1

Program participation and spending patterns of 

families receiving government means-tested 

assistance

While average family size was the same, average annual 

expenditures of families who have children and were 

receiving means-tested government assistance were 

about half the amount spent by families not receiving 

assistance. Food, housing, and transportation took up the 

greatest share of the family budget regardless of whether 

any assistance was received. Among families receiving 

means-tested government assistance, Medicaid was the 

program with the highest participation rate (84.1 percent) 

and public assistance was the program with the lowest 

participation rate (7.0 percent).

Government means-tested assistance programs, such as 

Medicaid and Supplemental Security Income (SSI), 

provide cash and noncash benefits to many low-income 

families. A 2015 report from the Survey of Income and 

Program Participation found that, in 2012, 21.8 percent of 

all U.S. families, on average, participated in at least one 

major means-tested program per month. The participation 

rate for one-parent families headed by women, 50 

percent, was much higher than that for one-parent families 

headed by men (29.5 percent) or married-couple families 

(14.7 percent).1

This article uses data from the 2014 Consumer 

Expenditure Interview Survey to examine the spending 

patterns of families who have at least one child under 18 

and receive benefits from one or more government 

means-tested assistance programs.2 Because the 2014 poverty rate for children under 18 (21.1 percent) was 

higher than that for people ages 18 to 64 (13.5 percent) and ages 65 and older (10.0 percent), we believe this 

analysis is needed.3 Estimates indicate that about half of all government means-tested assistance goes to 

Ann C. Foster

foster.ann@bls.gov

Ann C. Foster is an economist in the Office of 

Prices and Living Conditions, U.S. Bureau of 

Labor Statistics.

Arcenis Rojas

rojas.arcenis@bls.gov

Arcenis Rojas is an economist in the Office of 

Prices and Living Conditions, U.S. Bureau of 

Labor Statistics.

January 2018
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

2

families with children, and an assessment of the goods and services that these families purchase is a way to 

evaluate the quality of life that the assistance helps families attain.4

Scope of analysis

The sample examined in this analysis was made up of families with at least one child under 18.5 We compared 

families receiving assistance with families not receiving assistance, and we examined their demographic 

characteristics, program participation, and spending patterns. In addition, we compared one-parent families 

receiving assistance with two-parent families receiving assistance. Further analysis compared families receiving 

assistance from a particular program with those not receiving benefits from that program.

Sample families participated in the following benefit programs: • Housing assistance (provision of public housing and housing rent subsidy payments) • Medicaid, the joint federal–state program that pays for medical care for people with low incomes

• Public assistance or cash assistance from state and local government welfare programs, such as 

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) and short-term emergency help

• The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) • The SSI program that provides monthly benefits to disabled adults and children and to those 65 and older 

who have limited income and assets but are not disabled

Participation in any of these programs was based on information provided by 2014 Consumer Expenditure 

Interview Survey respondents.6

Demographic characteristics

Consumer Expenditure Survey (CE) data show that, in 2014,7 there were 31.6 million families in the United 

States with at least one child under 18 years old.8 Slightly over one-fifth (21.1 percent) of these families 

received government means-tested assistance.

Pretax income was $65,939 for the sample as a whole. Families not receiving assistance had pretax income of 

$74,597, compared with pretax income of $33,549 for families receiving assistance. Among families receiving 

assistance, 45.6 percent were headed by a single parent and 54.4 percent had two parents. Pretax income for 

one-parent families receiving assistance was $18,282, compared with $46,328 for two-parent families receiving 

assistance. (See table 1.)

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

no assistance

Families receiving assistance

Total One-parent 

families

Two-parent 

families

Number of families (in thousands) 31,596 24,931 6,665 3,037 3,628

Average pretax income (in dollars) 65,939 74,597 33,549 18,282 46,328

Table 1. Characteristics of families with children under age 18, by receipt of means-tested government 

assistance, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

3

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Average family size was 4.0 people whether or not a family received assistance. Among families receiving 

assistance, one-parent families averaged 2.0 children under age 18, compared with 2.2 children under age 18 

for two-parent families receiving assistance. Families not receiving assistance averaged 1.8 earners, compared 

with 0.8 for one-parent families receiving assistance and 1.7 for two-parent families receiving assistance.

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

no assistance

Families receiving assistance

Total One-parent 

families

Two-parent 

families

Average age of reference person (years) 39.6 40.3 37.1 36.6 37.4

Average number in family

Total family members 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.2 4.7

Children under 18 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.0 2.2

People 65 and older 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1

Earners 1.7 1.8 1.3 0.8 1.7

Vehicles 2.0 2.2 1.4 0.8 1.9

Percent distribution

Male reference person 42.9 47.1 27.3 6.2 45.1

Female reference person 57.1 52.9 72.7 93.8 54.9

Race of reference person

Black or African American 13.6 10.6 24.7 37.6 13.9

White, Asian, and all other races 86.4 89.4 75.3 62.4 86.1

Hispanic or Latino origin of reference person

Hispanic or Latino 19.2 16.4 29.9 21.6 36.9

Not Hispanic or Latino 80.8 83.6 70.1 78.4 63.1

Education of reference person

Less than high school 11.5 9.1 20.8 18.9 22.5

High school graduate 21.8 18.1 35.7 40.4 31.9

Some college or associate’s degree 30.7 30.4 31.8 34.1 29.9

Bachelor’s degree or higher 35.9 42.4 11.6 6.7 15.7

Housing tenure

Homeowner 61.6 71.2 25.7 13.8 35.6

Renter 38.4 28.8 74.3 86.2 64.4

Number of earners

None 5.3 2.6 15.3 28.4 4.3

One 37.4 33.8 51.1 62.8 41.3

Two 45.0 50.4 24.9 7.7 39.2

Three or more 12.2 13.2 8.7 1.1 15.2

Number of vehicles owned or leased

None 7.6 4.5 19.2 31.5 9.0

One or more 92.4 95.5 80.8 68.5 91.0

Table 1. Characteristics of families with children under age 18, by receipt of means-tested government 

assistance, 2014
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

4

The reference person was black or African American in 13.6 percent of the families.9 The proportion of families 

with a black or African American reference person ranged from 10.6 percent of families not receiving assistance 

to 37.6 percent of one-parent families receiving assistance. About 86 percent of sample families had a reference 

person who was white, Asian, or all other races.10 This proportion ranged from 62.4 percent of one-parent 

families receiving assistance to 89.4 percent of families not receiving assistance.

The reference person was Hispanic or Latino in 19.2 percent of all families, with a range of 16.4 percent for 

families not receiving assistance to 36.9 percent for two-parent families receiving assistance. Among all oneparent families receiving assistance, nearly 94 percent had a female household head.

In all families with children under 18, 11.5 percent had a reference person with less than a high school 

education. Families who had a reference person with less than a high school education ranged from 9.1 percent 

of those not receiving assistance to 22.5 percent of two-parent families receiving assistance. In families not 

receiving assistance, 42.4 percent had a reference person with a bachelor’s degree or higher. Among families

receiving assistance, 6.7 percent of one-parent families and 15.7 percent of two-parent families had a reference 

person with at least a bachelor’s degree.

Most families not receiving assistance were homeowners (71.2 percent), and 28.8 percent were renters. The 

situation was reversed among families receiving assistance: 25.7 percent were homeowners and 74.3 percent 

were renters. Two-parent families receiving assistance were more likely to be homeowners than one-parent 

families, 35.6 percent and 13.8 percent, respectively.

Participation in means-tested assistance programs

Medicaid was the program with the highest participation rate (84.1 percent) among families receiving 

government means-tested assistance. Among one-parent families, 81.7 percent received government meanstested assistance, and 86.1 percent of two-parent families did so.11 (See table 2.)

Note: NA = not available. Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Program

Percent receiving assistance

Dollar amount received last 12 

months

All 

families

One-parent 

families

Two-parent 

families

All 

families

One-parent 

families

Two-parent 

families

Housing assistance 21.8 37.8 8.3 NA NA NA

Medicaid 84.1 81.7 86.1 NA NA NA

Public assistance 7.0 11.8 3.1 3,072 3,208 2,629

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) 51.6 66.4 39.3 3,928 3,936 3,916

Supplemental Security Income (SSI) 9.9 12.5 7.8 6,719 6,915 6,466

Table 2. Participation in specific means-tested government assistance programs among families with 

children under 18, 2014
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

5

SNAP benefits were reported by 51.6 percent of families receiving assistance. A greater proportion of oneparent families (66.4 percent) than two-parent families (39.3 percent) received SNAP benefits. For families with 

SNAP benefits, the average amount received was $3,928; benefits received by one-parent and two-parent 

families were similar ($3,936 and $3,916, respectively).12

Nearly 22 percent of families received housing assistance. One-parent families had a participation rate of 37.8 

percent, compared with a rate of 8.3 percent for two-parent families.13 A much smaller proportion of families (9.9 

percent) received SSI benefits; these benefits averaged $6,719. One-parent families received benefits 

averaging $6,915, and two-parent families received benefits averaging $6,466. However, the difference between 

these amounts was not statistically significant.14

Only 7.0 percent of families received public assistance benefits. These benefits averaged $3,072. Participation 

was 11.8 percent for one-parent families, compared with 3.1 percent for two-parent families. Benefits averaged 

$3,208 for one-parent families and $2,629 for two-parent families, but the difference between the average 

benefit amounts was not statistically significant.15

Among families receiving means-tested assistance, close to half participated in only one means-tested program, 

as shown here:

The greatest proportion (37.0 percent) of families receiving assistance participated in Medicaid only, while 23.7 

percent participated in Medicaid and SNAP. Participation in Medicaid, SNAP, and housing assistance was 

reported by 8.4 percent of families, while 7.3 percent reported participation in SNAP only. See table 3 for more 

information on the combinations of assistance programs in which families participated.

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Number of programs Percent of families

1 49.2

2 32.1

3 14.2

4 4.2

5 0.4

Program

Percent of families with 

combination

Families receiving assistance 100.0

Medicaid only 37.0

Medicaid and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) 23.7

Medicaid, SNAP, and housing assistance 8.4

SNAP only 7.3

Medicaid and housing assistance 3.0

Housing assistance only 2.7

Medicaid, SNAP, and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) 2.5

SNAP and housing assistance 2.2

All other combinations 13.3

Table 3. Means-tested program combinations among families receiving assistance, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

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Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Spending patterns

In 2014, total expenditures for families receiving assistance were $36,398, about half (50.3 percent) of the 

$72,338 spent by families not receiving assistance. Total expenditures for one-parent families receiving 

assistance were $26,085, about three-fifths (58.6 percent) of the $44,516 spent by two-parent families receiving 

assistance.

Food, housing, and transportation accounted for the greatest proportion of the budget of all families. These 

three categories made up 66.2 percent of the total budget of families not receiving assistance, compared with 

82.5 percent for one-parent and 75.9 percent for two-parent families receiving assistance. (See table 4.)

Notes:

(1) Includes cash contributions, alcohol, tobacco, personal care products and services, reading, education, life and personal insurance, and miscellaneous

expenses.

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Food

Expenditures were lower among families receiving assistance, but food accounted for a greater proportion of 

total expenditures than among families not receiving assistance. A different pattern emerged when expenditures 

on food at home and food away from home, the two components of food spending, were examined separately. 

Food away from home spending was lower both in dollar amount and as a percent of total expenditures among 

families receiving assistance. One explanation may be the prevalence of SNAP benefits, which, with few 

exceptions, can only be used for food at home.16

Item

All families

Families 

receiving no 

assistance

Families receiving assistance

Total One-parent 

families

Two-parent 

families

Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent

Total expenditures 64,728 100.0 72,338 100.0 36,398 100.0 26,085 100.0 44,516 100.0

Food 9,970 15.4 10,656 14.7 7,418 20.4 5,941 22.8 8,581 19.3

Food at home 6,932 10.7 7,199 10.0 5,936 16.3 4,933 18.9 6,726 15.1

Food away from home 3,039 4.7 3,457 4.8 1,482 4.1 1,007 3.9 1,855 4.2

Housing 21,931 33.9 24,180 33.4 13,558 37.2 10,963 42.0 15,600 35.0

Clothing 1,732 2.7 1,898 2.6 1,115 3.1 978 3.7 1,222 2.7

Transportation 11,827 18.3 13,011 18.0 7,420 20.4 4,627 17.7 9,619 21.6

Healthcare 4,350 6.7 5,146 7.1 1,386 3.8 661 2.5 1,957 4.4

Entertainment 3,112 4.8 3,584 5.0 1,356 3.7 923 3.5 1,696 3.8

Pensions and Social Security 6,663 10.3 7,889 10.9 2,098 5.8 875 3.4 3,062 6.9

Other(1) 5,143 7.9 5,975 8.3 2,047 5.6 1,119 4.3 2,777 6.2

Table 4. Average annual expenditures of families with children under 18, by receipt of means-tested 

government assistance, 2014
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

7

Housing

Families receiving assistance spent $13,558 on housing, which was less than the $24,180 spent by families not 

receiving assistance. Among families receiving assistance, one-parent families spent $10,963, 70.3 percent of 

the $15,600 spent by two-parent families. One factor is that one-parent families were more apt to receive 

housing assistance benefits (37.8 percent) than two-parent families (8.3 percent), as shown in table 2. Although 

smaller in dollar amount, housing expenditures represented a larger share of total expenditures among families 

receiving assistance, 37.2 percent, compared with 33.4 percent for families not receiving assistance.

Transportation

One-parent families receiving assistance spent $4,627 on transportation, which was less than the $13,011 spent 

by families without assistance and the $9,619 spent by two-parent families receiving assistance. Transportation 

expenses also represented a smaller share of the family budget of one-parent families receiving assistance, 

17.7 percent, compared with 18.0 percent for families without assistance and 21.6 percent for two-parent 

families receiving assistance. Automobile ownership had a major influence on transportation spending. As 

shown in table 1, nearly 32 percent of one-parent families receiving assistance did not own or lease a car, 

compared with 9.0 percent of two-parent families receiving assistance and 4.5 percent of families not receiving 

assistance.

Clothing

Although clothing is considered a basic necessity, clothing claimed a relatively small proportion of the budget of 

all families, ranging from 2.6 percent for families not receiving assistance to 3.7 percent for one-parent families 

receiving assistance.17

Healthcare

Among families receiving assistance, healthcare spending averaged $661 (2.5 percent of the family budget) for 

one-parent and $1,957 (4.4 percent of the family budget) for two-parent families. In contrast, spending on 

healthcare was greatest in dollar amount ($5,146) and as a proportion (7.1 percent) of the budget of families not 

receiving assistance. One explanation for these findings may be that 84.1 percent of families receiving 

assistance had Medicaid coverage for healthcare expenses. The data do not indicate whether families with 

Medicaid benefits received the same services and quality of care as either families receiving no assistance or 

families receiving assistance other than Medicaid.18

Other categories

Contributions to pensions and Social Security accounted for 5.8 percent of the budget for families receiving 

assistance, compared with 10.9 percent for families not receiving assistance. Families receiving assistance had 

fewer earners and thus would be less likely to make pension contributions than families without assistance, 

who, on average, had more earners. Entertainment expenses were 3.7 percent ($1,356) of the budget for 

families receiving assistance, compared with 5.0 percent ($3,584) for families not receiving assistance. Other 

expenses claimed 5.6 percent of the budget for families receiving assistance and 8.3 percent of the budget for 

those not receiving assistance.19
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

8

Spending patterns by program participation

Additional analysis of families receiving assistance was done to see if families receiving benefits from a 

particular program differed in demographic characteristics and spending patterns from families not receiving 

benefits from that program. This analysis was done for each of the five means-tested programs examined.

Medicaid

Demographic characteristics were similar among the 84 percent of families receiving Medicaid benefits and the 

16 percent of families who did not. Families with Medicaid benefits, however, were more apt to be homeowners 

(27.4 percent, compared with 16.7 percent for families without Medicaid benefits). Pretax income for families 

with Medicaid benefits was $32,963, compared with not $36,643 for families without Medicaid benefits. 

However, the difference in pretax income was not statistically significant. (See table 5.)

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

Medicaid benefits

Families receiving no 

Medicaid benefits

Number of families (in thousands) 6,665 5,603 1,061

Average pretax income (in dollars) 33,549 32,963 36,643

Average age of reference person (years) 37.1 37.0 37.2

Average number in family

Total family members 4.0 4.0 3.8

Children under 18 2.1 2.1 2.2

People 65 and older 0.0 0.0 0.0

Earners 1.3 1.3 1.1

Vehicles 1.4 1.4 1.4

Percent distribution

Male reference person 27.3 27.1 28.9

Female reference person 72.7 72.9 71.1

Race of reference person

Black or African American 24.7 24.4 26.1

White, Asian, and all other races 75.3 75.6 73.9

Hispanic or Latino origin of reference person

Hispanic or Latino 29.9 31.5 21.5

Not Hispanic or Latino 70.1 68.5 78.5

Education of reference person

Less than high school 20.8 21.4 17.5

High school graduate 35.7 35.7 35.8

Some college or associate’s degree 31.8 30.8 37

Bachelor’s degree or higher 11.6 12.0 9.7

Housing tenure

Homeowner 25.7 27.4 16.7

Renter 74.3 72.6 83.3

Number of earners

None 15.3 14.9 17.3

One 51.1 50.4 54.7

Table 5. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of Medicaid benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

9

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Families receiving Medicaid benefits had average expenditures of $36,450, not statistically different from the 

$36,119 for families without Medicaid benefits. Among families with Medicaid benefits, healthcare expenditures 

were lower and represented a smaller proportion of the family budget ($1,278 and 3.5 percent, compared with 

$1,961 and 5.4 percent for families without Medicaid benefits). Transportation expenses, however, were higher 

and represented a larger proportion of the family budget among families with Medicaid benefits ($7,756 and 

21.3 percent, compared with $5,635 and 15.6 percent for families without Medicaid benefits). For the remaining 

categories, there were no significant spending differences between the two groups. (See table 6.)

Notes:

(1) Includes cash contributions, alcohol, tobacco, personal care products and services, reading, education, life and personal insurance, and miscellaneous

expenses.

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

Medicaid benefits

Families receiving no 

Medicaid benefits

Two 24.9 25.3 22.6

Three or more 8.7 9.4 5.4

Number of vehicles owned or leased

None 19.2 18.6 22.5

One or more 80.8 81.4 77.5

Table 5. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of Medicaid benefits, 2014

Item

All families

Families 

receiving 

Medicaid 

benefits

Families 

receiving no 

Medicaid 

benefits

Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent

Total expenditures 36,398 100.0 36,450 100.0 36,119 100.0

Food 7,418 20.4 7,338 20.1 7,845 21.7

Food at home 5,936 16.3 5,881 16.1 6,230 17.2

Food away from home 1,482 4.1 1,457 4.0 1,615 4.5

Housing 13,558 37.2 13,543 37.2 13,634 37.7

Clothing 1,115 3.1 1,086 3.0 1,269 3.5

Transportation 7,420 20.4 7,756 21.3 5,635 15.6

Healthcare 1,386 3.8 1,278 3.5 1,961 5.4

Entertainment 1,356 3.7 1,362 3.7 1,321 3.7

Pensions and Social Security 2,098 5.8 2,131 5.8 1,927 5.3

Other(1) 2,047 5.6 1,956 5.4 2,528 7.0

Table 6. Average annual expenditures of families with children under 18, with means-tested government 

assistance, by receipt of Medicaid benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

10

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)

Slightly over half (51.6 percent) of families who received assistance were recipients of SNAP benefits. Average 

pretax income for SNAP recipients was $27,260, which was lower than the $40,264 for families not receiving 

SNAP benefits. Families with SNAP benefits were less apt than other families who received assistance to be 

homeowners (15.9 percent, compared with 36.1 percent of families without SNAP benefits). About one quarter 

(25.3 percent) of families receiving SNAP benefits did not own a vehicle, compared with 12.8 percent of families 

not receiving SNAP benefits. (See table 7.)

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

SNAP benefits

Families receiving no 

SNAP benefits

Number of families (in thousands) 6,665 3,441 3,223

Average pretax income (in dollars) 33,549 27,260 40,264

Average age of reference person (years) 37.1 35.6 38.7

Average number in family

Total family members 4.0 4.0 4.0

Children under 18 2.1 2.2 1.9

People 65 and older 0.0 0.0 0.1

Earners 1.3 1.1 1.5

Vehicles 1.4 1.2 1.6

Percent distribution

Male reference person 27.3 21.8 33.2

Female reference person 72.7 78.2 66.8

Race of reference person

Black or African American 24.7 30.3 18.7

White, Asian, and all other races 75.3 69.7 81.3

Hispanic or Latino origin of reference person

Hispanic or Latino 29.9 25.2 35.0

Not Hispanic or Latino 70.1 74.8 65.0

Education of reference person

Less than high school 20.8 22.8 18.7

High school graduate 35.7 37.3 34.1

Some college or associate’s degree 31.8 32.5 31.1

Bachelor’s degree or higher 11.6 7.4 16.1

Housing tenure

Homeowner 25.7 15.9 36.1

Renter 74.3 84.1 63.9

Number of earners

None 15.3 24.1 5.9

One 51.1 50.8 51.4

Two 24.9 19.8 30.3

Three or more 8.7 5.3 12.4

Number of vehicles owned or leased

Table 7. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested public assistance, by 

receipt of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

11

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Total expenditures among families with SNAP benefits were $30,884, lower than the $42,150 for families without 

SNAP benefits. Although families receiving SNAP benefits spent less on food, the food category accounted for a 

greater proportion of the family budget (21.8 percent, compared with 19.3 percent for families without SNAP 

benefits). When we examined expenditures on food at home and food away from home—the components of

food spending—a different pattern emerged. For example, families with SNAP benefits spent $5,678 on food at

home, which accounted for 84.2 percent of total food spending, while the $1,068 they spent on food away from 

home accounted for the remaining 15.8 percent. For families without SNAP benefits, the $6,206 they spent on 

food at home accounted for a lower proportion (76.4 percent) of food spending, while the $1,913 spent on food 

away from home accounted for a higher proportion (23.6 percent) of total food spending, compared with families 

receiving SNAP benefits. These findings could reflect the fact that SNAP benefits, with few exceptions, must be 

used to purchase food at home only.20 (See table 8.) Families receiving SNAP benefits also spent less on the 

remaining expenditure categories than families not receiving SNAP benefits, and these differences were 

statistically significant.

Notes:

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

SNAP benefits

Families receiving no 

SNAP benefits

None 19.2 25.3 12.8

One or more 80.8 74.7 87.2

Table 7. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested public assistance, by 

receipt of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits, 2014

Item

All families

Families 

receiving SNAP 

benefits

Families 

receiving no 

SNAP benefits

Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent

Total expenditures 36,398 100.0 30,884 100.0 42,150 100.0

Food 7,418 20.4 6,746 21.8 8,119 19.3

Food at home 5,936 16.3 5,678 18.4 6,206 14.7

Food away from home 1,482 4.1 1,068 3.5 1,913 4.5

Housing 13,558 37.2 11,989 38.8 15,194 36.0

Clothing 1,115 3.1 1,008 3.3 1,225 2.9

Transportation 7,420 20.4 6,109 19.8 8,789 20.9

Healthcare 1,386 3.8 1,032 3.3 1,756 4.2

Entertainment 1,356 3.7 1,133 3.7 1,588 3.8

Pensions and Social Security 2,098 5.8 1,339 4.3 2,891 6.9

Other(1) 2,047 5.6 1,528 4.9 2,587 6.1

Table 8. Average annual expenditures of families with children under 18, with means-tested public 

assistance, by receipt of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

12

(1) Includes cash contributions, alcohol, tobacco, personal care products and services, reading, education, life and personal insurance, and miscellaneous

expenses.

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Housing assistance

Housing assistance was received by 21.8 percent of families. The majority of this group were one-parent 

families, which is reflected by a smaller family size (3.6 people, compared with 4.1 for families without 

assistance) and fewer earners (0.9, compared with 1.4 for families without assistance). Fewer earners is also a 

factor in the average pretax income of $19,682, which was lower than the $37,404 for families not receiving 

assistance. All families receiving housing assistance were renters and were less apt to own a vehicle than 

families not receiving assistance. (See table 9.)

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

housing assistance 

benefits

Families receiving no 

housing assistance 

benefits

Number of families (in thousands) 6,665 1,450 5,215

Average pretax income (in dollars) 33,549 19,682 37,404

Average age of reference person (years) 37.1 37.6 37.0

Average number in family

Total family members 4.0 3.6 4.1

Children under 18 2.1 2.2 2.0

People 65 and older 0.0 0.0 0.0

Earners 1.3 0.9 1.4

Vehicles 1.4 0.7 1.6

Percent distribution

Male reference person 27.3 13.3 31.3

Female reference person 72.7 86.7 68.7

Race of reference person

Black or African American 24.7 45.4 18.9

White, Asian, and all other races 75.3 54.6 81.1

Hispanic or Latino origin of reference person

Hispanic or Latino 29.9 24.4 31.5

Not Hispanic or Latino 70.1 75.6 68.5

Education of reference person

Less than high school 20.8 23.8 20.0

High school graduate 35.7 40.8 34.3

Some college or associate’s degree 31.8 32.4 31.6

Bachelor’s degree or higher 11.6 3.0 14.0

Housing tenure

Homeowner 25.7 0.0 32.8

Renter 74.3 100.0 67.2

Number of earners

None 15.3 28.9 11.5

Table 9. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of housing assistance benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

13

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Total expenditures for families with housing assistance were $25,597, lower than the $39,300 spent by families 

without assistance. Families with housing assistance spent less on total food ($6,483, compared with $7,670 for 

families without assistance), but food accounted for a greater share of total expenditures (25.3 percent, 

compared with 19.5 percent for families without assistance).

The composition of food spending varied between the two groups. The $5,476 that families with housing 

assistance spent on food at home represented 84.5 percent of food spending, while the $1,007 spent on food 

away from home represented 15.5 percent of food spending. Families without housing assistance spent $6,060 

on food at home (79.0 percent of their food spending) and $1,609 on food away from home (21.0 percent of 

their food spending). (See table 10.) These findings may reflect the fact that a greater proportion of families with 

housing assistance also received SNAP benefits (69.3 percent, compared with 46.2 percent of families without 

housing assistance).

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

housing assistance 

benefits

Families receiving no 

housing assistance 

benefits

One 51.1 55.6 49.8

Two 24.9 14.4 27.8

Three or more 8.7 1.1 10.9

Number of vehicles owned or leased

None 19.2 41.4 13.1

One or more 80.8 58.6 86.9

Table 9. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of housing assistance benefits, 2014

Item

All families

Families 

receiving 

housing 

assistance 

benefits

Families 

receiving no 

housing 

assistance 

benefits

Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent

Total expenditures 36,398 100.0 25,597 100.0 39,300 100.0

Food 7,418 20.4 6,483 25.3 7,670 19.5

Food at home 5,936 16.3 5,476 21.4 6,060 15.4

Food away from home 1,482 4.1 1,007 3.9 1,609 4.1

Housing 13,558 37.2 9,698 37.9 14,595 37.1

Clothing 1,115 3.1 1,118 4.4 1,114 2.8

Transportation 7,420 20.4 4,403 17.2 8,231 20.9

Table 10. Average annual expenditures of families with children under 18, with means-tested 

government assistance, by receipt of housing assistance benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

14

Notes:

(1) Includes cash contributions, alcohol, tobacco, personal care products and services, reading, education, life and personal insurance, and miscellaneous

expenses.

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Housing outlays among families receiving housing assistance were $9,698, lower than the $14,595 spent by 

families not receiving assistance. However, housing outlays represented similar proportions of the family budget 

for both families receiving housing assistance and those not receiving housing assistance. Because the CE 

does not collect the dollar amount of housing assistance benefits, the total housing costs for families receiving 

assistance could not be determined.21

There was no difference in clothing expenditures between the two groups. Families with housing assistance, 

however, spent less on each of the remaining categories than families without housing assistance.

Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

A small proportion of families receiving assistance (9.9 percent) collected SSI benefits. Families with SSI 

benefits had an older reference person (an average age of 42.4 years, compared with 36.5 years for families 

without SSI benefits) and fewer earners (0.9, compared with 1.4 for families without benefits). Pretax income for 

families with SSI benefits was $27,806, lower than the $34,183 for families without SSI benefits. (See table 11.)

Item

All families

Families 

receiving 

housing 

assistance 

benefits

Families 

receiving no 

housing 

assistance 

benefits

Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent

Healthcare 1,386 3.8 637 2.5 1,588 4.0

Entertainment 1,356 3.7 1,059 4.1 1,435 3.7

Pensions and Social Security 2,098 5.8 887 3.5 2,424 6.2

Other(1) 2,047 5.6 1,312 5.1 2,244 5.7

Table 10. Average annual expenditures of families with children under 18, with means-tested 

government assistance, by receipt of housing assistance benefits, 2014

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

SSI benefits

Families receiving no 

SSI benefits

Number of families (in thousands) 6,665 662 6,003

Average pretax income (in dollars) 33,549 27,806 34,183

Average age of reference person (years) 37.1 42.4 36.5

Average number in family

Total family members 4.0 3.9 4.0

Table 11. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

15

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Although total expenditures for families receiving SSI benefits were $38,965, this amount was not significantly 

different from the $36,121 for families without SSI benefits. Families receiving SSI benefits spent significantly 

more on healthcare than families not receiving benefits ($2,012, compared with $1,319 for families without SSI 

benefits). This may reflect the fact that low-income people under age 65 can receive SSI benefits only if they are 

disabled. Families with SSI benefits also spent significantly more on clothing ($1,309) and entertainment 

($1,691) than families without SSI benefits ($1,094 and $1,320, respectively). There was no significant 

difference between the two groups in spending on the remaining categories. (See table 12.)

Item

All 

families

Families receiving 

SSI benefits

Families receiving no 

SSI benefits

Children under 18 2.1 1.9 2.1

People 65 and older 0.0 0.1 0.0

Earners 1.3 0.9 1.4

Vehicles 1.4 1.2 1.4

Percent distribution

Male reference person 27.3 19.0 28.3

Female reference person 72.7 81.0 71.7

Race of reference person

Black or African American 24.7 29.9 24.1

White, Asian, and all other races 75.3 70.1 75.9

Hispanic or Latino origin of reference person

Hispanic or Latino 29.9 11.6 31.9

Not Hispanic or Latino 70.1 88.4 68.1

Education of reference person

Less than high school 20.8 27.6 20.1

High school graduate 35.7 37.2 35.6

Some college or associate’s degree 31.8 28.0 32.2

Bachelor’s degree or higher 11.6 7.2 12.1

Housing tenure

Homeowner 25.7 25.3 25.7

Renter 74.3 74.7 74.3

Number of earners

None 15.3 42.6 12.3

One 51.1 30.6 53.4

Two 24.9 24.8 24.9

Three or more 8.7 2.0 9.5

Number of vehicles owned or leased

None 19.2 27.2 18.4

One or more 80.8 72.8 81.6

Table 11. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits, 2014
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

16

Notes:

(1) Includes cash contributions, alcohol, tobacco, personal care products and services, reading, education, life and personal insurance, and miscellaneous

expenses.

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Public assistance

Only 7.0 percent of families received public assistance benefits. One-parent families accounted for over threefourths (76 percent) of recipient families. Families receiving public assistance benefits had fewer earners (0.7, 

compared with 1.4 for families without benefits) and owned fewer vehicles (0.7, compared with 1.5 for families 

not receiving benefits). Only 14.8 percent of recipient families were homeowners, compared with 26.5 percent of 

families not receiving benefits. Pretax income for families with public assistance benefits was $15,487, lower 

than the $34,917 for families without public assistance. (See table 13.)

Item

All families

Families 

receiving SSI 

benefits

Families 

receiving no 

SSI benefits

Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent

Total expenditures 36,398 100.0 38,965 100.0 36,121 100.0

Food 7,418 20.4 7,363 18.9 7,424 20.6

Food at home 5,936 16.3 5,923 15.2 5,938 16.4

Food away from home 1,482 4.1 1,440 3.7 1,486 4.1

Housing 13,558 37.2 14,971 38.4 13,406 37.1

Clothing 1,115 3.1 1,309 3.4 1,094 3.0

Transportation 7,420 20.4 7,143 18.3 7,450 20.6

Healthcare 1,386 3.8 2,012 5.2 1,319 3.7

Entertainment 1,356 3.7 1,691 4.3 1,320 3.7

Pensions and Social Security 2,098 5.8 1,533 3.9 2,159 6.0

Other(1) 2,047 5.6 2,943 7.6 1,950 5.4

Table 12. Average annual expenditures of families with children under 18, with means-tested 

government assistance, by receipt of Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits, 2014

Item

All 

families

Families receiving public 

assistance benefits

Families receiving no 

public assistance benefits

Number of families (in thousands) 6,665 469 6,196

Average pretax income (in dollars) 33,549 15,487 34,917

Average age of reference person (years) 37.1 37.1 37.1

Average number in family

Total family members 4.0 3.4 4.0

Children under 18 2.1 1.8 2.1

People 65 and older 0.0 0.0 0.0

Earners 1.3 0.7 1.4

Table 13. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of public assistance benefits, 2014

See footnotes at end of table.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

17

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Total expenditures for families receiving public assistance were $28,992, lower than the $36,994 for families 

without public assistance. While there was no significant difference in the amount spent on food at home, 

families receiving public assistance spent less on food away from home than families without public assistance. 

(See table 14.) The lower expenditures for food away from home could be because a greater proportion of 

families receiving public assistance also received SNAP benefits (84.3 percent, compared with 48.4 percent of 

families not receiving public assistance).

Item

All 

families

Families receiving public 

assistance benefits

Families receiving no 

public assistance benefits

Vehicles 1.4 0.7 1.5

Percent distribution

Male reference person 27.3 17.2 28.1

Female reference person 72.7 82.8 71.9

Race of reference person

Black or African American 24.7 24.2 24.7

White, Asian, and all other races 75.3 75.8 75.3

Hispanic or Latino origin of reference person

Hispanic or Latino 29.9 28.0 30.1

Not Hispanic or Latino 70.1 72.0 69.9

Education of reference person

Less than high school 20.8 26.6 20.4

High school graduate 35.7 37.3 35.6

Some college or associate’s degree 31.8 23.0 32.5

Bachelor’s degree or higher 11.6 13.2 11.5

Housing tenure

Homeowner 25.7 14.8 26.5

Renter 74.3 85.2 73.5

Number of earners

None 15.3 46.1 13.0

One 51.1 40.5 51.9

Two 24.9 8.5 26.1

Three or more 8.7 4.9 9.0

Number of vehicles owned or leased

None 19.2 42.7 17.5

One or more 80.8 57.3 82.5

Table 13. Characteristics of families with children under 18, with means-tested government assistance, 

by receipt of public assistance benefits, 2014
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

18

Notes:

(1) Includes cash contributions, alcohol, tobacco, personal care products and services, reading, education, life and personal insurance, and miscellaneous

expenses.

Note: Because of rounding, percentages may not sum to 100.0.

Source: Consumer Expenditure Interview Survey, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Families receiving public assistance spent less on housing ($11,794) than families without public assistance 

($13,700). One explanation for the spending difference may be that 47.1 percent of families receiving public 

assistance also received housing assistance, compared with 19.1 percent of families without public assistance. 

Another factor is the higher homeownership rate among families not receiving public assistance. Housing 

expenses, however, accounted for a greater share of total expenditures for families receiving public assistance 

than for other families (40.7 percent, compared with 37.0 percent for families not receiving public assistance).

Healthcare spending by families receiving public assistance was lower in dollar amount ($245) and as a share 

of the family budget (0.8 percent) than by families not receiving public assistance ($1,478 and 4.0 percent, 

respectively). About four-fifths (79.4 percent) of families receiving public assistance benefits also received 

Medicaid benefits, compared with 84.4 percent of families without public assistance benefits. Only 25.0 percent 

of families receiving public assistance, however, reported any healthcare expenditures, compared with 50.0 

percent of families not receiving public assistance. It is unclear from the CE data whether families with public 

assistance had higher reimbursement levels, did not use as many services, or used less expensive services 

than families without public assistance.

Outlays on pensions and Social Security were lower both in dollar amount ($586) and as a share of the budget 

(2.0 percent) for families receiving public assistance than for families not receiving assistance ($2,220 and 6.0 

Item

All families

Families 

receiving public 

assistance 

benefits

Families 

receiving no 

public 

assistance 

benefits

Dollars Percent Dollars Percent Dollars Percent

Total expenditures 36,398 100.0 28,992 100.0 36,994 100.0

Food 7,418 20.4 6,596 22.7 7,484 20.2

Food at home 5,936 16.3 5,596 19.3 5,964 16.1

Food away from home 1,482 4.1 1,000 3.4 1,521 4.1

Housing 13,558 37.2 11,794 40.7 13,700 37.0

Clothing 1,115 3.1 1,033 3.6 1,121 3.0

Transportation 7,420 20.4 6,213 21.4 7,517 20.3

Healthcare 1,386 3.8 245 0.8 1,478 4.0

Entertainment 1,356 3.7 1,047 3.6 1,381 3.7

Pensions and Social Security 2,098 5.8 586 2.0 2,220 6.0

Other(1) 2,047 5.6 1,479 5.1 2,092 5.7

Table 14. Average annual expenditures of families with children under 18, with means-tested 

government assistance, by receipt of public assistance benefits, 2014
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

19

percent, respectively). A major factor is that 46.1 percent of families receiving assistance had no earners, 

compared with 13.0 percent of families not receiving assistance.

There was no significant difference between families receiving public assistance benefits and families without 

benefits in the amounts spent on clothing and transportation.

Conclusion

Average annual expenditures by families receiving means-tested government assistance were about half the 

amount spent by families not receiving assistance even though average family size was the same. Total 

spending of one-parent families receiving assistance was about three-fifths of spending by two-parent families 

receiving assistance. Food, housing, and transportation together took up the greatest share of the family 

budget, regardless of whether any assistance was received. Families not receiving assistance spent more on 

food and housing than families receiving assistance, but expenditures represented smaller proportions of the 

family budget compared with families receiving assistance. Healthcare spending was higher in dollar amount 

and as a percentage of the family budget among families receiving no assistance. One reason may be that 

nearly 71 percent of families receiving assistance had Medicaid coverage.

We did further analysis of the expenditures and demographics of families receiving means-tested government 

assistance to see if those receiving assistance from a particular program differed from those not receiving 

assistance from that program. Findings varied depending on the particular program.

SUGGESTED CITATION

Ann C. Foster and Arcenis Rojas, "Program participation and spending patterns of families receiving 

government means-tested assistance," Monthly Labor Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 2018, 

https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2018.3. NOTES

1 Means-tested programs are those which require that an individual or family’s income or assets fall below specified thresholds to

qualify for benefits. The means-tested assistance programs examined in the Survey of Income and Program Participation were 

Medicaid, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Housing Assistance, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), 

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), and General Assistance (GA). For more information, see Shelley K. Irving and 

Tracy A. Loveless, “Dynamics of economic well-being: participation in government programs, 2009–2012: who gets assistance?”

Current Population Reports, P70-141 (U.S. Census Bureau, May 2015), https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/

publications/2015/demo/p70-141.pdf. 2 A more detailed description of the Consumer Expenditure Surveys can be found in “Consumer expenditures and income,” BLS 

handbook of methods, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, February 26, 2016, https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/cex/home.htm. 3 In addition, the poverty rate for related children in married-couple families was 10.6 percent, compared with 46.5 percent for

children in families with a female householder. Related children are those under age 18 related to the householder by birth, 

marriage, or adoption. For more information, see Carmen DeNavas-Walt and Bernadette D. Proctor, “Income and poverty in the
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

20

United States: 2014,” Current Population Reports, P60-252 (U.S. Census Bureau, September 2015), https://www.census.gov/

content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdf. 4 In 2014, cash, food, and housing benefits received by families with children came to $222.8 billion. The addition of medical care 

benefits increased the total to $402.2 billion. For more information, see Rachel Sheffield and Robert Rector, “Five myths about

welfare and child poverty,” Backgrounder, No. 3176, Washington D.C., The Heritage Foundation, December 20, 2016, http://

www.heritage.org/welfare/report/five-myths-about-welfare-and-child-poverty. 5 In the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CE), the consumer unit is the entity for which expenditure reports are collected. Consumer

units include families, single people who live alone or share a household with others but who are financially independent, and two

or more people who live together and share expenses. For more information, see the CE glossary, characteristics section, https://

www.bls.gov/cex/csxgloss.htm. This analysis is limited to families with own children under 18 who currently live with the reference 

person. “Own children” in a family are sons and daughters, including stepchildren and adopted children, of the reference person.

6 Cash benefit means from SSI, SNAP, and TANF and all expenditure means were calculated as sample estimates rather than 

population estimates because of their higher levels of statistical significance. In the analyses, data from each quarter were treated

as data independent from other quarters. Benefit amounts from SSI and SNAP were collected in the second and fifth interviews 

only.

7 This analysis uses data from the 2014 collection year, which, because of the rotating panel design of the Consumer Expenditure 

Interview Survey, is different from the calendar year. For example, data for the first quarter of calendar year 2014 were collected in 

January, February, and March. Respondents interviewed in January were asked to recall expenditures made since the first of the 

month that was 3 months prior to the interview, resulting in a reference period from October 1, 2013 to December 31, 2013. 

Similarly, respondents interviewed in February had a reference period from November 1, 2013 to January 31, 2014. This means 

that respondents who were interviewed in January were also interviewed in April, July, and October, and would have provided 4 

quarters of data in collection year 2014. However, the data would cover a combined period from October 1, 2013 to September 30, 

2014 that comprises the last 3 months of calendar year 2013 and the first 9 months of calendar year 2014. For more information,

see “2014 users’ documentation, Interview Survey, public-use microdata (PUMA), consumer expenditure,” U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics, September 3, 2015, https://www.bls.gov/cex/2014/csxintvw.pdf. 8 These families accounted for about 25 percent of the consumer units represented in the survey.

9 The reference person is the first household member mentioned by the respondent when asked, “Start with the name of the

person or one of the persons who owns or rents the home.” The relationship of the other consumer unit members is determined

with respect to this person. In two-parent families, the reference person can be male or female. In one-parent families, the gender

of the reference person is usually that of the sole parent.

10 “All other races” includes Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, American Indian or Alaskan Native, and approximately 1

percent who report more than one race.

11 In fiscal year 2013, 64.7 million people received Medicaid benefits. The largest proportion (46.0 percent) was made up of 

nondisabled children under age 21 who received an average benefit of $3,498. Nondisabled adults in families with dependent 

children made up 21.7 percent of Medicaid recipients, receiving an average benefit of $2,305. Nondisabled people ages 65 or 

older made up 6.4 percent of all Medicaid recipients and received an average benefit of $15,104. The disabled of all ages 

accounted for 14.8 percent of beneficiaries, with an average benefit of $16,030. The remaining 11.2 percent was made up of other 

recipients whose eligibility status was unknown; the average benefit was $1,776. For more information, see table 8.E2 of Annual 

Statistical Supplement, 2015 (Social Security Administration, April 2016), https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/supplement/

2015/index.html.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

21

12 SNAP is the largest of the 15 domestic food-and-nutrition-assistance programs administered by the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service. In fiscal year 2014, an average of 46.6 million people a month received SNAP benefits. 

The average monthly benefit for single-parent families was $375, compared with $454 for two-parent families. Taking family size 

into account, the average monthly benefit per person was $129 for single-parent families and $103 for two-parent families. For 

more information, see Kelsey Farson Gray and Shivani Kochhar, “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

households: fiscal year 2014,” Report No. SNAP-15-CHAR (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, December 

2015), table 3.4, http://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/ops/Characteristics2014.pdf. 13 In 2012, the average monthly participation in housing assistance programs was 3.7 percent of all U.S. families. Participation 

ranged from 1.3 percent of married-couple families to 14.7 percent of families with a female householder, no husband present. 

Families with a male householder, no wife present, had a participation rate of 2.3 percent. For more information, see appendix 

table 4, “Average monthly participation rates for housing assistance by selected characteristics,” in Irving and Loveless, “Dynamics

of economic well-being,” https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p70-141.pdf. 14 In December 2014, 8.3 million people received SSI benefits. Of these recipients, 15.6 percent were under age 18, 58.9 percent 

were 18 to 64, and the remaining 25.5 percent were 65 and older. The average monthly benefit was $532, ranging from $427 for 

those 65 and older to $633 for those under 18; recipients 18 to 64 had an average monthly benefit of $551. Recipients under age 

65 must be blind or disabled (as well as low-income) in order to receive benefits. Recipients over 65 must be low income but do

not have to be blind or disabled. For more information, see table 7.A1, Annual statistical supplement, 2015, https://www.ssa.gov/

policy/docs/statcomps/supplement/2015/index.html. 15 In fiscal year 2014, 1.5 million families received TANF benefits, which averaged $389 per month. Average monthly benefits 

ranged from $314 for families with no child recipients to $592 for families with four or more child recipients. For more information,

see table 37, “TANF families by amount of cash assistance and the number of child recipients: fy2014,” Characteristics and 

financial circumstances of TANF recipients, fiscal year 2014 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for 

Children and Families, March 25, 2016), http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ofa/tanf_characteristics_fy2014.pdf. 16 Although SNAP benefits are not included in computing poverty statistics, the value of SNAP benefits is included as income in 

the CE. When requesting information on food purchases, the CE does not ask whether these purchases were made with cash or 

SNAP benefits. Monthly income is the most important determinant of a family’s or household’s eligibility for SNAP benefits. A

detailed process is used to compute the net income that determines eligibility, with standards varying somewhat by state. For more 

information, see “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program households: fiscal year 2014,” http://

www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/ops/Characteristics2014.pdf. 17 For further discussion about basic necessities, see Kathleen S. Short and Thesia I. Garner, “The Supplemental Poverty

Measure: a joint project between the Census Bureau and the Bureau of Labor Statistics,” paper presented to the Federal

Economic Statistics Advisory Committee on June 8, 2012, https://www.bls.gov/pir/spm/spm_pap_joint12.pdf. 18 For research examining possible inequality in healthcare spending, see Samuel L. Dickman, Steffie Woolhandler, Jacob Bor, 

Danny McCormick, David H. Bor, and David U. Himmlestein, “Health spending for low-, middle-, and high-income Americans,

1963–2012,” Health Affairs, July 2016, pp. 1189-1195.

19 The other expenses category comprises outlays on cash contributions, alcohol, tobacco, personal care products and services, 

reading, education, life and personal insurance, and miscellaneous expenses, such as funeral expenses, legal fees, and safe 

deposit box rental. For more information, see Consumer Expenditure Survey, glossary, expenditures section, U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, https://www.bls.gov/cex/csxgloss.htm. 20 In some areas, restaurants can be authorized to accept SNAP benefits from qualified homeless, elderly, or disabled people in 

exchange for low-cost meals. For more information, see Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP): “What can SNAP

buy?” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service), http://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/eligible-food-items.
U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW 

22

21 Because public assistance, SNAP, and SSI benefits are paid directly to recipients, the CE treats these benefits as income 

sources and the amounts received are reflected in the total annual expenditures of families receiving these benefits. Because 

families receiving housing assistance, Medicaid, or both have benefits paid on their behalf, the CE only collects information about

whether a family receives these benefits. Because the CE asks respondents to report actual out-of-pocket expenses for housing 

and healthcare, the true dollar value of the housing and healthcare consumed cannot be determined.

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