Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 2008

Drew Liming 

and 

Michael Wolf

Drew Liming and 

Michael Wolf are 

economists in the 

Office of Occupational Statistics 

and Employment 

Projections, BLS,

(202) 691-5262 or 

liming.drew@bls.

gov and 

(202) 691-5714 or 

wolf.michael@bls.

gov, respectively.

What will you need to succeed in the job market of 

tomorrow? In an increasingly competitive world, the 

best advice for jobseekers is to develop new skills.

Education is a good way to develop skills—and it may lead to 

better employment prospects and higher earnings. But opportunities for secure, lucrative careers also exist for workers who prefer 

to acquire skills on the job. This article uses data from the U.S. 

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) and the U.S. Census Bureau to 

analyze how workers’ education or training relates to their job 

prospects and earnings. The information is useful for learning 

about occupations and possible career options at various education 

levels. 

The first section of the article explains the methodology 

used. The second section looks at data and trends relating to the 

educational attainment of workers. The next sections analyze 

selected occupations grouped into categories that are based on the 

typical educational attainment of the workers in them: bachelor’s 

or higher degree; a mix of levels; and high school diploma or less. 

The end of the article suggests additional sources of information. 

Job outlook 

by education, 

2006–16
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 
 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 2008

Methods used

Wage data in this article come from the 

BLS Occupational Employment Statistics 

(OES) survey, and the earnings premium 

and educational attainment data are from 

the Census Bureau’s American Community 

Survey (ACS). Analyses of job openings use 

data from the BLS Employment Projections 

program. 

Wage data and earnings premiums

Median annual wages from the OES survey 

represent gross pay for wage and salary workers in the U.S. economy. For occupations with 

median annual wages of more than $145,600, 

a specific wage figure is not given because the 

OES survey does not publish wage data above 

this amount. In these cases, the tables show 

that median wages were greater than or equal 

to (≥) $145,600.

And because the OES survey does not 

collect occupational data by educational 

attainment, earnings premiums are calculated from ACS data. The ACS data cover all 

workers in the economy, including the selfemployed. Earnings premiums are the variation in income between workers with different 

education levels in the same occupation.

Educational attainment

In this article, ACS data on educational attainment are for employed persons between 25 

and 44 years of age. The age of the population 

surveyed is limited to these age cutoffs for 

two reasons. Many workers younger than age 

25 have not yet reached their peak education 

level; becoming a doctor, for example, usually 

requires a professional degree and many years 

of study beyond the bachelor’s degree level. 

And workers older than age 44 are excluded 

because, generally, the usual educational 

requirements for many occupations have 

increased over time, making data from older 

workers unrepresentative of current requirements. 

Job openings

BLS projects opportunities for new workers 

from two sources: new openings resulting 

from growth, and openings resulting from 

















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Chart 1

Educational attainment of the population 1975–2006

Source: Current Population Survey
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 

workers who leave an occupation and need to 

be replaced. 

Openings due to growth are based on 

projections of employment change between 

2006 and 2016. Occupations grow as the 

demand increases for the goods they produce 

or services they provide. Most occupations 

grow over time, along with growth in the 

economy and the population. But some 

occupations decline due to factors such as 

automation or work restructuring.

Workers leave their occupations for many 

reasons, such as to retire from the workforce, 

take a new job, raise a family, or go back to 

school. These workers need to be replaced, 

and replacement needs are a major source of 

opportunities for new workers. Replacement 

needs are calculated for each occupation by 

looking at past trends of workers who leave 

the occupation and at the current demographic 

breakdown of the occupation.

Educational attainment 

data and trends

Data on workers’ educational attainment are 

measured by the highest level of schooling 

completed. Over the long term, there has been 

a trend toward increased educational attainment. According to data from the Current 

Population Survey—a survey of households 

that collects labor-force and demographic 

data—the share of the population aged 16 

and over who have college degrees roughly 

doubled over the past three decades, as did the 

share of those with some college education. 

Over the same time, the share of those attaining a high school diploma or less declined. 

(See chart 1.)

These trends are a response to the career 

advantages of education. As shown in chart 2, 

every additional level of education completed 

leads to increased earnings and lower rates 

of unemployment. And the largest earnings 

increase, 42 percent, comes with earning 

a high school diploma. (More information 

about earnings premiums for completing high 

school begins on page 25.) 

Employment of college graduates is projected to grow faster than average from 2006 

to 2016. However, employment of workers 

with less education will also increase, and the 

need to replace workers who retire will create 

openings for workers of all education levels. 

     

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Chart 2

Earnings and unemployment rate by educational attainment, 2006
 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 2008

Grouping occupations by 

education level

In the three sections that follow, occupations are grouped into categories based on 

the educational composition of their workforce. These categories are: college, mixed 

education, and high school. Each section 

corresponds to one of these categories and is 

followed by tables of data that are discussed 

in the text. 

For this analysis, an occupation is considered college level if more than 50 percent of 

its workers have at least a bachelor’s degree; 

this includes those workers who have a 

graduate degree. Occupations in which most 

workers have less than a bachelor’s degree 

but more than a high school 

diploma, or in which there is 

no majority of workers from 

a single education level, are 

in the mixed-education category. And occupations in 

which most workers have a 

high school diploma or less 

education are grouped as high 

school-level occupations. 

These categories were 

created for purposes of 

analysis in this article 

only; they do not define 

the educational level of all 

workers in a category. For 

example, a college graduate 

may choose to work in an 

occupation in which most 

workers have a high school 

diploma or less. Similarly, a 

high school graduate may, in 

some cases, qualify to work 

in an occupation consisting 

primarily of college graduates.

Each of the following 

sections discusses common 

education and training options. 

The sections also present 

detailed occupations that are 

projected to have the most 

openings over the 2006–16 decade. To provide 

a broader look at employment options, each 

section also describes major fields of work 

for people who have the corresponding 

education level. Accompanying tables display 

the projected growth rates and 2006 median 

annual wages of 10 selected occupations from 

each of these major fields for comparison 

with the national averages, roughly 10 percent 

and $30,400, respectively, according to BLS. 

Some tables also show earnings premiums 

for workers within occupations who have 

additional education.

Earnings premiums and differences in 

wages presented in this article do not stem 

entirely from workers’ educational attainment. 

For example, higher wages may be due to 

experience as well as education levels. 
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 

College-level occupations

Workers who have a bachelor’s or higher 

degree usually expect a bright future. And 

with good reason: BLS data show that the 

number of jobs for workers with a bachelor’s 

or higher degree is projected to increase 

from 38 million in 2006, or about 25 percent 

of the workforce, to more than 43 million 

by 2016. That’s a growth rate of nearly 15 

percent—faster than the average growth for 

all occupations, and faster than the rate for 

jobs at other education levels. Completing 

a college education also enhances workers’ 

earning potential.

The tables accompanying this section are 

on pages 10–14.

Types of collegiate education. In this 

article, undergraduate and graduate levels of 

educational attainment are discussed together. 

People earn an undergraduate degree 

when they graduate from a 4-year college or 

university. The most common undergraduate 

degrees are the bachelor of arts (B.A.) and the 

bachelor of science (B.S.), which are available 

in many fields of study. 

Although many occupations are typically filled by workers who have a bachelor’s 

degree, a few occupations usually require 

even more education in the form of a graduate 

degree. U.S. universities offer three principal 

types of graduate degrees: master’s, 

doctoral, and first professional.

Master’s degrees usually require 1 

to 2 years of full-time study beyond a 

bachelor’s degree. Common master’s 

degrees include the master of business 

administration (M.B.A.), master of 

arts (M.A.), master of science (M.S.), 

and master of education (M.Ed.).

Doctoral degrees usually require 4 

to 6 years of full-time study beyond a 

bachelor’s degree and include completion of a dissertation, a lengthy work 

of independent research. The most 

common doctoral degree is the doctor 

of philosophy (Ph.D.), which is awarded in many academic fields. 

First professional degrees prepare 

students for employment in a specific 

occupation and typically take between 2 and 4 

years of full-time graduate-level study. Common first professional degrees include the 

doctor of medicine (M.D.) and doctor of law 

(J.D.). 

Occupations with many openings. 

In which occupations do workers with a 

bachelor’s or higher degree generally work? 

Although dispersed throughout the economy, 

these workers are more common in some 

occupations than in others. For example, 

BLS data show that in 2006, about half of all 

workers in college-level occupations were 

in jobs related to education, healthcare, and 

computers. (See chart 3.)

Chart 4 shows the detailed college-level 

occupations projected to provide the most job 

openings over the next 10 years, as well as 

2006 wages in those occupations. The list is 

diverse, suggesting that there will be opportunities for these graduates in many fields. In 

addition, each of the listed occupations had 

wages above the annual median for all occupations in 2006. 

Just as college-level occupations are, as a 

whole, growing faster than average, so too are 

many of the detailed occupations on the chart. 

In fact, 8 of the 10 occupations in chart 4 are 

projected to grow faster than the average for 

all occupations. 

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Chart 3

Percent distribution of college jobs, 2006

Note: Percents do not sum to 100 due to rounding.
 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 2008

But neither many openings nor fast 

growth guarantee that everyone who wants a 

job will get one. The high wages and prestige 

of many of the occupations on the chart make 

them popular choices for job entrants. If the 

number of jobseekers is higher than the number of openings, not everyone who wants to 

find employment and is qualified will be able 

to do so in these occupations.

Major fields of work. Jobs in healthcare, 

education, management, computer and engineering, and business and finance are popular 

choices for college-level workers.

Healthcare. Demand for healthcare is 

expected to increase to meet the needs of a 

growing and aging population. According to 

BLS, almost all healthcare occupations are 

growing faster than the average for all occupations through 2016. (See table 1.) Registered 

nurses are expected to be in especially high 

demand. 

Usual education requirements and 

wages vary significantly among healthcare 

occupations. A bachelor’s degree isn’t 

always necessary to find work in all of 

these occupations—for example, nurse and 

lab technician. However, other healthcare 

occupations, including physician and dentist, 

require a professional degree. The high levels 

of education and skill usually required in 

these healthcare occupations generally are 

rewarded by median wages that are higher 

than the average for all occupations. 

Education. Growth in opportunities for 

postsecondary teachers, the largest occupation 

in education, is expected to be strong through 

2016. Demand for other types of teachers—

including those in elementary, middle, and 

secondary schools—is also expected to 

increase but will be limited by slow growth in 

the number of incoming students. 

Most occupations in table 2 usually 

require at least a bachelor’s degree; postsecondary teachers and librarians usually need a 

graduate degree. Wages for education workers 

are often lower than those in other collegelevel fields, but some teachers supplement 

their income by coaching sports or supervising clubs. And teachers often enjoy other benefits, such as significant job security through 

tenure programs and time off during summers 

and school vacation weeks. 

Management. Management occupations 

are expected to be propelled by a growing 

global economy and increasing business 

opportunities. But projected growth of 

     

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Chart 4

College occupations with the most job openings, projected 2006–16 

(Openings in thousands)
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 

specific types of management occupations, 

such as medical and health services managers 

and education administrators, depend on the 

expected growth in their respective industries. 

(See table 3.) 

Usual educational requirements also 

vary by position. Engineering, natural sciences, and education managers usually have 

advanced degrees, for example, but not all 

management jobs require a college degree. 

Experience and a record of success may be 

more important than qualifications, such as 

for sales managers. Management positions 

often involve considerable responsibility and 

tend to be well compensated, but competition 

makes them difficult to attain. 

Computer and engineering. Technological 

advances and the desire for increased productivity are expected to create growth for 

computer and engineering occupations. Table 

4 shows some of the computer and engineering jobs that are projected to grow over the 

2006–16 decade. In fact, all engineering occupations, especially biomedical and environmental engineers, are projected to have an 

increase in the number of jobs. Acquiring a 

position in computer and engineering usually requires a high level of technical skill, 

but workers often have high wages; all of the 

occupations in the table have median annual 

wages that are more than twice the median for 

all occupations. 

Business and financial. Demand for workers in business fields is expected to stem from 

new financial regulations and increasingly 

complex budgets and investment strategies. As 

shown in table 5, many of these occupations 

have significant numbers of workers with less 

education than a college degree. Although a 

degree isn’t always required in these occupations, it can often increase job prospects and 

potential earnings.

Occupations usually requiring a graduate degree. As mentioned previously, some 

occupations usually require more education 

than an undergraduate degree. Tables 6, 7, 

and 8 list the largest occupations identified by 

BLS as needing a master’s, doctoral, or first 

professional degree. 

Master’s-level occupations primarily 

include counseling, education, and healthcare 

occupations. Despite the additional education 

needed for these occupations, their wages are 

not significantly higher than those of most 

college-level occupations. (See table 6.)

Doctoral-level occupations are primarily 

science or math occupations that do not have 

large numbers of workers. An exception is 

postsecondary teachers, which is one of the 

largest college-level occupations. Wages are 

high for all of these occupations, but because 

of the small numbers of workers in them, 

most are not expected to have many openings 

through 2016. (See table 7.)

Nearly all occupations that usually require 

a first professional degree are healthcare 

related. Many of these occupations are among 

those with the highest wages, reflecting the 

benefits of completing additional education. 

(See table 8.)

Earnings premiums for higher degrees.

Occupations that typically require higher 

degrees often have higher wages. However, 

many workers who do have higher degrees are 

employed in occupations in which graduatelevel study may not be required. Nonetheless, 

having a higher degree can still increase a 

worker’s earnings. The specific benefits of 

additional education vary by occupation; 

some provide more of a premium for workers 

with a master’s degree, others provide less.

Table 9 shows occupations in which there 

is a high earnings premium for workers who 

have a master’s degree over workers who have 

a bachelor’s degree. Several financial and education occupations have large premiums.

Table 10 shows occupations with earnings 

premiums of less than 10 percent for workers 

who have a master’s degree over workers who 

have a bachelor’s degree. Prominent among 

these are writing and computer occupations, 

which often favor demonstrated skill in the 

field over education and thus may account 

for lower earnings premiums. Although these 

premiums are relatively small, they show that 

in most cases additional education is linked to 

higher earnings.
10 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 2008

Table 1

Selected healthcare occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Registered nurses 2,505 24 1,000 $57,280 1 43 56

Physicians and surgeons 633 14 204 ≥145,600 0 0 100

Pharmacists 243 22 95 94,520 0 3 97

Physical therapists 173 27 68 66,200 2 9 89

Medical and clinical laboratory technologists 167 12 46 49,700 14 35 51

Medical and clinical laboratory technicians 151 15 46 32,840 14 35 51

Dentists, general 136 9 40 132,140 0 0 100

Speech-language pathologists 110 11 33 57,710 0 0 98

Occupational therapists 99 23 37 60,470 0 9 90

Physician assistants 66 27 27 74,980 8 26 67

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

Table 2

Selected education occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Postsecondary teachers 1,672 23 662 $56,120 0 5 95

Elementary school teachers, except special 

education 1,540 14 545 45,570 0 5 95

Secondary school teachers, except special 

and vocational education 1,038 6 368 47,740 1 4 96

Middle school teachers, except special and 

vocational education 658 11 218 46,300 0 5 95

Self-enrichment education teachers 261 23 88 33,440 17 29 54

Special education teachers, preschool, 

kindergarten, and elementary school 219 20 92 46,360 5 8 87

Librarians 158 4 49 49,060 0 15 85

Special education teachers, secondary school 138 9 43 48,330 5 8 87

Instructional coordinators 129 23 47 52,790 4 17 79

Special education teachers, middle school 102 16 39 47,650 5 8 87

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 11

Table 3

Selected management occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Financial managers 506 13 138 $90,970 13 27 60

Chief executives 402 2 118 ≥145,600 13 22 65

Sales managers 318 10 104 91,560 9 22 69

Computer and information systems 

managers 264 16 86 101,580 5 23 73

Medical and health services managers 262 16 92 73,340 11 32 57

Education administrators, elementary and 

secondary school 226 8 80 77,740 6 15 78

Engineering managers 187 7 52 105,430 4 12 84

Marketing managers 167 14 61 98,720 9 22 69

Education administrators, postsecondary 131 14 56 73,990 6 15 78

Social and community service managers 130 25 57 52,070 9 20 72

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

Table 4

Selected computer and engineering occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Computer software engineers, applications 507 45 300 $79,780 2 13 85

Computer systems analysts 504 29 280 69,760 7 25 68

Computer programmers 435 -4 91 65,510 6 22 73

Computer software engineers, 

systems software

350 28 150 85,370 2 13 85

Network systems and data 

communications analysts

262 53 193 64,600 8 35 57

Civil engineers 256 18 114 68,600 3 10 87

Mechanical engineers 226 4 58 69,850 4 18 78

Industrial engineers 201 20 89 68,620 8 19 74

Electrical engineers 153 6 46 75,930 3 17 81

Architects, except landscape and naval 132 18 48 64,150 2 10 88

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
12 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 200

Table 5

Selected business and financial occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Accountants and auditors 1,274 18 450 $54,630 4 17 79

Management analysts 678 22 265 68,050 7 16 78

Compliance officers, except agriculture, 

construction, health and safety, and 

transportation 237 5 40 47,050 14 28 58

Financial analysts 221 34 88 66,590 3 10 87

Training and development specialists 210 18 83 47,830 14 30 56

Employment, recruitment, and placement 

specialists 197 18 78 42,420 14 30 56

Personal financial advisors 176 41 88 66,120 4 15 81

Compensation, benefits, and job analysis 

specialists 110 18 44 50,230 14 30 56

Insurance underwriters 104 6 35 52,350 16 32 53

Tax preparers 100 -8 18 27,360 15 31 54

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

Table 6

Selected occupations requiring a master’s degree

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 2006

Projected growth 

rate, 2006–16 

(percent)

Net job openings, 

projected 2006–16

Median annual 

wages, 2006

Clergy 404 19 130 $39,680

Educational, vocational, and school counselors 260 13 84 47,530

Physical therapists 173 27 68 66,200

Librarians 158 4 49 49,060

Rehabilitation counselors 141 23 60 29,200

Instructional coordinators 129 23 47 52,790

Mental health and substance abuse social workers 122 30 63 35,410

Speech-language pathologists 110 11 33 57,710

Mental health counselors 100 30 50 34,380

Occupational therapists 99 23 37 60,470
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 1

Table 8

Selected occupations requiring a first professional degree

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 2006

Projected growth 

rate, 2006–16 

(percent)

Net job openings, 

projected 2006–16

Median annual 

wages, 2006

Lawyers 761 11 228 $102,470

Physicians and surgeons 633 14 204 ≥145,600

Pharmacists 243 22 95 94,520

Dentists, general 136 9 40 132,140

Veterinarians 62 35 34 71,990

Chiropractors 53 14 14 65,220

Optometrists 33 11 10 91,040

Podiatrists 12 10 5 108,220

Audiologists 12 10 2 57,120

Orthodontists 9 9 3 ≥145,600

Table 7

Selected occupations requiring a doctoral degree

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 2006

Projected growth 

rate, 2006–16 

(percent)

Net job openings, 

projected 2006–16

Median annual 

wages, 2006

Postsecondary teachers 1,672 23 662 $56,120

Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists 152 16 47 59,440

Medical scientists, except epidemiologists 87 20 45 61,680

Biological scientists, all other 29 4 7 60,940

Computer and information scientists, research 25 22 12 93,950

Biochemists and biophysicists 20 16 7 76,320

Physicists 17 7 5 94,240

Microbiologists 17 11 6 57,980

Mathematicians 3 10 1 86,930

Astronomers 2 6 0 95,740
14 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 200

Table 10

Selected occupations with low earnings premiums for graduate degrees, 2006

Occupation

Median earnings with... Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...

Earnings premiums 

(percent)

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

degree

Doctoral 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

degree

Doctoral 

degree

Master’s 

over 

bachelor’s

Doctoral 

over 

master’s

Editors $50,045 $49,931 - 60 18 - 0 -

Writers and authors 48,967 50,015 $43,884 55 24 3 2 -12

Architects, except naval 60,005 62,032 - 54 29 - 3 -

Occupational therapists 53,052 55,984 - 58 29 - 6 -

Archivists, curators, and museum 

technicians

37,902 40,038 - 36 43 - 6 -

Dietitians and nutritionists 44,942 47,498 - 44 25 - 6 -

Computer hardware engineers 74,834 79,949 - 44 23 - 7 -

Database administrators 69,991 74,948 - 51 20 - 7 -

Computer programmers 69,031 74,865 - 55 17 - 8 -

Computer software engineers 78,051 85,009 100,024 52 30 3 9 18

Source: Authors’ calculations from American Community Survey microdata, 2006

Table 9

Selected occupations with high earnings premiums for graduate degrees, 2006

Occupation

Median earnings with... Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...

Earnings premiums 

(percent)

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

degree

Doctoral 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

degree

Doctoral 

degree

Master’s 

over 

bachelor’s

Doctoral 

over 

master’s

Financial analysts $74,760 $109,983 - 51 32 - 47 -

Tax preparers 41,997 59,909 - 37 13 - 43 -

Financial managers 68,986 97,885 - 42 16 - 42 -

Education administrators 48,064 68,000 $89,025 28 44 4 41 31

Counselors 32,035 45,091 50,002 31 40 1 41 11

Securities, commodities, and financial 

services sales agents 74,864 103,110 - 51 14 - 38 -

Librarians 34,962 48,007 - 27 54 - 37 -

Market and survey researchers 59,952 80,098 - 52 28 - 34 -

Environmental scientists and 

geoscientists 52,061 68,885 - 55 32 - 32 -

Elementary and middle school 

teachers 37,966 49,290 54,913 54 39 1 30 11

Source: Authors’ calculations from American Community Survey microdata, 2006
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 1

Mixed-education occupations

BLS projects that the number of jobs for 

workers who had some college education 

but not a bachelor’s degree will increase 

from more than 46 million, or 30 percent of 

the workforce, in 2006 to about 51 million 

by 2016. That’s a growth rate of almost 11 

percent.

The tables accompanying this section are 

on pages 18–21.

Types of postsecondary training.

Workers in mixed-education occupations 

have a variety of educational backgrounds. 

Some of these workers have a bachelor’s or 

higher degree, and others have no additional 

education beyond a high school diploma. 

They are in this category because workers in 

their occupation have such a wide range of 

education levels that it isn’t easy to classify 

them into either of the other groups. 

The mixed-education group is also made 

up of workers with some form of postsecondary education other than a bachelor’s degree. 

This group can include 

workers with an associate 

degree, certificate, or other 

training through programs at 

community colleges, vocational or technical schools, or 

specially designed partnerships between businesses and 

academic institutions. 

Community colleges are 

one of the primary sources 

of postsecondary training. 

Programs offered lead to 

either an associate degree, 

which usually takes 2 years 

of full-time study, or a certificate, which can take 1 to 3 

years, depending on its type. 

Because most community 

colleges are public institutions, they are generally less 

expensive than other types 

of postsecondary education. They also usually have 

an open admissions policy, 

allowing anyone with a high 

school diploma or equivalent to enroll. Some 

people enroll at community colleges with the 

goal of transferring to a 4-year institution to 

obtain a bachelor’s degree. 

Private institutions also offer associate 

degrees and certificate programs. These institutions are often referred to as junior colleges, 

although many public community colleges 

also use this term. Private 2-year institutions 

are less common than public ones: only about 

5 percent of all students attending 2-year 

institutions were enrolled at private institutions in the fall of 2005, according to the U.S. 

Department of Education.

Many 2-year institutions, both public and 

private, work closely with local governments 

and businesses to design programs for postsecondary training. These programs provide 

practical training that helps workers gain 

skills needed for jobs in their area. 

Occupations with many openings.

Although some groups predominate, occupations throughout the economy include work-
16 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 200

ers whose education levels are mixed. Office 

and administrative support, sales, and service 

occupations are the largest, accounting for 

more than two-thirds of all workers in 2006, 

according to BLS. (See chart 5.) 

Chart 6 lists the mixed-education 

occupations with the most projected 

openings between 2006 and 2016, according 

to BLS, along with the 2006 wages in 

those occupations. Although many types 

of positions are represented, there is a 

significant number of sales and administrative 

occupations, such as secretaries and clerks. 

Wages vary, with four occupations having 

median wages above the median for all 

occupations. 

BLS projects that mixed-education occupations as a whole will grow about as fast as 

the average for all occupations. However, 8 of 

the 10 occupations in chart 6 are projected to 

grow faster than the average. Most new jobs 

in these occupations are expected to result 

from the need to replace departing workers 

rather than from growth. 

Major fields of work. Workers 

with diverse educational backgrounds 

are employed in a variety of office and 

administrative support, sales, service, 

professional and related, and management 

occupations. 

Office and administrative support. BLS 

projects that most occupations in office and 

administrative support, including all of those 

in table 11, will grow through 2016. In occupations that are not expected to have significant growth, the need to replace workers who 

have left is expected to create openings.

Although a college degree isn’t necessary in these occupations, it may improve 

opportunities or earnings in some—especially 

administrative assistant and customer service 

representative. And computer and foreign 

language skills should greatly improve job 

prospects. 

Sales. Job openings in sales occupations 

are expected to be plentiful through 2016, 

thanks to a growing population and rising 

consumer spending. Growth is expected to 

be particularly dependent on the future of the 

U.S. economy as a whole. 

The educational composition of these 

occupations varies significantly. (See table 

12.) Several of these occupations, including those in real estate and insurance, have 

higher educational attainment rates than other 

sales positions, and a college degree may be 

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Chart 5

Percent distribution of mixed-education jobs, 2006
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 1

important to success in finding work in these 

occupations. Strong customer-service and 

communication skills are essential for all sales 

occupations. 

Service. Growth in service occupations 

is projected to increase along with the population between 2006 and 2016. In table 13, 

several of the occupations are in protective 

service occupations—police officers, security guards, and firefighters—that tend to 

be highly competitive and that often require 

specialized training or academy certification. 

Medical assistants, whose expected employment gains are due to the rising demand for 

healthcare, should have the most rapid growth 

of all service occupations. 

Professional and related. The healthcare 

industry is expected to contribute significantly 

to the 2006–16 growth of many professional 

and related occupations. Half of the occupations in table 14 are healthcare related, and 

all of them are expected to grow faster than 

average. Pharmacy technicians, in particular, 

are projected to have excellent growth. 

Mixed-education workers in professional 

and related occupations are usually highly 

skilled assistants and technicians. Therefore, 

    

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Chart 6

Mixed-education occupations with the most job openings, projected 2006–16

(Openings in thousands)

getting a job in this field may require more 

education than other mixed-education occupations. In some jobs, an associate degree might 

be a minimum requirement for entry. 

Management. The relatively high wages 

in management occupations makes them highly competitive. Employment in most management occupations is expected to increase, but 

the individual growth rates depend on the 

industries in which each occupation is found. 

These occupations are classified as mixed 

education, but the educational compositions 

in table 15 show that several management 

occupations—such as those in the food services and construction industries—include a 

significant number of workers whose highest 

education is a high school diploma. This level 

of attainment suggests that related work experience can be just as important as education in 

some of the occupations. Because of the high 

level of competition for these jobs, however, 

jobseekers who have postsecondary training 

may stand apart from others who don’t. 

Earnings premiums for higher education. Although mixed-education occupations generally have workers with diverse 

educational backgrounds, workers with more 
18 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 200

education often enjoy an earnings premium 

over their counterparts. Within an occupation, higher educational attainment often 

gives workers an earnings premium over their 

counterparts. But the benefits of additional 

education vary by occupation. In some, workers with postsecondary education earn more 

of a premium; in others, they earn less.

Table 16 shows occupations in which 

workers with some college or a bachelor’s or 

higher degree enjoy large earnings premiums 

over workers who have a high school diploma. 

Managerial and supervisory positions are well 

represented, which indicates that additional 

education is not always necessary to advance 

into higher level positions, but it may lead to 

higher earnings. A number of sales occupations also have large earnings premiums for 

workers with higher levels of education. 

Table 17 shows occupations with earnings 

premiums of less than 10 percent for workers who have some postsecondary education 

over those who have a high school diploma or 

less. These occupations also have relatively 

low earnings premiums for workers who 

have a bachelor’s or higher degree compared 

with workers who have some postsecondary 

education. In several of the occupations that 

have lower skill requirements, such as tellers 

and data entry keyers, additional education 

is unlikely to significantly impact productivity; as a result, wages are comparable for all 

education levels. 

Table 11

Selected office and administrative support occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Office clerks, general 3,200 13 991 $23,710 36 45 19

Customer service representatives 2,202 25 1,158 28,330 34 44 22

Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing 

clerks 2,114 13 595 30,560 34 50 16

Secretaries, except legal, medical, and 

executive 1,940 1 331 27,450 33 49 18

Executive secretaries and administrative 

assistants 1,618 15 497 37,240 33 49 18

First-line supervisors/managers of office and 

administrative support workers 1,418 6 375 43,510 28 43 29

Receptionists and information clerks 1,173 17 489 22,900 42 46 13

Tellers 608 14 348 22,140 39 45 16

Billing and posting clerks and machine 

operators 542 4 93 28,850 36 49 15

Bill and account collectors 434 23 165 29,050 38 48 13

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 1

Table 12

Selected sales occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Retail salespersons 4,477 12 1,935 $19,760 38 37 25

First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales 

workers 1,676 4 423 33,960 39 37 25

First-line supervisors/managers of non-retail 

sales workers 530 4 95 65,510 31 31 38

Insurance sales agents 436 13 151 43,870 18 36 45

Real estate sales agents 432 11 115 39,760 18 37 45

Door-to-door sales workers, news and street 

vendors, and related workers 200 4 34 20,190 47 32 21

Real estate brokers 131 11 36 60,790 18 37 45

Demonstrators and product promoters 105 18 49 22,150 38 36 26

Travel agents 101 1 8 29,210 25 49 26

Models 2 10 1 23,340 38 36 26

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

Table 13

Selected service occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Child care workers 1,388 18 647 $17,630 48 38 15

Security guards 1,040 17 386 21,530 46 42 13

Police and sheriff’s patrol officers 648 11 243 47,460 16 52 33

Bartenders 495 11 236 16,350 42 41 17

Correctional officers and jailers 442 17 176 35,760 40 49 11

Medical assistants 417 35 200 26,290 31 59 10

Recreation workers 320 13 101 20,470 21 32 47

Fire fighters 293 12 142 41,190 23 59 18

Dental assistants 280 29 131 30,220 34 58 9

Amusement and recreation attendants 247 24 182 16,290 46 32 22

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
20 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 200

Table 14

Selected professional and related occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Teacher assistants 1,312 10 351 $20,740 37 45 18

Licensed practical and licensed vocational 

nurses 749 14 309 36,550 21 72 7

Computer support specialists 552 13 242 41,470 13 44 43

Preschool teachers, except special education 437 26 187 22,680 20 38 43

Pharmacy technicians 285 32 178 25,630 27 57 16

Paralegals and legal assistants 238 22 84 43,040 13 43 45

Emergency medical technicians and 

paramedics 201 19 62 27,070 18 68 14

Radiologic technologists and technicians 196 15 57 48,170 7 68 25

Electrical and electronic engineering 

technicians 170 4 39 50,660 27 54 18

Medical records and health information 

technicians 170 18 76 28,030 37 51 12

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

Table 15

Selected management occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

General and operations managers 1,720 2 441 $85,230 20 33 48

Construction managers 487 16 152 73,700 40 31 29

Food service managers 350 5 101 43,020 40 36 24

Property, real estate, and community 

association managers 329 15 95 43,070 27 37 36

Farm, ranch, and other agricultural managers 258 1 22 52,070 45 29 26

Administrative services managers 247 12 94 67,690 21 39 40

Industrial production managers 157 -6 54 77,670 25 32 43

Transportation, storage, and distribution 

managers 94 8 36 73,080 39 36 25

Lodging managers 71 12 25 42,320 23 32 45

Funeral directors 29 13 11 49,620 9 51 41

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 2

Table 16

Selected occupations with high earnings premiums for postsecondary education, 2006

Occupation

Median earnings with... Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...

Earnings premiums 

(percent)

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree 

over high 

school or 

less

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree 

over some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Property, real estate, and community 

association managers $33,968 $40,022 $61,963 27 37 36 18 55

First-line supervisors/managers of 

non-retail sales workers 39,965 48,013 73,577 31 31 38 20 53

Insurance sales agents 32,938 39,936 60,010 18 36 45 21 51

Retail salespersons 24,974 29,987 38,999 38 36 25 20 30

Emergency medical technicians and 

paramedics 32,023 38,934 49,953 18 68 14 22 28

First-line supervisors/managers of 

retail sales workers 29,990 35,985 44,723 39 37 25 20 24

Farm, ranch, and other agricultural 

managers 30,015 37,975 46,015 45 29 26 27 21

Administrative services managers 43,959 53,914 65,017 21 39 40 23 21

Computer operators 30,013 36,050 43,007 27 46 27 20 19

Police and sheriffs patrol officers 41,076 49,975 58,055 16 52 33 22 16

Source: Authors’ calculations from American Community Survey microdata, 2006

Table 17

Selected occupations with low earnings premiums for postsecondary education, 2006

Occupation

Median earnings with... Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...

Earnings premiums 

(percent)

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

High 

school 

diploma 

or less

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree 

over high 

school or 

less

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree 

over some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Postal service clerks $45,036 $46,076 $47,057 43 46 11 2 2

Tellers 21,197 22,015 23,025 39 45 16 4 5

Data entry keyers 25,018 26,023 28,001 35 47 18 4 8

Drafters 41,020 42,892 44,015 13 62 25 5 3

Massage therapists 23,317 25,009 25,005 19 49 32 7 0

Loan interviewers and clerks 32,016 34,288 35,020 32 45 24 7 2

Construction and building inspectors 39,966 42,971 47,078 31 46 23 8 10

Word processors and typists 26,497 29,027 29,963 29 52 19 10 3

Gaming services workers 32,985 35,033 36,030 45 44 11 6 3

Radio and telecommunications 

equipment installers and repairers 48,078 52,050 53,922 36 51 13 8 4

Source: Authors’ calculations from American Community Survey microdata, 2006
22 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 20

High school-level occupations

For workers with a high school education or 

less, there were about 66 million jobs—almost 

44 percent of the total—in 2006, according to 

BLS. And this number is projected to increase 

to more than 71 million by 2016, a growth 

rate of about 8 percent.

The tables accompanying this section are 

on pages 25–28.

Types of on-the-job training. This section 

on high school-level occupations includes 

both workers who have a high school diploma 

and those who don’t. Overall, workers who 

complete high school have better job prospects and earn higher wages than their counterparts who lack a diploma. 

Most workers who do not pursue formal 

education beyond high school are trained on 

the job. On-the-job training ranges from a 

brief lecture or demonstration to a multiyear 

apprenticeship program. 

BLS classifies occupations that usually 

require on-the-job training into three 

categories, based on the length of time it takes 

workers to complete that training. Short-term 

on-the-job training includes programs that 

take less than 1 month to complete, moderateterm on-the-job training takes between 1 

month and 1 year, and long-term on-the-job 

training lasts longer than 1 year.

Short-term on-the-job training is most 

common for low-skilled occupations in which 

a brief demonstration of the work is sufficient. 

For example, new employees in food service 

occupations are often instructed in sanitary 

procedures for handling food and in preparing 

and serving menu items. These employees are 

then put to work, sometimes under the guidance of more skilled workers. 

Moderate-term on-the-job training is 

common in occupations that have multiple 

job duties or usually require tasks that are 

too complex to learn in a few days or weeks. 

Newly hired painters, for example, complete 

simple preparation tasks for more experienced workers while learning about supplies, 

materials, and safety procedures. They then 

learn mixing and application techniques, and, 

eventually, decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost estimating.

Long-term on-the-job training is provided 

in higher skilled occupations, ones in which 

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Chart 7

Percent distribution of high school jobs, 2006

Note: Percents do not sum to 100 due to rounding.
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 

Chart 8

High school occupations with the most openings, projected 2006–16 

(Openings in thousands)

    

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learning the craft takes years of study or 

apprenticeship. For example, machinists may 

learn their job through an apprenticeship that 

lasts about 4 years. In addition to learning 

about and practice in using the tools of the 

trade, they also take courses in mathematics, 

materials science, mechanical drawing, and 

other subjects offered by either their employer 

or local schools. These programs may attract 

workers who have no formal education 

beyond a high school diploma, but many 

types of long-term on-the-job training require 

a time commitment similar to postsecondary 

education.

Workers in on-the-job training programs 

are paid during the learning process, although 

their wages are usually lower than those of 

fully trained employees. Usually, the longer 

the training required, the higher the wages. 

For example, according to BLS, the median 

annual wage for workers in occupations that 

typically require long-term on-the-job training 

was $37,360 in 2006, compared with $29,100 

for those that usually require moderate-term 

on-the-job training and $19,620 for those usually requiring short-term on-the-job training.

Occupations with many openings.

Occupations in which most workers have 

no formal education beyond high school 

are concentrated in specific areas of the 

economy. Food preparation and serving, 

production, and transportation and material 

moving occupations are the largest distinct 

occupational groups, accounting for half of 

all workers in 2006, according to BLS. (See 

chart 7.) However, the largest fields are not 

necessarily those that are projected to have the 

most favorable prospects.

Chart 8 lists the occupations in this 

category that are expected to have the most 

openings over the 2006–16 decade. These 

openings will result from both job growth and 

the need to replace workers who leave. Many 

types of occupations are represented, but there 

is a significant number of food preparation 

and serving jobs. Wages in these occupations 

are usually low, with one exception: Truck 

drivers had wages that were higher than the 

average for all occupations in 2006. 

The average rate of growth projected for 

high school-level occupations is lower than 

the average for all occupations. And, as with 
24 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 20

all jobs, competition may be a factor, especially for those that pay well. But there should 

still be many openings for jobseekers who 

have a high school diploma or less. 

Major fields of work. Many workers 

whose highest level of educational attainment 

is a high school diploma or less have jobs in 

food preparation and serving; production; 

transportation and material moving; construction; and installation, maintenance, and repair 

occupations. 

Food preparation and serving. Food 

preparation occupations are a common option 

for many of these workers. In 2006, BLS 

data show that the food services and drinking places industry was among the Nation’s 

largest employers, with about 9.4 million 

wage and salary jobs. And these occupations 

are projected to grow with the U.S. population 

and the increased popularity of dining out. 

(See table 18.) The need to replace workers 

who leave means there should always be lots 

of openings. 

Production. Although many of the 

production occupations in table 19 are not 

expected to grow through 2016, opportunities 

will result from the need to replace retiring 

workers. Employment in production occupations is projected to be adversely affected 

by increased automation and strong foreign 

competition. These same factors are causing 

an increase in the skill level of production 

occupations, so workers may need more training—but they may also earn higher wages. 

Transportation and material moving. 

Most transportation and material moving 

occupations, including those shown in table 

20, are projected to have many openings. 

Employment in these occupations is expected 

to grow along with the U.S. population, and 

most of the occupations are strongly affected 

by growth in the national economy and the 

rising demand for the movement of goods and 

people around the country.

In these occupations, as in most others, 

workers who have higher level skills usually 

have higher wages. Truck and bus drivers 

have the highest wages among transportation 

and material moving occupations, reflecting the skill and training required to perform 

their jobs. Truck drivers, for example, must 

pass both written and field evaluations before 

receiving certification, and with more experience they earn both higher wages and more 

control over their routes. And workers in 

support occupations, such as freight laborers, 

can use on-the-job experience to advance to 

supervisory positions.

Construction. Some construction occupations usually require little training, but others 

demand significant skill and experience that 

are usually gained through formal instruction 

in an apprenticeship program or technical 

school. And some occupations in this field—

including plumbers and electricians—are 

subject to licensing requirements. But higher 

level skills often mean higher wages; all but 

one of the occupations in table 21 have wages 

that are above the average for all occupations.

Construction workers are expected to 

have good prospects, especially those skilled 

in specialty trades who are frequently called 

upon to work as subcontractors. Population 

growth across the country, especially in the 

South and West, and the need to regularly 

maintain the Nation’s infrastructure, are projected to spur new construction projects over 

the 2006–16 decade. 

Installation, maintenance, and repair 

occupations. For workers with a high schoollevel education, these occupations are among 

those that offer the highest wages, a result 

of the significant skill and training usually 

required to enter them. Most of these workers 

have no formal postsecondary training, 

but significant portions do. Installation, 

maintenance and repair workers generally 

learn the skills they need either through 

formal postsecondary education programs or 

structured on-the-job training. Many of the 

occupations in table 22 require certification, 

and an associate degree can greatly enhance 

prospects.

The job outlook for installation, maintenance, and repair occupations is expected 

to be favorable. Many workers are nearing 

retirement age and will need to be replaced. In 

addition, the increasing number of cars, buses, 
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 

and machines will require more technicians 

who are qualified to maintain and repair them. 

Earnings premiums for completing high 

school. Not all jobs usually require that workers have a high school diploma or its equivalent. However, completing high school or 

passing a General Educational Development 

(GED) exam—a test that certifies academic 

skills equivalent to a high school education— 

can lead to better opportunities and higher 

earnings. 

Workers who have a high school diploma 

but no postsecondary training earn about 

$8,000 more, on average, than workers who 

did not graduate from high school. The 

benefits of having more education vary by 

occupation; some provide more of a premium 

for those who have completed high school, 

but others provide less.

Table 23 shows occupations in which 

workers who have a high school diploma 

enjoy large earnings premiums over those 

who don’t. Earnings for workers who have 

some college education are also included 

for comparison purposes. Most of these 

occupations usually require significant 

training, although not usually through formal 

programs. Because of the amount of training 

needed, employers often prefer to hire people 

who have shown the ability and perseverance 

to finish high school. 

Table 24 shows occupations that have low 

earnings premiums for occupations that usually require completion of high school. These 

occupations have lower skill requirements and 

typically require little training. 

In both tables, there is a bigger jump 

in wages for having completed high school 

than for having some postsecondary education. This may serve as an indicator of the 

importance employers place on earning a high 

school diploma.

Table 18

Selected food preparation and serving related occupations 

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Postsecondary 

education

Combined food preparation and serving 

workers, including fast food 2,503 18 927 $15,050 26 45 29

Waiters and waitresses 2,361 11 1,537 14,850 15 35 49

Food preparation workers 902 15 451 17,410 35 39 26

Cooks, restaurant 850 12 328 20,340 35 42 24

First-line supervisors/managers of food 

preparation and serving workers 817 11 153 26,980 14 37 49

Cooks, fast food 629 8 222 15,410 35 42 24

Counter attendants, cafeteria, food 

concession, and coffee shop 533 10 424 16,130 23 49 27

Dishwashers 517 10 265 15,750 47 40 13

Dining room and cafeteria attendants and 

bartender helpers 416 12 223 15,310 33 43 24

Cooks, institution and cafeteria 401 11 152 20,410 35 42 24

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
26 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 20

Table 20

Selected transportation and material moving occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Postsecondary 

education

Laborers and freight, stock, and material 

movers, hand 2,416 2 823 $21,220 23 49 28

Truck drivers, heavy and tractor-trailer 1,860 10 523 35,040 20 51 29

Truck drivers, light or delivery services 1,051 8 275 25,300 20 51 29

Packers and packagers, hand 834 -12 102 17,650 44 39 17

Industrial truck and tractor operators 637 -2 161 27,270 26 53 21

Bus drivers, school 455 9 102 24,820 11 50 39

Driver/sales workers 445 -5 79 20,770 20 51 29

Cleaners of vehicles and equipment 368 14 192 18,060 36 47 17

Taxi drivers and chauffeurs 229 13 60 20,350 17 41 43

Bus drivers, transit and intercity 198 13 51 32,090 11 50 39

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

Table 19

Selected production occupations 

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Postsecondary 

education

Team assemblers 1,274 0 266 $24,190 22 49 29

First-line supervisors/managers of production 

and operating workers 699 -5 117 47,300 12 41 47

Helpers—production workers 542 -1 133 20,740 39 41 19

Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and 

weighers 491 -7 73 29,420 13 40 47

Welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers 409 5 108 31,400 23 51 27

Machinists 397 -3 61 34,770 11 48 41

Packaging and filling machine operators and 

tenders 386 -5 72 22,990 37 43 20

Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, 

operators, and tenders, metal and plastic 272 -15 65 26,340 21 56 23

Laundry and dry-cleaning workers 239 10 77 17,850 35 44 21

Printing machine operators 198 -6 44 30,990 14 52 34

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 

Table 21

Selected construction and extraction occupations 

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Postsecondary 

education

Carpenters 1,462 10 348 $36,550 28 45 27

Construction laborers 1,232 11 227 26,320 38 41 21

First-line supervisors/managers of 

construction trades and extraction 

workers 772 9 178 53,850 17 43 40

Electricians 705 7 233 43,610 10 40 49

Plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters 502 11 157 42,770 20 48 32

Painters, construction and maintenance 463 12 136 31,190 38 39 24

Operating engineers and other construction 

equipment operators 424 8 117 36,890 25 53 22

Cement masons and concrete finishers 222 11 89 32,650 44 41 14

Sheet metal workers 189 7 59 37,360 18 46 37

Drywall and ceiling tile installers 186 7 40 36,140 47 38 15

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

Table 22

Selected installation, maintenance, and repair occupations

(Employment and openings in thousands)

Occupation Employment, 

2006

Projected 

growth 

rate, 

2006–16 

(percent)

Net job 

openings, 

projected 

2006–16

Median 

annual 

wages, 

2006

Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...*

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Postsecondary 

education

Maintenance and repair workers, general 1,391 10 174 $31,910 15 43 42

Automotive service technicians and 

mechanics 773 14 265 33,780 19 44 38

Heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration 

mechanics and installers 292 9 76 37,660 14 43 42

Bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine 

specialists 275 12 92 37,660 17 49 34

Industrial machinery mechanics 261 9 68 41,050 11 45 44

Automotive body and related repairers 183 12 64 35,180 23 52 26

Helpers—installation, maintenance, and 

repair workers 163 12 57 22,270 34 43 23

Mobile heavy equipment mechanics, except 

engines 131 12 42 40,440 15 47 38

Electrical power-line installers and repairers 112 7 43 50,780 7 49 44

Tire repairers and changers 106 20 42 21,340 28 46 26

* Percents may not sum to 100 due to rounding.
28 Occupational Outlook Quarterly • Fall 20

(Continued from page 22.)

Table 24

Selected occupations with low earnings premiums for completing high school or some postsecondary education, 2006

Occupation

Median earnings with... Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...

Earnings premiums 

(percent)

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

High 

school 

diploma 

over less 

than 

a high 

school 

diploma

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree 

over high 

school

Service station attendants $17,988 $18,018 $19,107 23 45 26 0 6

First-line supervisors/managers of food 

preparation and serving workers 21,798 21,960 25,152 14 37 35 1 15

Farmers and ranchers 24,053 24,625 27,005 13 41 30 2 10

Food preparation workers 15,004 15,899 16,476 35 39 19 6 4

Cooks 16,003 16,987 18,990 35 42 19 6 12

Taxi drivers and chauffeurs 20,013 21,968 23,036 17 41 27 10 5

Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, 

operators, and tenders, metal and plastic 24,038 26,784 28,019 21 56 22 11 5

Industrial truck and tractor operators 24,965 27,988 28,488 26 53 19 12 2

Laundry and dry-cleaning workers 16,014 18,019 20,020 35 44 16 13 11

Maids and housekeeping cleaners 14,995 16,977 17,988 40 40 15 13 6

Source: Authors’ calculations from American Community Survey microdata, 2006

Table 23

Selected occupations with high earnings premiums for completing high school or some postsecondary education, 2006

Occupation

Median earnings with... Percent of workers aged 25 to 44 

with...

Earnings premiums 

(percent)

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

Less than 

a high 

school 

diploma

High 

school 

diploma

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree

High 

school 

diploma 

over less 

than 

a high 

school 

diploma

Some 

college or 

associate 

degree 

over high 

school

Molders and molding machine setters, 

operators, and tenders, metal and plastic $20,802 $32,017 $37,946 20 52 25 54 19

Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and 

steamfitters 26,955 37,927 45,005 20 48 28 41 19

Crushing, grinding, polishing, mixing, and 

blending workers 21,786 29,969 36,799 28 48 20 38 23

Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons 22,012 29,987 39,983 37 44 15 36 33

Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and 

weighers 22,011 29,959 38,005 13 40 33 36 27

Automotive service technicians and 

mechanics 24,988 33,870 37,992 19 44 34 36 12

Butchers and other meat, poultry, and fish 

processing workers 20,021 26,959 30,989 40 43 15 35 15

Electrical, electronics, and electromechanical 

assemblers 18,949 24,962 28,003 22 47 25 32 12

Structural iron and steel workers 29,051 37,900 40,025 22 45 29 30 6

Carpenters 24,042 29,988 33,917 28 45 22 25 13

Source: Authors’ calculations from American Community Survey microdata, 2006
Fall 2008 • Occupational Outlook Quarterly 

For more information

To learn more about the occupations described 

in this article, see the 2008–09 edition of the 

BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook, available in many libraries and career centers and 

online at www.bls.gov/ooh. The Handbook

describes the job outlook, usual education and 

training requirements, job duties, and more 

for about 270 occupations. 

Another resource published by BLS, 

the 2008–09 Occupational Projections and 

Training Data bulletin, contains more detailed 

projections, data on worker education levels, 

and methodology descriptions. It is available 

online at www.bls.gov/emp/optd/home.htm. 

Previous issues of the Occupational 

Outlook Quarterly also contain useful information for readers interested in topics related 

to educational attainment. Browse the article 

index online at www.bls.gov/ooq/ooqindex.

htm.

For more job resources, jobseekers should 

consult their local career center. These centers 

can provide valuable information about the 

local job market. To find the career center 

nearest you, check online at 

www.servicelocator.org or call the U.S. 

Department of Labor’s toll-free helpline, 

1 (877) US2-JOBS (872-5627).