# U ni te d S ta te s Co ur t of A pp ea ls

For the Eig hth Circu it

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _

No. 1 6- 19 59

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _

Uni te d S ta te s o f Am eri ca

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Pla in ti

ff - App el le e

v.

Eleu te rio Mu ril lo -Sal ga do

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an t - Ap pe ll an t

__ __ __ __ __ __

App eal fro m

Uni te d S ta te s Di st ric t Co ur t

fo r th e Weste rn Dis tri ct of M is so ur i - Kan sa s C it y

__ __ __ __ __ __

Su bm it te d: Nov em

be r 17 , 20 16

Fil ed : Ap ril 13 , 20 17

__ __ __ __ __ __

Befo re RI LEY, Ch ie f Ju dg e, W OLLMAN and KELLY , Cir cu it Ju dg es

. 1

__

__ __ __ __ __

W OLLMAN, Circ ui t J ud ge

.

Eleu te rio Mu ril lo -Sal ga do was ch arg ed wit h on e co un t of po ss es si ng co cai ne

wit h i nt en t to di st rib ut e, 21 U.S.C. § 84 1( a)(1 ) an d (b )(1 )(B) , aft er a M is so ur i St at e

The Hon or ab le W il li am Ja y Ri le y st ep pe d do wn as Ch ie f Ju dg e of th e Uni te d 1

St at es Co ur t of App eal s fo r th e Eig ht h Ci rcu it at th e cl os e of bu si ne ss on Mar ch 10

, 20 17 . He has be en su ccee de d b y th e Hon or ab le Lave ns ki R. Sm it h.Hig hwa y Pat ro l (MS HP) of fic er st op pe d a ve hi cl e in whi ch Sal ga do was a pa ss en ge r

an d di sc ov ered co cai ne hi dd en in an ai r-co m pr es so r ta nk du rin g a se arch of th e

ve hi cl e. The di st ric t co ur t, ad op ti ng th e rep or t an d reco m m en da ti on of th e m ag is tra te

jud ge

, de ni ed Sal ga do ’s m ot io n to su pp res s t he dr ug ev id en ce. Sal ga do th erea fte r

en te red a co nd it io na l gu il ty pl ea, res e r v i n g hi s rig ht to ch al le ng e th e de ni al of hi s

m ot io n t o s up pr es s. The di st ric t co ur t se nt en ced Sal ga do to si xt y -th ree m on th s’

im pr is on m en t an d im

po se d a sp eci al co nd it io n of su pe rv is io n or de rin g th at Sal ga do

be rem ov ed fro m th e Uni te d St at es up on co m pl et io n of hi s pr is on te rm

. W e affi rm

th e or de r de nyin g Sal ga do ’s m ot io n to su pp res s. Bec au se th e di st ric t co ur t la ck ed

juri sd ic ti on to en te r th e rem ov al or de r, ho wev er, w e am en d th e sp eci al co nd it io n of

su pe rv is io n to or de r th a t Sal ga do be su rren de red to a du ly au th or iz ed im m ig rat io n

of fic ia l fo r rem ov al pro ceed in gs up on co m pl et io n o f hi s p ris on ter m

.

W e ha ve r e v i e w e d th e vi de o an d au di o reco rd in g of th e tra ffi c st op th at th e

go ve rn m en t i nt ro du ced at t he ev id en ti ary he ari ng on Sal ga do ’s m ot io n t o s up pr es s.

We r e c i t e th e fact s as fo un d by th e m ag is tra te jud ge an d th e di st ric t co ur t

,

su pp le m en ti ng on ly w he re n eces sa ry to ful ly por tra y

th e en co un te r.

On th e m or ni ng of Apr il 7, 20 14

, MSHP Serg ean t Larry All en was pa tro ll in g

In te rs ta te 29 in Hol t C o u n t y, M is so ur i, whe n he ob se rv ed a fo ur -d oo r Nis sa n tru ck

tra ve li ng so ut hb ou nd in th e le ft la ne (b ut no t pa ss in g ot he r ve hi cl es ) an d dr iv in g th ree

m il es ov er th e po st ed sp eed li m it

. As he be ga n to pu rs ue th e tru ck to in it ia te a tra ffi c

st op

, All en act iv at ed th e sa fet y li gh ts on hi s pa tro l car, th ereb y tri gg eri ng vi de o an d

au di o reco rd in g eq ui pm en t. The vi de o reco rd in g ti m e st am p in di cat es th at th e tru ck 2

an d th e pa tro l car st op pe d on th e sh ou ld er of th e hi gh way at 10 :3 9 a.m

. As All en

a p p r o a ch ed th e st op pe d tru ck

, whi ch bo re Cal ifo rn ia li cen se pl at es

, he ob se rv e d a

The pa tro l car was eq ui pp ed wit h vi de o cam eras th at reco rd ed a c t i v i ty bo th 2

wit hi n an d in fro nt of th e ve hi cl e. I n a d d i t i o n

, Serg ean t All en was weari ng a

m ic ro ph on e th at reco rd ed au di o d ur in g t he tra ffi c st op

.

-2

-dr iv er and a pa ss en ge r in th e fro nt se at s, so m e lu gg ag e an d an ai r co m pr es so r in th e

ba ck se at

, an d th ree pac ka ge s of elect ric al wiri ng

, a small l ad de r, a ha rd ha t, and an

“ el ect ric al t yp e b o x ” in th e op en tru ck be d. All en sp ok e to th e tru ck ’s oc cu pa nt s

th ro ug h th e fro nt pa ss en ge r-s id e win do w. The dr iv er id en ti fie d h i ms e lf as Ram on

Arred on do

, ha nd ed All en a Cal ifo rn ia dr iv er’s li cen se

, an d to ld All en th at he an d hi s

pa ss en ge r were dr iv in g fro m Cal ifo rn ia to Nor th Caro li na

. All en i n s t r u c t ed

Arred on do to sl ow do wn an d to us e th e le ft la ne on ly fo r pa ss in g ot he r ve hi cl es

, an d

th en st at ed th at he wou ld is su e a warn in g rat he r th an a ti ck et

. All en as ke d Arred on do

to ex it th e tru ck an d acco m pa ny hi m to th e pa tro l car w h i l e A l le n co m pl et ed

ne ces sa ry ad m in is tra ti ve tas ks an d wro te up th e warn in g.

In th e pa t r o l c a r

, Arred on do ha nd ed All en a ren ta l ag reem en t an d in su ran ce

in fo rm at io n fo r th e tru ck

. All en as ke d Arre d o n d o w h a t he an d Sal ga do di d fo r a

li vi ng

, as he si m

ul ta ne ou sl y be ga n en t e rin g Arred on do ’s in fo rm at io n in to th e

ve hi cl e’s co m

pu te r. Arred on do res po nd ed th at he an d Sal ga do were el ect ric ia ns on

th ei r way to Nor th Caro li na fo r a bi g job th at wou ld pa y “ co ol m on ey .” All en , st il l

typin g in fo rm at io n in to th e co m pu te r, th en as ke d Arred on do why th ey were dr iv in g

su ch a lo ng di st an ce in st ead of flyin g. Arred on do rep li ed th at th ey were tra ns po rti ng

to ol s an d al l of th e el ect ric al wiri ng req ui red fo r t h e jo b

. All en was su sp ic io us of

Arred on do ’s res po ns e be cau se All en di d no t be li ev e th at th e qu an ti ty of el ect ric al

wiri ng he ha d se en in th e tru ck be d was su ffi ci en t to co m pl et e a si zeab le wiri ng job

.

All en as ke d Arred on do if he ha d ev er be en arre st ed , a nd Arred on do rep li ed th at he

ha d no t. In res po ns e to All en ’s q ue st io n why t he na m e on th e ren ta l a g r eem en t fo r

th e tru ck di d no t m at ch th e na m e on Arred on do ’s li cen se

, Arred on do po in te d ou t th at

th e ag reem en t ha d mi st ak en ly li st ed hi s m id dl e na m e as hi s la st na m e, an d he

ex po un de d on si m il ar pas t m ix -u ps

. The two th en sp en t sev eral m in ut es di sc us si ng

an d p ag in g th ro ug h th e ren ta l agre em en t. N ot in g t ha t t he tru ck ha d b een ren te d fo r

on ly fi v e d a ys, All en as ke d ho w Arred on do an d Sal ga do co ul d dr iv e to Nor th

Caro li na

, co m

pl et e th e si zeab le wiri ng job

, an d ret ur n th e tru ck in Cal ifo rn ia in on ly

fiv e da y s. Arred on do ex pl ai ne d th at he ha d be en req ui red to pa y cas h for th e in it ia l

-3

-ren ta l an d co ul d affo rd to pa y fo r on ly fiv e da y s b u t th at he in te nd ed to ex te nd th e

ren ta l p eri od fo r a to ta l of t wo wee ks an d t o p ay for th e ex te ns io n b y

cred it card , as

pe rm it te d un de r th e ag reem en t. He an d S al ga do wou ld th us ha ve su ffi ci en t t im e to

dr iv e to Nor th Caro li na

, co m pl et e th e wiri ng job

, an d retu rn th e tru ck in Cal ifo rn ia

.

All en as ke d whe th er it wou ld ha ve be en le ss ex pe ns iv e to fly to Nor th Caro li na

.

Arred o n d o r e mar ke d th at he ha d be en in a tra ffi c acci de nt ab ou t a m on th earl ie r,

de sc rib ed th e a cci de nt in so m e de ta il

, an d st at ed th at th e ot he r dr iv er’s in su ran ce

co m pa ny was pa y in g fo r th e tru ck ren ta l, a fact th at ha d pl ay ed a ro le in hi s de ci si on

to dri ve to Nort h C aro li na

.

All en as ke d Arred on do fo r hi s so ci al se cu rit y nu m be r, bu t Arred on do di d no t

ha ve th at in fo rm at io n. All en ag ai n as ke d Arred on do whe th er he ha d be en arre st ed

an d whe th er he ha d ev er us ed or tra ns po rte d il le ga l d r u g s

, t o whi ch Arred on do

rep li ed th at he ha d no t. All en th en cal le d di sp at ch an d pro vi de d Arred on do ’s na m e

an d da te of bi rth fo r an ou ts ta nd in g- warra nt s ch eck

. A m in ut e or so pa ss ed in si le nc e

whi le All en wait ed fo r a rep ly fro m di sp at ch

, an d All en th en ag ai n as ke d Arred on do

ab ou t th e el ec t ric al wiri ng in th e tru ck

. Arred on do rep li ed th at he be li ev ed it was

twel ve -g au ge wire an d als o st at ed th at he was no t act ua ll y an el ect ric ia n bu t m erel y

a “ he lp er,” who dr il le d ho le s fo r in st al la t i o n of th e wiri ng

. All en th en as ke d

Arred on do who ha d ren te d th e tru ck

. Arred on do st at ed th at h e h a d an d ag ai n

ex pl ai ne d th at he wou ld be rei m bu rs ed fo r th e ren ta l by an in su ran ce co m pa ny. The

vi de ot ap e rev eal s no si gn s of ne rv ou sn es s on Arred on do ’s pa rt du rin g th es e

ex ch an ge s wit h All en

. All en cal le d di sp at ch ag ai n

, i n f o rm ed th e op erat or th at he

wou ld be ou t of hi s pat ro l car fo r a br ie f pe rio d, an d ap pr oa ch ed th e pa rk ed tru ck to

ob ta in in fo rm at io n fr om

th e p as se ng er. Arred on do rem ai ne d i n t he pa tro l ca r.

As All en ap pr oa ch ed th e tru ck

, he sa w th at th e pa ss en ge r was ta lk in g on a cel l

ph on e whi le

, acco rd in g to All en

, at te m pt in g to hi de th at fact

. As th ey sp ok e th ro ug h

th e op en win do w, th e pa s s e n g e r to ld All en th at he was on th e ph on e wit h th e

co nt ract or fo r th e Nor th Caro li na wiri ng job

. All en as ke d th e pa ss en ge r to te rm in at e

-4

-th e cal l an d pr ov id e hi s id en ti fic at io n. The pa ss en ge r id en ti fie d hi m se lf as “ Lut he r”

an d pr od uc ed an ex pi red Oreg on dr iv er’s li cen se in th e na m e of Eleu te rio Sal ga do

.

In res po ns e to All en ’s qu es ti on s, Sal ga do ex pl ai ne d th at he ha d li ve d in Oreg on te n

y ears earl ie r bu t ha d res id ed in Cal ifo rn ia fo r th e pa st si x y ears

. All en as ke d Sal ga do

whe n th e tru ck ha d be en ren te d an d whe n he an d Arred on do ha d le ft Cal i f o r n i a.

Sal ga do rep li ed th at th ey ha d ren t e d th e tru ck on Sat ur da y an d ha d le ft Cal ifo rn ia

S a t u r d a y ev en in g at ab ou t 8: 00 p.m

. Sal ga do to ld All en th at Arred on do was h i s

he lp er, th at th ey ch os e to dr iv e rat he r th an to fly to Nor th Caro li na be cau se th ey ha d

to tra ns po rt to ol s an d m at eri al s, an d th at th e job in Nor th Caro li na in vo l v e d w i r i ng

a 15 ,00 0- sq ua re-f

oo t res id en ce. All en as ke d who was pa y in g fo r th e tru ck ren ta l, an d

Sal ga do rep li ed th at th e co nt ract or was rei m bu rs in g th em fo r t h e e x p e ns e. Afte r

le arn in g th at Sal ga do di d no t kn ow hi s so ci al se cu rit y nu m be r, All en ret ur ne d to hi s

pa tro l car to en te r Sal ga do ’s in fo rm at io n in to th e ve hi cl e’s co m pu te r an d cal l di sp at ch

to ch eck for

ou ts ta nd in g war ran ts

.

Bac k in th e pa tro l car, All en as ke d Arred on do whe n he ha d le ft Cal ifo rn ia

, an d

Arred on do res po nd ed th at th ey le ft Sat ur da y ev en in g. He to ld All en th at th ey ha d no t

dr iv en al l ni gh t, bu t ha d st op pe d at a Su pe r 8 al on g th e wa y. A rred on do th en

vo lu nt eere d th at it h a d b een sn owi ng whe n th ey st op pe d. All en as ke d whe re th e

wiri ng job was lo cat ed , a nd Arred on do res po nd ed th at it was in Green sb or o, Nor t h

Caro li na , a nd fu rth er of

fere d th at he ha d wor ke d in W es t V i r gi ni a, Ch arl es to n, an d

Nor th Caro li na

. He to ld All en th at he us ua ll y fle w

, b u t b e c a us e an in su ran ce

co m pa ny was pa y in g fo r th e ren ta l tru ck

, he ha d de ci de d to dr iv e on th i s o c c as io n.

All en ag ai n as ke d who was pa y in g fo r th e tru ck

, an d Arred on do rep eat ed th at an

in su ran ce co m

pa ny was pa y in g. Dur in g th is ex ch an ge

, All en was typin g in fo rm at io n

in to hi s co m

pu te r an d ta lk in g to di sp at ch ab ou t S a l g a d o ’s id en ti ty an d reco rd

.

Arred on do th en be ga n to de sc rib e th e acci de nt he ha d be en in an d th e tro ub le he ha d

be en ha vi ng wit h th e ot he r dr iv er’s ins ur an ce com pa ny, st at in g t ha t h e ha d reta in ed

an at to rn ey to he lp res ol ve th e m at te r. All en ag ai n as ke d Arred on do whe th er th ere

were an y dr ug s, gu ns

, or st ol e n it em s in th e tru ck

, an d Arred on do ag ai n de ni ed

-5

-ha vi ng an y su ch it em s. All en as ke d who ha d lo ad ed th e tru ck

, an d Arred on do rep li ed

th at he an d Sal ga do ha d lo ad ed th e tru ck to ge th er. All en rece iv ed a br ie f cal l fro m

di sp at ch

, no ti fy in g hi m th at Sal ga do di d no t ha ve a va li d dr iv er’s li cen se an d th at he

ha d a cri m in al reco rd

, in cl ud in g a dru g- rel at ed off en se . Alle n c on ti nu ed to type o n

hi s co m pu te r fo r ab ou t a m in ut e whi le Arred on do wait ed in si le nc e.

All en on ce ag ai n as ke d Arred on do whe th er th ere were an y il le ga l dr ug s in th e

tru ck

, go in g th ro ug h a li st o f va rio us dr ug s an d rece iv in g a ne ga ti ve rep ly fro m

Arred on do reg ard in g each su bs ta nc e. Fi na ll y

, All en as ke d Arred on do fo r pe rm is si on

to se arch th e tru ck

, whi ch Arred on do co ns en te d to a t 1 1 : 0 1 a.m

., ro ug hl y twen tyth ree m in ut es aft er All e n h a d st op pe d th e tru ck

. All en ha d no t y et co m pl et ed th e

ta sk s as so ci at ed wit h th e tra ffi c st op or ha nd ed Arred on do th e writ te n warn in g up on

ob ta in in g Arred on do ’s co ns en t to se arch

, an d so he as ke d whe th er Arred on do own ed

ev eryth i n g i n th e tru ck

. Arred on do rep li ed

, “ Ju st m y cl ot he s an d ev erythi ng el se

.

W el l, m y cl ot h es ,” whi ch he st at ed were in two ba gs in th e ba ck se at of th e tru ck

.

Arred on do de ni ed own in g an y of th e to ol s or to ol bo xe s, bu t di d st at e t h a t h e a nd

Sal ga do own ed th e el ect ric al wiri ng in th e tru ck be d “ co ll ect iv el y .” W hi le wait in g

f or MSHP Serg ean t Mar k W il ho it to arri ve an d as si st wit h th e se arch

, All e n

co nd uc te d a pa t-d own se arch of Arred on do an d di rect ed hi m to ex it th e pa tro l car an d

st an d o n t he em

ba nk m en t al on g t he sh ou ld er o f th e h ig hwa y

.

Onc e W il ho it arri ve d, All en ag ai n ap pr oa ch ed th e tru ck an d as ke d Sal ga do

ab ou t h is cri m in al reco rd

. Sal ga do rep li ed th at it in vo lv ed “ a li tt le co cai ne .” All en

th en as ke d Sal ga do if th ere was an y m ari juan a, co cai ne

, m et ha m

ph et am in e, or he ro in

in th e tru ck

, to whi ch Sal ga do rep li ed th at th ere was no t. All en th en op en ed th e fro nt

pa ss en ge r do or of th e tru ck

, as ke d Sal ga do to ge t ou t of th e ve hi cl e. Dur in g hi s pa tdo wn se arch of Sal ga do

, All en co m m en te d on th e nu m

be r of cel l ph on es in Sal ga do ’s

po ss es si on an d th e st ro ng od or co m in g fro m th e ve hi cl e. All en th en di rect ed Sal ga do

to st an d on th e em

ba nk m en t wit h Arred on do

. All en di d no t as k Sal ga do fo r co ns en t

to sea rch an y

of t he it em s i n t he tru ck

.

-6

-W il ho it be ga n to se arch in an d un de r th e tru ck ’s be d, an d All en be ga n to se arch

th e pa ss en ge r co m

pa rtment. Upo n op en in g th e rear pa ss en ge r do or

, All en co ul d m or e

cl earl y se e th e ai r co m

pr es so r in th e ba ck se at

. All en im m ed ia te ly id en ti fie d th e sm el l

of fres h pa in t, as well as “ so m e no n- f a c to ry weld in g on th e ai r ta nk

. . . u nd ern eat h

th e m ot or ” of th e co m

pr es so r. All en th en st at ed

, “ Man

, th ere is

. . . so m et hi ng ab ou t

th is th at jus t ai n’t rig ht .” Loo ki ng m or e cl os el y at th e ai r co m pr es so r as it sa t on th e

tru ck ’s ba ck se at

, All en co m m en te d to W il ho it

, “ I th in k it ’s in he re. I th in k it ’s in th is

ai r co m pr es so r.” He fu rth er rem ark ed on th e ro ug h an d jagg ed weld s, st at in g, “ Co m e

he re and lo ok

, fres hl y pa in te d, weld ed on

, th at ai n’t rig ht .” All en no ti ced th at th ere

was “ a sq ua re cu t un de rn eat h th e m ot or ” th at he be li ev ed pr ov i d e d “acc es s [to ] th e

ai r ta nk th at was pr ob ab ly cu t op en at so m e po in t an d pa ck ag es pu t in .” W it ho ut

rem ov in g th e ai r co m

pr es so r fro m th e tru ck

, th e of fic ers ta pp ed se ve ral ti m es on th e

ta nk to de te rm in e whe th er it so un de d ho ll ow. W il ho it th en li fte d th e ai r co m pr es so r

fro m th e se at an d he fte d it se ve ral ti m es in an at t e mp t t o de te rm in e if so m et hi ng

in si de th e ai r ta nk wou ld no ti ceab ly sh ift

, co m m en ti ng th at th e co m

pr e s s o r fel t

he av ie r th an it sh ou ld

. W il ho it pl aced th e co m pr es so r on th e gr ou nd ne xt to th e tru ck

an d as ke d All e n t o ret rie ve hi s “ de ns it y bu st er,” de sc rib ed by All en as a “ gl or ifi ed

st ud fin de r,” t o u se on th e ex te rio r of th e ta nk

. Afte r ap pl y in g th e d en si ty bus te r to

th e ex te rio r of th e ta nk

, All en co nc lu de d th at al th ou gh th e ta nk “ ou gh t to be ho ll ow,”

th e read in gs in di cat ed th at it was n o t

. A l l en an d W il ho it th en pl aced th e ai r

co m pr es so r on th e tru ck ’s no w-o pe n ta il ga te

, All en ap pl ie d a st et ho sc o p e t o th e

ta nk ’s ex te rio r, ta pp ed th e t a n k i n se ve ral sp ot s, an d de te rm in ed fro m th e res ul ti ng

so un ds th at th ere was so m et hi ng in si de

.

Usi ng a pa ir o f p l ie rs or si m il ar to ol

, W il ho it rem ov ed th e “ bl eed er va lv e”

pe tc oc k fro m th e ai r ta nk

, pe ered th ro ug h th e sm al l ho le in to th e ta nk it se lf, an d sa w

gr ay or si lv er du ct ta pe

. Arred on do an d Sal ga do were th en pl aced un d e r a rres t,

ha n d c u f f ed

, an d ad vi se d of th ei r Mi ran da rig ht s. W il ho it th en in se rte d a pr ob e

th ro ug h th e pe tc oc k an d in to th e si lv er du ct ta pe vi si bl e wit hi n th e ai r ta nk

. W he n he

rem ov ed th e pr ob e fro m th e ta nk

, it was co ve red in whi te po wde r, whi ch th e of fic ers

-7

-bo th be li ev ed was co cai ne

. Th e ai r ta nk was ev en tu al ly op en ed an d se ve ral du ct

ta pe d p ack ag es of c oc ai ne were re co ve red

.

Sal ga do fil ed a m ot io n to su pp res s th e ev id en ce reco ve red fro m th e tru ck

. The

m ag is tra te jud ge reco m

m en de d th at th e m ot io n be de ni ed

, co nc lu di ng th at th e se arch

of th e tru ck an d ai r co m

pr es so r di d no t vi ol at e Sal ga do ’s Fo ur th Am en dm en t rig ht s.

The m ag is tra te jud ge reas on ed th at All en de ve lo pe d reas on ab le su sp ic io n to ex pa nd

th e sc op e of th e r o ut in e tra ffi c st op

, th at th e warra nt le ss se arch of th e tru ck was

la wfu l ba se d on Arred on do ’s co ns en t, a n d th at th e warra nt le ss se iz ur e of th e ai r

co m pr es so r was la

w fu l ba sed on th e pl ai n- vi ew ex cep ti on to th e Fo ur th Am en dm en t’s

warra nt req ui rem en t. W it h res pe c t to th e warra nt le ss se arch of th e ai r co m pr es so r,

th e m ag is tra te jud ge di sc us se d th e si ng le -p ur po se -co nt ai ne r ex cep ti on to th e Fo ur th

Amend m en t, un de r whi ch a warra nt le ss se arch of cert ai n co nt ai ne rs is pe rm is si bl e

be cau se t h e c o n t e nt s of su ch co nt ai ne rs “ can be in ferr ed fro m th ei r ou twar d

ap pe aran ce” an d th us can n o t su pp or t a reas on ab le ex pe ct at io n of pr iv acy. Uni te d

St at es v. Ban ks

, 51 4 F.3 d 76 9, 77 3- 74 (8 th Ci r. 20 08 ) (q uo ti ng Ark an sa s v. San de rs

,

44 2 U.S. 75 3, 76 4- 65 n.1 3 (1 97 9)

, ov er ru le d o n o t h e r gr ou nd s by Cal ifo rn ia v.

Acev ed o, 50 0 U.S. 56 5 (1 99 1) ). The m ag is tra te jud ge no t e d th at All en ha d

“ reas on ab le su sp ic io n th at th e ai r co m pr es so r he ld ev id en ce of a cri m e,” pa rti cu la rly

gi ve n th at it was “ he av ie r th an no rm al ” an d “ no n- in tru si ve te st in g” in di cat ed th at “ th e

ta nk was no t ho ll ow.” The co ur t th en co nc lu de d th at th e of fic ers ha d “ pr ob ab le cau se

to se iz e th e ai r co m

pr es so r” an d, “ ap pl y in g th e reas on in g of Ban ks

, . . . were jus ti fie d

in rem ov in g th e pe [t]co ck an d se arch in g th e ai r co m pr es s o r

. ” Ove r Sal ga do ’s

ob jecti on s, th e di st ric t co ur t en te r e d an or de r ag reei ng wit h th e m ag is tra te jud ge ’s

“ fin di ng s of fact an d co nc lu si on s o f la w” an d de nyin g th e m ot io n to su pp res s. 3

Fo ll owi ng th e en try o f Sal ga do ’s c on di ti on al gu il ty p le a, th e di st ric t co ur t im po se d

The di st ric t co ur t m ad e on e m od ifi cat io n to th e rep or t a n d r e c o m m en da ti on 3

to co rrec t a t y

po gr ap hi cal erro r.

-8

-t h e earl ie r de sc rib ed se nt en ce of si xt y -th ree m on th s’ im pr is on m en t an d th e sp eci a l

co nd it io n o f su pe rv is io n o rd eri ng th at Sal ga do be de po rte d.

In a ch al le ng e to th e de ni al of a m ot io n to su pp res s, we rev ie w fo r cl ear erro r

a di st ric t co ur t’s fin di ng s of fact , a nd we rev ie w de no vo whe t h e r a s earc h vi ol at ed

th e Fo ur th Am en dm en t. See Uni te d St at es v. Ri le y

, 68 4 F.3 d 7 5 8

, 7 6 2 (8 th Ci r.

20 12 ). W e wil l affi rm th e de ni al of a m o t i o n to su pp res s un le ss th e di st ric t co ur t’s

de ci si on was un su pp or te d by su bs ta nt ia l ev id en ce, was ba se d on an erro ne ou s

in te rp ret at io n of ap pl ic ab le la w, or was cl earl y m is ta ke n in li gh t of th e en ti re reco rd

.

Uni te d St at es v. W oo ds

, 82 9 F.3 d 67 5, 67 9 ( 8 t h Ci r. 20 16 ). “ W e m ay affi rm th e

di st ric t co ur t’s de ni al of a m ot i o n to su pp res s on an y gr ou nd th e reco rd su pp or ts .”

Uni te d St at es v. And ers on

, 68 8 F.3 d 33 9, 34 3 (8 th Ci r. 20 12 ) (q uo ti ng Uni te d St at es

v. Pr at t, 35 5 F.3 d 11 19 , 1 12 1 (8 th Ci r. 20 04 )); se e al so Uni te d St at es v. Well s, 3 47

F.3 d 28 0, 28 7- 88 (8 th Ci r. 20 03 ) (aff irming de ni al of m ot io n to su pp res s on ba si s of

au to m ob il e ex cep ti on rat he r th an on ba si s of se arch i n c i d e n t to arre st rel ie d on by

di st ric t co ur t).

Sal ga do co nc ed es th at th ere was pr ob ab le cau se to st op th e tru ck fo r th e tra ffi c

vi ol at io ns

. He arg u e s

, h o wev er, th at All en pr ol on ge d th e st op be y on d th e ti m e

reas on ab ly req ui red to in ve st ig at e th os e vi ol at io ns an d wit ho ut reas on ab le su sp ic io n

of un rel at ed cri m in al act iv it y

, an d th us ex ceed ed th e co ns ti tu ti on al li m it at io ns o n

su ch st op s se t fo rth in th e Uni te d St at es Su pr em e Co ur t’s po st -Ap ril 7, 20 14

, de ci si on

in Ro dr ig ue z v . Uni te d S ta te s, 1 35 S. Ct. 1 60 9 (2 01 5)

.

In Ro dr ig ue z, an of

fic er ha d co mp l e te d th e ro ut in e ta sk s in ci de nt to a tra ffi c

st op

, in cl ud in g ch eck in g th e dr iv er’s li cen se an d th e ve hi cl e’s reg is tra ti on an d pr oo f

of in su ran ce, an d ha d ha nd ed th e dr iv er a writ te n tra ffi c warn in g. Id

. at 16 13

. Onl y

af t e r th es e ro ut in e ta sk s were co m pl et ed an d th e warn in g is su ed di d th e of fic er

req ue st pe rm is si on to se arch th e ve hi cl e. Id

. W he n th e dr iv er refu se d to co ns en t, th e

of fic er or de red th e dr iv er ou t of th e ve hi cl e a n d h a d h i m wait fo r a can in e un it to

-9

-a rri ve

. “ All to ld

, se ve n or ei gh t m in ut es ha d el ap se d fro m th e ti m e [th e of fic e r ]

is su ed th e writ te n warn in g un ti l th e do g in di cat ed th e pr es en ce of dr u g s

. I d

. The

Su pr em e Co ur t fir st ack no wled ge d t h a t a n of fic er is pe rm it te d to “ co nd uc t cert ai n

un rel at ed ch eck s du rin g an ot he rwis e la wfu l tra ffi c st op ,” bu t rei te rat ed th at he “ m ay

no t do so in a way th at pr ol on gs th e st op

, ab se nt th e reas on ab le su sp ic io n or di na ril y

de m an de d to jus ti fy de ta in in g an in di vi du al .” Id

. at 16 15

. In ot he r wor ds

, th e Co ur t

ex pl ai ne d, “ [a]ut ho rit y fo r th e se iz ur e

. . . en ds whe n ta sk s ti ed to th e tra ffi c in frac ti on

are— or reas on ab ly sh ou ld ha ve be en —co m pl et ed .” Id

. at 16 14

. Bec au se th e tra ffi c

st op in Ro dr ig ue z “ ex ceed [ed ] th e ti m e ne ed ed to ha nd le th e m at te r fo r whi ch th e st op

was m ad e[, th e st op ] vi ol at e[d ] th e Co ns ti tu ti on ’s sh ie ld ag ai ns t un reas on ab le

se iz ur es . Id. at 16 12

.

Our pr e-Ro dr ig ue z cas e la w si m il arl y reco gn iz es th at an of fic er m ay de ta in th e

oc cu pa nt s of a ve hi cl e du rin g a tra ffi c st op “ whi le th e of fic er co m pl et es a nu m

be r of

ro ut ine but som ew

ha t tim e-co ns um in g ta sk s rel at ed to th e tra ffi c vi ol at io n,” in cl ud in g

ru nn in g a co m

pu te riz ed ch eck of th e ve hi cl e’s reg is tra ti on an d in su ran ce; ru nn in g a

si m il ar ch eck of th e oc cu pa nt s’ id en ti fic at io n d o c u m en ts an d cri m in al hi st or ie s;

pr ep ari ng th e tra ffi c ci ta ti on o r warn in g; an d as ki ng th e oc cu pa nt s ab ou t th ei r

“ de st in at io n, ro ut e, an d pu rp os e.” Uni te d St at es v. Pera le z, 52 6 F.3 d 11 15

, 11 19 (8 th

Ci r. 20 08 ) (ci ta ti on s om it te d)

. If an of fic er en co un t e r s l e g it im at e co m pl ic at io ns in

co m pl et in g th es e ro ut in e ta sk s, t h e of fic er “ m ay reas on ab ly de ta in a dr iv er fo r a

lo ng er du rat io n th an whe n” no su ch co m pl ic at io ns ari se

. Uni te d St at es v. Oli ve raMen de z, 48 4 F.3 d 5 0 5, 51 0 (8 th Ci r. 20 07 ). “ An of fic er’s su sp ic io n of cri m in al

act iv it y m ay r e a s o n a b l y gr ow ov er th e co ur se of a tra ffi c st op as th e ci rcu m st an ces

un fo ld an d m or e su sp ic io us fact s are un co ve red .” Uni te d St at es v. Lin ko us

, 28 5 F.3 d

71 6, 72 0 (8 th Ci r. 20 02 ). Bu t th e of fic er m us t id en ti fy “ sp eci fic an d art ic ul ab le fact s

w hic h, ta ke n tog et he r wit h rat io na l in fere nc es fro m th os e fact s,” am ou nt to reasonab le

su sp ic io n th at fu rth er in ve st ig at io n is warra nt ed

. W oo ds , 8 29 F.3d at 67 9 (q uo ti ng

Terry v. Ohi o, 39 2 U.S. 1, 21 (1 96 8) ). Th e t ot al it y of th e ci rcu m st an ces are to be

co ns id ered in de te rm in in g wh et he r rea so na bl e su sp ic io n e xi st ed . See i d.

-1 0-W e co nc lu de d in Uni te d St at es v. Pe r a l ez th at th e tra ffi c st op was un la wfu l

be cau se “ [n ]oth in g un us ua l oc cu rred du rin g th e tra ffi c st op ” an d “ [t]he re was no th in g

un us ua l or ou t of pl ace wit h th e [v eh ic le ’s] reg is tra ti o n o r t h e dr iv er’s do cu m en ts ”

su ffi ci en t to jus ti fy ex te nd in g th e tra ffi c st op

. 52 6 F.3 d at 11 20

. Rat he r, “ [t]he st op

was de la y ed be cau se of th e t ro op er’s dr ug in te rd ic ti on qu es ti on in g, no t be cau se of

an y th in g rel at ed to th e in ve st ig at io n or pr oc es si ng of th e tra ffi c vi ol at io n.” Id

. Here,

in co nt ras t, All en was face d wit h ci rcu m st an ces th at , a s a who le , we r e s u f f i c ie nt to

es ta bl is h re as on ab le su sp ic io n n eces sa ry to jus ti fy ex te nd in g t he tra ffi c st op

.

All en

, who ha d rece iv ed sp eci fic tra in in g in th e tra ffi ck in g of il le ga l dr ug s an d

ha d pa rti ci pa te d in “ hu nd red s” of dr ug in ve stiga tio ns, de ve lop ed re as ona ble sus pic ion

of dr ug -rel at ed act iv it y whi le he was co m pl et in g th e ro ut in e ta sk s as so ci at ed wit h th e

tra ffi c st op

. He fir st no ti ced a di sc rep an cy be twee n th e na m e on Arred on do ’s dr iv er’s

li cen se a n d t h e na m e on th e ren ta l ag reem en t. W hi le fu rth er co ns ul ti ng th e ren ta l

ag reem en t to co nf

irm th e ve hi cl e’s reg is tra ti on an d in su ran ce in fo rm at io n, he

ob se rv ed th at th e ren ta l ag reem en t was fo r a pe rio d of ti m e th at ap pe ared in su ffi ci en t

to acco m pl is h th e st at ed pu rp os es of th e tri p. Bas ed on hi s ad m it te dl y li m it ed

el ect ric al -wir in g e xp eri en ce, All en be li ev ed th at th e q ua nt it y of ele ct ric al wiri ng in

th e be d of th e tru ck was in su ffi ci en t in li gh t of Arred on do ’s an d Sal ga do ’s st at em en ts

th at th ey were tra ns po rti ng al l of th e wiri ng ne ces sa ry to co m pl et e wor k on a 15 ,00 0-

sq ua re-f oo t ho us e. A r r ed on do fir st to ld All en th at he an d Sal ga do were bo th

el ect ric ia ns

, an d th en la te r to ld All en th at he was Sal ga do ’s “ he l p e r

. ” Afte r

Arred on do vo lu nt eere d in fo rm at io n ab ou t an earl ie r car acci de nt an d hi s ex pe ct at io n

th at th e ot he r dr iv er’s in su r a n c e c o mp a ny wou ld pa y fo r th e tru ck ren ta l, All en

at te m pt ed to ve rif

y th is in fo rm at io n wit h Sal ga do

, rece iv in g in st ead a co nf li ct in g

res po ns e th at th e co nt ract or on th e Nor th Caro li na wiri ng job was pa y in g fo r th e tru ck

ren ta l.

The vi de o reco rd in g of th e ro ug hl y twen ty-th ree- m in ut e tra ffi c st op in di cat es

th at All en sp en t th at ti m e as k i n g pe rm is si bl e qu es ti on s of Arred on do an d Sal ga do

-1 1-reg ard in g th e pu rp os e of th ei r tri p an d th ei r tra ve l ro ut e, at te m pt in g to co rro bo rat e th e

res po ns es to th os e qu es ti on s, pl aci ng cal ls to di sp at ch

, wait in g fo r res po ns es to ve rif y

Ar r e d o n do ’s an d Sal ga do ’s id en ti fic at io n an d cri m in al hi st or y

, an d en te rin g

in fo rm at io n in to th e pa tro l car’s co m pu te r. Unl ik e th e ci rcu m st an ces in Pera le z,

whe re “ th ere was ‘abs ol ut el y no t’ an y th in g” ab ou t th e m ot or is t’ s ac ti on s or co m m en ts

th at cau se d th e of

fic er to be co nc ern ed th at cri m in al act iv it y was afo ot whe n he be ga n

as ki ng dr ug -in te rd ic ti on qu es ti on s, All en co ul d po in t to th e fact or s se t fo rth ab ov e to

jus ti fy hi s reas on ab le su sp ic io n th at cri m in al act iv it y was afo ot

. 52 6 F.3 d at 11 17

.

The tra ffi c st op was no t un la wfu ll y pr ol on ge d gi ve n All en ’s ob se rv at io n s o f t h e

tru ck ’s co nt en ts

, th e se em in g im pl au si bi li ti es an d in co ns is te nc ie s in th e res po ns es to

All en ’s ro ut in e qu es ti on s, th e reas on ab le su sp ic io n All en de ve lo pe d a s a res ul t of

th os e im pr ob ab le res po ns es

, as well as fro m All en ’s in de pe nd en t ob se rv at io ns

. See

id

. at 11 20 (ack no wled gi ng th at “ an of fic er may ex te nd or ex pa nd th e sc op e of a

tra ffi c st op be y on d th e or ig in al jus ti fic at io n fo r th e st op

. . . . if th e of fic er dev el op s

reas on ab le su sp ic io n th at ot he r cri m in al act iv it y is afo ot ”); Uni te d St at es v. McC art y

,

61 2 F.3 d 10 20

, 10 23 (8 th Ci r. 20 10 ) (n ot in g th at a n o ffi cer’s su sp ic io n was

reas on ab ly aro us ed whe n a m ot or is t “ pl an ne d to m ai nt ai n a ve ry fas t pa ce, ha vi ng

ren te d th e car fo r on ly th ree da y s” to dr iv e fro m Seat tl e to Atl an ta

, an d whe n th e co st

of th e ren ta l “ ex ceed ed [th e o ffi cer’s] est im at e o f ro un d- tri p a irf are” ).

W e th us co nc lu de th at th e tra ffi c st op ex ceed ed ne it he r th e co ns ti tu ti on al

bo un da rie s se t fo rth in ou r th en -ex ta nt de ci si on s no r th os e se t fo rth in Ro dr ig ue z. To

th e ex te nt th at Ro dr ig ue z m ay be read to im po se li m it at io ns gr eat er th an th os e

refl ect ed in ou r cas es

, we co n c l u d e th at th e ev id en ce was ne ve rth el es s pr op erl y

ad m it te d, be cau se “ se arch es co nd uc te d in ob jecti ve ly reas on ab le rel ia nc e on bi nd in g

ap pe ll at e pr eced en t are no t su bjec t to th e ex cl us io na ry ru le .” Dav is v. Uni te d St at es

,

56 4 U.S. 22 9, 23 2 (2 01 1) . Ind eed , cit in g Davi s, we up he ld Ro dr ig ue z’s co nv ic ti on

on rem an d. See Uni te d St at es v. Ro dr ig ue z, 79 9 F.3 d 12 22

, 12 23 -2 4 (8 th Ci r. 20 15 ),

cer t. de ni ed

, 13 6 S. Ct

. 15 14 (2 01 6) ; s e e a l s o U n i t ed St at es v. Eng le ha rt, 81 1 F.3 d

10 34

, 10 40 n.1 (8 th Ci r. 20 16 ) (rev ers in g gr an t of m ot io n to su pp res s be cau se “ we

-1 2-ap pl y th e la w of th e ci rcu it as it ex is te d at the ti m e of th e st op ,” an d “ Eig ht h Circ ui t

pr eced en t at [th at ] ti m e

. . . pe rm i t t e d a de min imi s ex te ns io n of a st op to em pl oy a

do g” ); Uni te d St at es v. Co le m an

, 70 0 F.3 d 32 9, 33 5- 36 (8 th Ci r. 20 12 ) (co nc lu di ng

in pr e-Ro dr ig ue z cas e th at a tra ffi c st op was pe rm is si bl y pr ol on ge d whe n “ ad di ti on al

qu es ti on in g was br ie f, la st in g on ly a co up le of m i n u t e s ” an d no ti ng th at we “ ha ve

up he ld su ch sh or t de te nt io ns as de m in im is in tru si on s” ); Uni te d St at es v. Ro bi ns on

,

45 5 F.3 d 83 2, 83 4 (8 th Ci r. 20 06 ) (n ot in g in pr e-Ro dr ig ue z cas e th at se iz ur es of le ss

th an te n m in ut es are de min imi s in tru si on s th at do no t am ou nt to an un reas on ab le

se iz ur e an d c it in g c as es ).

Bec au se th e tra ffi c st op was no t im pe rm is si bl y ex pa nd e d or pr ol on ge d,

Arred on do ’s co ns en t to se arch th e tru ck was va li d, th e co nt in ue d de te nt io n to se arch

th e tru ck pu rs ua nt to th at co ns en t was pe rm is si bl e, an d th e en su in g se arch of th e tru ck

was la w f u l

. S ee Pera le z, 52 6 F.3 d at 11 20 (rec og ni zi ng th at an of fic er m ay ex te nd

or ex pa nd th e s co pe of a tra ffi c st op if th e en co un te r be co m es co ns en su al ); Uni te d

S t a t e s v. Barr ag an

, 37 9 F.3 d 52 4, 52 9- 30 (8 th Ci r. 20 04 ) (n ot in g th at a m er e

p a s s e n g e r who ha s no own ers hi p rig ht s in a ve hi cl e ha s no st an di ng to ch al le n g e a

se arch of th at ve hi cl e). Sal ga do arg ue s, ho wev er, th at ev en if th e se arch of th e tru ck

it se lf was a la wfu l co ns en su al se arch

, th e se arch of th e ai r co m pr es so r was no t,

be cau se Arred on do ’s co ns en t co ul d no t ha ve ex te nd ed to t h e ai r co m pr es so r, ov er

whi ch he ha d sp eci fic al ly di sc la im ed own ers hi p. Sal ga do fu rth er co nt en ds th at ev en

if t h e d i s t r i ct co ur t pr op erl y co nc lu de d th at th e se iz ur e of th e ai r co m pr es so r was

la wfu l un de r th e pl ai n- vi ew ex c e pt io n to th e Fo ur th Am en dm en t’s warra nt

req ui rem en t, th e co ur t erred in co nc lu di ng th at th e se arch of th e ai r co m pr es so r was

la wfu l un de r th e si ng le -p ur po se -co nt ai ne r e xc ep ti on to th e warra nt req ui rem en t,

whi ch pe rm it s th e warra nt le ss se arch of cert ai n co nt ai ne rs whe re th e co nt en ts of th e

co nt ai ne r are a fo reg on e co nc lu si on

. See Ban ks

, 51 4 F.3 d at 77 3- 74 (n ot in g th at

, li ke

ob jects in pl a i n vi ew, th ere is no reas on ab le ex pe ct at io n of pr iv acy at te nd an t to

cert ai n cl os ed co nt ai ne rs be cau se th e co nt en ts of th e co nt ai ne r m ay be in ferr ed fro m

th e co nt ai ne r’s ou twar d ap pe aran ce); se e al so Uni te d St at es v. Co rral

, 97 0 F.2 d 71 9,

-1 3-72 5 (10 th Cir . 19 92 ) (n ot in g t ha t wh en a co nt ai ne r’s “ ‘dis ti nc ti ve co nf ig ur at io n .

. .

pr oc la im s it s co nt en ts ,’ th e co nt ai ne r su pp or ts no reas on ab le ex pe ct at io n of pr iv acy

an d t he co nt en ts can be sai d t o b e in pl ai n v ie w” (ci ta ti on s o m it te d) ).

W e ne ed no t be la bo r th e di st ric t co ur t’s rel ia nc e o n t h e si ng le -p ur po se

co nt ai ne r ex cep ti on to jus ti fy th e warra nt le ss sea rch of t he ai r co m pr es so r, be cau se

th e se arch was pe rm is si bl e un de r th e au to m ob il e ex cep ti on to th e F o u rth

Am en dm en t’s warran t re qu ire m en t. See , e.g., Wells , 34 7 F .3d at 2 87 (“ It i s a we ll

se tt le d pr in ci pl e th at we m ay affi rm a di st ric t co ur t’s jud gm en t on an y ba si s su pp or te d

by the reco rd .” (ci ta ti on om it te d) ).

A warra nt le ss se arch of an au to m ob il e fo r co nt rab an d i s al lo wed un de r th e

Fo ur th Am en dm en t if an of fic er ha s pr ob ab le cau se to jus ti fy th e se arch

, se e ge ne ral ly

Uni te d St at es v. Ro ss

, 45 6 U.S. 79 8, 82 5 (1 98 2)

, or if th e o f f i c e r ha s ob ta in ed

vo lu nt ary co ns en t, pr ov id ed th at th e se arch is li m it e d t o th e sc op e of th e co ns en t,

Sch ne ck lo th v. Bu st am on te

, 41 2 U.S. 21 8, 21 9 (1 97 3) (“ It is eq ua ll y well se tt le d th at

on e o f th e sp eci fic al ly es ta bl is he d ex cep ti on s to th e req ui rem en ts of b ot h a warran t

an d pr ob ab le cau se is a se arch th at is co nd uc te d pu rs ua nt to co ns en t.”)

. Obs erv at io ns

m ad e by an of

fic er du rin g a co ns en su al se a r c h o f a ve hi cl e m ay pr ov id e th e of fic er

wit h pr ob ab le cau se to ex pa nd th e sc op e of th e s e a r c h un de r th e au to m ob il e

ex cep ti on

. See Uni te d St at es v. Gue va ra, 73 1 F.3 d 8 2 4

, 8 2 9 -3 1 (8 th Ci r. 20 13 )

(co nc lu di ng th at whe n of

fic ers co nd uc ti ng a co ns en su al se arch of a la wfu ll y st op pe d

ve hi cl e di sc ov er e d a h i d de n co m pa rtment in th e ve hi cl e’s en gi ne

, th ey no lo ng er

ne ed ed co ns en t t o c on du ct a de st ru ct iv e se arch of th e en gi ne be cau se th ey th en ha d

pr ob ab le cau se ); Uni te d St at es v

. A lv erez

, 23 5 F.3 d 10 86

, 10 89 (8 th Ci r. 20 00 )

(co nc lu di ng th at whe n of fic ers co nd uc ti ng a co ns en su al se arch of a di sa bl ed ve hi cl e

m ov ed card bo ard in th e tru nk

, di sc ov ered a us ab le sp are ti re, an d kn ew th at m ot or is ts

ha d s le pt in th e car du rin g a n i ce s to rm whi le wait in g t o o bt ai n t ire sea la nt , off ic ers

ha d pr ob ab le cau se to rem ov e th e ti re an d e xa m in e it m or e cl os el y for co nt rab an d)

.

“ Pro ba bl e cau se ex is ts whe n, gi ve n th e t o ta li ty of th e ci rcu m st an ces

, a reas on ab le

-1 4-pe rs on co ul d be li ev e th ere is a fai r pr ob ab il it y th at co nt rab an d or ev id en ce of a cri m e

wou ld be fo un d in a pa rti cu la r pl ace.” W el ls

, 34 7 F.3 d at 28 7 (ci ta ti on om it te d) ; se e

Fl or id a v. Harri s, 13 3 S. Ct

. 10 50

, 10 55 (2 01 3) (“ A po li ce of fic er ha s pr ob ab le cau se

to co nd uc t a se arch whe n th e fact s av ai la bl e to hi m w o u l d warra nt a pe rs on of

reas on ab le cau ti on in th e be li ef th at co nt rab an d or ev id en ce o f a c r i me i s pr es en t.”

(in te rn al qu ot at io n, al te rat io ns

, an d ci ta ti on om it te d) ). Pro ba bl e cau se is a “ pr act ic al

an d co m m on -s en si cal st an da rd ” th at is ba s e d on “ th e to ta li ty o f th e ci rcu m st an ces ”

an d req ui res on ly “ th e ki nd of fai r pr ob ab il it y on whi ch r e a s o n a b le an d pr ud en t

pe op le

, no t le ga l te ch ni ci an s, act .” Id

. (in te rn al qu ot at io ns

, al te rat io ns

, an d ci ta ti on s

om it te d)

. Mo reo ve r, “ [i]f pr ob ab le cau se jus ti fie s th e se arch of a la wfu ll y s to pp ed

ve hi cl e, it jus ti fie s th e se arch of ev ery pa rt of th e ve hi cl e a n d i t s c o nt en ts th at m ay

co nc eal th e ob

ject of th e se arch ,” Ro ss

, 45 6 U.S. at 82 5, in cl ud in g a pa ss en ge r’s

pe rs on al be lo ng in gs

, W y om in g v. Hou gh to n, 52 6 U.S. 29 5, 30 2 (1 99 9)

. In

de te rm in in g whe th er pr ob ab le cau se ex is ts

, an of fic er “ m ay dr aw in fere nc es ba se d on

hi s o wn ex pe rie nc e.” Orn el as v. Un it ed Sta te s, 5 17 U.S. 69 0, 7 00 (19 96 ).

A l l e n be ga n hi s se arch pu rs ua nt to Arred on do ’s vo lu nt ary co ns en t, whi c h

en ti tl ed All en to sea rch all area s of th e tr uc k, i nc lu di ng th e p as se ng er co m pa rtment

whe re th e ai r co m

pr e s so r was lo cat ed

. All en ’s d et ect io n of th e od or of fres h pa in t,

hi s un im pe de d ob se rv at io n of fres h pa in t on th e ai r co m pr es so r’s ta nk an d th e ro ug h,

jagg ed , no n- fact or y weld s on th e m ot or -at ta ch in g br ack et an d on th e ai r ta nk it se lf,

ga ve hi m pr ob ab le cau s e t o b e l ie ve “ th at co nt rab an d or ev id en ce of a cri m e [was ]

pr es en t.” Harri s, 13 3 S. Ct

. at 10 55

. The to ta li ty of th e ci rcu m st an ces —co up le d wit h

All en ’s t rai ni ng an d ex pe rie nc e in “ hu nd red s ” o f dr ug in ve st ig at io ns —p ro vi de d “ a

fa ir pr ob ab il it y ” fro m th e m om en t All en ob se rv ed th e ai r co m pr es so r th at th e tru ck

he ld “ co nt rab an d or evi de nc e of a cri m e.” Harri s, 13 3 S. Ct

. at 10 55

. Acco rd in gl y

,

un de r th e au to m ob il e ex cep ti on to th e warra nt req ui rem en t, All en was pe rm it te d to

se arch “ ev ery pa rt of th e ve hi cl e a n d i ts co nt en ts ” th at co ul d co nc eal dr ug -rel at ed

co nt rab an d, in cl ud in g th e ai r co m pr es so r. Ro ss

, 45 6 U.S. at 82 5; Hou gh to n, 52 6 U.S.

at 30 2. We th us affi rm

th e d en ia l o f th e m ot io n t o s up pr es s.

-1 5-Sal ga do al so arg ue s th at th e di st ri ct co ur t ex ceed ed it s au th or it y un de r 18

U.S.C. § 35 83 (d ) w h en it or de red th at he be rem ov ed as a sp eci al co nd it io n of

su pe rv is io n. See, e.g

., Uni te d St at es v. Tin os o, 32 7 F. 3 d 8 64

, 86 5 (9 th Ci r. 20 03 )

(“ ag ree[ in g] wit h

. . . th e Fi rs t, Seco nd

, Fo ur th

, F i f t h

, Te nt h, an d Elev en th

Ci rcu it s

. . . th at a di st ric t co ur t e x c e e ds it s au th or it y in or de rin g, as a co nd it io n of

su pe rv is e d r e l e as e, im m ed ia te an d au to m at ic de po rta ti on wit ho ut a de po rta ti on

he ari ng ” an d cit in g cas es ). Unl es s th e pr os ecu to r an d im m ig rat io n offi ci al s requ es t

th at th e d is tri ct co ur t h ol d a rem ov al he ari ng , on ly an im m ig rat io n jud ge m ay ord er

an in d iv id ua l rem ov ed

. See Uni te d St at es v. Zam ud io , 7 18 F.3 d 98 9, 99 0 (7 th Ci r.

20 13 ). The re ha vi ng be en no su ch req ue st in th is cas e, th e go ve rn m en t co nc ed es th at

th e co ur t ex ceed ed it s au th or it y in en te rin g th e rem ov al co nd it io n. Acco rd in gl y

, we

m od ify t he jud gm en t of th e d is tri ct co ur t t o re fle ct th e fo ll owi ng Sp eci al Co nd it io n

of Su pe rv is io n 1 :

1. Upo n co m

pl et io n of hi s te rm of im

pr is on m en t, th e de fen da nt sh al l be

su rren de red to a du ly au th or iz ed im m ig rat io n of

fic ia l fo r remo v a l in

acco rd an ce wit h th e pr oc ed ur es se t fo rth in th e Im m ig rat i o n an d

Natu ral iz at io n Act , 8 U.S.C. § § 1 10 1- 15 24

.

See Uni te d St at es v. Sa n c h e z

, 9 2 3 F.2 d 23 6, 23 8 (1 st Ci r. 19 91 ) (co nc lu di ng th at

di st ric t co ur t ex ceed ed it s au th or it y in or de rin g de fen da nt de po rte d, bu t de cl in in g to

rem an d fo r res en te nc in g an d in st ead am en di ng jud gm en t); se e al so Uni te d St at es v.

Ph om m ach an h, 91 F.3 d 13 83

, 13 88 (1 0t h Ci r. 19 9 6 ) (am en di ng th e jud gm en t);

Uni te d S ta te s v . Xian g, 7 7 F .3d 77 1, 7 73 (4t h C ir. 1 99 6) (sa m e).

As m od ifi ed , th e jud gm en t i s af fir m ed

.

KELLY, Cir cu it Ju dg e, di ss en ti ng

.

I n my vi ew, th e ev id en ce reco ve red fro m th e tru ck sh ou ld ha ve b e e n

s u p p r es se d be cau se bo th th e ex te ns io n of th e tra ffi c st op an d th e se arch of th e a i r

-1 6-co m

pr es so r vi ol at ed Mu ril lo -Sal ga do ’s Fo ur th Am en dm en t rig ht s. If an of fic er as ks

qu es ti on s un rel at ed to th e pu rp os e of a tra ffi c st op th a t e x te nd th e st op ’s

du rat io n— ev en b r i e f

ly—th e ex te ns io n m

us t be su pp or te d by re as on ab le su sp ic io n.

Ro dr ig ue z, 13 5 S. Ct

. at 16 14 –1 5. Here, All en in te rs pe rs ed ro u t i n e tra ffi c-s to p

qu es ti on s wit h in ve st ig at or y qu es ti on s th at ha d no th in g to do wit h th e rea s o n he

pu ll ed th e tru ck ov er. Thi s “ bl en de d pr oc es s” m eas ur ab ly ex te nd ed th e st op : Fro m

th e ti m e All en to ld Arred on do he wou ld gi ve hi m a warn in g t o th e ti m e Arred on do

co ns en te d to th e se arch of th e tru ck

, m or e th an twen ty m in ut es pa ss ed

. See Pera le z,

52 6 F.3 d at 11 21 (co nc lu di ng th at bl en d e d q u e s ti on in g pr ol on ge d a st op whe re th e

of fic er in t e r p e r s ed ro ut in e an d of f-t op ic qu es ti on s fo r th irt een m in ut es aft er te ll in g

th e d riv er h e wou ld rece iv e a warn in g)

.

The co ur t co nc lu de s th at th e ex te ns io n of th e st op was jus ti fie d by reas on ab le

su sp ic io n, ci ti ng a va rie ty of ci rcu m st an ces th at aro se ov er th e co ur se of th e st op

. Bu t

th e ke y qu es ti on is whe th er All en ha d reas on ab le su sp ic io n b e f o r e h e ex te nd ed th e

st op wit h o ff-t op ic qu es ti on s. See Uni te d S ta te s v . Hol li ns , 68 5 F.3 d 70 3, 70 6 (8 th

Ci r. 20 12 ) (ex pl ai ni ng th at th e de te rm in at io n of whe th er “ reas on ab le su sp ic io n

‘exi st ed is no t to be m ad e wit h th e vi si on of hi nd si gh t, bu t in st ead by lo ok in g to wha t

th e of fic er reas on ab ly kn ew at th e ti m e’” (q uo ti ng Uni te d St at es v. San de rs

, 19 6 F.3 d

91 0, 91 3 (8 th Ci r

. 19 99 ))). The ex te ns io n of th e st op by of f-t op ic qu es ti on s

o c cu rred —at th e la te st —b y th e ti m e All en le ft Arred on do in th e cru is e r a n d

ap pr oa ch ed Mu ril lo -Sal ga do

. At th at po in t, All en ha d be en qu es ti on in g Arred on do

fo r ap pr ox im at el y te n m in ut es

, an d ha d as ke d num er ous of f- top ic quest io ns

, in cl ud in g

qu es ti on s ab ou t th e co st of pl an e ti ck et s t o N o r t h C a r ol in a, th e wiri ng job

, an d

whe th er Arred on do ha d ev e r u s e d o r tra ns po rte d dr ug s. Dur in g th e su pp res si on

he ari ng

, All en id en ti fie d on ly two ci rcu m st an ces th at he fo un d “ su sp ic io us ” pr io r to

th at po in t: th e fact th at th e ren ta l ag reem en t tra ns po se d Arred on do ’s m id dl e an d la st

-1 7-n a mes, an d th e fact th at th e ren ta l ag reem en t was fo r on ly fiv e da y s. See Uni t e d 4

St at es v. Hor to n, 61 1 F.3 d 93 6, 94 0 (8 th Ci r. 20 10 ) (“ Th[e reas on ab le su sp ic io n]

st an da rd req ui res th at of

fic ers be ab le to po in t to sp eci fic

, art ic ul ab le fact s jus ti fy in g

th e se i z u r e

. ” )

. Bu t All en di d no t ex pl ai n why th os e m in or irr eg ul ari ti es —wh ic h

Arred on do ex pl ai ne d wit ho ut he si ta ti on —g av e ris e to a rat io na l in fere nc e th at

Arred on do an d Mu ril lo -Sal ga do were tra ns po rti ng dr ug s. See Uni te d St at es v. Jo ne s,

26 9 F.3 d 91 9, 92 8 ( 8 th Ci r. 20 01 ) (co nc lu di ng th at in co ns is te nc ie s in a dr iv er’s

an swe rs to an of

fic er di d no t su pp or t reas on ab le su sp ic io n be cau se th e of fic er

id en ti fie d no “ co nn ect io n be twee n [th e] in co ns is te nt a n s w e r

. . . an d su sp ic io n of

in te rs ta te n a r co ti cs tra ffi ck in g” ). Thu s, I wou ld ho ld th at th e ex te ns io n of th e st op

was an un co ns ti tu ti on al sei zu re.

Eve n if th ere was r eas on ab le su sp ic io n to pr ol on g th e st op

, I do no t be li ev e

th ere was pr o b ab le cau se to se arch th e ai r co m pr es so r. The co ur t co nc lu de s th at

pr ob ab le cau se ex is te d be cau se All en ob se rv ed fres h pa in t an d jagg ed weld in g on th e

a ir co m pr es so r. Bu t al th ou gh su ch ci rcu m st an ces m ig ht ha ve gi ve n ris e to a n

in fere nc e th at th e ai r co m

pr es so r ha d be en rep ai red or m od ifi ed

, th ey di d no t es ta bl is h

“ a fai r pr ob ab il it y ” th at th e ai r co m pr es so r co nt ai ne d co nt rab an d. Nor co ul d All en ’s

tra in in g an d ex pe rie n c e ad d to th e pr ob ab le -cau se cal cu lu s: He ne ve r te st ifi ed th at

he was tra in ed on th e u s e o f a i r c o mpres so rs to sm ug gl e na rco ti cs

, or th at he ha d

ev er— in hu nd red s o f d r u g in ve st ig at io ns —fo un d na rco ti cs in an ai r co m pr es so r

be fo re. See Uni te d St at es v. Jo hn so n, 17 1 F.3 d 60 1, 60 4 (8 th Ci r. 19 99 ) (d et erm in in g

th at a po st al in sp ect io n of fic er di d no t ha ve reas on ab le su sp ic io n th at a pa ck ag e

co nt ai ne d co nt rab an d be cau se al th ou gh he ha d tra in in g an d ex pe rie nc e, “ th ere was

All en of fere d no te st im on y su gg es ti ng th a t he fo un d it su sp ic io us th at 4

Arred on do fir st sa id he an d Mu ril lo -Sal ga do were bo th el ect ric ia ns

, an d la te r sa id he

was a he lp er an d Mu ril lo -Sal ga do was an el ect ric ia n. And to th e ex te nt A ll en

su gg es te d th at he fo un d th e am ou nt of el ect ric al wire in th e tru ck to be su sp ic io us

, hi s

te st im on y es ta bl is he s th at he de ve lo p e d su ch su sp ic io n on ly aft er sp eak in g wit h

Mu ril lo -Sal ga do

, who tol d hi m th ey wou ld be rewi rin g a 15 ,00 0 sq ua re-f oo t m an si on

.

-1 8-no art ic ul at io n of ho w th e of fic er’s ex pe rie nc e bo re up on hi s a p p r a i s a l of th e

pa ck ag e”). Acco rd in gl y

, I wou ld ho ld th at th e se arch of th e a i r c om pr es so r was

un co ns ti tu ti on al . For t he se reas on s, I re sp ect fu ll y di ss en t.

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

-1 9-