FOURTH D I VI SI ON

DI LLA R D, C. J.

, RA Y, P. J.

, and SELF, J.

N O T IC E : M otions for r e c ons i de r a tion m us t be ph y sic a l ly r e ce iv ed i n our c le r k ’s offic e w ithin te n da y s of the da te of de c is ion to be de e m ed tim e ly file d.

http://w w w .ga a ppe a l s .us /r ule s

Nov em ber 3, 2017



# I n th e Co u r t o f

A p p eals o f

G eo r g ia

A1 7 A1 84 7 . ABERCROM BIE v . THE STATE.

D I LLA R D , Ch i ef J u d g e.

Dav i d Ab ercro m

b ie ap peal s fro m t h e t ri al co urt ’ s d e n i al o f h is m o t i o n to

s u p p res s ev i d en ce, co n t en d i n g t h at t h e t ri al co u rt s h o u l d h av e g ran t ed th e m o t i o n

b ecau s e (1 ) th e o ffi cer wh o s t o p p ed h i m lack ed reas o n ab l e, art i cu lab l e s us p i ci o n to

d o so an d (2 ) t he o f

f i cer d i d n o t m ak e a reas o n ab l e m i st ak e o f l aw. Fo r t h e reas on s

s et fo rt h i n

f r a , we rev ers e.

Vi ewed i n t h e l ig h t m o s t fav orab l e t o th e t ri al co u rt ’ s ru l i n g , 1 t h e e v i d e n ce

s h o ws t h at o n May 2 2

, 20 1 5

, a l aw-en fo rcem en t o ffi cer pas s ed Ab ercro m b i e’ s s i n g l ecab pi ck u p t ru ck wh i l e d ri v i n g i n t h e o pp o s i t e d i rect i o n an d n o ti ced t h at t h e v eh i cl e

1 S ee, e.g

. , Ch r is t i an v. S t a t e , 3 2 9 Ga. A pp

. 2 44

, 2 4 5 (1 ) (7 6 4 SE2 d 5 7 3 ) (2 0 1 4).l ack ed an i nt eri o r rearv i ew m i rro r. Th e o ffi cer th en i ni t i at ed a traffi c s t o p an d

, u p o n

m ak i n g co n t act wi t h A b ercro m b i e at t h e v eh i cl e, d et ect ed a s t r o n g o d o r o f an

al co h o l i c b ev erag e. Du ri n g t h e i n v e s t i g at i on th at en s u ed (wh i ch i n cl u d ed t h e

ad m i n is t rat i o n o f fi el d -s o bri et y t es t s ), 2 o n e o f t wo o ffi cers s aw i n p l ai n v i ew i n s i d e

Ab ercro m

b i e’ s t ru ck a p i p e us ed t o s m o k e m ari j u a n a a n d, up o n a b ri ef s earch

,

s u s p ect ed m ari

ju an a. Th ereaft er, Ab ercro m b i e was arres t e d f

o r p os s es s i o n o f

m ari ju an a an d d ru g -rel at ed o bject s

. Th en , d u ri n g a m o re t h o ro u gh co n t rab an d s earch

o f A b ercro m

b i e’ s v eh i cl e, t h e o ffi cers d i s co v ered a m et h am p h et a m i n e p i p e. Th e

o ffi cers al s o fo u n d m e t

ha m phe t am i ne o ut s i d e o f, b u t cl o s e t o , Ab ercro m b i e’ s v eh i cl e.

Ab ercro m

b i e was s u b s eq u en t l y in d i ct ed fo r p o s s es s i o n o f m et h am p h et am i n e

an d d ru g -rel at ed o b

ject s. He m o v ed t o s u p p res s t h e d ru g ev i den ce, arg u i n g t h at t h e

s t op o f h i s v eh i cl e was u n co n s ti t u t i o n al

. Th e St at e arg u ed at t h e s u p p res s i o n h eari n g

t h at t h e s to p was p erm i s s i b l e becau se d ri v i n g a v eh i cl e t hat lack s an i nt eri o r rearv i ew

m i rro r co n s t i tu t es an eq u i p m en t v i o lat i on u n d er OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 an d OCGA § 4 0 -8

-

7 2

. An d i nd eed

, t h e o ffi cer wh o s t o p p ed Ab ercro m b i e’ s v eh icl e t es t i fi ed t h at t h i s was

wh y h e i n i t i at ed t h e s t o p

.

2 Th e o ffi cer tes t ifi ed t h at h e w as u nab l e t o p ro v e t h at Ab ercro m b i e was d ri v i n g

u n d er t h e i nfl u en ce t o t h e ex t en t t h at h e was l es s -s afe t o d o s o

.

2In p art i cu l ar, t he o ffi cer t es t ifi ed t hat h is u nd ers t an d i n g o f t h e l aw was t h at

“ an y t hi n g t h e v eh i cl e co m es eq u i p p ed wi t h h as to b e i n g o od wo rk i n g co nd i t i o n if i t

cam e fro m t h e m an u fact u rer.” An d al t ho u g h h e d i d n o t tes t i fy t o t h e m ak e, m o d el

, o r

y ear of Ab ercro m

b i e’ s s in g l e-cab t ru ck

, t h e o ffi cer o p in ed t h at “ m o s t

, ev en t h e o l d er

c a r s , al way s co m e w i th a rearv i ew m i rro r.” Th e o ffi cer al s o t es t i fi ed t h at “ [y ] o u r

rearv i ew m i rro r is t h e o n l y on e t h at refl ect s d i st in ct l y fo r t h e act u al rear o f y o u r

v eh icl e,” an d t hat s i d e m i rro rs are on l y ap p ro pri at e fo r b o x t ru ck s an d veh i cl es wi th

ca g es ( i.e.

, v eh i cl es wi th an o bs t ru ct ed v i ew). Th en h e i m m ed i at el y rei terat ed h i s

u n d ers t an d i n g t h at “ if i t ’ s a v eh i cl e t h at co m es eq ui p p ed wi t h a rearv i ew m i rro r, i t

n eed s to b e i n g o o d wo rk i n g co nd i t i o n .” Th e o ffi cer al s o ex p l ai ned t hat rel y i n g u p o n

s i de m i rro rs fo r a rear v i ew m ak es i t a “ b i t m ore d i ffi cu l t t o n o t i ce w h at ’ s b eh i n d

y o u ,” an d t h erefo re, “ y o u al way s n eed t o h av e a rearv i ew m i rro r . . . s o y o u can s ee

d i rect l y b eh i n d y o u r v eh i cl e.”

Th e o ffi cer t es t i fi ed fu r t h e r t h at h e freq u en t l y en fo rces eq u i p m en t v io l at i on s

u n d er OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 b ecau se “ an y t h i n g y o u r v eh i cl e co m es eq u i p p ed wi t h

. . . we

ju s t wan t t o b ri n g i t t o th ei r at t en t i on

. . . . ” H e th en l at er cl ari fi ed

, wh en co n fro n t ed

w i t h t h e t e x t o f t h e s t at u te, t h at h i s u n d ers t an d in g o f OCGA § 4 0-8 -7 was t h at i t

req u i red “ i f y o ur v eh i cl e i s eq u i p p ed [s ic] th en ev ery t h i n g has t o b e i n g o od wo rk i n g

3co n di t i o n ,” s u ch th at “ [i ] f t h e v e h i c l e i s e q ui p p ed wi th a rearv i ew m i rro r, t h en i t

n eed s t o b e eq u ip ped wi t h i t i n g o o d wo rk i n g co n d i t io n .” Th u s, t h e offi cer t es t i fi ed

t h at b ecau s e h e b el i ev ed t h at Ab ercro m b ie’ s v eh i cl e h ad o ri g i n al l y b een eq u i p p e d

wi t h an i n t eri o r rearv i ew m i rro r b u t d id n ot h av e o n e at t he t i m e t he o ffi cer o b s erv ed

t h e v eh i cl e o n t h e ro ad , Ab ercro m b i e was co m

m i t ti n g an eq ui p m en t v i o l at i o n

.

Up o n fu rt h er q ues ti o n i n g reg ard i n g O CGA § 4 0-8 -7 2

, t h e o ffi cer ad m i t t ed t h at

Ab ercro m

b i e’ s t ru ck h ad t w o s i d e m i rro rs , an d h e t es t i fi ed t h at h e u n d ers t o o d t h e l aw

t o req u i re t h at a veh i cl e h av e a m i rro r t h at refl ect s 2 0 0 feet t o t h e rear an d t h at i t d id

n o t sp eci fy a t y

p e o f m i rro r. Bu t h e t hen o p i ned t hat “ i f y o u l oo k up t h e d efi n i t i o n o f

s i de m i rro rs , i t ’ s fo r y o u r b li n d s p o t s , t h i n g s o f th at n at u re” an d t h at th e “ rearv i ew

m i rro r i s s p eci fi cal l y t o d i rect t h e refl ect i on o f rear [s i c] o f y o u r v eh i cl e.” An d

, o nce

ag ai n , t h e o ffi cer t es t i fi ed th at “ t h ey ’ re al l eq u i p p ed wi t h i t ” an d t h at t h e o n ly v eh i cl es

h e h ad ob s erv ed wi t h o ut an i nt eri o r rearv i ew m i rro r were b o x t ru ck s o r “ s o m et h i n g

t h at wo ul d n’ t ev en m ak e s en s e i f y o u h ad a rearv i ew m i rro r becau s e y o u are n o t g o i n g

t o s ee to t h e rearv i ew an y way [.] ” H e co n cl u d ed

, “ t h at ’ s wh ere I t h i n k t h at C o d e

Sect i o n p u t s i n t h ere t h at y o u r two s i d e m i rro rs wo u l d su ffi ce i f y o u r v eh i cl e i s l i k e

a co m m erci al v eh i cl e, I t h i n k .”

4Aft er h eari n g t h e offi cer’ s t es t im o n y , as wel l as arg u m en t fro m Ab ercro m b i e

an d t he St at e, t he tri al co u rt ag reed wi t h t h e St at e’ s arg u m en t reg ard i n g an eq u i p m en t

v i o l at i o n b u t ad d it i o n al ly fo u n d t h at even i f t h e l ack of an i n t eri o r rearv i ew m i rro r

wa s n o t a n eq ui p m en t v i o l at i o n u nd er t h e law, t h e o ffi cer h ad act ed i n g o o d fai th

wh en h e i n it i at ed th e s to p. Acco rd i n g l y , t h e t ri al co u rt d en i ed t h e m o t i o n t o s u p p res s

b u t al s o i s su ed a ce rt i fi cat e of i m m ed i at e rev i ew. W e t h en g ran t ed Ab ercro m b i e’ s

ap p li cat io n fo r an i n t erl o cu to ry ap peal

.

W h en we co ns i d er a t ri al co u rt ’ s d en i al o f a m o t i o n t o s u p p res s, we co n s t ru e

t h e ev i d en ce i n fav o r o f t h e co u rt ’ s ru l in g , “ an d we rev iew d e n o v o t h e t ri al co urt ’ s

ap p li cat io n o f t h e l aw t o u n di s p u t ed fact s .” 3 Ad d it i on al l y , t h e St at e h as t h e b u rd en o f

p ro v i n g t h e lawfu l nes s of a search an d sei zu re at t h e m ot i o n-t o -s u p p res s h eari n g

. 4

3 Ch r i st i a n , 3 2 9 G a. Ap p

. at 2 45 (1 ) (p u nct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); s ee a l so Ju p i t er v. S t a t e , 3 0 8 Ga. Ap p

. 3 8 6, 3 8 7 (1 ) (7 0 7 SE2 d 5 9 2 ) (2 0 1 1) (“ [W ] e rev i ew a t ri al co urt ’ s

ru l i n g o n a m o t i o n t o su p pres s ev i d en ce u s i n g t h e ‘ an y e v i d en ce’ s t an d ard

, wh i ch

m ean s th at we s u s tai n al l o f t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s fi n d i n g s o f fact t h at are s u p p ort ed b y an y

ev i d en ce

. T h u s , we co n s t ru e al l ev i d en ce p res en t ed i n fav or o f t he t ri al co urt ’ s fi nd i ng s an d ju dg m en t

, accep t i n g t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s d eci s i o n u n l es s i t i s cl earl y

erro neo u s .” (p u n ct u at i o n & fo o t n ot es o m i t t ed )).

4 S ee, e.g

. , Ju

pi t er , 30 8 Ga. Ap p

. at 3 8 7 (1 ); S ta te v. F is her

, 2 9 3 Ga. Ap p

. 2 2 8,

2 2 9 (6 66 SE2 d 5 9 4 ) (2 0 0 8 ).

5W i th t h es e g u i d i n g pri nci p l es i n m i n d

, we tu rn n o w t o Ab ercro m b i e’ s en u m erat i on s

o f erro r.

1

. Ab ercro m

b i e arg u es t h at t h e o ffi cer wh o s t o pp ed hi m l ack ed reas o n ab l e,

art i cu l ab l e s u s p i ci o n t o i n it i at e a s t o p o f hi s v eh i cl e. Sp eci fi cal l y , h e co n t en d s t h at h i s

t ru ck ’ s l ack o f an i n t eri o r rearv i ew m i rro r d i d no t co ns t i t u te a v io l at i o n o f OCGA §

4 0 -8 -7 an d OCGA § 4 0

- 8

- 7 2 an d

, as a res u l t, co u ld n o t h av e g i v en th e o ffi cer t h e

req u i s i t e reas o nab l e, art i cu lab l e s us p i ci o n t o ju s ti fy a s t o p . W e ag ree.

In o rd er t o i n i t i at e a t raffi c s t o p , a l aw-en fo rcem en t o ffi cer m u st h av e “ s p eci fi c

an d art i cu l ab l e fact s t h at p ro v i d e a reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci o n t h at t h e i n d i vi d u al b ei n g

s t op p ed i s en g ag ed in cri m i na l act i v i t y

. ” 5 Here, as p rev i o u s l y d et ai l ed

, t h e o ffi cer wh o

s t op p ed Ab ercro m

b i e tes t ifi ed t h at h e i n i t i at ed th e s t o p d u e t o a s u s p ect ed vi o l at i o n

o f OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 an d OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 2 wh en h e n ot i ced t h at Ab ercro m b i e’ s s i n g l ecab p i ck u p t ru ck l ack ed an inte ri o r rearv iew m i rro r. Th u s , we m u st d et erm i n e wh et h er

t h e ab s en ce o f an in teri or rearv i ew m i rro r co n s ti t ut es a v i o l at i on of t h e rel ev an t Co d e

s ect i on s

.

5 Lo vel es s v

. S ta t e , 3 3 7 Ga. Ap p

. 8 9 4

, 8 9 6 (1 ) (7 8 9 SE2 d 2 4 4 ) (2 0 1 6 ) (p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); a cco r d Va l en t i n e v. S t a t e , 3 2 3 Ga. Ap p

. 7 6 1

, 7 6 3 (7 4 8 SE2 d

1 2 2 ) (2 0 1 3 ).

6In t h i s reg ard

, t h e fu n dam en t al ru l es o f s t at u t ory co ns t ru ct i o n req u i r e u s to

“ co n s t ru e t h e s t at u te acco rd i n g t o i t s t erm s , t o g iv e wo rd s t h ei r pl ai n an d o rd i n ary

m ean i n g , an d to av o i d a co n s tru ct i o n t hat m ak es s o m e l an g u ag e m ere s u rp l u s ag e.” 6

Pu t an o t h er way , wh en we co n s i d er t h e m ean i n g o f a st at u t e, we m u s t (1 ) “ p res u m e

t h at t h e Gen eral As sem

b ly m ean t wh at i t sai d an d s ai d wh at i t m ean t ,” 7 an d (2 ) “ read

t h e s t at u t ory t ex t i n i ts m o s t n at u ral an d reas o n ab l e way , as an ord i n ary s peak er o f t h e

En g li s h l an g u ag e wo u l d .” 8 As o u r Su p rem e Co u rt h as recen t l y ex p l ai n ed

,

[i ] n ou r s earch fo r t h e m ean i n g o f a p art i cu l ar s t a t u t o ry p ro v i s i o n, we

l o o k n o t on l y t o t he wo rd s o f t hat p ro v i s io n , b u t we co n si der i t s l eg al

6 S t a t e v. Mu s s ma n , 2 8 9 G a. 5 8 6

, 5 8 8 (1 ) (7 1 3 SE2 d 8 2 2 ) (2 0 1 1 ) (p u n ct u at i o n

o m it t e d ) ; s e e a l

s o Ma r t i n ez v. S t a t e , 3 2 5 Ga. Ap p

. 2 6 7

, 2 7 3 (2 ) (7 5 0 SE2 d 5 0 4 ) (2 0 1 3) (“ [A] s wi t h an y q u es t io n o f s t at ut o ry in t erp ret at i o n , we n eces s ari ly b eg i n o u r

an al y s i s wi t h fam i l iar an d b i n di n g can o n s o f co n s t ru ct i o n. In d eed

, i n co n s i d eri n g t h e

m ean i n g o f a s t at u t e, o u r ch arg e as an ap p el l at e co u rt i s t o ‘ p res u m e t hat t h e Gen eral

As s em b l y m ean t wh at i t s ai d an d s ai d wh at it m ean t .’ An d t o ward t h at en d

, we m u s t
affo rd th e s t at u t o ry t ex t i t s p l ai n an d o rd i n ary m ean i ng , co ns i d er t he t ex t co n t ex t u al l y ,

a n d read t h e tex t ‘ i n i t s m o s t n at u ral an d reas o n ab l e way , as an o rd in ary s p eak er o f

t h e En g l is h l an g u ag e w o ul d.’ In s u m , wh ere t h e l an g u ag e of a s t at u t e i s p l ai n an d

s u s cep t i b l e o f o nl y o ne n at u ral an d reas o n ab le co n s t ru ct io n , ‘ co u rt s m u s t co n s t ru e t h e

s t at u te acco rd i ng l y .’ ” (ci t at i o n s an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed )).

7 F e d. Dep

. In s

. Co r

p

. v. Lo u d

er m i l k

, 2 95 Ga. 57 9

, 5 8 8 (2 ) (7 6 1 SE2 d 3 3 2 ) (2 0 1 4) (p u n ct u at i o n o m it ted ); s ee a l s o Dea l v. Co lema n , 29 4 G a. 1 7 0

, 1 7 2 (1 ) (a) (7 5 1 SE2 d 3 3 7 ) (2 0 1 3 ).

8 Lo u d er mi l k

, 2 9 5 Ga. at 5 8 8 (2 ) (p u nct u at i o n o m i t ted ); s ee a l s o Dea l

, 2 9 4 Ga.

at 1 7 2 (1 ) (a).

7co n t ex t as wel l

. Aft er al l

, co n t ex t i s a p ri m ary d et erm in an t of m ean i n g

.

Fo r co n t ex t

, we m ay l o ok t o t h e o t h er p ro v is io n s o f t h e s am e s t at u t e, th e

s t ru ct u re an d h i s t o ry o f t h e wh o l e s t at u t e, a n d t h e o t h er

l aw— co n s ti t ut i o n al

, s t at u t o ry , an d co m m o n l aw al i k e— t hat fo rm s th e

l eg al b ack g ro u n d o f t h e s t at u t o ry p ro v i s i o n i n q ues t i o n

. 9

Here, th e rel ev an t s t at u t es are OCGA § 4 0-8 -7 an d OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 2

. OCGA

§ 4 0-8 -7 p ro v i d es , i n p ert i n en t p art , t h at

[n ] o p ers o n s h al l dri v e o r m ov e o n an y h i g h way an y

m o t o r v eh i cl e . . .

u n l es s t h e eq ui pm en t u p o n an y an d ev ery s u ch v eh i c l e i s i n g o o d

wo rk i n g o rd er an d ad

ju s t m en t as req u ired i n t h is ch ap t er an d t h e v eh i cl e

i s i n s u ch s afe m ech an i cal co n d i t i o n as n o t t o en d an g er t h e d r i v er o r

o t h er o ccu p an t o r an y

p ers o n u p o n t h e h i g h way

. 1 0

Th at Co d e s e c t i o n a ls o sp eci fi es t h at i t i s a m i s d em ean or t o d ri v e “ o n an y s t reet o r

h i g h way an y v eh icl e

. . . [w] h i ch d o es n o t co n t ai n th o s e part s o r i s n o t at al l t i m es

eq u ip p ed wi t h s u ch l ig h t s an d o t h er eq ui p m e n t i n p ro p er co n d i t i o n an d ad ju s t m en t

9 Lo u d er mi lk , 2 9 5 Ga. at 5 8 8 (2 ) (p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); a cco rd Ma y v. S t a t e , 2 9 5 Ga. 3 8 8

, 3 9 1-9 2 (7 6 1 SE2 d 3 8 ) (2 0 1 4).

1 0 OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 (a).

8as req u ired i n t h i s ch ap ter[.] ” 1 1 As far as eq u i p m en t wi t h m irro rs is co n cern ed

, OCGA

§ 4 0-8 -7 2 p ro v i des :

(a) Ex cep t as p ro v i d ed i n s u b s ect i o n (b ) o f t h is C o d e s e c t i o n , ev ery

m o t o r v eh i cl e wh i ch is s o co n st ru ct ed o r l o ad ed as t o o b s tru ct th e

d ri v er’ s v i ew t o t h e rear t h ereo f fro m t h e d ri v er’ s p os i t i o n s h al l be

eq u i pp ed wi t h a m i rro r s o l ocat ed as to refl ect to t h e d ri v er a v i ew o f th e

h i g h way fo r a d i s t an ce o f at l eas t 2 0 0 feet t o t h e rear o f s u ch v eh i cl e.

(b ) Ev ery c o m m erci al m o t o r v eh i cl e s h al l b e eq u ip p ed wi th t wo rearv i s i o n m i rro rs m eet i n g t h e req ui r e m e n t s o f t he fed eral m o to r v eh i cl e

s a fet y s t an dard s

. . . i n effect at t h e t i m e o f m an u fact u re, o n e a t e a c h

s i de, fi rm ly at t ach ed t o t he o u t s i d e o f t h e m o t o r v eh icl e, an d so l o cat ed

as t o refl ect t o t h e d ri v er a v i ew o f t h e h i g hway t o t he rear, al o n g b o t h

s i d es o f t he v eh i cl e; p ro v i d ed

, h o w ev er, t h at o n ly on e o u t s i d e m i rro r

s h al l b e req u ired

, wh i ch s h al l b e o n t h e d ri v er’ s s id e, o n a co m m erci al

m o t o r v eh i cl e w h i ch i s so co n s t ru ct ed t h at t he d ri ver h as a v i ew t o th e

rear b y m ean s o f an i nt eri o r m i rro r.

Th e t ri al co u rt s u m

m ari l y co n cl u ded i n i t s o rd er t h at t h e offi cer’ s s t o p o f

Ab ercro m

b i e’ s v eh icl e “ was v al i d .” Bu t at t h e m ot i o n -t o -s u p p res s h eari n g , t h e co u rt

ex p lai n ed i t s b el i ef th at t he s t at u t es at i s s u e were “ v ag u e en o ug h th at t h e o ffi cer’ s

i n t erp ret at io n i s co rrect .” W e d i s ag ree.

1 1 OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 (b ) (2 ).

9Fi rs t

, as t o O CGA § 4 0 -8 -7

, al t h ou g h t he o ffi cer r e p e a t e d l y t es t i fi ed t h at h i s

u n d ers t an d i n g was t hat th is Co d e s ect i o n req u i red v eh i cl es t o b e eq u i p p ed wi th

a n y t h i n g o ri g i n al t o m an ufact u re, i t i ns t ead req u i res t h at v eh i cl e eq u ip m en t b e “ i n

g o o d wo rk in g o rd er an d ad ju s t m en t a s r eq u i r ed i n t hi s ch a p t er ” 1 2 an d t h at a v eh i cl e

“ co n t ai n t h o s e p art s o r

. . . at al l t i m es [b e] eq u i p p e d wi th s u ch l i g ht s an d o t h er

eq u ip m en t i n p ro p er co n d i t i o n an d ad ju s t m en t as r eq u i r ed

i n t hi s ch a

p t er

. ” 1 3 Th u s ,

OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 d o es n o t req u ire v eh i cl es t o co n t ai n al l ori g i n al eq u ip m en t fro m t h e

t i m e o f m an u fact u re b ut

, i n s t ead

, o n ly s uch eq u i p m en t i n s u ch p ro per co n di t i o n an d

ad ju s t m en t as ex p li ci t l y req u i red b y t he rem ai n i n g p ro v i s i o n s o f Ch ap t er 4 0

. 1 4

Nex t

, l o o ki n g to t h e p l ai n l a n g u a g e o f O CGA § 4 0 -8 -7 2 (a), i t i s cl ear t h at

t h er e i s n o s p eci fi c req u i rem en t t h at a no n -co m m erci al v eh i cl e co n t ai n an i n t er i o r

1 2 OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 (a) (em p h as i s s u p p l i ed ).

1 3 OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 (b ) (2 ) (em p h as i s s u pp l i ed ).

1 4 Cf

. OCGA § 4 0 -8 -2 5 (b ) (“ If a m ot o r v eh i cl e i s m an u fact u red wi th two b rak e l i gh t s, b o t h m

u st b e o p erat io n al .”); OC G A § 4 0 -8 -2 8 (c) (“ If a v eh i cl e i s

m an u fact u red wi t h t wo l i g h ts m eet i n g t h e req u i rem en t s o f s u b sect i o n (b ) o f t h i s Co d e

s ect i on , b o t h s u ch l i g h t s s h al l b e m ai n t ai n ed i n g o o d wo rk i n g o rd er.”). Ab ercro m b i e

arg u es in a s ep arat e en u m erat i on o f erro r t h at t h e St at e fai l e d t o m eet i t s b u rd en o f

p ro o f at t h e s u p pres s i o n h eari n g b y n eg l ect in g t o s h o w t h at h is t ru ck was o ri g i n al l y

eq u ip p ed b y t h e m an ufact u rer wi t h an i n t eri o r r e a r v iew m i rro r. Bu t gi v en o u r i n t erp ret at io n o f OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 , we n eed n o t ad dres s t h i s co n t en t i o n.

10rearv i ew m i rro r. In s t ead

, OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 2 (a), w h i ch i s s u b ject o n ly to an ex cep t i o n

i n su b s ect i o n (b ) t hat ap p l i es t o co mmer ci a l m o t o r veh i cl es , req u ires t h at veh i cl es b e

“ eq u i p p ed wi t h a m i rro r s o l o cat ed as t o refl ect t o th e dr i v er a v i ew o f t h e h i g h way

fo r a d i s t an ce o f at leas t 2 0 0 feet t o t h e rear o f s uch v eh i cl e” wh en t h e v eh icl e i s “ s o

co n st ru ct ed o r l oad ed as t o o b s t ru ct t h e d ri v er’ s v i e w t o t h e rear t h ereo f fro m t h e

d r i v er’ s po s it i o n .” T h at s ub s ect i o n (a) d o es n o t sp eci fi cal l y req ui re t h e u s e o f a n

i n t er io r m i rro r i s b o l st ered b y t h e fact t hat s u bs ect i o n (b ), ap p l i cab l e to co m m erci al

m o t o r veh i cl es , d

o es s peci fy t h e u se o f an i nt eri o r m i rro r u nd er cert ai n

ci rcu m s t an ces

. 1 5

W e h av e p rev i o u s l y up hel d t h e g r a n t o f a m o t io n t o s u pp res s wh en a t ri al co u rt

d et erm i n ed t h at “ no l aw ab s o l u t el y req u i res t h at a car b e eq u i p p ed wi t h s i d e vi ew

m i rro rs ,” 1 6 ci t i n g t h e v ery s t at u te at i s s ue h ere— OCGA § 4 0-8 -7 2 (a)— an d

1 5 OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 2 (b ) (“ Ev ery co m m erci al m o t o r v eh i cl e s h al l b e eq u i p p ed

wi t h t wo rear-v is i o n m i rro rs m eet i n g t h e req u i rem en t s of t h e fed eral m ot o r v eh i cl e

s afet y s t an d ard s

. . . i n effect at t h e t i m e o f m an u fact u re , o n e a t e ach s i d e, fi rm l y

at t ach ed t o t h e o ut s id e o f t h e m o t o r v eh i cl e, an d s o l o cat ed as t o refl ect t o t h e d ri v er

a v i ew o f t h e hi g h way to t h e rear, al o n g b o t h s i d es o f t h e v eh i cl e; p ro v id ed

, h o wev er,

t h at o n ly o n e o u t s i d e m i rro r s h al l b e req u i red

, wh i ch s h al l b e on t h e d ri v er’ s s i d e, o n

a co m m erci al m o to r veh i cl e wh i ch i s s o co n s t ru ct ed th at t h e d ri v er h as a v i ew t o t h e rear b y m ean s o f an i nt er i o r

mi r r o r .” (em

p has i s s u p p li ed )).

1 6 S t a t e v. Rei d , 3 1 3 Ga. Ap p . 6 3 3 , 6 3 4 (7 2 2 SE2 d 3 6 4 ) (2 0 1 2 ).

11em

ph as i zi n g i t s req u i rem en t t h at a v eh icl e b e eq u i p p ed wi t h “ a m i rro r.” 1 7 An d in

Un i ted S t a t es v. Ch a n t h a so u xa t

, 1 8 t h e Un i t ed St at es Co u rt o f A p p eal s fo r t h e El ev en th

Ci rcu i t co n cl u d ed t h at si m i l arl y wo rd ed p ro vi s i o n s i n t h e Bi rm i n g h am , Al ab am a,

m u ni ci p al co d e an d t h e Co d e o f Al ab am a d i d n o t req u i re t h at a v eh i cl e be eq u i p p ed

wi t h an i n teri o r rearv i ew m i rro r. 1 9 In d eed

, t h e El e v en t h Ci rcu i t reas o n ed th at “ t h e

1 7 Id

. at 6 3 4 n.3 ; s ee a ls o S

p r i n g er v. S t at e , 1 2 5 So 3 d 2 7 1

, 2 7 4 (Fl a. Ap p

. 2 0 1 3 ) (“ Becau s e s ect i on 3 1 6

. 2 9 4 [o f t h e Fl o ri d a St at u t es ] req u ires th at a v eh i cl e h av e ‘ a’

m i rro r cap ab l e o f v i ewi n g 2 0 0 feet b eh i n d t h e veh icl e, t h e ab s en ce o f a s i n g le m i rro r

o n t h e ex t eri o r o f th e car n ei t h er v i o l at es t h e s t at ut e n or ren d ers th e v eh i cl e un s afe by

an o b ject i v el y reas o n ab le st an d ard

, wi t h ou t p ro o f t h ere was n o o t her s id ev i ew o r

rearv i ew m i rro r o n t h e v eh i cl e. W e t h erefo re fi n d t he s t o p t o h av e b een i l l eg al

. Th e

m o ti o n t o s u p p res s s h o u ld h av e b een g ran t ed

. ”).

1 8 3 4 2 F3 d 1 2 7 1 (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 3 ).

1 9 Id

. at 1 2 7 8 (IV) (A) (i i i) (b ) (“ Un d er t h e p l ai n l a n g u a g e o f [t h e ci t y ]

o rd i n an ce, d ri v ers wh o can l o ok b ack ward fro m t h e d ri ver’ s p o s i ti o n t o see o u t a b ack

wi n do w wo u l d n o t b e req u i red t o h av e an y rear-v iew m i rro r. Bu t ev en i f a rear-v i ew

m i rro r i s req u i red b ecau s e t h e d ri v er can n ot ‘ o b t ai n a vi ew of t h e s t reet t o t h e rear by

l o o k i n g back ward fro m t h e d ri v er’ s p o s i ti o n , ’ t h e o r d i n a n c e s ay s no t h i n g ab o ut

req u i ri n g t hat t h e m i rro r b e o n t h e i n s i d e o f t h e veh i cl e.

. . . T h e [ s t at e] s t at u t e

req u i res a rear-v i ew m i rro r, b ut s p eci fi es on l y th at t h e m i rro r be ‘ s o l ocat ed as to
refl ect t o t h e d ri v er a v iew o f t h e h i g h way fo r a d is t an ce o f at leas t 2 0 0 feet t o t h e rear

o f s u ch m o t o r veh i cl e.’ Ag ai n , t h ere i s n o req u i rem en t t h a t t h e m i rro r b e i n s i d e t h e

v eh icl e.” (ci t at i o n o m i tt ed )); s ee a l s o Al a. Co de § 3 2 -5 -2 1 4 (“ Ev ery m o t or v eh i cl e,

o p erat ed s i n g l y o r wh en t o wi n g an y o t her v eh i cl e, s hal l b e eq u i p p ed wi t h a m i rro r s o l o cat ed as t o refl ect t o t h e d ri v er a v i ew of t h e h i g h way fo r a d is tan ce o f at leas t 2 0 0

feet t o t he rear o f s uch m o t o r v eh i cl e.”); fo rm er Bi rm i ng h am C i t y Co d e § 1 0 -1 1 -5 (req ui ri n g t h at a dri v er b e ab le t o “ o b tai n a v i ew o f t h e s t reet t o t h e rear b y l o o k i n g b ack w ard fro m th e d ri v er’ s p o s i t i o n ” or hav e “ a m i rro r s o l o cat ed as t o refl ect t o t h e

12req u i rem en t t h at t h e d ri v er be ab l e t o see 2 0 0 feet t o t h e rear of h i s veh i cl e creat es a

q u es ti o n o f fact

, b u t [b ecau s e] t h e s t at u t e d o es n o t as su m e t h at t h i s req u irem en t can

o n l y b e m et b y an i n s id e rear-v i ew m i rro r, t h ere is n o reas o n fo r [an offi cer] t o m ak e

s u ch an as s u m

p t i o n.” 2 0 Li k ewi s e, b ecau s e, b y i t s p l ai n l an gu ag e , O C GA § 4 0 -8 -7 2

(a) d o es n o t req u i re t h at a m o t o r v eh i cl e b e eq u ip p ed wi t h an i n teri o r rearv i ew m i rro r

u n d er t h es e ci rcu m s t an ces , Ab ercro m b i e’ s l ack of an i n t eri or rearv iew m i rro r d i d n ot

v i o l at e t h at s t at ut e o r OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 ’ s req u i rem en t th at v eh i cl es b e eq u i p p ed as

p ro v id ed fo r i n Ch ap t er 4 0 o f t h e Co d e. 2 1 N ev ert h el es s , we m u s t s t i l l co ns i d er t h e t ri al

co u rt ’ s al t ern at i ve gro un d fo r den y i n g t h e m o t i o n t o s u p p res s

— t h at ev en i f t h e l ack

d ri v er a v i ew o f t h e s t reet s fo r a d i s t an ce o f at l eas t 2 0 0 feet o f t h e r e a r o f t h e

v eh icl e”).

2 0 Ch a n t h as o u xa t , 3 4 2 F3 d at 1 2 7 8 (IV) (A) (i i i ) (b ) (fo o t n o t e o m i t t ed ).

2 1 S e e L e s l i e v. St a t e , 1 0 8 So 3 d 7 2 2

, 7 23 (Fl a. A p p

. 2 0 13 ) (p er cu ri am ) (“ Fl o ri d a l aw req u i res a v eh i cl e t o hav e ‘ a m i rro r s o l o cat ed as t o refl ect t o t h e d ri v er

a v i ew o f t h e hi g h w a y f

o r a d i s t an ce o f at l eas t 2 0 0 feet t o t he rear o f th e m o t o r

v eh icl e.’ Th [e] s t at u t e d o es n o t req u i re a cen t er rearv i ew m irro r i f o n e o r m o re s i d e

m i rro rs m eet i t s req u i rem en t, s o h ere, t he o ffi cer’ s b el i ef t o t h e co n t rary w as a m i s t ak e

o f l aw.” (ci t at i on o m i t t ed )). Cf

. Peo pl e v. Su p

. Ct

. o f Hu mb o l d t Cn t

y. , 26 6 Cal Ap p 2 d

6 8 5

, 6 8 7 & n

. 1 (Cal

. Ap p

. 1 9 68 ) (h o l d i n g t h at o ffi cers p ro p erl y s t o pp ed v eh i cl e t h at

was ob s erv ed wi t h “ a s p a r e t i re

. . . b l o ck i n g t h e rear wi n do w an d n o ex t eri o r

rearv i ew m i rro rs

. . . m o u n t ed o n t h e s i d es o f t h e car” b ecau s e s t at e law req u i red t h at

“ [e] v ery m o to r veh i cl e

. . . be eq u i p p ed w i t h a m irro r s o l o cat ed as to refl ect t o t h e d ri v er a v i ew o f t h e hi g h way fo r a d i s t an ce o f at l eas t 2 0 0 feet t o t h e rear o f s u ch

v eh icl e”).

13o f an i n t eri o r rearv i ew m i rro r d i d n o t v i o l at e t h e rel ev an t st at ut es , th e offi cer i n i t i at ed

t h e s t o p i n g o o d fai t h b as ed u p on a reas o n ab le b el i ef t h at t h o s e s t at u t es were v i o l at ed

.

2

. Ab ercro m

b ie co n t en d s t hat t h e t ri al co u rt erred i n d en y i n g t h e m o t i o n to

s u p p res s o n t he al tern at i v e g ro u n d t h at t h e o ffi cer m ad e th e t raffi c s t o p i n g oo d fai t h,

arg u i n g t h at t h e “ g o od -fai t h ex cep t i o n ” d o es n o t ap p l y u nd er t h es e c i r c u m s t an ces

b ecau s e t h e o ffi c e r ’s i n t erp ret at i on o f OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 an d OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 2 was

u n reas o nab l e. Al th o u g h A b ercro m b i e’ s arg u m en t ap p ears t o co n fl at e reas o n ab l e

m i s t ak es o f law t h at can g i v e ri s e t o reas o n ab le art i cu l ab le s u s p i ci o n (an d d o n ot

v i o l at e t h e Fo urt h A m en d m en t ) wi t h t h e “ g o o d -fai th ex cep t i o n ” (wh i ch can ap p l y

n o t wi t h s t an d i n g a Fo u r th Am en d m en t v io l at i o n ), we ag ree t h at t h e t ri al co urt ’ s

al t ern at i v e g ro un d fo r d en i al o f t h e m o t io n t o s u p p res s was erro n eo u s

.

(a) Rea s o n ab l e, a r t i cu l ab l e s u s p i ci o n f r o m r ea s on a b l e mi s t a kes o f l a w. In

Ch a n t h a s o u xa t

, d is cu s s ed s u pr a , t h e El ev en th Ci rcu i t he l d t h at al t h o u g h “ an o ffi cer’ s

r e a s o nab l e m i s tak e of fact m ay p ro v i de t h e ob ject i v e g ro u n d s fo r reas o n a b l e

s u s p i ci o n o r p ro bab l e cau se req u i red t o ju st i fy a traffi c s t o p,

. . . an o ffi cer’ s m i s t ak e

o f l aw m a y n o t

. ” 2 2 T h e El ev en t h Ci rcu i t ex p l ai n ed t h at i t fo u n d t h e rel ev an t s t at u t e

an d o rd i n an ce u n am

b i g u o u s bu t t h at t h e s t o p p i n g o ffi cer m ad e a reas o n ab l e m i s t ak e

2 2 3 4 2 F3 d at 1 27 6 (IV) (A) (i i i ).

14o f l aw d u e t o h i s t rai n i n g on t h e s u b ject

, a ci t y m ag i s t rat e’ s i n t erp ret at i o n o f t h e l aw

as ex p l ai n ed to t h e offi cer, an d t h e o ffi cer’ s h i s t o ry o f h av i ng wri t t en m o re t h an 1 0 0

t i ck et s fo r t h e l ack o f an i n t eri o r rearv i ew m i rro r. 2 3 Nev ert h el es s, t he El ev en t h Ci rcu i t

fo l l o w ed t h e Fi ft h an d N i n t h Ci rcu i t s i n co ncl u d in g th at “ a m i s t ak e o f l aw, no ma tt er

h o w r ea s o n a b l e o r u n d

er s t a n da b l e , can [n ev er] p ro v id e t h e o b ject iv e l y reas o n ab l e

g ro u nd s fo r reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci o n o r p ro b ab l e cau se.” 2 4

Si n ce Ch a n t h a so u xa t

, th e Su prem e Co u rt o f t he Un i ted St at es h as reach ed t h e

o p p o s i t e co n cl u s i on

. In Hei en v. No r t h Ca r ol i n a , 2 5 au t ho red by Ch ief J u st i ce J o h n

Ro b ert s, t h e Co u rt ad d r e s s e d s i t u at i o n s i n wh i ch an o ffi cer i n it i at es a t raffi c s t o p

b as ed u p o n a m i st ak e o f l aw an d d et erm i n ed t hat o b ject i vel y rea s o na b l e m is t ak es o f

l aw ca n g i v e ri s e to t h e reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci o n neces s ary t o up h ol d a s earch an d s ei zu re

u n d er t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t t o t h e Un i t ed St at es Co n s ti t u t io n

. 2 6

2 3 Id

. at 12 7 9 (IV) (A) (i i i ) (b ).

2 4 Id

. (em p h as i s s u p p l ied ).

2 5

_

_ U.S. _

_ (1 35 SCt 5 3 0 , 1 9 0 LE2 d 4 7 5 ) (2 0 1 4 ).

2 6 Id

. at

_ _ (1 3 5 SCt at 5 30 ); s ee a l s o US Co n st

. Am en d

. IV (“ Th e ri gh t o f t h e

p eo pl e t o b e s ecu re in t hei r p ers o n s , h o u s es , p ap ers , an d effect s , ag ai n s t u n reas o n ab l e

s ea r c h e s a n d s ei zu res , s h al l n o t b e v i o l at ed

, an d no W arran ts s h al l i s s u e, bu t u p o n

p ro b ab l e cau s e, s u p p o rt ed b y Oat h o r affi rm a t i o n , a n d p art i cu l arl y des cri b i n g t h e

p l ace t o b e s earch ed , an d t h e p ers o n s o r t hi n g s t o b e s ei zed .”).

15In Hei en , a l aw-en fo rcem en t o ffi cer i n i ti at ed a t raffi c s to p aft er no t i ci n g t h at

o n e o f a v eh i cl e’ s t w o b rak e l i g h t s was fau l t y , b ut t h e No rt h Caro l i n a Co u rt o f

Ap p eal s rev ers ed t h e d en i al o f a m o ti o n to s u pp res s aft er det erm i n in g t hat s t at e l aw

o n l y req u i red o n e wo rk i n g brak e l i g h t

, n ot t wo

. 2 7 Th e Su p rem e Co urt of No rt h

Caro l i n a t h en rev ers ed t hi s deci s i o n , h o l d i n g t h at ev en i f t h e l aw d i d n o t req u i re t wo

o p erab le b rak e l i g h t s , t h e s t o p was v al i d b ecau se t h e i n it i at i n g o ffi cer h ad a

reas on ab l e b el i ef t h a t o nl y o n e wo rk i n g b rak e li g h t was a v i o l at i o n o f l aw. 2 8 Aft er

ex am i n i n g t h e s tat u t e at i ss u e, t h e Su prem e Co u rt o f t h e Un i t ed St at es affi rm ed t h e

d en ial o f th e m o t i o n to s u p p res s , d et erm i n i n g t h at t h e s t o p p i n g o f f i cer m ad e a

reas on ab l e m i s t ak e o f l aw an d , t h u s , h ad reas o nab l e s u s p i ci o n t o ju s t ify t h e s t o p

. 2 9

I n reach i n g t h i s co n cl u s i o n , t h e Su p rem e Co u rt o f t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s

d i s t i n gu i sh ed cas es i n w h i ch an o ffi cer i n i t i at es a s to p b as ed u p o n a r e as o n ab l e

m i s t ak e o f l aw an d t h o s e in wh i ch t h e Fo u rt h Am e n d m en t h as b een vi o l at ed b u t

,

n ev ert h el es s , t h e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e d o es n o t ap pl y d u e t o t h e s o -cal l ed “ g o o d fai t h ”

2 7 Hei en , _

_ U.S. at

_

_ (I) (1 3 5 SCt at 5 3 4 -3 5 (I)).

2 8 Id

. at

__

(I) (1 3 5 SCt at 5 3 5 (I)).

2 9 Id

. at

__

(III) (1 3 5 SCt at 5 4 0 (III)).

16ex cep t i o n

. 3 0 Th e Co u rt ex p l ai n ed t h at i t h ad

, i n a nu m ber o f d eci s i o ns , “ l o o k ed t o t h e

reas on ab l en es s of an offi cer’ s l eg al erro r i n t h e co urs e o f co n s i d eri n g t h e ap p ro p ri at e

rem ed y fo r a co n s t i t u t i o n a l v i o l at i o n , i n st ead o f wh et h er t h ere was a v io l at i o n at

a l l

. ” 3 1 B u t i n t h o s e cas es , t h e Co u rt had al read y “ fo u n d o r as su m ed a Fo urt h

Am en d m en t v i o l at io n ” an d em p h as i zed t h at an offi cer’ s “ m i s t ak en v i ew t h at t h e

co n du ct at i ss ue d i d n ot g i v e ri s e t o s u ch a v i o l at io n— n o m a t t e r h o w

reas on ab l e— co u ld n o t ch an g e t h at u l t i m at e co n cl u s i on .” 3 2 T h u s , i n t h o s e cas es ,

co n si d erat io n o f “ reas o n ab l en es s o f an offi ce r ’s m i s t ak e was

. . . l i m i ted t o t h e

s ep arat e m at t er o f rem ed y .” 3 3

In co n t ras t

, i n H

ei en , “ t h e m i s t ak e o f l aw rel at e[d ] t o t h e an teced en t q u es t i o n

o f wh et h er i t was reas o n ab l e fo r a n o ffi cer to s u s pect t h at t h e d efen d an t’ s co n d u ct

was i l l eg al .” 3 4 An d t h ere i s n o Fo u rt h Am en d m en t v io lat i on in th e fi rs t p l ace i f t h e

3 0 S ee i d

. at

_ _ (II) (1 3 5 SCt at 5 3 8 -3 9 (II)).

3 1 Id

. at

__

(II) (1 3 5 SCt at 5 3 9 (II)).

3 2 Id

.

3 3 Id

.

3 4 Id

.

17m i s t ak e is reas o nab l e. 3 5 Th e Co u rt ex p l ai ned th at i t s ho l d i n g wo u l d n o t d i s co u rag e

o ffi cers fro m “ l earn i n g t he l aw” b ec au s e t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t “ t o l erat es o n l y

r ea s o n a b l e m is t ak es , an d t h o s e m i s tak es

— w h e t h e r o f fact or o f l aw— m u s t b e

o b j ect i vel y reas o n ab l e.” 3 6 In t h i s reg ard , t he Co u rt was cl ear: “ [w] e d o n o t ex am i n e

t h e s u b ject i v e u n d ers t an d in g o f t h e p art i cu lar o ffi cer i n v o l v ed .” 3 7

In a co n cu rren ce , J u s t i ce El en a Kag an gav e fu rt her d irect i o n fo r m ak i n g t h i s

as s es s m en t

. 3 8 To b e an o b j ect i vel y r ea s on a b l e m i s t ak e o f l aw, b ecau s e th e o ffi cer’ s

s u b ject i ve u nd ers tan d i n g i s i rrel ev an t

, i t i s n o d efen s e t h at an o ffi cer was u n aware o f

3 5 Id

.

3 6 Id

.

3 7 I d

. ; s e e a l so Un i t ed S t a t es v. Cu n ni n g h a m , 6 3 0 Fed Ap p x 8 7 3

, 8 7 6 -7 7 (II) (1 0 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 5 ) (“

Hei en p ro v i d ed g ro un d ru l e s

. An o ffi cer’ s s u b ject i v e

u n d ers t an d i n g o f t he l aw i s i rrel ev an t ; t h e m i s t ak e of law m u s t b e o bject i v el y

reas on ab l e.

. . . Mo reo v er, an offi cer’ s m is t ak e o f law m ay be reas o n ab l e if t h e l aw i s am b i g uo u s (reas on ab l e m in ds co u l d d i ffer o n t h e i nt erp ret at io n ) an d i t h as n e v er b een prev i o u s ly

co n s t ru ed b y

t h e rel ev an t co u rt s .”).

3 8 Co n t rary t o t h e m ajo ri t y ’ s rep eat ed res p o n s es t o t h e d i ss en t i n Hei en , t h ere i s n o s u ch cri ti ci s m o r referen ce t o J u s t i ce Kag an ’ s co n cu rren ce. W e, l i k e o t h er

co u rt s , fi n d t h e reas on i n g g iv en i n t h e co n cu rren ce t o b e p ers uas i v e an d t o al i g n wi th

t h e an al y s i s ap p l i ed in t h e m ajo ri t y o p i n i o n

. S ee, e.g

. , Un it ed S t a t es v. D i a z , 8 5 4 F3 d

1 9 7

, 20 4 (II) (2 n d Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ) (co n s i d eri ng g ui d an ce p ro vi d e d b y J u st i ce Kag an ’ s

co n cu rren ce); U

n it ed S t a t es v. La wr en c e , 6 7 5 Fed Ap p x 1

, 3 (II) (1 s t Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ) (s am e); Cu n n i n g h a m , 6 3 0 Fed Ap p x at 8 7 7 (II) (s am e).

18o r u n t rai n ed i n t h e law o r t h at th e o ffi cer rel i ed u p o n im pro p er t rai n i n g o r

d ep art m en t al d i rect io n

. 3 9 In s t ead

, co u rt s face a “ s trai g h t fo rward q u es t i o n o f st at u t o ry

co n st ru ct i o n ” wh en d eci d i n g wh et h er an offi cer m ad e a reas o nab l e m i s t ak e o f l aw. 4 0

An d if th e law i n q ues ti o n i s “ g en u i n el y am bi g u o u s , s u ch th at o v ert u rn i n g t h e

o ffi cer’ s ju d g m en t req u i res hard i n t erp ret i ve wo rk

, t h en t h e o ffi cer h as m ad e a

reas on ab l e m i s t ak e.” 4 1

3 9 Hei en ,

_

_ U.S. at

_

_ (1 3 5 SCt at 5 4 1 ) (Kag an , J., co n cu rri n g ); s ee a ls o Ter r y

v. Oh i o , 3 9 2 U.S. 1, 2 1 -2 2 (III) (8 8 SCt 1 8 6 8, 20 LE2 d 88 9 ) (1 96 8 ) (“ Th e sch em e o f

t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t b eco m es m ean in g fu l o n ly wh en i t i s a s s u r e d t h at at s o m e

p o i n t t h e co n d u ct o f t h o s e ch arg ed wi t h en fo rci n g t h e l aws can b e su b ject ed t o t h e

m o re d et ach ed

, n eu t ral s cru ti n y o f a ju d g e w h o m u s t ev al u at e t he reas o n ab l en es s o f

a p art i cu l ar s earch o r s ei zu re i n l i gh t o f t h e p art i cu l ar ci rcu m s t an ces

. An d i n m ak i n g

t h at as s es s m en t i t i s i m

p erat i v e t h at t h e fact s be ju d g ed ag ai n s t an o b ject iv e s t an d ard :

wo u l d t h e fact s av ai l ab l e t o t h e o f f i c e r a t t h e m o m en t o f t h e s ei zu re or t h e s earch

warran t a m an of reas o nab l e c a u t i o n i n t h e b el ief t h at t h e act i o n t ak en was

ap p ro p ri at e? An y t h in g l es s wo u l d i n v it e i n t ru si o n s u po n co n s t i t u t i o nal l y g u aran t eed

ri gh t s b as ed on no th i n g m o re s u b s t an t i al t h an in art i cu l at e h u n ch es , a res u l t t h i s Co u rt
h as co n si s t en t l y refu s ed to s an ct i o n

. An d s im p l e g o od fai t h o n t he p art o f t h e arres t i n g

o ffi cer i s n o t en o u g h. If s ub ject i v e g o o d fai th al o n e w ere t h e t es t, t h e p ro t ect i o n s o f

t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t wo u l d ev ap o rat e, an d t h e peo p le w o u ld b e s ecu re i n t h ei r

p ers o n s , h o u s es , p ap ers an d effect s , o n l y i n t h e d i s cret i o n o f t h e po l i ce.” (ci t at i o n s &

fo o t n o t es o m i t t ed )).

4 0 Hei en , _

_ U.S. at

_

_ (1 3 5 SCt at 5 4 1 ) (Kag an , J ., co n cu rri ng ).

4 1 Id

.

19Su ffi ce it t o s ay , Hei en p ro v i d es g reat er cl ari t y fo r o u r o wn p reced en t

. 4 2 In d eed

,

we h av e p rev i o u s l y ex p lai ned t hat i f an o ffi cer, act i n g i n g o od fai th

, “ b el i ev es t h at an

u n l awfu l act h as b een co m m i t t ed

, h i s act i on s are n ot ren d ered i m p ro per b y a l at er

l eg al d et erm i n at i o n t h at th e d ef e n d a n t ’s act io n s were n o t a cri m e acco rd i n g t o a

t ech n i cal l eg al d efi n i t io n o r d is t i n ct i o n d et erm i n ed t o ex i s t in t h e p en al s t at u t e.” 4 3

In s t ead

, wh en “ an o ffi cer’ s h o nes t b el i ef t h at a t raffi c v i ol at io n h as act u al l y occu rred

p ro v es t o b e i n co rrect

, t h e o ffi cer’ s m i s t ak en -b u t -h o n es t b el i ef m ay n ev ert h el es s

d em o n s t rat e t h e ex i s t en ce o f at l eas t an art i cu l ab l e s u s p i ci o n an d reas o n ab l e g ro u nd s

fo r t h e s t op .” 4 4 An d

, as we h av e ex p l ai ned

, i t i s n o t th e fu n ct io n o f l aw-en fo rcem en t

4 2 Cf

. S evi ll a -Ca r ca mo v. S t a t e , 3 35 Ga. Ap p

. 7 8 8

, 7 9 2 (2 ) n .1 2 (7 8 3 SE2 d 1 5 0 ) (2 0 1 6) (d ecl i ni n g t o ad dres s ap p el l an t ’ s s eco n d en um erat io n o f erro r, wh i ch was t h at

“ t ri al co u rt erred i n fi n d i n g

. . . t h at t h e o ffi cer h a d a g o o d-fai t h bas i s t o s t o p h er

v eh icl e n o t wi t h s t an d in g an y m i s t ak e o f l aw,” b u t ci t i n g t o Hei en v. No r th Ca r o l i n a fo r p ro p o s i ti o n t h at “ reas o n ab l e s u s p i ci on can res t o n a m i s t ak en un d ers tan d i n g o f t h e

s co p e o f a l eg al p ro h i b i t i o n ”).

4 3 To o l e v. S t a t e , 3 4 0 Ga. Ap p

. 6 3 3

, 6 3 4 (7 9 8 SE2 d 2 88 ) (2 0 1 7 ) (p u n ct u at i o n

o m it t ed ); a cco r d S t a te v. Ca r t wr i g h t

, 3 2 9 Ga. Ap p. 1 5 4

, 1 5 7 (7 6 4 SE2 d 17 5 ) (2 0 1 4 );

Va l en t i n e v. St a t e , 3 2 3 Ga. Ap p

. 7 6 1

, 7 6 4 (1 ) (7 4 8 SE2 d 12 2 ) (2 0 1 3 ); Di xo n v. S t a t e , 2 7 1 Ga. Ap p

. 1 9 9

, 2 0 1 -0 2 (6 0 9 SE2 d 1 48 ) (2 0 0 5 ); St a t e v. Ha mma ng , 2 4 9 G a. Ap p. 8 1 1

, 8 1 1 (5 4 9 SE2 d 4 4 0 ) (2 0 01 ); S t at e v. W h i t f i el d

, 21 9 G a. Ap p

. 5, 7 (4 63 SE2 d

7 2 8 ) (1 9 9 5 ); S ta t e v. W

eb b

, 1 9 3 Ga. Ap p. 2, 3 (1 ) (3 8 6 SE2 d 8 9 1 ) (1 9 8 9 ); McCo n n el l

v. S t a t e , 1 8 8 Ga. Ap p. 6 5 3

, 6 5 4 (1 ) (3 7 4 SE2 d 1 11 ) (1 9 8 8 ) (p h y s ical p reced en t o n l y ).

4 4 Ca ma ch o v

. S t a te

, 2 9 2 G a. A p p

. 1 2 0, 12 2 (1 ) (6 6 3 SE2 d 3 64 ) (2 0 0 8 ) (p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ); a cco r d W o r s ha m v. S t a t e , 2 5 1 G a. A p p

. 77 4

, 7 7 5 (5 5 4 SE2 d

20o ffi cers t o “ d et erm i n e o n t h e s p o t s u ch m at t ers as t h e leg al n i cet i es i n t h e d efi n i t i o n

o f a cert ai n cri m e, fo r t hes e are m at t ers fo r th e co u rt s .” 4 5 T o th e co nt rary , t h e q u es t i o n

t h at m u s t b e d eci d ed i s “ wh et h er t h e o ffi cer’ s m o t i v es an d act i o n s at t h e t i m e an d

u n d er al l t h e ci rcu m s t an ces were reas o n ab l e an d n o t arb i t rary o r h aras s i n g .” 4 6 In l i g ht

o f Hei en , co u rt s m

u s t as s es s w h et h er an offi cer’ s “ m i s t ak en -b u t -h o n es t ” bel i ef as to

t h e req u i rem en t s of a l aw was o b j ect i vel y reas o nab l e i n term s o f st at u t o ry

co n st ru ct i o n

. 4 7

8 0 5 ) (2 0 0 1 ); W

eb b , 1 9 3 Ga. Ap p . at 4 (1 ).

4 5 Va l en t i n e , 32 3 Ga. A p p. at 7 6 4 (1 ) (p u n ct uat i o n om i t t ed ); a cco rd Di xo n , 2 7 1

Ga. Ap p

. a t 2 0 1 -0 2 ; S t at e v. S t a f f or d

, 2 8 8 Ga. Ap p

. 30 9

, 3 1 3 (1 ) (6 5 3 SE2 d 7 5 0 ) (2 0 0 7); W

eb b

, 1 9 3 G a. Ap p

. at 3 (1 ); McCo n n el l

, 18 8 Ga. Ap p

. at 6 5 4 (1 ) (p h y s i cal

p reced en t o n l y ).

4 6 Va l en t i n e , 32 3 Ga. A p p. at 76 4 (1 ) (p u n ct u at i o n o m it t ed ); a cco r d Ca ma ch o , 2 9 2 Ga. Ap p

. at 1 2 2 (1 ); Di xo n , 2 7 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 20 1 -0 2 ; Ha mma ng , 2 49 Ga. Ap p

. at

8 1 1 ; McCo n nel l , 1 8 8 Ga. Ap p

. at 6 5 4 (1 ) (p h y s i cal p reced en t o n l y ).

4 7 In t h i s reg ard , i t i s q u es t i on ab l e wh et her St a t e v. Ca r t wr ig h t

, 3 29 Ga. Ap p.
1 5 4 (7 6 4 SE2 d 1 7 5) (2 0 1 4 ), wh i ch was d eci d ed befo re Hei en , co n t i n u es t o m ai n t ai n

an y p reced en t i al u t i l it y

. Th ere, we rev ers ed t h e g ran t o f a m o t i on to s u pp res s wh en ,

n o t wi t h s t an d i n g t h e fact t h at t h e pl ai n l an g u ag e o f t h e l aw i n q u es ti o n req u i red t wo

wo rk i n g b rak e l i g h ts

, s ee O CGA § 4 0 -8 -2 5 (b ) (“ If a m o t o r v eh icl e i s m an ufact u red

wi t h t wo b rak e l i g h t s , b o th m u s t b e o perat io n al .”), an o ffi cer s t op p ed a v eh i cl e b ecau s e, al t h ou g h i t h ad t wo si d e b rak e l i gh t s t h at were o p erat i o n al

, a cen t er l i g h t in

t h e rear wi n d o w was n o t o p erat i o nal

. Ca r t wr i gh t , 3 2 9 Ga. Ap p

. at 1 5 5 -5 6

.

21Here, al t h o ug h t h e t ri al co u rt co n cl u d ed t h at t h e s t at u t es at i s s u e were “ v ag u e

en o ug h t h at th e offi cer’ s i n t erp ret a t i o n [ w a s ] co rrect ,” we d et erm i n ed wi t h rel at i v e

eas e t h at t he p l ai n l an g u ag e of t h e s t at ut es i s cl ea r a n d s u s c e p t i b l e o f o n l y o n e

reas on ab l e i n t erp ret at io n

. It i s, t h en , o f n o co n s eq u en ce t h at t he o ffi cer’ s b el i ef

reg ard i n g t h e s t a t u t e’ s req u i rem en t s s t em m ed fro m h i s p ers o n al ex p eri en ce an d

h i s t o ry o f wri t in g ci t at i o n s fo r eq u i p m en t i nfract i o n s

. 4 8 In d eed , u nl i k e t h e s t at u t e at

i s su e in Hei en , t h ere i s b u t o n e reas o n ab l e in t erp ret at i o n o f t h e st at ut es i n th i s cas e:

OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 s peci fi es t h at v eh i cl es b e eq u i p p ed as req u ired b y o t her p ro v i s i on s

i n Ch ap ter 4 0

, an d OCGA § 4 0 -8 -7 2 d o es n o t req u i re t h e u s e of an i n t eri o r rearv i ew

m i rro r u n d er t h e ci rcu m s t an ces t he offi cer o bs erv ed ( i .e. , a si n g l e-cab

, n o n

co m m erci al v eh icl e wi t h t wo s i d e m i rro rs , an d n o t es t i m o n y reg ard i n g an o b s t ru ct ed

v i ew). 4 9 Acco rd i n g ly

, t h e o ffi cer’ s m i s t ak e o f l aw w as n o t o b ject i v el y reas o nab l e an d

4 8 S ee Hei en ,

_

_ U.S. at

_

_ (II) (1 3 5 SCt at 5 3 9 (II)) (Ro b ert s , C.J

., m ajo ri t y ) (“ W e d o n ot ex am in e t h e s u b j ect i v e u n ders t an d in g o f t h e part i cu l ar o ffi cer i n v o l v ed

. ”); id

. at

__ (1 35 SCt at 5 4 1) (Kag a n , J

. , c o n cu rri n g ) (ex pl ai n in g t h at an

o ffi cer’ s i g n o ran ce o f th e l aw, l ack o f t rai n i n g i n t h e law, i m p ro p er trai n i ng i n t h e l aw, o r recei p t o f i m

p ro p er d ep art m en t al d i rect i o n are n o ex cu s e b ecau s e co u rt s are

n o t co ncern ed wi th an o ffi cer’ s s u b ject iv e u n d ers t an d i ng ).

4 9 S ee s u p r a Di v is i on 1

.

22t h u s co ul d n o t p ro v i d e t h e reas o n a b l e , art i cu l ab l e s u s p i ci o n n eces sary t o ju s t i fy a

t raffi c s t op

. 5 0

(b ) Th e g o o d

-f a it h excep t i o n t o t h e excl u s io n a ry ru l e. W hi le Hei en

d i s t i n gu i sh es , o n t h e on e h an d, s i t u at i on s i n wh i ch an o b ject i v el y reas o n ab l e m i s t ak e

o f l aw g i v es ri s e t o r e a s o n ab l e art i cu lab l e s us p ici o n (an d th u s d o es n o t v i o l at e t h e

Fo u rt h Am en d m en t) an d

, o n t h e o t h er h an d

, cas es i n wh i ch t h e s o-cal l ed “ g o o d fai t h ”

ex cep t i o n ap p li es n o t w i t h s t an d i n g a Fo u rt h Am en d m en t v i o l at io n , 5 1 it d o es n ot

5 0 S ee Hei en ,

_

_ U.S. at

_

_ (1 3 5 SCt at 5 4 0 (III)) (Ro b ert s , C .J

., m ajo ri t y ) ( e x a m i n i ng t h e p l ai n l an g u ag e o f t h e s t at u t e at i ss u e t o co n cl u d e t hat i t w a s

am bi g uo u s an d

, t hu s , was s u s cep t i b le t o m u l t i p l e r e as o n ab l e i n t erp ret at i o n s ); i d

. at

_ _ (1 35 SCt at 5 4 1 ) (Kag an , J

., co n cu rri n g ) ( e x p l ai n i n g t hat a co u rt “ faces a

s t rai g h t fo rward qu es t i o n o f s t at u t o ry co n st ru ct i o n ” wh en d eci d i n g wh et her an o ffi cer

m ad e a reas o nab l e m i s tak e o f l aw, an d t h at i f t h e l a w i n q ues t i o n is “ g en u i n el y

am bi g uo u s , su ch th at o v ert u r n i n g t h e o ffi cer’ s j u d gm en t req u i res h ard i n t erp ret i v e

wo rk

, t h en t h e o ffi cer h as m ad e a reas on ab le m is t ak e”); s e e a l s o Un i t ed S t a t es v. McCu l l o u g h

, 8 5 1 F3 d 1 1 9 4

, 1 2 01 (III) (C) (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ) (h ol d i n g t h at o ffi cer m ad e

an o b ject i v el y reas o n ab l e m i st ak e o f l aw wh en l an g u ag e o f s t at u te was u ncl ear an d

was s us cep t i b l e o f m

u l t i p l e i n t erp ret at i o n s ); U n i t ed S t a tes v. S

co t t

, 6 93 Fed Ap p x 8 3 5,

8 3 7 -3 8 (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 0 17 ) (s am e). Cf

. S t a ff o r d

, 2 8 8 Ga. Ap p

. at 3 1 3 (1 ) (h o l d i n g t h at

o ffi cer reas o n ab l y bel i ev ed t h at l aw h ad b een v i o l at ed wh en h e s t o p p e d v eh i cl e,

n o t i n g t h at Co u rt o f Ap p eal s h ad i n t erp ret ed t h e rel ev an t l aw i n t wo co nfl i ct i n g way s ,

an d rei t e r a t i n g t h at i t “ i s n o t th e o ffi cer’ s fu n ct io n t o d et erm i n e o n t h e s p o t s u ch

m at t ers as th e l eg al n i cet i es i n t h e d efi n i t i o n o f a cert ai n cri m e, fo r t h es e are m at t ers fo r t h e co u rt s ” (p u nct u at i o n o m i t t ed )).

5 1 S e e Hei en ,

_

_ U.S. at

_

_ (II) (1 3 5 SCt at 5 3 8-3 9 (III)) (Ro bert s , C

. J

. ,

m ajo ri ty ). Cf

. Cu r r y v. S t a te

, 3 0 9 Ga. A p p

. 3 3 8

, 3 4 3 -4 4 (7 1 1 SE2 d 3 1 4 ) (2 0 1 1 ) (Bl ack wel l

, J

., co n cu rri n g fu l ly an d s p eci al ly ) (“ Th e Fo urt h Am en d m en t s ecu res

23ex p li ci t l y i n d i cat e wh et h er t h e g o o d -fai t h ex cep t i o n t o t h e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e can ev er

ap p ly wh en an o ffi cer i n i t iat es a s t o p b as ed u p o n a g o o d fai t h m i s t ak e o f l aw t h at i s

n o t ob ject i v el y reas o n ab l e an d t h u s v i o l a t e s t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t

. Bu t in

Ch a n t h a s o u xa t

, t he El ev en t h Ci rcu i t fo l l o wed o th er fed eral ci rcu i ts i n d ecl i n i n g to

ex t en d t h e g o o d -fai th ex cep t i o n t o m i s t ak es o f l aw. 5 2

In an y ev en t

, we are n o t at l i b ert y to co ncl u s iv el y co n s i d er th i s q u es t i o n.

Geo rg i a’ s ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e i s co d ifi ed b y OCGA § 17 -5

- 3 0

, 5 3 w h i ch p ro v i d es t h at

i n d i v i d u al s ag ai n s t u n rea s o n a b l e s earch es an d s ei zu res , an d t he ex cl u s io n ary ru l e

s ecu res in d i v i d u al s ag ai ns t t h e u s e i n ju d i ci al p ro ceed i n g s o f ev i d en ce o b t ai n ed in

v i o l at i o n o f t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t

. Th e g o od fai t h ex cep t i on i s an ex cep t i on t o t h e

ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e, n o t t h e reas o n ab l en es s req u i rem en t o f t h e Fo urt h Am en d m en t o r i t s p referen ce fo r warran t s. Becau s e a search i s reas o nab l e wh en o ffi cers o b t ai n t h e

co n sen t of a pers on wh o m t h e o ffi cers reas o n a b l y, b u t erro n eo u s l y , bel i ev e i s

au t h o ri zed t o co ns en t to t he search

, s u ch a s e a r c h d o e s n o t v i o l at e th e Fo u rt h

Am en d m en t

. Th e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e— an d

, th erefo re, an ex cep ti o n to th e ex cl u s i o n ary

ru l e— h as n o ap p l i cat io n wh en t h ere i s n o v i o l at io n o f t h e F o u r t h Am en d m en t .” (ci t at i o n s o m i t t ed )).

5 2 3 4 2 F3 d at 1 28 0 (IV) (A) (i i i ) (b ).

5 3 S ee g en er a l l

y Her n a n d

ez v. S t a t e , 2 94 Ga. 9 0 3

, 9 0 4 (7 5 7 SE2 d 1 0 9 ) (2 0 1 4 ) (“ Ou r s tat u t o ry l aw pro v i d es a p ro ced u re b y wh i ch an accu s ed m ay m o v e to s u p p res s

ev i d en ce t h at was o b t ai n ed un l awfu l l y

. A m o t i o n t o su p p res s m u s t ‘ b e in wri t i n g an d

s t at e fact s s h o wi n g th at th e s earch an d s ei zu re were u n l awfu l.’ In t h e ab s en ce o f s u ch

a m ot i o n , t h e St at e h as n o b urd en t o p ro v e t he l awfu ln es s o f t he m an n er i n wh i ch

ev i d en ce was o b t ai n ed

, an d t h e accu s ed fai l s to p res erv e an y erro r wi t h res p ect t o t h e

s u p p res s i o n o f t h e ev ide n c e

. ” (ci t at i o ns o m i t t ed )); S t a t e v. Jo hn s to n , 2 4 9 Ga. 4 1 3

, 4 1 3 (2 9 1 SE2 d 5 4 3 ) (1 9 8 2 ) (q u o t i ng Ha wki n s v. S t a t e , 11 7 Ga. Ap p

. 7 0

, 7 0 (1 5 9 SE2 d

24[a] d efen d an t ag g ri ev ed b y an u n l awfu l s earch an d s ei zu re m ay m ov e th e

co u rt fo r t h e ret u rn o f p ro p ert y , th e p o s s es s i o n o f wh i ch i s n o t o t h erwi s e

u n l awfu l

, an d t o s u p p res s as ev i d en ce an y t h i n g so o b t ai n e d o n th e

g ro u n d s t h at : (1 ) [t ] h e s earch an d sei zu re wi t h ou t a warran t was i ll eg al ;

o r (2 ) [t ] he s earch an d s ei zu re w i t h a w arran t was i l l eg al b ecau s e th e

warran t i s i ns u ffi ci en t o n i t s face, t h ere was n o t p ro bab l e cau s e fo r t he

i s su an ce o f t h e warran t, o r t he warran t was i l l eg al l y ex ecu ted

. 5 4

Th e Co d e s ect io n fu rt h er pro vi d es t h at “ [i ] f t h e m o t i o n i s g ran t ed th e p ro p ert y s h al l

b e res t o red

, u n l es s o t h erwi s e s u b j e c t t o l awfu l det en t i o n , an d i t s hal l n o t b e

ad m i s s i b l e i n ev i d en ce ag ai n s t t h e m o v an t i n an y t ri al .” 5 5

In Ga ry v. S ta t e , 5 6 t h e Su p rem e Co u rt o f G e o r g i a co n s i d ered t h e s co p e o f

OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 an d ex am i n ed wh et h er th e “ g o o d fai th ” ex cep t i o n t o t h e

ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e as en u n ci at ed i n Un i t ed S ta t es v. Leo n 5 7 was ap p l icab l e in

4 4 0 ) (1 9 67 )), fo r t h e p ro p os i ti o n t h at

, “ [b ] y i ts cl ear t e r m s , [OCGA § 17 -5 -3 0 ]

fu rn i sh es a p ro ced u ral d ev i ce fo r t h e p ro t ect i o n o f co ns t i t u t i o n al g u aran t ees ag ai n s t

u n reas o nab l e s earch an d s ei zu re o n l y ”).

5 4 OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 (a) (1 )-(2 ).

5 5 OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 (b ).

5 6 2 6 2 Ga. 5 7 3 (4 2 2 SE2 d 4 26 ) (1 9 9 2 ).

5 7 4 6 8 U.S. 8 9 7 (1 0 4 SCt 3 4 0 5 , 8 2 LE2 d 6 7 7 ) (1 9 8 4).

25Geo rg i a. 5 8 In L e o n , t h e Su p rem e Co u rt o f t h e Un i ted St at es reco g n i zed t h at a

ju d i ci al l y creat ed ex c ep t i o n t o t h e ex cl u s io n ary ru le was perm is si b l e b ecau s e t h e

Fo u rt h Am en d m en t t o t h e U n i t ed St at es Co n st i tu t i o n do es n o t co n t ai n a p ro v i s i o n

“ ex p res s l y p recl u d i n g th e u s e o f ev i d en ce o b t ai ned i n v i o l at i o n o f i t s co m m an d s , an d

an ex am i n at i on of i t s o ri g i n an d p u rp o s es m ak es cl ear th at t h e us e o f fru i t s o f a p as t

u n l awfu l s earch o r s ei zu re wo rk s n o n ew Fo u rt h Am en d m en t wro ng .” 5 9 Bu t t h e Co u rt

al s o reco gn i zed t h at t h e ex cl us i o n ary ru l e, wh en ap p l i ed t o o s t ri ct l y , ex act s a s o ci al

t o l l , ex p l ai n i n g t h at

[a] n o b ject io n ab l e co l l at eral co n s eq u en ce of t h i s i nt erferen ce wi t h th e

cri m i n al ju s t i ce s y s tem ’ s t ru t h -fi n di n g fu nct i o n i s t h at s o m e g u i l t y

d efen d an t s m ay go free o r recei v e re d u c e d s en t en ces as a res ul t o f

fav o rab le p l e a b arg ai ns

. Part i cu larl y wh en l aw en fo rcem en t offi cers

h av e act ed i n o b

ject i v e g o o d fai th o r t h ei r t ran s g res s i o n s h a v e b een

m i n o r, t h e m ag n i t u d e o f t h e b en efi t co nferred on su ch g u i l ty d efen d an t s

o ffen d s b as i c co n cep t s o f t h e cri m i n al ju s t i ce s y s t em

. In di s cri m i n a t e

5 8 Ga r y , 2 6 2 Ga. at 5 73

.

5 9 4 6 8 U.S. at 9 0 6 (II) (A). S ee g en er a l l

y Da vi s v. Un it ed St a tes

, 56 4 U.S. 2 2 9,

2 3 8 (II) (1 3 1 SCt 24 1 9

, 18 0 LE2 d 2 8 5 ) (2 0 11 ) (ack n o wl ed g i ng t h at pri o r d eci s i on s

“ t rea t e d i d en t i fi cat i o n o f a Fo u rt h Am en d m en t v i o l at i on as s y n on y m o u s wi th

ap p li cat io n o f t h e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e” b u t t h at

, i n t i m e, th e C o u r t “ c a m e to
ack n owl ed ge t h e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e fo r wh at i t u n d o u b t ed l y is

— a ‘ ju d i ci al l y creat ed

rem ed y ’ o f t h i s Co u rt ’ s o w n m ak i n g ” (p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed )).

26a p p l i cat io n o f t h e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e, t herefo re, m ay wel l g en e r a t e

d i s res p ect fo r t h e l aw an d ad m i n i s t rat io n o f ju s t i ce. 6 0

St i l l

, t h e Su p rem e Co u rt o f th e Un i t ed St at es rei t erat ed t h at it h ad n o t “ s eri o u s l y

q u es ti o n ed

, i n t h e ab s en ce o f a m o re effi caci o u s s an ct i on , t h e co n t i n ued ap p l i cat i o n

o f t h e [ex cl u s i o n ary ] ru l e t o s u p p res s ev i d en ce fro m t h e p ro s ecu t i o n ’s cas e [wh en ]

a Fo u rt h Am en d m en t v i o l at i o n h as b een s u b s t an t i a l a n d del i b er a te. ” 6 1 N ev ert h el es s ,

a “ b al an ci n g ap p r o a c h ” h ad “ ev o l v ed i n v ari o u s co n t ex t s ,” an d th i s ap p ro ach

“ fo rcefu l l y s u g g es t[ed ] t h at t h e ex cl u si o n ary ru le b e m o re g en eral l y m o d i f i ed to

p erm i t t h e i n t ro d u ct i on o f ev i d en ce o b t ai ned i n t h e reas o n ab le g o o d-fai t h b el i ef t h at

a search o r s ei zu re was i n acco rd wi t h t h e Fo u rt h A m en d m en t.” 6 2 An d s in ce Leo n , t h e

6 0 Leo n , 46 8 U.S. at 90 7 -0 8 (II) (A); s e e i d

. at 9 1 8 -1 9 (II) (B) (“ [E] v en

as s u m in g t h at t h e [ex cl u si o nary ] ru l e effect i v el y d et ers s om e po l i ce m i s co n d u ct an d

p ro v id es i n cen ti v es fo r t h e l aw en fo rcem en t p ro fes s i o n as a wh ol e t o co n d u ct i t s el f

i n acco rd wi t h t h e Fo urt h Am en d m en t

, i t can n ot b e ex p e c t ed

, an d sh o ul d n o t b e

ap p li ed

, t o d et er o b

ject i v el y reas o n ab l e l aw en fo rcem en t act i v i t y .”); s ee a l s o
B e t a n co u r t v. S t a t e , 3 2 2 Ga. Ap p

. 2 0 1

, 2 0 8 (3 ) (b ) (7 4 4 SE2 d 4 1 9 ) (2 0 1 3 ) ( r e l yi n g

u p o n Da vi s v. Un it ed S t a tes

, 56 4 US 2 29 (1 3 1 SCt 2 4 1 9, 1 8 0 LE2 d 2 8 5 ) (2 0 1 1 ), t o cri t i ci ze ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e), a f fir med o n ot h er g r o u n ds b y Her n a n d

ez v. S t a t e , 2 9 4 Ga.

9 0 3 (7 57 SE2 d 1 0 9 ) (2 0 1 4 ).

6 1 Leo n , 4 6 8 U.S. at 90 8 -0 9 (II) (B) (em p h as i s s u pp l i ed ) (p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ).

6 2 Id

. at 90 9 (II) (A) (p un ct u at i o n o m i tt ed ) (q u ot i n g Il l i n o i s v. Ga tes

, 4 6 2 U.S.

2 1 3

, 2 5 5 (II) (A) (1 0 3 SCt 23 1 7

, 7 6 LE2 d 52 7 ) (1 9 8 3 ) (W h i t e, J

., co n cu rri n g in ju d g m en t )); s ee a l

s o i d

. at 9 1 1 (II) (B) (“ [T] h e ‘ d i s s ip at i o n o f t he t ai n t ’ co n cep t t h at

27Su p rem e Co u rt o f t he Un it ed St at es h as ex p an ded t h e g o o d-fai t h ex cep t i o n s o as t o

ap p ly i t i n a n u m

b er o f o t h er s i t u at i o ns

. 6 3

As fo r Geo rg i a, i n 1 9 9 2

, o u r Su p rem e Co u rt d et erm i n ed t h at OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0

“ p recl u d e[d ] ad op t i o n o f th e Leo n ‘ g o o d -fai t h ex cep t io n ’ t o t h e ex cl u s io n ary ru l e as

t h e Co u rt h as ap p l i ed i n d eci d in g wh et her ex cl u si o n i s ap p ro p ri at e i n a p art i cu l ar cas e

at t em p t s t o m ark t h e p o i n t at wh i ch th e d et ri m en t al c o n s e q u e n ces o f i l l eg al p o l i ce

act i on b eco m e s o at t en u at ed t h at t h e d et erren t effect o f t h e ex c l u s i o n ary ru l e n o l o n g er ju st i fi es i t s co s t

. No t s urp ri s i n g l y i n v iew o f t h i s pu rp o s e, an as s es sm en t o f t h e fl ag ran cy o f t h e p o l i ce m i s co n d u ct co n s t it u t es an i m p o r tan t st ep i n t h e cal cu l u s .” (p u n ct u at i o n an d ci tat i o n o m i t ted ) (q u o t i n g Br o wn v. Il l i n o is

, 4 2 2 U.S. 5 9 0

, 6 0 9 (B) (9 5 SCt 2 2 5 4 , 4 5 LE2 d 4 16 ) (1 9 7 5 ) (Po w el l

, J

., co n cu rri n g i n p art ))); i d

. at 9 1 9 (II) (B) (“ [ Wh e n ] t h e o ffi ci al act i o n was p u rs u ed in co m p let e g o o d fai t h

, . . . t h e d et erren ce rat i o n al e l o s es m u ch o f i t s fo rce.” (p u nct u at i o n o m it t ed ) (q u o t i n g Un i t ed

S t a t es v. Pet ier , 4 2 2 U.S. 5 3 1 , 5 3 9 (9 5 SCt 2 3 1 3 , 4 5 LE2 d 3 7 4 ) (1 9 7 5)).

6 3 S ee Da vi s , 5 64 U.S. at 2 3 2

, 2 4 1 (III) (ex pan d i ng t h e g o od -fai t h ex cep t i o n to

s i tu at i o n s in wh i ch “ p o l i ce co n d u ct a s earch i n co m p l i an ce wi t h b i n d i n g p reced en t

t h at i s l at er o v erru l ed ”); Her r i n g v. Un i t ed S t a t es , 5 5 5 U.S. 1 3 5 , 1 3 7 (1 2 9 SCt 6 9 5,

1 7 2 LE2 d 4 9 6 ) (2 0 0 9 ) (ex p an di n g t h e g o o d -fai t h ex cep t i o n t o s i tu at io n s i n wh i ch

p o l i ce em p l o y ees err i n m ai n t ai n i n g reco rd s i n w arran t d at ab as e); Ar i z o n a v. Eva n s , 5 1 4 U. S

. 1

, 1 4 (1 1 5 SCt 1 1 8 5

, 1 3 1 LE2 d 34 ) (1 9 9 5) (ex p an d i n g t he g o o d -fai th

ex cep t i o n t o s it u at i o n s i n wh i ch p o li ce reas on ab l y rel y u p o n erro neo us i n fo rm at i o n

co n cern in g an arres t warran t i n a d at ab as e m ai nt ai n ed b y ju d i ci al em p l o y ees ); Il l i n o i s

v. Kr u l l

, 4 8 0 U.S. 3 4 0

, 3 4 0

, 34 9 -5 0 (II) (B) (1 07 SCt 1 1 6 0

, 9 4 L E2 d 3 6 4 ) (1 9 8 7 ) (ex p an d i n g t h e g o o d -fai t h ex cep t i o n o f Leo n t o s i tu at i o n s i n wh i ch “ o ffi cers act in

o b ject i vel y reas o n ab le rel i an ce u p o n a s t a t u t e au t h o ri zi n g warran t l es s ad m in i s t rat i v e

s earch es , b u t w h ere th e s t at u t e i s ul t i m at el y fo u n d t o v i ol at e t h e Fo u rt h

Am en d m en t ”). S

ee g en er a l ly Da vi s , 5 6 4 U.S. at 2 3 7 -3 8 (II) (reco g n i zi n g th at Co u rt
h as ap p l i ed t h e “ go o d -fai t h ” ex cep t i o n i n a ran g e o f cas es , ci t i n g Leo n , Kr u l l

, Eva n s ,

an d Her r i n g ).

28p art o f t h e ju ri s pru den ce o f Geo r g i a .” 6 4 In d o i n g s o , t h e Ga r y Co urt n ot ed t h at

, in

en act i n g OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0

, “ Geo rg i a h as ch o s en t o i m p o s e g reat er req u i rem en t s u p o n

i t s l aw en fo rcem en t o ffi cers t h an t h at req ui red b y t h e U.S. Co ns t i t u ti o n , as i n t erp ret ed

b y t he U.S. Su p rem e Co u rt .” 6 5 In d eed

, Ga r y co n cl ud ed t hat OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 i s t h e

Gen eral As s em

b l y ’ s “ u n eq u i v ocal ex p res s i o n of i t s d es i re t h at ev i d e n ce sei zed by

m ean s o f a warran t t h at i s n o t s u p po rt ed b y p ro b ab l e cau s e b e s u p p res s ed ” an d t h at

t h e Gen eral As sem

bl y en act ed t h e s t at u t e t o “ p ro t ect ag ai n s t g o vern m en t al d i s reg ard

fo r co n s t i t u t i o nal l y -p ro t ect ed ri g h t s by req u i ri n g t h e i n t eg ral a c to rs i n t h e

warran t -i s s u i n g p ro ces s

. . . t o res p ect t he p ro bab l e cau s e req u irem en ts o f t he Geo rg i a

Co n s t i t u t i o n an d t o carefu l l y p rep are an d s cru t i n i ze ap p l i cat i o n s fo r warran t s .” 6 6 An d

6 4 Ga r y , 2 6 2 Ga. at 5 74

.

6 5 Id

. at 57 4 -7 5

.

6 6 Id

. a t 5 7 5 ( c i t at io n o m i t t ed ); s ee a l s o G A

. C O N S T

. Art

. I, Sec. I, Para. XIII (“ Th e ri g h t o f t he p eo p l e t o be s ecu re i n t h ei r p ers o n s , h o u s es , p a p ers , an d effect s

ag ai n s t u n reas o n ab le s earch es an d s ei zu res s h al l n o t b e vi o l at ed ; an d n o warran t s h al l

i s s u e ex cep t u p o n p ro b ab l e cau s e s u pp o rt ed by o at h or affi rm at i o n p art i cu l a r l y d es cri b i ng t h e p lace o r p l aces t o b e s earch ed an d t h e p ers on s o r t h i ng s t o b e s ei zed .”).

Bu t s ee St a t e v. Th a cks t o n , 2 8 9 Ga. 4 1 2 , 4 1 6 (2 ) (7 1 6 SE2 d 5 1 7 ) (2 0 1 1 ) (d ecl i n i n g

t o ap p l y OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 to p ro b at i o n -rev o cat i o n p ro ceed i n g s ); S t in s ki v. S t a t e , 2 8 1

Ga. 7 83

, 78 5 (2 ) (b ) (6 4 2 SE2 d 1 ) (2 0 07 ) (“ Ev en [wh en ] an arres t i s u n l awfu l l y m ad e i n s i d e a res i d en ce wi t h ou t a warran t

, a s u b s eq u en t s t at em en t m ad e o u t s i d e t h e

res i den ce n eed n ot b e s u p pres s ed o n Fed eral co ns t i t u t i o nal g ro u n ds

. [Th e d efen d an t ’ s] arg u m en t s b a s e d o n OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 (a) are m i sp l aced b ecau s e t h at

29acco rd i n g t o t h e Su prem e Co u rt o f Geo rg i a, ad o pt i n g t he “ g oo d -fai t h ex cep t i o n ” o f

Leo n w o u l d b e “ t an t am o u n t t o ju d i ci al l eg i s l at i o n .” 6 7 In reach in g t h i s co ncl u s i o n , t h e

Co u rt o v erru led a n u m

b er o f cas es rel y in g u p o n t h e g o o d -fai th ex cep t i o n d el i n eat ed

i n Leo n

. 6 8

Si n ce Ga r y , o u r ap p el l at e co u rt s h av e rei t erat ed (n o t wi t h o u t o fferi ng cri t i ci s m

at t i m es 6 9 ) t h at Geo rg i a d oes n o t reco g n ize a g o od -fai t h ex cep t i o n t o t h e ex cl u s i o n ary

s t at u te co n cern s ‘ tan g i b l e ev i den ce an d i s n o t th e p ro p er v eh i cl e t o ch a l l en g e t h e ad m i s s i b i l i t y

o f a co n fes s io n .’ ” (ci t at i o n o m i t t ed )).

6 7 Ga r y , 2 6 2 Ga. at 5 75

.

6 8 See i d

. at 5 7 3 n .1 (reco g n i zi n g t h at t he Co urt o f Ap peal s of Geo rg i a ap p l i ed

t h e Leo n g oo d -fai t h e x c e p t i o n i n Pa rr i s v. S t a t e , 20 5 Ga. Ap p. 4 8 (4 2 1 SE2 d 1 3 7 ) (1 9 9 2)); Ta

yl o r v. S t a t e , 2 04 Ga. Ap p

. 2 3 6 (4 1 9 SE2 d 5 6) (1 9 9 2); St a t e v. Smi t h

, 2 0 1 Ga. Ap p . 6 5 0 (4 11 SE2 d 8 7 7 ) (1 9 9 1 ); Ta l ley v. S t a t e , 2 0 0 Ga. Ap p

. 4 42 (4 0 8 SE2 d

4 6 3 ) (1 9 9 1 ); S t a t e v. Mo rr is

, 19 8 Ga. Ap p. 44 1 (4 0 2 SE2 d 2 8 8 ) (1 9 9 1 ) ; D a v i s v. S t a t e , 1 98 G a. Ap p

. 3 1 0 (4 0 1 SE2 d 3 2 6 ) (1 9 9 1 ); S i n g l et o n v. S t at e , 1 9 3 Ga. Ap p

. 7 7 8 (3 8 9 SE2 d 2 6 9 ) (1 9 8 9); W i l l i ams v. S t a t e , 1 9 3 Ga. Ap p

. 6 7 7 (3 8 8 SE2 d 8 9 3 ) (1 9 8 9 );

Bet h a v. S t a t e , 1 9 2 Ga. Ap p

. 7 8 9 (3 8 6 SE2 d 5 15 ) (1 9 8 9 ); D eb ey v. S t a t e , 1 9 2 Ga. Ap p

. 51 2 (3 8 5 SE2 d 6 9 4 ) (1 9 8 9); S t a t e v. E va n s , 1 9 2 Ga. A p p

. 2 1 6 (3 8 4 SE2 d 4 0 4 ) (1 9 8 9); Ad

a ms v. S t a t e , 1 9 1 Ga. Ap p

. 9 1 6 (3 8 3 SE2 d 3 7 8) (1 9 89 ); Ma ss on v. S t a t e , 1 9 1 Ga. Ap p

. 4 6 3 (3 8 2 SE2 d 13 9 ) (1 98 9 ); R o d r i g uez v. S t a t e , 1 9 1 Ga. Ap p. 2 4 1 (3 8 1

SE2 d 5 2 9) (1 9 8 9)).

6 9 S ee St a t e v. New

, 33 1 Ga. Ap p

. 1 3 9

, 1 4 6 (3 ) (7 70 SE2 d 2 3 9 ) (2 0 1 5) (p h y s i cal

p reced en t on l y ) (“ Th e f

a c t t h a t [t he rat io n al o f Leo n ] i s n ot accep ted i n G eo rg i a, b ecau s e (as o u t l in ed i n Ga r y ) we h av e a l eg is lat i v el y creat ed ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e rat h er

t h an a ju di ci al ly creat ed ex cl u si o n ary ru le, m ak es i t n o l e s s v a l i d

. W it h o ut a g o o d

fai t h ex cep t i o n i n t h i s co n t ex t, we es s en t i al l y d em an d p erfect i o n fro m p o l i ce, y et d o

30ru l e. 7 0 An d t h e Su p rem e Co u rt o f Geo rg i a i t s el f lat er cl ari fi ed t h at O CGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0,

as co n s t ru ed i n Ga r

y , “ au t h o ri zes n o excep t i o n to Geo rg i a’ s ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e wh en

n o t req u i re i t o f p ro s ecu t o rs , d efen s e co u n s el , o r ev en ju d g es

. ”).

7 0 S ee Ha r p er v

. S t a t e , 2 8 3 Ga. 10 2

, 1 0 7 (2 ) (6 5 7 SE2 d 2 1 3) (2 00 8 ) (“

. . . Geo rg i a d o es n o t h av e a g o o d fai t h ex cep t i o n t o t h e s earch warran t req ui rem en t [.] ”);

Beck v. S t at e , 2 8 3 Ga. 35 2

, 3 5 3 (1 ) (6 5 8 SE2 d 57 7 ) (2 0 0 8 ) (“ Geo rg i a d o es n ot

reco g n ize t h e g oo d fai t h ex cep t i o n t o i t s s tat u t o ry ex cl u s io nary ru l e becau s e o u r l eg i s lat u re h as n o t p ro v i d ed o n e.”); B r o wn v. S t a t e , 3 3 0 Ga. Ap p

. 48 8

, 4 9 2 (2 ) (7 6 7

S E2 d 2 9 9 ) (2 0 1 4 ) (“ [T] he g oo d -fai t h ex cep t io n t o th e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e

. . . i s n o t

ap p li cab l e in Geo rg i a i n l i g ht o f o u r l eg i s l at i v el y -m an d at ed ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e fo u n d

i n OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 [.] ” (p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed )); Ca n i no v. S t a te , 3 14 Ga. Ap p

. 6 3 3,

6 3 9 (2 ) n.2 8 (7 2 5 SE2 d 7 8 2 ) (2 0 1 2 ) (“ Th e Geo rg i a Su p rem e Co u rt

, . . . reco g n i zi n g

t h at a s t at e has ‘ p o wer to i m p o s e hi g h er s t an dard s o n search es an d sei zu res t h an

r e q u i red b y t h e Fed eral Co ns t i t u t i o n i f i t ch oo s es t o d o s o,’ h as h el d t h a t t h e

g o o d -fai t h ex cep t i o n t o t h e ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e ‘ i s n o t ap p l icab l e in Geo rg ia i n l i g h t o f

o u r l e g i s l at i v el y -m an d at ed ex cl u s i o n ary ru le fo un d i n OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 .’ ” (p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed )); Mi l ey v. S t a t e , 2 79 Ga. 4 2 0

, 4 22 (6 1 4 SE2 d 7 4 4) ( 2 0 0 5 ) (“ Becau s e G e o r g i a l aw h as no g oo d fai th ex cep t i o n reg ard i n g s earch warran t

req u i rem en t s , t h e lack of p ro b ab l e cau s e n eces s ary fo r t h e warran t ’ s is s uan ce req u i res

t h e s u p pres s i o n o f t h e ev i d en ce s ei zed i n [t h e d efen dan t ’ s ] h o us e.”); New

, 3 3 1 Ga. Ap p

. at 1 4 2 (2 ) (p h y s i cal p reced en t o n l y ) (“ Geo rg i a reco g n i zes n o g o o d fai th

ex cep t i o n .”); Ra n d

ol p h v. St at e , 2 6 4 G a. Ap p

. 3 9 6

, 4 0 1 (2 ) (5 9 0 SE2 d 8 3 4) ( 2 0 0 3 ) (“ Al t h ou g h t h e Un i t ed St at es Su p rem e Co u rt ad o p t ed a ‘ g o o d fai t h ’ ex cep t i o n t o t h e

ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e o f t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t i n Un i t ed S t at es v. Leo n , t h e Su p rem e C o u r t o f Geo rg ia l at er co n cl u d ed i n G ar y v. S t at e th at i n Geo rg ia a d efen d an t ’ s

s t a t u t ory ri g ht t o ex cl u s io n o f ev i d en ce has n o ‘ g o od fai t h’ ex cep t io n

. ” (fo o t n o t es

o m it t ed )); S t a t e v. Ga l l u

p , 2 3 6 Ga. Ap p

. 3 21

, 32 4 (2 ) (5 12 SE2 d 6 6 ) (1 9 9 9) (“ Th ere i s i n Geo rg i a n o ‘ go o d fai t h ’ ex cep ti o n t o o u r s t at ut o ry ex cl u s i o n ary ru le[.] ”).

31ev i d en ce h as b een s ei zed u n l awfu l l y ,” 7 1 m ak i ng cl ear t h a t t h e l ack o f a g o o d -fai th

ex cep t i o n i s no t d ep en d en t up o n wh et h er l aw en fo rcem en t h as a s earch warran t

, ev en

t h o u g h th e fact s in Ga r

y an d Leo n i n v o l v ed s earch w arran t s

. 7 2 Ad d i t i o n al l y , t h e

Su p rem e Co u rt h as fu rt h er ex p l ai ned t h at Ga r y “ d i d n o t b ro ad en t h e d efi n i t i o n o f

wh at co n s t i t u t es an un reas on ab l e s earch ” b u t i ns t ead “ p ro v i d ed g reat er p ro t ect i o n

fro m u n reas o n ab le s e a rch es b y i n t erp ret i ng OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 as a l eg i s l at i v e

o v erru l i ng o f t h e ju d i ci al l y creat ed g o o d fai t h ex cep t io n .” 7 3

Acco rd i ng l y , i n l i gh t of Ga r y , we m u s t ag ai n co n cl u de t h at

, u n d er o u r Su p rem e

Co u rt ’ s i n t erp ret at i o n o f OCG A § 1 7 -5 -3 0

, th ere i s n o g oo d -fai t h ex cep t i o n in

Geo rg i a. 7 4 An d n o t w i t hs t an d i n g an y d ev i at i o n t h e Su p rem e Co u rt h as m ad e fro m

7 1 Ha r vey v. S t a t e , 2 66 Ga. 6 7 1, 67 2 (4 6 9 S E2 d 1 7 6 ) (1 99 6 ) (em p h as i s

s u p p li ed ).

7 2 S ee O CGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 (a) (1 )-(2 ) (co n cern i n g s up p res s i o n o f ev i d en ce fo r i l leg al s earch es co n d uct ed bo th wi t h an d wi t h o u t a s earch warran t); Reg i s ter v. S t a t e , 2 8 1 G a

. Ap p

. 8 2 2

, 8 2 4 (6 3 7 SE2 d 7 6 1) (2 0 0 6) (“ Geo rg i a’ s ex cl u si on ary ru l e ,

co d ifi ed at OCGA § 1 7-5 -3 0

, p ro v i d es fo r t h e s u p p res s i o n o f ev i d en ce o b tai n ed by

an u n lawfu l s earch an d s ei zu re co n d u ct ed ei t h er wi t h o r wi t h o u t a w arran t

. Th ere i s

n o g o o d -fai t h ex cep t i o n to t h i s ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e i n Geo rg i a.” (p u n ct u at i o n an d

ci t at i o n o m i t t ed )); Bo a t ri g ht v. S t a t e , 2 2 5 G a

. A p p. 18 1

, 1 8 3 (2 ) (4 8 3 SE2 d 6 5 9 ) (1 9 9 7) (s am e).

7 3 Br en t v. S t a t e , 2 7 0 Ga. 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 (2 ) (5 1 0 SE2 d 1 4 ) (1 9 9 8).

7 4 S ee Ha rvey , 2 66 Ga. at 6 7 2 ; s ee a l s o s u p r a n o t e 7 0

.

32Ga r

y i n t h e i n t erv en i n g y ears , 7 5 Ga r y rem ai n s g o o d l aw 7 6 an d

, as a res u l t

, i s b i n d i n g

p reced en t o n t h i s Co u rt

. 7 7

7 5 S ee Ha rvey , 2 6 6 Ga. at 6 7 5 -7 6 (Ben h am , C.J

., d i ss en t i n g ) ( a t t ack i n g

m ajo ri ty ’ s at t em

p t to d i s t i n g ui sh fact s o f cas e so as t o av o i d rel i an ce u p on t h e “ g o o d

fai t h ” ex cep t i o n b y fi n d i n g p ro b ab l e cau s e, an d ad m o n i s h i n g t h a t “ [i ] f t hi s co u rt i s

t o t u rn aro u n d s o q u i ck l y an d o v erru l e i ts h o l d in g i n Ga r y , t o ab an d o n t h e p ri n ci p l es

s t at ed i n t h at cas e, i t s h o u l d d o s o h o nes t l y an d fo rt h ri g h t l y , n o t b y p u rp o r t i n g to
h o n o r i t, an d t h en d eci d i n g a cas e d i rect l y co n t rary t o i t s p ri n ci p l es ”); s ee a l s o J am es
P. Fl ei s s n er, “ Cri m i n al Law an d Pro ced u re: A Tw o

- Y e a r Su rv ey , ” 4 8 M E R C E R L.

R E V

. 2 1 9 , 2 7 8 -7 9 (III) (A) (1 9 96 ) (“ Sev eral y ears ag o i n Ga r y v. S ta t e , t h e Geo rg i a Su p rem e Co u rt decl i n ed to ad op t th e g o o d f ai t h ex cep t i o n , h o l d i n g th at G eo rg i a’ s

s t at u to ry ex cl u s i o n ary ru l e, by it s t erm s , reco g n i zes n o ex cep t i o n

. Aft er t h e Su p rem e Co u rt ’ s recen t o p i n i o n i n Ha r vey v. S t at e , i t i s ap p ro p ri at e t o as k t h e fo l l o wi n g

q u es ti o n ab o u t Geo rg i a’ s reco g n i t i o n o f t h e g o o d fai t h ex cep t i o n : Do es s h e or d o es n ’ t

s h e?

. . . Th e co u rt ’ s an al y s i s [i n Ha r vey ] s o u n ds a lo t l i k e t h e an al y s is s u p p ort i n g t h e

g o o d fai t h ex cep t i on , b u t t h e co u rt ’ s o p i n i on i n s is t ed t h at t h e g o od fai th ex cep t i o n ‘ i s

n o t i m p l i cat ed b y t h i s cas e.’ ” (fo o t n o t es o m i t t ed )). Bu t s ee Bo a t r ig h t

, 2 25 Ga. Ap p.

at 1 8 4 (2 ) (d is t i n g u i s h in g t he h o l d i n g an d reas o n in g i n Ha r vey fro m Ga r y ).

7 6 S ee Bo a t r i gh t

, 2 2 5 Ga. Ap p

. at 1 8 4 (2 ) (“ [T] he Su p rem e Co u rt in t en t i o n al l y d i d n o t o v erru le Ga r

y [i n Ha r vey ] b u t i ns t ead fact u al l y d i st i ng u i s h ed i t .”); s ee a l s o S t a t e v. S mi t h

, 3 0 8 Ga. Ap p

. 3 4 5

, 3 5 1 ( 1 ) (7 0 7 SE2 d 56 0 ) (2 0 1 1) (h o l d i n g t h at

, d es p it e u n q u es ti o n ab l e t en s i on b et ween Su p rem e Co urt p reced en t s , o ne o f t wo cas es h ad n ev er b een ex p l i ci t l y o v erru l ed o r d i s ap p ro v ed o f b y t he Su p rem e Co u rt ).

7 7 S ee G A

. C O N S T

., Art

. VI, § VI, ¶ VI (1 9 8 3 ) (“ T h e d eci s i o n s of t h e Su p rem e Co u rt s hal l b i n d al l o th er co u rt s as p reced en t s .”); St a t e v. Ja cks on , 2 8 7 Ga. 64 6

, 6 5 8 (5 ) (6 97 SE2 d 7 57 ) (2 0 1 0 ) (“ St are d eci s is i s an im p o rt an t p ri n ci p le t h at p ro m o t es t h e

ru l e o f l aw, p art i cu l arl y in t h e co n t ex t of s t at u t o ry i n t erp ret at i o n , wh ere o u r i n co rrect
d eci s i o n s are m ore eas i l y co rrect ed b y t h e d em o crat i c p ro ces s .”); Mo r s e v. S t a t e , 2 8 8 Ga. Ap p

. 7 2 5

, 7 2 9 (1 ) (6 5 5 SE2 d 2 1 7 ) (2 0 0 7 ) (n o t i n g th at th e o u t co m e i n t h at cas e

was co m p el led b y s t are d eci s i s ); s ee al s o Ku rt T. Las h

, “ O ri g i n al i s m , Po p u l ar So v erei g n t y , an d Rev ers e St are Deci s is ,” 93 V A

. L. R E V

. 1 4 3 7

, 1 4 5 4 (2 0 07 ) (n o t i n g

33Nev ert h el es s , w e tak e t hi s o p p o rt un i t y t o no t e t h at al m o s t t w en t y y ears ag o,

J u s t i ce Bl ack wel l (t h en a l aw st u d en t ) q u es t i o n ed th e val i di t y o f t h e Su p rem e Co urt ’ s

co n cl u s i o n i n Ga r

y , 7 8 s u gg es t i n g th at o u r Su p rem e Co u rt m i s co n s t ru ed O CGA § 1 7

-

5 -3 0

, wh i ch “ d o es n o t refl ect a l eg i s l at i v e co m m an d t h at t h e co u rt s o f t h e s t at e n ot

recei v e, in c r im in al pro ceed i n gs , an y ev id en ce sei zed i l l eg al l y ” an d is i n s t ead “ m erel y

a p ro ced u ral d ev i ce fo r d efen d an t s in v ok i n g t h e ex cl u si o n ary ru le, t h e s u b s t an t i v e

l i m i ts of wh i ch m

u s t b e fo u n d el s ewh ere.” 7 9 Ju s t i ce Bl ac k we l l al s o h i g h l i g h t ed t h e

s i m i l ari t i es b et ween OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0 an d Fed eral Ru l e of Cri m i n al Pro ced u re 4 1 (e)

as it ex i s t ed wh en OCGA § 1 7

- 5

- 3 0 w as en act ed

, n o t i n g t hat t h e fed eral co u rt s

reco g n ized Ru l e 4 1 (e) as b e i n g s t ri ct l y pro ced u ral i n n at u re. 8 0 Fi n al l y , J u s t i ce

t h at “ [v ] ert i cal s t are d eci s i s refers t o th e bi n d i n g effect o f p reced en t o n l o wer co u rt s ,”

an d th at “ [s ] eri o us ru l e o f l aw co s t s wo u l d fo l l o w i f l o wer co u rt s were free t o i g n o re

p reced en t es tab l i s hed b y

a h i g h er co u rt o f ap p eal ”).

7 8 S ee Kei t h R. Bl ack wel l

, No t e, “ Gary v

. St at e: Th e Geo rg i a Su p rem e Co u rt

Do d g es a Co n fro n t at i o n wi t h t h e Go o d Fai t h Ex cep t i o n ,” 3 2 G A

. L

. R E V

. 9 2 7 (1 9 9 8 ).

7 9 Id

. at 94 1 -4 2 (III); s ee s u p r a n o t e 5 3

.

8 0 Bl ack wel l

, s up r a , n o t e 7 8

, at 9 4 5 (III) & n .1 0 2 ; s ee al s o fo rm er Fed

. R. Cri m

. P. 4 1(e) (1 9 6 4 ) (“ A p ers o n ag gri ev ed b y an u n l awfu l s earch an d s ei zu re m ay m o v e

t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt fo r t h e di s tri ct i n w h i ch t h e p ro pert y w as s ei zed fo r t h e ret u rn o f t h e

p ro p ert y an d t o s u p pres s fo r th e u s e as ev i d en ce an y t h i n g s o o bt ai n ed o n t h e g ro u n d

t h at (1 ) t h e p ro p ert y was i l l eg al l y s ei zed w i t h o u t w arran t

, o r (2 ) t h e warran t i s i n s u ffi ci en t o n i t s face, o r (3 ) t he p ro pert y s ei zed i s no t t h at d es cri b ed i n t h e warran t

,

34Bl ack wel l cri t ici zed Ga r y ’ s d i s reg ard fo r a b a s i c can o n o f st at u t o ry

co n st ru ct i o n

— t h at “ s t at ut es i n d ero g at i on o f t rad i t i o n al co m m o n -l aw p ri n ci p l es

. . .

b e s t ri ct l y co n s t ru ed .” 8 1

St i l l

, ev en i f G a ry d i d no t co n s t rai n ou r co n s i d erat i o n o f th i s i s s u e an d co n tro l

t h e co n cl u si o n , we wo u l d h o l d t h at th e g oo d -fai t h ex cep t i o n d oes n ot ap p l y i n t h i s

o r (4 ) t h ere was n o t p ro b ab le cau s e fo r b el i ev i n g t h e ex i s t en c e o f t h e g ro u n d s o n wh i ch t h e warran t w as i ss u ed

, o r (5 ) t h e warran t was i l l e g a l l y ex ecu t ed

. Th e ju d g e

s h al l recei v e ev i d en ce o n an y i ss u e o f fact n eces s ary t o t h e d eci si on o f t he m o t i o n

. If

t h e m o t io n i s gran t ed t h e p ro p ert y s h al l b e res t o red u nl es s o t h erwi s e s u b ject t o l awfu l

d et en t i o n an d i t sh al l n o t b e ad m i s s i b l e i n ev id en ce at an y h eari n g o r t ri al

. Th e m o t i o n

t o s u p p res s ev i d en ce m ay al s o be m ad e i n t h e d i s t ri ct wh ere t h e t ri al i s t o b e h ad

. Th e

m o ti o n s hal l be m ad e b efo re t ri al o r heari n g u nl es s o p p ort u n i t y t h erefo r d i d n o t ex i s t

o r t h e d efen d an t w as no t aware o f t h e g ro u nd s fo r t h e m ot i o n , b u t t h e co urt i n i t s d i s cret i o n m ay

en t ert ai n t h e m o t i o n at t he t ri al o r h eari n g .”).

8 1 Bl ack wel l

, s u

p r a n ot e 7 8 , at 9 4 7 -4 8 (III).

35cas e. 8 2 Ne v e r t h e l es s , g i v en th e ab o ve cri ti ci s m s an d co n s i d erat i o ns , ou r Su p rem e

Co u rt m ay

wi s h t o rev is i t Ga r

y ’ s co n s t ru ct i o n o f OCGA § 1 7 -5 -3 0

.

Fo r al l t h es e reas o n s, we rev ers e th e t ri al co u rt ’ s d en i al o f Ab ercro m b i e’ s

m o ti o n t o s u p p res s

.

Ju d g men t r ever sed . Ra y, P. J., a nd

S el f , J., co n cu r

.

8 2 S ee Ch a n t h a s o uxa t , 3 4 2 F3 d at 1 2 80 (IV) (A) (i ii ) (b ) (“ W e . . . ag ree wi th

t h e Fi ft h C i r c u it an d t h e N i n t h Ci rcu i t th at t h e g o o d fai t h ex cep t i o n t o t h e

e x c l u s i on ary ru l e es t ab l i s h ed b y Un i t ed S t a tes v. Leo n s h o u l d no t b e ex t en d e d t o

ex cu se a v eh i cu lar s earch b as ed o n an offi cer’ s m i s t ak e o f l aw.” (ci t at i o n s o m i t t ed ));

s ee a l s o U n i t ed S t a t es v. McD o n a l d

, 4 5 3 F3 d 9 5 8

, 9 6 2 (II) (7 t h Ci r. 2 0 06 ) (“ Ev en

t h o u g h [t h e offi cer] m ay h av e act ed i n g o o d fai t h

, t h ere i s n o g o od fai t h ex cep t i o n to

t h e ex cl u s i o n ary ru le wh en , as h ere, an o ffi cer m ak es a s t o p bas ed o n a m i s t ak e o f l aw

an d t h e d ef

en d an t i s n o t v i o lat in g t h e l aw.”); U n i t ed S t a t es v. Lo

pez -S o t o , 2 0 5 F3 d

1 1 0 1

, 1 10 6 (II) (9 t h Ci r. 20 0 0 ) (“ W e h av e n o d o u b t t h at [t h e o ffi cer] h el d h i s

m i s t ak en v i ew o f t h e l aw i n g o o d fai t h

, b u t t h ere i s n o g o o d -fai t h ex cep ti on t o t h e

ex cl u s i o n ary ru le fo r p o li ce w ho do n o t act in acco r d a n c e wi t h g o v ern in g l aw. To

creat e an ex cep t i on h ere w o ul d d efeat t h e p u rp o se of th e ex cl u s i on ary ru l e, fo r i t

wo u l d rem o v e t he i ncen t i ve fo r p o l i ce t o m ak e cert ai n t hat t h ey p ro perl y u nd ers t an d

t h e l aw t h at t h ey are en t ru s t ed t o en fo rce an d o b ey

. ” (ci t at i on om i t ted )); Un i ted S t a t es

v. Lo p ez -Va l d ez , 1 7 8 F3 d 2 8 2

, 2 8 9 (II ) ( C ) ( 5 th Ci r. 1 9 99 ) (d ecl i n i n g t o ex t en d

ex cl u s i o n ary

ru le s o as t o ap pl y

t o g o o d -fai t h m is t ak es o f l aw).

36