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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA COURT OF APPEALS

No. 13-CM-594

KELBY R. GORDON, APPELLANT,

v.

UNITED STATES, APPELLEE,

Appeal from the Superior Court

of the District of Columbia

(CMD-3449-13)

(Hon. Harold Cushenberry, Jr., Trial Judge)

(Argued December 16, 2014 Decided July 23, 2015)

Anna B. Scanlon for appellant.

Vanessa Goodwin, Assistant United States Attorney, with whom Ronald C. 

Machen Jr., United States Attorney at the time the brief was filed, and Elizabeth 

Trosman, John P. Mannarino, Kondi Kleinman, and Erik H. Zwicker, Assistant 

United States Attorneys, were on the brief, for appellee.

Before BECKWITH and MCLEESE, Associate Judges, and FERREN, Senior 

Judge.

FERREN, Senior Judge: Kelby R. Gordon appeals his conviction for 
2

possession of marijuana following a conditional guilty plea.

1 On appeal, Gordon 

argues that he was unlawfully “seized” when police officers, without reasonable 

articulable suspicion,2repeatedly questioned him about his identity for “about ten 

minutes.” As a result, he argues, his statements to the police and the tangible 

evidence found on his person should have been suppressed. We agree with 

Gordon and reverse. 

I.

On March 5, 2013, Metropolitan Police Department Officer Marboo 

Whisnant, accompanied by three fellow officers in the Robbery Unit, “saw a group 

of guys loitering in the hallway” of an apartment building in Southeast 

Washington, D.C. The officers pulled up to the building in an unmarked police 

vehicle, without flashing lights. Wearing plain clothes with black tactical vests 

that displayed “Police” on the front and back, the officers carried handcuffs, a 

baton, pepper spray, and a gun, and entered the building through an unlocked front 

door. 

 

1 A conditional guilty plea may be withdrawn if this court rules that the trial 

court erroneously denied a specified pretrial motion, in this case a motion to 

suppress evidence. See Super. Ct. Crim. R. 11 (a)(2).

2

 Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 30 (1968).
3

Officer Whisnant described the main landing where the police entered as “a 

little square area,” and Gordon’s defense investigator described it as a “little foyer” 

with “four or five steps to go down and about four or five steps to go up.” When 

the four officers entered the foyer, they saw “about three to four guys inside.” 

Two were standing on the main landing, the man later identified as Gordon was on 

the upward stairs, and the other individual was on the downward stairs. Officer 

Whisnant testified that the whole building smelled like burnt marijuana, but that 

the officers did not see any of the four individuals smoking it. 

Once they smelled marijuana, the officers “made contact” with the four 

individuals in the foyer. Officer Whisnant testified that he had previously 

“stumbled upon individuals smoking in that hallway.” In speaking with Gordon, 

Officer Whisnant did not inform him either that he was free to leave or that he 

could refuse to speak to the officers. Officer Whisnant asked Gordon for his 

identification to “figure out” who he was and where he lived. Gordon replied that 

he did not live in the building and did not have physical identification. Gordon 

told the officer, however, that his name was “Khalil Mikes.” He also provided his 

date of birth and, in response to another inquiry, added that “he had been locked up 

in Washington, D.C. before.” 
4

Officer Whisnant thereupon entered Gordon’s proffered information into the 

removable laptop from his squad car to “run him through the system,” which takes 

“[a] matter of seconds” to return a result. But he “couldn’t pull him up.” The 

officer further testified that when the police “can’t pull them up, more than likely, 

they’re lying about their name.” Officer Whisnant acknowledged that he then “just 

kept asking him about the spelling, is there anything—when he was locked up, did 

he give another name, does he have a[n] alias or anything he goes by. And 

eventually he gave [the officers] his real name.” Whereupon, the officer 

continued, “We ended up pulling up his picture in one [data] system. And then we 

ran him in WALES/NCIC and that revealed that he had a[n] outstanding warrant 

for a probation violation.”3 Gordon was then placed under arrest. 

Gordon was asked whether he had anything illegal on his person, and 

Gordon replied that “he had some weed in his pants.”

4

The officers ultimately 

 

3

“[T]he Washington Area Law Enforcement System (WALES) . . . lists all 

the active arrest warrants on file in the Superior Court’s Warrant Office.” 

Woodward v. District of Columbia, 387 A.2d 726, 727 (D.C. 1978). “NCIC 

[National Crime Information Center] is the primary nationwide database used by 

law enforcement to determine whether any warrants have been issued for an 

individual’s arrest.” United States v. Boone, 706 F. Supp. 2d 71, 76 n.2 (D.D.C. 

2010).

4

 It is unclear whether the officers arrested Gordon immediately after 

determining that he had an outstanding warrant, or arrested him after he stated that 

he had weed in his pants. Officer Whisnant’s PD-163 narrative and his in-court 

 (continued . . .)
5

found “eight small, clear zip-loc bags which all contained marijuana.” Officer 

Whisnant acknowledged that Gordon did not consent to the search of his person, 

but he added that Gordon was “free to leave and walk away.” The entire period 

from the time Officer Whisnant asked Gordon for identification to the officer’s 

discovery of the outstanding warrant lasted “[a]bout 10 minutes,” according to 

Whisnant. The trial court credited Officer Whisnant’s testimony that, throughout 

the entire encounter, the officers spoke in a calm voice and did not draw their 

weapons. 

Two days later, on March 7, Gordon was charged with unlawful possession 

of marijuana.5 Counsel moved to suppress the marijuana and Gordon’s statements 

to the police, arguing that the police had unlawfully seized his person without 

reasonable suspicion. On May 20, following a suppression hearing, the trial court 

denied the motion. The court found that the initial encounter with Officer 

Whisnant, when he asked Gordon for his name, was “consensual,” and that “[i]t 

was perfectly reasonable for the police to talk to [Gordon] a little bit more to try to 

verify his identity” after Gordon apparently had provided a false name. 

_______________________________________

(. . . continued)

testimony provide conflicting reports. Nothing in our analysis, however, turns on 

the timing of Gordon’s arrest.

5

 Gordon was charged under the 2001 version of the D.C. Code. See D.C. 

Code § 48-904.01 (d) (2001). 
6

Furthermore, added the court, while the officer was verifying Gordon’s identity, 

Gordon “was not surrounded in a way that would have communicated to him, that 

is, to a reasonable person innocent of any crime, that he wasn’t free to disengage 

from the contact.” At the point the WALES search revealed that Gordon had an 

outstanding warrant, the court concluded, “the police had probable cause to arrest 

him and could search incident to that arrest.” Ultimately, the trial court ruled that 

Gordon had not been “seized prior to [the officers’] learning about the warrant”; 

thus, his “Fourth Amendment rights [were] not violated.” 

Gordon then entered a conditional guilty plea, reserving his right to appeal 

the denial of the motion to suppress. The court sentenced him to thirty days of 

imprisonment, with credit for time served, to run concurrently with any sentence 

that he was serving at the time of sentencing. The court also ordered Gordon to 

pay $50 to the Victims of Crime Fund. This appeal followed.

II.

Gordon contends that he was seized by the police without reasonable 

suspicion when the police repeatedly questioned him about his identity—an 

encounter that lasted approximately ten minutes. The government contends, to the 

contrary, that the officer’s questioning did not constitute a seizure, and that even if 
7

it did, Gordon’s proffer of a false name, along with other suspicious circumstances,

created the required reasonable suspicion that justified the officers’ further pursuit 

of the truth through an identity check and warrant search. Rejecting the 

government’s argument, we conclude that the repeated questioning of Gordon for

“about ten minutes,” evidencing a show of authority, amounted to a seizure, and

that the officers lacked reasonable suspicion to justify the detention.

When reviewing a trial court’s ruling on a motion to suppress, we must 

uphold the court’s findings of fact unless they are clearly erroneous, but we review 

the court’s conclusions of law de novo.

6

 Gordon bears the burden of proving that 

the police violated his Fourth Amendment rights.7 We consider the evidence in the 

light most favorable to the government.8 

The Fourth Amendment provides that “[t]he right of the people to be secure 

in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and 

seizures, shall not be violated . . . .”

9

There are three types of permissible 

 

6

 Porter v. United States, 7 A.3d 1021, 1024 (D.C. 2010). 

7

 See Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 131 n.1 (1978). 

8

 See Joseph v. United States, 926 A.2d 1156, 1160 (D.C. 2007).

9

 U.S. CONST. amend. IV. 
8

encounters between the police and citizens which do not violate the Fourth 

Amendment: (1) consensual encounters, which do not require any level of 

suspicion prior to initiation10; (2) investigative detentions, which if nonconsensual, 

must be supported by a reasonable, articulable suspicion of criminal activity prior 

to initiation11; and (3) arrests, which must be supported by probable cause prior to 

initiation.12 Both investigative detentions and arrests are seizures under the Fourth 

Amendment13; mere consensual encounters are not.14

Accordingly, a “seizure does not occur simply because a police officer 

approaches an individual and asks a few questions.”15 Moreover, “the police also 

may ask a person to do something, such as produce identification or an airline 

 

10 Florida v. Bostick, 501 U.S. 429, 434 (1991); United States v. 

Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544 (1980).

11

 Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491 (1983).

12

 Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213 (1983).

13

 Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 17 (1968) (declining to distinguish a “stop and 

an arrest” from a seizure).

14

 A police encounter with a suspect will be “consensual,” as a matter of 

law, and thus not a “seizure,” if the suspect agrees (whether expressly so or not) to 

answer police questions, unconstrained by physical force or a show of police 

authority, and thus would reasonably believe that he was free to end the 

questioning at any time and leave. See generally Kentucky v. King, 131 S. Ct. 

1849, 1858 (2011).

15

 Bostick, 501 U.S. at 434.
9

ticket, without necessarily converting the encounter into a seizure.”16 Thus, a 

seizure will have occurred “[o]nly when the officer, by means of physical force or 

show of authority, has in some way restrained” someone’s liberty.

17 It follows, 

according to the Supreme Court, that the test for determining whether a person has 

been seized “is whether, taking into account all of the circumstances surrounding 

the encounter, the police conduct would have communicated to a reasonable 

person that he was not at liberty to ignore the police presence and go about his 

business”

18—in other words, that he was “not free to leave.”19

The central question on the facts here divides into two parts: (A) whether 

the police, by repeatedly asking Gordon questions about his identity for “[a]bout

ten minutes,” seized Gordon; and (B) if there was a seizure, whether the police had

reasonable suspicion to support it.

 

16

 United States v. Barnes, 496 A.2d 1040, 1044 (D.C. 1985) (internal 

citations omitted).

17

 Terry, 392 U.S. at 19 n.16. 

18

 Bostick, 501 U.S. at 436-37 (internal quotation marks omitted).

19

 Id. at 436; United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554 (1980)

(opinion of Stewart, J.).
10

A.

First, we must assess whether, as Gordon contends, the police officer’s 

repeated questioning about his identity, lasting about ten minutes, seized him prior 

to the officers’ discovery of his outstanding warrant. The government replies that 

the officer’s “mere questioning, in a calm and conversational tone in the public 

area of a residential building, where Officer Whisnant never drew his weapon, 

never took [Gordon’s] property and at no time conveyed a message that 

compliance with his requests was required, did not constitute a seizure under the 

Fourth Amendment.” Before addressing the parties’ contentions, we must examine 

the development of this court’s doctrine explaining the relationship between the

persistence of police questioning and Fourth Amendment seizures.

(1)

This court has concluded on several occasions that repeated questioning can 

convert a consensual police-citizen encounter into a seizure. In Guadalupe,

described as a case of “first impression,”20 this court addressed whether two 

“successive police-citizen confrontations over a twenty-five to thirty minute period 

 

20 Guadalupe v. United States, 585 A.2d 1348, 1352 (D.C. 1991). 
11

. . . creat[ed] such an intimidating atmosphere that a reasonable person would 

believe he or she was not free to leave.”21 We observed, without deciding, that the 

first encounter, when appellant allowed the police at Union Station to search his 

bag after he denied possessing narcotics,22 was arguably consensual.23 But after 

finding no contraband, the police confronted him again, fifteen minutes later,

obtained consent for a body search, and found two packets of cocaine.24 We held 

that a seizure occurred when the officers asked appellant to consent to the body 

search, because a “reasonable person, under these circumstances, could do no less 

than believe that the officers had focused their attention on him in furtherance of 

their narcotics investigation, and the questions, concluding in a request to conduct 

a body search, became accusatory in effect.”25 Appellant, in short, would not have 

felt free to leave. Even though the police “were not in uniform, spoke politely, did 

not display a weapon, and did not physically block a person’s passageway,” this 

 

21 Id.

22 Id. at 1350. 

23 Id. at 1357. 

24 Id. at 1351.

25 Id. at 1360. 
12

court was troubled, ultimately, by the persistent nature of the officers’ actions26—a 

period in that case of twenty-five to thirty minutes.

Next, in Hawkins, this court held that repeated questioning by police 

officers, in a single encounter, could amount to a seizure.27 The officers pulled 

alongside appellant’s double-parked car, directed appellant to park (and at some 

point asked him to turn off the ignition), and positioned themselves on either side 

of his car, an action which conformed to their training for making a traffic stop.

They asked appellant three times about whether he had a weapon on him.

28 Then, 

without an affirmative answer, they removed him from his car, saw the butt of a 

gun in his pocket, and placed him under arrest. This court agreed, with one judge 

dissenting, that “the repeated questioning about the possession of a weapon 

resulted in a seizure in violation of the Fourth Amendment.”

29

 

26 Id. at 1360-61. 

27 Hawkins v. United States, 663 A.2d 1221, 1226 (D.C. 1995) (opinion of 

Mack, J.); id. at 1230 (Farrell, J., concurring in the judgment) (“At this point, I 

cannot conceive that a reasonable person would not have understood the [third] 

question as accusatory and that his freedom to go about his business depended on 

giving satisfactory assurance to the officers that he was not carrying a gun.”

(citation and internal quotation marks omitted)).

28 Id. at 1224-26. 

29 Id. at 1228 (opinion of Mack, J.); see id. at 1228-29 (Farrell, J., 

concurring in the judgment) (“[O]nce [Officer] Reynolds had asked appellant a 

third time whether he was packing a gun, a reasonable person in appellant’s shoes 

 (continued . . .)
13

Later, this court in Jackson applied Guadalupe and Hawkins to a situation in 

which a police officer, without reasonable suspicion, repeatedly questioned a man

standing in front of an apartment complex.

30

 The police had received an 

anonymous call about him from a woman who reported that she feared for her 

safety because there were a number of recent shootings in that area.

31 Two police 

officers drove up to the apartment complex in an unmarked police car and walked 

over to appellant,

32 inquired whether he had any drugs or weapons on him, and 

asked him to raise his jacket.33 Without seeing drugs or weapons under his jacket, 

the officers questioned appellant about how long “he had been there,” whether he 

lived in the neighborhood, whether he was visiting anyone, and who that was.34 

Then the officer, concerned for his safety (without any described provocation), told 

_______________________________________

(. . . continued)

no longer would have believed himself free to ignore the question and end the 

encounter with the officer.” (footnote omitted)).

30 Jackson v. United States, 805 A.2d 979, 982, 988 (D.C. 2002). 

31 Id. at 982. 

32 Id. 

33 Id.

34 Id.

 
14

appellant to “please turn around for me.”35 As appellant turned, the officer’s hand 

hit appellant’s jacket and felt, then retrieved, a gun.

36

 Reversing the trial court’s

denial of appellant’s motion to suppress, this court held: “the fact that the officer 

remained unsatisfied and continued to question Jackson adds to the circumstances 

that would convey to a reasonable innocent person that he was not going to be 

permitted to leave until the officer was satisfied with his answers or found what he 

was looking for.”37 The seizure occurred before the officer’s request for appellant 

to turn around because the repeated questioning caused the encounter to cross “the 

critical line between consent and coercion.”38 

We believe that Gordon’s situation is similar to appellant Jackson’s. We

conclude that the officer seized Gordon by repeatedly questioning him before the 

police learned of his outstanding warrant. We need not identify the exact moment 

when the seizure occurred; the fact that it occurred at some point after Gordon

gave the name “Khalil Mikes,” but before the officers discovered Gordon’s 

outstanding warrant, is sufficient for our analysis—as we shall elaborate.

 

35 Id. 

36 Id. at 982-83. 

 

37 Id. at 988. 

38 Id.
15

(2)

Prior to the officer’s repeated questioning of Gordon about his identity, the 

totality of the circumstances did not indicate that a seizure had occurred. The 

officers pulled up to the building in an unmarked police vehicle, without flashing 

lights. The plainclothes officers wore black tactical vests that displayed “Police” 

on the front and back. In addition, the officers carried handcuffs, a baton, pepper 

spray, and a gun, and entered the building through an unlocked front door. 

Before questioning Gordon, the police spoke in a conversational tone, did not 

block the exit, and separated the four individuals in the lobby such that none was

significantly outnumbered by the police. When Officer Whisnant initially 

questioned Gordon, he asked only a few routine questions related to Gordon’s

identity: name, address, whether he lived in the apartment complex, and whether 

he had previously been locked up. At this point, Gordon had not been seized; he 

participated in a consensual encounter.39 

After the first database search of Gordon’s first proffered name, “Kahlil 

Mikes,” failed to return a result, however, the officers began repeatedly 

 

39 See supra note 14.
16

questioning Gordon about his identity. Officer Whisnant acknowledged that he 

then “just kept asking him about the spelling, is there anything—when he was 

locked up, did he give another name, does he have a[n] alias or anything he goes 

by. And eventually he gave [the officers] his real name.” As we have noted, the 

entire period of time from when Officer Whisnant asked Gordon for identification 

to the officer’s discovery of the outstanding warrant lasted, according to Whisnant,

“[a]bout ten minutes.” 

Although we consider the totality of the circumstances when determining 

whether a seizure occurred, we note as a preliminary matter that ten minutes of 

questioning appears to significantly exceed the length of the police encounters in 

both Hawkins and Jackson. Even on the thin record before us, it is apparent that an 

individual in Gordon’s shoes, reacting reasonably, would feel restrained by police 

authority and thus not free to leave. More specifically, the repeated questioning, 

especially when combined with the computer database searches, would convey to a 

reasonable person that the police were unsatisfied with his answers—to the point 

that he would not be free to leave until the computer database returned a positive 

result.40 In sum, we see the computer check as a factor that caused a material 

 

40 See Ramsey v. United States, 73 A.3d 138, 147-48 (D.C. 2013) 

(“However, the situation changed at the point when Officer Lally requested the 

WALES check. At that point, we conclude, because appellant would not have felt 

free to leave, the encounter became a seizure—for which Officer Lally no longer 

 (continued . . .)
17

acceleration of a conversation initially deemed consensual at law to a conversation 

that reflected a seizure.

The government contends that this court’s decision in Brown compels a 

different result, but we are not persuaded.

41

 In Brown, the officers, wearing vests 

with the word “Police” written on the front but with their guns holstered, 

approached a group of five to six individuals standing on the sidewalk.42 An 

officer “stopped approximately two or three feet behind appellant and, speaking in 

a normal tone, without . . . making any threatening gesture, asked, ‘Do you have 

any guns, drugs, or narcotics on you?’”43 After appellant provided a nonresponsive answer, the officer again repeated her question.44

 At this point, 

appellant reached into her purse and handed the officer a bottle containing

_______________________________________

(. . . continued)

had reasonable, articulable suspicion, for the reasons already discussed.” (footnote 

omitted)); State v. Hall, 115 P.3d 908, 917 (Or. 2005) (“[W]e find it difficult to 

posit that a reasonable person would think that he or she was free to leave at a time 

when that person is the investigatory subject of a pending warrant check.”).

41 Brown v. United States, 983 A.2d 1025 (D.C. 2009). 

42 Id. at 1025. 

43 Id. 

44 Id. 
18

cocaine.45 This court cited Hawkins for the proposition that repeated questioning 

could restrain an appellant’s freedom to leave if the “questioning certainly 

appeared to convey that compliance with the question was required.”46 Ultimately, 

we concluded that the fact the officer repeated her question to appellant only once

did not rise to the level of restraining a reasonable person’s freedom to leave.47 

Repeating a question once is notably different from repeatedly questioning

Gordon about his identity for ten minutes. Moreover, the appellant in Brown

provided a non-responsive answer, so it was entirely reasonable for the officer to 

ask her question again. Brown, therefore, differs from Johnson and Hawkins

because the appellants in these latter two cases provided responsive answers to the 

officers’ questions. Neither was a case in which the suspect either misunderstood 

the question or the officer could not understand the answer, arguably both of which 

would have warranted a follow-up question; each reflected a situation in which

police officers were not satisfied with the appellants’ responses so they continued 

their questioning. Absent reasonable suspicion, this questioning is the type of 

conduct the Fourth Amendment is designed to prohibit, namely, repeated 

questioning by the police that is accusatory in nature and would make reasonable 

 

45 Id. 

46 Id. at 1026 (internal alterations and quotation marks omitted).

 

47 Id.
19

persons believe they were not free to leave until the officers were satisfied. This 

case presents that situation. Gordon answered Officer Whisnant’s questions, 

although falsely, and Whisnant continued to question him for “about ten minutes”

in pursuit of an answer that would satisfy the officer: his real name. Because a 

reasonable person in these circumstances would not feel free to leave, Gordon was 

seized prior to the discovery of his outstanding arrest warrant.

B.

The government, however, contends that the police had reasonable suspicion 

of criminal activity to justify a seizure. It observes in its brief that Officer 

Whisnant and his fellow officers had seen several individuals (including Gordon) 

apparently [1] “loitering” in the common area of an apartment building where 

Gordon [2] “did not live”—a building that smelled of [3] “burnt marijuana” and

was located in a [4] “high crime area.” The government implicitly acknowledges

that these four quoted factors, taken together, did not create reasonable suspicion 

of criminal activity, but it argues that such reasonable suspicion was justified when

Gordon himself supplemented those factors by [5] acknowledging that he “had 

previously been arrested” (his lockup in D.C.) and [6] proffering a name that did 

not turn up in the computer database that contained “anybody that’s been arrested”

(indicating a likely lie). 
20

The government does not contend that Officer Whisnant’s awareness of the 

fifth factor, Gordon’s earlier jail time, when added to the four numbered factors 

quoted above from the government’s brief, was enough to trigger reasonable 

suspicion. We agree with the government’s implicit concession that jail time for

an unspecified crime in the unspecified past is not enough to create reasonable 

suspicion of criminal activity when added to Gordon’s presence among individuals 

gathered in the public area of a building where he did not live (albeit in a high 

crime area), and where the police smelled burnt marijuana but could not relate 

Gordon or any of his compatriots to that unlawful activity. We turn, therefore, to 

the government’s sixth factor: Gordon’s apparent lie.

This court’s decision in Anderson provides the best analysis for evaluating 

reasonable suspicion here.

48

 In Anderson, police officers frisked the appellant and 

found contraband. The government put forth the following facts to justify the 

frisk:

(1) the area was a high crime area where drug 

transactions take place; (2) appellant was standing with 

another man in the backyard of a house on a[n] alley 

 

48 Anderson v. United States, 658 A.2d 1036 (D.C. 1995).
21

during a cold winter night around midnight; (3) appellant 

quickly walked away from the police; (4) neither 

appellant nor the other man resided in the house; (5) 

appellant denied that he had been in the backyard despite 

being seen by the officers; (6) appellant placed his hands 

back in his pocket after being asked to remove them; and 

(7) appellant became nervous, rocked back and forth, and 

got wide-eyed upon questioning.49

The officers knew that, in response to the officer’s question, appellant had lied, 

saying he had not been present in the yard, because the officers had observed him, 

a few minutes before, walking away from “the backyard of a house on an alley” 

after observing the police car.50 This court ultimately found that these facts, 

including the lie, did not create reasonable suspicion to justify the frisk.51 

Anderson provides useful guidance because the facts there provide a more 

compelling rationale for a seizure (though falling short) than the facts here. Of the 

six factors the government cited as creating reasonable suspicion to detain Gordon,

three are essentially the same as factors in Anderson: Gordon was in a high crime 

area, he did not live in the residence where he was seen, and the conduct could be 

described as loitering. Three factors cited by the government in Gordon, however, 

 

49 Id. at 1038.

50 Id. at 1037. 

51 Id. at 1040.
22

differ from those relied on in Anderson: the smell of burnt marijuana, Gordon’s 

prior conviction, and mere suspicion of a lie. First, even if we do not credit the 

government’s concession that it did not have reasonable suspicion prior to

anticipating Gordon’s lie, the burnt marijuana is not sufficient to distinguish this 

case from Anderson. Gordon’s loitering in the lobby of an apartment building that 

smelled like burnt marijuana was less suspicious than Anderson’s walking away (at 

midnight) from the backyard of a house where he did not live upon observing a 

police car—especially when Anderson (unlike Gordon) was nervous and fidgety 

upon being questioned by the police.

52

 Second, we have already observed that 

Gordon’s jail time was not a significant factor. Finally, in Anderson, the police 

actually knew that the appellant had lied, but in Gordon’s case, the police only

suspected that he had provided a false name before they questioned him further. 

Accordingly, if Anderson did not manifest facts creating reasonable suspicion that 

justified seizure, then surely the facts here afforded the police no reasonable basis 

for seizing Gordon after he identified himself as Khalil Mikes.

In support of its argument that Gordon’s eventually revealed lie about his 

name created reasonable suspicion, the government cites Illinois v. Wardlow,

53

a 

 

52 Id. at 1037.

53

 528 U.S. 119 (2000).
23

decision in which the Supreme Court characterized “[h]eadlong” and “unprovoked 

flight” in a high crime area as “evasive behavior” pertinent “in determining 

reasonable suspicion.”54 The government would have us equate Gordon’s 

“unprovoked prevarication” with Wardlow’s “unprovoked flight,” in order to 

supply the additional factor necessary to justify reasonable suspicion in Gordon’s

case. We decline to do so since most of the questioning occurred before Gordon 

disclosed his real name—enough questioning to result in a seizure before Gordon’s 

lie had been confirmed (and immediately yielded the warrant). But even if (as the 

government apparently would have it) mere suspicion of a lie under some 

circumstances would be sufficient to justify a seizure, the Court’s decision in 

Wardlow, addressing unprovoked flight, would supply no justification for a seizure 

here.

The flight in Wardlow may have resulted merely from the suspect’s sighting 

of the police, but the accosting officers observed more than flight; they saw the 

suspect “holding an opaque bag” in “an area known for heavy narcotics 

trafficking.”55 Unprovoked flight, when coupled with concrete evidence (the bag) 

consistent with narcotics transactions, together warranted the seizure. In our case, 

however, Gordon gave a suspected false name under circumstances otherwise 

 

54

 Id. at 124-25.

55 Id. at 121-22.
24

lacking concrete evidence of criminal activity. True: a lie can reflect 

consciousness of guilt; indeed, perhaps guilt underlay Gordon’s initial response to 

Officer Whisnant. But a lie can also reflect merely that the person stopped is 

afraid of the police.56 Accordingly, we cannot say that Gordon’s initial 

dissembling—confirmed only after almost all the ten-minute questioning—could 

have erased all significance of the prior questioning and served to create the 

reasonable suspicion that would have justified his seizure.

For all the foregoing reasons, we conclude that Gordon was unlawfully 

seized without reasonable suspicion. We can confidently say that the repeated 

questioning seized Gordon prior to the discovery of his outstanding warrant.57

 

56 See generally City of Memphis v. Civil Serv. Comm’n, 216 S.W.3d 311, 

313 (Tenn. 2007) (“S.B. was afraid of official involvement, afraid of going to a 

foster home, and afraid of police in general who might force her into a possibly 

more dire situation.”) (citation and internal quotation marks omitted); State v. 

Bogdanoff, 585 P.2d 602, 604-05 (Haw. 1978) (“[H]e was afraid of (Police 

Detective) Bobby Schmidt[,] and . . . he was going to lie if he ever was asked 

under oath about what he said in the letters because of his fear of Bobby 

Schmidt.”).

57 We need not answer the broader question whether a police database 

search as such, absent reasonable suspicion, constitutes a per se seizure. See, e.g., 

Ramsey v. United States, 73 A.3d 138, 148 (D.C. 2013) (WALES check, without 

reasonable suspicion, was a seizure under circumstances); United States v. Gross, 

662 F.3d 393, 401 (6th Cir. 2011) (seizure even though police did not retain ID 

requested of suspect); State v. Hall, 115 P.3d 908, 917 (Or. 2005) (seizure, under 

Oregon law, even when ID promptly returned to suspect after radioing police 

dispatch for a warrant check but before receiving result); State v. Painter, 676 P.2d 

309, 311-12 (Or. 1984) (en banc) (seizure, under Oregon law, when police retained 

 (continued . . .)
25

III.

We turn, finally, to whether Gordon’s statements to the police and the Ziploc 

bags of marijuana found on his person must be suppressed. As a general rule, if a 

police officer’s actions violate the Fourth Amendment, “the indirect fruits of an 

illegal search or arrest should be suppressed when they bear a sufficiently close 

relationship to the underlying illegality.”58 If an unlawful seizure occurred, the 

exclusionary rule applies unless the government proves that “the unlawful conduct 

has become so attenuated or has been interrupted by some intervening 

circumstances so as to remove the ‘taint’ imposed upon that evidence by the 

original illegality.”59 According to the Supreme Court, first in Brown v. Illinois, 

relevant considerations include “the temporal proximity of the [seizure] and the 

[discovery of contraband], the presence of intervening circumstances, and, 

_______________________________________

(. . . continued)

ID during warrant check); State v. Warner, 585 P.2d 681, 684, 690-91 (Or. 1978) 

(en banc) (seizure, under Oregon law, by show of authority when police asked 

defendant to place ID on table and advised defendant that he was subject of 

criminal investigation). But see People v. Graves, 553 N.E.2d 810, 813 (Ill. App. 

Ct. 1990) (“Nor was the deputy’s running a driver’s license check, under these 

circumstances, a seizure.”).

58

 New York v. Harris, 495 U.S. 14, 19 (1990).

59

 United States v. Crews, 445 U.S. 463, 471 (1980).
26

particularly, the purpose and flagrancy of the official misconduct.”60 We find no 

such attenuation or intervening circumstances here.

In attempting to avoid suppression under the exclusionary rule, the 

government argues that the outstanding arrest warrant was an intervening event 

sufficient to purge the taint of the illegal seizure.

61 We cannot agree. Applying 

Brown’s three criteria,62 we perceive no attenuating or intervening event that would 

trump the Fourth Amendment violation here. We observe that virtually no time 

passed between the illegal seizure and the discovery of the warrant; there were no 

intervening circumstances other than the discovery of the arrest warrant after the 

unlawful seizure; and although the illegality was not flagrant, the officer’s purpose 

at the time of the seizure—to check Gordon’s identity through computer databases 

 

60 Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590, 603-04 (1975) (footnote and internal 

citations omitted).

61 In making this argument, the government relies on Harris, 495 U.S. at 14. 

There the Court held that if “the police have probable cause to arrest a suspect,” 

and unlawfully enter his home to do so, “the exclusionary rule does not bar the 

State’s use of a statement made by the defendant outside of his home” after his 

arrest. Id. at 21 (limiting Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573 (1980)). In the 

present case, however, unlike the officers in Harris, the police who committed the 

illegality were unaware of any probable cause (the arrest warrant) at the time they 

seized Gordon; indeed, they lacked even reasonable suspicion to justify their 

actions. See Devenpeck v. Alford, 543 U.S. 146, 152-53 (2004) (justification for 

seizure is based on “facts known to the arresting officer at the time of the arrest”).

62 Brown, 422 U.S. at 603-04. 
27

that include information about warrant status—weighs in favor of suppression.

63

Accordingly, Gordon’s statements to the police and the tangible evidence 

immediately found on his person as a result of that search must be suppressed. 

 

63 See United States v. Gross, 662 F.3d 393, 404-05 (6th Cir. 2011) 

(discovery of valid arrest warrant—while relevant under Brown analysis—was 

insufficient under circumstances to attenuate prior unlawful seizure; “[t]o hold 

otherwise would create a rule that potentially allows for a new form of police 

investigation, whereby an officer patrolling a high crime area may, without 

consequence, illegally stop a group of residents where he has a “police hunch” that 

the residents may: 1) have outstanding warrants; or 2) be engaged in some activity 

that does not rise to a level of reasonable suspicion.”); State v. Moralez, 300 P.3d 

1090, 1094, 1100-03 (Kan. 2013) (court ordered suppression of marijuana seized 

from suspect; police behavior in stopping suspect for a warrants check, without 

reasonable suspicion of criminal activity, was too “flagrant,” under Brown

attenuation analysis, to allow the warrant to purge the taint of police illegality); 

State v. Bailey, 338 P.3d 702, 715 (Or. 2014) (en banc) (“For purposes of the 

federal exclusionary rule, the effect of [the purposeful police conduct], when 

considered along with the temporal proximity between the unlawful detention and 

the discovery of the challenged evidence, outweighs any value that otherwise 

might be assigned to the subsequent discovery of a valid arrest warrant.”); see also

United States v. Lopez, 443 F.3d 1280, 1286 (10th Cir. 2006) (affirmed district 

court order granting suppression of outstanding warrant—without reference to 

Brown factors—because government conceded that police “did not have probable 

cause or reasonable suspicion to detain Lopez until the warrants check was 

completed”); United States v. Luckett, 484 F.2d 89, 91 (9th Cir. 1973) (per curiam) 

(“Because [police] had no reasonable grounds to be suspicious that there might be 

a warrant outstanding against him,” the court held, in a pre-Brown ruling, that 

“detention was unreasonable, and its fruits, therefore, were properly suppressed by 

the district court.” (internal citation omitted)). But cf. United States v. Green, 111 

F.3d 515, 521 (7th Cir. 1997) (“It would be startling to suggest that because the 

police illegally stopped an automobile, they cannot arrest an occupant who is found 

to be wanted on a warrant—in a sense requiring an official call of ‘Olly, Olly, 

Oxen Free.’ Because the arrest is lawful, a search incident to the arrest is also 

lawful. The lawful arrest of Avery constituted an intervening circumstance 

sufficient to dissipate any taint caused by the illegal automobile stop.”).
28

* * * * *

For the foregoing reasons we reverse the order denying Gordon’s motion to 

suppress, vacate his guilty plea, and remand the case for further proceedings 

consistent with this opinion.

So ordered.