S e p t e m b e r / O c t o b e r 2 0 0 9

Vol. 7 No. 5


On My Mind

Enabling the Aviator and the Mariner to 

Navigate Safely

NGA’s marine analysts, aeronautical analysts, regional analysts, imagery analysts, geospatial analysts, 

visual information specialists and nautical cartographers have a vital mission: safety of navigation on the 

world’s waterways and in its airspace. They protect mariners and aviators, and the people, equipment 

and cargo entrusted to them.

Navigating the World’s Waterways

The U.S. Navy and mariners around the world depend on our charts and hydrographic products. For 

example, NGA’s Worldwide Navigational Warning Service, our 24/7 watch operation, monitors the world’s 

maritime broadcasts and transmits urgent notifications to mariners, often within minutes of receipt. 

These critical, time-sensitive warnings alert mariners to such events as missile launches, tsunamis and 

military exercises.

Technology has also accelerated support for maritime missions: our Digital Nautical Chart (DNC®) is 

the only complete global digital chart set in the world. The DNC®, updated every 28 days, aggregates 

hydrographic and bathymetric data along with information about harbor and port facilities, imagery, 

surveys and user feedback. The DNC® is available via CD and the World Wide Web.

To support our mission partners in an even more timely manner, the Enterprise Product on Demand 

Service (EPODS) has accelerated the speed with which NGA delivers tailored navigational data. EPODS 

converts existing DNC® data into printable files that can be e-mailed to sailors where needed and then 

printed on location. Now hardcopy charts can be created and delivered in days instead of months.

During the crisis in Georgia in 2008, NGA used EPODS to expedite hardcopy charts to relief vessels 

delivering emergency supplies to desperate civilians. EPODS helped make history yet again when the 

aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower docked pierside at the Port of Mina Salman, Bahrain, in May 

2009, the first time a carrier has done so in more than 60 years.

Previously, when operating in this area, U.S. Navy carriers had to anchor miles offshore. To address this 

problem, Bahrain built a new pier facility large enough to support a carrier. In February 2009, facing the 

scheduled visit of the USS Eisenhower, U.S. Naval Forces Central Command (NAVCENT) asked NGA for a new 

chart for navigation to the pier. NAVCENT needed the chart by April 1. Thanks to EPODS, NGA completed 

the new chart a week before it was needed, allowing the USS Eisenhower to moor safely alongside the 

new pier.

Getting the Aviator There and Back

U.S. military aviators use NGA digital and hardcopy aeronautical charts and publications to move troops 

and supplies and to support humanitarian, combat and training operations anywhere in the world. In 

response to a short-turnaround request, NGA has created Instrument Approach Procedures that are used 

to support pilots providing close air support to ground troops in Afghanistan.

NGA’s aeronautical charts, publications and digital navigation data are in such demand largely because 

of the people who create them. Many members of our aeronautical team bring a perspective informed by 

decades of experience as air traffic controllers, navigators, or civilian or military pilots. They, like their 

colleagues across NGA, bring a commitment and dedication to ensuring that we provide the highest quality 

geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) support to the mission.

Getting the Job Done

Our mission partners, along with aviators and sailors everywhere, count on NGA analysts to provide 

them with the intelligence, data and information to navigate safely in the air and on the seas. The analysts 

and cartographers in NGA’s Office of Global Navigation do their work day in, day out so that the people 

who fly the planes and sail the ships can do their work safely with the assurance that they have the best, 

most reliable, most up-to-date information and data to guide them during their missions.

NGA’s global navigation mission offers yet one more example of how we collaborate—using our GEOINT 

expertise—to support the nation.

Robert B. Murrett

Vice Admiral, USN

Director
12 18

Contents

Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 ›› Vol. 7 No. 5

On the Cover

With its substantial reach, NGA routinely plays a part in numerous success 

stories. Many of these achievements may not be disclosed in a public 

forum, but among those that can are found dramatic reminders of the 

value of geospatial intelligence (GEOINT). Throughout 2008, the agency 

and its partners repeatedly demonstrated the value of GEOINT and of 

the advances that NGA pursues to maintain and expand its premier 

position within the geospatial community. These noteworthy victories 

are just some of the ways in which NGA fulfills its crucial role in the daily 

intelligence mission. The first image taken by the GeoEye-1 satellite, over 

Kutztown University, Pa., illustrates one such accomplishment—NGA’s 

continuing NextView partnerships with private industry. 

More to the Story?

The online Classified Pathfinder, which is accessible 

by members of the Intelligence Community, may include additional information and expanded sections 

of some Pathfinder articles. The Classified Pathfinder 

provides a forum for reading and discussing topics 

at the level of “Unclassified//For Official Use Only” 

and higher. For information please contact the editor, 

Heather Cox, at 301-227-2290.

1 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

2	 Letter to Our Readers

›› E Y E S W I D E O P E N

4	 NGA Mounts Unprecedented Support for 2008

Olympic Games

5	 GeoEye-1 Satellite Fulfills Agency Requirements

6	 NGA Support Team Bolsters SOCOM’s Special

Operations Forces

8	 Sidebar: SpecialOperations Forces Truths

›› E N A B L I N G D E C I S I O N S

10	 Successful Terrorist Prosecution Employs NGA

Terrain Models

11	 NGA Magnifies the Value of Open Source GEOINT

12	 Advancing GEOINT Standards Across the NSG

›› V I S U A L I Z I N G I N T E L L I G E N C E

14	 Military GEOINT Cells Foster Closer

Relationship

16	 Training Increases Google EarthTM Proficiency

17	 Agency Extends Information Technology

Infrastructure

18	 Multimedia Communicators Tell the NGA Story

in New Ways

›› R E A C H I N G F O R W A R D

20	 Research and Development Highlight

Collaborative Partnerships

21	 Ethical Standards Reinforce Agency Focus

22	 New System Rewards Effective Performance

›› D E P A R T M E N T S

23	 Partnerships: NGA Hosts Afghan Mapping

Agencies for Executive Training

24	 New Campus East: NCE Tours Host 2,000 in

Two Months

›› S P E C I A L G E O I N T S U P P L E M E N T

10 16

24

Contents

2 Letter to Our Readers

3 Up Front: NGA Director Addresses National 

Defense Intelligence College Graduates

4 Up Front: Empire Challenge 2009 Promotes Joint 

Military Operations

4 Up Front: NGA Historian Addresses Piracy at 

Maritime Conference

›› F E A T U R E S

AERONAUTICAL

6 GPS Reliability Depends on Air Force and NGA

8 Agency Aids Operation Deep Freeze 

Antarctic Airlifts

10 After Sept. 11: The Changing Face of 

Aeronautical Services 

13 Aeronautical Analysts Soar to New Heights

MARITIME

16 Office of Global Navigation Enables Historic Visit

17 Red Dots Identify Submarine Hazards

20 Digital Navigation Keeps Navy on Course

22 Maritime Heritage Creates Modern Tradecrafts

›› D E P A R T M E N T S

24 21st Century: Innovation Promises to Moderate 

Vertical Obstruction Risk

26 Our Heritage: Oceanographer Mary Sears 

Advanced Marine Science

28 New Campus East: NGA Takes Charge of First 

On the Cover Two Buildings A compass—the universal symbol of the navigator’s craft—guides 

mariners and aviators safely along an orderly course. For centuries, no 

serious pilot of sea or air has chosen to forego its direction. Similarly, 

modern sailors and airmen rely on NGA for quality geospatial intelligence 

to chart their courses accurately. From the poles to the skies to the deep 

sea, the agency plays a leading role developing charts, detecting hazards 

and increasing the safety of navigation for the global community. The 

agency’s aeronautical and maritime missions save lives and benefit all 

who fly or sail. Cover design by Anika McMillon.

More to the Story?

The online Classified Pathfinder, which is accessible 

by members of the Intelligence Community, may include additional information and expanded sections 

of some Pathfinder articles. The Classified Pathfinder 

provides a forum for reading and discussing topics at 

the level of “Unclassified//For Official Use Only” or 

higher. For information please contact the Classified 

Pathfinder editor, Heather Cox, at (301) 227-2290. 1 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009
2 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Published by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

Office of Corporate Communications

4600 Sangamore Road, Mail Stop D-54

Bethesda, MD 20816-5003

Telephone: (301) 227-7388, 

DSN 287-7388

E-mail: pathfinder@nga.mil

Director

Vice Adm. Robert B. Murrett, U.S. Navy

Deputy Director

Lloyd Rowland

Office of Corporate Communications, Director

Jennifer A. K. Daniel

Editor

Jason K. Michas

Associate Editor

Kelly M. Kemp

Art Editor

Craig S. Milsovic

Graphic Designer 

Anika D. McMillon

Contributing Authors

Chris Andreasen

Dave C.

Howard C.

Jim C.

Gregory G.

Jay K.

Dennis L.

Rick M.

Jim R.

Michael R.

Mary S.

Karen Y.

GETTING PUBLISHED

All members of the geospatial intelligence community are 

welcome to submit articles of community-wide interest. Articles 

are edited for style, content and length. For details on submitting 

articles, send an e-mail to pathfinder@nga.mil.

The Pathfinder is the medium with which the National 

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency enhances and promotes public 

awareness and understanding of the discipline of geospatial 

intelligence. The Pathfinder is an authorized Department of 

Defense publication for members of the Department of Defense. 

Contents of this publication are not necessarily the official view 

of, or endorsed by, the U.S. government, Department of Defense 

or NGA. Articles in the Pathfinder may be reproduced in whole 

or in part without permission, unless stated otherwise. If they 

are reproduced, please credit the author and the “National 

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, the Pathfinder magazine.” Any 

reproduction of graphics, photographs and imagery is subject to 

the original copyright.

Letter to Our Readers

Charting the Sea and Sky

NGA contributes enormously to the safety 

of navigation worldwide—military and civilian. 

The agency’s maritime and aeronautical roles 

encompass all facets of charting and related 

tradecrafts. Its international responsibilities place it among global leaders in these 

fields. No one travels by ship or plane who 

isn’t served by the navigational efforts of this 

agency. 

The agency’s aeronautical and maritime 

missions range widely, as topics in this issue 

make clear. Operation Deep Freeze, which 

supplies Antarctic bases, receives its lifeblood 

from airlifts aided by NGA in an ongoing 

relationship with the scientific community. 

Likewise, NGA’s partnership with the U.S. Air Force demonstrates its constant 

refinement of the Global Positioning System (GPS). The omnipresent GPS testifies to the reach of geospatial intelligence (GEOINT).

Always looking forward, the agency continues to improve the face of its 

aeronautical services, expanding its digital offerings in the wake of Sept. 11. 

Paralleling these advances, digital improvements in maritime navigation enable safer sailing.

NGA resources recently contributed to a notable milestone—the visit of the 

King of Bahrain to the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower during a spring 

call to the Persian Gulf state. Whether transiting ocean or sky, reducing and 

eliminating hazards to navigation remain critical challenges that the agency 

meets around the world. Through NGA’s efforts, vertical obstructions and underwater “Red Dots” all pose fewer risks.

The aeronautical and maritime professionals who deliver these services 

and their associated products require specialized skills and experience. Two 

articles describe these careers. Building on the legacy of pioneers such as 

Mary Sears, these agency personnel drive the development of the GEOINT that 

sustains international navigation of both the water and the air. 

Mariners and flight crews will continue to rely on NGA for the best resources 

available. NGA’s maritime and aeronautical commitments are truly global. 

NGA’s humanitarian efforts represent a similar international outreach. The 

November/December issue of Pathfinder will note NGA’s GEOINT response to 

disasters and crises.

Jennifer A.K. Daniel

Director, Office of Corporate Communications

2 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 
3 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Up Front

NGA Director Addresses National Defense Intelligence 

College Graduates

By Michael R.

NGA Director Vice Adm. Robert B. Murrett offered

the commencement address at graduation ceremonies 

for the National Defense Intelligence College (NDIC) on 

Friday, July 24, at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, 

D.C. The 2009 graduating class included seven NGA 

personnel. The college awarded 282 Master of Science of 

Strategic Intelligence degrees and another 21 Bachelor 

of Science in Intelligence degrees. More than 700 students and guests attended the event, including former 

NGA Director and Undersecretary of Defense for Intelligence retired Air Force Lt. Gen. James R. Clapper Jr.

Murrett addressed changes in the Intelligence 

Community (IC) to the new graduates. “A key lesson 

from reviewing these threats is that the IC and DOD 

[Department of Defense] need to improve our traditional 

ways of thinking and operating, maintain open minds, 

and be innovative in identifying possible threats to our 

national security,” he said. “We will be looking 

to you graduates to lead by example in 

collaboration, communication 

and cooperation.”

Murrett finished with a call to action saying, “I urge 

each of you to be Community players.” He continued, 

“Throughout this program you have built a network of 

colleagues from across the Community, folks you may 

not have otherwise had the opportunity to know. Use 

this network and reach out for different perspectives, for 

different viewpoints, for a more complete picture.”

Upon concluding his remarks, Murrett, a 1983 graduate of the college, received an honorary Doctorate in 

Strategic Intelligence from NDIC President A. Denis 

Clift, Provost Susan M. Studds and Defense Intelligence 

Agency Director Army Lt. Gen. Ronald Burgess.

NDIC is a dynamic learning community with a diverse 

student body of over 700, representing a mixture of experience in federal agencies and all branches of the U.S. 

armed services. All students must be employed in the 

federal government and hold security clearances. Chartered by DOD in 1962, the college has served as a leading institution for intelligence education and research. 

Michael R. is a public affairs officer in the Office of 

Corporate Communications.

Photo by Getty Images
4 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009

Dr. Gary Weir, NGA chief historian, addressed 

the international Maritime Capacity Building Conference held June 16–17 at Mississippi State University. 

Organized by the university’s Radvanyi Center for 

International Security and Strategic Studies, the event 

highlighted the efforts of the United States, Japan, 

Australia and other major maritime nations. Additional 

sponsors included the Center for U.S.–Japan Studies 

and Cooperation at Vanderbilt University; the Okazaki 

Institute, based in Tokyo, Japan; the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore; and the Australian 

National Centre for Ocean Resources and Security. 

As part of its maritime mission, NGA produces nautical charts, issues U.S. Notice to Mariners, and coordinates the Worldwide Navigational Warning Service, 

which alerts mariners to navigational safety and piracy 

concerns. Weir, who documents NGA’s role within the 

context of world events, offered his perspective on 

addressing the complex problem of piracy.

On June 16, Weir discussed NGA and its geospatial 

mission and presented “The Dilemma of Piracy in the 

Horn of Africa, 2009.” Weir outlined the history of 

piracy in Somalia, drawing on his work developing a 

recent exhibit on piracy for NGA’s museum in St. Louis. 

Weir concluded that the solution to piracy “would come 

from a blend of international influences, combined 

naval forces, and support from those engaging in 

regional commerce, but most of all from onshore local 

solutions and the restoration of a local economy in 

some degree of harmony with international interests.” 

He emphasized the need to restore the Somali fishing 

industry, so important to the poorest of that country, 

to lay the groundwork for the return of law, order and 

good governance to the Horn of Africa region.

In addition to Dr. Weir, featured speakers included 

retired Adm. Thomas B. Fargo, former commander of 

the U.S. Pacific Command; retired Japanese Rear Adm. 

Sumihiko Kawamura, vice president of the Okazaki 

Institute; and retired Filipino Vice Adm. Eduardo Ma 

R. Santos, president of the Maritime Academy of Asia 

and the Pacific, headquartered in Mariveles, Bataan, 

Philippines. Representatives from India, Indonesia, 

Malaysia, Singapore and South Korea also attended 

the conference.

Up Front

Empire Challenge 2009 Promotes Joint Military 

Operations

By Karen Y.

Now in its sixth year, the Empire Challenge 

intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) 

interoperability demonstration develops and integrates 

joint, interagency and multinational capabilities to 

meet the present and future operational needs of U.S. 

military forces and their partners. The exercise allows 

participants to evaluate technologies that support combined task forces in an operationally realistic, “live-fly” 

environment to provide solutions and ensure success in 

the field. NGA has been involved with Empire Challenge 

since it began.

Empire Challenge 2009 (EC09) achieved its goal of 

providing capabilities that meet warfighters’ challenges 

such as those identified by combatant commanders, 

national agencies and coalition partners. For EC09, 

NGA focused on setting up effective networks to ensure 

that analysts and warfighters receive data from fullmotion video sensors, in standard and high definition, 

to provide precision collection and intelligence at 

all levels—advantages that will allow more accurate 

analysis. In addition, NGA is working with others to 

experiment with new technologies such as thirdgeneration cellular networks and a sensor web to ensure 

that all sensors in the field, whether air, water or ground, 

communicate with each other.

NGA’s contributions ensure that Empire Challenge 

will continue to advance the interoperability of military 

operations. The NGA lead for the exercise stated, “EC09 

is an essential ISR event that improves interoperability 

of sensors, processors and weapons to ensure that they 

work together properly in theater. Doing this before the 

systems deploy allows the joint force to be better in 

our fight.” 

Karen Y. is a public affairs officer in the Office of 

Corporate Communications.

Up Front

NGA Historian Addresses Piracy at Maritime Conference 
5 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

» GPS Reliability Depends on Air Force 

and NGA

» Agency Aids Operation Deep Freeze 

Antarctic Airlifts

» After Sept. 11: The Changing Face of 

Aeronautical Services 

» Aeronautical Analysts Soar to 

New Heights

A E R O N A U T I C A L F E AT U R E S

Photo illustration by Anika McMillon
6Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Aeronautical

GPS Reliability Depends on Air Force and NGA

By Dave C.

For drivers who dislike asking for directions, talking

Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers in automobiles have become a welcome substitute for paper road 

maps. Today everything geospatially oriented relies on 

GPS. Originally designed almost 30 years ago as an allweather, space-based navigation system with the primary purpose of enhancing the effectiveness of U.S. and 

allied military forces, GPS has revolutionized not only 

military navigation but commercial transportation, mapping and surveying. Nowadays GPS is even transforming 

international air traffic management, scientific research 

and precise timing for synchronization of financial institutions and cellular networks.

Because accurate positions are required for all geospatial intelligence (GEOINT), NGA has been a part of 

the GPS program since it was conceived, focusing on the 

system’s accuracy and precise positioning. NGA’s role in 

maintaining and improving GPS accuracy starts with providing the standard reference frame for GPS, the World 

Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84), which was developed 

in partnership with the Department of Defense (DOD). A 

mathematical representation of the Earth’s shape, WGS 

84 provides a 3-D coordinate system and a gravity model 

that are essential for computing GPS satellite orbits and 

precise GPS-derived locations on, above or below the 

surface of the Earth.

As a GPS user, NGA uses sophisticated receivers to 

track GPS satellites and generate geographic positions 

for GEOINT products. From a constellation orbiting the 

Earth, the Air Force-operated GPS satellites broadcast 

signals that are sensed by users’ GPS receivers. Locking 

onto several GPS satellite signals, the receivers multiply 

the signals’ travel times by the speed of light to compute 

the distance from each satellite, resulting in accurate 

real-time positions. Therefore, precise time measurements are required for accuracy.

From the GPS Master Control Station (MCS) at Schriever Air Force Base, Colo., the Air Force exercises 24/7 

command and control of the GPS satellite constellation, 

regulating the clocks and orbits of the satellites. Six Air 

Force monitor stations keep watch over the satellites. 

NGA operates another 10 stations that also monitor the 

system. In NGA’s GPS Division in St. Louis, orbit analysts 

operate the 24/7 GPS Monitor Station Network Control 

Center (MSNCC), monitoring station performance and 

real-time GPS data flow from NGA’s globally dispersed 

network of GPS tracking stations. Additionally, orbit 

analysts provide around-the-clock integrity monitoring of the GPS satellites and are able to 

immediately report any anomalies to 

the Air Force GPS MCS.

Today the WGS 84 

coordinate system 

is defined by the 

3-D coordinates 

established by the 

combination of 

the Air Force and 

NGA satellite 

tracking 

stations. NGA 

periodically 

recomputes 

the positions 

of both the 

NGA and 

the Air Force 

tracking 

stations as 

part of efforts 

to maintain 

WGS 84 and 

improve the 

accuracy of the 

station positions. 

During the most recent 

update of the network, 

NGA computed station 

positions to approximately 

1 centimeter accuracy. The more 

Graphic by The University of Texas at Austin, 

Applied Research Laboratories.
7 Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

accurately NGA knows the stations’ positions, 

the more accurately NGA can determine the GPS 

satellite positions.

Many GPS accuracy enhancements can be traced 

to 1995, when the GPS Joint Program Office, which 

led the entire GPS program, formed a team of DOD 

representatives to identify potential GPS performance 

improvements. The team recommended adding 

data from NGA’s GPS monitor stations to 

the data from the Air Force tracking 

network. The Air Force would use 

the NGA GPS tracking data 

for monitoring the radio 

signal used for GPS 

transmissions, as well 

as for monitoring and 

creating GPS orbit 

predictions to be 

uploaded to the 

satellites.

In 2005, 

real-time 

tracking data 

from the 

NGA monitor 

stations 

was added 

to similar 

data from 

the Air Force 

stations for 

processing in the 

MCS Kalman filter, 

a mathematical 

technique that 

provides estimated 

satellite clock and 

ephemeris (orbit) information 

for keeping satellites updated 

and broadcasting accurate signals. 

Including the NGA tracking data has also resulted in the 

ability to monitor the quality of the GPS signal and the 

integrity of the constellation 100 percent of the time.

For more than 20 years, the GPS constellation operated with only the six Air Force monitor stations, which 

did not provide complete global coverage of the satellite 

constellation, leaving almost 4 percent of the GPS satellites’ orbit paths completely unmonitored. Furthermore, 

almost a third of the orbit paths were monitored by 

only one station at a time, risking increased periods of 

unmonitored satellites if any one monitor station were 

lost. If a satellite were to become unhealthy during 

an unmonitored period, GPS users could be adversely 

affected. The addition of real-time tracking data from 

NGA’s monitor stations has eliminated all unmonitored 

areas, and currently, on average, GPS satellites are seen 

by more than four monitor stations simultaneously. 

Furthermore, improved navigation uploads contain better prediction data as a result of the increased number 

of measurements entered into the MCS Kalman filter, 

resulting in more accurate GPS positioning.

GPS has been integrated into the very fabric of the 

modern world. More than 1 billion people have come 

to rely on the precise timing and navigation signal that 

is as responsible for dropping weapons with precision 

as it is for guiding civilians safely through their daily 

journeys. NGA continues to contribute to improving GPS 

performance while creating GEOINT that provides situational awareness for making national security decisions 

and supporting defense and homeland security operations. The growing demand for real-time positioning has 

generated a U.S. commercial GPS equipment and service 

industry that leads the world. As people develop new applications for GPS in the years ahead, NGA’s continued 

partnership with the Air Force will ensure GPS accuracy, 

integrity and reliability. 

Dave C. is an NGA liaison to the GPS Master Control 

Station at Schriever Air Force Base, Colo.
8Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Aeronautical

Agency Aids Operation Deep Freeze Antarctic Airlifts

By Gregory G.

Just the name, Operation Deep Freeze, conjures up

images of frigid conditions that, in this case, tend 

to match reality. This U.S. military mission provides 

operational and logistical support to the U.S. Antarctic 

Program and the National Science Foundation’s (NSF’s) 

research activities in Antarctica. In addition to its maritime and other support, since 2003, NGA has supported 

Operation Deep Freeze with aeronautical safety and 

navigational data products.

Antarctic Airlifts

Beginning with the flight of Adm. Richard E. Byrd, 

who first flew over the South Pole in 1929, aircraft 

have provided vital assistance and support to 

scientific collection missions by making one of the 

least accessible spots on the globe easier to get 

to—at least when the weather is clear. Joint Task Force 

Support Forces Antarctica conducts Operation Deep 

Freeze, coordinating strategic airlifts, aeromedical 

evacuation support, search and rescue response, 

sealift access, bulk fuel supply, port cargo handling 

and transportation requirements.

The operation’s reliance on airlifts has continued 

to grow so much that during the 2008–2009 flying 

season, the airborne movement of cargo and personnel 

provided the lifeblood for people on the ice. During 

the six-month season, ski-equipped LC-130s, the polar 

version of the C-130 Hercules transport plane, flew more 

than 8.7 million pounds of material and 2,000 passengers on almost 300 missions throughout Antarctica. 

C-17 Globemaster III transport planes flew over 50 missions from Christchurch, New Zealand, to the McMurdo 

Station Antarctic research center and back, carrying 

over 3,800 passengers and 4.7 million pounds of cargo.

Aeronautical Safety

NGA products increase safety of flight, navigational 

capabilities and aircrew situational awareness on the 

coldest, windiest and most inhospitable continent on 

the globe. Because NGA publishes all flight information 

publications for the Department of Defense, all of 

these critical supply missions, as well as the safety of 

aircrew and passengers, become, at some point, the 

responsibility of NGA.

NGA aeronautical analysts collaborate closely with 

the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command 

(SPAWAR), Office of Polar Programs; the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA); the U.S. Air Force Flight 

Standards Agency, Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) command 

and 62nd Airlift Wing; and the 109th Airlift Wing of the 

New York Air National Guard to ensure the accuracy of 

all Antarctic instrument procedures.

8Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 
9Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Planning for the 2008–2009 season started in June 

2008 when NGA aeronautical analysts met with partners from SPAWAR, the FAA, the Air Force and PACAF to 

determine which airfields would be used and the actual 

runway and skiway locations, and to update the locations of navigational aids and waypoints. Their goal was 

to define and create the instrument procedures used 

by U.S. aircraft operating into and out of the selected 

airfields, which present different landing conditions: 

Pegasus Field offers hard-packed ice used for wheel 

landings, while Williams Field and South Pole Station 

allow only ski-capable aircraft on their snow skiways.

The runways, skiways and navigational aids rest on 

constantly shifting ice, not on solid ground. Therefore, 

each runway, skiway and navigational aid is surveyed 

annually. The facilities are then replotted and changes 

are made to all waypoints used by aircraft to find each 

location and align for landing. While the flight instrument procedures remain similar at established airfields 

year to year, the exact details change, requiring updated published procedures that reflect the new information. After the preliminary revisions are completed, 

the FAA usually performs an in-flight check on the 

accuracy and usability of the procedures. Meanwhile, 

NGA aeronautical analysts receive frequent change 

requests from personnel in Antarctica, which they make 

and return as soon as possible.

This year, in response to a flight crew request, analysts also developed an Instrument Flight Rules chart 

to transition aircrews into the landing phase and assist 

with situational awareness and safety. Additionally, 

since all approaches in Antarctica occur in uncontrolled 

airspace—there are no ground controllers tracking 

aircraft and assisting with landings—NGA developed 

the publication Airborne Radar Approaches for radarassisted landings at multiple Antarctic locations. NGA 

also publishes a procedure for when visibility is zero 

and an aircraft is almost out of fuel, allowing aircraft 

to land away from Pegasus Field in an area of relatively 

level ice and then either taxi to the airfield or wait for 

rescue personnel. Pilots followed this procedure five 

times during the 2008-2009 season, preventing loss 

of life and aircraft during some of the worst weather 

conditions they had reportedly ever experienced.

Even when a season ends, analysts get little respite 

from the operation’s demands. Planning for the 2009–

2010 season began in June with the season scheduled 

to open in November. NGA will be there, supporting 

Operation Deep Freeze with specialized navigation 

products to help ensure in-flight safety in this extremely 

dangerous location. 

Gregory G. is an aeronautical analyst within 

Aeronautical Services.

Operation Deep Freeze aircraft at Pegasus 

Field, McMurdo Station.

U.S. Air Force photo by Tech. Sgt. Shane A. Cuomo
10Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Aeronautical

After Sept. 11: The Changing Face of 

Aeronautical Services 

By Jim C.

Few days have had more of an impact on NGA or

the nation than Sept. 11, 2001. Ever since the U.S. Army 

Air Corps established its Map Unit in 1943, NGA and 

its predecessors have created aeronautical navigation 

information for the Department of Defense (DOD). However, since that tragic day eight years ago, the agency’s 

Aeronautical Services has accelerated its transition 

from hardcopy to digital products to meet the growing 

demands for the aeronautical information upon which 

flight crews rely. Furthermore, the agency’s aeronautical 

products and services have been increasingly in demand 

by the Intelligence Community (IC) and partners around 

the world.

Supporting the safety of navigation has always been 

part of NGA’s mission. For decades, military and government air crews needing information about airports, flight 

routes and flight hazards have used Flight Information 

Publications (FLIPs), which include Enroute Charts and 

Supplements, Planning Documents, and the Terminal 

Instrument Procedure books used for airport approaches 

—all currently produced by NGA. In addition to the U.S. 

military commands, other customers use NGA’s products 

and its vast information databases. These customers 

include numerous federal agencies within the IC, the 

Joint Chiefs of Staff, DOD contractors, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), foreign military services, 

international partners, homeland security planners, 

search-and-rescue teams and crisis support offices. 

Moving to a Data-Centric Digital Environment

Harnessing the power of today’s technology, NGA is 

moving from the present hardcopy product orientation to 

a next-generation, data-centric digital environment that 

will deliver ready access to aeronautical and geospatial 

Two U.S. Air Force captains enter data 

from an NGA Terminal Instrument 

Procedure book.

U.S. Air Force photo 
11Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

databases through an open architecture of interoperable, commercial systems and a dynamic communication infrastructure. Users will be able to customize and 

download specific data by using online dataset features 

through classified Web sites.

Key to automating aeronautical processes will be 

an international aeronautical data exchange standard 

known as the Aeronautical Information Exchange Model 

(AIXM). Eventually NGA will replace its current suite of 

aeronautical data and products with AIXM-based digital 

outputs via a Web-based service. This effort will provide 

DOD partners with a means to download flight safety 

data tailored to their specific needs. 

Several new initiatives will increase flexibility in 

responding to customers and improve quality by incorporating machine-to-machine automated data exchange 

into production processes. For example, NGA is streamlining the exchange of aeronautical data with select 

organizations and foreign countries. These partners will 

eventually provide NGA with processed aeronautical 

data as part of the agency’s coproduction agreements. 

NGA Aeronautical Services was certified in 2007 under 

the 9001 guidelines of the International Organization for 

Standardization in part to gain the ability to exchange 

data between multinational suppliers and customers.

A next-generation production system will also be used 

to create and maintain over 6,000 digitally drawn military terminal instrument procedure charts directly from 

aeronautical databases. Projected to be active within 12 

to 24 months, the system will eliminate manual production of the charts, increase production capabilities, 

improve quality, and ingest and efficiently process large 

amounts of data, offer global chart updating and provide 

greater flexibility to interface with other NGA data.

Another technical program that will help replace the 

current hardcopy environment encompasses a completely integrated next-generation aeronautical database 

production system. A separate program involving NGA, 
12Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

the FAA, and DOD Terminal Procedures offices will compile and exchange information machine-to-machine and 

have the ability to ingest AIXM data in an .XML format for 

the Web.

Work is also under way to create a one-stop aeronautical shop. A new query tool to access NGA’s FLIPs will 

move the customer from product-centered use to datacentric use by enabling contractors and customers to 

access online data on a custom-tailored basis.

Increasing Intelligence Support 

and Collaboration

Another challenging front for NGA is the increasing 

demand for aeronautical types of geospatial intelligence 

(GEOINT), such as precise airfield and heliport locations, 

in every format and from all available sources. As the 

air-based component of GEOINT, aeronautical data enables users to quickly orient and visualize their 3-D mission space, an advantage that improves their airborne 

precision, agility and effectiveness. When integrated 

with multiple sources of GEOINT, aeronautical safety of 

navigation data ensures that decision makers have the 

information required for planning and possible action to 

meet national security objectives. 

Aeronautical analysts at NGA collaborate with intelligence agencies on a variety of complex global airspace 

issues, including analyses of navigational aids, airfield 

activity and infrastructure, airport safety, flight-following 

studies, surge operations and force protection. Analysts 

also routinely analyze unique data in Aeronautical 

Information Reports for IC mission partners. Within NGA, 

aeronautical analysts often contribute to the work of 

other GEOINT analysts.

On occasion, requests come into NGA to analyze 

airports, create airfield graphics and perform airspace 

assessments for special events such as the 2002 Winter 

Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, and the 2006 Winter Olympics in 

Torino, Italy. Other requests for similar assistance often 

involve response to disasters and humanitarian crises 

such as the devastating 1997 Indonesian wildfires, the 

2004 Asian Tsunami, Hurricanes Katrina and Flossie, and 

the Darfur crisis. 

NGA’s aeronautical products and services have proven 

to be essential to flight crews in conducting safe and 

effective global air operations. Analytical aeronautical 

products also provide valuable background information 

to government officials who make critical decisions to 

protect the nation. By working now to create a datacentric digital environment and increasing collaboration 

within the IC, NGA’s Aeronautical Services is well prepared to meet whatever challenges may arise. 

Jim C. is an aeronautical analyst within 

Aeronautical Services.

U.S. Air Force pilots fly with NGA 

Terminal Instrument Procedure books.

U.S. Air Force photo
Aeronautical

Aeronautical Analysts Soar to New Heights 

By Dennis L.

When people first took to the skies in hot air 

balloons and biplanes, they not only created an exciting 

new way to travel, but also foreshadowed a new geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) challenge: providing charts and 

services for the safety of aeronautical navigation. The 

aeronautical safety mission supporting the U.S. military 

dates back to 1943, when the Army Air Corps established 

the Aeronautical Chart Plant in St. Louis, Mo, which 

would become a key part of NGA. Today’s aeronautical 

analysts remain leaders in their tradecraft as they serve 

the Department of Defense, the Intelligence Community 

(IC) and other agency partners in not only safety of navigation but also intelligence and national security.

NGA’s highly specialized aeronautical analysis workforce comprises GEOINT professionals who possess an 

aeronautical, military or computer science degree or 

background, many years of aviation experience, and 

technical and geographic information system (GIS) skills. 

Together, the agency’s aeronautical analysts have nearly 

1,900 years of military and civilian work experience 

gained as pilots, navigators, flight engineers, air traffic 

controllers, airport managers and military air intelligence 

officers. With this firsthand knowledge, they produce 

sophisticated aeronautical products, collaborate with 

NGA partners, and analyze aeronautical intelligence 

issues in depth.

NGA recruits aeronautical analysts through university 

and military career and job fairs. The hiring criteria 

provide the agency with the flexibility to hire applicants 

with extensive aeronautical background or recent 

graduates from an aeronautical university, military flight 

training program or military academy. Future hiring 

13Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

NGA aeronautical products can now be 

exploited in GIS applications and 

Google EarthTM.

NGA graphic
14Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

requirements will include an elevated level of education 

and experience in GIS, database and other technical 

skills that are rapidly growing in importance and use 

within the tradecraft. 

A typical day in the life of an aeronautical analyst 

depends on the analyst’s functional or production area. 

Those focused on geographic areas collect and analyze 

source data for producing digital Flight Information Publication maps and charts, collaborate with IC analysts on 

air intelligence issues, and maintain a highly detailed 

and accurate database on airfields and airspace around 

the globe. Others performing stereo airfield collection 

analyze imagery to collect and specify airfield features 

and obstructions in the shapefile format used in GIS 

applications. Analysts working on vertical obstructions 

research data from worldwide sources, which they 

compile and include in products to ensure safe navigation of flight crews during take-off and landing phases 

and at low altitudes. Those who specialize in airport 

terminal area operations work closely with NGA’s military 

partners to build and maintain safe and reliable arrival 

and departure procedures for flight crews and ensure 

that the Digital Aeronautical Flight Information File data 

used in military aircraft is accurate and reliable. Finally, 

aeronautical analysts who collaborate closely with 

foreign governments guarantee the seamless exchange 

of aeronautical navigation data and information while 

others ensure the accuracy and reliability of analyzed 

data provided to NGA’s production partners for printing 

and dissemination.

Because NGA’s aeronautical data, products and services are vital to the lives and success of warfighters and 

many of NGA’s other partners and customers, outreach 

and collaboration are part of each aeronautical analyst’s 

daily work. Analysts maintain frequent contact with 

partners and customers, who provide direct feedback 

regarding quality, data and production. They often travel 

to collaborate directly on U.S. and international air navigation requirements and issues.

The depth of knowledge that aeronautical analysts 

possess has also made them a valuable resource for 

other IC analysts on aeronautical intelligence issues 

and products. In addition, many IC analysts call upon 

NGA analysts for help deciphering unique terminology 

or acronyms and to assist with other barriers to analysis 

that require an understanding of aeronautical navigation, operations and airspace. Also, many aeronautical 

analysts serve alongside NGA partners and within the 

agency’s Time-Dominant Operations Center.

The aeronautical analysis tradecraft and workforce 

have come far since 1943 and the Aeronautical Chart 

Plant, and these professionals still care deeply about 

their mission. Many have placed their lives in the hands 

of NGA’s aeronautical products and understand firsthand how warfighters’ lives and missions rely upon an 

analyst’s attention to detail and accuracy. Furthermore, 

the use of commercial aircraft as weapons during the 

terrorist attacks on Sept. 11, 2001, sparked a new and 

urgent sense of responsibility to the intelligence mission that analysts now consider equal to their safety of 

navigation mission. Everyone who travels by air can be 

confident that aeronautical analysts are on the job supporting the GEOINT mission and national security. 

Dennis L. is NGA’s Professional Advisory Board 

manager for the aeronautical analysis occupation.
15Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

» Office of Global Navigation Enables 

Historic Visit

» Red Dots Identify Submarine Hazards » Digital Navigation Keeps Navy on Course » Maritime Heritage Creates 

Modern Tradecrafts 

M A R I T I M E F E AT U R E S

Photo illustration by Anika McMillon
16Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Maritime

Office of Global Navigation Enables Historic Visit By Jim R.

NGA’s Office of Global Navigation, Maritime

Services, created a new nautical navigation chart of the 

Port of Mina Salman, Bahrain, and delivered it to the 

U.S. Navy in just 33 days to help make possible a May 

17 visit by the King of Bahrain to the aircraft carrier USS 

Dwight D. Eisenhower. The carrier was only the second to 

pull into Bahrain pierside and the first to do so in more 

than 60 years.

Previously, when operating in this area, U.S. Navy 

carriers would anchor miles offshore, making logistics 

of resupply and refueling challenging. However, a new 

dock recently dredged and constructed at the Port of 

Mina Salman, Bahrain, can accommodate carriers. The 

U.S. Naval Forces Central Command (NAVCENT) and the 

U.S. 5th Fleet, to which the Eisenhower is deployed, 

contacted NGA in February requesting an updated chart 

with the newly dredged port by April 1 so the ship’s crew 

could safely navigate to the new pier. Using new 

software, the Enterprise Product on Demand 

System–Maritime, an NGA team took 

port hydrographic survey data from 

the U.S. Naval Oceanographic 

Office and the Bahrainis to create the new chart by March 

25, a process that normally would have taken months. 

Moreover, the team saved the chart as a PDF file so it 

could be easily e-mailed and printed in theater for faster 

distribution to the fleet.

The USS Eisenhower used the new chart to dock at the 

port on May 16. The next day, the Eisenhower received 

a visit from Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, the King of 

Bahrain; J. Adam Ereli, the U.S. Ambassador; and Vice 

Adm. William E. Gortney, NAVCENT commander. “This is 

a phenomenal feat,” remarked the NGA briefer who addressed NGA Director Vice Adm. Robert B. Murrett following the king’s visit. Murrett concurred, saying, “To have 

accomplished this in the [brief] period of time ... this is 

very important work.” 

16Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Jim R. is a branch chief within Maritime Services.

The King of Bahrain (left) 

visits the USS Eisenhower.

U.S. Navy photo by Mass 

Communication Specialist 

Seaman Bradley Evans
17Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Maritime

Red Dots Identify Submarine Hazards

By Mary S.

On Jan. 8, 2005, the USS San Francisco, a Los 

Angeles-class attack submarine, collided with an 

unknown and uncharted seamount in the vicinity of 

the Caroline Islands, causing significant damage to the 

submarine, numerous injuries and one fatality. The Red 

Dot program, an NGA partnership formed in response to 

the collision, is identifying unknown submarine hazards 

to prevent future tragedies.

The incident brought to light the larger issue of safely 

navigating all the oceans, not just the western Pacific. 

Due to the modest number of 

bathymetric surveying tools 

available to the world’s hydrographic authorities, detailed surveys of water depth 

have yet to be conducted 

over much of the world’s 

open oceans. About 40 

percent of the oceans have 

never been systematically 

surveyed, and about 

95 percent have yet to be surveyed to the required GPS 

accuracy. The danger to submarines looms well beyond 

the Caroline Islands.

Shortly after the accident, representatives from NGA, 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office 

(NAVOCEANO) met to determine if it was possible to 

identify potential hazards to submarine transits through 

the Caroline Islands region and elsewhere. A predicted 

bathymetry map, which depicts estimated ocean depths, 

had been developed a decade before the grounding. Additional data sources and continued development of the 

algorithms used to compute the depths have improved 

to the point that a new worldwide depiction of predicted 

bathymetry could help identify potential navigation 

hazards to submarines and surface ships. Lacking a full 

ocean survey, the partnership concluded that the use of 

predicted bathymetry to identify potential hazards was 

the most timely and realistic approach to reducing the 

probability of a recurrence.

NGA contributed available bathymetry and gravity data to the 

effort. NOAA provided its latest 

algorithms and altimetry data 

depicting the height of 

the ocean floors. The 

Scripps Institution 

of Oceanography, 

A Naval Oceanographic Office ship 

surveys a predicted Red Dot hazard.

Photo by Mary S.
18Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009

working closely with NOAA, joined in to analyze the various datasets and perform the initial compilation of data 

for the new predicted bathymetry layer. NAVOCEANO 

agreed to help compute the new predicted bathymetry 

data layer and assist with error analysis. 

Subsequent discussions involving NGA and several 

Navy components that share responsibility or interest in 

safety of navigation led to the creation of the multiagency Submarine Navigation Improvement Program (SNIP), 

to focus on solving geospatial challenges that pose a risk 

to submarine navigation. The SNIP group promptly began 

to develop a prioritized list of predicted hazards to navigation derived from the predicted bathymetry layer. The 

group started referring to the effort as the Red Dot program following a NAVOCEANO briefing that symbolized 

potential uncharted hazards with the unassuming icon.

Through this collaborative effort, the list of predicted 

Red Dot hazards quickly rose to almost 700 worldwide. 

In the fall of 2006, NGA began publishing a special Red 

Dot U.S. Notice to Mariners to warn of these potential 

navigation hazards. Red Dot hazards represent not only 

potential dangers to submerged navigation, but also to 

surface navigation—hazards close to the surface could 

ground fishing vessels or rip out the hull of even very 

large craft.

To verify or invalidate the Red Dot hazards, NGA 

analysts thoroughly review all data holdings and charts. 

They also analyze commercial imagery, seeking to 

corroborate hazards that are relatively near the ocean 

surface (approximately 50 meters deep or less), by using 

imagery at various wavelengths and algorithms to extract 

the faintest imagery features. About 25 new pinnacles 

have been detected using this technique. 

Red Dots are assigned to one of the NAVOCEANO survey ships that conduct military surveys around the world, 

though the ships conduct surveys of these predicted 

hazards only when already assigned to survey or transit 

near a Red Dot location. Additionally, the U.K. Royal 

NGA analysts prepare a 

conductivity, temperature and 

density probe for a Red Dot survey.

Photo by Mary S.
Navy, a partner in the Red Dot program, also surveys 

these predicted hazards through the U.K. Hydrographic 

Office as opportunities allow.

Through the joint NGA–NAVOCEANO Shiprider 

Program, NGA analysts collaborate with NAVOCEANO 

scientists aboard the survey ships conducting Red Dot 

bathymetric surveys. Two maritime analysts aboard the 

USNS Sumner helped confirm several predicted Red Dot 

hazards as navigation hazards. The operation surveyed 

one of the Red Dot hazards at just 21 meters deep, 

confirming the feature as a navigation hazard for both 

surface ships and submarines.

Once a Red Dot hazard has been surveyed and 

confirmed, the survey ship sends a message to the 

Worldwide Navigational Warning Service, which NGA 

coordinates. The service issues an appropriate safety 

warning, usually through a Notice to Mariners, to add 

the correct depth to the appropriate charts. After the 

survey data are reviewed and edited and the feature is 

represented on updated charts, the Red Dot hazard is 

removed from the list.

NGA analysts continually track each predicted hazard 

on the Red Dot list in an effort to protect all mariners, 

civil or military, from these potential dangers. The SNIP 

meets regularly, and Red Dot status, briefed by both NGA 

and NAVOCEANO, is always at the top of the agenda. 

Through continued collaboration, close to 100 predicted 

Red Dot hazards have been detected. Of the over 80 surveyed to date, all have turned out to be actual features, 

and 50 percent have proven to be hazards to submarine 

operations. The Red Dot team still has a long way to go 

to resolve each Red Dot hazard, but the navigation risk 

to Navy and commercial ships has been significantly 

reduced by identifying and publishing Red Dot locations 

and resolving many of the potential hazards themselves. 

19Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Mary S. is a nautical cartographer within 

Maritime Services.

Analysts rely on carefully 

calibrated survey equipment to 

help detect Red Dot hazards. 

Photo by Mary S.
20Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Maritime

Digital Navigation Keeps Navy on Course

By Chris Andreasen

Centuries ago, maritime explorers relied on stars,

planets, compasses, clocks, voyage logs and sketchy 

charts to guide themselves across Earth’s vast oceans 

and seas, trusting their instincts and faith in rudimentary 

methods to tell them where they were. In contrast, 

today’s navigators can always know their precise 

locations, improving not only their safety but their 

combat situational awareness. U.S. Navy warfighters 

are just beginning to experience the power of fingertip 

access to digital data, following NGA’s journey into the 

digital world.

Going Digital

NGA’s maritime roots come from the Defense Mapping 

Agency (DMA), one of its predecessors. As DMA began its 

transition to digital geospatial products, it developed a 

standard format that would apply to nautical, aeronautical and topographic products. This standard, the military 

Vector Product Format (VPF), became the framework for 

the NGA Digital Nautical Chart (DNC®).

From the mid-1990s through 2004, the agency digitized its collection of 5,000 hardcopy nautical charts, 

organizing data such as navigational aids, depths, and 

obstructions into thematic layers within DNC®. Since 

then, the DNC® has been continually maintained using 

the VPF Digital Update (VDU)© process, which provides 

a patch of updates to the base nautical chart. The Canadian Department of National Defence assisted with the 

chart digitization and today helps maintain DNC® for all 

Canadian waters. VDU updates are issued on a 28-day 

cycle on CD-ROM, whereas paper chart Notices to Mariners are posted online weekly.

When NGA completed DNC® in 2004, this was the 

only worldwide vector chart coverage. Recently, the Navy 

implemented polar navigation using NGA charts and is 

now capable of true worldwide digital navigation. Over 

50 ships operate with DNC® primary navigation, and the 

entire Navy is projected to transition by about 2013.

NGA has not been alone during this migration to 

digital standards and formats. Since its DMA days, NGA 

has been the U.S. Department of Defense representative 

to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), an 

intergovernmental organization supporting navigation 

safety and protection of the marine environment. NGA’s 

Office of Global Navigation works within the IHO to build 

international uniformity among nautical charts and establish standards for worldwide navigation. For as long 

as NGA has been developing DNC®, the IHO has been 

developing its digital vector chart, the Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC). The 

IHO plans to complete 

initial worldwide 

coverage in 2010, but 

without the extensive 

port coverage of DNC®. 

In the United States, 

the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration produces 

ENCs for civilian navigation; other IHO member 

countries produce ENCs 

for their regions of the 

world. NGA uses ENC 

data to supplement 

DNC® maintenance.

20Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

An NGA agreement provides 

improvements to the Voyage 

Management System used by Navy ships.

U. S. Navy photo
21Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009

Enhancing the Systems

NGA has a Cooperative Research and Development 

Agreement with Sperry Corporation, which manufactures 

the Voyage Management System (VMS) navigation 

software being installed on Navy ships, to implement 

improvements. For example, applying VMS updates now 

requires fewer manual steps. Also, the number of navigational warning alarms has been reduced, and some 

alarms have been changed from an audible alarm to a 

visual indication on the navigation display. To streamline 

chart maintenance, rather than updating a particular 

feature on multiple chart products, NGA is exploring 

transitioning to updating features one time in a database 

that would feed multiple products. Initially this effort is 

focused on developing a feature database derived from 

ENC digital source data to directly support compilation 

of DNC®. The features would be maintained only at their 

most accurate scales, eliminating discrepancies when 

different scale product layers are combined.

Improving Maintenance

The DNC® VDU patches, which contain cumulative 

chart changes for a given period, are often too large to 

download through available communications bandwidth. To solve this problem, the Navy and NGA are 

working to create a system that would track the last time 

each ship updated using VDU and then transmit only the 

new VDU updates. This solution could reduce update 

transmissions to about 10 percent of their current size. 

Also, the Navy would transmit only the updates needed 

for the area of operations.

Once the system is successfully tested, the results 

will support the Navy’s decision to adopt this netcentric 

service-oriented architecture. This technology could 

significantly reduce CD-ROM distribution of VDU updates 

and the Publication Digital Updates for digital NGA maritime publications. The Navy and NGA are also working 

towards fully automated updating to ease the burden on 

fleet quartermasters and navigators.

From the Vector Product Format to S-100

VPF is now over a decade old. The IHO has been developing a new suite of formats, S-100, that will implement 

new capabilities. Rather than develop a new military 

format, NGA plans to transition to the S-100 format. After 

the IHO adopts this new format in 2012, nations can start 

building S-100 format data. NGA will build entire regions 

in the S-100 format in parallel with current DNC® maintenance to effect the transition without impacting fleet 

operations. Realigning some bathymetric products to the 

S-100 format will require many years.

Despite the difficulties of transition, digital navigation 

products will be significantly improved by this migration. 

The new S-100 format includes improvements for the 

next-generation ENC involving many kinds of maritime 

data, formats, publications and Web services. NGA’s 

transition to S-100 will make it possible to better integrate U.S. and coalition warfighters because products 

will be interchangeable. NGA can benefit through coproduction with allied nations, particularly from compilation 

of Additional Military Layers data (military data used 

in conjunction with ENCs), which requires significantly 

denser data and more types of sources beyond those 

used in the past.

Cruising Into the Future

The IHO has recently agreed to integrate data on tides 

into the DNC® display. In parallel, the system format 

used to digitally exchange information among ships is 

being reworked to include broadcasting real-time tides 

data from ports so that ship systems will automatically 

adjust the chart display for the actual tides. Integrating 

these new time-variable capabilities as well as data from 

future sources will provide true NGA maritime geospatial 

intelligence to the naval warfighter as well as Intelligence 

Community maritime operations and analyses. 

Retired National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration Rear Adm. Chris Andreasen is the 

NGA chief hydrographer.
Maritime

Maritime Heritage Creates Modern Tradecrafts

By Howard C.

NGA’s maritime tradecrafts date from Dec. 6, 1830,

when the U.S. Navy established the Depot of Charts and 

Instruments in a rented house in Washington, D.C., near 

the White House to collect navigational charts, publications and instruments. This was the government’s first 

attempt to assume responsibility for hydrographic 

surveying and charting. By the early 1850s, the depot 

had gained global recognition as an observatory and 

a hydrographic office through the dedicated work of 

experts such as Louis M. Goldsborough, Charles Wilkes, 

James M. Gilliss and Matthew Fontaine Maury, for whom 

one of the buildings at NGA’s Bethesda headquarters is 

named. Their contributions in the sciences of navigation, 

hydrography, astronomy and oceanography formed the 

foundation of maritime charting tradecrafts.

As the military’s nautical charts evolved through 

organizations preceding NGA, the maritime tradecrafts 

developed into today’s professions in maritime analysis 

and bathymetry. Seventy percent of the Earth is water, and 

NGA’s maritime analysts and bathymetrists cover the wet 

worlds, both on the surface as well as subsurface, serving 

a user community consisting of vessels that navigate in 

these environments. This workforce contributes to the 

geospatial base on the nautical side for military, commercial and special operations.

Maritime analysts acquire, analyze, compile and disseminate maritime safety information to populate and 

update nautical databases that support the Digital Nautical Chart (a database of worldwide navigation charts), 

hardcopy charts, digital publications and Electronic Chart 

Display and Information Systems used to navigate vessels. They generate mission-specific data, issue worldwide 

navigational warnings and respond to queries from foreign 

hydrographic offices and the users of NGA’s products and 

services.

Typically, maritime analysts have graduated from one 

of the six state maritime academies (Massachusetts, 

Maine, New York, Texas, California and the Great Lakes), or 

from one of the federal service academies (U.S. Merchant 

Marine, Naval and Coast Guard), with a degree in marine 

sciences, marine transportation, environmental science, 

oceanography or navigation. Earning the U.S. Coast Guard 

22Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

third mate’s license is a requirement too, which qualifies them to navigate and serve as a deck officer in the 

Merchant Marine. Alternatively, Navy and Coast Guard 

quartermasters with three years of experience qualify to 

be analysts. Maritime analysts’ skills and practical navigation experience allow them to view NGA maritime products 

from a true user’s perspective.

Bathymetry is the science of determining ocean depths 

and the configuration of the Earth underneath bodies of 

water. Bathymetrists have an intimate understanding of 

environmental sciences, particularly oceanography and 

the study of tides and currents; remote sensing, such as 

sonar (sound detection and ranging), lidar (light detection 

and ranging) and other techniques; geodesy, the science 

of measuring the Earth; geomatics, the science of acquiring and managing geographic information; and hydrographic surveys. They assess the accuracy and currency of 

sounding (depth) data; validate, populate and maintain a 

worldwide bathymetric internal agency database; and are 

experts on sea-floor information.

Bathymetrists may have college degrees in areas such 

as geodesy, geography, geology, hydrography, hydrology, 

marine sciences, oceanography, physical science and 

remote sensing. They might also have career experience 

in hydrography, bathymetry and geographic information 

systems tools.

The agency’s maritime experts work cooperatively with 

their counterparts in the National Ocean Service, the Naval 

Oceanographic Office and the U.S. Coast Guard, as well 

as with contractor partners and nearly all foreign hydrographic offices worldwide. Their work fulfills NGA’s marine 

navigation obligations under federal and international 

laws and regulations in support of national security goals, 

concerns and strategies.

When Commodore Matthew C. Perry negotiated an 

1854 treaty that established the United States’ presence 

in Asia, Sailing Directions were constructed for the new 

ports that led the way for future trade. Now 37 volumes 

of this publication provide expanded foreign coastal 

and port information that cannot be portrayed 

on a chart. Knowing about pilot channel 

frequencies, currents, local weather, 
23Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

port regulations and descriptive views of the area is vital 

when entering a port. Planning Guides, based on ocean 

basins, came into existence in 1971 to assist the mariner 

in planning a transoceanic voyage. Five volumes provide 

worldwide coverage of information about countries, governments, buoyage systems, military exercise areas and 

mined areas to be avoided, among other topics. 

The most noted publication for safety of navigation 

is the U.S. Notice to Mariners, which has maintained a 

continuous weekly production cycle since 1869. First 

published under the authority of the Bureau of Navigation, 

it is the oldest continuous running U.S. government publication. Until it transitioned to being only online in January 

2005, it retained a government publication’s printing priority second only to the Congressional Record. This weekly 

publication, jointly produced by NGA, the National Ocean 

Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the U.S. Coast Guard, is used by U.S. military 

forces and civilian mariners worldwide to obtain vital 

corrections to U.S. charts and navigation publications. 

Notifying the military and civilian maritime community 

about corrective information regarding hydrographic discoveries, changes in channels, navigational aids and other 

important data, the U.S. Notice to Mariners is the only 

publication officially authorized and recognized to update 

and maintain the U.S. portfolio of nautical products. 

From a rich heritage now in its third century, the maritime tradecrafts at NGA have changed from their origins at 

the Depot of Charts and Instruments. Forefathers Goldsborough, Wilkes, Gilliss and Maury would be astounded to 

see those who have followed in their footsteps analyzing 

worldwide hydrographic and bathymetric data, staffing 

24/7 operations, responding to environmental crises such 

as hurricanes or the 2004 Asian Tsunami, and working 

with the Intelligence Community to carry out national security objectives. And they would certainly be pleased that 

their true legacy—dedication to the safety of navigation, 

from clipper ships to nuclear submarines—is alive and 

well at NGA.

NGA maritime products and services may be found at 

www.nga.mil/maritime.

Howard C. recently served as NGA’s 

Professional Advisory Board manager for the 

marine analysis occupation.

23Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009

Photo illustration by Anika McMillon
21st Century

Innovation Promises to Moderate Vertical 

Obstruction Risk

By Rick M.

24Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

You command a helicopter unit tasked to fly 

soldiers into a battle zone. Your mission is risky, but 

essential. You determine the best route, following the 

terrain and flying low to avoid detection. But this will 

take you near several villages and towns—built-up areas 

with communication towers, high-tension power lines 

and other potential obstructions of varying heights. Your 

aircrews and their precious cargo of warfighters have put 

their lives in your hands as you develop the final flight 

plan. How high do you fly? High enough to avoid every 

vertical obstruction and you risk detection and hostile 

fire. Low enough to avoid surface-to-air missiles and you 

risk hitting obstacles before reaching the landing zone. 

Deciding is your responsibility as commander. You know 

that every flight and mission entails risk, but you need 

information to weigh that risk wisely.

NGA bears responsibility for safety of navigation for 

the Department of Defense and U.S. military forces. To 

help fulfill this charge, the agency actively collects data 

on vertical obstructions through imagery analysis and by 

acquiring existing databases of obstructions from commercial and foreign partners. Within the last decade, the 

agency has increased its data on known vertical obstructions twenty-fold. But, despite that impressive record, 

collecting every possible vertical obstruction hazard 

everywhere on the globe through current means would 

require resources beyond comprehension.

The agency is leading a major initiative to address 

this very complex problem. Technological advances in 

the use of lidar (light detection and ranging) within the 

last few years make rapid collection of features over 
25Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009

Rick M. is the aeronautical issues manager in the 

Office of Global Navigation.

large areas a possibility. Using this laser radar system, 

NGA will be able to accurately and quickly collect feature 

locations and vertical heights. Although the system’s 

ability to identify additional attributes remains limited, 

lidar-collected data will increasingly alert aircrews to 

obstructions, identifying where they are and how high 

they stand.

However, how can a chart possibly display such a huge amount of data without 

obscuring other critical information? Could 

a commander correctly assess the risk of flying 

one route over another with tens of thousands of 

points of varying heights plotted on a potential route? 

In addition to a great increase in feature collection, 

NGA is also working to improve how features are 

displayed digitally and on charts to aid commanders 

making risk assessments.

The agency will explore new ideas, such as a colorcoded, digital, vertical obstruction elevation model, 

which could be draped over a proposed flight route to 

illustrate risk. For example, choosing a 50-foot altitude 

for a flight segment might show red, signifying a high 

risk of hitting an obstruction. Raise the flight altitude to 

90 feet and the risk may become moderate or yellow. 

Raise it again to 150 feet and the display becomes green, 

indicating no obstruction risk. Flying a training mission 

in Alabama, the 150-foot altitude might suffice, whereas 

a mission in hostile territory might dictate a lower, more 

dangerous altitude. In either case, the commander and 

crew would know the risk. This elevation model is just 

one possibility among many ideas that the agency 

will pursue.

In addition to improving collection and how obstructions are displayed, NGA will examine ways to increase 

data storage and Web dissemination. Whichever ideas 

prove best, two things are certain: five years from now, 

aircrews will enjoy a tremendous increase in their knowledge of the obstructions that endanger airmen’s lives, 

and NGA will offer solutions for a commander’s need to 

understand the risks and a crew’s need to avoid them. 

Photo illustration by Kipling W.
26Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Our Heritage

Oceanographer Mary Sears Advanced Marine Science

By Howard C.

On Oct. 19, 2000, scuttling a longtime U.S. Navy 

tradition, then-Secretary of the Navy Richard Danzig 

named the Navy’s newest oceanographic survey vessel 

for Mary Sears, honoring one of this country’s earliest 

women pioneers in oceanography. It was the first Navy 

oceanographic ship named for a woman. Like all ships 

in its class, the Mary Sears is a multimission vessel capable of surveying in coastal waters or the deep ocean.

The USNS Mary Sears employs products, services and 

data from NGA’s Office of Global Navigation, Maritime 

Services, to accomplish its various oceanographic 

survey missions. Crewed by civilian mariners, it is one 

of seven oceanographic survey ships in the U.S. Navy’s 

inventory and is operated by the Military Sealift Command for the Oceanographer of the Navy, Rear Adm. 

David W. Titley.

In a partnership with the U.S. Naval Oceanographic 

Office, these survey vessels also play an integral role 

hosting NGA maritime analysts as part of the jointagency Shiprider Program. About these opportunities, 

the program manager said, “It’s a great opportunity to 

see our products used first hand and participate in data 

collection that we use to populate and maintain our 

hydrographic databases.”

But who was Mary Sears? Born July 18, 1905, Mary 

Sears was raised in Wayland, Mass. She graduated from 

Radcliffe College with a bachelor’s degree in 1927, a 

master’s degree in 1929 and a doctorate in zoology in 

1933. While still at Radcliffe, Sears worked with the first 

and founding director of the Woods Hole Oceanographic 

Institution, Dr. Henry Bigelow, at Harvard University. 

She began at Woods Hole as a planktonologist in 1932, 

working summers at first, becoming one of 10 research 

assistants first appointed to the staff.

During World War II, Sears left Woods Hole to answer 

her country’s call to duty. As a Navy lieutenant in the 

Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service 

(WAVES), she and Navy Reserve Lt. Roger Revelle, for 

whom the Scripps Institution of Oceanography research 

vessel RV Roger Revelle is named, were appointed to 

head the Navy Hydrographic Office’s new Oceanographic 

Unit, which she directed very often in Revelle’s absence. 

The unit, created in 1943 after the oceanographic unit of 

the Army Air Forces was transferred to the Navy Hydrographic Office, marked the beginning of military efforts 

to consolidate oceanographic programs.

Sears’ contributions to the U.S. Navy and the research 

community are legendary, as exemplified by her postanalysis of the Battle of Tarawa in the South Pacific, 

where the familiar adage “time and tide wait for no 

man,” had proved literally true.

The Second Marine Division’s invasion of Betio—the 

Tarawa atoll’s only island of consequence because it had 

an airfield—was set for Nov. 20, 1943, when the tide was 

expected to be favorable. The bombardment would begin in the early morning at low tide. As the tide rose and 

water levels in the lagoon reached 5 feet, landing craft 

would head ashore. By noon, at high tide, heavier craft 

could come ashore bringing tanks and supplies.

It seemed like a sound military plan; however, the 

British advised against the invasion timing because of 

an unusually low and narrow tidal range time that would 

prevent the invasion craft from moving close to the 

beach. U.S. Navy planners believed differently, and their 

calculations proved grossly in error.

The landing craft needed 4 feet of water to cross the 

reef. At landing time, the reef was covered by only 3 feet 

26Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

Portrait of Mary Sears.

Courtesy of Woods Hole 

Oceanographic Institution
27Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

of water. As a result, no landing craft was able to float 

over the reef, and the Second Marine Division troops had 

to wade for 400 to 500 yards under heavy fire, in water 

waist-deep, which meant death by drowning from a 

wound or a stumble into an underwater shell hole.

Three days and 3,407 casualties later, the division 

secured the three-mile-long, 800-yard-wide Betio Island. 

Sears went to Tarawa soon after. Her in-depth tidal analysis showed that forecasts predicting that a high tide 

would carry landing craft over the reef had been in error. 

With a delay in the planned invasion time, this error had 

led to terrible losses for the Marines.

Sears soon after applied her observational tidal data 

to build a much-improved method for tidal forecasting—amazingly, without the benefit of modern-day computers. Her model helped future beach assaults in the 

Pacific succeed, saving the lives of many U.S. soldiers, 

sailors and Marines.

Sears’ research while in the WAVES also proved critical 

to the survivability of U.S. submarines during the war. 

Her intelligence reports, “Submarine Supplements to the 

Sailing Directions,” predicted the presence of thermoclines—areas of rapid water temperature change—under 

which a submarine could hide to escape enemy detection by surface sonar.

Following the war, the Navy Hydrographic Office 

formally established a Division of Oceanography. On Jan. 

29, 1946, Sears was appointed the first officer-in-charge 

of the division with Dr. Richard H. Fleming as the civilian 

director.

In 1947, Sears transferred to the Navy Reserve and 

returned to Woods Hole. Sears secured her reputation in 

marine science as an editor of journals and books that 

reported the results of oceanographic research. A founding editor of Deep-Sea Research, she also helped establish Progress in Oceanography, another journal. She 

also edited several well-regarded books on the history 

of marine science. In 1963, Sears retired from the U.S. 

Naval Reserve as a commander. Woods Hole designated 

her a senior scientist in its biology department, from 

which she retired in 1970.

To honor Sears, Deep-Sea Research dedicated an 

issue to her for her 80th birthday. Affirming her contributions, the journal stated that she “has probably played a 

greater role in the advancement of oceanographic studies than any other woman.” The Women’s Committee of 

Woods Hole recognized her during its inaugural “Woman 

Pioneers in Oceanography” seminar in 1994.

After a brief illness, Mary Sears passed away Sept. 2, 

1997, at age 92 in her home at Woods Hole.

NGA continues legendary oceanographer Mary Sears’ 

pioneering endeavors. The agency’s bathymetrists 

evaluate and extract hydrographic and bathymetric data 

to support safety in maritime navigation and create 

geospatial displays and textual reports of intelligence 

information to meet customer requirements. NGA Bathymetric Contour Charts play a vital role in underwater 

navigation and enable Navy submarines to support the 

nation’s interests around the world. These and other 

maritime safety efforts build on the foundation Mary 

Sears helped establish. 

27Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009

Howard C. is chief of the Bathymetry Branch within 

Maritime Services.

USNS Mary Sears

U. S. Navy photo
28Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 

New Campus East

NGA Takes Charge of First Two Buildings

By Jay K. 

On July 10, 2009, the men and women of NGA 

converged at the agency’s New Campus East (NCE), 

under construction in Springfield, Va., to take the reins 

of two key facilities during a ribbon-cutting ceremony. 

The two buildings, the Technology Center and the Central 

Utilities Plant, are foundations in the development of 

NCE, which will open its doors to the NGA workforce 

beginning in 2010. Among the ceremony’s participants 

were the newest member of the NGA workforce, who 

joined NGA on June 22, and an employee who was 

recently honored for 40 years of service to NGA and its 

predecessor agencies.

Under the direction of the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, the structures were built to meet NGA’s 

power and computing needs as it prepares to 

consolidate multiple offices in the Washington, D.C. 

area into NCE. With NGA in command of these 

buildings, the agency can begin developing 

NCE’s internal infrastructure.

The Technology Center will support an integrated NGA 

information technology architecture that will enable 

analysts to develop geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) 

products for NGA partners more efficiently. The Central 

Utilities Plant—a 105,000 square foot building with seven chillers and eight cooling towers—will provide power 

and cooling for NCE’s 2.4 million square foot campus. At 

peak capacity the plant will be able to produce 31,500 

gallons of chilled water per minute—enough to fill three 

Olympic-size swimming pools every hour.

During the ribbon-cutting ceremony, NGA Director Vice 

Adm. Robert B. Murrett noted the historic significance 

of the handover. “The ongoing challenges to the nation 

have ushered in a new era for the agency and accelerated the integration and relevance of our diverse but 

unified agency,” said Murrett. “Today, as we accept 

the first two buildings, we continue that forward 

momentum and pass an important milestone of 

mission deployment,” he added.

CIA Associate Deputy Director Scott White, the 

keynote speaker at the ceremony, joined Murrett 

in praising the completion of the two buildings. “This is more than the new headquarters; it’s the promised land,” said White, 

adding, “It’s great to see it become a 

reality. When the campus opens in 

two years, it will be the crowning achievement” in bringing 

GEOINT to the warfighter and 

NGA mission partners. 

Jay K. is a public affairs officer 

in the Office of Corporate 

Communications.

During a ribbon-cutting ceremony, NGA took the 

reins of the New Campus East Technology Center 

(pictured) and Central Utilities Plant.

Photo by Larry F.

28Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009 
29Pathfinder ›› September/October 2009

Twenty-first century piracy in the Horn of 

Africa and the Gulf of Aden is both a symptom 

and a disease. It is a symptom of economic 

deprivation, lost fishing rights, political 

instability, governmental collapse, lack of 

international action, and failure to meet the 

basic needs of desperate people. 

As a disease, it has developed into high seas 

crime, destructive to normal commerce and 

human life. 

NGA provides eyes and analytic insight to 

those who fight piracy at sea and those who 

craft diplomatic and political solutions.

“. . . the problem of piracy is and continues 

to be a problem that begins ashore and is 

an international problem that requires an 

international solution.”

Vice Admiral William E. Gortney

Commander, U.S. Fifth Fleet

NGA Museum, St. Louis, piracy exhibit.

U.S. Navy Photo

U.S. Navy Photo

Photo by Dick Fonner

Crew members from the merchant vessel Al Marjan meet with 

a boarding team from the U.S. Navy dock landing ship USS 

Whidbey Island. Al Marjan was released from pirates

off the Somali coast December 2, 2008.

PIRATES!

U.S. Navy Photo by Ensign Elizabeth Tree


www.nga.mil