Firm! Report 

Dmplet Interaction with Hot Surfaces 

Yudaya Sivathanu 

En'Urga Inc. 

1292 Cumberland AGenue 

West Lafayette, IN 47906 

and 

Harsh P. Oke, Chunming Fu, Tony Wang and Paul E. Sojka 

Maurice J. Zucrow Laboratcries 

School of Mechanical Engineering 

Purdue University 

West Lafayette, IN 4?907-1003 

Prepaisd for 

Dr. Richard Sann 

NGF Techt.iical Program Manager 

Chief, Fire Sciences Division 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory. Bldg. 224, Rm. 8250 

National Institute of Standards aiid Technology 

Gaithersburg. MD 23899 

Contract Number: I)ASWO1-98-C-OU29 

March. 2000 

Droplet Interaction with Hot Surfaces 

Yudaya Sivathanu 

En'Urga Inc. 

1291 Cumberland Avenue 

West Lafayette, IN 47906 

and 

Harsh P. Oke, Chunming Fu, Tony Wang and Paul E. Sojka 

Maurice J. Zucrow Laboratories 

School of Mechanical Engineering 

Purdue University 

West Lafayette, IN 47907-1003 

Contract Number: DASWOI-98-C-0029 

March, 2000 
Acknowledqement 

The work in this report was supported by the SERDP Next Generation Fire 

Suppression Technology Program under contract No. DASWOI-98-C-0029. Dr. Richard 

Gann served at the NGP Technical Program Manager for the contract. The authors are 

solely responsible for the entire contents of this report. 

1 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

The objective of the project was to study the interaction between droplets and 

burning surfaces so as to engineer better fire suppressants. The project consisted of two 

parts. The first part determined the effect of water mist on the suppression of flame spread 

over a solid fuel. The second part examined the role of buoyancy and evaporation on the 

droplet size and velocity distributions as they approach a hot surface. 

The effect of water mist on the reduction in flame spread velocity was obtained by 

experiments conducted in a wind tunnel. Flame spread velocities with and without the 

water mist were obtained for a solid fuel, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) using Focal 

Plane Array Imaging. PMMA sheets of different thickness were burned in an opposed flow 

configuration, with varying wind velocities. A spray nozzle, suspended over the PMMA 

sheets, was used to vary the water loading at the flame front. 

In the presence of water mist, the flame spread rate is a strong function of the water 

loading on the fuel surface. As the loading increases, the flame spread rate decreases. 

The effect is more pronounced at low values of opposing wind speeds. The effect of mean 

drop size of the spray on flame spread rate was small for the range of droplet sizes used in 

the experiments. An empirical correlation of the water loading required to retard the spread 

of unwanted fires and to extinguish them was developed. The results of the study will be 

directly applicable to designing fire suppressant devices so that the minimum mass of 

suppressant is applied directly to the fire. 

The total water loading at the fire location depends on the trajectory of droplets 

through the fire. Two physical effects that change the trajectory and size of droplets are 

evaporation and buoyancy induced local air velocity. A non-evaporating spray (Dow 

Thermal Fluid 510) was used to assess the effects of buoyancy induced air velocity on 

droplet size and trajectory. An evaporating spray (water) was used to study the combined 

effects of buoyancy induced flow as well as evaporation on the droplet trajectories. The 

results show that coalescence is the dominant mechanism by which droplets change size 

during their flight to the hot surface. 

The data was used to evaluate two models for droplet coalescence and evaporation. 

The results showed that these models have to be improved significantly before they can 

be directly used in fire suppression studies. 

2 
Table of Contents 

Acknowledgement ............................................................................. 

Executive Summary ............................................................................ 

1 . 

2 . 

3 . 

4 . 

4 . 

Introduction .......................................................................... 1 . 1 Project Objective ............................................................... 1.2 Background .................................................................... 1.3 Technical Approach ........................................................... 

Flame Spread Studies ................................................................. 2.1 Experimental Methods ......................................................... 2.2 Results and Discussion ....................................................... 

Droplet Interactions with a Hot Surface ........................................ 3.1 Experimental Methods ....................................................... 3.2 Numerical Methods ......................................................... 3.3 Results and Discussion ....................................................... 3.3 Preliminary Model Results .................................................... 

Summary Conclusion ............................................................... 

4.1 Important Findings ............................................................ 4.2 Significant Hardware Development ....................................... 4.3 Recommendations for Future Research .............................. 4.4 List of Publications .............................................................. 

Implications for Further Research ................................................ 

References ...................................................................................... 

1 

2 

4 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

9 

16 

16 

21 

23 

27 

27 

27 

28 

28 

28 

28 

29 

3 
DROPLET INTERACTION WITH HOT SURFACES 

1. Introduction 

1.1 Proiect Obiective 

To obtain data and an understanding of the interaction of droplets with burning 

surfaces required to engineer improved heterogeneous agent dispersion systems with 

enhanced fire-extinction capability. 

1.2 Backqround 

Currently, most fire suppression devices, particularly for aerospace and military 

applications, utilize Halon 1301 as the suppressant. Halon 1301 has been discontinued 

due to environmental concerns, and a search for alternate suppressants is underway. This 

has lead to a renewed interest in the fundamental fire suppression mechanisms. 

There have been numerous studies on flame spread velocities in opposed and 

counter flow configurations (De Ris, 1969; Lastrina et al., 1971, Fernandez-Pello et a/., 

1978; Fernandez-Pello et a/., 1981, Apte et al., 1991; Loh and Fernandez-Pello, 1984; 

Perzak and Lazzara, 1992) during the last three decades. These studies have shown that 

the flame spread velocity depends on the fuel thickness, flow configuration, oxygen 

concentration, and the size of the wind tunnel. Therefore, for flame suppression studies, it 

is best to obtain data with and without the suppressant in the same facility. 

Interactions of water mists with fires have been studied for almost four decades 

(Braidech et al., 1955; Rasbash et al., 1960; Lugar, 1979; Mawhinney et a/., 1994; 

Coppalle et a/., 1993). The major pathways to extinction of fires involve heat extraction, 

oxygen reduction, concentration changes in vaporlair mixtures and kinetic effects at the 

molecular level. Braidech et al. (1955) have concluded correctly that, in most cases, the 

efficacy of water mist is predominantly due to the oxygen displacement effect of the water 

evaporating, rather than to thermal cooling. However, there are no detailed models 

describing the size reduction and evaporation of droplets in flames, or their effect on 

surface reaction kinetics. Indeed, even models that predict what size droplets will reach 

the surface are not available. 

Studies describing spray-target interactions have primarily focused on application of 

paintskoatings to surfaces (Kwok, 1991, Hicks and Senser, 1995). These studies have 

shown that high gas phase strain rates where the spray impinges on the target dramatically 

affect turbulent transport of small (diameter less than 25 pm) droplets, and hence the 

deposition of the said droplets on the intended surface. In addition, the deposited drop 

size distribution can be significantly different from that of the (initial) spray. Finally, drop 

transport is dependent on initial drop momentum, aerodynamic drag, and the gravitational 

force, with aerodynamic drag being dominant. 

4 
Many studies have been performed that quantify the vaporization process of both 

single and multiple droplet arrays impacting on hot surfaces (DiMarzo and Evans, 1986; 

DiMarzo et al., 1989). These studies have identified the need for spatially and temporally 

resolved data describing the droplet trajectory as it approaches a hot surface (including 

buoyancy effects) as well as the temperature distribution of the surface material. 

The present study seeks further understanding of the interaction of droplets with 

fires in two areas. First, this study experimentally determines the key water mist properties, 

such as surface loading and droplet diameter, that affect flame spread rate. It is hoped 

that the data will lead to improved fire extinguishing agents and suppression methods. 

Secon, this study seeks to numerically and experimentally determine the droplet size and 

velocity history as it approaches a hot surface or fire. 

Direct Simulation Monte Carlo is widely used to solve for the heat transfer in a wide 

variety of problems (Howell, 1968; Haji-Sheik, 1988) due to its simplicity and accuracy. 

There are many methods to improve the accuracy of Monte-Carlo simulations which 

include importance sampling (Kahn and Marshall, 1953), weighing and biasing (Lanore, 

1971), and the discrete probability function method (Sivathanu and Gore, 1993). 

Therefore, the simulation of the problem utilizing Monte-Carlo methods is straightforward, 

once the important rates that govern the physical processes are understood. 

The different components that describe both the droplet trajectory and the 

temperature distribution over the surface as a function of time are studied in detail in this 

project by separating the various physical processes and integrating them to obtain an 

experimentally validated model that can be used in Monte-Carlo simulations. 

1.3 

e 

e 

e 

e 

e 

e 

Technical Approach 

Conduct experiments with non-evaporating and evaporating particles of controlled 

density injected at controlled velocities towards a variably heated surface. 

Obtain the variation in particle velocity as a function of the impressed buoyancy 

forces, thereby determining the effects of flame buoyancy on the likelihood of a 

particle reaching a burning surface. 

Determine the effect of evaporation on these results. 

Conduct experiments with mono-disperse and poly-disperse droplets injected over 

the flames from PMMA or over heated polyurethane foam, using droplet loading, 

delay time after ignition, and location of the spray from the leading edge as 

parameters. 

Obtain reduction in flame spread so as to obtain empirical correlation between spray 

characteristics and flame spread. 

Use a Two Color Planar Pyrometer to measure surface temperature changes as a 

function of aerosol impingement. 

Conduct Monte-Carlo simulations of the mistkurface interactions to develop fuller 

understanding of the dominant processes and identify the key aerosol properties 

that impact efficient suppression of the fire. 

5 
2. Flame Spread Studies 

The primary objective of this work is to determine the effect of water mist on flame 

spread rate and develop an empirical correlation that can be used to design fore 

suppression systems. The variation of flame spread rate with the surface loading of water 

and the diameter of the droplets is the focus of this part of the study. 

2.1 Experimental Methods 

The flame spread experiments were carried out in a wind tunnel, whose photograph 

is shown in Fig. 1. The wind tunnel is of a rectangular cross-section 45 cm high and 76 cm 

Figure 1. Wind tunnel used for fire spread studies. 

Wide and 1.75 m long. The roof has three rectangular slots 7.6 cm wide x 28 cm long for 

observation of the flame by means of a video camera. The slots are covered with 12.5 mm 

thick glass windows during experiments. The velocity inside the tunnel is control by a DC 

motor driven exhaust fan. 

Honeycomb flow straighteners of polycarbonate placed at the mouth of the duct, are 

used to remove large scale turbulent eddies and create uniform flow conditions in the test 

section. Each flow straightener has a diameter of 6.4 mm and is 25 cm in length. This 

LID ratio, yields a maximum Reynolds number of 64 and is sufficient to establish a fully 

developed laminar flow in the straighteners (Fox and McDonald, 1994). A 1.6 mm thick 

ceramic paper was applie d to the interior of the tunnel to reduce heat transfer to the walls. 

PMMA supports surface combustion, and the flame spread rate over it is steady and 

well characterized. The properties of PMMA, such as density, specific heat at constant 

pressure, and heat of combustion, are consistent and well known. Therefore, PMMA was 

used in the present study. 

6 
30 cm x 20 cm PMMA sheets having thickness of 3.2 and 6.4 mm were used for the 

present study. The PMMA sheets were ignited with a small methanol trough before placing 

them into the wind tunnel. The experiments were carried out at four opposing wind speeds 

of 0.69, 0.84, 1.21, and 1.53 m/s. Three flow rates, ranging from 9.5 to 15.5 cclmin, and 

three inlet pressures (880, 1375, and 21 15 kPa) were used to vary the mass loading and 

the droplet size of the water spray used for suppression. 

Initially, the fire suppression experiments were carried out with one surface in 

contact with an insulating ceramic material. This is the conventional method, called here 

'with backing' mode or one-sided combustion mode. When fire suppression experiments 

were begun, it was realized that the ceramic backing was quick to absorb water and was 

instrumental in extinguishing the flame almost as soon as the water spray was turned on. 

Therefore, the present studies were carried out with the PMMA sample supported along its 

sides with air flowing above and below the specimen. A photograph of the flame 

suppression experiment with the water mist applied is shown in Figure. 2. 

Figure 2. Flame spread experiment with water mist. 

Calculations showed that the Blasius boundary layer thickness over the surface of 

the aluminum platform has a maximum value of about 1.4 cm. By keeping a 6 cm gap 

between the bottom surface of the PMMA specimens and the support platform, it was 

ensured that free stream conditions existed on both the top and bottom and that the flame 

spread was unaffected by the boundary layer on the support platform. 

A hollow cone spray was generated using a pressure atomizer which delivers good 

atomization quality over a large range of flow rates at the same inlet pressure. The nozzle 

is mounted on a bracket at a distance of about 60 cm upstream of the sample and at a 

7 
height of about 17.5 cm above the surface of the PMMA. The droplets are carried 

downstream and onto the flame by the airflow present in the wind tunnel. 

To obtain local surface loading of the water spray, pieces of absorbent tissue paper 

were taped onto the surface of a PMMA sample in a 4 x 4 grid. The spray was established 

at a given test condition and the difference in weight of the tissues was determined after a 

suitable interval of time. A Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer was used to obtain the drop 

size and drop mean velocity data. The PDPA was operated in forward scatter mode 

(0=30"). The probe volume was 14 cm downstream of the nozzle exit. 

A black-and-white 8-bit CCD camera was used to track the motion of the flame. The 

camera is mounted on a bracket above the observation window and looks down 

perpendicularly onto the burning samples. It was observed that the edges of the PMMA 

samples burn faster than the center. In order to avoid erroneous estimates of flame spread 

rate on account of edge effects, the camera focused on the central 23 cm of the flame. 

During a typical experiment, the flame spread images were obtained 8 seconds 

apart. The location of the flame was defined to be the pixel of maximum intensity value. 

The difference in location of the flame in a particular row of pixels between two frames (that 

are separated by a known time interval) yielded the flame spread rate for that row. To 

reduce the discretization errors, the flame spread was calculated from images separated 

by 160 seconds. The mean velocity of the flame calculated for all the rows was designated 

to be the velocity of the flame at that time. 

The reduction in flame temperature due to droplet loading was obtained using a two 

color planar pyrometer (TCPP). A schematic diagram of the two color planar pyrometer is 

shown in Fig. 3. The TCPP has an imaging lens that is used to collect broad band 

Imaging lens Bandpass filter 

2-D Array 

Beam splitter 

Figure 3. Schematic of the two color planar pyrometer. 

radiation from the fire. The radiation is split into two and spectrally differentiated using 

band pass filters. An array imaging camera is used to obtain the spectral image of the 

flame at two wavelengths. For the present study, the band pass filters were centered at 

approximately 900 and 1000 nm, and each had a band width of 80 nm. The TCPP was 

calibrated using a standard laboratory black body source. 
2.2 Results and Discussion 

The first issue addressed is the measurement uncertainty. If x is the position of the 

flame and t is the time interval between measurements, the velocity is given by v=x/t. The 

uncertainties in the measurement of flame position (wx) and time (wt) can be used (Kline 

and McClintock, 1953) to estimate the uncertainty in the flame spread rate (WV) as: 

For the imaging system, the uncertainty in position is k 1 pixel, and that in time (provided 

by the camera timer) is 1 microsecond. Therefore, for a typical flame event lasting 160 s, 

with the flame moving about 12 pixels, the uncertainty in velocity is: 

Typical flame velocity data obtained using the imaging system is shown in Fig. 4. 

€\ 

L,, >,, __1__1_1 ____u , J 0.06 

0 ion zoo 300 400 sno 600 700 

Time Is1 

Figure 4. Typical flame spread time trace obtained using Focal Plane Array Imaging. 

As soon as the flame is lit, the imaging system starts obtaining data at a rate of 1 image 

every eight seconds. During the first few minutes, the flame spread rate rapidly decreases 

until a steady state is reached. At steady state, the flame spread velocity changes 

9 
approximately k 10% due to the small scale fluctuations in the flame front and the 

uncertainty of the measurement. 

The flame spread rate as a function of opposing wind speed is shown in Fig. 5. The 

vertical bars represent one standard deviation in the statistical variation of the data on 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

F 0.5 

E 

E 

22 

w 0.4 

a, 

.- 

. 

a 

3 

a w 

m 

5 

Li 0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

1 

0 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 

Opposing wind speed [rnls] 

Figure 5. Flame spread rates without the water mist. 

each side of the mean (approximately 60 points per run). The experimental uncertainty is 

less than 10% of the mean. 

The expected result is seen that the flame spread rate without backing is higher than 

that with backing for the same sample thickness since burning is allowed to take place on 

both sides in the 'without backing' mode. Also in 'with backing' mode, some amount of 

heat loss occurs to the supporting aluminum plate since the ceramic paper (on which the 

PMMA is burned) is not a perfect insulator. 

Another observation is that the flame spread rate decreases as the opposing wind 

speed increases. This can be explained by realizing that the forward heat transfer by gas10 
phase conduction from the flame to the unburned fuel decreases. Convective heat transfer 

from the unburned fuel surface also increases. This result is therefore expected. It is also 

found that the flame spread rate is higher for the thinner fuel than the thicker fuel. Since 

the heat transfer required to raise the temperature of the unburned fuel to its vaporization 

temperature is less for a thin fuel, this finding is also expected. These three results are 

consistent with the observations of previous investigators. 

The flame spread rate results found in this work are approximately 20% greater than 

the findings of Fernandez-Pello et a/. (1981) for the 6.4 mm thickness PMMA at 0.7 m/s 

opposed flow velocity. At flow velocities of 0.85 and 1.2 m/s, the results in the present 

work are lower than the findings of Fernandez-Pello et a/. (1981) by about 9 and 6%, 

respectively. The results are all within the limits of experimental uncertainty. 

Any differences that exist beyond experimental uncertainty can be explained as 

follows. At the lower opposed wind speeds the flame stand-off height is more than at the 

higher opposed wind speeds. As the width of the sample in the present work (30 cm) is 

much greater than that in the work of Fernandez-Pello et a/. (1981). there is greater 

radiation heating of the unburned fuel surface by the flame. Hence the measured flame 

spread rate is greater. 

At the higher opposing wind speeds the flame stand-off height is much less. At 

these high wind speeds,radiation from the flame is much lower (on account of a small view 

factor). It is believed that it is the size of the experimental facility that is responsible for 

differences in the measured flame spread velocities between this study and the work of 

Fernandez-Pello et a/. (1981). In particular, the wind tunnel duct used by Fernandez-Pello 

et a/. (1981) is 5 cm x 4 cm in cross-section and 1 m long while the duct used in the 

present work has a cross-section of 45 cm x 76 cm and is 1.75 m long. The greater reradiation from the walls of the duct in the work of Fernandez-Pello ef al. (1981) is believed 

to be the reason for the difference in the findings. 

Another reason for the differences between the current measurements and those of 

Fernandez-Pello et al. could be different diagnostic and analytical techniques used to 

determine the flame spread rate. The progress of the flame in the experiments of 

Fernandez-Pello et a/. was measured visually as it passed over previously ruled marks on 

the PMMA surface, whereas in the present work a CCD camera tracked the flame motion. 

The data analysis method used by Fernandez-Pello et a/. is not known, but in the present 

work the estimate of flame spread rate is over a rather large length of time (160 seconds) 

rather than being 'instantaneous'. 

The flame spread rate as a function of surface loading for the 3.2 mm thickness 

sample is shown in Figure 6. Similar results for the 6.4 mm thick PMMA are shown in Fig. 

7. The systematic decrease in flame spread rate with increasing surface loading on the 

PMMA can be clearly seen in all cases. 

The effect of surface loading appears to be greatest in the case of low opposing 

wind speeds, viz. 0.69 and 0.84 mls. The reason may be that the flame spread rate is low 

11 
0.2 

. 

,@,,. . ....... . ,, & ~ 

',A,. '...A ----%, ,... .,... . ,,, 

.+ - - - - - - - - 28 .. 

-x-x-. - 

-X x- 

.- C 

Figure 6. Flame spread rate as a function of surface loading for 3.2 mm thick PMMA. 

to begin with at the higher opposing wind speeds and with increasing loading there is a 

practical limit to the flame spread rate that can exist and still be measurable. It is 

conjectured that a threshold value of flame spread rate exists, between 0.15 and 0.20 

cm/min, below which the flame will be rapidly extinguished. 

12 

g (II 

a, 

E' 

5 

A.&. .%- .,... +- -_ - 

0.2-x% x,- '' '" ,A- - - -0 
880 kPa 

+- 0.84 mls 

A 1.21 m/s 

0.8- I 

0.6 - 

-08 

G 

E 

6 06- 

. 

I 

I 

0 

' 

0.69 m/s 

-0- 0 84 mis 

Figure 7. Flame spread rate as a function of surface loading for 6.4 mm thick PMMA. 

The role of surface loading on the flame spread rate can be explained in terms of 

heat transfer effects. On account of surface cooling there is a reduction in pyrolysis of the 

fuel ahead of the flame front. As the rate of fuel vapor production decreases, less heat is 

liberated in the exothermic chemical reaction between the fuel vapor and oxygen. This 

13 

. 

+ - 

LL 

08 

06- 

0.4 

02- 

I 

+ 0 69 m/s 

-0- 0.84 m/S 

- 

.* @- - - x A 

0' 
results in a net decrease in heat transfer to the unburned PMMA ahead of the flame. As a 

result, the flame spread rate drops. 

In order to determine the effect of spray operating parameters on the droplet size, 

namely the atomizer inlet pressure and flow rate, measurements of drop size and velocity 

were performed using a Phase/Doppler Particle Analyzer. Drop size and velocity data are 

presented in Figure 8. 

- 

5 

0' 

0 5 10 15 20 

r4- 1375 kPa 

A2115kPa I A e 

I 

E 

= z 

- 8 3- 

E 2- 

> 

c 

a 

0 

0 

1- 

0 

0 5 10 15 20 

Discharge rale from spray nozzle [cclmin] 

I 25 

3 

Figure 8. Mean drop size and velocity as a function of spray nozzle discharge rate 

From Figure 8 it is seen that both the drop size and the mean velocity increase as 

the mass flow rate through the nozzle increases for a constant inlet pressure. At the same 

flow rate through the nozzle, the drop size is smaller and the mean velocity greater at the 

higher pressure. The difference in the mean drop diameter at 10 cclmin flow rate at the 

three different pressures is approximately 2.5 pm; at 15 cc/min flow rate it is approximately 

1 pm. By the d2-law of droplet evaporation the ratio of evaporation times of drops 27.5 and 

14 
25 pm in diameter is 1.2. Therefore, a notable impact due to evaporative cooling in the 

flame vicinity cannot be expected. Consequently, the drop size variation should not be a 

significant factor in flame spread rate variations for the conditions considered here. 

The drop mean velocity measurements provide an explanation as to why the flame 

spread rate increases with increasing nozzle discharge rate at low opposing wind speeds. 

The reason is that the drop mean velocity increases as the flow rate increases. This 

reduces drift due to the cross-wind and leads to deposition of the spray in the collection 

pan (placed below the spray nozzle) upstream of the target. The surface loading on the 

PMMA is thus reduced and, consequently, the flame spread rate increases. 

The data obtained from all tests were used to develop an empirical correlation. The 

normalized flame spread rates for all conditions are shown in Fig. 9. Three different 

7J 

m 1.00 

2 

2 0.75 

0.50 

Q 

0 

m 

LL 

- 

N 

.- - 

m E 6 0.25 

z A 

i 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Liquid loading (glminlm’) 

Figure 9. Variation in normalized flame spread with liquid loading. 

injection pressures (corresponding to different droplet diameters), two different PMMA 

thickness, and four different opposed flow velocities were used in developing the empirical 

correlation. 

Data represented by open symbols shown in Fig. 8 were obtained with 3.2 mm thick 

PMMA, and those represented by closed symbols were obtained with 6.4 mm thick PMMA 

sheets. The regression analysis for the normalized flame spread in the thinner samples 

provides an approximately 85% correlation with liquid mass loading. For the thicker 

samples, the correlation of the normalized flame spread with the liquid mass loading is 

approximately 75%. The correlation obtained for all twenty-four conditions show that the 

15 
normalized flame spread rate can be roughly expressed as a function of the local liquid 

mass loading alone Correlations for flame spread rates with zero liquid mass loadings are 

readily available in literature. Therefore, the current results can be used to estimate (within 

a factor of two) what the local liquid mass flux should be to achieve extinction. This 

information is useful, since it would provide a direct estimate of the optimal suppressant 

mass required to extinguish fires. 

The effect on water loading on the decrease in the mean flame temperature is 

shown in Fig. IO. The mean temperature of the flame without any water loading varies 

, 880KPa.6.4mm I 

1600 , 

-------- - - 

I t06 m/s 1 

I O94m/s 

121m/s 

_J -- 1 50mk 

__ 

, 

0 20 40 60 80 

LOADING [g/m2.min] I 

Figure 10. Mean flame temperature obtained using the TCPP 

Between 1200 and 1400 K depending on the opposing wind velocity. In general, when the 

opposing wind velocity is high, the flame temperature is lower due to effects of flame 

stretch. This temperature drops rapidly with increasing water loading and the flame is 

extinguished at approximately 1000 K. 

3. Droplet Interaction with a Hot Surface 

3.1 Experimental Methods 

The second part of hardware development involved fabrication of a heated surface 

to obtain the simultaneous drop size and velocity distributions for a spray impinging on a 

hot target. The schematic of this experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 11. 

The experimental apparatus consisted of six main parts: the liquid supply system, 

the piezoelectric ceramic atomizer and its power supply system, the heater assembly and 

its power supply system, the temperature data acquisition system, the Phase Doppler 

Particle Sizer (PDPA) spray characterization system, and the spray imaging system. 

16 
Monodisperse spray 

PDPA receiving optics 

\ Heated surface 

PDPA sending optics 

Figure 11. Experimental arrangement for the PDPA measurements 

Compressed shop air was reduced to an appropriate pressure by a regulator then 

introduced into a thick-walled plastic tank. Liquid flowed out of the tank, passed through a 

filter and a rotameter, before finally reaching the piezoelectric ceramic atomizer. The filter 

had a pore size of 10 pm. The mass flow rate ranged from 0.1 tol.0 g/s, and the inlet 

pressure ranged from 27.6 to 82.7 kPa. They were adjusted simultaneously using the 

rotameter. Distilled water was used for evaporation experiments. A non-evaporative liquid 

purchased from Dow Corning, Fluid 510, was used for the buoyancy experiments. 

A piezoelectric atomizer, purchased from Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg in Germany 

was used to produce monodisperse droplets (Brenn et al., 1997) with flow rates up to 4 gls. 

A schematic of the atomizer is shown in Fig. 12. A 2 MHz function generator (Model 19 

Liquid 

Figure 12. Configuration of the piezoelectric atomizer 

17 
from Wavetek) was used with an amplifier to supply square wave signals (approx 30 V 

peak to peak) to the atomizer. Output frequencies ranged from 3 kHz to 2 MHz. 

Three round stainless steel plates with orifices of different diameters made by laser 

drilling were used as nozzles in the atomizer. The plates are 50 pm thick, and are 

supported by a Imm thick stainless plate with a Imm hole in the center. The orifice 

diameters were 100, 50, and 20 pm. The atomizer was placed above the center of the 

heater in a fixture that allowed 360 degree rotation. In addition, the atomizerwas capable 

of being moved in both the vertical and horizontal direction. 

A heat source is necessary to provide a surface temperature as uniform as possible. 

A modified design of a hot plate designed by Dingel (1995) was used in the experiments. 

A schematic of the heater assembly is shown in Fig. 13. The main components are an 

Macor , Ceramic 

Aluminum 

Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the heater assembly 

exterior aluminum ring with top and bottom cover plates, a copper block with inside 

cartridge heaters, and insulation material. To reduce oxidization of the heated surface and 

clogging in the orifices and pipes, distilled water was used. The plate used was taken out 

of the atomizer after each experiment and cleaned using an ultrasonic cleaner before the 

next test. 

The arrangement of the copper block and the thermocouples is shown in Fig. 14. 

18 
Holes for Holes for cartridge thermocouples 

All sizes in mm '- 101.6 

Figure 14. Temperature measurement locations on the heater 

The copper is oxygen-free, and the block 10 cm in diameter. The exposed surface is 

nickel-plated to a thickness of 50 pm, 23 cartridge heaters were obtained from OMEGA, 

each rated at 100 W maximum. Their positions were arranged in such a way that the block 

would be heated as uniformly as possible. Twelve K-type subminiature thermocouples 

were inserted into the copper block at 4 radial locations. There are 3 in each group, 

located at different depths to extrapolate the surface temperature. Holes for the cartridge 

heaters are 9.4 mm in diameter and a total of 23 are arranged in three concentric circles 

as shown in Fig. 14. The holes for the thermocouples are 1.6 mm in diameter and a total 

of 12 are located as shown in Fig. 14. 

The copper block was surrounded by Cotronics Rescor 360 Ceramic Board 

insulation. This insulation was selected for its extremely low thermal conductivity (0.055 

W1m.K at 260 "C and 0.108 W1m.K at 600 "C), its resistance to high temperature 

(continuous operating temperature limit is 1260 "C), its rigidity, and its machinability. There 

is a center hole in each insulation layer below the copper block to allow the thermocouples 

and cartridge heater leads to pass through. 

A square, 1.59 mm thick Macor machineable ceramic cover was placed above the 

uppermost piece of the insulation layer, with a hole 10.16 cm in diameter in it for the 

exposed nickel-plated copper surface. The Macor sat on a ridge machined into the top 

aluminum cover plate. The exposed heater surface was maintained flush with the 

surrounding Macor plate by adjusting three screws beneath the insulation at the very 

bottom of the assembly. High temperature sealant 906 (Megnesia Adhesive from 

Cotronics) was used to fill the gap between the Macor and the aluminum cover plate. 

19 
Excess water flowed down along the exterior surface of the aluminum ring and was drained 

out through a hole in the slot, which was formed by the cylinder and the short ring mounted 

on the bottom plate. 

Since the position of the Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer (PDPA) was fixed, the 

heater and the atomizer were moved together to measure droplets at different axial and 

radial locations. A three-dimensional motor controller was used to provide accurate 

relative positioning of the laser probe volume. 

The twelve voltage signals from the thermocouples were received by the EXP-16 

board (Computer Boards) and multiplexed into a single signal for amplification. A gain of 

100 was used to achieve the largest voltage measurable and programmable by the CIODAS1402/12 board (from Computer Boards). The EXP-I6 also contained a CJC (cold 

junction compensation) circuit for correcting thermocouple readings. 

A schematic of the PDPA that was used to measure the sizes and velocities of the 

droplets is shown in Fig. 15. The PDPA consists of 5 major components: transmitter, 

Beam splitter Transmitter Lens \ / Receiver Lens 

Probe Volume Controller 

Detectors 

Signal Processor 

Figure 15. Schematic diagram of PDPA instrument 

receiver, signal processor, motor controller box, and computer. The transmitter (Model 

11 00) contains a 10 mW, polarized Helium-Neon laser. The collimating lens was 300 mm, 

and the receiver lens was 1000 mm. Thus we could get the largest range for measuring 

droplet sizes. The forward scattering mode was used to obtain data. 

For transparent particles, light scattered at 30 degrees to the forward direction is 

dominated by refraction. Droplets passing through the intersection of the two beams 

20 
scatter light which produces a far field interference fringe pattern. The spacing between 

these projected fringes is directly proportional to the drop diameter, but also depends on 

the light wavelength, beam intersection angle, drop refractive index (unless only reflected 

light is measured), and the location of the receiver. The PDPA obtains measurements of 

this fringe spacing via their image. As the fringes move past the detectors at the Doppler 

difference frequency, they produce identical signals but with a phase shift proportional to 

the fringe spacing. The temporal frequency of the measured signal is proportional to the 

particle velocity in the plane of the beams and orthogonal to the bisector of the beams. The 

spatial frequency of the interference fringe pattern is inversely proportional to the particle 

diameter. 

Experiments were performed for different liquids, nozzle plates, flow rates and 

operating frequencies. The initial surface temperature of the copper was chosen to be 600 

OC for water and 250 "C for Fluid 510. In addition, a base line data set with the heater at 

25 OC was also obtained. For a given a nozzle plate and a given flow rate, the operating 

frequencies were changed to get different drop size and velocities. A frequency was 

chosen by visually observing the jet shape and ensuring that there were no satellite 

droplets breaking away from the main stream. A plastic curtain was used in the 

experiments to reduce the ambient disturbances. Measurements at different axial and 

radial locations within the spray were obtained by moving the heater and the nozzle 

assembly using a slide. 

3.2 Numerical Methods 

Droplets that arrive at the location of the fire have to pass through the hot 

environment. For designing suppression systems, models are routinely used to calculate 

droplet trajectories. These models have to account for buoyancy and evaporation. The 

data obtained using the PDPA can be used for assessing the accuracy of these models. 

During the course of the project, a model based on Lund and Sojka (1995) that accounts 

for coalescence and evaporation of droplets was evaluated using the data. 

The influence of evaporation was evaluated through use of the d2 law as described 

by Masters (1976): 

din 

-. = 2nDV '"ShD 

dt RT (3) 

where m is droplet mass, t is time, DV is the mass diffusion coefficient, pv is the vapor 

pressure, R is the ideal gas constant for the vapor, T is the temperature, Sh is the 

Sherwood number, and D is the drop diameter. 

A change of variables converts the change in mass with respect to time in equation 

(3) to a change in diameter with respect to axial location. The resulting equation is: 

dD - 4Dvp"Sh 

dz piDRTV -- (4) 

21 
The remaining unknown variable, the Sherwood number, was calculated using the 

correlation found in Ranz and Marshall (1952): 

Sh = 2 + 0.6 Re0.5 Sc0.33 (5) 

where Re is the Reynolds number and Sc is the Schmidt number. 

Calculations were made using equations (4) and (5), plus the definitions of Re and 

Sc, to determine the change in drop diameter with axial location for a particular size class. 

Since drop diameter was found to decrease by only 0.015 pm for every 1 cm of axial 

distance we conclude that the influence of evaporation is negligible for the hydrocarbon oil 

used in this investigation. 

The extent to which droplet coalescence plays a role in increasing SMD was 

determined via a kinetic theory-based model. The model neglects viscous, gravitational 

and pressure forces. It is based on the coalescence of a droplet of size-velocity class i with 

a droplet of size-velocity class j to yield a droplet of size-velocity class k: 

Di + Dj + Dk (6) 

From this relationship the rate equation for change in number of droplets of class i is: 

where qi, the counts per unit volume for droplet class i, is defined as 

ki,, the collision frequency for droplets of class i colliding with those of class j, is defined as: 

and E is the probability of a collision leading to coalescence. E was determined by 

extrapolating the work of Jiang et al. (1992) to our fluids, and then approximating their 

impact parameter versus Weber number curves as straight lines. Such a procedure will 

over-estimate the probability of a collision leading to coalescence. 

In equations (7) through (9), ni represents the number ofdroplets in class i, Ap is the 

P/DPA probe area normal to the flow, trun is the run time, Vi is the velocity of class i, Vp is 

the P/DPA probe volume, and aij represents the diameter Dk that results from coalescence 

in equation (6). 

22 
Equations (7) through (9) were used to calculate the change in number of droplets 

for a particular class i with respect to axial location. Care must be taken when distributing 

the product mass and momentum over the appropriate size-velocity bins. The coarsegrained PDF technique of Sivathanu and Gore (1993) was therefore employed to keep 

computational evaluation of equation (7) tractable while ensuring spray mass and 

was determined dn i dSMD 

momentum conservation. Having calculated ~ in this fashion, ~~ 

dz dz 

by taking the derivative of SMD with respect to z. 

Equation (IO) was then used to calculate a change in the SMD due to coalescence of 

droplets with axial location. The results were compared with those obtained using the 

PDPA instrument. 

3.3 Results and Discussion 

The temperature field above the hot plate is shown in Fig. 16. The temperature is 

Figure 16. The temperature field at steady state above the hot plate 

600 OC just above the hot plate and rapidly decreases due to buoyancy induced 

entrainment. At an axial distance of 100 mm, the temperature is less than 200 OC at the 

13 
center line. The buoyancy induced velocity field is unsteady. However, the time-resolved 

velocity field was not measured in this experiment. The injector was located 250 mm 

above the hot plate in the centerline 

A steady k-E-g model was used to try to predict the temperature field. The steady 

state k-E-g model was modeled assuming a boundary layer flow. However, even under 

steady state conditions, the local velocity field had both positive and negative values. This 

could be readily visualized using smoke. The model does not have a mechanism to 

account for flow reversals. Therefore, the model predictions did not match the 

experimental observations. The model predictions are not provided in this report due to the 

very big divergence from the experimental observations. A 3-D large eddy simulation code 

was initiated to improve the model predictions. These calculations could not be completed 

within the reduced two year time frame of the project. 

The change in droplet diameter with the distance from the injector is shown in Fig. 

17. The PDPA results obtained using a cold plate and a hot plate are shown in the same 

Figure 17. Change in SMD of the droplets with axial distance for water. 

figure. The effects of coalescence are readily apparent. For both cases, the diameter of 

the droplets increase by approximately a factor of three by the time they arrive at the hot 

plate. For the hot surface, the droplet diameter increases only by a factor of two. 

There could be two reasons for the lower drop diameters when the environment is 

hot. The first reason is that the buoyancy induced flow field affects local velocities 

significantly so as to lower coalescence. The second reason could be that evaporation of 

the droplets is reducing their SMD. These two effects can be separated using nonevaporating droplets. 

24 
Fluid 510 from Dow Corning was used to eliminate evaporation effects on the drop 

size history. When the fluid was sprayed onto the surface at 600 OC, a thick smoke was 

formed. This smoke prevented the PDPA from obtaining drop velocity and size data. In 

addition, the fluid formed a very hard coating on the copper plate. Therefore, the plate was 

cleaned, and the temperature reduced to 250 OC (below the flash point of Dow 510 

Thermal Fluid). 

The change in drop diameters with axial locations for Fluid 510 is shown in Fig. 18. 

0- r- , ~- 1- r 

0 50 100 150 200 250 

Distance from injector (mm) 

Figure 18. Change in SMD of the droplets with axial distance for Fluid 510 

Two different excitation frequencies, representing two different drop diameter distributions 

were used for the experiments. For both cases, it was found that the variation in SMD was 

identical irrespective of the temperature of the plate. Therefore, the buoyancy induced flow 

field does not significantly affect the coalescence of droplets. It is evaporation that is 

responsible for the lower SMD when the plate is hot. 

To evaluate the coalescence model, the velocity and number density of the droplets 

is required. The velocity of the water droplets is shown in Fig. 19. It is clearly evident that 

the velocity of drops is affected significantly by buoyancy. The velocities are much lower 

when the plate is hot. This usually increases the droplet SMD since the lower velocities 

provide a longer time interval for coalescence. 

The change in velocity with axial distance for three conditions using Fluid510 is 

shown in Fig. 20. Due to the lower temperatures attained, the change in velocity due to the 

buoyancy induced upward velocity of air is minimal. Similar results were obtained for the 

20 micron nozzle. 

25 
15 

Distance from injector (mm) 

Figure 19. Variation in velocity with axial distance for water spray 

I 

50 100 150 200 250 

Distance from injector (mm) 

I Fluid 510 1 

0 , ~_L--1 . . U~I 1 ,~ 1 1 L~~~d- ~ 

Figure 20. Variation in velocity with axial distance for Fluid 510. 

In all cases, the drop diameter increases a factor of two or higher with downstream 

distance. Coalescence is the primary reason for the increase in drop diameter. 

26 
3.4 Preliminary Model Results 

Preliminary results from modeling the change in SMD with diameter using Eq. 4 for 

coalescence and Eq. 10 for droplet evaporation differed significantly from the experimental 

data. The coalescence model predicts approximately two orders of magnitude lower 

changes in SMD with axial distance. The evaporation model suggests that the SMD of 

droplets change by less then 2% in all cases. 

Improvements in the model using a Monte-Carlo based approach have to be 

pursued to delineate the effects of coalescence and evaporation. In addition, a more 

rigorous method of predicting the temperature field above the hot surface is needed to 

implement the Monte-Carlo simulations. In addition, wake effects are important in this 

study and they have to be incorporated into the models. 

4. Summary and Conclusions 

4.1 Important Findinqs 

The flame spread rate in 'without backing' mode is found to be greater than in 'with 

backing' mode because flame spread in the former takes place on both sides. In the 

present study at ambient oxygen concentration, the heat transfer controlling fuel vapor 

evolution rate is the dominant factor controlling the flame spread rate. 

The results of the experiments on flame spread in the presence of a water mist 

indicate the strong influence of surface loading in reducing flame spread rate. A correlation 

that can be used to obtain the optimal amount of water loading to extinguish fires was 

empirically developed. This correlation can be used to design systems that direct agents to 

the fire location to minimize the volume of suppressants required for extinguishment of 

fires. 

The flame spread rate for the same liquid loading decreased slightly for smaller 

droplets. This effect was not very noticable for the range of drop sizes studied. Therefore, 

water loading, rather than the size of the droplets within the spray, is the more important 

parameter for flame extinguishment. 

Droplet diameter and velocity measurements from a mono-disperse spray onto a hot 

plate showed that buoyancy had a significant impact on both droplet velocities and 

diameters. The velocity slows down to half the injection velocity, causing the faster and 

cooler droplets to collide and coalesce with the droplets in front of them nearthe surface of 

the hot plate. Therefore, in a real fire scenario, droplet coalesce is expected to be 

important. Coalescence of droplets was also found to be significant for non-evaporating 

fluids. Therefore, buoyancy induced drag on the droplet leads to a higher degree of 

coalescence in the spray. 

For the temperatures obtained during the study, the change in drop diameters due 

to evaporation is much lower than that due to coalescence. 

27 
4.2 Sianificant Hardware Development 

Three significant pieces of hardware were developed during the course of this 

project. The first is the wind tunnel that permits observation of flame spread under the 

influence of a water mist. The second is a well characterized hot surface for conducting 

drop-size and velocity histories for a spray impinging on a hot surface. The third is a Two 

Color Planar Pyrometer that allows the surface temperature to be obtained. The system 

was calibrated and an initial set of data obtained. 

4.3 Recommendations for Future Research 

Two coalescence and evaporation models evaluated during the first two years of the 

project were not successful in predicting drop size histories. Further evaluation of the 

droplet coalescence and evaporation model is required to delineate the effects of buoyancy 

and evaporation on drop size histories as the suppressant interacts with a fire. Reduction 

in the temperature of burning surfaces under a water mist have to be measured for more 

conditions to obtain a more accurate assessment of the optimal water loading required for 

fire extinguishments. 

4.4 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

5. 

List of Publications 

Fu, C., Sojka, P. E., and Sivathanu, Y. R., Water Mist Impingement onto a Heated 

Surface, Proceedings of the 5th Joint ASMElJSME Joint Thermal Engineering 

Conference, 1999. 

Fu, C., Sojka, P. E., and Sivathanu, Y. R., On the Interaction Between Evaporating 

Sprays and Heated Surfaces, Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on Liquid 

Atomization and Spray Systems, 1999. 

Sivathanu, Y., Oke, H. P., Fu, C., and Sojka. P.E., Droplet Interaction with Hot Surfaces, 

NGP Annual Report, 1998. 

Oke, H. P., Sojka, P. E., and Sivathanu, Y. R., Flame Spread over Polymethylmethacrylate 

with Opposed Air Flow, submitted to the Journal of Fire Safety. 

Harsh P. Oke, "An Experimental Study of Flame Spread over PMMA Subject to a Water 

Mist" M.S. Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, November, 1999. 

Chunming Fu. "Droplet Interactions with a Hot Surface," M.S. Thesis submitted to the 

School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, March, 2000. 

Implications for Further Research 

The correlation obtained during the study shows that the reduction in flame spread 

rate can be modeled empirically as a function of the local mass loading. The influence of 

droplet diameter is minimal. The implication is that a well designed and directed spray 

nozzle can be used to extinguish the fire with water as effectively as a flooding nozzle 

working with a more efficient suppressant, since the optimal local liquid loading required 

can be calculated a priori. In addition, secondary collisions and coalescence can cause 

small mist sprays to reach the fire as large drops 

28 
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30