CELEBRATING

YEARS

National Institute

of Mental Health

Transforming the Understanding 

and Treatment of Mental Illnesses
Vision

NIMH envisions a world in which mental 

illnesses are prevented and cured.

About NIMH

The National Institute of Mental Health 

(NIMH) is the lead federal agency for 

research on mental disorders. NIMH 

is one of the 27 Institutes and Centers 

that make up the National Institutes of 

Health (NIH), the largest biomedical 

research agency in the world. NIH is 

part of the U.S. Department of Health 

and Human Services (HHS).

Mission

NIMH aims to transform the 

understanding and treatment 

of mental illnesses through 

basic and clinical research, 

paving the way for

prevention, recovery,

and cure.
On July 3, 1946, President Harry S. Truman signed 

the National Mental Health Act. In addition to its broad 

purpose of improving “the mental health of the people of the 

United States,” the act enabled the founding, three years later, 

of the National Institute of Mental Health, now part of the National 

Institutes of Health.

For 75 years, NIMH has been at the forefront of mental health 

research. Our mission is to transform the understanding and treatment 

of mental illnesses through basic and clinical research, paving the 

way for prevention, recovery, and cure. The institute’s influence is 

widespread; NIMH-supported research has played a pivotal role in advancing our understanding 

of the brain, developing groundbreaking treatments and therapies, and improving the quality and 

availability of mental health care.

Numerous NIMH-funded advances achieved over the last 75 years made it challenging to decide 

what to highlight as we celebrate this milestone anniversary. As such, we aim to broadly present 

our history and a sampling of basic, translational, and clinical research—from research aimed at 

understanding how the brain impacts behavior to translational efforts to uncover novel treatment 

targets to clinical studies testing innovative interventions in real-world settings. There are many 

impactful stories of discovery driven by dedicated scientists here at NIMH and across the country, 

and we will continue to share them beyond this anniversary year.

We owe a great deal of thanks to the broader scientific, advocacy, legislative, and professional 

communities and the public for their instrumental support. I also want to personally thank the 

many devoted NIMH employees, past and present, and our collaborators at other NIH institutes, 

centers, and offices for their enthusiastic commitment to NIMH’s mission. Finally, I want to 

thank everyone who has contributed to this celebration by sharing their time, expertise, and 

experiences. It is an honor and a privilege to serve as the director of a federal agency with such 

an inspirational and exciting mission.

I invite everyone to join us as we reflect on the successes and challenges of the past 75 years 

and look forward to the advances to come.

Joshua A. Gordon, M.D., Ph.D.

Director, National Institute of Mental Health

Joshua A. Gordon, M.D., Ph.D.

Director of NIMH

Foreword
75 Years of Progress

and Landmark Events

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) was established in 1949, 

spurred by U.S. Public Health Service efforts predating World War II and 

reports of widespread mental illness among service members. NIMH’s 

original mission had three main components: to train mental health 

professionals; to foster the spread of community-based mental health services; 

and to promote clinical, behavioral, and biological mental health research. The 

institute has seen many changes over the past 75 years, including shifts in 

organizational structure and administrative control and rapid developments in 

science and technology. Throughout this time, NIMH has maintained an unwavering 

commitment to guiding the nation as the lead federal agency for research on 

mental disorders.

This booklet provides an overview of NIMH’s 75-year history, charting a timeline 

of key events and major research programs and public health initiatives. The 

timeline includes a selection of pivotal discoveries made by NIMH researchers 

and grantees, many of whom have received Nobel Prizes, Lasker Awards, and 

other accolades for their groundbreaking scientific achievements. The timeline 

also tracks NIMH’s evolving research priorities and efforts to balance basic 

research with translational work to advance treatments for mental disorders and 

address mental health disparities. For a more comprehensive view, read the 

“Learn More About NIMH History” section at the back of this booklet and visit 

www.nimh.nih.gov/75years.

1
On July 3, President Harry S. Truman signed the 

National Mental Health Act, which called for establishing 

a National Institute of Mental Health.

President Harry S. Truman. Credit Frank Gatteri, United States Army. 

Courtesy of Harry S. Truman Library & Museum.

On August 15, U.S. Surgeon General Thomas Parran, Jr., M.D., and several nationally 

known psychiatrists attended the first meeting of the National Advisory Mental Health 

Council. The group was tasked with advising NIMH on its policies and activities.

On July 1, the U.S. Public Health Service Division of Mental Hygiene awarded 

the first mental health research grant, “Basic Nature of the Learning Process,” to 

Winthrop N. Kellogg, Ph.D., of Indiana University.

On April 1, NIMH was formally established under the 

direction of psychiatrist and public health advocate 

Robert H. Felix, M.D., as one of the first institutes of the 

National Institutes of Health (NIH).

1946

2

There is also a special need for research 

on mental diseases and abnormalities. 

We have done pitifully little about mental 

illnesses. Accurate statistics are lacking, but there is no doubt 

that there are at least two million persons in the United States 

who are mentally ill and that as many as 10 million will probably 

need hospitalization for mental illness for some period in the 

course of their lifetime. A great many of these persons would be 

helped by proper care.

President Harry S. Truman

Special Message to Congress Recommending a Comprehensive

Health Program

“

”

1947

1949

Robert H. Felix, M.D., NIMH director from 1949 to 1964.

Courtesy of National Library of Medicine.
3

1951

1952

In June, the first scientific director of NIMH, Seymour Kety, M.D., Ph.D., began 

building a joint basic intramural research program for NIMH and the newly created 

National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness (NINDB). This research 

program evolved into the NIMH Intramural Research Program, the internal research 

division of NIMH. As of 2023, the NIMH Intramural Research Program comprised 

more than 650 staff and more than 40 research groups conducting basic, clinical, 

and translational research to advance understanding of the diagnosis, causes, 

treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.

On December 20, psychiatrist Robert A. Cohen, M.D., created a joint NIMH–

NINDB clinical research program in time for the opening of the NIH Clinical 

Center in July 1953.

On July 28, the Mental Health Study Act of 1955 (Public Law [P.L.] 84-182) called for 

“an objective, thorough, and nationwide analysis and reevaluation of the human 

and economic problems of mental illness.”

On August 2, Congress passed the Health Amendments Act of 1956 (P.L. 84-911). 

Title V of the legislation allowed NIMH to award “special project grants” about 

mental health. In expanding NIMH’s existing mandate, the act enabled NIMH to be 

more involved in community-based mental health efforts and programs.

On October 16, NIMH created the Psychopharmacology Service Center to 

coordinate the large-scale testing of new compounds. The congressionally funded 

effort, led by Jonathan O. Cole, M.D., spurred the discovery of the blockbuster 

drugs chlorpromazine and meprobamate to treat mental disorders. The center 

later evolved into the Early Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit, a collaborative program 

capable of conducting large nationwide clinical trials. This program, later renamed 

the New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit, held an annual meeting that became a 

critical meeting in this domain, bringing together NIH researchers, academic 

investigators, industry scientists, U.S. and international regulators, and other 

professionals working in various aspects of drug development and clinical trials. 

Output from the program influenced the evolution of treatment research and the 

development of new treatments and treatment strategies. 

1955

1956
The report, Action for Mental Health, assessed mental health conditions and 

resources throughout the United States “to arrive at a national program that 

would approach adequacy in meeting the individual needs of the mentally ill 

people of America.” The report commanded the attention of President John F. 

Kennedy, who established a cabinet-level interagency committee to examine the 

recommendations and determine an appropriate federal response.

1961

4

Training Mental Health Professionals

In 1941, there were only 3,000 psychiatrists in the United States, nowhere 

near enough to provide care on the scale Dr. Felix envisioned. In 1948, 

NIMH began awarding grants to academic research and medical school 

programs, and through the next decade, the bulk of NIMH funding went 

toward these training programs. The grants were heavily weighted 

toward psychiatry—Dr. Felix even devised a funding formula: 40% went to 

psychiatry, and 20% each went to psychology, social work, and nursing. 

Due largely to NIMH efforts, by 1960, the number of psychiatrists in America 

exceeded 10,000. The NIMH mission later refocused on supporting research 

and the training of researchers; the institute no longer directly supports the 

training of mental health professionals.

NIMH Efforts Greatly Increased the Number of U.S. Psychiatrists After WWII

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

1941 1960

3,000

>10,000
5

On February 5, President Kennedy submitted a special message to Congress—the 

first presidential message to the legislature on mental health issues. Energized 

by the president’s focus, Congress passed the Mental Retardation Facilities and 

Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act of 1963 (P.L. 88-164) on October 

31, beginning a new era in federal support for mental health services. NIMH assumed 

responsibility for monitoring the nation’s community mental health center programs.

A provision in the Social Security Amendments of 1965 (P.L. 89-97) provided funds 

and a framework for a new Joint Commission on the Mental Health of Children 

to recommend national action for child mental health. The Community Mental 

Health Centers Act Amendments of 1965 (P.L. 89-105) also passed this year, which 

authorized grants to help pay the salaries of professional and technical personnel 

in federally funded community mental health centers.

1965

1963

Most of the major diseases of the body are beginning to give 

ground in man’s increasing struggle to find their cause and 

cure. But the public understanding, treatment, and prevention of 

mental disabilities have not made comparable progress since the 

earliest days of modern history...This situation has been tolerated 

far too long. It has troubled our national conscience—but only as a 

problem unpleasant to mention, easy to postpone, and

despairing of solution.

President John F. Kennedy

Special Message to Congress on Mental Illness and Mental Retardation

President John F. Kennedy signed 

the Mental Retardation Facilities and 

Community Mental Health Centers 

Construction Act on October 31, 1963. 

Credit: Cecil Stoughton. White House 

Photographs. Courtesy of John F. 

Kennedy Presidential Library and 

Museum, Boston, Massachusetts.

“

”
In response to President Lyndon B. Johnson’s pledge to apply scientific research 

to social challenges, NIMH refocused its efforts on fighting specific mental health 

problems. The institute established centers for research, training, and services 

covering topics such as schizophrenia, substance use, suicide prevention, crime, 

and child and family mental health. The National Center for Prevention and Control 

of Alcoholism was also established due to the emerging public recognition of 

alcoholism as a disease.

On January 1, NIMH was separated from NIH by executive order and made an 

independent division within the U.S. Public Health Service. However, the NIMH 

Intramural Research Program, which conducted studies in the NIH Clinical 

Center and other NIH facilities, remained at NIH under an agreement for joint 

administration between NIH and NIMH.

6

1966

1967

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

In the 1960s, Aaron Beck, M.D., and Albert Ellis, Ph.D., conducted NIMHsupported research that led to the development of cognitive therapy, 

now known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT began to gain 

widespread adoption as a form of psychotherapy in the 1970s and 1980s. 

During this time, studies demonstrated the effectiveness of CBT for treating 

various mental disorders, including depression, anxiety, and phobias.

Since then, CBT has become one of the most widely used forms 

of psychotherapy, with numerous research studies supporting its 

effectiveness. It is often used in combination with other treatments, such 

as medication, and has been adapted for use in various settings, including 

schools, hospitals, and community clinics.

On September 29, 2006, Dr. Beck received the prestigious Albert 

Lasker Basic Medical Research Award for the development of CBT, which 

transformed the understanding and treatment of many mental disorders.
7

On August 13, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Secretary 

John W. Gardner, Ph.D., transferred administrative control of St. Elizabeths 

Hospital—the federal government’s only civilian psychiatric hospital—to NIMH. 

Research was an important part of the work of St. Elizabeths through its Clinical 

Pharmacology Research Center, which made significant contributions to 

neurological and clinical research.

On April 1, NIMH became a component of the Health Services and Mental Health 

Administration within the U.S. Public Health Service.

1967

St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington, D.C., was home to NIMH’s pathbreaking Clinical 

Pharmacology Research Center, which was founded in 1958 by Joel Elkes, M.D. (pictured front row, 

second from left). NIMH continued to conduct research on the hospital campus until 1999. Credit: 

Joel Elkes. Courtesy of Office of NIH History & Stetten Museum.

1968
8

Impact of the Civil Rights Movement

After the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, a group of Black psychiatrists 

became determined to meet the challenge of institutional racism headon. They considered racism a type of mental illness and argued that Black 

Americans were underrepresented in and underserved by NIMH.

This group of Black psychiatrists—led by Chester M. Pierce, M.D., at 

Harvard University and James P. Comer, M.D., M.P.H., at Yale University—

began a series of contentious negotiations with NIMH leadership and other 

influential White psychiatrists. This culminated in a confrontation between 

the newly organized Black Psychiatrists of America and White attendees 

at the May 1969 American Psychiatric Association convention. The Black 

Psychiatrists of America demanded a center dedicated to Black mental 

health at NIMH, prioritization of research and training programs for Black 

psychiatrists, and creation of new mental health programs for

Black Americans.

Dr. Comer, UCLA psychiatrist J. Alfred Cannon, M.D., M.P.H., and NIMH 

Director Bertram S. Brown, M.D., developed a framework for the proposed 

tenth NIMH center. The Center for Minority Group Mental Health Programs 

was established in the fall of 1970 as NIMH’s first official effort to increase the 

representation of people from minority groups among extramural awardees 

and intramural positions. By 1971, the center had launched a minority 

fellowship program and begun awarding research and training grants.

Prominent Black psychiatrists James P. Comer, M.D., M.P.H. (right), and J. Alfred Cannon, 

M.D. (second from right), worked with NIMH to create the Center for Minority Group Mental

Health Programs in 1970. Courtesy of Center for the History of Medicine, Harvard University.
9

1970

Julius Axelrod, Ph.D. Courtesy of National Library of Medicine.

On April 6, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved lithium as a 

treatment for mania, a feature of bipolar disorder. This treatment, informed by NIMHsupported research, led to sharp drops in inpatient days and suicide rates among 

people with bipolar disorder and reduced economic costs associated with the illness. 

The FDA later approved lithium for the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder. 

On October 15, NIMH intramural researcher Julius Axelrod, Ph.D., and two other 

researchers received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for research 

on the chemistry of nerve transmission. Dr. Axelrod’s work established that 

norepinephrine was inactivated through “reuptake” by the same cells that 

secreted it. The discovery led to the development of selective serotonin reuptake 

inhibitors (SSRIs), the first blockbuster neuropharmacological medication since 

the 1950s. SSRIs are a class of medications commonly used as antidepressants. 

They work by increasing brain levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in 

regulating mood, appetite, and sleep.
On December 31, the Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Prevention, 

Treatment, and Rehabilitation Act (P.L. 91-616) established the National Institute on 

Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) within NIMH.

On March 21, Congress passed the Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act (P.L. 

92-255), which called for the future establishment of a National Institute on Drug

Abuse (NIDA) within NIMH.

NIMH went through a series of organizational moves. The institute temporarily 

rejoined NIH on July 2 with the abolishment of the Health Services and 

Mental Health Administration. The Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health 

Administration—composed of NIAAA, NIDA, and NIMH—was established as the 

successor organization.

On May 14, the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration was officially 

established when President Richard Nixon signed the Comprehensive Alcohol 

Abuse and Alcoholism Prevention, Treatment, and Rehabilitation Act Amendments 

of 1974 (P.L. 93-282).

The Community Mental Health Centers Amendments of 1975 outlined requirements 

for national standards, quality assurance programs, and data collection, which set 

the stage for performance criteria in community mental health centers.

On February 17, President Jimmy Carter established the President’s Commission on 

Mental Health by executive order. President Carter charged the commission with 

reviewing the nation’s mental health needs and making recommendations to the 

president on how best to meet these needs. First Lady Rosalynn Carter served as 

the honorary chair of the commission.

On April 27, the President’s Commission on Mental Health submitted its final 

report to President Carter. The report contained more than 100 recommendations 

for expanding existing programs and creating new ones to make the community 

mental health center program more flexible and to extend mental health services. 

The report’s appendices included three additional volumes with recommendations 

from more than 20 task panels focused on a wide range of mental health and 

substance use issues.

1970

10

1972

1973

1974

1975

1977

1978
11

In October, NIMH released preliminary results from its Epidemiological Catchment 

Area Survey. Most notably, the survey found that nearly one in five Americans 

suffered from a diagnosable psychiatric disorder within any six-month period. The 

effort, underway since 1977, was conducted by research teams at five universities and 

looked at rates of mental disorders in five cities. The extensive survey allowed for the 

accurate categorization of specific disorders in a general population for the first time.

On October 7, President Carter signed the Mental Health Systems Act (P.L. 96-

398). The act created a complex federal, state, and local partnership focused on 

preventing mental illnesses. It expanded the Community Mental Health Center 

program and extended help to “chronically mentally ill individuals, children and 

youth, elderly individuals, racial and ethnic minorities, women, poor persons, and 

persons in rural areas.”

NIMH participated in developing the U.S. Surgeon General’s Report, Toward a 

National Plan for the Chronically Mentally Ill, a sweeping effort to improve services 

and fine-tune various federal entitlement programs for those with severe, persistent 

mental disorders.

On August 13, President Ronald Reagan signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation 

Act of 1981 (P.L. 97-35). This act repealed the Mental Health Systems Act and 

consolidated the treatment and rehabilitation service programs of the Alcohol, 

Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration into a single block grant that 

enabled each state to administer its allocated funds. With the repeal of most of the 

community mental health legislation and the establishment of block grants, the 

federal role shifted to providing technical assistance to increase the capacity of 

state and local mental health service professionals.

On November 18, NIMH intramural researcher Louis Sokoloff, M.D., Ph.D., received 

the Lasker Basic Medical Research Award, considered the “American Nobel Prize” 

of clinical medical research. Previous researchers had found evidence for changing 

glucose levels in the brain but could not link those changes to specific brain 

regions. Dr. Sokoloff developed a noninvasive technique to track the movement of 

a radioactive analog of glucose in the brain, which allowed researchers to measure 

glucose metabolism and map brain function. This technique paved the way for the 

development of positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of the living brain.

1980

1981
12

In research supported by NIMH, zoologist Fernando Nottebohm, Ph.D., discovered 

the formation of new neurons in the brains of adult songbirds. This evidence of 

neurogenesis (the process by which new neurons are formed in the brain) opened 

an exciting and clinically promising new line of research in brain science. It was 15 

years, however, before investigators found evidence for continued neurogenesis in 

the brains of adult humans.

Researchers in the NIMH Intramural Research Program published one of the 

earliest studies of seasonal affective disorder. The seminal study, which described 

patients who experienced depressive symptoms that emerged during the fall 

and winter and went away during the spring and summer, provided the first 

working definition of the disorder. Norman Rosenthal, M.D., and Thomas Wehr, 

M.D., both in the NIMH Clinical Psychobiology Branch, led the research. Frederick

Goodwin, M.D., NIMH scientific director and chief of intramural research, was

also a contributor. Study results also showed that light therapy had a robust

antidepressant effect, effectively reducing depressive symptoms in people with

seasonal affective disorder.

On October 1, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services transferred 

administrative control of St. Elizabeths Hospital from NIMH to the city of 

Washington, D.C. NIMH retained research facilities on the hospital grounds.

The FDA approved SSRIs for treating depression. Building on the pioneering work 

of Dr. Axelrod and others at NIMH, researchers demonstrated the effectiveness of 

SSRIs as antidepressant medications. In the decades following FDA approval, SSRIs 

became one of the most widely prescribed antidepressants in the world due in part 

to their relatively mild side effects compared to other medications.

1983

1984

1987
13

On July 25, in response to reports by the advisory councils of NIMH and the 

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, President George H.W. 

Bush signed a declaration designating the 1990s the “Decade of the Brain.”

On September 25, NIMH staff, members of Congress, and mental health advocates 

attended a ceremony for the dedication of the NIMH Neuroscience Center and

the NIMH Neuropsychiatric Research Hospital, located on the St. Elizabeths 

Hospital grounds.

1989

The human brain, a three-pound mass of interwoven nerve cells 

that controls our activity, is one of the most magnificent—and 

mysterious—wonders of creation. The seat of human intelligence, 

interpreter of senses, and controller of movement, this incredible 

organ continues to intrigue scientists and layman alike.

President George H.W. Bush

Proclamation by the President of the United States of America

”

NIMH Director Lewis L. Judd, M.D., worked closely with members of Congress 

to have the 1990s dubbed the “Decade of the Brain.” From left are Senator Pete 

Domenici, Senator Donald Riegle Jr., President George H.W. Bush, Health and 

Human Services Secretary Louis Wade Sullivan, M.D., Dr. Judd, and Representative 

Silvio O. Conte. Courtesy of George Bush Presidential Library and Museum.

“
Psychologist Marsha M. Linehan, Ph.D., and colleagues published findings from 

their NIMH-supported research on dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a new 

treatment approach for people with borderline personality disorder. DBT enhanced 

standard change-oriented techniques from cognitive behavioral therapy with 

concepts of acceptance and validation of one’s present situation and emotional 

state. DBT also focused on helping people build skills to manage intense emotions, 

reduce self-destructive behaviors, and improve relationships. This study and later 

research showed that adults who received DBT engaged in fewer and less severe 

suicidal behaviors, had fewer inpatient days in the hospital, and were more likely 

to stay in therapy than those who received standard care. Later studies showed 

DBT to reduce suicidal behavior in adolescents. Later in her career, Dr. Linehan 

discussed her lived experience and how it helped inform novel strategies to treat 

mental illness and reduce suicide risk.

On July 10, President Bush signed the ADAMHA Reorganization Act (P.L. 102-

321), abolishing the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration. The 

research components of NIMH, NIAAA, and NIDA rejoined NIH, thereby reuniting 

NIMH with the leading medical research agency in the United States and ensuring 

the future of neuroscience and mental health research. The service components 

of each institute became part of a new U.S. Public Health Service agency—the 

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Within NIMH, new 

offices were created to support research on prevention, special populations, rural 

mental health, and HIV/AIDS. 

NIMH coordinated a multi-institute effort to launch the Human Brain Project, a 

comprehensive neuroscience database accessible via an international computer 

network through cutting-edge imaging, computer, and network technologies.

On October 3, President Bill Clinton established the National Bioethics Advisory 

Commission. The commission issued the resulting report, Research Involving 

Persons With Mental Disorders That May Affect Decision-Making Capacity, in 

1999. This report informed NIMH policies to safeguard and improve protections for 

human participants in clinical mental health research.

At the request of Congress, NIH created the NIH Autism Coordinating Committee to 

increase the quality of research on autism spectrum disorder. The director of NIMH 

was made co-chair of the committee along with the director of the National Institute 

of Child Health and Human Development.

1992

14

1991

1993

1996

1997
1998 NIMH launched several long-term, large-scale, multisite, community-based 

clinical studies to determine the effectiveness of certain treatments. Specifically, 

the studies focused on treatments for depression, treatments for bipolar disorder, 

and antipsychotic medications as part of treatment for schizophrenia and for 

the management of psychosis and behavioral symptoms associated with 

Alzheimer’s disease.

1999 The NIMH Neuroscience Center and NIMH Neuropsychiatric Research Hospital were

relocated from St. Elizabeths Hospital grounds in Washington, D.C., to the NIH campus

in Bethesda, Maryland, in response to the recommendations of the 1996 review of 

the NIMH Intramural Research Program by the Intramural Planning Committee.

In June, NIMH developed materials and helped organize the first White House

Conference on Mental Health in Washington, D.C. The conference brought 

together national leaders, mental health scientific and clinical personnel, patients, 

and consumers to discuss needs and opportunities to understand and treat 

mental disorders.

In July, U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher, M.D., Ph.D., released The Surgeon 

General’s Call to Action to Prevent Suicide. Another report, Mental Health: A Report 

of the Surgeon General, followed in December. NIMH and other federal agencies 

collaborated to prepare both landmark reports.

15

Aerial shot of the NIH campus. Courtesy of Office of NIH History and Stetten Museum.
In December, the main findings from the Multimodal Treatment of ADHD study were 

published. NIMH sponsored the multisite study to compare the leading treatment 

approaches for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one of the most 

common developmental disorders in childhood. Study participants included nearly 

600 children, ages 7-9 years, seen at six study sites. In contrast to previous shortterm studies, this study examined treatment effects for up to 14 months. Results 

showed that a combination treatment approach that included both medication 

and behavior therapy and a medication-only approach were both generally more 

effective in reducing ADHD symptoms compared to behavioral treatment alone or 

routine community care. The study also showed that these benefits lasted for as 

long as 14 months. Subsequent analyses and publications examined the impact of 

the interventions on various areas of functioning and the long-term course of youth 

in the study.

On October 9, researchers Eric Kandel, M.D., Ph.D., Paul Greengard, Ph.D., and 

Arvid Carlsson, M.D., Ph.D., received the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or 

Medicine for their respective research on the functioning of signal transduction 

proteins in learning, memory, and movement. Dr. Kandel and Dr. Greengard 

conducted NIMH-supported research for more than 30 years. Dr. Kandel, who 

worked in the NIMH Intramural Research Program in the 1950s, received the prize 

for his research on the functional modification of synapses, which allow neurons to 

communicate in the brain. His work established that the formation of memories is a 

consequence of short- and long-term changes in the biochemistry of neurons and 

showed that these changes occur at the level of synapses.

The Nobel Prize recognized Dr. Greengard’s discovery that dopamine and several 

other transmitters can alter the functional state of neuronal proteins. These findings 

made it clear that signaling between neurons could alter their function not only in 

the short term but also in the long term. In addition, Dr. Greengard discovered that 

subsequent environmental signals could reverse such changes.

On October 17, President Clinton signed the Children’s Health Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-

310), which created the Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee to coordinate 

all autism-related efforts within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 

By 2001, NIMH had been designated to lead implementation of the Interagency 

Autism Coordinating Committee, with the NIMH director as the committee chair.

16

1999

2000
17

On November 3, Nancy Andreasen, M.D., Ph.D., a psychiatrist whose research 

was supported by NIMH for many years, received the National Medal of Science 

for her groundbreaking work in schizophrenia that joined behavioral science with 

neuroscience and neuroimaging.

NIMH and other federal agencies collaborated to prepare a report on the Surgeon 

General’s Conference, Children’s Mental Health: A National Action Agenda. 

Released by Surgeon General Dr. Satcher, this report indicated that the poor 

mental health of many children and adolescents in the United States represented 

a national public health crisis. The National Action Agenda outlined goals and 

strategies to improve services for children and adolescents with mental and 

emotional disorders.

In September, NIMH published a national conference report, Mental Health and 

Mass Violence: Evidence-Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/

Survivors of Mass Violence: A Workshop to Reach Consensus on Best Practices. 

Although most people recover from a traumatic event over time, the report indicated 

that early psychological intervention guided by qualified mental health professionals 

could reduce the harmful psychological and emotional effects of exposure to mass 

violence. NIMH collaborated with the U.S. Department of Defense, other federal 

agencies, and the American Red Cross to prepare this report.

NIMH established the Limited Access Data Repository, the institute’s first effort to 

provide an infrastructure that could support data sharing among extensive NIMHfunded clinical studies. The repository served as a platform for researchers to 

access datasets to conduct secondary analyses until 2017, when data from those 

clinical trials were moved to the NIMH Data Archive.

2000

2002

2003
NIMH’s large-scale practical clinical trial—the Treatment of Adolescent Depression 

Study—published significant first-phase results on the most effective treatment for 

adolescents with depression. The study showed that a combination of cognitive 

behavioral therapy and the medication fluoxetine (the only FDA-approved 

antidepressant for children and adolescents at the time) was most effective at 

treating depression over 12 weeks.

The study’s principal investigator, John March, M.D., M.P.H., presented additional 

results to NIMH’s National Advisory Mental Health Council in September 2006. 

These results, which extended the study’s time frame to 18 weeks, once again 

showed that the combination of cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine 

provided the fastest, most effective treatment for adolescent depression. Although 

psychotherapy alone was a viable option for adolescents who could not take 

medication, it took an additional six months to achieve the improvement seen with 

treatment that included medication.

The Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness research program—

another NIMH large-scale practical clinical trial—provided the first real-world test of 

antipsychotic medications for people with schizophrenia. Its first phase compared 

the effectiveness and side effects of four newer medications and one older 

medication for treating schizophrenia. All the medications—even the older, less 

expensive medication, perphenazine—showed comparable effectiveness. However, 

many people in the study stopped taking the medications due to intolerable side 

effects or a failure to control symptoms adequately. 

Results from the first phase of the study were released in 2006 and showed that 

antipsychotic medications commonly prescribed to treat delusions, aggression, 

hallucinations, and similar symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease could also benefit 

some people with schizophrenia. Still, the medications were no more effective than 

a placebo when considering adverse side effects. The study advanced the field by 

directly comparing multiple antipsychotic drugs within a single trial. The extensive 

information provided by this direct comparison helped clinicians determine the best 

medication for individual patients.

2005

18

2004
19

The NIMH-funded Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) 

research program reported a series of results over the course of the year. A large-scale 

practical clinical trial led by NIMH, the study was also the nation’s largest clinical trial 

of treatments for depression at the time. The results provided real-world insight into 

depression treatment, including alternate options for people who do not respond to 

SSRIs, and highlighted opportunities for personalized approaches to depression care.

Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression

The Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) 

study tested the effectiveness of different antidepressant medications. It 

was the largest and longest study ever conducted to evaluate depression 

treatment. The first study phase included 2,876 participants receiving care 

at 41 clinical sites around the United States. 

A key strength of STAR*D was its focus on people receiving treatment in 

primary care and other real-world settings. The study had fewer exclusion 

criteria than usual clinical trials, and almost half the study sites were primary 

care. Participants’ depression symptoms and medication side effects were 

measured using standardized clinician and patient rating scales, which 

helped clinicians track participants’ progress throughout the study and 

provide them with consistent, measurement-based care.

STAR*D aimed to use a highly systematic approach to test depression 

treatments. All study participants were initially treated with citalopram, a 

standard antidepressant medication. Only about 30% of participants achieved 

remission in this initial trial. Those who did not achieve remission with 

citalopram alone were treated with an additional medication or switched to a 

different medication, with the option of adding cognitive therapy in both cases. 

Over the course of the study, clinicians continued to make treatment decisions 

in a consistent, stepwise manner based on this augment-or-switch approach.

At the end of 12 months, 70% of participants had achieved symptom-free 

status. However, many participants needed to try two or three medications 

and go through several months of treatment before finding a medication that 

worked for them. This result underscored the importance of continuing to try 

new treatments when initial efforts do not work. 

The STAR*D trial showed the limitations of existing treatments for 

depression and for whom certain medications were most likely to work. The 

study also helped move the field toward personalized, measurement-based 

care and demonstrated the feasibility of conducting large-scale, communitybased trials across many settings.

2006
Building on previous research, several studies in the NIMH Intramural Research 

Program demonstrated that the medication ketamine could relieve symptoms of 

depression within hours in people with treatment-resistant depression, a marked 

contrast to existing medications that could take weeks to have noticeable

effects. These studies also helped identify possible underlying mechanisms, 

moving scientists closer to understanding how to develop new fast-acting 

antidepressant medications.

On December 19, President George W. Bush signed the Combating Autism Act of 

2006 (P.L. 109-416). The measure called for increased research on autism spectrum 

disorder. The Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee, co-chaired by the NIMH 

director, was also reauthorized and chartered as a federal advisory committee.

Findings from the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar 

Disorder research project, an NIMH practical clinical trial, revealed that people 

with bipolar disorder were more likely to recover from a depressive episode 

and stay well over the longer term if their treatment included both intensive 

psychotherapy and medication.

20

New Hope for Treatment-Resistant Depression

NIMH-sponsored studies have shown that ketamine can be an effective 

treatment option for people with depression who have not responded to 

SSRIs and other antidepressant medications. NIMH intramural researchers 

carried out much of this work. 

In 2006, NIMH intramural researchers Husseini Manji, M.D., and Carlos 

Zarate, M.D., along with Dennis Charney, M.D., at Mt. Sinai Medical School, 

reported findings from the first study investigating ketamine for people 

with treatment-resistant depression. The researchers found that ketamine 

produced rapid, robust, and relatively sustained antidepressant effects in 

patients who had already tried several antidepressant medications without 

seeing improvement. 

Dr. Zarate and other intramural researchers have continued this work, 

investigating the neurobiological mechanisms that drive ketamine’s 

therapeutic effects and examining ketamine as a possible treatment for 

people with bipolar depression and anhedonia and people experiencing 

suicidal thoughts.

2007
21

In August, NIMH published its Strategic Plan for Research with four primary 

objectives:

• Promote discovery in the brain and behavioral sciences to fuel research

on the causes of mental disorders

• Chart mental illness trajectories to determine when, where, and how to

intervene

• Develop new and better interventions that incorporate the diverse needs

and circumstances of people with mental illnesses

• Strengthen the public health impact of NIMH-supported research

The Child/Adolescent Anxiety Multimodal Study examined strategies for treating 

clinically significant anxiety among children ages 7-17 years. Results of the sixsite clinical trial revealed that, although the combination of cognitive behavioral 

therapy and antidepressant medication was most effective at treating anxiety, 

each treatment alone was also effective. The findings indicated that clinicians 

and families have several viable treatment options for young people with anxiety 

disorders, depending on treatment availability and preferences.

The Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS) 

launched as a partnership between NIMH and the U.S. Army to conduct research to 

help reduce suicide rates among members of the military. The multisite, multiyear 

study, which included soldiers in all phases of service, was the largest study of 

mental health risk and resilience ever conducted among military personnel. 

The study showed a rise in suicide deaths from 2004 to 2009 not only among 

currently and previously deployed soldiers but also among soldiers who were 

never deployed. Nearly half of soldiers who reported a previous suicide attempt 

indicated that their first attempt was prior to enlistment. Soldiers also reported 

higher rates of certain mental disorders than civilians. Results from Army STARRS 

have informed actionable strategies to enhance mental health and reduce suicide 

risk among members of the military and civilians.

Twelve NIMH staff members received the 2008 Hubert H. Humphrey Award for 

Service to America for their work addressing veterans’ mental health needs. These 

staff members developed a new initiative to support research that would describe 

and evaluate national, state, and local programs addressing the mental health 

needs of returning service members and their families.

2008
The NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research launched the Human Connectome 

Project as a Blueprint Grand Challenge. Supported by NIMH and other Blueprint 

partners, the Human Connectome Project aimed to map the neural pathways that 

underlie human brain function. The effort expanded to measuring macroscale brain 

connections across the lifespan.

22

The Human 

Connectome Project

The goal of the Human Connectome Project was to acquire and share 

data about the structural and functional connectivity of the human brain. 

Researchers studied the brain’s complex wiring by collecting data from 

thousands of research participants using state-of-the-art brain imaging 

technologies. Researchers also collected participants’ DNA, demographic 

information, and behavioral data to examine how genetics and the 

environment influence brain connectivity.

The project was the first time that researchers combined different 

brain imaging technologies to map the brain’s long-range connections 

systematically. This research paved the way for a deeper understanding of 

how our brain circuitry changes as we age or because of psychiatric and 

neurologic conditions.

The Human Connectome Project led to new data models, informatics, and 

analytic tools that advanced researchers’ ability to image and analyze brain 

connections. These advances played a major role in accelerating progress 

in the emerging human connectomics field and contributed to the formation 

of the Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies®

Initiative, or The BRAIN Initiative®

.

White matter fiber architecture from the

Connectome Scanner dataset. Shown

are the corpus callosum and brainstem

pathways. The fibers are color coded by

direction: red = left-right, green = anteriorposterior, blue = ascending-descending

(RGB = XYZ). Courtesy of Laboratory of

Neuro Imaging and Martinos Center for

Biomedical Imaging, Consortium of the

Human Connectome Project,

www.humanconnectomeproject.org.

2009
23

The Treatment of SSRI-Resistant Depression in Adolescents research project was 

an NIMH-funded practical clinical trial that examined difficult-to-treat depression 

among adolescents across multiple sites. The study showed that teens who did 

not respond to a first antidepressant medication were more likely to see symptom 

improvement if they switched to another antidepressant and added psychotherapy 

instead of only switching medications.

In July, NIMH launched the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative, providing 

a research framework for developing new ways of classifying mental disorders 

based on behavioral dimensions and neurobiological measures. The intent was 

to apply modern research approaches in genetics, neuroscience, and behavioral 

science to studying mental illnesses, independently from the classification systems 

by which patients were typically grouped.

On November 10, NIMH intramural researcher Mortimer Mishkin, Ph.D., was 

awarded the National Medal of Science at a White House ceremony. In studies 

spanning more than five decades, Dr. Mishkin and colleagues examined the neural 

mechanisms underlying perception and memory. Dr. Mishkin’s work explored how 

the brain processes input from vision, hearing, and touch to encode memory and 

shed light on the organization of memory and memory disorders in humans.

On July 6, the Grand Challenges in Global Mental Health initiative began. Coled and funded by NIMH, the Grand Challenges brought together the largestever international Delphi panel—more than 400 participants representing work 

conducted in 60 countries—to determine priorities for research relevant to mental, 

neurological, and substance use disorders.

2009

The overlapping circles in the RDoC 

framework represent the integration and 

intersection of multiple components—

including lifespan development, 

environmental factors, and fundamental 

biobehavioral processes—in mental health 

research, as well as various ways to 

measure these intertwined components. 

Courtesy of NIMH.

2010

2011
On August 25, NIMH was named by the White House as a “Champion of Change” 

for its efforts supporting research on suicide prevention. The White House 

Champions of Change initiative celebrated diverse individuals and organizations 

making an impact in communities and helping the country rise to the challenges of 

the 21st century.

On August 31, President Barack Obama signed an executive order directing key 

federal departments and agencies, including NIH, to expand suicide prevention 

strategies and improve access to mental health and substance abuse treatment 

services for veterans, service members, and their families. The order also called 

for developing a National Research Action Plan with strategies to improve the 

diagnosis and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other mental 

health conditions. NIMH led NIH’s participation in the action plan, which made 

significant progress in establishing common data elements to guide research on 

traumatic stress and suicide risk prevention and developing scalable interventions 

for PTSD and suicide prevention.

Researchers in the NIMH Intramural Research Program published the Ask SuicideScreening Questions (ASQ) measure—a brief screening instrument clinicians 

can administer in 20 seconds to identify a patient’s risk for suicide. An NIMHled multisite study showed that a “yes” to any of the measure’s four questions 

identified 97% of young people at risk for suicide among those screened in 

pediatric emergency departments. Additional NIMH research subsequently 

validated the ASQ in pediatric inpatient care and integrated it into an evidencebased pathway for youth suicide prevention. This pathway served as a scientific 

basis for the Blueprint for Youth Suicide Prevention developed by the American 

Academy of Pediatrics and the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention. 

In 2014, intramural researchers led a multisite study that confirmed the ASQ as 

a valid screening tool for suicide risk in adults. The researchers then expanded 

these studies into an ASQ Toolkit that clinicians can use to identify and manage 

suicide risk in both children and adults in a variety of medical settings. Intramural 

researchers have also worked with NIMH experts in global mental health and 

international collaborators to translate the ASQ into more than 20 languages 

and validate the ASQ through research in other countries. By enabling culturally 

responsive early identification and assessment of people at high risk for suicide, 

the ASQ Toolkit has enhanced suicide prevention for youth and adults in medical 

settings worldwide.

24

2011

2012
25

On April 2, President Obama announced the launch of the Brain Research 

Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies®

 Initiative, or The BRAIN 

Initiative®

—a major initiative focused on revolutionizing our understanding 

of the human brain. The president proposed $100 million for the first year of 

what he called “the next great American project.” NIH, the Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency, the National Science Foundation, and several private 

laboratories and foundations began working to develop the next generation of 

tools for decoding the language of the brain.

On September 20, Thomas C. Südhof, M.D., and Richard H. Scheller, Ph.D., received 

the Lasker Basic Medical Research Award. The researchers, whose work had 

been supported by NIMH, were recognized for their work mapping the molecular 

mechanisms involved in neurotransmitter release. Dr. Südhof later received the 

2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his NIMH-supported research on 

how the brain sends and receives chemical messages.

The human brain is the most complicated biological structure 

in the known universe. We’ve only just scratched the surface in 

understanding how it works or, unfortunately, doesn’t quite work 

when disorders and disease occur...This is just the beginning of

a 12-year journey, and we’re excited to be starting the ride.

Former NIH Director Francis S. Collins, M.D., Ph.D.

Announcement on the unveiling of the BRAIN Initiative

”

NIH Director Dr. Francis 

Collins introduced 

President Barack 

Obama at the BRAIN 

Initiative event at the 

White House in 2013. 

Credit: Official White 

House photo by 

Chuck Kennedy.

2013

“
26

NIMH launched the Emergency Department Screening for Teens at Risk for 

Suicide study in a network of hospital emergency departments across the 

United States as a part of the institute’s research agenda for suicide prevention. 

The study aimed to develop and test a personalized, computer-based suicide 

risk screening tool for teenagers that could improve screening and enable 

earlier intervention. In 2021, researchers involved in the study developed a 

computerized adaptive screening tool, which correctly identified more than 80% 

of youth who went on to attempt suicide in the three months following screening. 

The screener has offered a valuable tool for rapidly identifying youth at risk for 

suicide in emergency departments.

Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative 

Neurotechnologies®

 Initiative

The Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies®

Initiative, or The BRAIN Initiative®

, established with the aim of revolutionizing 

our understanding of the human brain, was announced by President Obama 

in 2013. In the years leading up to this announcement, scientists had 

made several landmark discoveries that paved the way for unprecedented 

collaboration and discovery across scientific fields. Researchers sequenced 

the human genome for the first time, created new tools for mapping 

neuronal connections, and developed high-resolution imaging technologies. 

At the same time, the field saw the maturation of nanoscience and the 

rise of biological engineering. Together, these breakthroughs created an 

opportunity to unlock the mysteries of the brain.

Building on recent discoveries, the BRAIN Initiative aimed to accelerate 

the development and application of innovative technologies to produce 

a revolutionary, dynamic picture of the human brain. This dynamic picture 

would show how individual cells and complex neural circuits interact in 

both time and space, providing unprecedented opportunities to understand 

brain function and dysfunction. Dozens of leading technology firms, 

academic institutions, scientists, and other key contributors to the field of 

neuroscience have recognized the importance of these aims and made 

significant commitments to advancing the BRAIN Initiative.

2014
27

On April 2, the NIMH-funded BrainSpan Atlas of the Developing Human Brain 

consortium project reported its first major findings. The effort was intended to 

provide a comprehensive three-dimensional atlas of the brain and profile gene 

activity across the brain, beginning prenatally.

NIMH adopted a new policy for clinical trials that required future trials to follow an 

experimental therapeutics approach. Under this mechanism-based approach to 

intervention development and testing, trials are designed not only to test whether 

an intervention works but also to advance understanding of how the intervention 

works. The policy stipulated that clinical trials must also meet new recruitment, data 

sharing, and reporting standards.

NIMH published a new Strategic Plan for Research. Informed by the successes and 

challenges of recent years, the plan updated the strategic objectives outlined in 

2008 to balance the need for long-term investments in basic research with urgent 

mental health needs. The four strategic objectives in the 2015 plan were:

• Define the mechanisms of complex behaviors

• Chart mental illness trajectories to determine when, where, and how

to intervene

• Strive for prevention and cures

• Strengthen the public health impact of NIMH-supported research

Human adult whole brain, cortex—gyral. 

Courtesy of Allen BrainSpan Atlas of the 

Developing Human Brain,

https://brainspan.org/static/atlas.

2014

2015
The Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers-Longitudinal Study 

(STARRS-LS) was launched as an extension of Army STARRS, representing a 

partnership between NIMH and the U.S. Army, U.S. Department of Defense, and 

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. STARRS-LS researchers continued to analyze 

Army STARRS data while also collecting new data to learn about suicide risk and 

mental health among military personnel throughout their Army careers and during 

the transition to civilian life.

Researchers in NIMH’s Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode (RAISE) 

initiative reported that treating people with first-episode psychosis using a teambased coordinated specialty care approach produced better clinical and functional 

outcomes than typical community care. Investigators also found that treatment was 

most effective for people who received care soon after psychosis symptoms began.

2015

28

Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode Initiative

NIMH launched the Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode (RAISE) 

research initiative in 2008 to test the effectiveness and implementation of

coordinated specialty care (CSC) to treat first-episode psychosis in communities 

across the United States. NIMH funded RAISE and called for developmentally 

informed, comprehensive, patient-centered interventions to meet the needs 

of youth experiencing the earliest stages of serious mental illness.

NIMH engaged extensively with organizations and communities—including 

federal partners, advocacy groups, professional organizations, and local 

and state mental health authorities—to ensure RAISE findings would be 

relevant and actionable for rapid translation into clinical practice. These 

collaborations, coupled with RAISE findings demonstrating the effectiveness 

of CSC, created the momentum for targeted federal support of CSC 

services and broad expansion of CSC treatment programs nationwide. 

Based on RAISE results, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services 

posted a bulletin for state Medicaid directors about covering CSC as an 

evidence-based treatment for first-episode psychosis. The Veterans Health 

Administration and the U.S. Department of Labor also endorsed CSC. 

Ultimately, RAISE not only contributed to a new way to organize and deliver 

treatment, but it also produced findings that changed the standard of 

practice for early schizophrenia treatment in the United States.
29

2015 On February 6, NIMH announced the creation of the Early Psychosis Intervention 

Network (EPINET), designed to link treatment centers for early psychosis in a 

network of evidence-based coordinated specialty care programs. The initiative 

was built on the insights developed during the NIMH RAISE initiative. By 2020, 

EPINET included a data coordinating center, eight scientific hubs, and more than 100 

community clinics in a national learning health system aimed at improving services 

and outcomes for thousands of people experiencing an initial episode of psychosis.

NIMH supported the launch of a major BRAIN Initiative effort to discover and 

catalog the brain’s “parts list.” This effort, known as the BRAIN Initiative Cell Census 

Network, was established as a cooperative network of comprehensive centers, 

specialized laboratories, and an integrated data center.

On April 29, results published from the Emergency Department Safety Assessment 

and Follow-up Evaluation study showed that hospital emergency departments 

can play a vital role in reducing suicide attempts among adults. The study was the 

largest emergency department-based suicide intervention trial ever conducted 

in the United States, taking place over five years in eight hospitals across seven 

states. The results showed that screening, followed by safety planning guidance 

and periodic phone check-ins after discharge, led to a 30% decrease in suicide 

attempts compared to standard emergency department care. The study was 

another example of NIMH’s prioritized suicide prevention research agenda.

On July 11, NIMH proposed the creation of the NIMH Data Archive to serve as an 

online resource for investigators seeking to share data, tools, methods, and analyses 

from research with human participants. The NIMH Data Archive, which was built upon 

the preexisting National Database for Autism Research, brought together other digital 

repositories, including the Research Domain Criteria Database, the National Database 

for Clinical Trials Related to Mental Illness, and the NIH Pediatric MRI Repository.

2017

Before we can fully understand how our brains work, we need to 

understand how the parts work. Making molecular, anatomical, 

and functional data about brain cells available to the broad 

research community will speed our understanding of how cells 

and circuits are organized, revealing the rules of communication 

within the world’s most complex known organ.

Former NIH Director Francis S. Collins, M.D., Ph.D.

Speech on the BRAIN Initiative 

“

”
30

NIH released the first dataset from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM 

Study, the largest long-term study of brain development and child health ever 

conducted in the United States, to the scientific community through the NIMH Data 

Archive. The comprehensive dataset—including measures of brain development; 

social, emotional, and cognitive development; mental health; substance use and 

attitudes; gender identity and sexual health; and various physical health and 

environmental factors—allowed researchers to address numerous questions related 

to adolescent brain development to help inform future prevention and treatment 

efforts, public health strategies, and policy decisions.

NIH launched the Helping to End Addiction Long-term®

 Initiative as an ambitious, 

high-priority effort across the institutes to speed scientific solutions to stem 

the opioid public health crisis. Launched in April 2018, the initiative focused on 

improving prevention and treatment strategies for opioid misuse and addiction 

and enhancing pain management. As a major partner in the initiative, NIMH led a 

research program focused on optimizing the delivery of services for people with 

opioid use disorder, mental disorders, and suicide risk. NIMH-supported efforts 

have included research to adapt the collaborative care model to treat co-occurring 

mental and substance use disorders and a program to reduce suicide deaths by 

identifying people at risk when seen in primary care settings.

Researchers in the NIMH Intramural Research Program collaborated with the Indian 

Health Service (IHS) to pilot suicide risk screening in IHS emergency departments 

serving American Indian/Alaska Native communities. A follow-up quality 

improvement project further demonstrated the feasibility of suicide risk screening 

in IHS emergency departments. Intramural researchers subsequently used these 

findings to guide the implementation of suicide risk screening in more than 100 IHS 

medical settings (including 22 emergency departments) around the United States.

On March 5, the FDA approved esketamine as a fast-acting and noninvasive 

treatment for depression that works via a different neurochemical pathway from 

other antidepressants. In the 1990s, Dr. Charney and another researcher, John 

Krystal, M.D., found that intravenous ketamine improved depressive symptoms 

within hours rather than the usual days or weeks. In the 2000s, research led by 

intramural researchers Dr. Manji and Dr. Zarate showed that ketamine worked 

by blocking the NMDA receptor in brain cells. Their research also showed that 

ketamine stimulated the activity of the AMPA receptor. Dr. Manji built on this finding 

to produce an alternative way of delivering ketamine in the form of esketamine, 

which is delivered via nasal spray.

2018

2019
31

On March 19, the FDA approved the medication brexanolone as the first 

successful treatment for severe postpartum depression. In the 1980s and 1990s, 

NIMH intramural researcher Steven Paul, M.D., showed that the neurosteroid 

allopregnanolone promoted anesthesia during pregnancy by stimulating the 

inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. Subsequent research demonstrated that 

brexanolone, an intravenous form of allopregnanolone, treated postpartum 

depression by continuing the stimulation of GABA into the postpartum period.

NIMH established the Advanced Laboratories for Accelerating the Reach and 

Impact of Treatments for Youth and Adults with Mental Illness research center 

program to support the advancement of clinical research and practice. The program 

was designed to leverage practice-based infrastructure, stakeholder engagement, 

and transdisciplinary research teams capable of incorporating insights from new 

fields and emerging technologies. These innovative components were expected 

to speed the translation of research into clinical practice. At launch, the program 

comprised research teams at eight centers. By 2023, the program had expanded to 

14 centers focused on a range of populations and spanning a variety of real-world 

settings where services are delivered.

2019

The approval of brexanolone is a cause for celebration for 

psychiatric neuroscience, as it represents a true bench-to-bedside 

success for our field. The promise of basic neuroscience to provide 

truly novel and effective treatments for psychiatric disorders has 

for a long time been only that: a promise. But not anymore.

NIMH Director Joshua A. Gordon, M.D., Ph.D.

NIMH Director’s Message

“

”
32

2019

NIMH published a new Strategic Plan for Research, which provided a framework 

for research to leverage new opportunities for scientific exploration and addressed 

new challenges in mental health. The four goals outlined in the 2020 plan formed 

a broad roadmap for the institute’s research priorities, ranging from fundamental 

science to public health impact:

• Define the brain mechanisms underlying complex behaviors

• Examine mental illness trajectories across the lifespan

• Strive for prevention and cures

• Strengthen the public health impact of NIMH-supported research

Impact of the 

Coronavirus Pandemic

Coronavirus (COVID-19), a 

disease caused by the SARSCoV-2 virus, was discovered 

in December 2019 and quickly 

spread around the world.

The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately impacted people in underserved 

and minoritized communities. People in these communities experienced 

greater rates of illness and death due to SARS-CoV-2 infection and broader 

mental health consequences of the pandemic’s social, behavioral, and 

economic impacts. Reports indicated that many people experienced a decline 

in mental health during the pandemic, including increased symptoms of 

depression and anxiety and increased rates of substance use. 

In response, NIMH funded research to understand the long-term mental 

health impacts of the pandemic and evaluate scalable interventions that 

could meet the increased mental health needs of diverse populations. 

NIMH committed to prioritizing research on COVID-19 and funding studies 

examining the pandemic’s ongoing impacts and effective ways to support 

mental health during public health emergencies.

3D illustration of coronavirus.

Credit: www.istockphoto.com/portfolio/

BlackJack3D.

2020
NIH launched a public-private partnership to meet the urgent need for early 

therapeutic interventions for people at risk of developing schizophrenia. 

The Accelerating Medicines Partnership®

 program for schizophrenia brought 

together NIH, the FDA, and multiple nonprofit and private organizations in a united 

effort to better understand underlying biological pathways and identify 

new treatment targets.

The BRAIN Initiative Cell Census Network unveiled an atlas of cell types and an 

anatomical neuronal wiring diagram for the mammalian primary motor cortex, derived 

from detailed studies of mice, monkeys, and humans. This publicly available resource 

represented the culmination of an international collaboration by more than 250 

scientists at more than 45 institutions across three continents. The findings appeared 

in 17 associated papers published in a dedicated issue of the journal Nature.

33

2021

A multicolor visualization of the 

mouse primary motor cortex 

transcriptomic taxonomy 

overlaid with mapped neuronal 

cells surrounded by colorcoordinated pictures of 

different types of neurons 

(GABAergic, glutamatergic, 

chandelier, etc.) and their 

electrophysiological signatures.

Credit: BRAIN Initiative Cell 

Census Network, Nature, 

https://creativecommons.org/

licenses/by/4.0.

The Accelerating Medicines Partnership® program for 

schizophrenia furthers NIMH’s ongoing commitment to 

research improving the lives of people with early psychosis 

and schizophrenia. This innovative partnership is an exciting 

opportunity to accelerate research that will spur new 

pharmacologic approaches to early intervention, leading to 

positive impacts in the lives of patients with schizophrenia.

NIMH Director Joshua A. Gordon, M.D., Ph.D.

Announcement on the launch of the Accelerating Medicines Partnership®

program for schizophrenia

“

”

2020
In December, U.S. Surgeon General Vivek H. Murthy, M.D., issued The U.S. Surgeon 

General’s Advisory on Protecting Youth Mental Health. The advisory, developed with 

input from NIMH and other federal agencies, recognized mental health as an essential 

part of overall health and acknowledged the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on 

youth mental health. The advisory included recommendations to increase timely data 

collection and research to identify and respond to youth mental health needs.

NIMH supported the launch of two transformative projects through the BRAIN 

Initiative: the BRAIN Initiative Cell Atlas Network and the Armamentarium for 

Precision Brain Cell Access. The BRAIN Initiative Cell Atlas Network represented 

the next step in NIH’s efforts to generate a complete reference atlas of cell types 

and circuits in the human brain across the lifespan. The Armamentarium for 

Precision Brain Cell Access aimed to generate tools that would allow researchers 

to target specific brain cells and neural circuits. Together, these BRAIN 2.0 projects 

aimed to transform our understanding of brain cell types and provide the precise 

tools needed to access them, helping unravel the complex workings of the human 

brain and inform treatments of brain disorders. 

The White House Report on Mental Health Research Priorities, published in 

February, outlined administration-wide needs and opportunities to advance 

mental health research. Areas of emphasis included addressing mental health 

inequities, understanding and leveraging digital mental health interventions, 

and supporting and expanding the mental health workforce. NIMH substantively 

contributed to development of the report, which highlighted several NIMHsupported research initiatives.

In May, U.S. Surgeon General Murthy issued The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory on 

Social Media and Youth Mental Health. The advisory called for urgent action to clarify 

the mental health impacts of social media use, maximize the benefits and minimize the 

harms of social media platforms, and create safer and healthier online environments. 

NIMH and other federal agencies advised on the preparation of the report. 

NIMH celebrated its 75th anniversary. A yearlong program of events launched with 

the inaugural scientific symposium, “The Evolution of Mental Health Research.” 

Over the anniversary year, NIMH sponsored numerous activities, including 

symposiums, lectures, and sessions at scientific meetings. NIMH also shared stories 

of discovery and inspiration from its past, present, and future.

34

2021

2022

2023

For more information, stories, and highlighted research,

visit www.nimh.nih.gov/75years
35

Future Directions

Over the last 75 years, NIMH has been at the forefront of scientific 

advances that have transformed our understanding of mental illnesses 

and generated evidence-based approaches to mental health care. Our 

successes are a testament to the hard work, bright minds, and innovative 

spirit of those contributing to the institute’s mission.

Looking back on the many NIMH-supported advancements gives reason to 

celebrate and provides perspective for moving forward. Mental illnesses are 

common, affecting tens of millions of people in the United States—and worldwide—

each year. Suicide remains an urgent public health concern and one of the leading 

causes of death in the United States. 

We need to continue to drive research that defines the biological underpinnings 

of these disorders and the ongoing translational and clinical research to turn that 

knowledge into effective treatment options. Although we cannot predict the next 

public health emergency or the complex scientific questions that will arise, we can 

prepare to meet such challenges by setting an ambitious research agenda and 

building a talented, diverse cohort of mental health researchers to see it through.

The evolving NIMH Strategic Plan for Research maps our path. We have charted 

numerous routes—from basic research to translational efforts to clinical studies 

testing novel approaches in community settings. We are also ready to adapt to the 

challenges and opportunities ahead.

Over the next 75 years and beyond, NIMH will continue to prioritize excellent 

science that brings hope and solutions to people with mental illnesses, their 

families, and their communities. We remain mindful of the journey ahead and draw 

strength from the hope that drives us forward. 

Learn more about the NIMH Strategic Plan for Research at

www.nimh.nih.gov/strategicplan
36

Name Tenure

Robert H. Felix 1949–1964

Stanley F. Yolles 1964–1970

Bertram S. Brown 1970–1977

Francis N. Waldrop (Acting) 1977–1978

Herbert Pardes 1978–1984

Larry Silver (Acting) 1984

Shervert H. Frazier 1984–1986

Frank J. Sullivan (Acting) 1986–1988

Lewis L. Judd 1988–1990

Alan I. Leshner (Acting) 1990–1992

Frederick K. Goodwin 1992–1994

Rex William Cowdry (Acting) 1994–1996

Steven E. Hyman 1996–2001

Richard K. Nakamura (Acting) 2001–2002

Thomas R. Insel 2002–2015

Bruce Cuthbert (Acting) 2015–2016

Joshua A. Gordon 2016–Present

NIMH Directors
37

Learn More About

NIMH History

The following sources provide more information on NIMH and its history:

Origin Story

Brand, J. L. (1965). The National Mental Health Act of 1946: A retrospect. Bulletin of the History of 

Medicine, 39(3), 231−245.

Grob, G. N. (1996). Creation of the National Institute of Mental Health. Public Health Reports, 111(4), 

378−381.

Scientific Research

Axelrod, J. (1986). Doing research in the intramural program of the National Institutes of Health. 

Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 29(3), 131−137.

Cohen, R. A. (1984). Studies on the etiology of schizophrenia. In DeWitt Stetten, Jr., & W.T. Carrigan 

(Eds.), NIH: An account of research in its laboratories and clinics (pp. 13−34). Academic Press.

Ellenberg, J. H. (1997). A conversation with Morton Kramer. Statistical Science, 12(2), 103−107.

Ferreras, I. G. (Ed.). (2004). Mind, brain, body, and behavior: Foundations of neuroscience and 

behavioral research at the National Institutes of Health. IOS Press. 

Insel, T. R., & Landis, S. C. (2013). Twenty-five years of progress: The view from NIMH and NINDS. 

Neuron. 80(3), 561−567.

Kopin, I. J. (1984). Neurotransmitters and neuropsychopharmacology. In DeWitt Stetten, Jr., & 

W. T. Carrigan (Eds.), NIH: An account of research in its laboratories and clinics (pp. 36−47). 

Academic Press.

Pickren, W. E., & Schneider, S. F. (Eds.). (2005). Psychology and the National Institute of 

Mental Health: A historical analysis of science, practice, and policy. American Psychological 

Association.

Organizational History

Brown, B. S. (1998). NIMH before (1946-1970) and during the tenure of director Bertram S. 

Brown, M.D. (1970-1978): The early years and the public health mission. American Journal of 

Psychiatry, 155(9), 9−13.

Brown, B. S., & Okura, K. P. (1995). A brief history of the center for minority group mental health 

programs at the National Institute of Mental Health. In Charles V. Willie, Patricia Perri Rieker, 

Bernard M. Kramer, & Bertram S. Brown (Eds.), Mental health racism and sexism (pp. 397−426). 

Taylor & Francis.
38

Frazier, S. H. (1998). NIMH during the tenure of director Shervert H. Frazier, M.D. (1984-1986):

The mental disorder-based reorganization and research on schizophrenia and severe

mental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(9), 20−24.

Goodwin, F. K. (1998). NIMH during the tenure of director Frederick K. Goodwin, M.D. (1992-1994): The 

return to NIH and the fight for parity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(9), 32−35.

Hyman, S. E. (1998). NIMH during the tenure of director Steven E. Hyman, M.D. (1996-present): 

The now and future of NIMH. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(9), 36−40.

Judd, L. L. (1998). Historical highlights of the National Institute of Mental Health from 1946 to the 

present. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(9), 3−8.

Judd, L. L. (1998). NIMH during the tenure of director Lewis L. Judd, M.D. (1987-1990): The decade of 

the brain and the four national research plans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(9), 25−31.

Pardes, H. (1998). NIMH during the tenure of director Herbert Pardes, M.D. (1978-1984): The 

president’s commission on mental health and the reemergence of NIMH’s scientific mission. 

American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(9), 14−19.

Segal, J. (Ed.). (1975). Research in the service of mental health: Report of the research task force 

of the National Institute of Mental Health. National Institute of Mental Health.

Shaping National Mental Health Policy

Foley, H. A. (1975). Community mental health legislation: The formative process. Lexington Books. 

Foley, H. A., & Sharfstein, S. S. (1983). Madness and government: Who cares for the mentally ill?

American Psychiatric Press.

Grob, G. N. (1987). The forging of mental health policy in America: World War II to new frontier. 

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 42(4), 410−446.

Grob, G. N. (2000). Mental health policy in late twentieth century America. In Roy W. Menninger 

& John C. Nemiah (Eds.), American psychiatry after World War II (1944-1994) (pp. 232−258). 

American Psychiatric Press.

Grob, G. N., & Goldman, H. H. (2006). The dilemma of federal mental health policy: Radical 

reform or incremental change? Rutgers University Press.

Insel, T. (2022). Healing: Our path from mental illness to mental health. Penguin Press.

Kolb, L. C., Frazier, S. H., & Sirovatka, P. (2000). The National Institute of Mental Health: Its influence 

on psychiatry and the nation’s mental health. In Roy W. Menninger & John C. Nemiah (Eds.), 

American psychiatry after World War II (1944-1994) (pp. 207−231). American Psychiatric Press.

For complete documentation of the information in this publication, consult:

Office of NIH History & Stetten Museum 

https://history.nih.gov 

National Library of Medicine

www.nlm.nih.gov
The following are registered service marks and trademarks of the U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services (HHS):

• Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM Study 

• Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies®

and The BRAIN Initiative®

• ACCELERATING MEDICINES PARTNERSHIP®

• Helping to End Addiction Long-term®

This publication was made possible by the NIMH 75th Anniversary 

Steering Committee and Working Groups; former and current NIMH staff; 

the NIMH research community; and those who shared their expertise, 

experience, and stories.

This information was reviewed by historical consultant and historian

Dr. Kenneth Durr.

With the exception of the images, the information in this publication is in the 

public domain and may be reused or copied without permission. Please cite 

the National Institute of Mental Health as the source. You may not reuse 

or copy the images. Read our copyright policy to learn more about our 

guidelines for reusing NIMH content at www.nimh.nih.gov/copyright.

40
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NIH Publication No. 23-MH-8213