INHIBITION OF FLAMES BY IRON PENTACARBONYL' 

Marc D. Rumminger,' Dirk Reinelt,* Valeri Babushok, and Gregory T. Linteris 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Gaithersburg MD 20899, USA 

INTRODUCTION 

Researchers in the 1960s discovered that certain metallic compounds are even more effective 

flame inhibitors than the halogens [I-31. In particular, iron pentacarbonyl was found to be up to 

two orders of magnitude more effective at reducing the burning velocity of hydrocarbon-air 

flames than Br-containing compounds [1,4]. However, the rapid adoption of CF& as a fire 

suppressant led to a reduction in research on other agents, and the inhibition mechanism of 

Fe(C0)S remained undetermined. As part of the search for replacements for CF&, the 

mechanism of Fe(C0)s is being re-examined. 

In previous research [5-81 we have confirmed that Fe(C0)s is extraordinarily effective, but have 

also found that its incremental effectiveness decreases rapidly as it is added in higher 

concentrations. For example, adding 200 ppm of Fe(C0)S to premixed methane-air flames 

reduces the burning velocity by nearly 50%, but increasing the concentration beyond 200 ppm 

does not lead to significant additional reduction. The goal of the present research is to 

understand both the powerful inhibition at low concentration and the lack of additional effect as 

more inhibitor is added. A critical part of the research on Fe(C0)S is to understand iron 

pentacarbonyl's diminishing effectiveness at high mole fraction in order to avoid similar 

behavior in future fire suppressants. We also seek to determine the relative effects of 

homogeneous and heterogeneous chemistry in the Fe(C0)s inhibition mechanism. If particulates 

play a key role in the inhibition, then the search for halon alternatives could be directed toward 

chemicals that produce similar condensed-phase compounds. 

Our study of flame inhibition is intended to provide insights into flame suppression. Although 

the processes have different end points (weakening the flame vs. extinguishing it), the underlying 

mechanism is similar: the agent reduces the overall reaction rate of the fuel-air mixture. 

Inhibition can be viewed as the stage of suppression in which the inhibitor weakens the flame, 

making it more vulnerable to extinction by external factors such as heat loss or fluid-mechanical 

instability. 

Inhibition-and eventually suppression-occurs as the agent reduces the rate of heat release of 

the flame. For chemically acting agents, the agent interferes with the reactions that consume the 

fuel and intermediates. Hence, we can study the effect of small agent concentrations on flame 

chemistry and build chemical kinetic models that describe the effect of the agent on the 

combustion reactions. By using laboratory-scale premixed and diffusion flames amenable to 

Official contribution of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, not subject to 

copyright in the United States. 

National Research CounciVNIST postdoctoral fellow 

Currently with BASF Aktiengesellschaft, 67056 Ludwigshafen, Germany. 

* 

Halon Options Technical WoWng Conference 12-14 May 1998 145 
modeling, we can validate the chemical kinetic model and gain insight into which processes are 

most important. Later, we can continue to construct and refine the mechanism for higher 

inhibitor concentrations and for flames and fuels that are more representative of fires. Finally, an 

understanding of the modes of action of effective agents such as Fe(CO)5 can lead researchers to 

chemicals that have similar favorable properties, while avoiding characteristics such as 

diminishing effectiveness at high concentration. 

In this paper, results of numerical simulations of one-dimensional premixed flames of methane, 

oxygen, nitrogen, and iron pentacarbonyl are presented and compared with experimental 

measurements to provide insight into the inhibition mechanism. Additionally, premixed flames 

with argon replacing a portion of the nitrogen are used to examine the effect of flame temperature 

on the inhibition. For diffusion flames, calculated extinction strain rates of counterflow flames 

are compared with experimental measurements for cases in which the inhibitor is added to the 

fuel or air stream. 

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH 

The approach in the present research is to determine the effect of Fe(C0)S on the overall reaction 

rate of hydrocarbon-air flames. Since this reaction rate is a fundamental parameter affecting the 

stabilization and fuel consumption rate of fires, the extent to which it is influenced by the agent is 

a first measure of the agent’s potential as a fire suppressant. Although tests on full-scale fires 

will be required to assure the effectiveness of any agent, laboratory burners have several 

important benefits. Their simplicity allows rapid assessment of inhibitor performance in many 

flame conditions and at various concentrations, and the flames are highly reproducible and stable. 

Finally, in a well-designed laboratory burner, there is little ambiguity about how much agent 

reaches the flame. 

Two methods are used to obtain overall reaction rate information: measurements of the burning 

velocity of premixed laminar flames, and measurements of the extinction strain rate of 

counterflow diffusion flames. Experimental results and the experimental arrangements are 

described in detail in Reference 8. Both methods provide nearly adiabatic flames in which the 

measured parameter is easily related to the overall reaction rate, allowing straightforward 

interpretation of the effect of the inhibitor. In addition, both flames are easily modeled with 

existing computer programs. By using detailed chemical kinetic mechanisms together with full 

transport calculations, the chemical species profiles throughout the flames are calculated. These 

results provide great insight into both the chemical and physical mechanisms of the inhibitor. 

Although techniques such as detailed flame structure measurements provide information about 

the chemical species at each location in the flame for one particular condition, the present 

burning velocity and extinction strain rate measurements have the advantage of allowing rapid 

testing of the effect of the inhibitor over a wider range of conditions. 

MODELING APPROACH 

To understand the powerful inhibition of Fe(CO)S, we solve the equations of mass, momentum, 

and energy conservation using existing numerical models. The detailed chemical kinetics are 

described by comprehensive mechanisms for methane oxidation and iron-species inhibition. All 

calculations and experiments describe flames at one atmosphere pressure, with Fe(C0)S added to 

reactant streams in concentrations of up to 500 ppm. 

146 Halon Options Technical Working Conference 12.14 May 1998 
One-dimensional freely-propagating premixed flames are simulated using the Sandia flame code 

Premix* [9], the Chernkin subroutines [IO], and the transport property subroutines [I 11. The 

kinetic and thermodynamic data of GRI-Mech 1.2 [12] (32 species and 177 chemical reactions) 

serves as a basis for describing the methane combustion, with iron species and reactions added as 

described below. 

One-dimensional counterflow diffusion flames are simulated with a numerical code developed by 

Smooke [I31 and a one-carbon mechanism for methane oxidation [I41 (17 species and 

52 chemical reactions). The somewhat smaller methane mechanism captures the important 

chemistly of the flame, while reducing the computational time required for calculating the 

extinction of the counterflow flames. 

INHIBITION MECHANISM 

Previous flame inhibition studies of Fe(C0)S have been outlined [5,8]. Although the effect of 

the agent on the mole fraction of OH radical downstream of the reaction zone was noted, and 

several important intermediate species were detected spectroscopically [4], no detailed 

mechanism was proposed. In work related to flame inhibition, authors have discussed inhibition 

mechanisms that involve catalytic removal of H atoms by metal species (atomic, oxide, or 

hydroxide). In addition, metallic compounds have been studied in high temperature reacting 

flows for applications such as flame suppression and materials synthesis, and rates for reactions 

involving gas-phase metallic compounds are available in the literature. A compilation of 

reactions and rates for metals in flames can be found in Reference 15. The present work is an 

extension of previous work [7] in which a gas-phase inhibition mechanism was developed based 

largely upon the work of Jensen and Jones [16]. For completeness, the mechanism has now been 

expanded to include a more comprehensive set of iron-species reactions, a more detailed 

decomposition route for Fe(CO)S, and a different route for formation of FeO. The dominant 

inhibition reactions, however, are fundamentally unchanged. 

Using information in the literature and reaction analysis, we compiled a list of iron-containing 

species that could exist at significant concentrations in flames. In the mechanism used here, the 

Fe(C0)s decomposition products are Fe(CO)d, Fe(CO)3, Fe(CO)*, FeCO, and Fe [17-20], and 

the intermediates and product species are Fe, FeO, FeOH, Fe(OH)Z, Fe(O)OH, Fe02, and FeH. 

There is little evidence that any other iron compounds can exist at significant concentra-tions for 

conditions discussed in this paper. For the iron-containing compounds, the thenno-dynamic data 

are from References 21-23, and the transport properties are estimated. The complete reaction 

mechanism (12 species and 55 reactions) can be obtained from Reference 24 or by contacting the 

authors. It should be emphasized that the comprehensive set of additional reactions adopted for 

the present calculations should be considered only as a starting point. Numerous changes to both 

the rates and the reactions may be made once a variety of experimental and theoretical data are 

available for testing the mechanism. 

* Certain commercial equipment, instruments, or materials are identified in this paper to 

adequately specify the procedure. Such identification does not imply recommendation or 

endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor does it imply that the 

materials or equipment are necessarily the best available for the intended use. 

Halon Options Technical Working Conference 12-14 May 1998 147 

* = 0.9 - rn=l.O 

p= 1.1 '" r 

0 100 2w 3w 4w 5w 

Fe(CO), Mole Fraction (pprn) 

Figure 2. Calculated and measured burning velocity of premixed CH4/02/N2 

flames with XQ,,~ = 0.21 and varying amounts of Fe(C0)S. The solid 

lines are the calculated burning velocities using the rates in Reference 

24; the dashed line is the calculated burning velocity using the 

mechanism with the original pre-exponential factors for reactions 1-3 

from Reference 16. Symbols are measured normalized burning velocity 

from Reference 8 for Q0.9 (A), 1$=1.0 (0) and e1.1 (W). 

velocity when using the original rates recommended by Jensen and Jones for reactions 1-3 [ 161. 

These calculations are in qualitative agreement with the measurements, but the predicted 

inhibition is weaker. Sensitivity analysis and numerical experiments show that the burning rate 

is insensitive to both the decomposition rate of Fe(C0)s and the reaction pathway for Fe 

conversion to FeO. The burning rate is sensitive to each reaction in the catalytic cycle (reactions 

1-3), roughly equally. 

Increasing the pre-exponential term of the specific reaction rate constant by the reported 

uncertainties (3X, 5X, and 3X for the three reactions, respectively) increases the inhibition effect 

and leads to better quantitative agreement with the measurements at Ql.0 and Xo2,,~0.21 

(XO., refers to the oxygen mole fraction in the oxidizer prior to mixing with the fuel). 

Calculated results with these higher reaction rates are shown as solid lines in Figure 2 (for the 

remainder of the present analyses and figures, these higher values of the pre-exponential term are 

used.) Such modifications to the mechanism lead to reaction rates that are nearly gas kinetic. 

Some justification for the use of higher rates exists because of the possibility of condensation of 

iron species in the experiments of Reference 16, and because the rates are only modified within 

the reported uncertainty. Nonetheless, it should be emphasized that Jensen and Jones' rate 

constants were deduced based on measurements in the recombination region of hydrogenoxygen-nitrogen flames, whereas the present flames are methane-oxygen-nitrogen. Differences 

in the overall catalytic recombination rates caused by the iron species may be due to additional 

reactions in the present hydrocarbon system. 

Halon OptionSTechnical Waking Conference 12-14 May 1998 149 
Two important features of the inhibition by Fe(CO), are captured by the calculations: the strong 

initial inhibition, and the decrease in the incremental effect of Fe(C0)s for concentrations above 

100 ppm. The experiments, however, show a more abrupt decrease in the inhibition 

effectiveness at higher Fe(C0)s mole fractions than do the calculations. Interrogation of the 

numerical modeling results reveals that the strong inhibition at low mole fraction is due to the 

early formation of the intermediate species in Reactions 1-3, and the rapid progress of these 

reactions. For the decrease in effectiveness as the concentration of Fe(C0)s increases, the model 

shows that as the inhibition cycle acts to recombine radicals, but that as fewer radicals exist to 

recombine, the effectiveness decreases, as described below. 

In the reaction zone of premixed flames, hydrogen atom is typically present in superequilibrium 

concentrations. The decrease in the calculated inhibition effect as Xi, increases is due to the 

decrease in the quantity of superequilibrium H atoms (defined as the diference between the peak 

XH in the flame and the equilibrium XH at the flame temperature) [7, 8,25,26]. This decrease 

can be seen in Figure 3, in which X,,, - X,, is plotted for varying Xi" as determined from the 

calculations for the el.0 flame, and a saturation effect is apparent. Interestingly, halogenated 

flame inhibitors also show a saturation effect [27,28], and this cause of the reduced effectiveness 

(reduction in radical superequilibrium) 

1 

may be the same. 

0.008 

0.006 

0.002 

4 

0 100 200 300 400 500 

Fe(CO), Mole Fraction (pprn) 

Figure 3. Calculated dependence of superequilibrium H-atom mole fraction 

(XH,pcolr - XH,~~) on Fe(C0)s addition in premixed stoichiometric flames 

with X,,,, = 0.21. The calculated value of XH,~~ is approximately 

2.8. IOd (for Xi" = 0). 

The effect of oxygen mole fraction on the burning velocity is presented in Figure 4, which shows 

the normalized burning velocity as a function of Xi, for el.0 flames with three oxidizer 

compositions: XO,, = 0.20,0.21, and 0.24 (results for @ = 1.1, and 0.9 are qualitatively similar). 

The normalized burning velocity is defined as the burning velocity of the inhibited flame divided 

by the burning velocity of the uninhibited flame (which can be found in Table 1). The 

experimental results show that as XO., increases, the inhibition effect at low mole fraction (i.e., 

the slope) decreases. As Figure 4 illustrates, the numerical model qualitatively predicts this 

150 Halon optionsTechnical Woming Conference 12-14 May 1998 
Table 1. Calculated burning velocities, measured (V<,,<~J burning velocities, and 

calculated maximum temperatures (T-,,,A for the uninhibited premixed 

flames. Data for flames without argon are from Reference 8. 

xop x, Vo,num V<WXP Tw,nwn 

(cds) (CdS) (K) x, + XN, Q, 

0.9 0.21 0 36.5 37.1 ? 1.9 2130 

1 .o 0.20 0 35.8 33.2 f 1.7 2180 

1 .o 0.2 1 0 40.6 45.4 f 1.4 2230 

1 .o 0.24 0 55.6 59.2 k 3.0 2350 

1.1 0.21 0 40.7 39.3 * 2.0 2210 

1.1 0.2 1 0.424 53.2 58.5 f 3.2 2350 

1.1 0.21 0.63 60.7 68.1 k 3.9 2420 

1.0 

c 

a 

.- g 0.8 

3 

- 

Ln 

._ t 0.6 

E 

m 

3 

0.0 I 

0 100 200 300 400 500 

Fe(CO), Mole Fraction (pprn) 

Figure 4. Calculations and measurements of normalized burning velocity of 

premixed CWO2/N2 flames with XO,,~, = 0.20 (W), 0.21 (0). and 0.24 

(A). Q, = 1.0. Experimentaldata are from Reference 8. 

behavior. Examination of the numerical results shows that for stoichiometric flames with 

50 ppm Fe(C0)S in the reactants, the catalytic recombination mechanism accounts for 20, 19, and 

15% of the total H-atom reaction flux for consumption of H, forXo,,o~.20,0.21, and 0.24. 

That is, at higher oxygen mole fractions, the creation and destruction fluxes for hydrogen become 

larger, and the iron-species reactions become a smaller fraction of the total flux (for a fixed 

initial inhibitor mole fraction). 

As Figure 2 and Figure 4 illustrate, the experiments show a much greater decrease in the 

effectiveness of Fe(C0)s as the mole fraction increases than the calculations predict. One 

possible explanation for this discrepancy is that as the mole fraction of inhibitor increases, there 

is a loss of the radical-scavenging iron species that is not yet accounted for in the kinetic 

mechanism. Since the iron species exist in mole fractions above their vapor pressure [7, 241, it is 

possible that condensation of iron species represents a loss mechanism that is not accounted for 

Halon options Technical Wolking Conference 12-14 May 1998 151 
in the calculations. This explanation is consistent with the shift in the value of Xi, where the 

diminished effectiveness occurs in the experiments as shown in Figure 4. That is, at higher 

temperatures, there will be a higher vapor pressure for condensed iron species, so the drop-off in 

effectiveness will not occur until higher Fe(C0)S mole fractions are reached. Unfortunately, 

varying the oxygen mole fraction in Figure 4 changes the temperature and the mole fraction of 

oxygen-containing species in the flame, both of which can change the condensation properties. 

In premixed methane-oxygen-diluent flames it is possible to vary the flame temperature without 

varying I$ and XoT, by changing the composition of the diluent. In this case, we replace nitrogen 

with argon, thus causing the flame temperature to increase. Figure 5 shows the measured and 

calculated normalized burning velocity of methane flames at Xo,,p0.21 and $=I. 1 for final 

calculated temperatures of 2230,2350, and 2420 K. Two results stand out. As the gas 

temperature increases, (1) the inhibition is weaker, and (2) the point at which the normalized 

burning velocity levels off shifts to a higher value of Xi, . The stronger inhibition at lower 

temperature is a result of a decrease in the quantity of superequilibrium H atoms as described 

above. The change in leveling-off point may be due to higher vapor pressure of the iron 

compounds at higher temperature (as discussed [24]). 

Figure 5. Calculations (lines) and measurements (symbols) of normalized 

burning velocity of premixed CH4/OdNz/Ar flames with temperatures 

of 2230 K (no Ar, m), 2350 K (42.4% of N2 replaced with Ar, a), and 

2420 K (63% of N2 replaced with Ar, A). $= 1.1 and Xo30x = 0.21. 

COUNTERFLOW DIFFUSION FLAMES 

Counterflow diffusion flames provide additional opportunities to study the behavior of Fe(C0)s. 

The inhibitor can be subjected to different chemical and thermal histories by varying the 

reactants, the location of the inhibitor addition, and the flame location. The reduction in the 

extinction strain rate (acxr, defined as the axial velocity gradient in the oxidizer stream at 

extinction) is used as a measure of the inhibition action of iron pentacarbonyl. 

152 Halon Options Technical Wohing Conference 12-14 May 1998 
The counterflow diffusion flame results are presented in terms of a normalized extinction strain 

rate, which is defined as the ratio of the extinction strain rate of an inhibited flame to that of an 

uninhibited flame. The normalized value is used since Chelliah et al. [29] have shown that the 

absolute values of a, can depend on experimental burner design and the numerical description 

of the flow field, whereas the trends in sex, are independent of the flow-field characteristics in the 

experiment or model. 

Figure 6 shows the measured and calculated normalized extinction strain rates for a methane-air 

flame with varying Fe(C0)S input. The flame is located on the oxidizer side of the stagnation 

plane, and the maximum temperature is approximately 1800 K at extinction. For the uninhibited 

flame, the measured aexr is 610 f 30 s-' and the calculated aexr is 520 s-I. Experimental results [8] 

show that when Fe(C0)s is added to the oxidizer stream a significant decrease in aexf results. In 

contrast, when the Fe(C0)s is added to the fuel stream, little change in aexl results. The 

numerical simulations qualitatively reproduce the significant dependence of inhibition on the 

location of Fe(C0)s addition. 

0 100 200 300 400 500 

Fe(CO), mole fraction (ppm) 

Figure 6. Normalized extinction strain rate for counterflow diffusion flame as 

Fe(C0)S input varies. Closed symbols: measurements with the 

Fe(C0)S in the oxidizer; open symbok: measurements with Fe(C0)s 

in the fuel; solid line: calculations with Fe(C0)s in the oxidizer; and 

dashed line: calculation with Fe(C0)S in the fuel. Experimental data 

are from Reference 8. 

CONCLUSIONS 

While the highly efficient inhibition action of metallic compounds in hydrocarbon-air flames has 

been known for some time, there has existed controversy in the literature as to whether the 

mechanism involves gas-phase or heterogeneous chemistry. This paper presents numerical 

modeling of iron pentacarbonyl's extremely strong inhibition action in Bunsen-type premixed 

and counterflow diffusion flames, and provides evidence that inhibition occurs primarily by 

homogeneous gas-phase chemistry at low initial FI$CO)~ mole fraction. While we do not believe 

Halon Options Technical Wolking Conference 12-14 May 1998 153 
that the present calculations explicitly rule out heterogeneous chemical effects, we believe that 

the mechanism, based on homogeneous chemistry, can explain many-but not allbof our 

measurements. 

Calculations using the rate constants for the catalytic cycle reactions (1-3) suggested in Reference 

16 yield normalized burning velocities in qualitative agreement with experimental measurements; however, they predict less inhibition than was measured. Analysis of the numerical 

results confirms that the primary inhibition occurs through the catalytic cycle of reactions (1-3). 

An increase in the rate constants (within experimental uncertainty) of these reactions leads to 

improved agreement between experiments and calculations at low Fe(C0)s mole fractions for 

several equivalence ratios and oxygen concentrations. At higher initial Fe(C0)S mole fractions, 

however, the calculations predict a stronger effect than measured and do not predict as severe a 

leveling off in burning velocity. Likewise, for a counterflow diffusion flame of methane flowing 

against air, calculations of the extinction strain rate agree with experimental measurements at low 

values of X,,, but at higher X,, the simulations predict a stronger effect on aext than was measured. 

The performance of the present gas-phase mechanism is considered very good, and it provides 

evidence that the flame inhibition effect of Fe(C0)S is primarily a result of gas-phase scavenging 

reactions. Nonetheless, certain experimental observations are not fully accounted for. In 

particular, the predicted inhibition for lean premixed flames is not strong enough. The range of 

flame temperature studied here is fairly narrow: about 2100 K to 2400 Kin the premixed flames 

and about 1800 K to 2000 Kin the diffusion flames. Future research will examine a wider 

variety of counterflow diffusion flames-which will allow greater variation in temperature and 

gas composition-and will measure particulate properties to elucidate the role of condensed iron 

compounds. More research is desirable to test the validity of the higher rates for reactions 1-3 

indicated here, and to determine if additional inhibition reactions are important in hydrocarbon 

flames. 

Thefinancial support of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for D.R. and of the Army Research 

Laboratory (K. McNesby and A. Miziolek) for V.B. is gratefully acknowledged. The helpful suggestions 

of Professor Harsha Chelliah concerning the counterflow difision flame calculations contributed 

greatly to this research, as did the generosity of Professor Mitchell Smooke for the use of his diffusion 

flame code. The authors also thank Mr. NewtonLiu for helping with the numerical simulations and Dr. 

Wing Tsang for helpful discussions and suggestions. 

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156 Halon Options Techntcal Waking Conference 12-14 May 1998 

~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~-