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SWGDOG SC1abcdefghijk – TERMINOLOGY 

SC1a – Posted for public comment 12/28/05 – 2/28/06. Approved by the membership 4/2/06. 

SC1b – Posted for public comment 4/22/06 – 6/22/06. Approved by the membership 10/2/06. 

SC1c – Posted for public comment 1/3/07 – 3/3/07. Approved by the membership 3/12/07. 

SC1d - Posted for public comment 5/10/07 – 7/8/07. Approved by the membership 8/15/07. 

SC1e - Posted for public comment 12/10/07 - 2/7/08. Approved by the membership 3/12/08. 

SC1f – Posted for public comment 4/15/08 - 6/13/08. Approved by the membership 9/17/08. 

SC1g - Posted for public comment 1/14/09 – 3/14/09. Approved by the membership 9/15/2009. 

SC1h - Posted for public comment 6/24/09 – 8/22/09. Approved by the membership 9/15/2009. 

SC1i – Posted for public comment 1/19/2010 – 3/19/2010. Approved by the membership 3/1/2010. 

SC1j - Posted for Public Comment 5/24/10 – 7/22/10. Approved by the membership 9/15/10. 

SC1k - Posted for Public Comment 1/7/11 – 3/9/11. Approved by the membership 3/22/11. 

Term Meaning Annotations 

Absolute Threshold Operational usage: The minimum 

intensity of a stimulus that is detected 

by a particular dog. In the case of odor 

it is the minimum concentration of 

vapor. This threshold varies from dog 

to dog and is affected by climate and 

the internal and external environment. 

Scientific usage: AT is determined by 

a statistical average based on the point 

where a specific compound can be 

detected 50% of the time. 

Note: This definition 

acknowledges that large and 

small amounts of the same 

compound don’t necessarily 

smell the same to the dog. The 

“absolute” may not be as 

relevant as it was formerly 

because of recent developments 

in learning. 

Acclimation / 

Environmental 

Conditioning 

Operational usage: A period of time 

used for the dog to become adjusted to 

its environment. 

Scientific usage: Adaptation or 

adjustment to a new circumstance. 

Acclimation is very important 

when moving animals from one 

facility and/or environment to 

another because this can be a 

time of increased morbidity / 

mortality. 

Accreditation The process by which an organization 

(or, in some cases, an individual or 

team) is formally recognized by an 

accreditation body as competent and 

able to plan, manage and operationally 

conduct their actions safely, effectively 

and efficiently. This is an ongoing 

process. 

See Accreditation Body. 

Accreditation body An organization responsible for 

management and implementation of 

the system defined above to set 

standards within the relevant field. 

 

Accredited The designation given to those who are 

able to demonstrate they meet or 
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exceed the standards set by the 

appropriate accreditation body. 

Accuracy Scientific usage: A measure of the 

extent to which the process is unbiased 

so that the measured values reflect the 

true values; measurements are accurate 

if they lack systematic errors (precise 

measures lack random errors). 

Acquired Behaviors Scientific usage: Behaviors that are 

earned and not innate. 

Active Adaptation 

(physiological term) 

Scientific usage: A temporary change 

in the responsiveness of a sensory 

receptor or a sense organ. 

Example: If a light is repeatedly 

flashed in your eye, you eventually 

cease responding to it. This is because 

of fatigue of the receptor. 

Active adaptation is very 

different from habituation in that 

this adaptation involves the 

sensors, only. Habituation 

involves learning, also. 

This may only be a factor at the 

extremes. For example, acute 

exposure to a very high 

concentration of a target odor. 

This ordinarily will not occur in 

a working dog scenario even in 

the situation where a very large 

amount of a target material is 

present. 

See also Saturation. 

Active avoidance Scientific usage: A non-reflexive 

response made in order to avoid an 

aversive event. 

Active avoidance is usually 

contrasted with passive 

avoidance where the animal 

learns that it must refrain from 

making a response. 

Activity Drive Operational usage: The propensity to 

be active. 

See Drive. 

Adaptation Scientific usage: In evolution a change 

in behavior or in form over time that 

helps the animal to survive. 

The ability to learn to exhibit 

certain behaviors in certain 

contexts is likely an adaptation. 

For example, baying of hounds is 

likely an adaptation to the types 

of behaviors or jobs for which 

they were developed. A thick 

undercoat and heavily plumed 

tail are likely adaptations for a 

cold environment in Nordic 

breeds, e.g., Malamute. 

Adipocere Semi-solid / liquid (cheesy) 

decomposition product of human 

remains. 

Adolescent dog Scientific usage: A dog that has not 
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yet reached social maturity. 

Adult dog Scientific usage: A dog for whom 

physical growth is complete, and who 

has reached social maturity. 

Aged trail A trail that has been present for some 

period of time. 

Aggression Scientific usage: Description of an act 

that is an outcome of an agonistic 

interaction. It can be appropriate or 

inappropriate, and involve a threat, 

challenge or contest. 

Note: The word “aggressive” is 

often used as a descriptive term for

intense, enthusiastic, or forceful 

behavior of any kind, and these 

dogs may not be truly aggressive 

or possess aggression. 

Aggressive/Active/ 

Response 

Operational usage: A response by the 

dog that disturbs the environment, i.e., 

scratch, bark, bite, dig after the dog has 

alerted to the target odor. 

Aggressiveness See aggression. 

Agility Operational usage: A character trait 

which describes the natural (running) 

speed, surefootedness, and 

coordination, and the ability of the dog 

to correct and recover. 

Agility Course Operational usage: Series of 

operationally relevant obstacles 

designed to acclimate the dog to 

various stressful environments and 

increase the dog's capability to 

successfully perform in those 

environments, or test the dog’s 

capability to perform in a [pet] 

competition environment. 

Air Scent Dog Operational usage: A dog using air 

scenting techniques to detect a trained 

odor. 

Air Scent Drive Operational usage: The propensity to 

locate targets by using windborne 

odors. 

See Drive.

Air Scenting Operational usage: A technique used 

by a dog to locate a target odor. The 

dog searches for target odor on wind / 

air currents and attempts to identify / 

work on a scent cone to the source. 

Alert A characteristic change in ongoing 

behavior in response to a trained odor, 

as interpreted by the handler. 

The components of the alert may 

include: Change of behavior (COB), 

Alert has been used / defined by 

various agencies as a range of 

responses from a change of 

behavior to a final response. 

With the advent of SWGDOG 
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interest, and final response or 

indication. 

guidelines an attempt has been 

made to standardize certification, 

and the tasks in which the dog 

must succeed have been more 

specifically defined across 

disciplines than has been done 

previously. Because of this, it 

may be useful to more narrowly 

define the various stages of 

canine detection behaviors that 

are clear to skilled handlers. 

Accordingly, we have defined 

‘interest’, ‘COB’ and ‘response’. 

Implicit in these recommended 

best practices concerning 

training, certification, and 

operational situations, is that 

handlers should move away from 

less specific descriptions to more 

specific ones. The resultant 

clarity will benefit dogs, 

handlers, trainers, and the 

judiciary in producing the 

clearest possible outcomes. 

It is the handler’s responsibility 

to report when the dog has 

alerted and to identify what 

behavior the dog uses to do so. 

Allele Scientific usage: One of the possible 

forms of a given gene; alleles of a 

particular gene occupy the same 

position on locus on the homologous 

chromosomes (e.g., each chromosome 

set comes as a pair - each parent 

contributes1 set of info to complete the 

pair). 

Anthropocentrism Assuming that the animal see things 

from a human viewpoint. 

Anthropomorphism Attributing human values, emotions, 

and thought processes to an animal. 

Approach-approach 

conflict 

Scientific usage: A conflict resulting 

from having the choice of two equally 

desirable but mutually incompatible, 

unobtainable goals or stimuli. The 

conflict is generally resolved when one 

gets behaviorally or physically closer 

to one of the two goals or stimuli since 

Ex. If you have a male dog that 

is trained to detect target odor 

and is in the process of detecting 

the odor and you also have a 

bitch in heat at a distance, the 

male becomes more distracted as 

the bitch approaches. 
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desirability increases with closeness. 

This type of conflict is easily solved by 

approaching one of the sources of 

reinforcement, or by having one of the 

sources of reinforcement approach the 

individual making the decision. 

Approach-avoidance 

conflict 

Scientific usage: A conflict resulting 

from being both drawn and repelled by 

the same stimulus. With distance the 

stimulus appears more desirable, and 

with closeness the stimulus seems less 

desirable, in contrast with approachapproach conflict. As the individual 

approaches, because the stimulus 

appears less desirable the individual 

withdraws, leading to an increase in 

the stimulus’s perceived positive 

features relative to the negative ones. 

More information about relative value 

and outcomes can resolve these 

situations, but if they are unresolved, 

displacement behavior may occur. 

Ex. This can be seen in Human 

Remains Detection (HRD) dogs 

that tend to shy away from 

overpowering amounts of odor 

(whole bodies) when they have 

been trained using smaller 

amounts of odor (body parts 

and/or fluids). 

Approximation / 

Shaping by successive 

approximation 

(Scientific usage) The reinforcement of 

successive stages towards the direction 

of the final behavior. 

Breaking a complex behavior down 

into small behaviors (baby steps) to 

train one step at a time reinforcing the 

animal each time it accomplishes a 

step towards the final behavior. 

Area search The act of using a dog to search a 

designated area for a target odor. 

Articles Operational usage: Objects left on the 

track or in a search area at various 

intervals to which the dog is expected 

to indicate. 

Avalanche Search Dog A dog trained to search for, detect 

and/or locate people trapped in snow 

as a result of an avalanche. 

Aversive Conditioning Scientific usage: Training procedure 

relying on the use of unpleasant 

stimuli. 

For example, when a dog receives a 

pop on the leash as it is lunging for 

food on the floor in the work 

environment. Dog learns that lunging 
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for food is an unpleasant experience. 

Aversive Stimulus Scientific usage: A stimulus that an 

animal will work to terminate or avoid. 

Avoidance Learning / 

Avoidance 

Conditioning 

Scientific usage: The process in which 

an animal responds to a signal to avoid 

unpleasant consequences (aversive 

stimulus). 

Ex. A dog sits on command to 

avoid a correction. 

Avoidance Training Scientific usage: See Avoidance 

Learning. 

Avoidance-avoidance 

conflict 

Scientific usage: A conflict resulting 

from being repelled by two undesirable 

goals or stimuli when there are strong 

pressures to choose one or the other. 

Often when the conflict is intense the 

individual will refuse to choose 

between the alternatives. 

Ex. If the handler has made an 

error and corrects the dog 

inappropriately while the dog is 

working the target odor then the 

dog associates the odor with the 

correction and therefore avoids 

the odor. 

Backup Handler Dog / 

Second Handler Dog / 

Multi Handler Dog / 

Pooled Dog 

A dog that is trained and certified with 

more than one handler. 

This is not a best practice for 

most disciplines but can be 

acceptable in some limited 

circumstances. 

Backward Chaining Scientific definition: Process in which 

an animal learns to emit a series of 

responses. A chain is trained 

backwards, beginning with the last 

behavior, then the second to last 

behavior, et cetera. 

An example for people would be 

memorizing a poem starting with 

the last stanza instead of the 

first. Then learn the second to 

last and combine it with the last. 

When you recite them, you are 

always working towards parts of 

the poem you know better so you 

should be more successful than if 

working first to last. 

Baseline (or base rate) Scientific usage: The normal frequency 

of occurrence of any response per unit 

of time for that individual or group of 

individuals. 

The purpose of all training is to 

either increase or decrease the 

frequency of a behavior from its 

baseline level. Baseline usually 

refers to the frequency of a 

behavior before training starts. 

For example, all dogs will sit at 

some individual rate (a baseline). 

Once trained, a dog that sits on 

target odor is increasing the 

frequency of the behavior above 

baseline. 

If the frequency reliably 

increases or decreases from the 

baseline, then training was 

effective. 
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Behavioral Chain A series of independent behaviors that 

are linked together. 

Detection dog example for 

chaining: A dog is taught a sit 

command. The dog is now 

introduced to a box with a target 

odor inside and staring is elicited 

in anticipation of a reward. Once 

the behavior of staring into the 

box is learned, the sit behavior is 

added, chaining the stare and the 

sit. 

See Chaining. 

Best practices A system of processes, checks and 

testing that will deliver an outcome 

that has fewer problems and fewer 

unforeseen complications, and that 

combines the attributes of the most 

efficient and most effective ways of 

accomplishing a task based on proven 

and provable methods. 

Best practices require 

documentation and must be 

distributed before they can be 

used, cited, and improved upon, 

thus encouraging continuous 

improvement. There are 5 

components of any “best 

practice”, regardless of field: 

1. best skills, 

2. best processes, 

3. best solutions, 

4. identifying and 

provisioning of 

appropriate resources, 

and 

5. continual improvement. 

Blank Search Operational usage: A training or 

certification exercise in which the 

target odor is not present. 

Blind experiments Scientific usage: Experiments are 

considered blind if the person 

obtaining the measurements does not 

know what the treatments were. 

Blood line Operational usage: The direct 

ancestors in the dog’s pedigree. 

Note: Pedigrees are routinely 

printed showing 4-5 generations, 

including that of the dog in 

question. 

Boldness Scientific usage: A characteristic of a 

dog that is resilient in novel or 

stressful situations, exhibits minimal 

fear, and recovers quickly. 

Bond Positive relationship, rapport between 

dogs or a human(s) and a dog. 

Bone 

“Dry” bone 

Skeletal remains that have no soft 

tissue or fluid. 

Bone Skeletal remains that have soft tissue 
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“Wet” bone or fluid. 

Breeds of dogs Operational usage: Groups of dogs 

based on canalized or restrictive gene 

pools derived by selective breeding by 

humans for behavior or function and / 

or conformation. When sire and dam 

come from the same breed, puppies are 

expected to fall within the broad 

outlines of the breed standard, which 

outlines physical and behavioral 

attributes said to be typical of the 

breed. 

Note: Recent (2004, 2005) 

genetic information indicates that 

members of breeds are 

genetically more similar to each 

other than they are to members 

of other breeds, and breed groups 

developed for more similar 

purposes (e.g., herding) are more 

similar to each other than are 

breed groups developed for 

different purposes. 

Bridge or bridging 

stimulus 

A signal (conditioned reinforcer) that 

marks (reinforces) a desired behavior. 

Often called a “bridge” because it 

bridges the gap in time from when the 

animal performs the desired behavior 

to when it receives the reward. An 

example would be the use of a clicker. 

Functionally, the bridge is used 

to specifically reinforce a 

behavior performed at a distance 

where it is impossible to provide 

a primary reinforcement at the 

correct time. If used correctly, 

the bridge reinforces at the exact 

instant when an animal 

successfully completes a desired 

behavior, or the exact time when 

an ongoing behavior should be 

stopped. 

Also see Conditioned reinforcer. 

Cadaver Scientific usage: A dead body or the 

remains of a dead body. 

Canine Scientific definition: A dog, Canis 

familiaris, more commonly used to 

denote a working dog and sometimes 

abbreviated as K-9. 

Canine Team Operational usage: A human and 

working dog who train and work 

together as an operational unit. 

Casting Operational usage: 

1. A description of the dog’s 

movement as the dog searches for 

and/or follows the concentration of 

target odor. 

2. A directional command to the dog. 

Certification A process that attests to the successful 

completion of an examination of 

relevant skills for the canine team. 

Certifying Official / 

Assessor 

Individual authorized by an 

organization or agency to administer 

and assess an examination of relevant 

skills of the canine team. 
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Chaining The process of linking behaviors 

together in order to form a chain. 

In most cases, each component 

of the chain is individually 

learned and the “chaining” 

consists of linking them together, 

usually starting with the final 

behavior and then adding the 

next-to-final behavior and so on. 

This is often called backward 

chaining or linking in reverse 

order. 

See Behavior Chaining; Chainof-behaviors 

Chain-of-behaviors Two or more behaviors that occur in a 

fixed order. The termination of the 

first behavior is the signal to start the 

second behavior. 

See Behavior Chaining, 

Chaining 

Change of behavior 

(COB) 

Operational usage: A characteristic 

pattern of behaviors, as interpreted by 

the handler, that occurs when the dog 

detects a trained odor. This differs 

from other olfactory interest that 

otherwise are exhibited by the dog in 

response to the daily environment. 

The initial change of behavior 

typically leads to following the 

odor to its source and then giving 

the trained response. 

The pattern of behavior may be 

unique to each dog. 

See Alert. 

Character / Personality 

Traits / Dimensions 

Scientific usage: Behavioral qualities 

that are relatively constant and reliable, 

and frame or affect the dog’s response 

in all contexts. The best scientific 

evidence for these patterns is for what 

has been called shyness / nervousness 

and boldness in dogs. 

Chimney effect The effect of heat on odor/scent such 

that the odor/scent rises and travels 

through the air in a manner affected by 

air movement and temperature through 

convection. The end effect is that 

odor/scent is detected in a place that is 

different from the source. This can 

happen indoors or outdoors. 

Chromosome Scientific usage: Threadlike structure 

of DNA and RNA that carries genes 

and that resides in the nucleus of each 

cell; chromosomes are paired in body 

or somatic cells (= diploid or 2N) and 

occur in single copies or 1⁄2 the pair in 

sex cells (= haploid or 1 N); the 

number of chromosomes found in each 
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nucleus - the diploid # - is 

characteristic of each species (humans 

have 23 pair of chromosomes or a 

diploid # of 46; 1 pair of chromosomes 

determine sex, and the others are called 

autosomes; dogs have 39 chromosome 

pairs, 38 of which are autosomes). 

Classical Conditioning Scientific usage: Classical or 

Pavlovian conditioning is a form of 

learning by making associations. In the 

true sense it involves a neutral 

stimulus, an unconscious response, and 

a conditioned response that links the 

first two. Classical conditioning is a 

simple form of behavior modification 

where a neutral stimulus elicits the 

behavior for which there was formerly 

no association. Once established, 

classical conditioning leads to 

anticipation. 

Coercion Training 

See Positive 

Reinforcement; 

motivation 

Scientific usage: Coercion deals with 

compliance induced by physical or 

mental pleasure. 

Cognition Scientific usage: The mental process 

by which an animal solves problems. 

Competent Having suitable or sufficient skill, 

knowledge, experience, etc., for some 

purpose; properly qualified. 

Comprehensive 

Assessment 

Operational usage: An extended 

single-blind exercise. 

Compulsion Training Scientific usage: Training by the use 

of threat or force. 

Concentration Operational usage: The dog’s focus on 

the area of search (further specification 

will be discipline specific). 

Conditioned Aversive 

Stimulus 

As a result of classical conditioning, an 

event that is initially neutral will 

acquire aversive properties because it 

is paired with other aversive events. 

This is exactly like the bridge, but it 

happens with aversive events. 

Ex. A “leave it” command is 

associated with a physical/verbal 

correction. 

Conditioned Fear Scientific usage: Fear in response to a 

previously neutral stimulus caused by 

aversive conditioning and/or event. 

See Fear. 

Conditioned Scientific usage: Example: A previously neutral 
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Reinforcer A previously neutral stimulus that has 

become reinforcing because of its 

association with a primary reinforcer. 

A stimulus that becomes a reinforcer 

because it is paired with another 

reinforcer, usually a primary 

reinforcer. If conditioned reinforcers 

are not maintained by periodically 

pairing them with primary reinforcers, 

they will lose their reinforcing value. 

clicker comes to have reinforcing 

properties because of its pairing 

with the delivery of food. 

See Bridge. 

Also referred to as secondary 

reinforcer. 

Conditioned Response 

(CR) 

Scientific usage: See classical 

conditioning. In classical or Pavlovian 

conditioning, a conditioned response 

(CR) is produced by pairing a 

conditioned stimulus (CS) with an 

unconditioned stimulus (UCS). 

In Pavlov’s famous experiment, 

salivation became the 

conditioned response to the 

ringing bell. 

Conditioned Stimulus 

(CS) 

Scientific usage: See classical 

conditioning. In classical or Pavlovian 

conditioning a previously neutral 

stimulus (NS) becomes the conditioned 

stimulus (CS) and evokes the 

conditioned response (CR) after it is 

repeatedly paired with an 

unconditioned stimulus (UCS). 

In Pavlov’s experiment, the 

ringing bell was a neutral 

stimulus that became a 

conditioned stimulus after 

repeating pairings with food. 

Conditioning A general term that explains how 

animals learn the connection between 

stimuli, events, and actions. 

See Classical conditioning and 

operant conditioning. 

Confirmed Alert Operational usage: An alert for which 

the presence of a trained odor can be 

verified or corroborated. 

Also referred to as a “hit”, “find” 

and/or “positive response”. 

Conflict A condition in which two or more 

events cause incompatible responses. 

Confounding factors Scientific usage: These are the other 

things that change in the course of an 

experiment that should be controlled. 

Note: If you don’t control these 

aspects you are at risk for not 

measuring what you think you 

are measuring. 

Consistency / 

reliability 

Scientific usage: See Reliability / 

consistency; consistent measures are 

those where repeated measurements of 

the same thing produce the same 

results. 

Contaminating odor Operational usage: Of target: any odor 

not ordinarily part of a target odor 

signature. 

Of area: any odor not normally part of 

the context of that area. 

Continuous A schedule of reinforcement where 
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reinforcement (CRF) every occurrence of the behavior is 

reinforced. 

Control Scientific usage: The variable that 

does not change in an experiment. 

Co-ordination/ Timing Operational usage: The handler’s 

ability to correctly recognize and 

reward a desired behavior of the dog, 

or redirect or stop an undesired 

behavior. 

Correction Operational usage: An aversive 

stimulus intended to prompt the dog to 

respond appropriately to a handler 

using a device such as a verbal 

reprimand, choke collar (slip) / check 

chain, prong collar, remote trainer, etc. 

Correlation Scientific usage: A correlation is an 

association between 2 variables, when 

the variables are linearly related. 

Correlation does not imply cause. 

Note: There are 3 reasons for 

correlations: A can cause B, B 

can cause A, or A and B are 

independently related to another 

variable, C. 

Courage Operational usage: The absence of 

fearful behavior towards real or 

imagined danger; such as the ability to 

rebound from unnerving situations. 

Cremains Cremated human remains. 

Crittering (also see 

Distractability) 

Operational usage / colloquial: A 

change in the dog’s behavior where the 

dog becomes distracted by animal odor 

or some other animal distracter. 

Crittering is usually evident as there is 

a change in body language (head and 

tail position). 

Cross-trained Dog A dog that is trained to react 

differently to different scent detection 

applications. 

This is not the same as a dualpurpose dog, however it has 

historically been referred to as 

one in law enforcement. 

Ex. Cross-trained dogs may have 

different responses to different 

target odors. A dog detecting a 

live person may bark whereas the 

same dog detecting human 

remains may sit. 

Decision Making Operational usage: The handler’s 

ability to recognize the dog’s reactions 

and then translate and communicate to 

other officers whether or not the 

detector dog alerted to the presence of 

Note: See “Alert “ re: the ability 

to distinguish the components of 

an alert. 
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a trained odor. 

Defense / defensive 

behavior 

Operational usage: Behavior exhibited 

by canines to protect themselves and, 

or their handler when faced with a 

perceived or real threat. 

Delay of reinforcement The interval between the performance 

of a behavior and the delivery of 

reinforcement. 

Dependent variable Scientific usage: In the most simple 

experiment this is the item whose 

response you measure. 

Deployment Operational usage: After initial 

assessment of the search environment, 

the handler conducts an efficient, 

effective and thorough search. 

Deployment Log / 

Record 

or 

Utilization Log / 

Record 

A record of the use of a trained canine 

team in an operational environment, as 

opposed to training records. 

Deprivation Operational usage: The restriction of 

access to something desired by the dog 

such as food, social companions, or 

toys. 

Desensitization (DS) A behavior modification technique that 

decreases a response or the reactivity 

or sensitivity to a stimulus. 

For example, a dog barks and 

lunges whenever he sees a 

stranger. In this case this is an 

undesirable response. The dog is 

then exposed to strangers at a 

distance at which he does not 

react and is rewarded for not 

reacting. Gradually, the distance 

between the dog and the stranger 

decreases, always at a pace that 

ensures the dog does not react, 

and he is continually rewarded 

for not reacting. Reactions are 

ignored. The end point is reached 

when the dog no longer reacts to 

strangers by lunging and barking 

at them. DS is often used with 

counter-conditioning (CC). 

This may involve elements of 

active and passive 

desensitization. 

Detector/Detection Dog Operational usage: A dog trained to 

detect and alert to the presence of 

May be referred to as a law 

enforcement or search and rescue 
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certain scents or odors for which it has 

been trained. 

service dog, which is not to be 

confused with dogs covered by 

the Americans with Disabilities 

Act (ADA). 

Differential 

Reinforcement 

This is a training and behavior 

modification technique where only one 

response to a particular stimulus is 

rewarded. All other responses are not 

reinforced. 

For trainers, “differential 

reinforcement” usually refers to 

the technique of establishing 

discriminations and establishing 

stimulus control. 

Differential 

reinforcement of 

incompatible behavior 

(DRI) 

A technique used in behavior therapy 

and training designed to reduce the 

frequency of a target behavior by 

reinforcing a specific behavior that is 

incompatible with a target behavior. 

DRI combines extinction of the target 

behavior with reinforcement for 

performing a specific behavior that is 

incompatible with the target behavior. 

Ex. A dog cannot stand up and 

sit down at the same time and it 

has to choose, the correct action 

is rewarded. For example, if a 

dog runs after cats, you train the 

dog to sit whenever it sees a cat. 

It is impossible for a sitting dog 

to run. 

Differential 

reinforcement of other 

behavior (DRO) 

A technique used in behavior therapy 

and training designed to reduce the 

frequency of a target behavior by 

giving the subject reinforcement as 

long as the target behavior does not 

occur. If the target behavior occurs, 

the reinforcement is stopped. 

Actually, DRO is a combination of 

extinction of the target behavior while 

providing the subject with 

reinforcement for doing anything else. 

Ex. The dog is rewarded for 

anything other than the 

undesirable behavior. A dog that 

jumps up is rewarded for 

anything other than jumping up 

(sitting, walking, standing, etc.) 

Differential Response The pattern of exhibiting one behavior 

in one set of circumstances and not 

exhibiting it in another. 

Diploid Scientific usage: A cell or organism 

with twice the haploid # (2N) of 

chromosomes - produced by mating (N 

= haploid # of chromosomes). 

Disaster Search Dog Operational usage: A dog trained to 

detect and indicate live or deceased 

victims in debris resulting from 

manmade or natural catastrophic 

events. 

Discrimination The ability to recognize differences 

between two or more stimuli. 

Operational usage: The ability to 

recognize differences between two or 

more odors. 

In training, “discrimination” 

refers to a procedure of 

differential reinforcement which 

results in the dog being 

reinforced for responding only 

when a specific stimulus is 
15 

presented. 

Ex. The dog will recognize 

trained odors and differentiate 

them from all others. 

Discriminative 

Stimulus 

Scientific usage: A stimulus that 

signals when a particular response 

produces specific consequences. For 

example, sitting in the presence of a 

particular odor leads to a reward. The 

odor in this case is the discriminative 

stimulus. 

Displacement behavior A behavior that is exhibited when the 

individual does not have access to a 

goal or to solving the problem; the 

behaviors exhibited may become 

common ones for that individual to 

exhibit when in such a circumstance 

but may not have anything to do with 

the behaviors that would be used to 

solve the problem. 

Example: The dog cannot get to 

the bone that is outside his run, 

so he runs in circles. 

Displacement behavior is not to 

be confused with redirected 

behavior when the target of the 

behavior becomes unavailable 

either through absence, restraint, 

or prohibition, and the individual 

exhibits the behavior that would 

have occurred to another – but 

out of context – individual. 

Example: You yell at the dog for 

chasing the cat, so the dog chases 

the child instead of the cat. 

Redirected behaviors are 

replacement ‘in kind’ using 

similar behaviors; displacement 

behaviors are not ‘in kind’ 

behaviors and have nothing to do 

with the original goal and action. 

Distemper Scientific usage: A highly contagious 

viral disease of canids, including 

domestic dogs, that is caused by a 

paramyxovirus genus Morbillivirus) 

and is marked by fever, leukopenia, 

and respiratory, gastrointestinal, and 

neurological symptoms, especially in 

young dogs. In older dogs 

symptomology may be less severe, but 

neurological impairment is common. 

Note: Routine vaccine protocols 

include a vaccination against 

distemper. 

Distractibility Operational usage: The tendency to be 

easily diverted from task. 

Distractor Non-target stimuli placed within a 

search area. These can include: toys, 
16 

food, animal odor, etc. 

Disturbed area Operational usage: A change in the 

normal scent picture of the area. 

DNAdeoxyribonucleic acid 

Scientific usage: The building 

structure of heritable material which is 

formed into a code. The code has only 

4 components, called base pairs. The 4 

DNA base pairs are: adenine, guanine, 

thymine, and cytosine. It’s the order 

of these codes that specifies which 

proteins are made in conjunction with 

RNA (ribonucleic acid), which help 

read the code and follow its 

instructions within the cell. 

The material that makes the heritable 

genetic code. This is the material that 

provides the instructions for the cell. 

Dog Scientific usage: A domestic canid 

(Canis familiaris) used in various work 

or companionship tasks. 

Note: Although the most recent 

common ancestor to dogs is 

wolves, it is important to 

remember that there were 

multiple speciation events over 

the past 135,000 years that lead 

to the dog as a separate species. 

Dog Handler Operational usage: The trained person 

who works the dog. 

Double-blind/Doubleblind testing 

Scientific usage: This condition occurs 

when neither the experimenter/handler, 

nor the observer/evaluator, knows 

which treatments / manipulations are 

given to which subjects. 

Operational usage: See SC2 document. 

In the evaluation of a dog neither the 

assessor nor the handler knows the 

location of the target odor or whether 

target odor is present (i.e., a blank /null 

search). 

This means that neither party 

knows what outcome is 

expected. A double-blind 

evaluation is the most powerful 

of the designs to remove bias 

(like cuing) on both sides, and it 

is one of the best techniques 

known to minimize false 

positives and false negatives, but 

it requires careful thought and, 

sometimes, a coded design. 

Operational examples include the 

following: 

1. True deployment situation: 

Every time a team deploys 

the team is participating in a 

double-blind trial: They do 

not know if they will find a 

target odor or not. If no target 
17 

odor is found, it is equivalent 

to a blank search. In addition, 

if there is target odor present, 

the handler does not know 

where it is, and no one who 

evaluates the team’s 

performance has that 

knowledge. In fact, the 

handler calls the dispatcher 

and reports the outcome of 

the evaluation that they 

conducted in response to a 

suspicious situation. 

2. Operational environment 

situation: The supervising 

officer leaves a car in a 

parking lot that has had target 

odor placed in it. He or she 

calls to report a suspicious 

situation and asks the 

dispatcher to request that a 

canine team investigate the 

car. The canine team arrives, 

performs the search and calls 

the dispatcher to report the 

findings. This is a doubleblind “operational” 

experiment: neither the 

handler nor the assessor (i.e., 

the dispatcher) knows the 

location of the target odor, or 

whether any was present. 

3. Training example: The 

assessor sets up a course 

(indoors or out) that has 

distractors or target odor or 

both. The assessor leaves. 

The following 3 examples 

show ways the team’s 

findings can be reported in a 

double-blind manner: 

a. The assessor leaves and 

the performance of the 

team is videotaped. The 

video is reviewed by the 

assessor or someone else 

to see how well the team 

performed. 
18 

b. The assessor leaves the 

course and a person not 

involved in setting the 

course evaluates the 

team’s performance. 

c. The assessor leaves the 

course with instructions 

that the handler place a 

tag, flag, or cone at every 

location where the dog 

alerted. The handler and 

dog then leave the course, 

and either the assessor or 

another person notes 

whether the presence of 

the tags or flags match 

the pattern of target odor 

on the course. 

These double-blind assessments 

are examples of best practices, 

the goal being to enhance the 

performance and reliability of 

the detection team. When done 

properly a double-blind 

assessment is inarguable, and it 

is the only assessment that 

replicates the real world in which 

the team is expected to operate. 

Please note: Teams experiencing 

deficiencies should not undergo 

double-blind training until basic 

deficiencies are resolved. 

Drive Scientific usage / concerns: There are 

problems with this definition in both 

the behavioral and genetics 

communities, see Notes. 

Operational usage: Drive is the 

propensity of a dog to exhibit a 

particular pattern of behaviors when 

faced with particular stimuli. Drives 

are triggered by these particular stimuli 

and expressed in a typical and 

predictable way that is associated with 

the particular stimulus. Drives can be 

enhanced or diminished through 

Note: There are problems with 

this definition in both the 

behavioral and genetics 

communities because we cannot 

measure or even accurately 

define one of the key parts of the 

operational definition: 

“instinctual”/ “instinctive”. 

Also, if dogs can be considered 

“low drive” the response cannot 

be exaggerated, and the ability to 

enhance or diminish a response 

is a key part of the operational 

definition of drive. Finally, while 
19 

experience (e.g., training, environment, 

et cetera), but they cannot be created or 

eliminated. 

Traditionally defined in the working 

dog literature as an exaggerated, 

instinctual response to certain stimuli 

and situations. Drive is most narrowly 

and clearly defined as a willingness, 

vigor, or enthusiasm to engage in 

certain behavior, contexts, or 

situations. 

you may easily compare 2 dogs 

in front of you where one has 

relatively “higher drive” than 

the other, this type of relativistic 

comparison cannot be 

quantitatively tested and 

validated within or between 

observers, and does not provide a 

phenotype that can be used in 

genetic analyses, or behavioral 

tests to improve technique. 

Dual-purpose Dog A dog trained in two disciplines. Ex. A dog trained for patrol and 

detection work. 

Combining narcotics and 

explosives detection in the same 

dog is not an acceptable practice 

and should not be done. 

Emergency stop Operational usage: A situation where 

the handler instructs a dog to stop its 

movement. 

FEMA term 

Environmental 

Enrichment 

The process of improving the mental 

and physical welfare of animals by 

providing behavioral choices through 

enhancements to their environment. 

Techniques can include introduction of 

new stimuli (e.g., food, toys), operant 

contingencies, social partners or 

training sessions. Behavioral 

enrichment is intended, in part, to 

reduce the frequency of problematic 

behaviors, including stereotypical 

ones. It is important to ascertain that 

this type of intervention is functioning 

as intended by testing it to see if there 

is a change in the intended direction of 

the behaviors in question (e.g., the dog 

sits and stares at the kennel door all 

day before the intervention; with a 

kennel-mate he stares at the door less 

and grooms his kennel-mate and is 

groomed by him). 

Also referred to as Behavioral 

enrichment. 

Environmental 

Training/Testing: 

Operational usage: Instruction and 

evaluation procedures used to teach a 

dog to work, and determine whether a 

dog can work, in a variety of 

operational environments with 
20 

increasing biological and physical 

complexity, which may distract or 

inhibit the dog from work. The 

training and testing, respectively, are 

designed to teach the dog to work, and 

assure that the dog can work, in a 

variety of operational environments, 

some of which may be extreme. 

Evaluator An individual with relevant training 

and experience in the discipline being 

evaluated, who assesses the 

performance of canine, handler, or 

team while showing no bias or 

partiality. 

See Certifying Official. 

Note for SC2: The outstanding 

question is whether an evaluator 

is held to specific and defined 

standards. The sub-disciplines 

need to decide what is relevant 

and what qualifications are 

needed. SC2 should list general 

qualifications (ethics, sources of 

evaluators and the need to avoid 

potential biases, et cetera) and 

the individual sub-disciplines 

need to list the specific technical 

concerns. One of the concerns is 

who gets to “license” the 

handlers and evaluators. In some 

cases the evaluators may be 

determined by the initiating 

authority. This issue needs to be 

addressed by the sub-disciplines. 

Evidence Search Dog Operational usage: A dog trained to 

locate and indicate items in question 

by means of detecting human scent. 

Evidence/ Article 

Search 

The process of locating and indicating 

items that contain non-specific or 

targeted human scent. 

See Evidence Search Dog. 

Examination A physical, written or oral test. 

Experimental bias Scientific usage: Anyone testing any 

idea has a strong expectation about the 

outcome, and an interest in not being 

mistaken. This is the experimental 

bias. The only way to control for this 

is by ensuring the person making the 

measurements does not know what 

treatment each subject received until 

the experiment is completed. 

Extinction Burst A short period of an increase in the 

occurrence of a previously reinforced 

response that is brought about by the 

withdrawal of reinforcement. 

Extinction Training A procedure where the reinforcement 
21 

of a previously reinforced behavior is 

discontinued with the intention to 

reduce the occurrence of that behavior. 

Fading A term used to describe a procedure 

for gradually changing a stimulus 

controlling an individual’s 

performance to another stimulus. 

The gradual removal of reinforcement, 

as in the progressive reduction of a 

reinforcement schedule. 

False negative Operational usage: A response 

indicating that something is not true or 

not present when it is true or present. 

See miss. 

Scientific usage: Type II error. 

Fear Scientific usage: A behavioral 

response involving the autonomic 

nervous system (e.g., “fight or flight”) 

in the presence of real or imagined 

danger involving avoidance and, or 

withdrawal under circumstances where 

the dog is distressed. 

Final Response Operational usage: A behavior that a 

dog has been trained to exhibit in the 

presence of a target odor source. This 

behavior may be either passive (sit, 

stare, down, point, etc.) or active (bite, 

bark, scratch, etc.). 

An absence of a final response 

does not necessarily negate any 

behavioral responses given 

earlier in the alert sequence. 

Therefore, absence of a final 

response does not mean a target 

odor is not present. See specific 

SC documents and definitions 

for what is an acceptable 

response given the relevant 

operational needs. 

See Alert. 

Firearm Detection Dog Operational usage: A dog that is 

specifically trained to locate and 

respond to the presence of firearms by 

associated odor. 

Fixed Interval 

Schedule of 

Reinforcement 

A schedule of reinforcement in which 

rewards for a correct response occur 

after a fixed period of time. 

Ex. A canine is trained to 

respond to a target odor by 

sitting and, holding the sit for 

three seconds at which time he 

receives his reward. The amount 

of time between the response and 

the reward can be changed in 

subsequent training or working 
22 

sessions but must stay consistent 

(i.e., be “fixed”) within that 

session. 

Fixed Ratio Schedule 

of Reinforcement 

A schedule of reinforcement in which 

the subject is rewarded after a set 

number of unrewarded correct 

responses. 

Ex. 1:1 response/reward ratio: 

when training a new behavior the 

dog is rewarded each time the 

behavior is performed correctly. 

One correct response gets one 

reward. 

1:2 response/reward ratio: when 

a behavior has been learned by 

the dog the trainer requires that 

the dog perform the task 

correctly two times before 

receiving a primary reward. Two 

correct responses earn the dog 

one reward. 

Fixed Reinforcement See 

 Fixed ratio 

 Fixed interval 

 Fixed duration 

Gene Scientific usage: A gene is the unit of 

inheritance. This term is now 

commonly used to represent a unique 

sequence of genetic information 

associated with a heritable trait. 

Example: The genes that we now 

know are associated with an 

increased risk for hip dysplasia 

are found on multiple 

chromosomes. This means that 

they may not be inherited 

together. 

Most genes are not expressed in 

an obvious manner. For example, 

you cannot identify either the 

genes involved in olfaction or 

their actual roles by looking at 

the dog. 

Generalization The tendency to respond to a class of 

stimuli that share some common 

characteristics (e.g., the presence of 

some compound) and that may vary 

across some other dimension (e.g., a 

concentration gradient) rather than 

only to the one which was originally 

conditioned. 

This has also been called the 

failure of discrimination. 

Green Dog / Novice 

Dog 

Operational usage: Ranges from an 

untrained dog up to but not including a 

titled dog. 

Grid Search A systematic search pattern used to 
23 

ensure thorough coverage of the 

defined area. 

Habit A recurrent pattern of behavior 

acquired through experience and made 

more or less permanent by various 

reinforcing events. 

Habituation The lessening or disappearance of a 

response that was once elicited by the 

stimulus with repeated presentation of 

the same or closely related stimulus. 

Handler A person who has successfully 

completed a recognized course of 

canine handling, as outlined in SC5, in 

a specific discipline and maintains 

those abilities through field. 

application, maintenance training, 

scheduled recertification, and 

continuing canine education. 

Handler error Any action or cue that causes the 

canine team to perform incorrectly. 

Haploid Scientific usage: A cell like a sperm 

cell or egg that contain the haploid # 

(1N) of chromosomes; each 

chromosome is 1⁄2 of each parental pair 

of homologous chromosomes; when 

brought together via fertilization a 

complete set of chromosome pairs is 

generated. 

Operational usage: A cell like a sperm 

or egg that contains one half of the 

total number of chromosomes that are 

in each body cell is called a haploid 

(abbreviated 1N). 

Note: This pattern allows mating 

to produce offspring that have 1 

set of chromosomes from mom 

and one from dad. 

Hardness / Confidence 

/ Boldness 

Operational usage: A mental and/or 

physical resiliency to unpleasant 

experiences. Hard dogs are highly 

“recoverable”. 

Note: This does not mean that 

the dog requires harsh or 

physical corrections. 

Hasty Search A quick search of the defined area. 

Headspace of target 

substance 

Operational usage: The vapor 

surrounding a target substance. 

Heel position, at A position where the dog is trained to 

move with the handler, facing in the 

same direction as the handler. There is a 

more restrictive definition of “heel” in 

competitive obedience. 

It’s at the handler’s discretion exactly 
24 

where to position the dog and in a 

certification the handler tells the 

evaluator the position to which the dog 

has been trained. 

Heterozygote Scientific usage: A situation where 

alleles are different at the 2 loci on 

homologous chromosomes (the 

contribution from each parent was 

different). 

Note: Whether a dog is 

heterozygous or homozygous for 

a trait becomes important if that 

trait is heritable and either highly 

desirable or highly undesirable. 

For some heritable disease states, 

a dog that is heterozygous may 

not be affected, but a 

homozygous dog is affected. 

This is extremely important for 

anyone involved in breeding or 

interested in risk of heritable of 

disease. 

Homemade Explosives 

(HME) 

A combination of commercially 

available ingredients combined to 

create an explosive substance. 

 

Homozygote Scientific usage: A situation where 

alleles are the same at the 2 loci on 

homologous chromosomes (the 

contribution from each parent was the 

same). A homozygote is the condition 

where alleles are the same at the same 

location on each chromosome in the 

pair. See “Note” for heterozygote. 

Human Detection Dog Operational usage: A dog trained to 

detect and locate live human beings. 

Husbandry Operational usage: The science of 

providing for the needs of an animal 

including housing, daily care, feeding, 

exercise, and meeting the behavioral / 

mental / “emotional” needs of the 

animal. 

Immediacy of 

Consequences 

(Reinforcement / 

Punishment) 

The timing involved in delivering 

consequences for a response directly 

following the response in time. This 

reduces the likelihood of inadvertently 

reinforcing/punishing some other 

behavior. 

Research has repeatedly shown 

that consequences have their 

greatest effect on behavior they 

most closely follow. This is 

especially true for consequences 

in the context of dog training 

procedures. 

Imprinting A phenomenon by which an animal 

during a formative stage of life forms 

a lasting attachment to, and preference 

for, some object or activity through 

exposure to the same independent of 

Often used by trainers to 

describe initial target odor 

discrimination training however, 

this is not the scientific definition 

of imprinting. This operational 
25 

consequences. definition describes a form of 

early associational training. 

Improvised Explosive 

Device (IED) 

A device placed or fabricated in an 

improvised manner incorporating 

destructive, lethal, noxious, 

pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals 

and designed to destroy, incapacitate, 

harass, or distract. It may incorporate 

military stores, but is normally devised 

from nonmilitary components. 

Inadvertent 

reinforcement 

Reinforcement delivered despite the 

appropriateness of any response on the 

part of the subject. 

Inadvertent reinforcement / 

reward is a much more common 

phenomenon with pet dogs. If 

clients are growled at they often 

try to ‘bribe’ the dog to stop 

growling with a treat. The dog 

learns to use the growl to get the 

treat. This is a classic example 

of inadvertently rewarding the 

wrong behavior, not of 

accidental reinforcement. 

Incremental Learning See Approximation. 

Independence Operational usage: The dog’s 

capability to perform without 

assistance or being influenced by the 

handler. 

Independent / 

independence 

Scientific usage: Statistical studies 

assume a property called independence 

- a situation where the data collected 

are not related to each other because 

they come from a random sample from 

the population examined; 

independence is often assumed but 

seldom tested. Good statistical testing 

tests for independence when its 

presence is unclear. 

Note: You may want to know if 

your detection dog’s 

performance is affected by 

environmental temperature. You 

can test for this using statistics. 

If there is an association between 

performance and temperature 

(e.g., the hotter the temperature 

the worse the dog’s 

performance) these are not 

independent. If there is no 

association between temperature 

and performance these are 

independent, and you need not 

consider temperature in any of 

your performance evaluations. 

Independent variable Scientific usage: In the most simple 

experiment this is the item that you 

vary or that varies as a function of the 

way the experiment is designed. 

Note: Operational Application: 

If you want to know if age of the 

trail affects how long it takes the 

dog to follow a 300 m trail, your 

independent variable is the age 
26 

of the trail. 

Independent variables can also 

include temperature, humidity, 

wind strength and direction, et 

cetera. 

Indication Operational usage: The dog’s 

response to the odor in the manner in 

which it has been trained, 

independently and without distraction. 

Instinct Operational usage: The innate 

tendency to react in specific ways in 

specific circumstances. Behaviors that 

are not taught, and are stereotypical in 

action and similar in all members of a 

species. Instinctual behaviors are 

provoked by relatively simple stimuli. 

Instrumental 

Conditioning 

More often referred to as Operant 

Conditioning 

See Operant Conditioning. 

Interest Operational usage: 

Any reaction to an odor which may 

include: 

1. A noticeable, readable, physical 

change in behavior in a detector dog 

during the search when the dog reacts 

to (i.e., is interested in) an odor. 

2. Pattern of behavior following the 

dog’s initial reaction to a trained odor 

when the dog displays enthusiasm and 

desire to remain and trace the trained 

odor to its source. 

See Alert. 

Inter-observer 

reliability 

Scientific usage: The extent to which 

different observers obtain the same 

results when measuring the same 

behavior; this is often also called 

repeatability; this can be a function of 

the humans, but it is more a function of 

the scoring system. 

Note on Operational Application: 

Many handlers evaluate dogs on 

a scale of 1-5. If you wish your 

test to be repeatable and you 

have multiple handlers it is 

essential that everyone agrees on 

what a 4 is, compared with a 3 or 

5. 

Interstimulus Interval 

(ISI) 

Scientific usage: In classical 

conditioning, the time elapsed between 

the conditioned stimulus and the 

unconditioned stimulus. In 

habituation, the time between 

exposures to a stimulus. 

Ex. The interval between the 

request and the response. 

Interval Schedule of A schedule in which reinforcement is See variable interval. 
27 

Reinforcement delivered on the basis of the amount of 

time before a response can be 

reinforced. The interval may be fixed 

or variable. 

Intra-observer 

reliability 

Scientific usage: see Reliability / 

consistency. 

Kennel Assistant Operational usage: The trained person 

who undertakes husbandry duties in 

the absence of the handler. 

Latent Learning Learning that takes place casually, and 

does not manifest in overt behavior at 

that time, but may become evident at a 

later stage. 

Ex. The dog that unintentionally 

learns additional behaviors from 

exposure to inadvertent reward 

associations. 

Hides placed too often in similar 

areas will lead to an association 

with either the area or the area 

and the target odor. 

Learning Plateau A period in which early progress in 

learning appears to have stopped and 

improvement is at a standstill. The 

plateau is followed by a new period of 

progress. 

Least Reinforcing 

Scenario/Stimulus 

(LRS) 

All interaction or reinforcement, 

positive or negative, is withheld for a 

period of time (generally a few 

seconds) so as not to reinforce an 

undesirable behavior or lack of 

response. Used to help reduce 

frustration that might result from a lack 

of reinforcement. 

In a training scenario where 

known aids are placed for an 

exercise, the canine completes 

the exercise without a positive 

response the canine is ignored 

for a brief period of time (given 

no attention, negative or 

positive) and then redeployed to 

find the target. 

Also considered another form of 

negative punishment; “timeout” 

Locus (plural loci) Scientific usage: The position of a 

gene on a chromosome; alleles (or 

forms of the gene) occupy the same 

locus on each of the homologous 

chromosomes. 

Magnitude of 

Reinforcement 

The size, strength, or duration of a 

reward following a behavior. 

Maintenance Training Operational usage: Continuing 

training conducted beyond the initial 

training of a discipline, designed to 

maintain a level of proficiency by 

ensuring the team’s capability to 

perform desired tasks. 
28 

Masking odors An odor intentionally designed to 

mask, disguise, or conceal the target 

odor. 

Matching-to-Sample 

(MTS) 

A procedure in which the choice of a 

stimulus that matches a sample 

stimulus is followed by the delivery of 

a reinforcer. 

Ex: This is the process that is 

involved in scent identification 

line-ups where the sample odor 

is matched with the target odor. 

Methodology The particular training practices and 

operational tactics that are 

implemented. 

Minimum standard Written standards established to define

the least level of performance 

considered acceptable. 

Mining terms See IMAS definitions. 

Miss Certification/Training use: When the 

dog fails to alert in the known presence 

of the target odor; a situation in which 

the dog fails to exhibit the trained 

behaviors in the presence of the target 

odor on which he or she was trained. 

Also referred to as a “false 

negative” or “non-alert”. 

Motivation Operational usage: Mindset and 

physical behaviors associated with 

interest, willingness, and keenness to 

work. 

Multi-purpose Dog A dog trained in more than two 

disciplines. 

Historically this has been 

referred to as “dual purpose” dog 

in law enforcement. 

Non-indication Operational usage: A “miss” by the 

dog in the known presence of the 

substance that is there; a situation in 

which the dog fails to exhibit the 

trained behaviors in the presence of the 

substance on which he or she was 

trained. 

Non-productive 

response 

Operational usage: A change of 

behavior followed by a positive 

indication which can’t be confirmed by 

the handler. This may be the result of 

residual odor that the dog can detect 

but which cannot be confirmed by 

technology or direct observation. A 

non-productive response may also be 

an error – a false positive - but these 

outcomes cannot be distinguished in an 

operational environment. 

In a certification procedure you 

will know whether you have a 

false positive. You cannot know 

whether you have a false positive 

in most operational situations. 

Null hypothesis Scientific usage: The beginning 

assumption in any experiment or test is 

that there is no effect of the procedure; 
29 

this is the hypothesis against which 

you test your idea. 

Odor plume Dispersion of odor in a given 

environment. 

Factors that influence the 

dispersion of odor may include 

wind, temperature, air currents, 

and topography. An example 

would be a plume of odor that a 

dog has been trained to follow to 

its source. 

Also referred to as scent cone. 

Odor recognition 

assessment 

A test of the dog’s ability to alert to 

target odor(s). 

Odor Signature Scientific usage: the profile of the 

odor. 

See Odor. 

Off-lead Operational usage: Any work or 

interactions with the dog where the 

dog is not attached to a lead. 

On-lead Operational usage: Any work or 

interactions with the dog where the 

dog is attached to a lead. 

Operant Conditioning Scientific usage: When used in 

training, operant conditioning involves 

teaching an animal to perform a 

response in order to obtain a reward. 

Operant conditioning links two 

behaviors (chaining) that might not 

have been previously linked by using 

the concept that when you are 

reinforced or rewarded for a behavior 

you will offer that behavior again. 

Also known as instrumental 

conditioning. 

Example: A voluntary response 

such as sitting is more likely to 

be repeated if the end result is 

pleasurable - thus the outcome 

determines the response. 

Passive Response Operational usage: A type of response 

that the dog displays/ indicates in a 

manner that doesn’t disturb the 

environment (i.e., sit, stand, or lie 

quietly after the detector dog has 

detected a trained odor). 

Pedigree Scientific usage: A record of all of the 

dog’s direct ancestors, or genealogy, in 

sequence for 3+ generations. 

Pedigrees can be forward reading or 

backward reading. 

Personal Protective 

Equipment (PPE) 

Operational usage: Equipment worn 

for protection from environmental 

hazards, e.g., biological, radiological, 
30 

chemical. 

Physical Fitness Cardiovascular and musculoskeletal 

conditioning of the dog or handler for 

the work undertaken. 

Point-to-point Operational usage: An open area 

search method in which the canine 

team moves in a straight line from one 

designated location (point) to another. 

Positive Punishment Scientific usage: Application of a 

stimulus that decreases the probability 

of the preceding response occurring 

again. It is applied as the behavior is 

occurring or immediately after the 

behavior has occurred. 

Positive punishment is the addition of 

an aversive stimulus or event. 

Example: yelling at the dog or 

smacking would be considered a 

punishment if it lead to a 

decrease in the behavior. 

To be most effective the 

reprimand needs to be: 1. 

Immediate, 2. Consistent, 3. 

Sufficiently aversive, but no 

more so than is needed (or you 

can inadvertently reinforce fear). 

Positive Reinforcement Scientific usage: A pleasurable reward 

given immediately after a response or 

as the response occurs that increases 

the probability of a behavioral 

response. For example if a dog is 

rewarded for sitting by being given a 

treat the dog is more likely to sit again. 

To be most effective the reward has to 

be: 1. Immediate, 2. Consistent, 3. 

Desirable. 

Possession Operational usage: Upon presentation 

of the reward article, the dog takes the 

article without hesitation, and 

maintains a firm grip. 

Post-pubescent dog Scientific usage: A sexually mature 

dog. Male dogs are generally sexually 

mature by 6-9 months, and females by 

8-10 months. Physical growth still 

continues in the post-pubescent dog 

Power of a test Scientific usage: This is the 

probability of rejecting a null 

hypothesis when it is false; the 

probability of finding a true effect. 

Note: Power is calculated by 1-

where  is the probability that 

you accept a hypothesis of no 

effect when it is false. When  - 

the probability of missing the 

effect - is tiny, the power of the 

test is huge. Almost everyone 

evaluates , but few people 

evaluate . Yet the greater the 
31 

power of a test the more likely 

that the effect will be detected. 

Generally, the larger the sample 

size (n), the smaller the , the 

higher the power of the test. 

Statistical power can also be 

increased by an improved, more 

discrete, cleaner, et cetera 

research design. 

Praise off Operational usage: Physically 

removing the dog, after he has shown a 

response, from the area or item without 

causing any physical discomfort to the 

dog, while verbally praising the dog. 

It is important to note that this 

can be done incorrectly. The 

head of the dog or the dog must 

be physically removed from the 

target odor prior to beginning the 

physical/verbal praise (must be 

done in a positive manner) or the 

dog will become 

aggressive/active to the target 

odor. 

Pre-aversive Stimulus A stimulus which has been conditioned 

through generalization as a predecessor 

to an aversive stimulus. 

Ex: An invisible/electronic 

fence has a perimeter that if 

crossed activates a sound coming 

from the dog’s collar. If the dog 

continues the dog will be 

shocked. In this example, the 

sound made prior to the shock is 

the pre-aversive stimulus. 

Precision Scientific usage: A measure of how 

free the measured value is of random 

errors; precise measures need not be 

accurate....your computer may have a 

very precise clock, but if you don’t 

change it for daylight savings time it’s 

still inaccurate (wrong) for some times 

of the year; measurements are precise 

if they lack random errors (accurate 

measures lack systematic errors). 

Pre-scenting A sample target odor that is presented 

to the dog prior to deployment. The 

dog’s objective is to match the prescented odor to the target odor. 

Operational use: This is 

commonly used in 

tracking/trailing and/or scent 

discrimination line ups. 

Primary 

Reinforcement 

The delivery of a naturally occurring 

stimulus that requires no previous 

experience or learning to be 

reinforcing. It satisfies some biological 

need (i.e., food, water, air). 

Primary Reinforcer An unconditioned reinforcer that is 

related to biology. Anything of 

Ex. Anything the dog needs to 

survive such as food and water. 
32 

intrinsic value to the particular 

individual. 

Probable Cause Probable cause exists when the facts 

and circumstances known to the officer 

would warrant a prudent person to 

believe a crime had been committed 

and the accused had committed it or 

that the evidence will be found in the 

place to be searched. 

Productive response Operational usage: A change of 

behavior followed by a positive 

indication which can be confirmed by 

the handler. 

Proficiency 

assessment(s) 

An evaluation during training; a tool to 

assess team ability. 

Proof off/Proofing A training technique to ensure that the 

dog ignores all odors except the target 

odors. 

Ex. The dog is not rewarded for 

and is discouraged from reacting 

to things such as, packaging 

materials that are associated with 

the target odor. 

See Extinction training. 

Prospective study Scientific usage: A study that 

identifies all the individuals who had a 

particular experience and follows them 

through time to see what happens as a 

result of that experience. 

Note: The drawback here is that 

this takes a long time; 

retrospective studies generally 

provide hypotheses of 

mechanism or cause that can be 

tested in prospective studies. 

Protection Operational usage: Behaviors 

associated with defense of self and / or 

other group members including 

humans when threatened or when a 

potential threat is perceived. 

Punishment Scientific usage: A procedure that is 

used to decrease the strength of a 

response by presenting an aversive 

stimulus after the response occurs. 

Note: Punishment is most likely 

to be successful if it is applied 

100% of the time the undesirable 

behavior occurs, if it is applied 

immediately after the behavior 

occurs, and if it is sufficiently 

aversive. 

Quartering Operational usage: A systematic search 

of an area in a series of point-to-point 

patterns utilizing the wind to the dog’s 

best advantage. 

Rabies Scientific usage: A viral disease of the 

nervous system of warm-blooded 

animals that is caused by a rhabdovirus 

and is communicable from animal to 

Note: Dogs, some non-domestic 

carnivores, and some humans 

who work with dogs are 

routinely, and should be 
33 

humans primarily through salivary 

transmission. There are also reports of 

contagion through aerosolized 

secretions. Almost without exception, 

this disease is fatal once the animal 

begins to show signs. 

vaccinated against rabies. The 

vaccine is viewed as universally 

protective. 

Random / randomized Scientific usage: When the choice of 

something or the placement of 

something is random the substance 

placed is equally likely to be either 

substance. 

Recall The dog’s response to return to the 

handler on command. 

Refusal A lack of response, or a declination to 

accept instruction or direction. 

Reinforcement Scientific usage: This refers to any 

event that increases the probability of a 

response. Reinforcement can be 

positive or negative. 

Reinforcement 

Contingency 

Scientific usage: The relationship 

between the reinforcement and the 

exact properties of the performance 

which it follows. The occurrence of 

the reinforcer depends on the 

occurrence of the response. 

This is a term about learning and 

maintaining a behavior. 

Ex. In training, the dog is asked 

to look at the location of the 

target odor and sit. The dog is 

only rewarded when it sits not 

crouches. Sitting is the response 

that is rewarded. 

Reinforcement/Reward 

Schedules 

The rule denoting the number of 

responses, the interval of time, and the 

duration of the response that will be 

reinforced. 

See Intermittent and Variable 

Reinforcement/Reward. 

Reliability Operational use: Low probability of 

alerting to anything other than a target 

odor and a high probability of alerting 

to a target odor. 

Legal Usage: Evidence that 

establishes a fair probability that a 

target odor is present. 

Scientific usage: The extent to which 

a measurement is repeatable and 

consistent and free from random 

errors. 

Note: This term is often used in 

science when assessing how well 

an observer has measured 

behaviors. There are 2 

categories of observer reliability: 

1) intra-observer reliability (or 

observer consistency) - how 

consistent the observer is at 

evaluating the same behavior at 

different times or in similar dogs. 

2) inter-observer reliability - 

how consistent different 

observers are when evaluating 

the same dog. 

Remote Training Training to work at a distance from the 

handler. A training situation in which 
34 

an attempt is made to remove the 

human element from the picture. 

Remote Training 

Collar 

A manually operated training device 

that produces an electrical stimulation 

at varying degrees of intensity and 

duration via a small transmitter 

incorporated into a dog collar. Some 

collar models also include a tone or 

vibration setting, as an alternative to or 

as a warning the behavior will result in 

the electrical stimulation. 

Also called Remote Trainer or 

Electronic (E) Collar. This is not 

the same as a bark, or invisible 

fence collar. There are remote 

training collars that deliver a 

citronella spray when activated 

by the handler, in lieu of the 

electric “stimulation” or shock. 

Repeatability Scientific usage: See inter-observer 

reliability. 

Replication Scientific usage: Repetition of the 

experiment by others, or in other 

circumstances, that obtains the same 

results. 

Note: It’s important to realize 

that findings can still be myth 

unless someone else can repeat 

the experiment and obtain the 

same results. 

Repression of Behavior Operational usage: The failure to 

perform an operant behavior due to 

previous aversive consequences. 

Rescue Search Dog / 

Search and rescue 

(SAR) dog 

Operational usage: A dog trained to 

locate or indicate live victims of 

accidents or disasters. 

Residual Odor Operational usage: Odor that 

originated from a target substance that 

may or may not be physically 

recoverable or detectable by other 

means. 

Has been referred to as lingering 

odor. 

Residue Remnants of a target substance that 

can be recovered and quantified. 

Response / Indication Operational usage: A behavior that a 

dog has been trained to exhibit upon 

locating the source of a target odor. 

This behavior may be either passive 

(sit, stare, down, point) or active (bite, 

bark, scratch). 

There are non-indications (where 

the dog does not give the trained 

response) and non-productive 

responses (where the dog gives 

the response but the presence of 

the material cannot be confirmed 

by man or machine). 

Retrieve Operational usage: Behaviors 

associated with finding and returning 

prey or objects back to the handler or 

social group. 

Retrospective study Scientific usage: A study that 

examines patterns in all individuals 

with available data from the past. 

Note: The drawback here is that 

you may not be able to find data 

for all the questions or 

associations in which you are 

interested because these data 

were not collected. Here, any 
35 

controls must be statistical rather 

than experimental. For example, 

a model simulation is often used 

as a control. 

Reward Operational usage: The presentation of 

an article, toy, or praise given to the 

dog once the detector dog has alerted 

and responded to the odor(s) for which 

the dog is trained to detect. 

CF reinforcement 

Runaway Operational usage: An exercise in 

which the target visually stimulates the 

dog by running away from the dog, 

inciting a chase. 

Satiation When a reinforcer loses its 

effectiveness as a result of being 

overused. 

Scent See odor. “Scent” has traditionally referred 

to human detection. 

“Odor” has traditionally referred 

to substance detection. 

Scent Article An item that has been exposed to the 

target odor which is used to put the 

dog on task. 

Scent association Operational usage: When a dog learns 

to identify a trained odor with a 

specific reward. 

Scent cone See Odor plume. 

Scent Discrimination The ability to differentiate one odor 

from another. 

Scent Pad A collection of target odor whether it’s 

on an object, on material, or in an area, 

i.e., on the ground. 

Scent picture Operational usage: The combination 

of odors that is present when a detector 

dog responds to a trained odor. 

Search Intent Operation usage: The interest, attitude, 

and enthusiasm the dog shows while 

searching. 

Sense of smell Scientific usage: The ability to 

perceive odor or scent using olfactory 

neurons. Detection of odor relies on 

the olfactory neurons. Processing of 

the olfactory information obtained 

from the neurons occurs in the frontal 

cortex of the brain. 

Sensitive periods Periods during early development 

when an animal is notably sensitive to 

For dogs, the sensitive period of 

learning to respond to other dogs 
36 

learning a specific association that 

remains relatively stable over time. 

starts at about 3 weeks of age 

and this is the dog’s main focus 

until about 5 weeks of age. The 

sensitive period during which 

dogs begin to response to 

humans and other species – and 

recognize and treat them as 

different from dogs – starts at 

about 5 weeks and is a main 

focus through about 8-10 weeks 

of age. 

 

Sensitivity Scientific usage: A measure of how 

much small changes in the true value 

lead to changes in the measured value; 

this term is commonly used in 

diagnostic tests. 

Note: Sensitive tests detect even 

very low levels of infection; 

sensitivity is a measure of what 

you could miss; the ideal 

diagnostic test has both high 

specificity and sensitivity; 

temperament evaluations using 

predictive values could use the 

same terminology. 

Set time The length of time between the target 

placement and when the dog is 

deployed to detect the target odor. 

Sexual maturity Scientific usage: An animal is said to 

be sexually mature when male dogs 

produce viable sperm and female dogs 

(intact female dog = bitch) undergo 

estrus cycles; only sexually mature 

dogs can reproduce. 

Shaping The process of selectively rewarding 

responses that approximate the desired 

behavior to an increasingly greater 

degree. This is one method for 

teaching a new behavior and can be 

used as a method of modifying 

additional behaviors. 

Sharpness Operational usage: A character trait 

which is the tendency to react to 

stimuli with aggressive behavior. 

SI units Scientific usage: Système 

International d’Unités - This is the 

international system of measurement. 

It uses meters, kilograms, et cetera and 

has a standardized set of abbreviations. 

Note: If you wish to publish, you 

will have to use this system, not 

one involving feet and pounds. 

Single/Sole-purpose 

Dog 

A dog trained in only one discipline. 

Single-blind Testing Operational usage: An evaluation of 
37 

the canine team’s ability to complete 

an exercise where the evaluator knows 

the outcome and the hander does not. 

Sociability with 

humans 

Operational usage: The dog’s age and 

situational appropriate comfort level 

and interaction with people. 

Sociability with other 

dogs 

Operational usage: The dog’s age and 

situational appropriate comfort and 

interaction with other dogs. 

Social maturity Scientific usage: The period of 

behavioral maturation that appears to 

be correlated, in species in which it has 

been studied, with changes in brain 

chemistry. Dogs’ “temperaments” can 

be considered relatively stable after 

this period, although learning 

continues. The broad range cited for 

social maturity is 12-36 months, and 

the narrow range cited is 18-24 

months. 

Note: Patterns of behaviors 

become consistent only after the 

dog undergoes social maturity, 

hence the finding that dogs can 

consistently pass or fail 

evaluations associated with taskspecific performance only after 

this stage. The range of social 

maturity is considerable, but the 

neurochemical changes remain 

unmeasured. We do not know 

the exact ages that map on to 

specific changes in patterns of 

brain chemistry. 

Socialization The exposure of dogs to other dogs 

and animals of different species during 

the “sensitive period” when they are 

best able to begin to learn about such 

stimuli. 

Softness Operational usage: A character trait 

which is a mental and/or physical 

sensitivity to unpleasant experiences. 

Species Preservation Operational usage: The genetically 

based blueprint for behaviors which 

deal with the past, present and future 

life of the canine species. 

Specificity Scientific usage: The extent to which 

the measure describes what it is 

intended to describe and nothing else; 

this term is commonly used in 

diagnostic tests....specific tests detect 

ONLY that disease, not all diseases 

that cause a similar reaction; the ideal 

diagnostic test has both high specificity

and sensitivity. 

Note: Temperament evaluations 

using predictive values could use 

the same terminology. 

Spontaneous Recovery The tendency of a behavior to reappear 

after it has undergone extinction. 

Standard An established or widely recognized 

model of authority or excellence as a 
38 

reference point against which other 

things can be evaluated or the ideal in 

terms of which something can be 

judged. 

Statistical significance Scientific usage: The level of statistical 

significance is the probability of 

obtaining the observed result – or a 

more exaggerated one - if the null 

hypothesis of no effect was true. The 

statistical significance is usually 

represented as alpha / . This is really 

the probability the result was due to 

chance alone and that there was no 

effect of whatever you did. The 

arbitrary level at which  is usually set 

is 0.05. This means that there are 5 

chances in 100 that the pattern you 

have established is due to chance, 

alone. 

Note: Something is either 

significant or it is not. 

Statisticians are driven crazy by 

people who say their result 

“approaches significance”. More 

robust tests do not assume a level 

of significance and tell you what 

the likelihood that you are wrong 

actually is. 

Stimulus Control A behavior is under “stimulus control” 

when it occurs as a result of a specific 

signal. 

There are four rules for 

determining if you have control 

over a behavior: 

1. If the behavior occurs when 

the signal is given. 

2. If the behavior does not 

occur when the signal is not 

given. 

3. If no other behavior occurs 

in response to that signal. 

4. If the behavior does not 

occur in response to any 

other signal (proofing). 

Stimulus 

Generalization 

See Generalization. 

Subordinate Operational usage: A lower ranking 

member of the canine social group. 

Survival Operational usage: Behaviors 

associated with avoiding, negotiating, 

or overcoming dangers. 

Systematic 

Desensitization 

A procedure used to modify behavior 

whereby a subject gradually becomes 

comfortable with an unusual or 

frightening stimulus. It involves 

exposure to the stimulus at a distance 

or rate that does not evoke a fearful 

response and gradually increasing the 
39 

proximity or rate. 

Systematic Search 

Pattern 

Operational usage: A method which 

employs a specific search sequence to 

increase accuracy and minimize 

omissions, while maximizing 

coverage. Such patterns usually have 

set start and stop points. 

Tactile Reinforcement Any reward perceptible by touch. 

Taggant Nitro compounds which vaporize 

rapidly and are added to enhance the 

detection of plastic explosives by 

instrumental analysis. 

Target odor Operational usage: Odors which 

detector dogs are trained to detect. 

Target training The process of conditioning an animal 

to touch a particular object. 

Temperament Operational usage: The general 

consistence with which the animal 

behaves. Broad classes of 

temperament appear to be heritable. 

Note: New molecular techniques 

should flesh out this definition in 

the next decade. 

Threshold Operational usage: The working 

threshold for a dog may be defined by 

its training history and this may 

include a minimum and maximum 

amount to which a dog may respond. 

Scientific usage: The lowest 

concentration of a chemical vapor that 

a dog can be trained to detect. In 

animal psychophysics this has 

traditionally been defined as the point 

at which the animal detects a stimulus 

above the level of chance. 

Time-Out A non-reinforcement training strategy 

whereby a training session is 

temporarily paused and attention is 

removed from the dog for a short 

period of time in order to elicit 

desirable behavior when the session is 

restarted. 

Titration Operational usage: This is an 

operational, not a scientific, definition, 

please see notes. 

1. A gradient of correction needed to 

control a dog’s behavior. 

2. The range of scaled correction or 

reward, going from lowest to 

highest, which will achieve the 

Note: There is a scientific 

definition of this term that differs 

considerably from what is 

discussed here. 
40 

desired response from the dog. 

Track / Trail The odor pathway left by a target. 

Tracking (Human) The propensity or learned ability of a 

dog to methodically follow odor on the 

ground (human/ground disturbance) by 

working the dog close to the pathway. 

Dogs are not typically prescented on an object. 

Tracking Line Operational usage: A length of cord

attached to the harness and held loosely

by the handler, allowing the handler to

follow and, or control the dog, if

needed. 

Tracking/Trailing 

Harness 

Operational usage: An arrangement of 

straps fitted around the dog’s body, 

leaving the head and neck free, 

allowing attachment of a line that 

permits the handler to follow and, or 

control the dog while tracking or 

trailing. 

Trailing (Human) The propensity or learned ability of a 

dog to either follow ground 

disturbance odor and/or target odor 

plumes. The dog will use whichever 

technique will get them to the target 

odor the most efficiently. 

Dogs are typically pre-scented 

on an object. 

 

Trainability Operational usage: A ‘character trait’ 

which is both psychological or 

cognitive, and physical. It includes 

spontaneous attempts to perform the 

desired behaviors and the dog’s 

cognitive abilities. 

Dogs are individuals with 

individualized learning styles 

and preferences based on their 

histories. It is up to the trainer to 

find what motivates the dog. 

Trainer/Instructor Operational usage: Any member of a 

specific discipline who is in a situation 

of instructing any part of the canine 

handler team using established 

methods and validated training 

guidelines. 

Refer to SC 5 for further 

differentiation. 

Training Goal oriented task designed to teach, 

fix, expand, improve, and maintain 

detection capabilities. 

See also Reinforcement 

Training. 

Training Log A record used to document the training 

of a dog, handler or dog team. 

Type I error Scientific usage: This is the mistake 

you make when you reject the null 

hypothesis (you say there is an effect) 

and it is true (there is really NO effect). 

This is also called a false positive - 

detecting an effect where none exist. 

Example: You are tested for 

Lyme disease using the first-pass 

diagnostic assay. It is positive 

and so you are treated for joint 

pain. Unfortunately, the pain is 

due to a ligament tear which is 
41 

apparent as you fail to improve. 

Further testing reveals no Lyme 

organisms. The first pass test 

was subject to Type I error. 

Type II error Scientific usage: This is the mistake 

you make when you accept the null 

hypothesis (there is no effect) when it 

is false (there really IS an effect). This 

is also called a false negative - failure 

to detect a real effect. 

Example: You are tested for 

Lyme disease using the first-pass 

diagnostic assay. It is negative. 

Further testing reveals the Lyme 

organism. The first pass test was 

subject to Type II error. 

Unconfirmed Alert Operational usage: An alert for which 

the presence of a trained odor cannot 

be confirmed. This may be the result of 

residual or lingering odor that the dog 

can detect but which has not been 

confirmed by technology or direct 

observation. 

Also referred to as an 

“unconfirmed hit and/or 

unconfirmed find”. 

In a certification procedure you 

should know whether you have a 

false positive. You may not 

know whether you have a false 

positive in most operational 

situations. 

An unconfirmed alert may also 

be an error – a false positive - 

but these outcomes cannot be 

distinguished in an operational 

environment. False positives can 

often be ruled out by interview 

or investigation. 

Technology is reaching a state of 

maturity that may corroborate 

confirmed or unconfirmed alerts. 

This technology may also 

validate a non-productive 

response. 

Vaccine Scientific usage: A preparation of live, 

modified-live, killed micro- organisms, 

or the relevant subunit, that is 

administered to produce or artificially 

increase immunity to a particular 

disease. 

Note: Vaccines can be 

administered IM 

(intramuscularly), SC 

(subcutaneously), orally, or IN 

(intra-nasally). 

Validity Scientific usage: The extent to which 

a measurement actually measures what 

you want to measure, and, in doing so, 

provides information relevant to the 

questions asked; valid measures 

provide a good, close relationship 

between a variable. 

Example: (e.g., a measure of 

behavior) and that which the 

measure is intended to predict 

about the world. 
42 

Validity has 2 aspects: accuracy and 

specificity. 

Variable Scientific usage: An identifiable facet 

(e.g., size, outcome of a test, et cetera) 

that can be measured. 

Variable Interval 

Schedule of 

Reinforcement 

A reward schedule in operant 

conditioning in which the subject is 

rewarded after a period of time that 

varies from one reinforcement period 

to the next; there is variable time after 

one reinforcer or reward before the 

next reinforcer or reward becomes 

available. 

Ex. The dog is rewarded for 

maintaining the sit position after 

random intervals of time. 

Variable Ratio 

Schedule of 

Reinforcement 

A reward schedule in which the dog is 

rewarded after a number of correct but 

unrewarded responses; the number 

varies from reinforcement to 

reinforcement. A reward schedule in 

which the reward occurs irregularly 

after a number of correct responses. 

Ex. The dog is rewarded with 

primary reward after the 5th

correct response, the 3rd, 10th, 7th

et cetera. The dog never knows 

when the reward will occur. The 

reward occurs randomly for 

correct responses. 

Variable 

Reinforcement 

Reinforcement schedule in which the 

timing (interval) or rate (ratio) of 

delivery of the reinforcer varies. 

A form of intermittent 

reinforcement. 

Voice Inflection Operational usage: Correct use of the 

voice employing tone, pitch and 

volume appropriately to the situation 

as required. 

Zoonosis Scientific usage: Diseases 

communicable from animals to 

humans.