National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

Motorcycle Safety

5-Year Plan
National Highway Traffic Safety 

Administration 

Motorcycle Safety 

5-Year Plan
i 

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 2

Types of Crashes ...................................................................................................................................... 5

Motorcyclist Risk Exposure ............................................................................................................... 6

Demographics: Rider Age ................................................................................................................ 8

Crash Protection: Helmets .............................................................................................................. 8

Funding for State Motorcycle Safety Programs ................................................................... 10

Foundational Programming ........................................................................................................... 11

Current Challenges and Opportunities .......................................................................................... 12

DATA .......................................................................................................................................................... 12

Challenges ................................................................................................................................................. 12

Identifying Rider Risk Exposure ............................................................................................... 12

Identifying Motorist Interactions With Motorcyclists ..................................................... 13

Intelligent Transportation Systems and Motorcycle Safety .......................................... 13

Non-Fatal Data Collection and Use ........................................................................................... 14

Strategies................................................................................................................................................... 15

Roadway Information Database ................................................................................................ 15

Informal Databases ......................................................................................................................... 17

Observational Surveys ................................................................................................................... 17

Conspicuity and Personal Protective Equipment .............................................................. 18

Motorcycle Safety Program Training ...................................................................................... 18

Exposure Data Research ............................................................................................................... 19

Rider Behavior and Crash Avoidance ..................................................................................... 19

Crash Causation Study ................................................................................................................... 20

STATE SUPPORT .................................................................................................................................... 21

Challenges ................................................................................................................................................. 21

Educational Material Development ......................................................................................... 21

Funding Parameters ....................................................................................................................... 21

Updating Program Guidelines .................................................................................................... 21

Messaging ............................................................................................................................................ 22
ii

Strategies................................................................................................................................................... 22

Centralized Product Development ........................................................................................... 22

Financing Strategies ....................................................................................................................... 23

Data-Driven Messaging ................................................................................................................. 23

Increasing Communication With and Among Program Planners ............................... 24

State Assessments ........................................................................................................................... 25

 Florida Helmet Demonstration Project ........................................................................... 25

Helmet Repeal Fiscal Analysis Methodology ....................................................................... 26

Exploring Methodology for Identifying Under-Insured Health Care Burden 

 for Each State .............................................................................................................................. 26

LAW ENFORCEMENT ........................................................................................................................... 27

Challenges ................................................................................................................................................. 27

Legislative Barriers to Enforcement of Motorcycle Safety Laws ................................ 27

Eternal Permit ................................................................................................................................... 28

Novelty Helmets ............................................................................................................................... 29

Motorcycle-Only Checkpoints .................................................................................................... 29

Motorcycle Classifications ........................................................................................................... 30

Age Requirements ........................................................................................................................... 30

Engine Displacement Laws .......................................................................................................... 31

Insurance Requirements .............................................................................................................. 31

Challenges to Effective Enforcement of State Motorcycle Helmet Laws ................. 31

Strategies................................................................................................................................................... 32

Training, Training, and More Training ................................................................................... 32

Effective Strategies for Motorcycle Stops .............................................................................. 32

Strategies for the Enforcement of Impaired Riding Laws .............................................. 32

Tools for Identifying Novelty Helmets.................................................................................... 32

FEDERAL PROGRAMS ......................................................................................................................... 33

Challenges ................................................................................................................................................. 33

Three-Wheeled Vehicles ............................................................................................................... 33

Novelty Helmets ............................................................................................................................... 33
iii

Strategies................................................................................................................................................... 33

Outreach Regarding Three-Wheeled Vehicles .................................................................... 33

Education on Unsafe Helmets ..................................................................................................... 34

Compliance Enforcement of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards ..................... 34

Innovation in Helmet Design ...................................................................................................... 34

RESEARCH PRIORITIES ..................................................................................................................... 35

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................ 36
1 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This document is intended to serve as a plan for National Highway Traffic Safety 

Administration activities to address the safety of motorcyclists. Motorcycle safety is 

a complex and far-reaching topic, and to be successful NHTSA must work in 

conjunction with its partners and utilize data-driven approaches to reduce the risk 

to motorcyclists and all road users. 

The plan is broken down into four sections. The initial section identifies current 

data needs for the Agency and data acquisition strategies to improve 

countermeasure development processes. The second section covers efforts to 

improve the Agency’s support of State activities. The third section examines 

opportunities to improve support for law enforcement agencies as they pertain to 

motorcyclist safety. Finally, the fourth section identifies strategies as they pertain 

to the Agency’s Federal agenda. All four sections acknowledge the challenges 

currently facing the Agency, and propose strategies to address them. 

Motorcycle safety encompasses a wide spectrum of road users, including those 

who have never operated a motorcycle. From the perspective of crash causes, 

motorcyclists can be segmented into several distinct groups, each facing unique 

challenges in addressing motorcyclist safety. Each section represents a 

comprehensive approach to addressing the identified challenges. For example, 

under State Support, efforts will include initiatives that support policymakers, 

highway safety office personnel, motorcyclists, and non-riding motorists.

This strategic plan is intended to be a dynamic guide rather than a static 

statement. Concerns raised here will be addressed in accordance with NHTSA 

priorities and available resources. In the years ahead, NHTSA will revisit and 

adjust this approach in response to new information and emerging issues that 

affect the safety of motorcyclists. 
2 

INTRODUCTION

Motorcycle safety is at a unique juncture. Overall traffic fatalities are increasing, and 

motorcyclist fatalities also continue to increase and are near their highest level in 

over 35 years. In 2017, there 

were 5,172 motorcyclists killed 

in motor vehicle traffic crashes. 

Compared to the 2,116 killed in 

1997, the past 20 years have 

seen a 144-percent increase in 

motorcyclist fatalities. It

should be noted that despite 

the absolute increase in 

motorcyclist fatalities, the 

fatality rate for motorcyclists 

as measured per 100,000 

registered motorcycles has 

decreased almost 27 percent 

since 1988.

1

Despite significant gains in 

roadway and vehicle design, 

including motorcycle design, 

crashes continue to place a 

considerable burden on our 

Nation’s health care system. 

The $242 billion cost of motor 

vehicle crashes represents the 

equivalent of nearly $784 for 

each of the 308.7 million people living in the United States.

2

Those not directly involved in motor vehicle crashes pay for over three-quarters of 

all crash costs, primarily through insurance premiums, taxes and congestion-related 

costs such as travel delay, excess fuel consumption, and increased environmental 

impacts. In 2010, these costs, borne by society rather than by crash victims, totaled 

over $187 billion.3

 

1 Blincoe, L. (2015, May). The Economic Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes, 2010 Revised (DOT HS 812 013).

Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

2 Blincoe et al.

3 Blincoe et al.

Figure 1-1

Source: NCSA, 2019
3

Recent data further indicated that deaths and injuries from motorcycle crashes are 

continuing to account for a larger portion of this public health problem. Per 

registered vehicle, the fatality rate for motorcyclists in 2015 was six times the 

fatality rate for passenger car occupants, and in contrast to passenger vehicles, 

motorcycle crash-related fatalities have remained close the 2008 peak value, and 

injuries are almost double of what they were in 1998. 

Motorcycles pose unique risks to riders in terms of their crashworthiness because of 

the following factors: the absence of external protection that an enclosed vehicle 

structure provides, the lack of internal restraints such as seat belts and air bags, 

acceleration and speed capability, the propensity for riders to be thrown in a crash, 

and the relative instability of a two-wheeled vehicle.

Table 1-1. Motorcyclist Fatalities, Injuries, and Casualty Rates, 1989-2017

Year Registered 

Motorcycles

Vehicle 

Miles 

Traveled 

(Millions)

Motorcyclists 

Killed

Fatality Rate 

per 100,000 

Registered 

Motorcycles

Fatality 

Rate 

per 100 

Million 

VMT

Motorcyclists 

Injured

Injury Rate 

per 100,000 

Registered 

Motorcycles

Injury 

Rate 

per 100 

Million 

VMT

1989 4,420,420 10,371 3,141 71.06 30.29 83,000 1,888 805

1990 4,259,462 9,557 3,244 76.16 33.94 84,000 1,979 882

1991 4,177,365 9,178 2,806 67.17 30.57 80,000 1,925 876

1992 4,065,118 9,557 2,395 58.92 25.06 65,000 1,601 681

1993 3,977,856 9,906 2,449 61.57 24.72 59,000 1,494 600

1994 3,756,555 10,240 2,320 61.76 22.66 57,000 1,528 561

1995 3,897,191 9,797 2,227 57.14 22.73 57,000 1,475 587

1996 3,871,599 9,920 2,161 55.82 21.78 55,000 1,428 557

1997 3,826,373 10,081 2,116 55.3 20.99 53,000 1,374 522

1998 3,879,450 10,283 2,294 59.13 22.31 49,000 1,262 476

1999 4,152,433 10,584 2,483 59.8 23.46 50,000 1,204 472

2000 4,346,068 10,469 2,897 66.66 27.67 58,000 1,328 551

2001 4,903,056 9,633 3,197 65.2 33.19 60,000 1,229 625

2002 5,004,156 9,552 3,270 65.35 34.23 65,000 1,293 677

2003 5,370,035 9,576 3,714 69.16 38.78 67,000 1,250 701

2004 5,767,934 10,122 4,028 69.83 39.79 76,000 1,324 755

2005 6,227,146 10,454 4,576 73.48 43.77 87,000 1,402 835

2006 6,678,958 12,049 4,837 72.42 40.14 88,000 1,312 727

2007 7,138,476 21,396 5,174 72.48 24.18 103,000 1,443 481

2008 7,752,926 20,811 5,312 68.52 25.52 96,000 1,238 461

2009 7,929,724 20,822 4,469 56.36 21.46 90,000 1,130 430

2010 8,009,503 18,513 4,518 56.41 24.4 82,000 1,024 443

2011 8,437,502 18,542 4,630 54.87 24.97 81,000 965 439

2012 8,454,939 21,385 4,986 58.97 23.32 93,000 1,099 434
4

Year Registered 

Motorcycles

Vehicle 

Miles 

Traveled 

(Millions)

Motorcyclists 

Killed

Fatality Rate 

per 100,000 

Registered 

Motorcycles

Fatality 

Rate 

per 100 

Million 

VMT

Motorcyclists 

Injured

Injury Rate 

per 100,000 

Registered 

Motorcycles

Injury 

Rate 

per 100 

Million 

VMT

2013 8,404,687 20,366 4,692 55.83 23.04 88,000 1,052 434

2014 8,417,718 19,970 4,594 54.58 23 92,000 1,088 459

2015 8,600,936 19,606 5,029 58.47 25.65 88,000 1,028 451

2016 8,679,380 20,445 5,337 62.05 26.10 - - -

2017 - - 5,172 - - - - -

Source: NCSA, 2017

As one can see from Table 1-1, motorcycle riding and ownership has surged in 

recent years, and this growth has been accompanied by increases in motorcyclist 

fatalities and injuries. Despite historically high numbers of registered motorcycles 

on America’s roads, the fatality rate per 100,000 registered motorcycles has 

stabilized and has shown modest reductions over the past 10 years. When using the 

best available estimates of vehicle miles traveled (VMT) as a metric for exposure,

4

the fatality rate has declined modestly since 2006, and is half of what it was in 1975. 

It is unclear to what this historic decline can be attributed, but a combination of 

factors, such as helmet use rates, increases in trained riders and the improvements 

in motorcycle technology like Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) and Electronic 

Stability Control (ESC) may have contributed.

In 2017, motorcyclists accounted for 14 percent of all traffic fatalities and 17 

percent of all occupant (driver and passenger) fatalities. Of the 5,172 motorcyclists 

killed in traffic crashes, 94 percent (4,885) were riders and 6 percent (287) were 

passengers. As Figure 1-2 shows, the proportion of motorcyclist fatalities relative to 

all traffic-related fatalities has more than doubled over the past 20 years. As the total 

number of motor vehicle fatalities decreased, the number of motorcyclist fatalities 

steadily increased.

 4 Motorcycle VMT data are not as reliable as light-vehicle VMT data, for reasons discussed later in this 

document.
5 

Figure 1-2. Motorcycle Rider Fatalities vs. Other Vehicle 

Occupant Fatalities by Year, 1997-2017 

Types of Crashes

The percentage of fatal crashes involving collisions with fixed objects is higher for 

motorcycles than for other vehicles. In 2017, 23 percent of the motorcycles involved 

in fatal crashes collided with fixed objects, compared to 16 percent for passenger 

cars, 13 percent for light trucks, and 4 percent for large trucks. Single-vehicle 

motorcycle crashes could be indicative of rider error, and thus may be more 

preventable than other crash types. According to the Hurt Report,

5 in single-vehicle 

crashes, motorcycle rider error was present as the precipitating factor in about twothirds of the crashes, with the typical error being a slide-out and fall due to overbraking or running wide on a curve due to excess speed or under-cornering. In twothirds of the multiple-vehicle crashes, the driver of the other vehicle violated the 

motorcycle right-of-way and caused the crash. While Figure 1-3 shows many States

 

5 Hurt, H.H. Jr., Ouellet, J.V. & Thom D.R. (1981b). Motorcycle Accident Cause Factors and Identification 

of Countermeasures (DOT HS 805 862).
6

with a majority of single-vehicle fatal crashes, most States show an even split 

between single- and multi-vehicle fatal crashes; when combined with at-fault for 

multi-vehicle crashes, rider error may account for roughly two-thirds of all fatal

motorcycle crashes.

Figure 1-3. Percentage of Fatal Single-Vehicle Motorcycle Crashes, 2014-2017

Motorcyclist Risk Exposure

Compared to passenger vehicles and trucks, estimating VMT for motorcycles is a

more difficult task, and an accurate number has thus far not been obtainable on a

national level. Motorcycles, for the most part, are not uniformly required to submit 

to air quality emissions inspections or to report verified mileage on a regular basis. 

To compensate for this, one must look to proxy measures of motorcycle crash risk 

exposure, such as population and registration denominators.
7

Figure 1-4. Motorcyclist Fatality Rate per 10,000 Registered Motorcycles

Motorcyclist Fatality Rate, 2013-2017

*per 10,000 registered motorcycles

As one can see in Figure 1-4, Sun Belt States have a larger share of overall

motorcyclist fatalities as a percentage of registered motorcycles. Those States south 

of the 37th parallel have longer riding seasons and more motorcycle owners, 

resulting in more on-the-road risk exposure than their cold-weather State

counterparts.

The limitation of utilizing a registration-based proxy for exposure is that little can 

be definitively gleaned in terms of actual miles ridden. Having a motorcycle 

registered does not necessarily mean that the bike is ridden. Additionally, in the 

United States, motorcycling is often a recreational activity, and those that choose to 

own one motorcycle may be able to afford to own multiple motorcycles.
8 

Demographics: Rider Age

Age and experience are related to 

crash involvement. From 2008 to 

2017, motorcyclist fatalities 

decreased by 3 percent. The 40-

and-older age group made up 51

percent of motorcyclists killed in 

2008 and 53 percent of the 

motorcyclists killed in 2017. Over 

the 10-year period from 2008 to

2017, fatalities among the 40-

and-older age group increased by 

22 percent (from 2,698 to 2,757). 

In 2008, the average age of 

motorcycle riders killed in motor 

vehicle traffic crashes was 40, 

whereas in 2017 the average age 

was 42. Furthermore, 50-andolder motorcyclist fatalities 

increased by 22 percent from 2008 to 2017. Research suggests that the 40-andolder crash-involved segment includes those who rode motorcycles when they were 

younger, and returned to the sport at middle age—possibly forgoing refresher 

training—and subsequently acquired much more powerful and larger engine 

displacement motorcycles. 

Crash Protection: Helmets

Unlike passenger cars, motorcycles lack occupant protection equipment that has

been shown to reduce the risk of injury or fatality, such as seat belts and air bags. 

Sixty percent of motorcyclist fatalities are caused by head injury, and, according to 

NHTSA research,

6 the use of a helmet offers a motorcyclist the best protection from 

fatal and non-fatal head injuries.

 

6 Lawrence, J., Kerns, T., Burch, C., Thomas, A., & Bell, E. (2009). Motorcycle Helmet Use and Head and 

Facial Injuries: Crash Outcomes in CODES-Linked Data (DOT HS 811 208).

Figure 1-5. Age Involvement in Motorcyle Crashes

Source: NCSA

Table 1-3. Motorcyclist Fatalities, by Engine Size (cc), 2008 and 2017

Year 

Engine Displacement (cc) Total Up to 500 501-1,000 1,001-1,500 1,501 & Higher Unknown

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

2008 261 5% 2,208 42% 1,765 33% 566 11% 512 10% 5,312 100% 

2017 376 7% 1,873 36% 1,367 26% 1,155 22% 401 8% 5,172 100% 
9 

NHTSA estimates that helmets 

saved the lives of 1,872

motorcyclists in 2017. If all 

motorcyclists had worn helmets, 

an additional 749 lives could have 

been saved. Helmets are estimated 

to be 37-percent effective in 

preventing fatal head injuries to 

motorcycle riders and 41 percent 

for motorcycle passengers. In 

other words, for every 100 

motorcycle riders killed in crashes 

while not wearing helmets, 37 of 

them could have been saved if all 

100 had worn helmets. 

Figure 1-7. Helmet Law Modification Attempts in 2018

Unfortunately, helmet use is far from universal among those involved in crashes. 

Motorcycle helmet use laws covering all riders (universal helmet laws) have shown 

to be the most effective countermeasure for increasing helmet use. Currently, 19 

States and the District of Columbia have such laws. Legislative proposals regarding 

motorcycle helmet use often generate strong debate between injury prevention 

advocates and others who oppose mandatory helmet laws for a variety of reasons. 

Figure 1-6. Helmet Use Laws (as of 2019)
10

Each year, legislation to repeal or weaken mandatory helmet use laws is introduced 

in a number of States. In 2018, there were at least 10 attempts to weaken existing 

motorcycle helmet laws. Louisiana was the last State to enact a universal helmet law 

(2004), and since then, numerous States have attempted to weaken or eliminate 

their helmet laws. Michigan was the most recent State to weaken its law (2013).

While less than half of States currently have universal helmet laws, many more 

States had such laws previously. In 1967, States were required to enact helmet use 

laws to qualify for certain Federal safety programs and highway construction funds. 

By the early 1970s, nearly each State had a universal motorcycle helmet law. 

However, in 1976 this policy was amended and by 1980 almost half the States had 

repealed their universal helmet laws.

In 2013, Michigan became the most recent State to relax its helmet law and make 

helmet use optional for riders over the age of 21. Closely mirroring the effects 

witnessed in other helmet-law-repeal States, Michigan experienced a drop in helmet 

use and an immediate 18-percent increase in motorcyclist fatalities. 

Funding for State Motorcycle Safety Programs

NHTSA currently administers nearly $570 million in annual grant funding to States

for highway safety behavioral programs. Under Congressional mandates, much of 

this funding is distributed through formula grants based on population and roadway 

mileage. The Section 402 State and Community Highway Safety Grant Program is 

one such formula grant that provides roughly $230 million annually to States to 

increase safe driver behavior, including motorcycle safety. 

In addition to the formula apportionment, States can also apply for grants under the 

Section 405 National Priority Safety Program. This category of grant programs 

includes funding for specific purposes, such as occupant protection, traffic safety 

information system improvements, impaired driving, distracted driving, graduated 

driver licensing, non-motorized safety, and motorcycle safety. Section 405 dedicates 

1.5 percent of total funds for motorcyclist safety incentive grants. A State must 

satisfy two out of six eligibility criteria to receive funds, and by law the use of funds 

is limited to advancing motorcycle rider training and motorist awareness programs. 

States with motorcycle safety problems that fall outside of those parameters 

allowable under the Section 405 Motorcyclist Safety Incentive grant, such as 

impaired riding, speeding, personal protective equipment, etc., can use other 

resources such as Section 402 Highway Safety Grant funds.
11

Foundational Programming

In 1997, NHTSA partnered with the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), a national 

nonprofit organization promoting safe motorcycling, to provide the leadership and 

resources to create the National Agenda for Motorcycle Safety (NAMS).

7 NAMS is a 

strategic planning document that provides a shared national vision of motorcycle

safety consisting of input from a broad, multidisciplinary spectrum of stakeholders. 

Developing this framework involved participation by industry, research, training 

experts, rider communities, law enforcement, health care, media, and insurance 

companies. The result was a collaborative document that examines components of 

motorcycle safety programs at the Federal, State, and local levels and offers 

strategies for broad-based support and action. It serves as a comprehensive national 

blueprint, which all interested parties can use to promote and enhance motorcycle 

safety.

In 2006, NHTSA worked with stakeholders to develop an implementation guide for 

the NAMS, and in 2013 NHTSA analyzed and ranked the NAMS recommendations 

according to potential effectiveness in addressing the motorcycle safety problem. 

Motorcyclist fatalities are nearing their highest in recorded history. Rider 

demographics are changing, and aging and returning riders are now 

overrepresented in fatalities, surpassing their younger cohorts. Rider attitudes 

toward personal safety have changed, as have the methods for conveying safety 

messages. However, while demographics and attitudes may have changed, NHTSA’s 

core objectives for motorcycle safety remain as identified in 1997:

• Increasing access to rider education programs;

• Increasing the proportion of motorcyclists who are properly licensed;

• Reducing the number of motorcyclists riding while impaired;

• Increasing motorcyclists’ visibility/conspicuity;

• Increasing enforcement of motorcyclist safety laws;

• Incorporating motorcyclist safety into the design of roadways;

• Increasing the survivability of motorcyclists who are involved in crashes;

• Increasing the use of personal protective equipment;

• Increasing helmet use; and

• Increasing motorists’ awareness of motorcyclists’ riding behaviors. 

NHTSA continues to address these problems, but seeks new strategies and 

approaches where needed. As the following pages will outline, new sources of data

and evolving technologies, as well as new challenges, will drive NHTSA’s agenda for

the next several years.

 7 MSF. (2000). National Agenda for Motorcycle Safety, Motorcycle Safety Foundation of America, Irvine.
12

Current Challenges and Opportunities

DATA

A data-driven approach to behavioral safety interventions requires current, 

accurate, high-quality data. Motorcycles account for only 3 percent of the U.S.

registered vehicle fleet, yet motorcyclists account for over 14 percent of all traffic

fatalities. With limited Federal funding to reach a small target population of 

motorcycle riders, the quality of data underlying safety programs will significantly 

impact the effectiveness of interventions. The collection and acquisition of better 

data, both on the Federal and local levels, as it relates to motorcyclists, will help

ensure that worthy investments are made.

Challenges

Identifying Rider Risk Exposure

One key – but elusive – measurement regarding motorcycle safety is exposure to 

traffic risks. That is, how many miles and under what conditions do motorcyclists 

travel? With an understanding of motorcyclist exposure as well as crashes and 

associated injuries and fatalities, safety experts can adjust countermeasures to 

address the greatest risks. To date, only two proxy measures have been available to 

estimate motorcyclist exposure: aggregate motorcycle registration data and 

annualized average daily traffic data.

Aggregate motorcycle registration data can provide a picture of concentrations of 

motorcycles within a geographic area, but they are inherently unable to provide a

complete picture of the extent to which motorcycles are exposed to crash risk. This 

data does not account for riders that may own multiple motorcycles, or for the 

annual mileage that each motorcycle is ridden. It therefore gives an incomplete

assessment of overall exposure to traffic risk. 

Annual VMT is a measure commonly used by transportation and highway safety 

agencies to assess system performance and crash risks for all road users. VMT 

estimates are derived from a variety of sources, including roadway sensor data, but

do not provide an accurate gauge of motorcycle travel. Passenger car and 

motorcycle travel patterns differ, so measurements using roadway sensors may be 

biased depending on their location, and therefore not provide an accurate 

representation of overall motorcycle travel. 

More accurate measures of motorcycle VMT are challenging. One method could be 

to take annual odometer readings from motorcycles – potentially during periodic 

vehicle inspections. However, access to such data is complicated by a lack of 
13

consistency in State inspection requirements. New methods or technologies could 

provide a breakthrough in estimating annual motorcycle VMT. 

Identifying Motorist Interactions With Motorcyclists

Very little research has been conducted in the United States regarding the effect of 

motor vehicle drivers’ skills and attitudes on motorcycle safety. Consequently, little 

information is available regarding the crucial moments leading up to a crash or 

potential crash-related interactions between drivers and motorcyclists. Because of 

its narrow profile, a motorcycle can be easily hidden in a car’s blind spots 

(door/roof pillars) or masked by objects or backgrounds outside a car (bushes, 

fences, bridges, etc.). Many right-of-way violations by motorists are characterized by 

the phenomenon known as ‘looked but failed to see.’ Identifying interventions to 

prevent these types of crashes represent a significant challenge. For example, more 

needs to be known about whether drivers look at the motorcycle, recognize the 

motorcycle, and appropriately appraise the motorcycle’s speed, direction or 

intention prior to entering an intersection.

Another interaction issue involves obstructions to a passenger car driver’s field of 

vision, such as the vehicle A-pillars (to the right and left of the windshield), rearview mirrors or other design features. This phenomenon, known as obscuration,8

may be exacerbated by efforts to strengthen A-pillars to better protect in rollover 

crashes. While obscuration is likely to remain a problem, opportunities exist for the 

public to become aware of and adjust to the problem.9

A mainstay in States’ outreach messaging to non-riding motorists has been the 

slogan Share the Road. Widely used for years by stakeholders, feedback from several

States suggests that the prevailing problem is neither a lack of empathy among 

motorists, nor a lack on the part of motorists to see motorcyclists. Instead, the 

problem is non-riding motorists lack of familiarity with motorcycling behaviors and 

characteristics. One example is that motorcyclists are allowed and trained to 

maneuver within a lane as a means of increasing their visibility. This maneuver 

could be confused by motorists as a sign of aggression or recklessness. Another 

example is that many motorcyclists downshift in certain situations to slow down, 

instead of using a brake and activating the rear brake light. To the uninitiated, this 

can pose a danger to both riders and motorists.

Intelligent Transportation Systems and Motorcycle Safety

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) apply a range of sensing, analytical, control 

and communication technologies to improve transportation safety and efficiency. 

Substantial investments have been made in ITS technologies that affect passenger 

car and commercial vehicle safety, but fewer ITS technologies are available that 

specifically address motorcyclist safety. NHTSA worked with the Federal Highway 

 

8 http://wardsauto.com/news-analysis/new-pillars-enhance-safety-impede-visibility 9 https://one.nhtsa.gov/Research/Human-Factors/Visibility
14

Administration’s (FHWA) ITS Joint Program Office (JPO) on a synthesis of data, 

literature, and research pertaining to motorcycle safety and ITS to identify gaps and 

opportunities for additional research. The results were released in 2019. Examples 

of ITS technologies considered in this synthesis include:

• Adaptive Front Lighting

• Advanced Driver Assistance 

Systems

• Alcohol Detection and Ignition 

Interlock

• Animal Detection System

• Antilock Braking System

• Brake Assist

• Collision Warning and Avoidance 

Systems

• Curve Speed Warnings

• Daytime Running Lights

• Driver Status Monitoring

• Electronic Licenses, Smart Cards

• Electronic Stability Program

• Following Distance Warning

• Helmet-Mounted Displays

• Inter-Vehicle Communication 

System

• Lane Keeping and Departure 

Warning Systems

• Linked Braking Systems

• Pedestrian Detection System

• Rearview Displays

• Road Surface Condition 

Monitoring

• Roll Stability

• Speed Limiting Systems

• Vehicle Diagnostics

• Vision Enhancement

• Visibility Improving Helmet

• Air Bags

• Air Bag Jackets

• Automated Crash Notification 

Systems

• Crash Data Recorder

• Emergency Hazard Lights

• Impact Sensing Cut-off Systems

• Pre-Crash System

• Lane-Change Warnings

• Motorcycle Detection System

• Pop-up Hood

• Automated Enforcement

• Intelligent Speed Adaptation

• Navigation Systems

Non-Fatal Data Collection and Use

State Highway Safety Offices (HSOs) collect and analyze various types of data in 

their efforts to understand traffic risks and prescribe effective countermeasures. In 

recent years, the range of data sources available for such analyses have expanded to 

include informal data, geospatial analyses, multi-variate analyses, and other noncrash-related datasets, as well as conventional police-reported crash information.

States are currently required to submit to FHWA a Strategic Highway Safety Plan

(HSP) that contains actionable and time-dependent countermeasures as a condition 

of programming certain funds, though States are given discretion as to what types of 

data and analysis strategies are used. As a condition for grant funding from NHTSA, 

States must include performance measures in their annual HSP. 
15

Federal regulation 23 CFR 1300.11 requires States to develop annual performance 

plans that include at least one performance measure for each goal in the HSP. States

are also encouraged to conduct comprehensive analyses of their program activities 

to improve their intervention investments.

Conventional crash data are very useful for identifying priorities for State traffic 

safety investments. However, additional sources of information can improve the 

safety benefits achieved by these investments by segregating audiences, identifying 

specific behavioral objectives and adjusting outreach messages. Examples of these 

additional information sources include attitude surveys and measures of 

motivations, intentions, social norms, and perceived vulnerabilities. Though not 

required for grant purposes, NHTSA encourages states to utilize these and other 

data sources to optimize their return on safety program investment. 

Few States are now conducting motorcycle safety-specific surveys, such as 

observational surveys of helmet use or personal protective equipment (PPE) use

(protective jackets, pants, boots and gloves) as well as the attitude and perception 

surveys described above. Training on survey design, survey data collection, 

sampling, and survey instrument selection could be useful for motorcycle program 

officials and may encourage further use of these tools. 

Additionally, State and/or community assessments are a vital component of any 

problem identification process. These assessments provide a framework for 

reviewing the resources that can be utilized in a motorcycle safety program, 

including relationships with various professions from law enforcement to university 

researchers, information sources that can be used for problem identification, and 

the availability of funding. A structured assessment is very useful for identifying 

gaps and creating new partnerships. 

Strategies

Feedback from State HSOs indicates a desire for specialized training opportunities 

that are short in duration and applied in nature. As is the case for other traffic safety 

programs, motorcycle program managers have a need for better linking and 

analyses of available data sources, but oftentimes lack the training and resources to 

do so. NHTSA can support this need by providing training on data analysis, the use 

of informal data sources, and promoting use of new data sources as they become 

available.

Roadway Information Database

FHWA provides data that can be used to identify behavioral intervention 

opportunities. One such database is the Strategic Highway Research Project 
16

(SHRP2) Roadway Information Database (RID) (Figure 1-8).10 For six sample areas 

across the Nation (see graphic), this database includes the most comprehensive 

collection of inventoried roadway elements available in the United States. These 

elements include, but are not limited to: horizontal curvature, grade, cross-slope, 

lanes (number, width, type), Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) 

signage, guardrails, median presence, and lighting presence. Since roadway 

conditions can substantially affect motorcycle safety, these data could support a 

comprehensive safety assessment of driver behavior and crash risk, especially the 

risk of lane departure and intersection collisions. NHTSA and FHWA are exploring

opportunities for conducting such analyses. 

 10 www.ctre.iaState.edu/shrp2-rid/

Figure 1-8. FHWA Roadway Information Database (RID) Locations 
17

Informal Databases

NHTSA encourages States to look for opportunities to 

utilize informal databases to inform policy and 

programmatic investment decisions. One example is 

NHTSA’s use of user-derived content to help 

understand where motorcyclists are choosing to ride. 

NHTSA recently procured the user-derived database 

that supports the website www.MotorcycleRoads.com

and will conduct analysis based on user reviews of 

particular motorcycling routes. Analyses will examine

roadway conditions, motorcycle hazards, volume of 

reviews, and crashes on identified routes. While not a 

representative sample of motorcycle travel, this effort 

will provide States with an additional tool for 

conducting geospatial analyses of potential high crashrisk locations for motorcycles. 

Observational Surveys

One important improvement to any State motorcycle 

safety program is the acquisition of better observational

data. Many States conduct observational surveys of 

motorcyclists, either in conjunction with annual seat belt 

use surveys, or as standalone surveys. Some States that 

have conducted separate standalone motorcycle 

observational surveys collect information about PPE, solo 

or group riders, helmet type, novelty or DOT-compliant 

helmets, and bike type. At least one State11 has developed 

seasonal comparisons of observed PPE use to better 

coordinate PPE-related countermeasures. 

 

11 www.cutr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/5-FL-Observational-Survey-of-Motorcyclist-Behaviors2013-Final-Report.pdf 

MotorcycleRoads.com Example

Florida routinely conducts 

standalone observational 

surveys of motorcyclists
18

Conspicuity and Personal Protective Equipment 

Motorcyclists usually separate from the motorcycle at some point during a crash. 

During a crash, no existing strategy or safety equipment offers the level of injury 

protection comparable to a Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 218-

compliant helmet. However, not all motorcycle injuries occur to the head. A wide 

range of PPE is available to provide protection from abrasion and limited impact 

protection in the event of a crash. 

Likewise, high-visibility or ‘high-viz’ 

features can provide increased levels 

of conspicuity to other motorists, and 

a greater likelihood of preventing a 

crash. 

Despite the benefits of PPE, few 

riders wear a complete ensemble of 

abrasion and impact resistant gear, 

which would include a helmet, jacket, 

pants, gloves, and boots. 

Understanding a rider’s motivations 

for wearing gear is a significant step 

towards developing interventions 

that encourage PPE use. NHTSA will 

explore projects that help ascertain 

those nuanced consumer preferences. 

The consumer market for PPE is 

changing rapidly. The increase of 

products offered with Kevlar® is providing a new consumer choice that provides 

crash protection while not looking like conventional leather or brightly colored 

motorcycle gear. NHTSA is interested in understanding the public’s knowledge and 

acceptance of abrasion-resistant PPE, and barriers to increased use by resistant 

riding sub-populations. 

Finally, as indicated in the original NAMS report, there is a need to better 

disseminate fundamental motorcycle safety information to riders. NHTSA will 

continue to convey the benefits of PPE to the riding public, and is currently 

developing awareness materials and digital media to help convey consumer options 

for choosing riding gear. 

Motorcycle Safety Program Training

As with other highway safety program areas, effective management of motorcycle 

programs requires specialized knowledge and understanding. The availability of 

new data sources and analytical tools and the turnover of program staff creates a 

continuing demand for training. NHTSA is nearing completion of a revised

Figure 1-9. Nonfatal Motorcyclist Injuries 

by Primary Body Part
19

Motorcycle Safety Program Management course to be offered to State HSO staff and

other motorcycle safety stakeholders. HSO staff will be asked to encourage 

participation from State motorcycle rider organizations (SMROs), motorcycle 

dealers, highway engineers, non-profit organizations, HSO grantees, and other

stakeholders. The course is specifically designed to engage non-traditional 

stakeholders and examines new methods of data acquisition and analysis regarding 

motorcycle safety.

Exposure Data Research

NHTSA will continue to 

monitor the results of the 

FHWA Motorcycle 

Annualized Average Daily 

Traffic (AADT) Study. 

While the primary intent 

of this study is to support 

the modeling functions of 

traffic safety engineering, 

there are likely to be 

insights from these 

analyses that will be 

useful for supporting

behavioral interventions 

through data-driven 

education and 

enforcement. NHTSA, in 

coordination with FHWA, will continue to evaluate future low-cost data-collection 

techniques to support those efforts.

One such technique could involve the use of State vehicle safety inspection data. 

Currently there are 12 States that mandate annual motorcycle safety inspection as a 

condition for registering motorcycles. This requires owners to ride to a Statecertified inspection station for an examination of the motorcycle, including 

odometer readings. Currently only two States (North Carolina and Virginia) collect 

and compile the results of these inspections digitally, the other 10 collect the 

information in a paper format. While these data have not previously been used for 

this purpose, NHTSA is conducting research on feasibility of using odometer 

readings as a measure of motorcycle VMT. 

Rider Behavior and Crash Avoidance

NHTSA is nearing completion of an Instrumented On-Road Study of Motorcycle 

Riders. Past naturalistic driving studies have provided a wealth of information on 

typical driving behaviors and on behaviors that contribute to crash risk. In 2009, 

Figure 1-10. Annual Motorcycle Safety 

Inspections
20

Virginia Tech Transportation Institute conducted a pilot study12 for NHTSA which 

demonstrated the feasibility of collecting naturalistic data from motorcycle riders. 

The purpose of the current project is to collect naturalistic data from 160 

motorcyclists whenever they have ridden over the course of 1 year. Riders will 

volunteer to have their motorcycles equipped with cameras, radar, accelerometers 

and other sensors that will continually record data during their daily riding. Data 

from this study are expected to provide valuable insights regarding riding habits, 

risk behaviors, pre-crash riding behaviors, crash avoidance behaviors and other 

factors associated with crash risk. 

Crash Causation Study 

Perhaps one of the more significant projects recently completed that will provide 

better data is the Motorcycle Crash Causation Study (MCCS). This $3.5 million 

project managed by FHWA, with additional financial support from NHTSA, State

DOTs, and the American Motorcyclist Association, was a comprehensive look at the 

causes of motorcycle crashes. The project consists of 350 crash investigations, with 

a corresponding 700 non-crash rider interviews as the experimental control. The 

objective of the MCCS is to provide insight into the causes of motorcycle crashes. A 

comprehensive database of approximately 1,600 data elements was created from 

the crash investigations and non-crash rider interviews. A research effort of this 

scale has not been conducted in the United States in 30 years, since the release of 

the Hurt Study.

13

Data collection began in June 2011 and concluded in early 2016. The OECD 

protocol14 utilized in the study stipulates that data collection consist of a census of 

all injury-causing motorcycle crashes within a single region. For this study, data 

collection took place in Orange County, California – the same place as the NHTSA 

pilot and the Hurt Study. This region was chosen for two primary reasons. First, 

California has a year-round riding season that allows for significant data collection 

all year. Secondly, the geography and riding population are quite diverse, offering a 

unique opportunity to investigate many crash types. This includes urban and rural 

landscapes as well as leisure riders and daily commuters.

The MCCS is unique in that while FHWA collected enormous amounts of data, the 

primary intent is to provide data that can be widely used by government and nongovernment research scientists to answer a range of research questions. The final 

report, to be available in 2019, will consist of basic crash and control data 

distributions and a high-level comparative analysis with other motorcycle crash 

 

12 McLaughlin S, Doerzaph Z, Cannon B, Pilot Study of Instrumentation to Collect Behavioral Data to 

Identify On-Road Rider Behaviors (2011) DOT HS 811 442 

www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nti/pdf/811442.pdf

13 Hurt HH, Ouellet JV, Thom DR. Motorcycle accident cause factors and identification of 

countermeasures. Vol 1: Technical report. Los Angeles: Traffic Safety Center, University of California, 

1981 14 www.oecd.org/statistics/data-collection/ 
21

data (Hurt Study and NASS/GES). With 1,600 data elements for each crash, the data 

are robust and offer significant research opportunities. 

STATE SUPPORT

Challenges

Educational Material Development

Nationally, nearly 49 percent of motorcycle crashes involve another motor vehicle, 

which suggests a need for specific messaging to the general motorist population. In 

2005, the Federal transportation authorization bill, SAFETEA-LU, established 

incentive grants to encourage States to develop motorist awareness programs that 

address motorcycle safety. Most States use a generic Share the Road or Look Twice 

for Motorcycles message when developing this material. While NHTSA has 

periodically developed creative material, most States use their own State-specific 

material. With limited funding available under the NHTSA Motorcyclist Safety Grant 

Program (Section 405(f)) for use on motorist awareness campaigns, the additional 

costs of developing creative material may leave States with a limited budget for 

placement and distribution of that material. NHTSA is not aware of any instances in 

which States combined their financial resources to reduce creative development 

costs for motorcycle safety.

Funding Parameters

Most States are eligible to apply for and receive NHTSA Section 405(f) grant funding, 

which allows for the development and dissemination of media and material relating 

to motorist awareness of motorcycles. Under MAP-21, approximately $4 million was

available to States under the NHTSA Section 405(f) grant fund. That funding has 

remained relatively constant under the FAST Act. 

By law, Section 405(f) funding is allowed for uses related to either motorcycle rider 

training or motorist awareness efforts. States looking to address issues related to 

impaired riding, speeding, personal protective equipment, or other motorcycle 

safety purposes, are able to utilize other sources of funding that have traditionally 

been allocated to impaired driving and occupant protection efforts (i.e., Sections 

402, and 405(d)). Access to these funds for motorcycle safety has often been limited

due to needs for resources for other traffic safety programs. 

Updating Program Guidelines

A condition of Section 402 of Title 23 of the United States Code requires USDOT and

NHTSA to develop uniform guidelines for State highway safety programs. With the 

intent of offering guidance to States in formulating their highway safety plans for 
22

efforts that are supported with Section 402 and other grant funds, the guidelines 

provide a framework for developing a balanced and comprehensive highway safety 

program. The guidelines also serve as a tool that States can use to assess the 

comprehensive nature of their programs. Of the 21 guidelines that NHTSA has 

developed, Guideline Number 3 is dedicated to Motorcycle Safety. Last updated in 

2006, Guideline Number 3 addresses the following 11 components of a State

comprehensive motorcycle safety program:

• Program Management

• Motorcycle Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

• Motorcycle Operator Licensing

• Motorcycle Rider Education and Training

• Motorcycle Operation Under the Influence of Alcohol or Other Drugs

• Legislation and Regulations

• Law Enforcement

• Highway Engineering

• Motorcycle Rider Conspicuity and Motorist Awareness Programs

• Communication Program

• Program Evaluation and Data

NHTSA offers States assistance in conducting a Motorcycle Safety Program 

Technical Assessment as a tool to help identify gaps and opportunities within their 

own motorcycle safety programs. To date, over half the States have requested and 

participated in such an assessment, with five States requesting more than one over 

the past 20 years. NHTSA plans to update Guideline Number 3 in coming years to 

reflect changes in motorcycle safety issues and methods. 

Messaging 

Few States have gone beyond Share the Road or Look Twice for Motorcycles when 

developing messaging for use in the media. Feedback from several States suggests 

that Share the Road messages may not adequately address the problems 

contributing to multi-vehicle motorcycle crashes. Research suggests that more 

specific data-driven behavior messaging is needed. Such messages may require the 

use of other funds from sources other than the Section 405(f) Motorcyclist Safety 

Grant Program since under this program funds may only be used for rider education 

and motorist awareness purposes. 

Strategies

Centralized Product Development

The current inventory of creative material and educational messaging for 

motorcycle safety offers States and other highway safety stakeholders few options 

when targeting motorist and motorcyclist safety behaviors. NHTSA has initiated a 

multi-year effort to augment this material. As States begin to include attitudinal and 
23

awareness survey data to assess the nature of their motorcycle crash problem, they 

will likely need a wider range of material to address identified needs. NHTSA plans 

to develop new motorcycle safety marketing and educational material to address a 

more segmented motorcycling audience. With a larger selection of material 

available from NHTSA, States could focus their limited budgets on placement of 

those products. NHTSA’s emphasis will be on the development of digital and other 

low-cost media material. 

Feedback from States indicate that many devote the majority of their motorcycle 

safety funds to efforts during the month of May to support Motorcycle Safety 

Awareness Month. State crash data suggest that other strategies may be more 

productive. NHTSA encourages States to conduct crash analyses, and to further 

segment their investments both in terms of timing and type of message being 

delivered. NHTSA plans to support such efforts with new guidance on interpreting 

crash data, and information to assist in message segmentation.

Financing Strategies

NHTSA will continue to encourage States to seek funding from all available sources 

to increase motorcycle safety. In addition to the Section 405(f) Motorcyclist Safety 

Grant Program, other NHTSA grant funds can be utilized to address motorcycle rider 

issues, including Section 402, Section 405(d) and Section 164 transfer funds. 

NHTSA continues to encourage States to use these funds as appropriate to 

supplement their Section 405(f) efforts and to support a comprehensive data-driven 

approach to motorcycle safety. 

In addition to these eligible NHTSA grant sources for behavioral countermeasures, 

States may use FHWA Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) funds for data 

analysis and engineering needs related to motorcycle safety. Under the FAST Act, 

the HSIP program provides approximately $2.4 billion annually. 

Data-Driven Messaging

Non-riding motorists may not be knowledgeable about certain legitimate rider 

behaviors (e.g., intra-lane maneuvering, downshifting to brake). As NHTSA 

examines ways to move beyond Share the Road messaging and product 

development, the agency will focus on a broader range of topics, including:

• Increasing awareness of motorists about normal motorcyclist behaviors (i.e., 

intra-lane maneuvering to maintain conspicuity); 

• Alerting drivers to obscured vision caused by vehicle A-pillars and the need 

to look twice; 

• Educating motorcyclists on how to avoid motion camouflage and “looked but 

failed to see” errors; 
24

• Increasing awareness of motorists about the need for additional following 

distance when behind a motorcycle (i.e., motorcycles sometimes downshift 

rather than applying brakes to slow down and may not always activate a 

brake signal); 

• Increasing general awareness of the hazards of debris in the road for 

motorcyclists. For example, grass clippings left in the roadway can cause a 

motorcycle to lose traction since they are comprised of 70 percent water and 

can be slippery; and 

• Educating motorcyclists about how breathable PPE can provide abrasion 

resistance and assist in maintaining body temperatures and comfort, even in 

hot weather.

Increasing 

Communication With 

and Among Program 

Planners 

A recent survey15

among highway 

safety offices 

conducted by the 

Governors Highway 

Safety Association 

(GHSA) indicated 

that over half of the 

States’ motorcycle 

safety program 

coordinators divide 

their time between 

motorcycle safety 

and other programs, such as bicycle and pedestrian safety. Furthermore, feedback 

indicates that many of those coordinators have fewer than 5 years of experience in 

motorcycle safety. With constrained training and travel budgets, and few off-theshelf training opportunities, chances to exchange best practices could benefit 

motorcycle safety programming. Feedback from the States and motorcycle safety 

stakeholders indicates a web-based format would be suitable for short webinars on 

a variety of issues, including:

• Digital media strategies to reach niche target populations; 

• Observation survey methodologies; 

• Cost comparisons for program initiatives for various States; 

• Accessing other grant funds for motorcycle safety (i.e., 405(d)); and

• Data acquisition and data analysis strategies. 

 

15 Governors Highway Safety Association. Motorcycle Safety: A Survey of State Programs. (2008) 

Figure 1-11. Motorcycle Program Assessments by State
25

NHTSA will continue to explore opportunities to deliver short and concise 

programming modules in various formats, including webinars, web content, and email newsletters.

State Assessments

To date, 35 State Motorcycle Safety Program Technical Assessments have been 

conducted in nearly half of the States (as shown in in Figure 1-11). While there is no 

requirement for States to request an assessment, feedback from State Highway 

Safety Offices and Motorcycle Safety Coordinators report that the process is very 

useful for identifying gaps and allocating motorcycle safety resources. Five States

have requested multiple assessments over the past 20 years. However, 22 States 

have not yet participated in a Motorcycle Safety Technical Assessment and NHTSA 

will continue to encourage these States to take advantage of this service. NHTSA will 

also explore options for making the assessment process less costly and more 

convenient for State participation.

Florida Helmet Demonstration Project 

In September 2013, NHTSA awarded the Florida Department of Transportation 

(FDOT) a 5-year grant utilizing Section 403(b) Federal grant funds to support an 

initiative to increase motorcycle helmet use within the State. Florida does not have a 

universal helmet law, but has a relatively high helmet use rate compared to other 

non-law States. The project is titled “Demonstration to Promote Motorcycle Helmet 

Use” and its objectives are to: 

• Increase observed motorcycle helmet use among motorcyclists in the State; 

• Increase the estimated number of lives saved (deaths prevented) as a result of 

motorcyclists wearing FMVSS No. 218-compliant motorcycle helmets; 

• Decrease estimated economic costs incurred by the State as a result of 

motorcyclists wearing FMVSS No. 218-compliant motorcycle helmets; 

• Increase communication and outreach with individual motorcyclists and 

motorcycle groups/clubs about the benefits of wearing FMVSS No. 218-

compliant motorcycle helmets through the implementation of a Statewide 

strategic communication plan; and

• Increase motorcyclists’ perception of their risk of sustaining traumatic brain 

injury or fatal injury in the event of a motorcycle crash when not wearing a 

FMVSS No. 218-complaint motorcycle helmet. 

Without a universal helmet law, which would require all motorcyclists to wear a 

helmet or face a fine, Florida is seeking innovative ways to encourage voluntary use of 

helmets. As outlined in their grant proposal, FDOT plans to conduct direct outreach to 

motorcyclists at several motorcycle rallies and events. 
26

At the conclusion of this project, NHTSA hopes to have a better picture of the 

challenges and opportunities (such as non-legislative strategies to increase helmet 

use) facing States that lack a universal helmet law. 

Helmet Repeal Fiscal Analysis Methodology

Of the 19 States that have universal helmet laws requiring all riders to wear a 

helmet, legislation was introduced in 10 States in 2018 to repeal or substantively 

amend their universal helmet law, none of which were signed into law. For many 

States, helmet repeal legislation is a perennial issue. In most State legislatures, all 

bills require some form of fiscal analysis, but how this analysis is conducted varies 

widely. NHTSA worked with the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) to 

highlight the methodologies used by a sample of States to prepare legislative fiscal 

notes regarding motorcycle helmet legislation.

The goal of the project was to provide a web-based resource to help State legislative 

fiscal analysts accurately quantify the economic impacts of motorcycle helmet 

legislation using the most current information on the economic impact of 

motorcycle crashes. This information can be found at 

www.ncsl.org/research/transportation/assessment-of-fiscal-notes-connected-tomotorcycle-helmet-legislation.aspx

Exploring Methodology for Identifying Under-Insured Health Care Burden for 

Each State

The cost of motorcycle crashes extends beyond injuries, fatalities, and lost work 

productivity to include the costs of emergency response, emergency room costs, and 

insurance premiums. In terms of medical care costs and productivity losses, the 

economic burden from motorcycle crash-related injuries and deaths in one year 

alone is estimated to exceed $12 billion.

16

NHTSA has tracked the economic impact of motor vehicle crashes for several years, 

and has conducted analyses such as the aggregate cost savings derived from helmet 

use. As a means to estimate the total societal cost from motor vehicle crashes, 

NHTSA conducts quality-of-life valuations. In 2010 the societal harm resulting from 

all motor vehicle crashes was estimated to be $836 billion. In 2010, motorcycle 

crashes cost $12.8 billion in direct economic impacts, and $66 billion in societal 

harm as measured by comprehensive costs.

17

 

16 Naumann, R. B., Dellinger, A.M., Zaloshnja, E., Lawrence, B. A. & Miller, T. R. (2010). Incidence and 

Total Lifetime Costs of Motor Vehicle Fatal and Nonfatal Injury by Road User Type, United States, 2005. 

Traffic Injury Prevention,

11:4, 353-360, DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2010.486429. 17 Blincoe, L. J., Miller, T. R., Zaloshnja, E., & Lawrence, B. A. (2015, May). The economic and societal 

impact of motor vehicle crashes, 2010 (Revised) (Report No. DOT HS 812 013). Washington, DC: National 

Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
27

As States focus on containing State health care costs, more emphasis may be placed 

on policy solutions to reduce health care burdens. NHTSA will refine methodologies 

for measuring the burden of motorcycle crashes and explore the potential of 

individual State estimates. 

LAW ENFORCEMENT 

Challenges

Legislative Barriers to Enforcement of Motorcycle Safety Laws

Motorcycle safety laws vary widely among States. Currently 19 States and the 

District of Columbia require all motorcycle operators and passengers to wear 

helmets when riding. Twelve of those States and DC specify that helmets meet 

FMVSS No. 218, but seven States do not. Meanwhile, 28 other States have partial or 

age specific helmet use laws, with 16 specifying FMVSS 218. Three States have no

helmet use law, as shown in Figure 1-12. 

From a law enforcement perspective, the nuances of helmet use laws can make 

identifying violations difficult. In States with only partial laws as shown in Figure 1-

13, particularly those that mandate helmet use for those under a certain age, those 

that have only a learner’s permit, or those that carry only minimum insurance 

policies, the ability to detect a violator is so challenging that few citations are 

written. 

Figure 1-12. Motorcycle Helmet Standards
28

Eternal Permit

In many States, a person may acquire a learning permit, and when the permit 

expires, it can be renewed indefinitely. This option may be a disincentive to acquire 

a formal motorcycle endorsement. As Figure 1-14 shows, rider training 

requirements vary from State to State. 

Figure 1-13. State Motorcycle Helmet Laws

Figure 1-14. Motorcycle Rider Training for New Licenses
29

Novelty Helmets

The use of novelty helmets increases motorcyclist crash risk relative to the use of 

helmets that are compliant with FMVSS No. 218. The National Occupant Protection 

Use Survey (NOPUS) shows that in States where use is required for all motorcyclists, 

between 8 to 27 percent of motorcyclists have been observed wearing helmets that 

likely do not comply with FMVSS No. 218. 

These helmets, frequently marketed as “novelty” helmets, are seldom certified by 

the manufacturer as meeting FMVSS No. 218, but are sold to, and used by, on-road 

motorcycle riders and passengers. Data from a study of motorcycle operators 

injured in crashes and transported to a shock trauma center indicates that 56 

percent of those wearing novelty helmets received head injuries as compared to 19 

percent of those wearing DOT-compliant helmets.18 

In States where universal helmet use laws often require riders and passengers to 

wear helmets meeting FMVSS No. 218, helmet users wearing novelty helmets often 

affix non-OEM labels that mimic the certification labels applied by manufacturers of 

helmets that are certified as meeting the Standard. Consequently, officials 

attempting to enforce compulsory helmet use laws that require riders to use 

helmets meeting FMVSS No. 218 currently find it difficult to enforce them due to the 

labeling loopholes that are being exploited. 

Motorcycle-Only Checkpoints

Under the FAST Act, States are prohibited from using Federal funds for Motorcycle 

Only Checkpoints (MOCs). Eleven States – Alaska, Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, 

Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin and Wyoming – prohibit 

checkpoints of any kind by statute and/or judicial action, shown in Figure 1-15. 

 

18 Lawrence, J., Kerns, T., Burch, C., Thomas, A., & Bell, E. (2009). Motorcycle Helmet Use and Head and 

Facial Injuries: Crash Outcomes in CODES-Linked Data (DOT HS 811 208). 
30

Motorcycle Classifications

The recent increase in new models of three-wheeled motorized vehicles on the 

market creates additional challenges for law enforcement. Even in those States that 

have addressed the need to differentiate these vehicles from two-wheeled 

motorcycles, sometimes with the creation of a new class of vehicle (autocycle), law 

enforcement must learn the characteristics of each class of vehicle and the 

requirements for their respective passengers (helmet use, license endorsement 

requirements, etc.). 

Age Requirements

Twenty-seven States have exemptions to their helmet laws based on the rider’s age. 

The ability of an officer to develop probable cause is hindered by the difficulty of 

determining age of a rider on a moving motorcycle. 

Figure 1-15. States That Allow Sobriety Checkpoints
31

Engine Displacement Laws

Some States only allow the endorsed rider to operate a motorcycle with an engine

size similar to that of the motorcycle on which they tested and received their 

endorsement. Much like States with age-specific requirements, these States with an

engine displacement requirement place the burden on the law enforcement officer 

to know each make, model and engine size.

Insurance Requirements

Florida and Texas have exemptions to their helmet laws that make wearing one 

optional if the rider is covered by health insurance providing $10,000 in benefits;

Michigan requires $20,000, as shown in Figure 1-16. Determining whether such 

coverage is in place makes it difficult for a law enforcement officer to cite a potential 

violator. 

Challenges to Effective Enforcement of State Motorcycle Helmet Laws

Novelty helmets present challenges to State and local government authorities 

seeking to enforce helmet use laws. These laws often require that riders use helmets 

that meet the requirements of FMVSS No. 218. However, because novelty helmets 

are similar in appearance to FMVSS No. 218-compliant helmets, enforcement 

officers can find it difficult to identify the difference, especially when the rider is in 

moving traffic. Moreover, while noncompliance can often be determined with a close 

visual examination, sometimes verifying compliance requires testing or 

investigation that is impractical for law enforcement. 

Figure 1-16. Helmets and Health Insurance Exemptions
32

Strategies

Training, Training, and More Training

NHTSA is nearing the completion of a motorcycle safety enforcement training 

course that will be offered as a continuing education component to law enforcement 

officers through the International Association of Directors of Law Enforcement 

Standards and Training (IADLEST). This course will supplement existing 

coursework available to traffic enforcement officers by providing cues for 

identifying motorcyclist impairment, presenting operational strategies for making 

safe and efficient traffic stops, and reviewing steps needed for successful 

adjudication of citations.

NHTSA is also considering educational opportunities for judges and prosecutors to 

explain the role of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards that apply to motorcycles 

and provide guidance on addressing safety issues regarding vehicle equipment.

Effective Strategies for Motorcycle Stops

NHTSA offers a document that describes best practices for safely and effectively 

conducting traffic stops of motorcyclists, effective officer safety strategies and 

techniques, as well as strategies and techniques for reducing high-speed pursuits 

involving motorcycles.

19 

Strategies for the Enforcement of Impaired Riding Laws

High-Visibility Enforcement (HVE) is an evidence-based strategy that has been very 

effective in reducing impaired driving and increasing seat belt use. HVE works as a 

general deterrent by demonstrating community intolerance for serious safety risks 

and increasing drivers’ perceived likelihood of being apprehended if they disobey 

the law. 

Applying the HVE model to motorcycle safety enforcement may offer significant 

benefits, but must be done sensitively and equitably to avoid appearances of unfair 

treatment of motorcyclists. NHTSA is conducting a demonstration program to 

explore the feasibility of using HVE to enforce impaired riding laws. The project will 

explore techniques for implementing HVE campaigns without the use of motorcycleonly checkpoints and without creating the impression that motorcyclists are being 

unfairly targeted for enforcement. 

Tools for Identifying Novelty Helmets 

NHTSA is exploring strategies to reduce the importation and distribution of novelty 

helmets, as well as their use in States that require a DOT-compliant helmet. NHTSA 

 19 NHTSA, Effective Strategies for Motorcycle Stops (2014) DOT HS 812 060 

nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.dot.gov/files/812060-effectivestrategiesmotorcyclestops.pdf
33

continues to seek strategies to increase awareness of the safety benefits of DOTcompliant helmets and to discourage use of novelty helmets. NHTSA will continue 

to work with stakeholders to develop products that educate consumers on the 

dangers of novelty helmets.

FEDERAL PROGRAMS

Challenges

Three-Wheeled Vehicles

In recent years, NHTSA noted that two or more models of three-wheeled vehicles 

were available in the U.S. market. While these vehicles were sold as motorcycles and 

were certified to meet motorcycle safety standards, they more closely resembled 

small passenger cars than conventional motorcycles. Although these vehicles were 

imported and sold in small numbers, the agency is concerned that this vehicle 

configuration may lead to safety risks. If users treat these vehicles as passenger cars 

and forego the precautions that are generally associated with motorcycle use, such 

as the use of helmets and protective gear and special training, then users will have 

neither the protection associated with conventional motorcycles nor the safety 

standards associated with passenger cars.

Novelty Helmets 

In 2011, NHTSA took steps to make it easier for riders and law enforcement officials 

to identify non-compliant helmets by amending FMVSS No. 218 to require that 

certification labels on helmets manufactured after May 13, 2013, include the phrase 

“FMVSS No. 218”, along with the helmet manufacturer's name or brand name of the 

helmet, the precise model designation, and the word “certified.” 

While this new requirement makes certification decals more difficult to counterfeit, 

the full effect of the regulation will not be realized until helmets manufactured prior 

to the effective date of the new rule are no longer in common use. Since State 

motorcycle helmet laws typically do not place limits on the age of a helmet, older 

helmets could be in use for many years.

Strategies

Outreach Regarding Three-Wheeled Vehicles

The market for newly developed variations of three-wheeled vehicles is somewhat 

specialized, and it is not entirely clear what types of safety information is being 

conveyed to customers prior to purchase. NHTSA also seeks information about how 

these vehicles are typically utilized. The agency will continue to explore the 

importation and licensing implications of three-wheeled vehicles and will take steps 
34

to educate the public on the safety performance of three-wheeled vehicles with 

partially or fully enclosed cabins. NHTSA believes that consumers who purchase 

these vehicles may incorrectly assume that these vehicles have the same safety 

features and crash protection as passenger cars certified to Federal safety 

standards.

Education on Unsafe Helmets

It is difficult to estimate the number of novelty helmets sold in the United States 

each year, and even more difficult to ascertain consumer awareness of the lack of 

crash protection offered by these types of helmets. Though some consumers may 

buy them to avoid a citation for disobeying a mandatory helmet use law and are 

fully aware of the safety implications, other consumers may not know the difference 

between a novelty helmet and a FMVSS 218-compliant helmet. NHTSA will continue 

to educate the public about riding with unsafe gear, including novelty helmets.

Compliance Enforcement of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards 

The Office of Vehicle Safety Compliance (OVSC) conducts NHTSA’s compliance 

enforcement program. The Safety Act establishes a self-certification process by 

which motor vehicle and equipment manufacturers themselves certify that their 

products comply with all applicable FMVSS. Motorcycles are subject to a variety of 

FMVSS, and motorcycle helmets are subject to FMVSS No. 218; Motorcycle Helmets, 

which establishes minimum levels of safety-related performance. OVSC enforces 

these standards by randomly selecting and purchasing motor vehicles and 

equipment from the marketplace and testing these products in independent test 

labs to see if they meet the requirements of the standard. NHTSA is authorized to 

conduct investigations to enforce, among other things, compliance with the Federal 

Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.

OVSC tests approximately 35 motorcycle helmets each year for compliance with 

FMVSS No. 218. The Office selects helmets for testing that represent a variety of 

helmet brands, sizes, and coverage area (partial, full, or complete). From 2013-2015, 

OVSC worked with manufacturers to recall 148,207 motorcycle helmets that did not 

meet the minimum safety standards. 

Innovation in Helmet Design

NHTSA supports innovation in helmet performance. Riders who disregard safety 

advice and choose not to wear a helmet may do so for a variety of reasons, one of 

them being that they find wearing a helmet to be uncomfortable – especially in 

warm weather. Manufacturing helmets with ventilation systems that improve 

comfort and also meet safety standards is challenging. For example, helmets with 

ventilation holes may not withstand the “penetration test” required by FMVSS No. 

218. However, not all ventilation systems rely on holes in the outer shell. 
35

NHTSA is currently coordinating a Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) grant 

to examine the feasibility of a helmet ventilation system that improves comfort 

while also complying with FMVSS No. 218. The SBIR project is in Phase II, which 

focuses on building a prototype suitable for usability and safety testing. 

NHTSA is also conducting research to examine potential refinements to FMVSS No. 

218, including changes that could harmonize some features of the standard with 

other international standards. As part of this research, NHTSA has conducted impact 

attenuation tests with an ISO head form, and performed positional stability tests, 

chin bar impact tests and face shield impact tests.

RESEARCH PRIORITIES

A number of research needs are included in the comprehensive range of initiatives 

described above. Among those, the following two areas of research are especially 

important to building a foundation of knowledge from which further significant 

gains in motorcycle safety can be achieved. 

Exposure Data Research

NHTSA will continue to monitor the results of the FHWA Motorcycle Annualized 

Average Daily Traffic (AADT) Study. While the primary intent of this study is to 

support the modeling functions of traffic safety engineering, there are likely to be 

insights from these analyses that will be useful for supporting behavioral 

interventions through data-driven education and enforcement. NHTSA, in 

coordination with FHWA, will continue to evaluate future low-cost data-collection 

techniques to support those efforts.

Connected Motorcycle Research

While much work has already been conducted regarding Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) 

technologies and its potential to support crash avoidance, much work remains. This 

includes increased research regarding the feasibility of the technologies for 

motorcycles. NHTSA’s work on the 2012-2013 Safety Pilot Model Deployment

(SPMD)20 supported the development of a future framework for the V2V Safety 

Communications environment. Included in the test motorcycles were Forward 

Collison Warning (FCW), Intersection Movement Assist (IMA), Emergency 

Electronic Brake Lights (EEBL), and Curve Speed Warning (CSW). While all the test 

data was added to the overall Model Deployment database, NHTSA hopes to conduct 

 20 Bezzina, D., & Sayer, J. (2015, June). Safety pilot model deployment: Test conductor team report. 

(Report No. DOT HS 812 171). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
36

analysis of the data in the near future. NHTSA currently has and will continue to 

refine its comprehensive V2V Research Plan, including:

• Identifying motorcycle crash scenarios that can be addressed by V2V 

technology;

• Recognizing the impact motorcycle operation may have on V2V crash 

avoidance communications;

• Understanding V2V device functionality in relation to installation on a 

motorcycle;

• Developing a knowledge base concerning how to inform motorcycle driver of 

imminent crash situations;

• Estimating how effective V2V safety applications are at addressing 

motorcycle crashes; and

• Obtaining input from motorcycle manufactures and advocacy groups 

regarding implementation of V2V in terms of technical, economical, and 

driver acceptance perspectives.

CONCLUSION

Motorcycles are an important element of our transportation system, contributing to 

both mobility and recreation for millions of riders in the United States. 

Motorcyclists continue to be overrepresented in traffic-related fatalities, accounting

for 14 percent of all traffic-related fatalities, while representing only 3 percent of the 

entire registered motor vehicle fleet. With the number of registered motorcycles at 

an all-time high, it is especially critical that NHTSA remain focused on a 

comprehensive set of interventions to improve rider safety, while exploring new 

strategies with the goal of achieving zero fatalities.

This NHTSA Motorcycle Safety Plan provides a comprehensive framework for 

addressing opportunities to improve motorcycle safety in the coming years. 

Additionally, the plan informs stakeholders of agency interests and directions. 

NHTSA appreciates the work of a broad range of government and non-government 

safety professionals toward preventing motorcycle crashes and injuries. With the 

help of States, local jurisdictions, national organizations, rider groups, 

manufacturers, insurers, riders and drivers, we can continue to make progress in 

making motorcycling safer.
DOT HS 812 488

May 2019

13507-050919-v8