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Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH)

Trauma Analysis

Issue Date: 05/27/2011

Revision: 0

Trauma Analysis

1.0 Principle, Spirit and Intent

Skeletal remains should be analyzed in a systematic manner for the purpose of 

determining both timing and mechanism of skeletal (i.e. osseous and dental) trauma that 

may be relevant to the circumstances of death or other pertinent forensic questions.

Analysis of trauma should involve careful observation and thorough documentation, and 

interpretations should be based on scientifically valid methods and principles.

2.0 Purpose and Scope

The following guidelines outline procedures for describing, documenting and interpreting 

skeletal trauma. These guidelines apply to all practitioners of forensic anthropology and 

should be implemented to the fullest extent practical and appropriate. In the absence of 

specific procedures or in the case of conflicting procedures, the principle, spirit and intent 

should be met.

3.0 General Principles

Forensic anthropologists may contribute to trauma analysis through assessment of: (1) the 

timing of the trauma (i.e., antemortem, postmortem or perimortem), and (2) the 

mechanism that produced the trauma (i.e., projectile, blunt, sharp, thermal).

The analysis of trauma requires the application of elements of physics, biomechanics, 

materials engineering, ballistics, taphonomy, anatomy and osteology. Even still, a

definitive conclusion may not be forthcoming and equivocal results should be reported as 

such.

With the exception of cartilage, which may be examined for trauma by the 

anthropologist, soft tissue examination is typically the purview of the pathologist. 

Documentation should include descriptive text, photographs, diagrams and radiographs. 

Descriptions should include the location and characteristics of trauma using 

measurements and standard anatomical terms.

When assessing skeletal trauma, remains should be examined before and after processing, 

and clothing damage relative to skeletal alterations should be considered when possible. 
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Careful consideration should be given when estimating the post-injury interval. 

A distinction must be drawn between description and interpretation. A description is 

essential to any report of trauma, but it is important to reserve an interpretation for cases 

where observations supporting a specific conclusion can be enumerated.

4.0 Best Practices

4.1 Trauma Timing

Characteristics and morphology of the alteration are used to assess when the trauma 

occurred relative to the death of the individual. Trauma timing may be classified as 

antemortem or perimortem. Postmortem alterations to bone are considered taphonomic 

events rather than trauma but will be addressed in these guidelines. 

To classify trauma timing, the alteration should be examined visually. Examination may

also include the use of a low magnification microscope and/or radiography. When a 

distinction cannot be made between antemortem, postmortem and perimortem, this 

should be clearly stated.

4.1.1 Antemortem Trauma

Antemortem trauma refers to an alteration produced before an individual’s death that 

displays evidence of osteogenic reaction. Features that may indicate antemortem trauma 

include:

 Evidence of healing or healed fractures

 Development of a pseudarthrosis

 Trauma-induced degenerative joint disease

 Infectious response

 Dental fractures with worn edges

 Surgically implanted devices

When trauma is classified as antemortem, consideration should be given to:

 Fracture type (e.g., simple, spiral) and the degree of healing to the fractured 

edges/margins

 The age of (time since) the trauma, which may affect the ability to identify the 

mechanism of trauma

 Biological factors such as age, sex, pathology and nutrition, which may affect 

healing rate 

 Whether the trauma may present evidence for identification and cause and/or 

manner of death

 Whether re-injury may have occurred, interrupting the healing process
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4.1.2 Perimortem Trauma

Perimortem trauma refers to an injury occurring at or around the time of death. Because 

of the properties of bone, the timing of injury is less precise when evaluating bone than 

when evaluating soft tissue. Within the anthropological realm, perimortem is determined 

on the basis of evidence of the biomechanical fracture characteristics of fresh bone. 

Perimortem trauma is a category in which remains lack evidence of healing and lack 

diagnostic taphonomic evidence of postmortem damage. Features that may indicate 

perimortem trauma include:

 A lack of osteological activity such as healing or infectious response

 The presence of fresh bone fracture characteristics (e.g., plastic response)

 The absence of dry bone fracture characteristics (e.g., angular fractures)

 An overall fracture pattern characteristic of a terminal event (e.g., rapid 

deceleration event) 

When trauma is classified as perimortem, consideration should be given to:

 Cautious use of the term perimortem, since it is used with varied temporal 

precisions within the forensic community; thus, an explanation of the term should 

be provided with clear reasons for a perimortem classification

 The inability to distinguish between antemortem, perimortem and postmortem 

damage should be clearly stated

 Classification of trauma as perimortem is strengthened when the mechanism can 

be identified

 Other indicators that may establish trauma as perimortem (e.g., hair entrapped in 

bone with associated blunt trauma injuries, the presence of blood staining) 

4.1.3 Postmortem Damage

Postmortem damage refers to taphonomic alteration or defects produced after an 

individual’s death that are unassociated with the death event. Features that may indicate

postmortem damage include:

 Differentially stained or recently exposed surfaces

 A lack of healing

 Characteristics of the break lacking evidence of a plastic component.

 Pattern of damage

When alterations are classified as postmortem damage, consideration should be given to:

 Terminology used to describe the alteration - terms such as “damage” or 

“breakage” are preferred when describing postmortem incidents; the term 

“fracture” should be reserved for viable bone

 Possible confusion with perimortem trauma
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4.2 Trauma Mechanism

Trauma mechanism refers to the force(s) that produce skeletal alterations and may be 

classified as resulting from high-velocity projectile, sharp force, blunt force or thermal 

exposure. Assessment of trauma mechanism is dependent on pattern recognition as well 

as the contributions of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that dictate the way bone fractures.

To classify trauma mechanism, the alteration should be examined visually and, when 

possible, before processing occurs. Examination may also include the use of a low 

magnification microscope and/or radiography. Reconstruction of fractured bones should 

be done to clearly establish the trauma mechanism unless circumstances do not permit 

reconstruction. Fracture margins and the angle of fracture surfaces can be important in 

interpretation and should be examined before reconstruction. Observed patterns should be 

compared to literature or other reference material to aid in classification of mechanism. 

Sequence multiple wounds only when there are clear indications of the order. When 

temporal wound sequencing cannot be done by the analyst, this should be clearly stated. 

4.2.1 High-Velocity Projectile Trauma

High-velocity projectile trauma is produced by impact from a projectile (typically 

gunshot or explosive-related) traveling at a high rate of speed. Features indicating highvelocity projectile trauma include: 

 The presence of a projectile in association with the bone

 Projectile entrance and/or exit wound characteristics

 The presence of residue, wipe or remnants of the projectile

 Fracture pattern indicating a high velocity impact

 Beveling of concentric fractures in bones of the cranial vault that indicate an 

internal to external force 

When alterations are classified as high-velocity projectile trauma, consideration should 

be given to:

 Identification of entrance and exit wounds providing description (indicating 

details of bevel), measurements, anatomic location and projectile direction 

relative to anatomy

 Examination of the endocranial surface for an impact site in the absence of an exit 

defect

 The presence of gunshot residue (e.g., soot and other materials discharged from a 

gun) that may represent close proximity of muzzle to target

 Using the term “bullet wipe” instead of “lead wipe,” since the outer surface of a 

bullet may be composed of materials other than lead

 The possibility of plastic deformation occurring when the projectile is slowed 

before impact by an intermediate target or energy loss during flight 
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4.2.2 Blunt Force Trauma

Blunt force trauma is produced by low-velocity impact from a blunt object (e.g., being 

struck by an object or concussive wave) or the low-velocity impact of a body with a blunt 

surface (e.g., motor vehicle accident or fall). Features indicating blunt force trauma 

include:

 Plastic deformation 

 Delamination

 Fracture pattern indicating a low-velocity impact

 Location and characteristics of known clinical fractures (e.g., parry, Colles, tea 

cup, or overall patterns seen in auto collisions or falls from great heights)

 Fractures in contiguous or anatomically related bone

 Tool marks or tool impressions indicating an impact site

 Beveling of concentric fractures in the cranial vault that indicate an external to 

internal force 

When alterations are classified as blunt force trauma, consideration should be given to:

 The possible presence of other substances or materials at or within the alteration

 Possible latent impact sites on the cranium in the form of dark stains resulting 

from entrapped blood and fat within crushed diploë 

 The distribution pattern of the fractures; a single impact can result in fractures of 

several bones (e.g., a fall resulting in serial rib fractures, shaking an infant 

resulting in rib and long bone fractures).

 Possible sharp force component

 Hyoid bone fractures since they may result from postmortem insult or an unfused 

horn that may mimic trauma

4.2.3 Sharp Force Trauma

Sharp force trauma is produced by a tool that is edged, pointed or beveled. Features 

indicating sharp force trauma include:

 Straight-line incised alterations

 Punctures or gouges

 Chop or hack marks (clefts) 

 Kerfs 

When alterations are classified as sharp force trauma, consideration should be given to:

 Casting the alteration, where appropriate

 The possible presence of other substances or materials present at or within the 

alteration
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 Pseudo-sharp trauma, such as scrape, score and scratch marks, which are not 

strictly classified as sharp force trauma 

 Possible blunt force component 

 Proper terminology to describe alteration and blade dimensions: The alteration is 

described in terms of length, width and depth while blades are described in terms 

of width, thickness and length

4.2.4 Thermal Trauma

Thermal trauma is produced by exposure to high temperature or direct contact with 

flame. Features indicating thermal trauma include:

 Color changes (e.g., yellow, black, white)

 Delamination 

 Burn pattern

 Shrinkage

 Charring or calcination

 Fractures

When alterations are classified as thermal trauma, consideration should be given to:

 Assessing whether a bone was fresh or dry when exposed to heat

 Identification and interpretation of aberrant patterns of burning that may provide 

information about the death (e.g., lack of pugilistic posture)

 Differentiation of thermal fractures from fractures associated with other types of 

trauma

5.0 Unacceptable Practices

The following practices are considered unacceptable and should be avoided when 

analyzing skeletal trauma: 

 The use of terms considered inflammatory or indicating a particular outcome such 

as “victim” (vs. “decedent”), “weapon” (vs. “tool or “object”), “violent”, “fatal,” 

“suffer” (as in “suffered an injury”) and “lethal”

 Speculation as to the ultimate cause of antemortem trauma except in cases that 

show identifiable patterning or radiographic evidence of identifiable foreign 

bodies

 Over-reaching, narrowly restricted, and/or unsupportable results. When uncertain, 

simply describe alterations

 Use of the term “ballistics” to refer to “gunshot wound.” The term “ballistics” 

refers to the study of bullet behavior within a firearm (internal ballistics), in flight 

(external ballistics), or within the target (terminal ballistics)

 Identification of bullet caliber from measurement of the entrance wound defect

 Estimation of muzzle distance to target 
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 Estimation of temperature or duration of heat exposure 

 Use of the term “hesitation mark” to describe superficial cuts or saw marks in 

bone

 Determination of the maximum number of impacts (be it blunt force, sharp force 

or high-velocity projectile).

 Individualization of a tool; instead, simply describe the characteristics of the 

affected surface

 Analysis of material observed within a defect, which may be beyond the 

practitioner’s expertise.