Supplementary Tables for 

“Snooze or Lose: High School Start Times and Academic Achievement” 

Economics of Education Review (2019) 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.05.011

Jeffrey A. Groen 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

2 Massachusetts Ave. NE, Rm. 4945 

Washington, DC 20212 

E-mail: Groen.Jeffrey@bls.gov

Corresponding Author: Sabrina Wulff Pabilonia 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 

2 Massachusetts Ave. NE, Rm. 2180 

Washington, DC 20212 

E-mail: Pabilonia.Sabrina@bls.gov
1 

Section 1: Full Results for Tables 5, 9, 10 

Table 5a. Effects of School Start Time on Test Scores (SDs) (Full Results) 

 Female (N = 600) Male (N = 600) 

VARIABLES 

Broadreading 

score 

Appliedproblems 

score 

Broadreading 

score 

Appliedproblems 

score 

School start time 0.156* -0.056 0.003 0.049 

(0.082) (0.098) (0.097) (0.097) 

Lagged broad-reading score 0.433*** 0.032 0.542*** -0.033 

 (0.062) (0.058) (0.051) (0.050) 

Lagged applied-problems score 0.097** 0.445*** 0.080* 0.496*** 

 (0.047) (0.063) (0.044) (0.057) 

Missing a lagged score -0.076 -0.001 -0.075 -0.051 

(0.112) (0.130) (0.141) (0.138) 

School day length 0.008 0.086 0.015 -0.100 

(0.083) (0.086) (0.107) (0.105) 

Black, non-Hispanic -0.297** -0.199 -0.062 -0.154 

(0.121) (0.149) (0.134) (0.138) 

Hispanic -0.186 -0.415** -0.044 -0.129 

(0.159) (0.183) (0.151) (0.194) 

Lives in East region 0.208 0.117 -0.056 -0.100 

(0.138) (0.178) (0.164) (0.177) 

Lives in Midwest region -0.027 -0.073 -0.174 -0.223* 

(0.100) (0.111) (0.125) (0.122) 

Lives in West region 0.005 0.202 -0.075 -0.397*** 

(0.143) (0.159) (0.144) (0.149) 

Grade 9 -0.138 0.092 -0.044 -0.208* 

(0.085) (0.102) (0.111) (0.114) 

Grade 10 -0.166* -0.036 0.041 -0.129 

(0.091) (0.098) (0.120) (0.123) 

Grade 11 -0.117 -0.112 -0.010 -0.072 

(0.095) (0.094) (0.102) (0.137) 

Interviewed in 2007-2008 -0.025 -0.072 0.117 0.110 

 (0.075) (0.079) (0.075) (0.081) 

Ever in special education -0.526*** -0.570** -0.355*** -0.584*** 

(0.140) (0.249) (0.115) (0.123) 

October interview 0.047 -0.098 -0.188* -0.011 

(0.093) (0.132) (0.103) (0.119) 

November interview 0.007 -0.298** 0.238 0.326* 

(0.122) (0.138) (0.190) (0.186) 

December interview 0.017 -0.117 -0.019 0.036 

(0.111) (0.130) (0.112) (0.134) 

January interview -0.007 -0.076 0.092 -0.085 

 (0.098) (0.148) (0.110) (0.137) 

February interview -0.015 -0.086 0.001 0.014 

(0.132) (0.167) (0.117) (0.171) 

 
2 

March interview 0.314 -0.312** 0.390 -0.431** 

 (0.302) (0.151) (0.271) (0.179) 

Lives with step mom and biological father -0.539*** -0.597*** 0.367* 0.124 

(0.188) (0.225) (0.216) (0.354) 

Lives with step dad and biological mother -0.132 -0.065 0.223 0.227 

(0.112) (0.131) (0.196) (0.223) 

Lives with single parent 0.055 0.339 -0.170 -0.007 

(0.151) (0.239) (0.143) (0.209) 

Lives in other family arrangement 0.635* 0.605 -0.061 0.713 

(0.363) (0.519) (0.333) (0.446) 

Number of other children in family unit 0.069** 0.002 -0.057** -0.019 

under age 19 (0.035) (0.044) (0.028) (0.033) 

Mother college degree 0.262*** 0.177* 0.232 0.236* 

(0.098) (0.103) (0.143) (0.139) 

Mother education missing -0.292 -0.329 0.231 -0.331 

(0.265) (0.418) (0.201) (0.232) 

Father college degree 0.141 0.113 0.100 -0.010 

(0.100) (0.106) (0.128) (0.141) 

Father education missing -0.154 -0.371 0.163 -0.177 

 (0.158) (0.259) (0.146) (0.203) 

Free or reduced-price lunch recipient -0.176** -0.076 0.016 -0.043 

(0.080) (0.091) (0.090) (0.109) 

Student-teacher ratio -0.016 -0.009 -0.002 -0.005 

(0.015) (0.016) (0.007) (0.008) 

Percent black 0.313 0.131 0.094 -0.030 

(0.225) (0.288) (0.277) (0.254) 

Percent Asian 0.728 1.342* 0.269 0.086 

(0.707) (0.731) (0.551) (0.690) 

Percent Hispanic 0.127 0.127 -0.031 0.384 

(0.235) (0.276) (0.292) (0.338) 

Percent free/reduced-price lunch -0.188 -0.757** -0.981*** -0.293 

 (0.240) (0.321) (0.310) (0.340) 

Magnet or charter school 0.099 -0.005 0.075 -0.312** 

 (0.141) (0.173) (0.176) (0.145) 

Suburban school 0.205** -0.144 -0.144 -0.015 

(0.096) (0.120) (0.104) (0.124) 

Town school 0.299** 0.181 0.075 -0.017 

(0.118) (0.141) (0.147) (0.138) 

Rural school 0.021 -0.125 -0.091 -0.103 

 (0.097) (0.143) (0.114) (0.145) 

Log (number of students in high -0.050 -0.126 -0.046 -0.077 

school) (0.080) (0.096) (0.067) (0.079) 

Log (median household income in 0.172 -0.082 0.034 0.515*** 

school district) (0.177) (0.216) (0.218) (0.180) 

Log(number of students in district) 0.035 0.037 -0.022 0.023 

(0.038) (0.041) (0.041) (0.052) 

Log(district expenditure per pupil) -0.528*** -0.136 -0.205 -0.145 

 (0.182) (0.241) (0.193) (0.219) 
3 

Log (population density in county) 0.007 0.039 0.025 -0.066 

 (0.042) (0.054) (0.040) (0.048) 

Missing school-level, county, or 0.001 -0.273 0.040 0.365 

district variable (0.150) (0.213) (0.197) (0.236) 

State compulsory schooling until age 17–18 0.038 -0.002 0.016 0.019 

(0.072) (0.079) (0.076) (0.083) 

Constant -1.648 1.855 0.753 -3.533 

 (2.149) (2.705) (2.712) (2.500) 

R-squared 0.613 0.547 0.652 0.566 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 

   
4 

Table 9a. Effects of School Start Time on Sleep (Females – Full Results) 

VARIABLES 

All diary 

sleep 

(M-TH) 

Nighttime 

diary sleep 

(M-TH) 

Usual 

night 

sleep 

Napping 

(M-TH) 

Wake-up 

time 

(M-TH) 

Bedtime 

(M-TH) 

School start time 0.636*** 0.601*** 0.383** 0.036 0.583*** -0.044 

 (0.232) (0.229) (0.171) (0.082) (0.187) (0.156) 

Lagged broad-reading score 0.155 0.139 -0.061 0.017 0.078 -0.142* 

 (0.118) (0.116) (0.083) (0.061) (0.109) (0.082) 

Lagged applied-problems score -0.134 -0.070 0.013 -0.064 0.023 0.170** 

 (0.111) (0.102) (0.081) (0.079) (0.099) (0.081) 

Missing a lagged score -0.246 -0.173 -0.231 -0.073 -0.058 0.052 

 (0.209) (0.200) (0.185) (0.105) (0.189) (0.151) 

School day length -0.246 -0.236 0.044 -0.010 -0.364 -0.027 

 (0.257) (0.254) (0.169) (0.071) (0.253) (0.150) 

Black, non-Hispanic -0.012 -0.368 -0.459* 0.356** -0.076 0.207 

 (0.373) (0.354) (0.241) (0.160) (0.334) (0.228) 

Hispanic 1.529** 1.198** -0.066 0.331** 2.086*** 0.760** 

 (0.600) (0.574) (0.264) (0.167) (0.641) (0.322) 

Lives in East region 0.721* 0.569 0.505* 0.152 0.246 -0.179 

 (0.420) (0.389) (0.268) (0.188) (0.366) (0.241) 

Lives in Midwest region 0.337 0.268 0.185 0.069 0.204 0.010 

 (0.301) (0.291) (0.213) (0.111) (0.267) (0.192) 

Lives in West region 0.153 0.204 0.075 -0.051 -0.155 -0.192 

 (0.375) (0.353) (0.301) (0.121) (0.339) (0.262) 

Grade 9 0.008 0.070 0.292 -0.062 -0.268 -0.395** 

 (0.253) (0.249) (0.180) (0.089) (0.264) (0.177) 

Grade 10 0.357 0.299 0.070 0.058 0.122 -0.257 

 (0.280) (0.262) (0.172) (0.119) (0.245) (0.187) 

Grade 11 -0.081 -0.031 -0.031 -0.050 -0.180 -0.116 

 (0.230) (0.232) (0.181) (0.097) (0.217) (0.167) 

Interviewed in 2007-2008 0.053 -0.017 0.122 0.070 -0.195 -0.177

 (0.194) (0.185) (0.144) (0.082) (0.151) (0.135) 

Ever in special education 0.050 -0.053 -0.481 0.104 -0.192 -0.101 

 (0.315) (0.286) (0.439) (0.168) (0.204) (0.302) 

October interview -0.007 -0.028 -0.252 0.020 -0.059 -0.133 

 (0.282) (0.283) (0.228) (0.107) (0.246) (0.222) 

November interview 0.320 0.377 -0.289 -0.056 0.191 -0.131 

 (0.306) (0.299) (0.248) (0.128) (0.279) (0.234) 

December interview -0.164 -0.085 -0.067 -0.079 0.066 0.104 

 (0.258) (0.252) (0.227) (0.104) (0.230) (0.232) 

January interview -0.105 -0.120 -0.460** 0.015 -0.394 -0.320 

 (0.302) (0.288) (0.220) (0.149) (0.271) (0.274) 

February interview 0.573* 0.531 -0.055 0.042 -0.005 -0.494* 

 (0.333) (0.340) (0.319) (0.181) (0.286) (0.288) 

March interview 0.324 0.385 -0.361 -0.061 -0.175 -0.569 

 (0.684) (0.715) (0.409) (0.196) (0.310) (0.584) 

Lives with step mom and biological -0.992*** -0.807*** -0.817*** -0.185 -0.264 0.628 

father (0.297) (0.297) (0.290) (0.114) (0.556) (0.517) 

Lives with step dad and biological -0.445 -0.380 0.337 -0.065 -0.297 0.137 

mother (0.298) (0.290) (0.205) (0.138) (0.275) (0.184) 

Lives with single parent -0.386 -0.333 -0.214 -0.053 -0.859*** -0.464* 

 (0.352) (0.315) (0.510) (0.102) (0.250) (0.279) 
5 

Lives in other family arrangement -2.214** -2.321** -0.006 0.107 -2.415*** 0.141 

 (0.948) (0.915) (0.948) (0.302) (0.882) (0.595) 

Number of other children in family unit -0.093 -0.088 0.077 -0.005 -0.228*** -0.099 

under age 19 (0.095) (0.092) (0.066) (0.038) (0.088) (0.074) 

Mother college degree -0.064 -0.024 -0.014 -0.040 0.089 -0.041 

 (0.218) (0.215) (0.176) (0.079) (0.196) (0.161) 

Mother education missing 1.546* 1.629* -0.064 -0.083 1.717** -0.107 

 (0.821) (0.850) (0.553) (0.167) (0.842) (0.428) 

Father college degree 0.146 0.124 -0.026 0.023 -0.120 -0.188 

 (0.262) (0.257) (0.188) (0.099) (0.243) (0.165) 

Father education missing 0.645* 0.532 0.259 0.113 0.536* 0.098 

 (0.383) (0.340) (0.514) (0.142) (0.282) (0.297) 

Free or reduced-price lunch recipient -0.291 -0.122 -0.127 -0.168 -0.018 0.121 

 (0.243) (0.207) (0.185) (0.128) (0.198) (0.166) 

Student-teacher ratio -0.036 -0.035 0.003 -0.001 0.009 0.019 

 (0.043) (0.042) (0.029) (0.013) (0.038) (0.030) 

Percent black -0.289 -0.253 0.727 -0.035 0.104 0.245 

 (0.745) (0.757) (0.500) (0.355) (0.658) (0.416) 

Percent Asian -0.409 -0.361 -0.675 -0.048 -1.112 -0.846 

 (1.244) (1.311) (1.225) (0.615) (1.473) (0.809) 

Percent Hispanic -1.032 -1.089 0.274 0.057 -1.257 -0.176 

 (0.796) (0.793) (0.466) (0.254) (0.798) (0.478) 

Percent free/reduced-price lunch 1.213 1.340* 0.100 -0.127 0.823 -0.560 

 (0.802) (0.777) (0.517) (0.287) (0.745) (0.489) 

Magnet or charter school -0.287 -0.305 0.081 0.018 -0.254 0.134

 (0.279) (0.329) (0.303) (0.175) (0.282) (0.275) 

Suburban school -0.252 -0.245 -0.325* -0.006 -0.310 -0.139 

 (0.270) (0.248) (0.181) (0.120) (0.246) (0.158) 

Town school 0.020 -0.105 0.246 0.125 -0.357 -0.275 

 (0.276) (0.251) (0.231) (0.135) (0.245) (0.206) 

Rural school -0.259 -0.149 0.194 -0.109 -0.293 -0.221 

 (0.307) (0.294) (0.218) (0.103) (0.250) (0.216) 

Log (number of students in high -0.234 -0.207 -0.178 -0.027 -0.186 0.020 

school) (0.223) (0.224) (0.158) (0.073) (0.201) (0.145) 

Log (median household income in 0.230 0.135 -0.387 0.096 0.157 0.069 

school district) (0.416) (0.431) (0.282) (0.180) (0.374) (0.294) 

Log(number of students in district) 0.039 0.011 0.036 0.029 -0.022 0.016 

 (0.111) (0.112) (0.084) (0.041) (0.104) (0.083) 

Log(district expenditure per pupil) -1.198** -0.959* -0.649 -0.238 -0.173 0.700* 

 (0.543) (0.550) (0.434) (0.205) (0.485) (0.372) 

Log (population density in county) 0.053 0.064 0.208** -0.010 -0.025 -0.081 

 (0.106) (0.108) (0.085) (0.029) (0.088) (0.073) 

Missing school-level, county, or 0.069 0.004 0.222 0.065 -0.108 -0.211 

district variable (0.434) (0.487) (0.273) (0.188) (0.540) (0.305) 

State compulsory schooling until age 0.061 0.104 0.090 -0.043 -0.017 -0.020 

17–18 (0.194) (0.183) (0.129) (0.082) (0.173) (0.139) 

Constant 6.728 7.198 9.097** -0.470 5.455 21.328*** 

 (5.468) (5.313) (3.741) (1.855) (4.713) (3.600) 

Number of observations 450 450 550 450 450 450 

R-squared 0.193 0.191 0.182 0.087 0.231 0.147 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 
6 

Table 9b. Effects of School Start Time on Sleep (Males – Full Results) 

VARIABLES 

All diary 

sleep 

(M-TH) 

Nighttime 

diary sleep 

(M-TH) 

Usual night 

sleep 

Napping 

(M-TH) 

Wake-up 

time 

(M-TH) 

Bedtime 

(M-TH) 

School start time -0.141 0.324 0.212 -0.466 0.575*** 0.270 

 (0.382) (0.228) (0.169) (0.283) (0.205) (0.191) 

Lagged broad-reading score 0.114 0.102 0.110 0.012 0.165* 0.019 

 (0.127) (0.108) (0.087) (0.080) (0.095) (0.080) 

Lagged applied-problems score -0.070 -0.125 -0.137 0.055 -0.253** -0.115 

 (0.128) (0.114) (0.099) (0.066) (0.099) (0.082) 

Missing a lagged score 0.669** 0.254 -0.267 0.416** 0.176 -0.008 

 (0.312) (0.286) (0.195) (0.194) (0.238) (0.174) 

School day length 0.560 0.382* 0.141 0.179 -0.073 -0.366** 

 (0.381) (0.231) (0.199) (0.287) (0.198) (0.185) 

Black, non-Hispanic -0.456 -0.503* 0.086 0.047 -0.422* 0.103 

 (0.417) (0.268) (0.214) (0.314) (0.228) (0.258) 

Hispanic 0.586 0.595 0.888*** -0.009 -0.219 -0.701 

 (0.629) (0.513) (0.326) (0.346) (0.299) (0.493) 

Lives in East region -0.411 -0.258 0.498 -0.153 -0.654* -0.287

 (0.521) (0.377) (0.318) (0.362) (0.357) (0.250) 

Lives in Midwest region -0.684 -0.418 0.192 -0.266 -0.466 0.040 

 (0.482) (0.318) (0.244) (0.342) (0.287) (0.216) 

Lives in West region -0.697 -0.383 0.247 -0.313 -0.349 0.112 

 (0.436) (0.367) (0.255) (0.203) (0.307) (0.283) 

Grade 9 0.402 0.578** 0.091 -0.176 0.501** -0.159 

 (0.362) (0.226) (0.169) (0.274) (0.204) (0.171) 

Grade 10 0.071 0.444* 0.301 -0.373 0.438* -0.019 

 (0.405) (0.268) (0.196) (0.277) (0.243) (0.197) 

Grade 11 -0.130 0.042 -0.060 -0.173 -0.020 -0.052 

 (0.311) (0.227) (0.180) (0.202) (0.169) (0.187) 

Interviewed in 2007-2008 0.285 -0.150 -0.108 0.435** -0.240 -0.138 

 (0.279) (0.200) (0.153) (0.210) (0.181) (0.140) 

Ever in special education 1.046*** 0.825** 0.093 0.221 0.599 -0.254 

 (0.355) (0.367) (0.223) (0.227) (0.375) (0.204) 

October interview 0.730 0.251 -0.013 0.479 0.162 -0.157 

 (0.540) (0.241) (0.227) (0.455) (0.201) (0.229) 

November interview 0.237 0.229 0.061 0.008 0.171 -0.158 

 (0.389) (0.319) (0.248) (0.187) (0.261) (0.232) 

December interview 0.328 0.274 -0.125 0.054 0.435* -0.067 

 (0.283) (0.273) (0.219) (0.171) (0.229) (0.191) 

January interview 0.078 0.222 0.067 -0.144 0.213 -0.186 

 (0.332) (0.319) (0.279) (0.198) (0.292) (0.225) 

February interview 0.651 0.531 -0.576* 0.120 0.244 -0.426 

 (0.444) (0.429) (0.310) (0.278) (0.285) (0.428) 

March interview 0.358 -0.290 -0.183 0.648* -0.041 0.085 

 (0.440) (0.312) (0.316) (0.370) (0.257) (0.263) 

Lives with step mom and biological -0.745 -0.773 0.179 0.027 -0.508* 0.308 

father (0.584) (0.597) (0.483) (0.239) (0.291) (0.465) 

Lives with step dad and biological -0.379 -0.693** -0.400 0.314 -0.638** 0.170 

mother (0.359) (0.317) (0.273) (0.210) (0.289) (0.224) 

Lives with single parent 1.038 0.436 -0.497 0.603 -0.086 -0.568* 

 (0.767) (0.724) (0.542) (0.566) (0.629) (0.341) 
7 

Lives in other family arrangement 2.631* 1.428 -0.598 1.203 0.092 -1.377** 

 (1.549) (1.478) (1.097) (1.137) (1.290) (0.691) 

Number of other children in family unit -0.126 -0.131* -0.018 0.005 -0.012 0.132* 

under age 19 (0.083) (0.070) (0.051) (0.060) (0.068) (0.079) 

Mother college degree -0.531 -0.130 0.131 -0.401 -0.014 0.170 

 (0.332) (0.214) (0.166) (0.255) (0.180) (0.155) 

Mother education missing -1.493* -0.650 0.305 -0.843 -0.169 0.548 

 (0.781) (0.799) (0.605) (0.514) (0.650) (0.399) 

Father college degree 0.287 -0.193 -0.187 0.480 -0.316 -0.017 

 (0.426) (0.236) (0.163) (0.347) (0.210) (0.186) 

Father education missing -0.687 -0.390 0.356 -0.297 -0.155 0.400 

 (0.813) (0.762) (0.519) (0.588) (0.621) (0.348) 

Free-reduced price lunch recipient -0.321 -0.209 0.161 -0.112 -0.319* -0.072 

 (0.304) (0.231) (0.183) (0.200) (0.186) (0.198) 

Student-teacher ratio 0.050** 0.027 0.005 0.022** 0.023 -0.011 

 (0.022) (0.019) (0.011) (0.009) (0.016) (0.029) 

Percent black 0.170 -0.826 0.503 0.996 -0.012 0.853 

 (0.963) (0.608) (0.523) (0.679) (0.455) (0.559) 

Percent Asian 0.854 0.614 -0.858 0.240 1.956 1.188 

 (1.675) (1.545) (0.726) (0.780) (1.499) (0.859) 

Percent Hispanic -0.229 -1.084 0.654 0.854* -0.143 0.992 

 (0.949) (0.823) (0.634) (0.492) (0.554) (0.784) 

Percent free/reduced-price lunch -0.638 0.927 -1.273** -1.565* 0.572 -0.630 

 (1.143) (0.772) (0.572) (0.797) (0.647) (0.633) 

Magnet or charter school -0.573 -0.280 0.062 -0.293* 0.217 0.126 

 (0.381) (0.323) (0.277) (0.154) (0.349) (0.279) 

Suburban school -0.016 -0.053 -0.762*** 0.036 0.199 0.201 

 (0.327) (0.258) (0.204) (0.190) (0.231) (0.194) 

Town school -0.208 -0.519** -0.228 0.311 -0.492** -0.033 

 (0.557) (0.261) (0.241) (0.424) (0.223) (0.225) 

Rural school -1.030*** -0.696*** -0.553** -0.334* -0.286 0.368** 

 (0.343) (0.245) (0.241) (0.199) (0.180) (0.186) 

Log (number of students in high -0.171 -0.162 -0.387*** -0.009 -0.224 -0.060 

school) (0.221) (0.179) (0.127) (0.112) (0.181) (0.141) 

Log (median household income in -1.449 -0.044 0.033 -1.405 0.470 0.348 

school district) (1.072) (0.398) (0.420) (0.925) (0.366) (0.474) 

Log(number of students in district) -0.487** -0.289*** -0.060 -0.197 -0.210** 0.069 

 (0.197) (0.109) (0.079) (0.153) (0.093) (0.093) 

Log(district expenditure per pupil) -0.066 -0.245 -0.343 0.179 0.526 0.651** 

 (0.487) (0.393) (0.356) (0.280) (0.369) (0.314) 

Log (population density in county) 0.242 0.151 0.076 0.091 0.050 -0.083 

 (0.179) (0.101) (0.074) (0.137) (0.092) (0.079) 

Missing school-level, county, or -0.727 -0.613 -0.198 -0.114 0.022 0.662 

district variable (0.704) (0.625) (0.339) (0.218) (0.298) (0.499) 

State compulsory schooling until age -0.199 0.093 0.290** -0.292 0.008 -0.144 

17–18 (0.287) (0.161) (0.145) (0.215) (0.143) (0.135) 

Constant 25.369** 6.861 8.437 18.508* -0.598 18.064*** 

 (12.629) (4.981) (5.192) (10.628) (4.711) (5.446) 

Number of observations 460 460 550 460 460 460 

R-squared 0.245 0.244 0.216 0.242 0.248 0.205 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level.
8 

Table 10a. Effects of School Start Time on Time-Diary Outcomes (Females – Full Results) (N = 550) 

VARIABLES Sleep 

Market 

work 

Nonmarket 

work 

Care 

activities 

Class 

 time 

Other 

schooling Homework 

Extracurricular 

activities/ 

sports 

Sc

tim

o

le

School start time 0.591*** 0.097 0.072 0.023 -0.192 -0.128* -0.188 0.277 -0 (0.175) (0.193) (0.133) (0.076) (0.273) (0.065) (0.139) (0.211) (0

Lagged broad-reading score 0.101 -0.228 0.042 -0.002 0.071 -0.088* 0.035 0.034 0 (0.091) (0.141) (0.068) (0.030) (0.141) (0.047) (0.075) (0.086) (0

Lagged applied-problems -0.045 0.186** -0.006 -0.033 -0.147 0.115* 0.027 0.038 -0 score (0.085) (0.092) (0.054) (0.026) (0.127) (0.063) (0.071) (0.083) (0Missing a lagged score -0.045 -0.137 0.068 0.096 0.583** -0.002 0.305* -0.459** -0 (0.176) (0.173) (0.132) (0.092) (0.245) (0.081) (0.163) (0.180) (0

School day length -0.126 0.235 -0.072 0.047 0.392 0.181 -0.003 -0.013 -0.6 (0.170) (0.176) (0.190) (0.069) (0.280) (0.119) (0.141) (0.202) (0

Black, non-Hispanic 0.186 0.110 0.246 -0.024 -0.581 -0.252** -0.205 0.329 0 (0.300) (0.225) (0.220) (0.093) (0.460) (0.119) (0.220) (0.267) (0

Hispanic 0.378 0.010 0.814** 0.189 -2.100*** -0.011 -0.580** -0.585* 1.8 (0.445) (0.243) (0.323) (0.241) (0.621) (0.169) (0.235) (0.313) (0

Lives in East region 0.351 -0.074 0.090 0.379 -0.714 0.082 -0.054 -0.268 0 (0.292) (0.321) (0.335) (0.292) (0.577) (0.216) (0.225) (0.312) (0

Lives in Midwest region 0.204 0.200 0.059 0.093 -0.369 -0.044 0.035 -0.214 -0 (0.231) (0.240) (0.198) (0.096) (0.404) (0.093) (0.159) (0.244) (0

Lives in West region 0.058 0.086 0.319 0.053 -0.063 -0.177* 0.492** -0.299 -0 (0.283) (0.272) (0.204) (0.101) (0.440) (0.100) (0.229) (0.385) (0

Grade 9 0.019 -0.839*** 0.031 -0.257* 0.900*** -0.045 0.008 0.048 0 (0.184) (0.182) (0.200) (0.148) (0.316) (0.065) (0.143) (0.232) (0

Grade 10 0.280 -0.735*** -0.055 -0.178 0.548* -0.157* -0.117 -0.357* 0.7 (0.191) (0.200) (0.156) (0.132) (0.323) (0.092) (0.136) (0.201) (0

Grade 11 -0.001 -0.261 -0.275 -0.132 0.706** -0.029 0.306* -0.275 0 (0.178) (0.243) (0.179) (0.148) (0.290) (0.071) (0.172) (0.209) (0

Interviewed in 2007-2008 0.092 0.012 -0.161 -0.063 0.211 0.131** -0.092 0.096 -0 (0.146) (0.143) (0.101) (0.087) (0.208) (0.051) (0.122) (0.147) (0

Ever in special education 0.444* -0.072 -0.079 -0.194** 0.373 0.012 -0.186 -0.307** -0 (0.230) (0.256) (0.179) (0.076) (0.330) (0.079) (0.221) (0.154) (0

October interview -0.053 0.258 0.097 -0.115 -0.223 -0.061 -0.116 -0.303 0.

 (0.210) (0.237) (0.177) (0.198) (0.320) (0.082) (0.158) (0.272) (0

November interview 0.084 -0.057 0.260 -0.263 -0.714* -0.122 -0.089 0.018 1.0 (0.249) (0.270) (0.185) (0.214) (0.404) (0.120) (0.199) (0.307) (0
9 

December interview 0.002 0.124 -0.001 -0.281 -0.050 -0.069 0.137 0.074 0 (0.195) (0.223) (0.173) (0.246) (0.354) (0.086) (0.179) (0.268) (0

January interview -0.144 0.162 -0.163 -0.332 0.261 -0.001 0.161 0.098 -0

 (0.229) (0.241) (0.163) (0.318) (0.404) (0.113) (0.191) (0.309) (0

February interview 0.424* -0.078 -0.206 -0.220 -0.248 -0.084 -0.075 -0.050 0 (0.233) (0.315) (0.176) (0.216) (0.439) (0.108) (0.187) (0.277) (0

March interview -0.044 0.456 0.155 -0.389* -0.444 -0.268** -0.464 0.121 0 (0.423) (0.674) (0.300) (0.224) (0.492) (0.127) (0.311) (0.434) (0

Lives with step mom and -0.472 -0.935*** 0.198 -0.173 0.673 0.003 1.270 -0.044 -0biological father (0.337) (0.342) (0.737) (0.138) (0.578) (0.150) (0.800) (0.590) (0Lives with step dad and -0.136 0.132 0.273* -0.098* 0.236 -0.111 0.138 -0.288 -0biological mother (0.237) (0.316) (0.156) (0.058) (0.416) (0.074) (0.187) (0.273) (0Lives with single parent -0.209 -0.484 0.532 -0.176* 0.777 0.301** 1.112* -0.044 -1.7 (0.364) (0.580) (0.396) (0.101) (0.477) (0.144) (0.582) (0.274) (0

Lives in other family -1.505 0.333 0.630 -0.358 2.636* 0.483 1.163 0.306 -3.7arrangement (0.935) (1.548) (0.931) (0.274) (1.386) (0.357) (1.079) (0.816) (1Number of other children in -0.120* -0.034 -0.008 -0.009 0.085 0.059* -0.010 0.059 -0family unit under age 19 (0.072) (0.062) (0.082) (0.057) (0.108) (0.032) (0.059) (0.103) (0Mother college degree -0.189 -0.300 -0.078 0.027 0.175 0.009 0.381** -0.184 0 (0.156) (0.187) (0.135) (0.077) (0.250) (0.086) (0.165) (0.222) (0

Mother education missing 1.197 -0.118 -0.176 0.347* -1.920 -0.316 -0.596 -0.608 2.2 (0.731) (0.943) (0.575) (0.180) (1.282) (0.206) (0.577) (0.510) (1

Father college degree -0.123 -0.293 -0.110 0.078 0.047 -0.057 0.139 0.436* -0 (0.176) (0.202) (0.151) (0.093) (0.299) (0.068) (0.172) (0.254) (0

Father education missing 0.441 0.268 -0.435 0.095 -0.193 -0.004 -0.939 -0.154 0 (0.374) (0.620) (0.382) (0.105) (0.496) (0.142) (0.577) (0.269) (0

Free-reduced price lunch -0.072 -0.052 0.075 -0.005 0.062 -0.085 0.019 -0.022 -0recipient (0.202) (0.174) (0.147) (0.064) (0.359) (0.084) (0.150) (0.209) (0Student-teacher ratio -0.003 0.001 -0.025 0.005 -0.037 0.009 -0.035 0.009 0. (0.031) (0.027) (0.025) (0.011) (0.046) (0.011) (0.023) (0.031) (0

Percent black -0.756 -0.957** -0.241 0.109 0.931 0.453 0.612* 0.202 -1 (0.579) (0.468) (0.361) (0.209) (0.918) (0.285) (0.358) (0.715) (0

Percent Asian 1.098 0.064 -0.591 -0.351 -1.585 0.562 1.320 2.505 -3 (0.958) (1.244) (0.687) (0.476) (1.998) (0.728) (0.869) (1.798) (1

Percent Hispanic -0.561 -1.801*** -0.537 0.003 2.386*** -0.027 0.848** 1.117* -1

 (0.629) (0.513) (0.432) (0.164) (0.852) (0.297) (0.353) (0.640) (1

Percent free/reduced-price 1.779*** 0.474 -0.531 -0.146 -0.608 -0.127 -0.502 -0.452 0lunch (0.685) (0.568) (0.513) (0.165) (0.889) (0.277) (0.413) (0.722) (1Magnet or charter school -0.396** 0.024 0.301 0.125 -0.107 0.120 0.043 -0.416* 0 (0.183) (0.332) (0.211) (0.084) (0.360) (0.130) (0.258) (0.231) (0
10 

Suburban school -0.231 0.374 -0.181 -0.248** -0.043 -0.089 0.333** 0.304 -0 (0.199) (0.230) (0.145) (0.122) (0.305) (0.072) (0.157) (0.257) (0

Town school 0.117 -0.093 0.055 -0.239 0.094 0.040 0.103 -0.182 -0 (0.221) (0.232) (0.244) (0.172) (0.380) (0.099) (0.195) (0.239) (0

Rural school 0.068 -0.248 -0.091 -0.062 0.262 0.126 0.199 0.096 -0 (0.216) (0.197) (0.213) (0.138) (0.350) (0.105) (0.177) (0.237) (0

Log (number of students in -0.062 -0.072 0.059 0.046 -0.021 0.029 -0.011 0.072 -0high school) (0.171) (0.168) (0.125) (0.070) (0.250) (0.067) (0.132) (0.172) (0Log (median household 0.338 -0.179 -0.229 -0.003 0.541 0.044 0.262 -0.125 -0income in school district) (0.320) (0.346) (0.297) (0.174) (0.569) (0.198) (0.286) (0.470) (0

Log(number of students in -0.045 0.158* -0.063 -0.013 0.020 -0.047 0.040 -0.082 0district) (0.082) (0.095) (0.060) (0.042) (0.116) (0.030) (0.061) (0.094) (0Log(district expenditure per -0.895** -0.429 -0.210 -0.221 0.079 -0.104 -0.216 -0.231 2.2pupil) (0.403) (0.443) (0.363) (0.272) (0.634) (0.225) (0.306) (0.518) (0Log (population density in 0.116 0.039 0.019 -0.027 0.106 0.040 -0.048 -0.019 -0 county) (0.078) (0.070) (0.066) (0.036) (0.108) (0.041) (0.064) (0.111) (0Missing school-level, county, 0.169 -0.067 -0.487* -0.181 -0.499 0.472 0.287 -0.091 0or district variable (0.356) (0.337) (0.283) (0.230) (0.730) (0.324) (0.308) (0.413) (0State compulsory schooling -0.062 0.124 0.099 0.009 -0.174 -0.015 0.016 -0.160 0until age 17–18 (0.153) (0.160) (0.146) (0.068) (0.270) (0.050) (0.120) (0.168) (0Constant 3.501 0.675 4.376 0.557 -3.402 -0.468 0.152 1.210 17. (3.762) (4.434) (4.491) (1.665) (7.551) (1.880) (3.717) (6.403) (8

R-squared 0.171 0.172 0.142 0.119 0.198 0.290 0.267 0.164 0

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 
11 

Table 10b. Effects of School Start Time on Time-Diary Outcomes (Males – Full Results) (N = 550) 

VARIABLES Sleep 

Market 

work 

Nonmarket 

work 

Care 

activities 

Class 

 time 

Other 

schooling Homework 

Extracurricular 

activities/ 

sports 

Scr

time 

ot

leis

School start time 0.128 -0.052 -0.058 -0.007 0.283 -0.035 0.025 0.289 -0.7 (0.250) (0.258) (0.123) (0.042) (0.246) (0.046) (0.106) (0.188) (0.3

Lagged broad-reading score 0.035 -0.141 0.171** 0.033* -0.103 0.071** 0.074 -0.140 -0. (0.105) (0.098) (0.082) (0.018) (0.120) (0.034) (0.058) (0.093) (0.1Lagged applied-problems 0.023 0.030 -0.072 -0.016 0.287** -0.003 0.089 0.107 -0.4 score (0.095) (0.119) (0.060) (0.018) (0.123) (0.033) (0.078) (0.112) (0.1Missing a lagged score 0.307 -0.045 -0.163 0.155** -0.404 -0.016 -0.245** -0.321* 0.6

 (0.268) (0.180) (0.106) (0.061) (0.290) (0.052) (0.116) (0.194) (0.3

School day length 0.279 -0.395** 0.070 0.054 0.060 0.033 -0.043 0.053 -0. (0.252) (0.174) (0.118) (0.046) (0.256) (0.055) (0.131) (0.205) (0.3

Black, non-Hispanic -0.434 0.166 -0.034 -0.037 0.091 0.135 0.264** 0.265 -0. (0.341) (0.255) (0.141) (0.063) (0.316) (0.098) (0.129) (0.253) (0.5

Hispanic 0.646 0.120 -0.067 -0.105 -0.686 -0.083 -0.014 0.859 -0.

 (0.420) (0.301) (0.202) (0.110) (0.664) (0.091) (0.226) (0.617) (0.4

Lives in East region -0.044 -0.573* 0.340* -0.088 0.764* -0.002 0.244 -0.138 -0. (0.355) (0.302) (0.176) (0.055) (0.456) (0.068) (0.221) (0.300) (0.5

Lives in Midwest region -0.190 -0.221 0.340** -0.039 0.322 0.122* 0.310** -0.077 -0. (0.333) (0.236) (0.161) (0.064) (0.327) (0.063) (0.153) (0.260) (0.3

Lives in West region -0.110 -0.781*** 0.241 -0.009 0.038 -0.070 0.513** -0.440 0.5

 (0.320) (0.248) (0.147) (0.066) (0.390) (0.073) (0.247) (0.297) (0.5Grade 9 0.725*** -1.113*** 0.002 -0.033 -0.194 -0.080 0.097 0.051 0.6 (0.242) (0.259) (0.097) (0.046) (0.250) (0.057) (0.130) (0.223) (0.3

Grade 10 0.084 -1.274*** 0.011 -0.007 -0.006 -0.084 0.219 0.075 1.00 (0.292) (0.246) (0.103) (0.068) (0.294) (0.058) (0.161) (0.227) (0.3

Grade 11 0.050 -0.613** -0.023 -0.002 0.196 0.010 0.135 0.106 0.2 (0.227) (0.255) (0.113) (0.067) (0.225) (0.066) (0.143) (0.243) (0.3

Interviewed in 2007-2008 0.003 0.222 -0.285*** -0.090** 0.290 0.073 0.029 -0.126 -0. (0.203) (0.186) (0.101) (0.036) (0.214) (0.045) (0.134) (0.167) (0.2

Ever in special education 0.910*** -0.177 -0.097 -0.045 -0.165 0.108 -0.036 -0.310 -0. (0.282) (0.212) (0.093) (0.044) (0.367) (0.068) (0.154) (0.223) (0.3

October interview 0.153 -0.269 -0.321** -0.013 -0.153 -0.115 0.118 0.103 0.4

 (0.326) (0.238) (0.145) (0.047) (0.280) (0.078) (0.171) (0.300) (0.4

November interview 0.126 0.085 -0.121 -0.127** -0.314 -0.168** 0.223 -0.118 0.4 (0.298) (0.259) (0.182) (0.058) (0.378) (0.075) (0.259) (0.318) (0.5
12 

December interview 0.159 0.002 -0.297** 0.031 -0.221 -0.141* 0.215 -0.170 0.3

 (0.253) (0.261) (0.150) (0.070) (0.285) (0.079) (0.153) (0.286) (0.4

January interview 0.146 -0.211 -0.116 0.025 0.109 -0.151* 0.203 -0.308 0.1 (0.264) (0.267) (0.161) (0.062) (0.293) (0.080) (0.202) (0.305) (0.4

February interview 0.217 -0.075 -0.428*** 0.071 0.230 -0.136* -0.022 -0.349 0.5 (0.369) (0.387) (0.162) (0.097) (0.312) (0.081) (0.262) (0.372) (0.5

March interview 0.260 0.471 -0.072 0.210 -0.320 -0.114 0.068 -0.540 0.3 (0.360) (1.027) (0.195) (0.260) (0.476) (0.087) (0.228) (0.468) (0.8

Lives with step mom and -0.117 0.662 -0.072 0.097 0.541* 0.102 -0.675*** -0.713** 0.3biological father (0.379) (0.429) (0.260) (0.136) (0.277) (0.111) (0.220) (0.280) (0.4Lives with step dad and -0.074 0.899** -0.033 -0.022 0.332 0.027 -0.114 -0.443* -0.biological mother (0.284) (0.408) (0.159) (0.061) (0.347) (0.070) (0.127) (0.226) (0.5Lives with single parent -0.977 0.992*** -0.335 0.079 -0.405 -0.027 -0.567* -0.139 0.2 (0.832) (0.360) (0.205) (0.075) (0.535) (0.073) (0.310) (0.449) (0.7

Lives in other family -1.370 1.726** -1.068** 0.169 -1.656 -0.065 -1.169* 0.887 0.2arrangement (1.695) (0.799) (0.440) (0.156) (1.246) (0.197) (0.628) (0.992) (1.7Number of other children in -0.119* 0.170** -0.003 0.015 -0.050 -0.018 0.030 0.041 -0.family unit under age 19 (0.064) (0.076) (0.038) (0.016) (0.082) (0.016) (0.047) (0.086) (0.1

Mother college degree -0.068 0.053 0.015 -0.117** 0.118 -0.028 0.296* 0.479** -0.8 (0.219) (0.170) (0.104) (0.045) (0.247) (0.055) (0.172) (0.199) (0.3

Mother education missing 0.403 -0.216 0.598* -0.134* 0.402 -0.067 0.340 -0.313 -0. (0.868) (0.402) (0.333) (0.070) (0.621) (0.072) (0.320) (0.506) (0.9

Father college degree 0.077 -0.026 -0.071 0.044 -0.231 0.051 0.126 -0.022 0.0 (0.291) (0.193) (0.097) (0.054) (0.285) (0.076) (0.155) (0.206) (0.3

Father education missing 1.176 -0.849** 0.356* -0.065 0.637 0.020 0.679** -0.174 -0. (0.857) (0.357) (0.206) (0.065) (0.533) (0.073) (0.343) (0.409) (0.8

Free-reduced price lunch 0.160 -0.387* -0.077 -0.054 0.500* 0.210*** -0.033 -0.306 -0.recipient (0.228) (0.211) (0.100) (0.061) (0.273) (0.061) (0.117) (0.231) (0.3Student-teacher ratio 0.042** 0.010 -0.012* -0.001 -0.016 0.009 -0.002 0.001 -0. (0.016) (0.013) (0.006) (0.004) (0.022) (0.006) (0.008) (0.014) (0.0

Percent black 0.459 -0.358 0.462 -0.044 0.102 -0.149 -0.296 -0.492 0.1 (0.720) (0.701) (0.293) (0.134) (0.672) (0.181) (0.261) (0.534) (1.0

Percent Asian 0.714 -1.111* 0.609 -0.286 -1.875 0.317 2.762*** 0.208 -1. (1.214) (0.619) (0.526) (0.240) (1.364) (0.274) (0.585) (1.278) (1.6

Percent Hispanic -0.586 0.883 0.442 -0.016 0.854 0.181 -0.292 -0.173 -1.

 (0.684) (0.841) (0.366) (0.204) (0.814) (0.192) (0.364) (0.733) (1.0

Percent free/reduced-price -0.125 -0.469 -0.134 0.079 -0.077 0.030 0.344 0.775 -0.lunch (0.671) (1.114) (0.313) (0.214) (0.697) (0.178) (0.333) (0.543) (1.2

Magnet or charter school -0.539 0.050 0.115 -0.013 -0.246 0.053 0.022 -0.394 1.0

 (0.338) (0.323) (0.160) (0.056) (0.303) (0.091) (0.189) (0.288) (0.7
13 

Suburban school 0.034 -0.485** 0.003 -0.042 -0.696*** 0.150** -0.145 -0.150 1.23 (0.251) (0.240) (0.120) (0.050) (0.250) (0.062) (0.153) (0.231) (0.3

Town school -0.176 -0.705*** -0.105 -0.070 -0.075 0.063 -0.199 -0.099 1.34

 (0.367) (0.258) (0.141) (0.062) (0.330) (0.054) (0.181) (0.244) (0.4

Rural school -0.559** -0.560* 0.312* -0.070 -0.110 0.173** 0.212 0.021 0.4 (0.274) (0.300) (0.160) (0.058) (0.238) (0.069) (0.193) (0.248) (0.4

Log (number of students in -0.235 -0.181 -0.016 -0.002 0.181 0.022 0.028 -0.203 0.4high school) (0.160) (0.201) (0.101) (0.045) (0.174) (0.050) (0.170) (0.154) (0.2Log (median household -0.842 -0.204 -0.029 0.154* 0.319 -0.034 0.205 0.933** -0.income in school district) (0.630) (0.451) (0.231) (0.088) (0.544) (0.100) (0.290) (0.393) (0.7

Log(number of students in -0.240* 0.049 0.016 -0.012 0.132 0.032 0.112 0.056 -0.district) (0.127) (0.086) (0.053) (0.018) (0.121) (0.029) (0.087) (0.091) (0.1Log(district expenditure per 0.221 1.020* -0.342 0.054 -0.829* 0.090 -0.318 -0.712* 0.8pupil) (0.367) (0.562) (0.243) (0.072) (0.498) (0.095) (0.314) (0.379) (0.7

Log (population density in 0.157 -0.062 0.001 -0.018 -0.012 -0.035 -0.078 0.023 0.0 county) (0.121) (0.070) (0.041) (0.019) (0.117) (0.023) (0.058) (0.091) (0.1

Missing school-level, county, -0.588 -0.356* -0.126 -0.039 0.210 -0.044 0.261 -0.174 0.7or district variable (0.486) (0.204) (0.161) (0.105) (0.431) (0.054) (0.170) (0.314) (0.5State compulsory schooling -0.086 -0.182 0.004 -0.021 0.338* -0.023 0.051 -0.193 0.0until age 17–18 (0.189) (0.158) (0.092) (0.037) (0.196) (0.040) (0.114) (0.149) (0.2Constant 16.645** 6.007 1.829 -1.549 -1.644 -0.107 -2.264 -8.550 13. (7.181) (6.197) (2.994) (1.295) (6.444) (1.281) (3.411) (5.238) (8.6

R-squared 0.206 0.276 0.131 0.154 0.149 0.194 0.245 0.138 0.2

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 
14 

Table 10c. Effects of School Start Time on Attendance, Participation, and Health Outcomes 

(Females – Full Results) 

VARIABLES 

Tardy to 

school Employed 

Sports 

team 

Fair/poor 

health 

Overweight/ 

obese 

Depressive 

symptoms 

School start time -0.073 -0.043 0.205** 0.036 -0.025 -0.071 

 (0.064) (0.063) (0.081) (0.035) (0.051) (0.073) 

Lagged broad-reading score -0.031 -0.059* 0.007 -0.026 0.051 -0.000 

 (0.029) (0.035) (0.033) (0.022) (0.034) (0.036) 

Lagged applied-problems 0.040 0.055* 0.061* 0.029 -0.064** 0.006 

 score (0.027) (0.029) (0.037) (0.025) (0.028) (0.035) 

Missing a lagged score 0.042 0.058 -0.054 0.032 -0.000 -0.107* 

 (0.060) (0.058) (0.054) (0.045) (0.060) (0.065) 

School day length 0.115* -0.012 0.084 -0.012 -0.143** -0.067 

 (0.065) (0.060) (0.080) (0.053) (0.058) (0.070) 

Black, non-Hispanic -0.120 0.008 -0.033 0.081 0.169* -0.035 

 (0.085) (0.073) (0.093) (0.073) (0.087) (0.104) 

Hispanic 0.076 -0.078 -0.068 0.280*** 0.146 -0.024 

 (0.119) (0.086) (0.119) (0.100) (0.117) (0.130) 

Lives in East region 0.155 -0.025 0.153 -0.024 -0.002 0.095 

 (0.140) (0.109) (0.165) (0.071) (0.106) (0.128) 

Lives in Midwest region -0.047 0.072 0.088 -0.025 -0.044 0.102

 (0.081) (0.070) (0.092) (0.054) (0.076) (0.088) 

Lives in West region -0.051 0.029 0.123 -0.132* -0.170* -0.021

 (0.089) (0.089) (0.113) (0.079) (0.092) (0.116) 

Grade 9 -0.141** -0.249*** 0.105 0.062* -0.010 0.039 

 (0.059) (0.060) (0.083) (0.036) (0.071) (0.078) 

Grade 10 -0.076 -0.229*** 0.002 0.033 -0.065 0.088 

 (0.060) (0.060) (0.060) (0.044) (0.068) (0.073) 

Grade 11 -0.077 -0.027 0.060 0.047 -0.033 0.042 

 (0.068) (0.068) (0.072) (0.039) (0.070) (0.073) 

Interviewed in 2007-2008 0.018 0.033 0.080 0.039 0.097* -0.159*** 

 (0.043) (0.046) (0.052) (0.035) (0.050) (0.058) 

Ever in special education 0.074 0.108 -0.097 0.091 -0.027 0.154* 

 (0.091) (0.088) (0.067) (0.070) (0.105) (0.090) 

October interview -0.109 0.026 -0.066 0.073 0.074 0.139 

 (0.076) (0.079) (0.084) (0.049) (0.091) (0.096) 

November interview -0.163* 0.029 0.041 0.026 -0.012 0.125 

 (0.087) (0.089) (0.095) (0.054) (0.097) (0.108) 

December interview -0.125* -0.043 0.079 -0.005 -0.032 0.111 

 (0.074) (0.081) (0.086) (0.044) (0.085) (0.095) 

January interview -0.124 -0.044 -0.031 0.047 -0.111 0.194** 

 (0.078) (0.075) (0.085) (0.058) (0.096) (0.091) 

February interview -0.051 -0.127 -0.099 0.048 0.083 0.124 

 (0.112) (0.096) (0.098) (0.064) (0.130) (0.127) 

March interview -0.003 -0.076 -0.271** 0.198 0.198 0.464*** 

 (0.130) (0.154) (0.115) (0.159) (0.195) (0.115) 

Lives with step mom and 0.068 0.057 -0.051 0.238* 0.071 0.396*** 

biological father (0.099) (0.127) (0.121) (0.121) (0.126) (0.118) 

Lives with step dad and 0.048 0.070 -0.067 -0.035 -0.098 0.095

biological mother (0.098) (0.092) (0.077) (0.043) (0.095) (0.096) 

Lives with single parent -0.115 -0.154 -0.106 -0.100 -0.003 0.316* 

 (0.082) (0.120) (0.175) (0.091) (0.163) (0.183) 

Lives in other family -0.292 -0.187 0.022 -0.165 -0.140 0.492 

arrangement (0.181) (0.379) (0.358) (0.187) (0.329) (0.384) 

 
15 

Number of other children in -0.000 0.023 0.014 -0.014 0.001 -0.003 

family unit under age 19 (0.027) (0.020) (0.033) (0.022) (0.031) (0.029) 

Mother college degree -0.049 -0.070 0.057 -0.039 -0.030 -0.029 

 (0.050) (0.058) (0.060) (0.039) (0.067) (0.074) 

Mother education missing 0.111 0.056 -0.346* -0.029 0.558*** -0.377 

 (0.126) (0.250) (0.199) (0.107) (0.197) (0.248) 

Father college degree -0.018 -0.009 0.131* 0.028 -0.079 0.021 

 (0.059) (0.064) (0.068) (0.039) (0.073) (0.078) 

Father education missing 0.089 0.130 0.139 0.139 -0.104 -0.171 

 (0.097) (0.128) (0.179) (0.097) (0.161) (0.185) 

Free-reduced price lunch -0.019 -0.062 -0.006 -0.007 0.030 0.031 

recipient (0.060) (0.055) (0.069) (0.045) (0.065) (0.075) 

Student-teacher ratio 0.025*** -0.008 0.010 0.003 0.014 -0.019*

 (0.009) (0.009) (0.012) (0.007) (0.009) (0.011) 

Percent black 0.488*** -0.212 -0.124 -0.198 -0.006 -0.332 

 (0.183) (0.151) (0.185) (0.146) (0.198) (0.212) 

Percent Asian -0.413 -0.226 -0.500 0.182 -0.106 -0.067 

 (0.327) (0.300) (0.472) (0.268) (0.325) (0.437) 

Percent Hispanic 0.131 -0.243* -0.131 -0.222 -0.021 0.090 

 (0.162) (0.138) (0.239) (0.151) (0.180) (0.192) 

Percent free/reduced-price -0.321* -0.173 0.177 -0.030 0.164 0.152 

lunch (0.179) (0.167) (0.268) (0.160) (0.192) (0.221) 

Magnet or charter school 0.053 -0.014 -0.078 -0.012 -0.263*** -0.148 

 (0.105) (0.087) (0.096) (0.078) (0.096) (0.124) 

Suburban school -0.120* 0.080 0.004 0.020 0.101 0.042 

 (0.066) (0.075) (0.076) (0.048) (0.067) (0.080) 

Town school 0.028 0.008 -0.195** -0.068 0.127 0.067 

 (0.091) (0.072) (0.095) (0.051) (0.081) (0.105) 

Rural school -0.006 0.058 -0.036 -0.004 0.100 0.026 

 (0.083) (0.076) (0.084) (0.051) (0.074) (0.094) 

Log (number of students in -0.067 -0.037 -0.088 -0.029 -0.092* -0.036 

high school) (0.050) (0.051) (0.059) (0.036) (0.051) (0.063) 

Log (median household 0.010 -0.093 -0.104 -0.095 0.049 0.033 

income in school district) (0.118) (0.126) (0.148) (0.091) (0.117) (0.151) 

Log(number of students in -0.022 0.069*** 0.043 0.022 -0.027 0.046 

district) (0.026) (0.025) (0.034) (0.018) (0.029) (0.032) 

Log(district expenditure per -0.094 0.042 0.168 0.069 -0.339** -0.295* 

pupil) (0.151) (0.135) (0.147) (0.079) (0.140) (0.163) 

Log (population density in 0.023 -0.003 0.007 -0.019 0.048* 0.012 

 county) (0.024) (0.026) (0.033) (0.022) (0.027) (0.035) 

Missing school-level, county, -0.039 0.047 -0.204* 0.030 -0.095 0.082 

or district variable (0.152) (0.122) (0.110) (0.084) (0.110) (0.160) 

State compulsory schooling -0.004 0.028 0.043 0.034 0.019 -0.013 

until age 17–18 (0.052) (0.047) (0.051) (0.030) (0.052) (0.056)

Constant 0.413 1.535 -1.357 0.784 2.078 1.883 

 (1.580) (1.499) (1.840) (0.887) (1.336) (1.866) 

R-squared 0.154 0.202 0.171 0.155 0.220 0.146 

Number of observations 480 550 550 550 530 550 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 

 
16 

Table 10d. Effects of School Start Time on Attendance, Participation, and Health Outcomes (Males 

– Full Results) 

VARIABLES 

Tardy to 

school 

Employed Sports 

team 

Fair/poor 

health 

Overweight/ 

obese 

Depressive 

symptoms 

School start time -0.053 0.089 0.035 -0.010 -0.029 -0.037 

 (0.050) (0.057) (0.063) (0.033) (0.071) (0.068) 

Lagged broad-reading score -0.023 -0.017 -0.034 -0.022 0.010 0.008 

 (0.026) (0.030) (0.033) (0.019) (0.036) (0.035) 

Lagged applied-problems 0.030 0.057* 0.014 -0.001 -0.019 0.006

 score (0.025) (0.032) (0.035) (0.020) (0.035) (0.038) 

Missing a lagged score -0.048 0.045 -0.037 0.017 -0.039 0.047

 (0.054) (0.062) (0.069) (0.037) (0.076) (0.079) 

School day length 0.004 0.041 0.018 -0.086** -0.068 0.083 

 (0.048) (0.056) (0.078) (0.040) (0.078) (0.073) 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.062 0.062 0.056 -0.010 0.185* 0.098 

 (0.062) (0.080) (0.084) (0.049) (0.096) (0.108) 

Hispanic 0.032 0.061 -0.080 -0.103 0.097 -0.160 

 (0.099) (0.134) (0.135) (0.066) (0.163) (0.146) 

Lives in East region 0.057 0.146 0.367*** -0.081* -0.007 0.009

 (0.083) (0.105) (0.118) (0.048) (0.119) (0.132) 

Lives in Midwest region 0.046 0.138** 0.120 0.013 0.093 -0.062

 (0.064) (0.067) (0.087) (0.042) (0.089) (0.092) 

Lives in West region 0.060 -0.048 -0.003 -0.008 0.178 0.079 

 (0.074) (0.077) (0.096) (0.063) (0.108) (0.108) 

Grade 9 -0.030 -0.261*** -0.019 0.030 0.026 0.255*** 

 (0.060) (0.073) (0.071) (0.041) (0.074) (0.081) 

Grade 10 -0.054 -0.264*** 0.023 -0.003 -0.003 0.186** 

 (0.058) (0.067) (0.076) (0.032) (0.083) (0.078) 

Grade 11 -0.005 -0.034 -0.033 -0.034 -0.047 0.092 

 (0.067) (0.075) (0.079) (0.032) (0.076) (0.083) 

Interviewed in 2007-2008 -0.019 -0.066 0.132** 0.065** 0.101 0.041 

 (0.043) (0.049) (0.059) (0.028) (0.063) (0.066) 

Ever in special education 0.051 -0.048 -0.229*** 0.038 -0.046 0.226*** 

 (0.051) (0.053) (0.072) (0.041) (0.088) (0.077) 

October interview 0.121* -0.080 0.002 0.005 0.148* -0.045 

 (0.066) (0.079) (0.089) (0.043) (0.082) (0.099) 

November interview 0.140* -0.050 -0.145 0.090* 0.220** 0.036 

 (0.075) (0.086) (0.100) (0.053) (0.106) (0.118) 

December interview 0.057 -0.067 0.014 0.025 0.201** 0.083 

 (0.059) (0.081) (0.087) (0.043) (0.086) (0.109) 

January interview 0.045 -0.030 -0.141 -0.011 0.143 0.091 

 (0.072) (0.090) (0.098) (0.045) (0.096) (0.108) 

February interview 0.135 -0.083 0.062 0.119* 0.232* 0.289** 

 (0.094) (0.102) (0.124) (0.067) (0.128) (0.127) 

March interview 0.085 -0.052 -0.186 0.029 0.267* -0.042 

 (0.097) (0.185) (0.180) (0.079) (0.154) (0.191) 

Lives with step mom and -0.139** -0.099 -0.178 -0.033 -0.061 0.203 

biological father (0.068) (0.099) (0.159) (0.053) (0.165) (0.169) 

Lives with step dad and -0.105* 0.028 -0.184** -0.055** 0.052 0.109 

biological mother (0.053) (0.082) (0.085) (0.028) (0.111) (0.089) 

Lives with single parent 0.273 0.385*** 0.169 0.126 -0.211 -0.080 

 (0.202) (0.108) (0.170) (0.094) (0.146) (0.138) 

Lives in other family 0.376 0.520** 0.501 0.194 -0.068 -0.212 

arrangement (0.398) (0.234) (0.356) (0.191) (0.332) (0.328) 

 
17 

Number of other children in 0.037* 0.008 -0.013 0.001 0.013 0.016 

family unit under age 19 (0.022) (0.016) (0.025) (0.017) (0.026) (0.025) 

Mother college degree -0.047 0.049 0.111* -0.044 -0.102 -0.186** 

 (0.049) (0.055) (0.063) (0.034) (0.065) (0.076) 

Mother education missing -0.096 -0.117 -0.234 -0.174* 0.066 -0.015 

 (0.222) (0.136) (0.184) (0.103) (0.164) (0.183) 

Father college degree 0.087 -0.019 -0.014 0.037 0.011 0.153* 

 (0.054) (0.062) (0.071) (0.036) (0.073) (0.079) 

Father education missing -0.260 -0.411*** -0.365** -0.038 0.081 0.247* 

 (0.192) (0.107) (0.162) (0.090) (0.152) (0.132) 

Free-reduced price lunch -0.071* -0.042 -0.113 -0.004 -0.044 -0.110 

recipient (0.041) (0.059) (0.071) (0.034) (0.074) (0.081) 

Student-teacher ratio 0.005 0.003 0.009** -0.003 -0.001 0.001 

 (0.009) (0.005) (0.005) (0.004) (0.005) (0.005) 

Percent black -0.032 -0.406*** -0.047 0.023 -0.094 -0.100 

 (0.115) (0.150) (0.184) (0.084) (0.200) (0.184) 

Percent Asian -0.173 -0.650** -0.322 0.019 -0.646 0.216 

 (0.195) (0.257) (0.301) (0.118) (0.464) (0.407) 

Percent Hispanic 0.066 -0.138 -0.059 0.391*** 0.130 0.288 

 (0.182) (0.191) (0.200) (0.130) (0.251) (0.237) 

Percent free/reduced-price 0.321** 0.342** 0.395** -0.023 0.060 -0.661*** 

lunch (0.150) (0.166) (0.196) (0.105) (0.242) (0.227) 

Magnet or charter school 0.082 -0.037 -0.047 -0.083 0.023 -0.186* 

 (0.066) (0.076) (0.102) (0.058) (0.105) (0.095) 

Suburban school -0.009 0.036 -0.088 0.004 0.198** -0.004 

 (0.058) (0.063) (0.072) (0.046) (0.082) (0.082) 

Town school 0.022 0.045 0.071 -0.063 0.173 -0.004 

 (0.078) (0.086) (0.099) (0.051) (0.124) (0.122) 

Rural school 0.044 0.089 -0.051 -0.007 0.262*** -0.079 

 (0.058) (0.073) (0.079) (0.050) (0.096) (0.108) 

Log (number of students in 0.032 0.027 -0.063 -0.016 0.034 -0.048 

high school) (0.034) (0.040) (0.053) (0.032) (0.066) (0.055) 

Log (median household 0.056 -0.090 0.419*** 0.080 -0.144 -0.376** 

income in school district) (0.109) (0.126) (0.132) (0.079) (0.150) (0.160) 

Log(number of students in -0.048* 0.022 0.039 0.024 0.018 0.015 

district) (0.026) (0.024) (0.030) (0.021) (0.039) (0.034) 

Log(district expenditure per 0.092 0.075 -0.261* -0.027 0.034 -0.009 

pupil) (0.114) (0.108) (0.140) (0.057) (0.142) (0.138) 

Log (population density in 0.029 0.010 -0.047 -0.027 0.034 0.041 

 county) (0.026) (0.025) (0.029) (0.017) (0.032) (0.030) 

Missing school-level, county, 0.118 0.071 -0.139 0.180 -0.044 0.188 

or district variable (0.127) (0.126) (0.123) (0.120) (0.116) (0.120) 

State compulsory schooling -0.042 -0.055 0.018 0.011 0.060 -0.028 

until age 17–18 (0.043) (0.047) (0.054) (0.029) (0.060) (0.062)

Constant -0.567 -0.330 -3.726** -0.032 1.480 4.116** 

 (1.278) (1.369) (1.702) (0.881) (1.918) (1.768) 

R-squared 0.158 0.228 0.212 0.231 0.158 0.197 

Number of observations 490 550 550 550 540 520 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 

 
18

Section 2: Heterogeneous Effects by FRL Status 

Table S1. Effects of School Start Time on Sleep, by FRL Status 

Variables

All diary 

sleep 

(M–TH) 

Nighttime 

diary 

sleep 

(M–TH) 

Usual 

night 

sleep 

Napping 

 (M–TH) 

Wake-up 

time 

(M–TH) 

Panel 1. FemalesSchool start time 0.405 0.308 0.353* 0.097 0.424* 

(0.272) (0.248) (0.194) (0.124) (0.227) 

School start time*FRL 0.421 0.483 -0.350 -0.062 0.282 

(0.649) (0.611) (0.407) (0.230) (0.465) 

[School start time + school start time*FRL] 0.826 0.791 0.003 0.035 0.706* 

(0.582) (0.551) (0.359) (0.195) (0.339) 

Number of observations 450 450 550 450 450 R-squared 0.193 0.191 0.182 0.087 0.231 

Panel 2. Males School start time -0.029 0.411 0.206 -0.440 0.519** 

(0.439) (0.277) (0.217) (0.311) (0.205) 

School start time*FRL -0.576 -0.664 -0.453 0.088 0.223 

(0.729) (0.529) (0.361) (0.465) (0.358) 

[School start time + school start time*FRL] -0.605 -0.253 0.247 -0.352 0.741*** 

(0.580) (0.449) (0.291) (0.347) (0.258) 

Number of observations 460 460 550 460 460 R-squared 0.245 0.244 0.216 0.242 0.248 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. See Table 5 specificvariables. ***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 
19

Table S2. Effects of School Start Time on Time-use Activities and Health, by FRL Status (All-days 

Female Sample) (N=550) 

Dependent Variable 

School 

start time 

School 

start time*FRL 

[School start time + 

school start time*FRL] 

Time-Diary Outcomes 

Sleep 0.549*** 0.033 0.581 

 (0.216) (0.441) (0.384) 

Market work 0.003 0.573 0.576** 

 (0.267) (0.389) (0.284) 

Nonmarket work 0.214 -0.493* -0.279 

 (0.171) (0.281) (0.222) 

Care activities 0.101 -0.277 -0.175 

 (0.089) (0.207) (0.187) 

Class time -0.222 -0.156 -0.378 

 (0.323) (0.602) (0.503) 

Other schooling -0.145* 0.145 0.000 

 (0.085) (0.116) (0.081) 

Homework -0.290 0.164 -0.126 

 (0.185) (0.247) (0.162) 

Extracurricular activities/ 0.516** -0.567 -0.051 

sports (0.244) (0.425) (0.347) 

Screen time and other leisure -0.812** 0.513 -0.299 

 (0.335) (0.628) (0.487) 

 Subcategories: 

 Screen time -0.377 -0.387 -0.764* 

 (0.344) (0.571) (0.457) 

 Other leisure -0.435 0.900** 0.465 

 (0.275) (0.397) (0.295) 

Personal care -0.003 0.066 0.063 

 (0.093) (0.172) (0.149) 

Missing activities 0.090 -0.001 0.089 

 (0.047) (0.103) (0.092) 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. See Table 5 

specification 4 for control variables. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 

 
20

Table S2 Continued. Effects of School Start Time on Time-use Activities and Health, by FRL Status 

(All-days Female Sample) (N = 550) 

Dependent Variable 

School 

start time 

School 

start time*FRL 

[School start time + 

 school start time*FRL] 

Attendance and Participation Outcomes 

Tardy to schoola -0.087 -0.110 -0.197* 

 (0.076) (0.139) (0.116) 

Employed -0.052 0.168 0.116* 

 (0.079) (0.105) (0.070) 

Sports team 0.124 0.319 0.443** 

 (0.088) (0.221) (0.202) 

Health-Indicator Outcomes 

Fair/poor health -0.035 0.240*** 0.204*** 

 (0.039) (0.033) (0.072) 

Overweight/Obeseb

 0.038 -0.231* -0.193* 

 (0.062) (0.132) (0.117) 

Depressive Symptomsc

 -0.119 0.233 0.114 

 (0.084) (0.153) (0.128) 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. See Table 5 

specification 4 for control variables. 

a

 For the tardy-to-school variable, the number of observations was 480 for females and 490 for males due 

to some students not attending school on their weekday diary. 

b

 For the overweight variable, the number of observations was 530 for females and 540 for males due to 

missing information. 

c

 For the depressive symptoms variable, the number of observations was 520 for males due to missing 

information. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 
21

Table S3. Effects of School Start Time on Time-use Activities and Health, by FRL Status (All-days 

Male Sample) (N = 550) 

Dependent Variable 

School 

start time 

School 

start time*FRL 

[School start time + 

school start time*FRL] 

Time-Diary Outcomes 

Sleep 0.148 -0.374 -0.225 

 (0.314) (0.606) (0.517) 

Market work 0.084 -0.666 -0.581* 

 (0.275) (0.446) (0.350) 

Nonmarket work -0.054 0.015 -0.040 

 (0.174) (0.232) (0.153) 

Care activities -0.021 -0.100 -0.121* 

 (0.065) (0.095) (0.070) 

Class time 0.502* -1.420** -0.918* 

 (0.304) (0.583) (0.494) 

Other schooling -0.056 0.391* 0.334* 

 (0.045) (0.202) (0.197) 

Homework 0.073 0.143 0.216 

 (0.139) (0.224) (0.176) 

Extracurricular activities/ 0.273 -0.157 0.116 

sports (0.246) (0.367) (0.270) 

Screen time and other leisure -1.176** 2.377*** 1.200** 

 (0.479) (0.760) (0.583) 

 Subcategories: 

 Screen time -1.391*** 2.035*** 0.644* 

 (0.440) (0.775) (0.632) 

 Other leisure 0.214 0.341 0.557 

 (0.265) (0.494) (0.418) 

Personal care 0.179** -0.284 -0.105 

 (0.076) (0.207) (0.192) 

Missing activities 0.047 0.075 0.123 

 (0.039) (0.112) (0.105) 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. See Table 5 

specification 4 for control variables. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level. 

 
22

Table S3 Continued. Effects of School Start Time on Time-use Activities and Health, by FRL Status 

(All-days Male Sample) (N = 550) 

Dependent Variable 

School 

start time 

School 

start time*FRL 

[School start time + 

 school start time*FRL] 

Attendance and Participation Outcomes 

Tardy to schoola -0.069 0.011 -0.058 

 (0.063) (0.107) (0.088) 

Employed 0.110* -0.058 0.051 

 (0.066) (0.118) (0.098) 

Sports team -0.015 0.319 0.443** 

 (0.077) (0.221) (0.202) 

Health-Indicator Outcomes 

Fair/poor health -0.026 0.118 0.091 

 (0.034) (0.080) (0.073) 

Overweight/Obeseb

 -0.051 0.093 0.042 

 (0.085) (0.167) (0.142) 

Depressive Symptomsc

 -0.014 -0.086 -0.100 

 (0.075) (0.134) (0.110) 

Number of observations 550 550 1,100 

Notes: CDS child weights used. Standard errors clustered by high school are in parentheses. See Table 5 

specification 4 for control variables. 

a

 For the tardy-to-school variable, the number of observations was 480 for females and 490 for males due 

to some students not attending school on their weekday diary. 

b

 For the overweight variable, the number of observations was 530 for females and 540 for males due to 

missing information. 

c

 For the depressive symptoms variable, the number of observations was 520 for males due to missing 

information. 

***indicates significant at the 0.01 level, **at the 0.05 level, and *at the 0.10 level.