment among youths from

the CPS and the NLSY97. Both surveys show similar employment patterns by gender, race, and ethnicity, but

the NLSY97 survey estimates are consistently higher. This appendix discusses some reasons why the NLSY97

and CPS estimates differ. A key reason is that the NLSY97 employment

figures reported in chapter 3 are for a

longer reference period than are the

CPS figures in chapter 4. In addition,

the NLSY97 uses an interview strategy that includes more probing about

employment among youths. NLSY97

interviews are also conducted with the

youth only (no proxy response) and are

mostly conducted in person (and not

by telephone). These features may lead

to much higher employment estimates

in the NLSY97 than in the CPS.

The NLSY97 includes a “CPS section” with nearly the same series of

employment questions used in the

monthly CPS. Data from these questions make it possible to examine how

CPS and NLSY97 youth employment

estimates compare when both the quesTable 4.A2. Employment-population ratios, by age and sex , 1979-1998, monthly

Current Population Survey and the CPS section of the NLSY79 interview

1979 (Feb. – May) .................. 16–17 36.2 45.1 38.1 49.2 36.0 41.1

1983 (Jan. – Apr.) .................. 18–19 45.9 52.1 47.0 54.1 44.9 50.1

1985 (Jan. – Apr.) .................. 20–24 67.3 71.8 72.1 75.3 62.8 68.3

1990 (July – Oct.) .................. 25–29 76.7 81.2 85.7 88.7 68.0 74.1

1994 (July – Oct.) .................. 30–34 79.5 80.4 89.2 89.0 70.0 71.7

1998 (Apr. – July) .................. 35–40 81.4 83.7 90.8 90.7 72.3 76.4

Total (percent)

Ages

CPS

Men (percent) Women (percent)

Year and interview months

NLSY79 CPS NLSY79 CPS NLSY79
51

tions and the reference period are

nearly the same. In addition, by looking at only first month-in-sample data

in the CPS, the interview method (conducted in person and not by telephone)

can be held constant when comparing

the two surveys. This exercise reduces

differences in the overall youth employment estimates from the two surveys considerably. However, differences still remain.

The NLSY97 includes an employee

job history that allows the calculation

of employment estimates based upon

the same 1-week reference period as

in the CPS. Youth employment estimates that focus on employee jobs only

in the NLSY97 and the nonself-employed in the CPS also show reduced

This appendix was contributed by Donna

Rothstein, a research economist with the Bureau

of Labor Statistics, and Diane Herz, an economist

also with the Bureau. The authors thank Karen

Kosanovich and Michael Horrigan for helpful

comments, and Alexander Eidelman and Curtis

Polen for excellent research assistance. 1 See Norman Bowers, “Youth labor force activity: alternative surveys compared,” Monthly Labor Review, March 1981, pp. 3-18; and Richard

B. Freeman and James L. Medoff, “Why Does the

Rate of Youth Labor Force Activity Differ Across

Surveys?” in Richard B. Freeman and David A.

Wise, eds., The Youth Labor Market Problem: Its

Nature, Causes, and Consequences (Chicago,

The University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 75-

114.2

 The NLSY97 definition of work at a

freelance job while aged 14 (while aged 15) reported in chapter 3 depends on whether the period

between any freelance job’s start and stop date

spans any of the weeks the respondent was aged

14 (15). If, for example, the freelance job began

differences in estimates between the

two surveys. However, NLSY97 estimates of youth employment are still

higher. The very different interview

strategies between the two surveys and

the possibility that proxy respondents

in the CPS are not always aware of the

timing of youth employment may explain some of this difference. Also,

while the impact of self versus proxy

responses cannot be directly compared

across the two surveys, evidence from

the NLSY97 suggests that proxy respondents in general understate youth employment because they are less likely to

include freelance jobs in their reports.

Perhaps the most suggestive evidence comes from the NLSY79 survey, which clearly demonstrates that,

despite all of their differing features,

a cross-sectional survey such as the

CPS and a longitudinal survey such

as the NLSY79 yield very similar estimates as a cohort ages. It appears

that it is the nature of employment

among youths—often involving

freelance jobs, and employment spells

that are short and frequent—that leads

to differing estimates. Proxy respondents—perhaps more likely to forget

about shorter spells or to not regard

certain types of freelance jobs as

work—appear to be more reliable reporters of employment among their

adult peers, whose jobs are more likely

of longer duration and considered

“real work.”

before the respondent turned 15 and ended after

the respondent turned 16, then the respondent

would be counted as working in a freelance job

while age 15. This may overstate the incidence of

youths working at freelance jobs. 3 It is possible that a youth present at the time

of the interview answered questions about her or

his own employment status, even if she or he was

not the primary household respondent. 4 Freeman and Medoff, “Why Does the Rate

of Youth Labor Force Activity Differ?” 5

 While personal visits are the preferred

method of interview in the fifth month-in-sample

interview, a significant proportion of households

(more than 30 percent in 1998) are interviewed

by telephone. 6

 See Norman Bowers, “Youth labor force activity.” Bowers finds that differences in NLS-CPS

employment estimates tend to decline with age. 7

 Self-reported CPS youth employment information is not examined separately here. This is

due to small sample sizes and the possibility that

youths who self report at these young ages are

systematically different from youths who do not

self report. 8

 This could explain why the difference in the

CPS and the NLSY97 estimates decreases from

age 15 to age 16, as freelance employment also

appears to decrease as youths age. 9

 Freelance jobs are not used in this calculation because gaps within freelance jobs are not

collected, and thus we cannot determine the exact

timing of this type of employment. 10 While freelance jobs are excluded from the

NLSY97 measure in the tabulation at the top of

page 49, they are not excluded from the CPS measure. The reason is that it is difficult to identify in

the CPS survey jobs that would have been classified as freelance in the NLSY97. CPS employment-population ratios would thus be even lower

if all “freelance jobs” were excluded. 11 The NLSY79 is a nationally representative

sample of 12,686 young men and women who

were aged 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979.

Respondents were interviewed annually through

1994, and are now surveyed biennially.