IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

No. 13-50849

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 

 Plaintiff–Appellee,

v.

FRANCISCO ANTONIO COLORADO CESSA, also known as Pancho, also 

known as Francisco Antonio Colorado-Cessa; JOSE TREVINO MORALES; 

EUSEVIO MALDONADO HUITRON, also known as Chevo, also known as 

Eusevio Huitron-Maldonado; FERNANDO GARCIA-SOLIS, also known as 

Freddy, also known as Fer, also known as Fernando Solis Garcia, 

 Defendants–Appellants.

-------------------------------------------------

Consolidated with No. 13-51003

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

 Plaintiff–Appellee,

v.

FRANCISCO ANTONIO COLORADO CESSA, also known as Pancho, also 

known as Francisco Antonio Colorado-Cessa,

 Defendant–Appellant.

Appeals from the United States District Court

for the Western District of Texas

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

FILED

May 7, 2015

Lyle W. Cayce

Clerk

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Before PRADO, ELROD, and HAYNES, Circuit Judges.

EDWARD C. PRADO, Circuit Judge:

This is an appeal from a money-laundering-conspiracy trial. The Los 

Zetas drug cartel entered the U.S. quarter-horse racing business. Los Zetas 

used their horse-racing operations to launder money. Four Defendants–

Appellants involved in the horse-racing operations were convicted of 

conspiring to launder money in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). They appeal, 

each challenging the sufficiency of the evidence, the jury instructions, and their 

sentences, among other claims of error. For the reasons stated below, we 

reverse the conviction of horse trainer Defendant–Appellant Eusevio Huitron 

as not supported by sufficient evidence that he joined the conspiracy knowing 

its purpose was to conceal the source or nature of illegal funds. We also vacate

Defendant–Appellant Francisco Antonio Colorado Cessa’s (Colorado) 

conviction because the jury was improperly instructed and we cannot say 

beyond a reasonable doubt that the jury’s verdict as to Colorado would have

been the same absent the error. Because sufficient evidence supports the other 

Defendants–Appellants’ convictions and sentences and because the trial court 

did not otherwise commit reversible error, we affirm in all other respects.

I. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

The four Defendants–Appellants, Jose Trevino Morales, Francisco 

Antonio Colorado Cessa, Fernando Garcia–Solis, and Eusevio Maldonado 

Huitron (collectively “Appellants”), were indicted by a federal grand jury, along 

with fifteen other codefendants, for conspiracy to commit money laundering in 

violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). Appellants appeal their convictions following

a three-week jury trial in which fifty-four witnesses testified. The facts

pertaining to each Appellant are recited in greater detail in discussion section

below. An overview of the horse-racing money-laundering conspiracy is 

provided as background in Part I(A), and a general description of each 

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Appellant’s role in the conspiracy is provided in Part I(B). On review of the 

sufficiency of the evidence, we view “the evidence and the inferences drawn 

therefrom in the light most favorable to the verdict.” United States v. 

Rosbottom, 763 F.3d 408, 417 (5th Cir. 2014) (internal quotation marks 

omitted), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 985 (2015). As such, in providing an overview 

of the criminal conspiracy, we summarize the evidence in that light.

A. Overview of the Conspiracy

According to trial testimony, Los Zetas are a “cartel” that controls

geographic areas within Mexico. The original group of Zetas was formed by the 

Mexican government as an armed special-forces unit to combat drug-cartel 

operations in Mexico, and the group was designated with the radio call sign 

“Zeta.” A group of thirty Zetas deserted from the Mexican military under their 

then-commander, known as “Zeta 1,” to work for the Gulf drug cartel as 

enforcers. In that role, they committed acts of domestic terrorism, bribed public 

officials and law enforcement, and fought other cartels, among other activities. 

In about 2007 or 2008, Los Zetas split from the Gulf cartel. Los Zetas 

now control several Mexican cities and border-crossing points between Mexico 

and the United States. Los Zetas produce marijuana and methamphetamine 

in Mexico, import cocaine and methamphetamine precursor chemicals into 

Mexico, and export narcotics into the United States. Los Zetas make hundreds 

of millions of dollars annually from the import and sale of illegal drugs.1

Members of Los Zetas are assigned numbers in accordance with the order 

in which they joined the armed group, e.g., the seventh member was known as 

“Zeta 7.” At the time of the trial, the leader of Los Zetas was Miguel Angel 

1 Jesus Rejon–Aguilar, also known as Zeta 7, was the former national supervisor of 

Los Zetas, and he estimated that the cartel took in about $350 million per year.

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Trevino Morales, also known as “Zeta 40.” His brother Oscar Omar Trevino 

Morales, also known as “Zeta 42,” was second-in-command.

1. Money-Laundering Operations

Miguel and Omar Trevino used the proceeds of cocaine sales to purchase 

quarter horses2 in the United States through legitimate-appearing 

intermediaries. They did so in part because the quarter-horse business “was a 

good business . . . to get clean money” from the proceeds of drug sales in the 

United States back into Mexico. 

Los Zetas generated “clean money” by repeatedly “selling” horses to 

individuals or shell companies controlled by coconspirators. For instance, one 

horse, Blue Girls Choice, was initially purchased by Ramiro Villareal for 

$15,000 cash. The horse was then repurchased by Villareal at a different horse 

sale—this time for $135,000. Later, the horse was purchased for $30,000, and 

then repurchased again for $135,000. This same horse was bought and sold 

several times over between members of the conspiracy. Each transaction 

generated the appearance of legitimate cash proceeds. The horses were held in 

the names of multiple individuals and companies to conceal the true identity 

of their actual owner: Zeta 40, Miguel Trevino.3

Los Zetas paid for horse training, breeding, veterinary bills, and racing 

expenses with the proceeds of illegal drug sales. Miguel Trevino directed 

subordinates Mario Cuellar and Jose Vasquez to deliver cash payments for 

these expenses. Cuellar and Vasquez sold cocaine in the United States, and, 

2 The American quarter horse is a breed of horse bred to sprint short distances, and 

the breed is named for its success in races of a “quarter” of a mile or less. 

3 As one witness testified, “The pattern was these horses would change claims of 

ownership quite rapidly. Some of the companies are alias companies. The people’s names on 

the AQHA [the American Quarter Horse Association] records are alias names. Some of them 

are real names. But th[ose] people did not purchase the horses or have anything to do with 

the horses.”

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rather than delivering all of the profits from these sales back to Mexico, they 

would deliver cash to the horse operation.4

Horse expenses also generated “clean cash.” For instance, Tyler Graham, 

a manager at a quarter-horse-breeding farm, testified that members of the 

conspiracy would pay each other stud fees for Los Zetas’ horses to inseminate 

other horses that Los Zetas already owned, generating “[s]everal hundred 

thousand” dollars in “clean money” in one year alone.

2. Murders and Kidnapping

Miguel Trevino ordered the killing of at least two individuals who either 

refused to cooperate in the money-laundering scheme or were cooperating with 

the authorities. Los Zetas purchased quarter horses through intermediaries. 

These intermediaries were often wealthy businessmen who were not under IRS 

investigation, so that law enforcement would not ask questions “about where 

the money [for the horses] was coming from.” These individuals included 

Alejandro Barradas and Ramiro Villarreal. The government alleges that

Appellant Colorado Cessa was among those who purchased horses on Los 

Zetas’ behalf; this is discussed in greater detail below. A former leader of Los 

Zetas testified that Miguel Trevino ordered the murder of Ramiro Villarreal 

“because [Los Zetas’ leaders] realized that he was cooperating with the U.S. 

authorities” after his arrest in Houston.5 Miguel Trevino ordered the murder 

of Alejandro Barradas because he refused to allow the organization to register 

horses under his name as the owner.

4 One witness described how Vasquez would ordinarily receive “a thousand kilos of 

cocaine a month” that he would then sell in the Dallas area, such that he would “send back 

maybe [$]3 or $4 million a week” to the cartel; however, he would pay horse expenses “out of 

whatever [he] was going to be sending . . . [s]o it was never [his] money. It was always their 

money.”

5 A DEA agent’s testimony separately confirmed that Villarreal had indeed been 

cooperating with officials before his body was found at the scene of a “fiery” car crash.

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A wealthy Mexican businessman, Alfonso Del Rayo, testified that 

members of Los Zetas kidnapped and extorted him, using the horse operation 

essentially to launder the ransom money. Several Zetas kidnapped and 

tortured Del Rayo and demanded a ransom of the equivalent of $4.5 million. 

Del Rayo was released nine days later, after sustaining severe injuries. 

Soon thereafter, a Veracruz government official and Carlos Nayen (a 

coconspirator) approached Del Rayo “about [his] kidnapping.” They instructed 

Del Rayo to travel to Oklahoma City to buy a horse, insisting this was for his 

own safety and that of his wife and children. Del Rayo flew to Oklahoma City, 

where he was met by Appellant Fernando Garcia–Solis and instructed to make 

the winning bid on a horse named Blues Ferrari, a horse purchased for $15,000

as part of the conspiracy. Del Rayo complied, purchasing the horse for 

$310,000. The manager of the Oklahoma City auction house testified that Del 

Rayo “looked like he had been in an accident.” Indeed, the auction manager

was so struck by Del Rayo’s appearance that he took a photo on his cell phone 

(which was shown to the jury). He explained: “I’d never seen this person before 

and [he was] buying a very expensive horse, and I was just very concerned with 

the transaction at the time.” Carlos Nayen later asked that Del Rayo send 

between $600,000 and $700,000 in checks to the operation’s horse-breeding 

facility, and after Nayen’s indictment, Nayen demanded the keys to Del Rayo’s 

house in San Antonio and money to pay attorney’s fees. Del Rayo 

understandably said he felt he could not refuse demands from Nayen or from 

other members of Los Zetas.

3. Quarter-Horse Race Fixing

Members of Los Zetas paid bribes to give Miguel Trevino’s horse an 

unfair advantage at the 2010 All American Futurity Race—the Kentucky 

Derby of quarter-horse races. Mario Cuellar, a Los Zetas subordinate, testified 

that Miguel Trevino instructed him to pay $110,000 in bribes to gate starters—

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$10,000 each—to give Trevino’s horse, Mr. Piloto, an advantage in the race. 

With Miguel and Omar Trevino and other Los Zetas leaders watching the race 

via an internet connection, Mr. Piloto won the race by a nose—even though he 

had the slowest qualifying time. As a reward for having successfully paid off 

all the starters, Miguel Trevino rewarded Carlos Nayen with 10 kilograms of 

cocaine.

B. The Appellants’ Roles in the Money-Laundering Conspiracy

Two of the Appellants were allegedly key players in the horse-racing and 

money-laundering operation. Jose Trevino Morales (Jose Trevino) is Miguel 

and Omar Trevino’s brother, and he operated a horse ranch and related 

companies. With money from Los Zetas, he helped his brothers acquire as 

many as 500 horses. Francisco “Pancho” Colorado Cessa (Colorado) is a 

wealthy businessman who, the government alleges, acted as an intermediary 

through whom Los Zetas purchased horses. Colorado’s relationship with Los 

Zetas began with Efrain Torres, also known as “Zeta 14,” a now-deceased 

leader of Los Zetas. Torres gave Colorado $6 million in startup capital for 

Colorado’s oil-services company, ADT Petro Servicios (ADT).

The other two Appellants, Eusevio Huitron and Fernando Garcia–Solis, 

had comparatively minor roles. Garcia–Solis translated for a Los Zetas 

subordinate, Carlos Nayen, and assisted Nayen with cash deliveries, auctions, 

and other aspects of the horse operations. Eusevio Huitron worked as a horse 

trainer for Miguel Trevino for nearly two years. He accepted significant cash 

payments from Los Zetas for his horse-training services—$505,007 in total.

Each Appellant’s specific involvement in the conspiracy is discussed in 

greater detail below.

II. DISCUSSION

The district court had jurisdiction under 18 U.S.C. § 3231, and this Court 

has jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1291 to review the district court’s final 

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judgment. This Court has jurisdiction to review the district court’s application 

of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines under 18 U.S.C. § 3742(a). We analyze the 

sufficiency-of-the-evidence challenges first, before discussing the Appellants’ 

evidentiary and jury-instruction claims of error. Finally, we discuss the 

Appellants’ challenges to their sentences and to the money judgment.

A. Sufficiency-of-the-Evidence Challenges

Appellants all raise sufficiency-of-the-evidence challenges on appeal. As 

noted, all four Appellants were convicted of conspiracy to commit money 

laundering in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). “To establish conspiracy to 

commit money laundering, the government must prove (1) that there was an 

agreement between two or more persons to commit money laundering and 

(2) that the defendant joined the agreement knowing its purpose and with the 

intent to further the illegal purpose.” United States v. Fuchs, 467 F.3d 889, 906 

(5th Cir. 2006) (citing United States v. Meshack, 225 F.3d 556, 573–74 (5th Cir. 

2000)).

The indictment alleged “concealment money laundering” under 

§ 1956(a)(1)(B)(i)6 as the object of the conspiracy, meaning the Appellants 

conspired to conduct a financial transaction with proceeds of a specified illegal 

activity—here, distribution of controlled substances, extortion, and bribery in 

sporting contests—with the knowledge that the transaction’s design was to 

conceal or disguise the source of the proceeds. As the government 

6 The government may indict and prove financial-transaction money laundering in 

two ways. See infra note 8 (explaining the difference between financial-transaction money 

laundering and transportation money laundering). It may either use the promotion 

alternative (intent to promote or further illegal actions) or it may use the concealment 

alternative (knowing that the transaction’s design was to conceal or disguise the nature or 

source of the illegal proceeds). United States v. Valdez, 726 F.3d 684, 689 (5th Cir. 2013). 

Because the indictment here only alleges concealment, the promotion prong does not pertain 

to the analysis. See id. (noting that if a defendant is “charged with both prongs in one count, 

the government may establish guilt under one prong or the other”).

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acknowledges, each Appellant preserved error by moving for judgment of 

acquittal at the end of the government’s case and at the close of the evidence.

1. Standard of Review

The scope of this Court’s review of the evidence supporting the 

Appellants’ criminal convictions is narrow. See United States v. Lopez, 74 F.3d 

575, 577 (5th Cir. 1996). “In reviewing the sufficiency of the evidence, we view 

the evidence and the inferences drawn therefrom in the light most favorable to 

the verdict, and we determine whether a rational jury could have found the 

defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.” United States v. Mitchell, 484 

F.3d 762, 768 (5th Cir. 2007) (citations omitted). “The question is one of the 

sufficiency of the evidence, not its credibility.” United States v. Brown, 553 F.3d 

768, 780 (5th Cir. 2008).

2. Applicable Law

As an initial matter, Jose Trevino argues that a money-laundering 

conspiracy cannot be proven by circumstantial evidence. We disagree. We have

specifically stated in the context of a sufficiency challenge to a moneylaundering conspiracy that direct evidence “is unnecessary; each element may 

be inferred from circumstantial evidence.” Fuchs, 467 F.3d at 906 (quoting 

United States v. Casilla, 20 F.3d 600, 603 (5th Cir. 1994)). Indeed, as the 

Supreme Court has explained, “the knowledge element of the moneylaundering offense—knowledge that the transaction involves profits of 

unlawful activity—[is] provable (as knowledge must almost always be proved) 

by circumstantial evidence.” United States v. Santos, 553 U.S. 507, 521 (2008). 

We have noted more specifically that the agreement element “may be inferred 

from a ‘concert of action.’” Fuchs, 467 F.3d at 906 (quoting Casilla, 20 F.3d at 

603).

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Contrary to Huitron’s assertion,7 “[t]he government need not prove an 

overt act in furtherance of the conspiracy.” Id. (citing Whitfield v. United 

States, 543 U.S. 209, 219 (2005)).

3. Analysis

A principal issue in this appeal is whether sufficient evidence supports 

the conviction of Huitron, who worked as a horse trainer for Miguel Trevino 

and Los Zetas’ horse-racing operation. Unlike in Huitron’s case, sufficient

evidence supports the conspiracy convictions of the Jose Trevino and Garcia–

Solis. Colorado’s sufficiency challenge presents a close question.

a. Huitron

The key issue is whether there is sufficient evidence to establish that

Huitron joined the conspiracy knowing that the transaction in question—his 

horse-training services—was designed in whole or in part to conceal or disguise 

the nature, location, source, ownership or control of the proceeds of illegal 

activity beyond a reasonable doubt. Our discussion of Huitron’s case informs 

our analysis of Jose Trevino’s and Garcia–Solis’s sufficiency challenges.

Huitron maintains he “was paid for performing legitimate horse training 

services.” He admits he was paid with drug proceeds, though he contends that 

he “was not aware of the money source[] for the legitimate horse training 

services [he] rendered.” The government counters that because Huitron’s 

client, Miguel Trevino often talked about how he used his horse operation to 

7 Huitron argues in his brief that “the government must prove beyond a reasonable 

doubt that . . . one of the persons committed an overt act in further[ance] of the conspiracy,” 

citing United States v. Armstrong, 550 F.3d 382, 406 (5th Cir. 2008). Huitron’s reliance on 

Armstrong is misplaced. As we recognized in United States v. Guillermo Balleza, Armstrong

did state in dicta that an overt act was required; but in so doing, Armstrong mistakenly relied 

on a case that had been overruled by the Supreme Court in Whitfield. See 613 F.3d 432, 433 

n.1 (5th Cir. 2010) (per curiam) (“We take this opportunity to clarify this court’s jurisprudence 

on whether an overt act in furtherance of the conspiracy is an element of the offense of 

conspiracy to launder money in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). It is not.” (citing, inter alia, 

Armstrong, 550 F.3d at 403)).

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clean money, Huitron’s “pattern of receiving bulk cash payments is proof of his 

agreement to join the conspiracy.” The government also contends that by 

“converting Los Zetas[’] cash into well-trained horses that could earn Miguel 

Trevino clean money,” Huitron “voluntarily joined the conspiracy, knowing its 

unlawful purpose and with intent to further that purpose.”

i. Applicable law

In the context of a concealment money-laundering conviction for 

transportation, the Supreme Court held that “merely hiding funds . . . is not 

sufficient to violate the statute, even if substantial efforts have been expended 

to conceal the money.” Cuellar v. United States, 553 U.S. 550, 563 (2008).8 In 

Cuellar, the defendant was stopped while driving south toward the Mexican 

border. Id. at 553. Police searched the vehicle and discovered a secret 

compartment containing $81,000 in cash, and the defendant was convicted for 

transportation money laundering. Id. at 554, 568. The Supreme Court 

reversed. Id. at 568. The Court explained that evidence of concealment does 

not necessarily imply the purpose of the transport is to conceal: “[H]ow one 

moves the money is distinct from why one moves the money,” and “[e]vidence 

of the former, standing alone, is not sufficient to prove the latter.” Id. at 566. 

The Fifth Circuit applied Cuellar’s reasoning to financial-transaction 

money laundering9 in United States v. Brown, 553 F.3d 768, 786 n.56 (2008), 

and held that the government must demonstrate that the charged transactions 

had the purpose—not merely the effect—of “mak[ing] it more difficult for the 

8 Section 1956 enumerates separate offenses for transportation money laundering, 

§ 1956(a)(1), and financial-transaction money laundering, § 1956(a)(2). Cuellar addressed the 

“designed to conceal” element in the transportation-money-laundering context. The Fifth 

Circuit held that “the Cuellar analysis applies with full force to the ‘designed to conceal’ 

element” in financial-transaction money laundering because the language “is identical in the 

two provisions.” United States v. Brown, 553 F.3d 768, 786 n.56 (5th Cir. 2008).

9 See supra note 8.

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government to trace and demonstrate the nature of th[e] funds.” Id. at 787. We 

noted that “a mere act of structuring could not support a concealment 

conviction.” Id. at 787 n.62 (citing United States v. Stephenson, 183 F.3d 110 

(2d Cir. 1999)). In Brown, we held that the “numerous acts [of structuring] are 

more clearly designed to conceal the nature of the moneys,” and affirmed the 

conviction. Id. at 787 & n.62. 

We elaborated on financial-transaction money laundering in United 

States v. Valdez and explained that “simply spending money in one’s own name 

will generally not support a money laundering conviction.” 726 F.3d 684, 690

(5th Cir. 2013) (quoting United States v. Willey, 57 F.3d 1374, 1385 (5th Cir. 

1995)). “‘In one sense,’” we said, “‘the acquisition of any asset with the proceeds 

of illegal activity conceals those proceeds by converting them into a different 

and more legitimate-appearing form. But the requirement that the transaction 

be designed to conceal implies that more than this trivial motivation must be 

proved.’” Id. (quoting Willey, 57 F.3d at 1384). Because “Valdez did not use 

false names, third parties, or any particularly complicated financial 

maneuvers, which are usual hallmarks of an intent to conceal,” we held “there 

is insufficient evidence” to support his conviction of “concealment money 

laundering.” Id.

We summarized the case law in United States v. Trejo and concluded 

that “these cases exemplify the courts’ consistent reliance on some additional 

evidence beyond the bare transaction . . . itself to infer specific intent.” 610 F.3d 

308, 314 (5th Cir. 2010). We observed that “courts have often relied on proof 

that the defendant was aware of the inner workings of and/or extensively 

involved in the drug organization responsible for the criminal activity as 

circumstantial proof that he had the specific intent to promote its unlawful 

purpose.” Id. at 315. In Trejo, we held that the evidence was insufficient to 

support the defendant’s plea in part because the “[e]vidence regarding the

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[defendant’s knowledge of the] inner workings of the organization that hired 

him . . . is virtually nonexistent in the record.” Id. at 318.10

Put another way, as we said in United States v. Leonard, “not every 

dollar spent in every transaction that can be traced to a specified criminal 

activity violates 18 U.S.C. § 1956(a)(1)(A)(i). ‘To so interpret the statute’ would 

‘convert the money laundering statute into a money spending statute.’” 61 F.3d 

1181, 1185 n.2 (5th Cir. 1995) (quoting United States v. Sanders, 928 F.2d 940, 

944 (10th Cir. 1991)).

By contrast, in United States v. Rosbottom, we affirmed a moneylaundering conspiracy conviction because the evidence showed that the 

defendant was “intimately involved with many aspects of [the coconspirator’s] 

finances.” 763 F.3d 408, 418 (5th Cir. 2014). Specifically, the defendant was 

convicted for conspiring to help conceal funds from a coconspirator’s 

bankruptcy proceedings. Id. at 411. The defendant “was the sole member of the 

shell corporations she helped establish to purchase the boat and plane, though 

both the boat and plane were under [her coconspirator’s] control and neither 

was purchased using her funds.” Id. at 418. She also “picked up the funds” used 

to purchase cashier’s checks payable to her coconspirator “in a parking lot after 

another employee took the funds out of the safe.” Id. We determined that a 

reasonable jury could conclude that the defendant and her coconspirator 

“worked in concert to conceal funds from the bankruptcy proceedings” and 

affirmed. Id. at 419.

10 The defendant transported $330,426.56 in cash (via a hidden compartment in his 

car) from a known drug dealer in Florida to a known drug dealer in Mexico for a fee. Trejo, 

610 F.3d at 318. Because “the incriminating facts show simply that Trejo signed on for a onetime trip to transport drug money for a dealer he did not know and . . . had never worked for 

in the past,” we found the evidence insufficient. Id. Ultimately, because Trejo did not timely 

object, we found the error was not plain. Id. at 318–19.

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ii. Analysis

Drawing all reasonable inferences in favor of the government, the 

evidence establishes, at best, that Huitron knowingly accepted drug money 

from known drug dealers in exchange for horse-training services. Although 

this had the effect of concealing the proceeds of Los Zetas’ illegal activities, that 

alone is not enough to show that Huitron joined the conspiracy knowing its 

purpose was to conceal the source or nature of the funds. See Cuellar, 553 U.S.

at 567. Every Government witness who testified about Huitron testified that 

he was a reputable horse trainer and that he was not involved in Los Zetas’

illegal bribery, extortion, or drug-trafficking activities. For instance, Mario 

Cuellar, a former Los Zetas leader turned Government witness, gave the 

following testimony:

Q. Do you know if [Huitron] trained horses for “40”?

A. Yes, sir.

Q. And what do you know about that?

A. That that’s what he is. He is one of the best horse trainers in 

Texas. He’s the one that really makes all the other trainers in 

Texas run for their money. He’s a good trainer.

Mario Cuellar further testified that Huitron did not traffic in cocaine, and that 

the bills he submitted to Los Zetas for reimbursement “were for the actual 

training and feeding and racing the horses.” Raul Guadalajara, another Los 

Zetas subordinate and Government witness, testified that he and Mario 

Cuellar never told Huitron that they were drug dealers, and that, in fact, they 

tried to keep that fact hidden from Huitron. When asked about whether he 

knew Huitron’s role in the organization, Guadalajara testified that “he trained 

the horse for ‘40.’ That’s all I knew.” Another Los Zetas subordinate and drug 

dealer testified that, when he delivered $40,000 in cash to Huitron per Miguel 

Trevino’s instructions, he never told Huitron “this is drug money.” For all the 

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subordinate knew, Huitron lived “close to Austin, [and] trained horses.” Jesus 

Rejon, another Los Zetas subordinate and government witness, testified that 

Huitron trained horses in Ruidoso, New Mexico, and that “he was there 

managing, you know, overseeing the [horse] training.” Rejon testified that 

Huitron did not give him any information about Los Zetas’ illegal activities in 

Mexico, explaining: “We didn’t really talk about that.”

As mentioned above, it is undisputed that Huitron trained horses for 

Miguel and Oscar Trevino and other members of Los Zetas for about two years 

at a rate of $1,100 per horse. He also received reimbursement for expenses, 

stall rentals, entry fees, shoeing, and bonuses if the horses he trained won 

races. He had a reputation as being among “the best horse trainers in Texas.” 

It is also undisputed that, when Huitron started training horses for Los 

Zetas, his inflow of cash substantially increased. An IRS agent reviewed the 

bank records of Huitron Homes, a company controlled by Eusevio Huitron and 

his brother Jesus.11 According to the testimony of the IRS agent, in the 

eighteen months before Huitron started training the Trevinos’ and Los Zetas’ 

horses, Huitron Homes’ bank account received a total of $113,000 in cash 

deposits. On July 12, 2010, Huitron Homes received a large structured cash 

deposit presumably representing a cash payment from Los Zetas. Over the 

next twenty-two months, while Huitron trained horses for Los Zetas, Huitron 

Homes received a total of $505,007 in structured cash deposits.12 The 

government correctly points out that the evidence that Huitron received large 

cash payments is “overwhelming.”

11 Huitron’s brother, Jesus Huitron, was also indicted for conspiracy to commit money 

laundering, but the jury found him not guilty.

12 The deposits were “structured” in that each was less than $10,000, ostensibly to 

avoid reporting requirements. Though this may constitute the separate crime of structuring, 

Huitron was not indicted for committing that crime in this case.

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The question becomes whether receiving large cash payments from 

known drug dealers, and subsequently structuring them, can support a 

conviction for conspiracy to commit financial-transaction money laundering, 

i.e., whether this constitutes sufficient circumstantial evidence that the 

financial transactions had the purpose, not merely the effect of “mak[ing] it 

more difficult for the government to trace and demonstrate the nature of th[e]

funds.” Brown, 553 F.3d at 787. 

As we instructed in Trejo, there must be “some additional evidence

beyond the bare transaction . . . itself to infer specific intent” to join a 

conspiracy to commit financial-transaction money laundering. 610 F.3d at 315. 

A defendant’s awareness of the inner workings of, or extensive involvement in, 

the drug organization responsible for the criminal activity is significant 

circumstantial evidence of a defendant’s specific intent. Id.

On this point, the government stresses Huitron’s personal relationship 

with Los Zetas’ leader, Miguel Trevino, and his knowledge about Los Zetas’ 

illegal activity as circumstantial evidence of Huitron’s specific intent to join 

the money-laundering conspiracy. The government points to testimony that,

on one occasion, Huitron met with Miguel Trevino in Mexico,13 and that he 

trained a horse named Mr. Jess XL (Roman numerals for forty), which by its 

name connects the horse—and its trainer—to Miguel Trevino and then to Los 

Zetas. The government also points to testimony from a manager of a quarterhorse breeding farm. The manager testified that Huitron told him, in a 

conversation about the deaths of Alejandro Barradas and Ramiro Villareal,14

that “he heard he’d been kidnapped . . . [a]nd never came back.” The manager 

13 A Government witness testified that he saw Huitron and Miguel Trevino together 

in Mexico talking at a table, but he did not hear the substance of their conversation. 

14 See supra Part I(A)(2).

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also noted that Huitron “didn’t indicate anybody specifically” who might have 

killed them.

The government also states that its “best evidence of Eusevio Huitron’s 

knowledge came from the testimony of [Raul] Guadalajara,” a Los Zetas 

subordinate and Government witness. Guadalajara related an anecdote about 

an instance where he dropped off $15,000 in cash and joked to Huitron that he 

was delivering “kilos.” Guadalajara testified that Huitron got upset and called 

Miguel Trevino to complain, and Guadalajara “got in trouble with that back 

there in Mexico.” From this evidence, the government argues, “[t]he jury could 

reasonably infer . . . that Eusevio Hutiron knew that Los Zetas dealt in 

kilogram quantities of narcotics . . . .” Further, another horse trainer testified 

that it was “an open secret in the horse-racing business” that Los Zetas were 

involved in the horse business. 

This evidence, viewed in the light most favorable to the government, 

certainly establishes that Huitron knew he was being paid in drug money by 

known drug dealers. But it does not establish that Huitron voluntarily joined 

the conspiracy, “knowing its purpose and with the intent to further the illegal 

purpose,” Fuchs, 467 F.3d at 906. We have held that merely providing services 

to a known drug dealer and accepting the proceeds of the illegal activity as 

payment is insufficient as a matter of law to establish criminal liability for 

money laundering. See Trejo, 610 F.3d at 318. 

There must be some additional circumstantial evidence of intent to 

further the illegal conspiracy. See Fuchs, 467 F.3d at 906. As mentioned above, 

the evidence in the light most favorable to the government establishes that 

Huitron was a horse trainer for Los Zetas for a period of two years—and 

nothing more. It does not establish that he was aware of the inner workings of 

Los Zetas’ criminal narcotics-trafficking organization. Cf. Trejo, 610 F.3d at 

316 (“[E]vidence of a defendant’s knowledge about the internal operations of a 

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drug organization . . . may [be] relied upon to establish his specific intent . . . .”). 

Here, the evidence merely demonstrates that Huitron had heard that two men 

had been kidnapped and one had been killed, and that Huitron contacted 

Miguel Trevino about a joke to which he apparently took offense. We hold that 

this is not enough circumstantial evidence from which a reasonable jury could 

conclude beyond a reasonable doubt that Huitron intended to further Los 

Zetas’ illegal activities.

The government also argues that, by training horses that had been 

purchased with drug money in exchange for drug money, Huitron was 

“converting” Los Zetas’ drug proceeds “into well-trained horses that could earn 

Miguel Trevino clean money,” i.e., that the horse operations were part of one 

grand money-laundering scheme. We disagree. The Fifth Circuit previously 

rejected a similar argument. In United States v. Brown, the government 

similarly argued that a defendant who used his car dealership to 

systematically overcharge customers in violation of statutes prohibiting mail 

fraud also committed money laundering by paying ordinary business expenses 

using the fraud proceeds. 186 F.3d 661, 669 (5th Cir. 1999). The government’s 

theory was that “the transactions . . . promoted the ongoing and future criminal 

activity . . . because the operation of the dealership was one grand scheme to 

defraud.” Id. The Fifth Circuit rejected this “creative argument.” Id. at 670. 

Absent “evidence of, say, payments for postage for mailing fraudulent 

warranty claims,” this Court explained, there was insufficient evidence “to 

establish an intent to promote fraud,” and we reversed. Id. at 670–71.

So too here. As in Brown, there is no evidence that Huitron joined the 

conspiracy knowing the conspiracy’s purpose was to conceal drug money to be 

used, say, to bribe a gate starter; to front money for drug operations; or to send 

clean money back to Los Zetas for their personal use. That Los Zetas used the 

overall horse-racing scheme to launder money is insufficient to establish 

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Huitron’s guilt by mere association—absent additional circumstantial 

evidence that Huitron joined the conspiracy knowing that the horse-racing

proceeds would be used to further the conspiracy to conceal the nature or 

source of illegal funds. Training racehorses does not, on its face, indicate an 

intent to promote or conceal the proceeds of money-laundering, extortion, or 

drug trafficking even though the overall conspiracy involved using horse racing 

to launder illegal proceeds. See Brown, 186 F.3d at 671.

The government cites several cases in support of Huitron’s conviction, 

but these cases are distinguishable. First, the government cites United States 

v. Gallo, 927 F.2d 815, 820–21 (5th Cir. 1991), for the proposition that “close 

association with co-conspirators” can be “one factor that the jury may rely on.” 

The government’s discussion of this case leaves something out; the full quoted 

sentence reads: “Although mere presence at the scene of the crime or close 

association with co-conspirators will not alone support an inference of 

participation in a conspiracy, presence or association is one factor that the jury 

may rely on, along with other evidence, in finding conspiratorial activity by a 

defendant.” Id. at 820 (emphasis added) (quoting United States v. Magee, 821 

F.2d 234, 239 (5th Cir. 1987)). Moreover, in Gallo, we observed that the 

defendant’s concerted action—unlike Huitron’s innocuous horse training—was 

quintessential drug-trafficking behavior. Id. at 821. 

Finally, Fuchs merely holds that a concert of action may support a 

conviction. 467 F.3d at 905–06. Here, there was no evidence of concerted action, 

but rather a series of transactions in which Los Zetas paid Huitron bulk cash 

payments in exchange for his training their horses. Huitron merely trained 

horses; he was not also charged under the substantive money-laundering 

provisions (that prohibit structuring to avoid reporting requirements, for 

instance) or for other criminal acts, but rather for conspiracy to commit money 

laundering under § 1956(h). And unlike the defendant in Rosbottom, there is 

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no evidence that Huitron was “intimately involved with many aspects of [Los 

Zetas’] finances,” or that he formed shell entities to protect the identity of the 

true owners. See 763 F.3d at 418.15

Therefore, we reverse the conviction of Eusevio Huitron and render a 

judgment of acquittal because the government’s evidence was not sufficient to 

permit a reasonable jury to infer beyond a reasonable doubt that Huitron 

voluntarily joined the conspiracy knowing its purpose was to conceal the source 

or nature of illegal proceeds. See Cuellar, 553 U.S. at 567–68. 

b. Jose Trevino

Jose Trevino similarly argues there is insufficient evidence to show that 

he knew the funds involved were the proceeds of illegal activities or that he 

knew the transactions he was involved in were designed to conceal or disguise 

the nature or source of the funds. We disagree and affirm.

Unlike Huitron, the record viewed in the light most favorable to the 

verdict includes additional evidence—beyond transactions involving illegal 

proceeds—from which a reasonable jury could conclude Jose Trevino

voluntarily joined the conspiracy knowing its purpose was to conceal the 

nature or source of illegal proceeds. See Cuellar, 568 U.S. at 567–68. Jose 

Trevino experienced sudden wealth through his involvement in the moneylaundering conspiracy. See United States v. Alaniz, 726 F.3d 586, 603–04 (5th 

Cir. 2013) (considering “sudden wealth” in evaluating the sufficiency of the 

evidence to support convictions for conspiracy to commit money laundering). 

An expert witness testified that, from 1990–2009, Jose Trevino and his wife 

15 The government also relies on United States v. Adair, 436 F.3d 520, 524 (5th Cir. 

2006) (“It is sufficient for the defendant merely to be aware of the perpetrator’s intent to 

conceal or disguise the nature or source of the funds.” (quoting § 1956(h)). But the issue there 

was not intent to promote illegal activity, but rather whether a defendant could be convicted 

of conspiracy to commit money laundering in a sting operation, even though the money was 

not, in fact, the proceeds of actually illegal activity. Id. Thus, Adair is inapplicable.

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earned on average $22,000 a year. During the period of the horse-racing 

conspiracy, his income jumped to $5.4 million over 30 months, or $2.1 million 

per year.

Circumstantial evidence supports the inference that Jose Trevino was 

aware of Los Zetas’ illegal activities. See Trejo, 610 F.3d at 315. Jose Vasquez, 

a Los Zetas drug dealer, testified that he delivered hundreds of thousands of 

dollars in cash proceeds from the sale of cocaine to Jose Trevino. Mario Cuellar, 

a former Los Zetas leader, testified that Jose Trevino was aware of his brothers’ 

involvement in the drug business, but that initially “Jose wanted nothing to do 

with the drugs, [and] he had worked really hard [and] was a straight person.” 

But that all changed when a horse named Tempting Dash was purchased for 

him. 

Additionally, the jury heard testimony that Miguel and Omar Trevino 

were particularly well-known leaders of an international drug cartel. The 

government also obtained Jose Trevino’s computer on which it found photos of 

cash, of Miguel Trevino, and of a person detained in Mexico with a letter ‘Z’ on 

his chest. From this evidence, a reasonable jury could conclude Jose Trevino 

was aware that Los Zetas were involved in illegal activity.

Finally, circumstantial evidence supports the inference that Jose 

Trevino was aware that the transactions were designed to conceal or disguise 

the nature or source of the illegal proceeds. Witnesses testified that horses 

involved in the conspiracy were registered to Jose Trevino and his various 

LLCs. Cf. Rosbottom, 763 F.3d at 418 (affirming money-laundering conspiracy 

conviction where the defendant “was the sole member of the shell corporations 

she helped establish to purchase the boat and plane, though both the boat and 

plane were under [her coconspirator’s] control and neither was purchased 

using her funds”). The evidence further shows that Jose Trevino repeatedly 

registered horses under various names, and that he set up at least one LLC for 

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the horse business. On one occasion, Jose Trevino sold his horse at auction to 

Alfonso Del Rayo, who testified that he had been kidnapped, tortured, and 

forced to purchase the horse no matter the price. The horse was purchased for 

substantially more money than it was worth, generating the appearance of 

legitimate funds. A reasonable jury could infer from this evidence that Jose 

Trevino was aware of the conspiracy’s purpose to conceal or disguise the nature 

of the illegal proceeds.

We reject Jose Trevino’s suggestion that he was convicted for mere guilt 

by association vis-à-vis the criminal activities of his brothers. As summarized 

above, the evidence shows that Jose Trevino involved himself in the horseracing money-laundering operations, and we are convinced the jury 

appropriately considered this evidence in returning the guilty verdict.

Therefore, we conclude that Jose Trevino’s conviction is supported by 

sufficient evidence.

c. Garcia–Solis

Fernando Garcia–Solis acted as a translator for Los Zetas, and he also

argues insufficient evidence supports his conviction for conspiracy to commit 

money laundering. Garcia–Solis contends the government did not prove that

he “knew that the funds used by himself and his clients were the proceeds” of 

illegal activity, and did not establish that “he knowingly and willfully joined 

into a conspiracy to launder such proceeds.” He argues the evidence merely 

shows that he acted as a buyer for Jose Trevino and Colorado, and that he was 

unaware of their connection to Los Zetas.

The record does not support Garcia–Solis’s argument. Instead, the 

evidence shows that he acted in concert with coconspirators. Specifically, 

witnesses testified that Garcia–Solis almost always accompanied and acted as 

translator for Carlos Nayen, a key subordinate in the conspiracy who could not 

speak English. Together, Nayen and Garcia–Solis attended at least seven 

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different horse auctions and purchased numerous “expensive” horses on behalf 

of Los Zetas and Miguel Trevino. During the bidding, Nayen was in constant 

contact with Miguel Trevino. Further, when Del Rayo—exhibiting serious 

injuries—was forced to pay $310,000 for Blues Ferrari at an auction in 

Oklahoma City, Del Rayo was escorted by Garcia–Solis and Carlos Nayen. 

After horse trainers got wind that federal authorities were looking for Miguel 

Trevino at a racetrack, Garcia–Solis received an email instructing him to “toss 

your cell.” 

From this evidence, the jury could reasonably conclude beyond a 

reasonable doubt that Garcia–Solis voluntarily joined the conspiracy, knowing 

its unlawful purpose and with intent to further that purpose. See Fuchs, 467 

F.3d at 906.

d. Colorado

Colorado also argues that insufficient evidence supports his conviction 

because the government failed to prove that Colorado knowingly used illegal 

proceeds to purchase horses. Although we agree with Colorado’s argument that 

the government failed to introduce sufficient evidence on that point—which 

was the government’s theory of the case—we hold that the government’s 

evidence supports Colorado’s conviction on a different theory; namely, that 

Colorado purchased the horses with the knowledge that they would be used as 

part of a larger money-laundering conspiracy. This knowledge is some 

circumstantial evidence that he voluntarily joined a conspiracy knowing its 

purpose was to conceal the source or nature of illegal funds. See Cuellar, 553 

U.S. at 567. However, the issue is close, as the government offered weak 

circumstantial evidence based largely on Colorado’s personal relationships 

with Los Zetas’ leaders that Colorado’s knew the conspiracy’s purpose was to 

conceal the nature or source of illegal proceeds. As we explain infra at Part 

II(C), the erroneous jury instruction on commingling, viewed in light of the 

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sparse evidence of Colorado’s guilt, requires that Colorado’s conviction be 

vacated.

B. Asserted Error in Receiving the Testimony of Spanish-Speaking 

Witnesses Before Ruling on Objections

Jose Trevino argues the district court constructively deprived him of his 

Sixth Amendment right to effective assistance of counsel by “allow[ing] 

witnesses to first answer the question . . . , and then only if the district court 

decides that the answer to the question is not admissible, the district court will 

sustain the objection (after the jury of course hears the answer).” The 

government clarifies that the district judge followed this procedure only with 

respect to translated testimony. The government contends that district courts 

have broad discretion in the conduct of courtroom procedures, and that a 

“constructive denial of counsel occurs in only a very narrow spectrum of cases 

where the circumstances . . . are so egregious that the defendant was in effect 

denied any meaningful assistance at all,” quoting Gochicoa v. Johnson, 238 

F.3d 278, 284 (5th Cir. 2000).

Although Jose Trevino’s argument that the district court abused its 

discretion has force, we agree with the government and hold that any error 

was harmless. “[A] district judge has broad discretion in managing his docket, 

including trial procedure and the conduct of trial.” United States v. Gray, 105 

F.3d 956, 964 (5th Cir. 1997) (internal quotation marks omitted). Accordingly, 

appellate courts review a district judge’s conduct of the trial to determine 

whether the cumulative effect amounts to an abuse of discretion. Id. Moreover, 

any prejudicial remarks “may be rendered harmless by curative instructions 

to the jury,” United States v. Millsaps, 157 F.3d 989, 993 (5th Cir. 1998), and 

“juries are presumed to follow their instructions,” Zafiro v. United States, 506 

U.S. 534, 540 (1993) (internal quotation marks omitted).

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We find Jose Trevino’s argument persuasive and agree that the manner 

in which the district court received testimony from Spanish-speaking 

witnesses was problematic—treading dangerously close to an abuse of 

discretion. The district judge expressed frustration with having to ask the jury 

to leave each time a defense lawyer wished essentially to make an offer of proof 

in response to an objection to a question put to a Spanish-speaking witness, 

and the judge suggested an alternative approach:

[THE COURT:] But, counsel, it’s not a good way to proceed to ask 

a question, have an objection. I don’t know how many people . . . on 

the jury understand Spanish, but I do know some do because they 

have indicated in their answers. And so, if I sustain the objection 

without an instruction, I don’t know that your objection was very 

informative. 

But I think we’re going to have to let the answer come, then make 

your objection, and then, if I think it’s not admissible, I’ll instruct 

them they can’t consider it for any purpose. Now, a lot of people 

don’t think that’s a good remedy, but that’s the only one that we 

have, as far as I know. And I’m not aware of any jury that’s ever 

not done that because I’ve questioned jurors afterwards. But that’s 

a very unscientific proof.

MR. WOMACK [Garcia–Solis’s attorney]: Your Honor, now that 

we know the answer that’s coming as inadmissible, I would ask 

that we do keep it cut off where it is. Your Honor will give the 

proper instruction to the members – to the jurors not to consider 

whether the answer would have been and for those who –

THE COURT: Oh, I’ll do that now. But I’m talking about the next 

question and the one after that.

MR. WOMACK: Oh, yes, sir.

THE COURT: I don’t want the jury having to lea[ve] on each 

question and hearing the answer.

MR. ESPER: Your Honor, I concur with the Court. I believe the 

jury’s followed the Court’s instructions to disregard. However, 

unequivocally, they’re humans, they’ve heard the answer. It’s 

walking a fine line. I know they follow the Court’s instructions. I 

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believe that. But sometimes they hear an answer and it’s that bell 

sometimes doesn’t get – the vibration doesn’t get out of their brain.

. . . .

THE COURT: I’m going to sustain the objection and tell them not 

to consider that for any purpose. And then, I will tell them, again, 

that the official interpretation is what they have to have.

(emphasis added). Importantly, when the jury returned, the judge instructed 

them to consider only the official interpretation and to disregard the answer in 

Spanish.

We find that the district judge’s conduct of the trial in this manner was 

problematic and may amount to an abuse of discretion, but that any error was

either harmless or not plain. Jose Trevino does not point to any prejudice to 

his case—let alone to cumulative prejudice so as to amount to a reversible error 

in light of the district court’s significant discretion over the mode and manner 

of witness testimony. See Gray, 105 F.3d at 964. Moreover, any prejudice from 

the district court’s problematic procedure in this case is presumptively cured 

by the judge’s instructions to the jury. Jose Trevino does not attempt to rebut 

this presumption—a tall task in light of the substantial evidence of his guilt 

summarized above. See Millsaps, 157 F.3d at 993. Third, the record does not 

indicate that Jose Trevino objected,16 so our review is for plain error only. 

Because Jose Trevino does not direct the court to authority finding error in 

similar circumstances, any error on the district court’s part was not obvious or 

plain.

Jose Trevino’s argument that he was constructively deprived of counsel 

is also unavailing. “A constructive denial of counsel occurs in only a very 

narrow spectrum of cases where the circumstances leading to counsel’s 

16 The only statement indicating disagreement came from Garcia–Solis’s attorney, Mr. 

Womack, not from Jose Trevino’s counsel. Garcia–Solis does not challenge the manner in 

which Spanish-speaking witnesses were questioned on appeal.

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ineffectiveness are so egregious that the defendant was in effect denied any 

meaningful assistance at all.” Gochicoa, 238 F.3d at 284 (internal quotation 

marks omitted). Because there is no evidence that Jose Trevino’s counsel was 

absent from the courtroom or suffered from a material conflict of interest with 

his client, see id., Jose Trevino’s asserted constructive deprivation of counsel 

does not fit within this narrow spectrum.

Therefore, although we find the manner in which the district court

conducted the trial proceedings in this case problematic for the reasons 

identified by Jose Trevino, we do not find a reversible error.

C. Jury Instructions

A close question in this appeal is the asserted jury-instruction error. 

Three of the four Appellants—Jose Trevino, Colorado, and Garcia–Solis—

challenge the jury instruction describing the commingling of funds. The district 

court instructed the jury regarding the “intent to conceal or disguise” element 

as follows: “With respect to the fourth element, the commingling of illegal 

proceeds with legitimate business funds is evidence of intent to conceal or 

disguise. Therefore, it would not be a defense that legitimate funds were also 

involved in a transaction involving illegal and legitimate funds combined.” 

(emphasis added). The Appellants contend this instruction (1) “had no support 

in the evidence” and (2) “amounted to a mandatory presumption—effectively 

directing the jury to infer intent to conceal and disguise from evidence of 

commingling.” The government counters the district court correctly stated the 

law because “[i]t is well-established that commingling illegal proceeds with 

legitimate business funds is evidence of a defendant’s intent to conceal,” citing 

United States v. Rodriguez, 278 F.3d 486, 491 (5th Cir. 2002). The government 

also argues that “the jury heard evidence that [Colorado] commingled drug 

proceeds into his ADT account.” 

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We hold that the district court abused its discretion in instructing the 

jury in this manner, but that the erroneous jury instruction constituted 

harmless error as to Jose Trevino and Garcia–Solis. Because the 

circumstantial evidence of Colorado’s guilt is weaker, we cannot say beyond a 

reasonable doubt that the verdict would have been the same as to Colorado, 

and we vacate his conviction and remand.

1. Standard of Review

This Court reviews jury instructions “for abuse of discretion, affording 

substantial latitude to the district court in describing the law to the jury.” 

United States v. Wright, 634 F.3d 770, 774 (5th Cir. 2011) (internal quotation 

marks omitted). In so doing, we consider “whether the charge, as a whole, was 

a correct statement of the law and whether it clearly instructed the jurors as 

to the principles of the law applicable to the factual issues confronting them.” 

Id. (internal quotation marks omitted). “The trial court’s charge must not only 

be ‘legally accurate, but also factually supportable’; ‘the court may not instruct 

the jury on a charge that is not supported by evidence.’” United States v. 

Mendoza–Medina, 346 F.3d 121, 132 (5th Cir. 2003) (quoting United States v. 

Lara–Velasquez, 919 F.2d 946, 950 (5th Cir. 1990)). In assessing whether 

evidence sufficiently supports a particular jury instruction, this Court views 

“the evidence and all reasonable inferences that may be drawn from the 

evidence in the light most favorable to the Government.” Id. (internal 

quotation marks omitted). “Any error is subject to harmless-error review.” Id.

2. The District Court’s Commingling Instruction Was an Abuse of 

Discretion

We agree with Defendants–Appellants that the district court abused its 

discretion by giving the commingling instruction it gave. “A mandatory 

presumption instructs the jury that it must infer the presumed fact if the State 

proves certain predicate facts. A permissive inference suggests to the jury a 

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possible conclusion to be drawn if the State proves predicate facts, but does not 

require the jury to draw that conclusion.” Francis v. Franklin, 471 U.S. 307, 

314 (1985) (footnote omitted). The analysis turns “initially on the specific 

language challenged,” but “the potentially offending words must be considered 

in the context of the charge as a whole.” Id. at 315.

The district court’s instruction spoke in mandatory terms: “[T]he 

commingling of illegal proceeds with legitimate business funds is evidence of 

intent to conceal or disguise.” Cf. Franklin, 471 U.S. at 314. Because the 

mandatory language was not clarified with an accompanying caveat—

indicating that the jury may but need not infer intent to conceal from the 

commingling of illegal proceeds, see id. (“A permissive inference suggests to the 

jury a possible conclusion to be drawn if the State proves predicate facts, but 

does not require the jury to draw that conclusion.”)—we conclude that the 

instruction treads dangerously close to an unconstitutional mandatory 

presumption. 

The government is correct that this instruction was a correct description 

of the law: our case law does instruct that “[e]vidence that the defendant 

commingled illegal proceeds with legitimate business funds is sufficient to 

support a conviction under § 1956,” particularly when the defendant also 

subsequently used the commingled funds to purchase equipment to further 

illegal activities. See Rodriguez, 278 F.3d at 491 (affirming § 1956 conviction 

for money laundering in part because the defendant used commingled funds to 

purchase a van for his illegal-alien transporting scheme). But we have not 

approved this statement of the law as a jury instruction, nor would we. A jury 

instruction must make clear that the inference is permissive and not 

mandatory, and the instruction given here does not do so.

The government defends the commingling instruction and directs us to 

a Ninth Circuit case in which the court evaluated similar language: United 

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States v. Washington, 819 F.2d 221, 225 (9th Cir. 1987). There, the court 

considered a challenge to a jury instruction reading: “Use of a weapon or other 

instrument in a way that causes death is evidence of malice aforethought.” Id.

(emphasis added). The court reasoned that “[a]dvising the jury that it may 

treat the use of a deadly weapon as evidence of malice aforethought is not the 

same as requiring it to presume or infer malice aforethought from that 

evidence.” Id. at 225–26.

Colorado in reply points out that the Ninth Circuit’s model instruction 

at issue in Washington was accompanied by the following:

If it is shown that the defendant used a deadly weapon in the 

commission of a homicide, then you may find, from the use of such 

weapon, in the absence of explanatory or mitigating 

circumstances, the existence of the malice which is an essential 

element of the offense. You are not obliged to so find, however.

Id. at 226. Colorado continues that “[n]o such language accompanied the 

district court’s commingling instruction here.”

We agree with Colorado’s interpretation of Washington. Confronted with

the instruction given here, a reasonable juror could conclude that evidence of 

commingling obligated the jury to infer intent to conceal. The clarifying 

language in Washington distinguishes that case from this one. Unlike in 

Washington, the trial court here did not state that the evidence of commingling 

merely permitted—but did not oblige or require—the jury to infer intent to 

conceal. See Hammontree v. Phelps, 605 F.2d 1371, 1379–80 (5th Cir. 1979).

Moreover, the district court should have followed the reasoning in Washington

and included similar language clarifying that the inference was permissive and 

not mandatory. Because the instruction given did not include guidance 

clarifying that the inference was permissive and not mandatory, we conclude 

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that the district court’s commingling jury instruction constituted an abuse of 

discretion.17

3. Harmless-Error Analysis

Nevertheless, we find that the erroneous jury instruction was harmless

as to Jose Trevino and Garcia–Solis. Erroneous jury instructions are harmless 

if a court, “after a ‘thorough examination of the record,’ is able to ‘conclude 

beyond a reasonable doubt that the jury verdict would have been the same 

absent the error.’” United States v. Skilling, 638 F.3d 480, 482 (5th Cir. 2011)

(quoting Neder v. United States, 527 U.S. 1, 19 (1999)); accord Rose v. Clark, 

478 U.S. 570, 580–81 (1986) (holding that harmless-error review applies to 

erroneous burden-shifting jury instructions). 

Here, as in Clark, there is no doubt that the “trial court properly could 

have instructed the jury that it could infer,” 478 U.S. at 581, intent to conceal 

from evidence of commingling. Examining the jury instructions “as a whole, as 

we must” in assessing the harmlessness of an erroneous instruction, Garcia v. 

Quarterman, 454 F.3d 441, 449 (5th Cir. 2006), apart from the challenged 

commingling instruction, we see that the jury in this case was clearly 

instructed that it had to find Appellants guilty beyond a reasonable doubt as 

to every element, see Clark, 478 U.S. at 579. Further, after a thorough 

examination of the record, we agree with the government that the record 

contains ample circumstantial evidence of Jose Trevino’s and Garcia–Solis’s

knowledge that the money-laundering conspiracy’s purpose was to conceal the 

source or nature of illegal proceeds. Accordingly, we conclude beyond a 

reasonable doubt that the jury verdict as to Jose Trevino and Garcia–Solis

would have been the same had the jury been properly instructed. See United 

17 Because we find that the jury instruction constituted an abuse of discretion, we need 

not and do not reach Appellants’ alternative argument that the evidence did not support this 

instruction.

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States v. Parker, 73 F.3d 48, 52–53 (5th Cir.) (“[B]ecause the trial judge’s ruling 

was a correct statement of the law and the jury found that the underlying 

predicate acts did occur, the error did nothing to change the outcome of the 

case because under a correct application of the law, the verdict would have 

been guilty regardless.”), reh’g en banc granted and opinion vacated, 80 F.3d 

1042 (5th Cir. 1996), and opinion reinstated in pertinent part on reh’g, 104 F.3d 

72 (5th Cir. 1997).

We do not reach the same conclusion with respect to Colorado, however. 

The government repeatedly argued that, because Colorado purchased horses 

with funds from his company, ADT, and ADT was started with drug money in 

2003 and 2004, Colorado therefore knowingly purchased horses in furtherance 

of the money-laundering conspiracy. But the horse-racing money-laundering 

conspiracy did not begin until 2008. Accordingly, our review of the record 

reveals no evidence from which a reasonable factfinder could trace Colorado’s 

horse purchases to illegal proceeds—or to illegal proceeds that had been 

commingled with legitimate funds. At best, the evidence shows that Colorado 

purchased 121 horses on behalf of conspiracy members using ADT funds and 

that he was closely associated with members of Los Zetas. While this might be 

evidence from which a properly instructed jury could infer that Colorado 

knowingly joined the money-laundering conspiracy—an issue on which we 

express no opinion—we cannot say “beyond a reasonable doubt that the jury 

verdict would have been the same absent the erro[neous]’” jury instruction 

given in this case. See Skilling, 638 F.3d at 482. This is particularly so given 

that the government’s expert witness specifically testified that Colorado 

“commingled personal and business” funds and expenses: a confused jury may 

have inferred from this testimony together with the erroneous instruction that 

the jury was obligated to infer from this evidence an intent to conceal. 

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Therefore, the district court abused its discretion in giving the 

commingling jury instruction it gave. The error was harmless as to Jose 

Trevino and Garcia–Solis. Because of the centrality of the commingling issue 

to Colorado’s conviction and the weak circumstantial evidence of his guilt, we 

cannot conclude beyond a reasonable doubt that the jury verdict would have 

been the same as to Colorado had the jury been properly instructed. 

Accordingly, we affirm the convictions of Jose Trevino and Garcia–Solis, but 

we vacate the conviction of Colorado.

D. Sentencing

Garcia–Solis and Jose Trevino challenge their sentences. Specifically, 

they contend the district court erroneously increased their offense level for 

violation of § 1956 based on the value of the laundered funds under U.S. 

Sentencing Guidelines Manual (“U.S.S.G.”) §§ 2S1.1(a)(2); 2B1.1, among other 

assorted asserted errors. The district court based its calculation of the offense 

level on the presentence investigation report’s (PSR) application of application 

note 3(b), which provides: “If the amount of the criminally derived funds is 

difficult or impracticable to determine, the value of the laundered funds, for 

purposes of subsection (a)(2), is the total amount of the commingled funds.” 

The government counters that the Appellants did not meet their burden to 

show the calculation was erroneous and that, even if it were, the error was 

harmless. We agree with the government.18

1. Standard of Review

“A sentence within the properly calculated Guidelines range is presumed 

reasonable on appeal.” United States v. Fernandez, 559 F.3d 303, 319 (5th Cir. 

2009). “Findings of fact used in calculating the Guidelines range are reviewed 

18 Since we vacate Colorado’s conviction because the jury was improperly and 

harmfully instructed, we need not and do not address his challenges to the sentence and to 

the money judgment.

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for clear error, while interpretation of the Guidelines themselves is reviewed 

de novo.” Id. “Calculation of total laundered funds is a factual finding, which 

need only be determined by a preponderance of the evidence, and is reviewed 

only for clear error.” United States v. Yassine, 574 F. App’x 455, 466 (5th Cir.) 

(per curiam), cert. denied, No. 14-6941, 2014 WL 5502919 (U.S. Dec. 8, 2014). 

“A factual finding on a sentencing factor is not clearly erroneous so long as it 

is plausible in light of the record read as a whole.” Alaniz, 726 F.3d at 622 

(internal quotation marks omitted).

2. Jose Trevino’s Sentence

Jose Trevino argues that the scheme only involved $1,734,000, so the 

district court’s finding that he was responsible for $25,000,000 in laundered 

funds was clearly erroneous. He also contends the district court erroneously 

concluded that he was a leader or supervisor within the meaning of U.S.S.G. 

§ 3B1.1(c), that the money-laundering scheme was “sophisticated” under 

U.S.S.G. § 2S1.1(b)(3), and that Jose Trevino knew it involved drug proceeds 

under U.S.S.G. § 2S1.1(b)(1)(B)(i). We disagree.

Jose Trevino points to no evidence that rebuts the PSR’s analysis or 

establishes that the district court’s factual finding was clearly erroneous. As 

described in detail above, the money-laundering scheme was sophisticated, 

involving multiple layers of leadership and organizations, including fictitious 

entities and shell corporations. See U.S.S.G. § 2S1.1 cmt. n.5(A) 

(“[S]ophisticated laundering’ means complex or intricate offense conduct 

pertaining to the execution or concealment of the 18 U.S.C. [§] 1956 offense. 

Sophisticated laundering typically involves the use of (i) fictitious entities; (ii) 

shell corporations; [or] (iii) two or more levels (i.e., layering) of transactions, 

transportation, transfers, or transmissions, involving criminally derived funds 

that were intended to appear legitimate . . . .”). Additionally, the district court 

had “no trouble finding” that Trevino “exercised leadership,” citing the thirteen 

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or fourteen employees at the horse ranch. The record reflects that Jose Trevino 

offered no rebuttal evidence. For the reasons stated above, the district court 

could reasonably conclude Jose Trevino was aware that drug proceeds were 

involved. 

Additionally, Jose Trevino has not shown that the district court’s 

conclusion that, in light of the trial evidence, “the calculated base is easily over 

[$]20 million” is clearly erroneous either. As the government points out, after 

forfeiture, the horses alone sold for about $9 million. The probation officer 

described $16,272,011.16 paid for horses and an additional $8,794,264.21 paid 

for horse expenses. Jose Trevino does not offer or point to any evidence to rebut 

this finding. Accordingly, his sentence is affirmed.

3. Garcia–Solis’s Sentence

Garcia–Solis similarly challenges the twenty-level increase for the value 

of the laundered funds. He contends that he entered the conspiracy late, and 

therefore, he participated in only “two horse sales with a value of $510,900.” 

But, as the government points out, at sentencing Agent Lawson testified that 

Garcia–Solis was involved in more than $9 million to $16 million in horse 

purchases from 2010–2012. In light of this evidence, the district court’s factual 

finding that Garcia–Solis was involved in more than $7,000,000 in money 

laundering was “plausible in light of the record as a whole,” Alaniz, 726 F.3d 

at 622 (internal quotation marks omitted). Thus, his sentence is affirmed.

III. CONCLUSION

For the foregoing reasons, we REVERSE Eusevio Huitron’s conviction

and RENDER a judgment of acquittal. We also VACATE Francisco Antonio 

Colorado Cessa’s conviction, sentence, and money judgment; and we REMAND 

for proceedings consistent with this opinion. We AFFIRM the sentences and 

convictions in all other respects.

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