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IRRADIATION OF PASSIVE DOSIMETERS

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Purpose

The purpose of this document is to describe the setup, measurement, and procedures for irradiating 

passive dosimeters such as Thermo-Luminescent Dosimeters (TLDs) in terms of air kerma using 

gamma-ray beams from the NIST 137Cs and 60Co sources. 

Scope

The measurement service described in this document is listed as NIST service code 46020C. The 

document starts by describing the physical quantities air kerma and exposure and provides a brief 

background describing the rationale behind the irradiation process. It later describes the equipment and 

systems used and the procedures followed in performing the irradiations. Appendix B includes a copy of 

a sample irradiation certificate. 

Definitions and Background

Description of Service

The Dosimetry Group of the NIST Radiation Physics Division receives passive dosimeters for

irradiation to specified radiation levels. This service is assigned test number 46020C (for a single setup) 

and 46021C (for multiple setups). The total exposure or air kerma delivered is provided for each of the 

passive dosimeters irradiated. 

The Quantities Air Kerma and Exposure

The quantity kerma characterizes a beam of photons or neutrons in terms of the energy transferred to 

any material. For the calibration service described in this document, consideration is limited to photon 

beams in air. Air kerma is the total energy per unit mass transferred from a photon beam to air. Air 

kerma, Kair, is the quotient of dEtr by dm, where dEtr is the sum of the initial kinetic energies of all 

electrons liberated by photons in a volume element of air, and dm is the mass of air in that volume 

element. Then

 

dm

dE K

tr

air =

The SI unit of air kerma is the gray (Gy), which equals one joule per kilogram; the special unit of air 

kerma is the rad, which equals 0.01 Gy.
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The quantity exposure characterizes an x-ray or gamma-ray beam in terms of the electric charge 

liberated through the ionization of air. Exposure is defined as the total charge per unit mass liberated in 

air by a photon beam and is represented by the equation:

 

dm

dQ X =

where dQ is the sum of the electrical charges on all the ions of one sign produced in air when all the 

electrons liberated by photons in a volume element of air, whose mass is dm, are completely stopped in 

air. The SI unit of exposure is the coulomb per kilogram (C/kg); the special unit of exposure, the 

roentgen (R), is equal to exactly 2.58x10-4 C/kg. The ionization arising from the absorption of 

bremsstrahlung emitted by the secondary electrons is not included in dQ. Except for this small 

difference, significant only at high energies, the exposure as defined above is the ionization equivalent 

of air kerma. The relationship between air kerma and exposure can be expressed as a simple equation:

















−













= 

−

e g

W K X

1

1

2.58 10 4

where W/e is the mean energy per unit charge expended in air by electrons, and g is the fraction of the 

initial kinetic energy of secondary electrons dissipated in air through radiative processes. The value 

currently accepted by the NIST for W/e is 33.97 J/C. The currently accepted g values for 60Co and 137Cs 

beams are 0.32 % and 0.16 %, respectively. 

Characterization of the NIST Gamma-Ray Beams in Terms of Air Kerma

There are four NIST gamma-ray irradiator sources that produce the 137Cs and 60Co gamma-ray beams 

that are typically used for irradiating passive dosimeters in terms of air-kerma and exposure. The airkerma rates and exposure rates at given distances are very well-known for all of these sources. The 

values for the air kerma and exposure at these distances are determined by using the primary standard 

instruments, which are a suite of graphite-wall, air-ionization, Bragg-Gray cavity chambers developed at 

NIST.

The value of the exposure rate measured with the primary standard instrument is decay corrected to 

provide the value of the exposure rate (and air-kerma rate) at a given distance from the source for any 

given date and time of the year.
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Generalities of the Irradiation of Passive Dosimeters in Terms of Air Kerma and Exposure

Passive dosimeters sent to the NIST are irradiated in terms of air kerma and exposure. The goal of the 

irradiation is to deliver a well-known value of exposure or air kerma to the dosimeters sent for 

irradiation. The value is reported to the customer in an “air kerma dosimeter irradiation certificate,” a 

copy of which can be found in Appendix B of this report.

Equipment 

Gamma-Ray Irradiator Sources

All NIST irradiators generate a collimated beam of gamma-rays. The orientation of each of these beams 

is listed in the table below. 

Radionuclide

Nominal Rates 

as of 

2021-01-01

(Gy/s)

Orientation

60Co 4.5 x 10-8 Horizontal

60Co 5.0 x 10-9 Horizontal

137Cs 8.2 x 10-6 Horizontal

137Cs 8.5 x 10-7 Horizontal

Console

In each of the irradiation facilities, there is a separate control unit for each source. The control unit is an 

electronic box, made in-house, that allows the operation of the sources. It mainly raises and lowers a 

cylinder containing the source. The console has a timer which can be set to the desired exposure time. 

Reference Scale

In each room there is a metallic scale that is used to measure the distance between the source and the 

detector. 
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Other Equipment

There is a detector-alignment system consisting of a telescope, movable cart and a stand for positioning 

detectors at a fixed distance from the source, a laser for positioning the detectors along the beamcenterline, and an acrylic phantom.

Temperature and Pressure probes

The ambient temperature and pressure during the customer’s dosimeter irradiations are recorded and 

later reported in the irradiation certificate. However neither the temperature nor the pressure are 

quantities that influence the air kerma delivered to the dosimeters. A list of all the thermometers and 

barometers used in the gamma calibration facilities is maintained in an Excel sheet that can be accessed 

by the facility computer from L:\internal\846.02\Gamma-Chamber-Cal. The Excel sheet includes: the 

identity of the item (and its software when applicable), manufacturer name, model number, serial 

number and use location. It also includes the calibration of all thermometers and barometers used in the 

facilities against the Dosimetry Group reference standard Thermometer and Barometer. 

To perform the quality check of the air kerma rate delivered at the irradiation distance where the 

dosimeters are placed, a NIST reference standard chamber (aka NIST check chamber or NIST QA 

chamber) is used as discussed in the sections ahead. In brief, the QA procedure consists in comparing 

the response of one of the NIST check chambers with its historical value. Any change in the 

reproducibility above 0.5 % to 1 % of a typical chamber response depending on the chamber type and 

history, may require an investigation into the support equipment used for the NIST check chamber 

calibration. If any of the support equipment is found to be out of calibration or damaged, it would be 

disconnected, and its condition clearly marked on the instrument. A calibrated, identical model 

replacement instrument would be used for calibrations to continue. 

Procedure

Communication with the Customer 

Customers can request calibration services in a variety of ways. Typically, a new or first-time customer 

will establish contact with the Dosimetry Group by telephone and/or e-mail requesting information 

regarding techniques offered, charges, backlog time, turnaround time, and shipping/mailing information. 

At this stage, there is generally an opportunity to discuss with the prospective customer appropriate 

technical and/or logistics aspects of the service. Technical aspects may include discussions on the beam 

qualities, air kerma rates, conditions under which the instruments are used, etc... Logistics aspects may 

include discussions about how to submit purchase orders through the NIST storefront, how to ship 

instruments to NIST, and any accessories that the customer may need to include in the shipment 
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depending on the type of instrument being calibrated or irradiated. The customer is informed that a 

purchase order must be received at NIST before an official calibration is performed. The customer is 

instructed to make use of the NIST storefront which can be found on the NIST calibration service 

webpage. Through the storefront the customer will shop for the desired calibration service and will also 

be able to upload all necessary documentation which includes a type of payment such as a purchase 

order. The purchase order should include a detailed description of the calibration request, including 

beam quality codes, instrument model and serial numbers, and the name and telephone number of a 

technical contact. If an incomplete purchase order is received, every effort is made to get a detailed 

description of the service requested. 

Initiation of Paperwork and Inspection of Instruments sent to NIST for Calibration

Once an order for a calibration service is placed on the NIST storefront and both a purchase order has 

been submitted and the instruments have been received at NIST, every effort is made to start the 

calibration process as soon as possible. This process consists of two stages: 

• Handling of the administrative portion of the calibration 

• Handling of the instruments and their calibration/ irradiation. 

Regarding the administrative portion of the calibration, after an order is received at NIST through the 

NIST storefront, a NIST order number consisting of 10 digits is generated with the following format: O0000000000. The NIST technical contact (person performing the calibration) is then notified by email. 

The technical contact is able to review the order placed through the NIST calibration e-commerce 

platform called Salesforce. Information submitted by the customer through Salesforce includes the 

model and serial number of the instruments to be calibrated, the radiation beam qualities (Cs-137 or Co60) to which each instrument needs to be calibrated, and the purchase order from the customer. Once 

this information is reviewed by the technical contact, if any information is missing from the customer 

every effort is made to get the information needed by contacting the customer. All documentation 

associated with the calibration is stored under the NIST order number assigned to the calibration being 

requested. This includes the summary sheet on Salesforce, a copy of the purchase order submitted by the 

customer, the shipping document, copies of the calibration reports and all calibration data and 

corresponding data analysis sheets. A unique identifier named the Dosimetry Group (DG) number is 

used to identify the services for a given set of dosimeters. This identifier is used by several members of 

the Dosimetry Group and it consists of a 5-digit number followed by the fiscal year as DGN: 00000-00. 

Both the NIST order number and the DG number are included on the cover of the calibration report. 

Regarding the handling of dosimeters, dosimeters arriving for calibration are unpacked and inspected for 

damage. Shipping damage is reported to the NIST shipping department. When an instrument arrives in 

a state of disrepair that is obvious by visual inspection, the customer is notified, and a decision is made 

whether to return the instrument to the customer; if the repair is minor, NIST personnel may perform the 

repair. 
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Source Setup for Irradiation Facilities

1. Sign in using the logbook for operating the source. This logbook is located in the control room for 

operating the sources. Log-in the information requested in the logbook: date, operator name, time, 

shutter elapsed time, room, use, etc.

2. After filling in the logbook, get the key for unlocking the mechanical safe lock and unlock the 

source. ATTENTION: It is extremely important to unlock the source before operating it. Failure 

to do so can damage the irradiator unit. 

3. Turn on main power to console.

4. Enter the room to make sure no people are in it. Exit the room and close the door.

5. A check of the safety-interlock system and other visible indicators must be performed. The interlock 

system is checked by opening the source shutter and later opening the door to the room containing 

the irradiator units. The source shutter must close immediately upon opening the door. This is 

verified only once at the start of the day. 

6. The source shutter is opened by first pressing the “Reset” interlock button, then initializing the timer 

by pressing the “Initialize” button, and finally pressing the “Open” button. In the open position, 

radiation is present in the room. By pressing the “Close” button the source shutter closes, and there 

is no radiation present in the room.

7. When opening the source for the first time on the day of measurement, also verify that the buzzer 

sounds (indicating the detection of radiation in the room). 

8. After all safety checks outlined above have been performed, one can enter the room and set up the 

dosimeters for irradiation.

Preparation 

1. Previous to setting up the dosimeters, they are grouped according to the total exposure they will 

receive. 

2. The dosimeter type, models and serial numbers are written in a worksheet created with Microsoft 

Excel and saved later in a calibration folder prepared exclusively for filing purposes. The folder is 

identified with the corresponding DG number. 
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3. In determining the preset time, the timer offset must be taken into account by subtracting its value 

from the ideal preset time. 

4. The timer offset can be measured by setting the timer for a given time, for example 60.00 seconds. 

The source shutter is opened and when it closes the actual time is recorded. The timer offset is the 

difference between the actual time and the preset time. This is typically a fraction of a second for all 

of the sources. 

5. Once the preset times for all the dosimeters are determined and recorded, the dosimeters can be 

placed on the phantom inside the room after the steps outlined in the section entitled “Source Setup” 

have been followed.

Setup of Dosimeters

The irradiation of dosimeters using gamma-ray beams are performed by using a previously determined 

value of the air-kerma rate obtained by decaying the initial value to the date and time of the irradiation. 

For all customer irradiations, a NIST reference-class transfer ionization chamber is calibrated in the 

beam for quality assurance. The NIST chamber should have a previous calibration for the reference 

radiation qualities selected by the customer. 

Irradiations are typically performed at a distance of 300 cm from the source. The setup of dosimeters is

described in the steps below:

1. Each gamma-ray facility has a metallic scale that is used to set the source-to-detector distance. The 

source-to-detector distance is set by sighting the telemicroscope on the appropriate scale distance.

2. An acrylic phantom is placed on top of the table.

3. The height of the phantom is adjusted to the beam center-line using the laser beam associated with 

each source. 

4. A mirror is placed on the rear face of the phantom that allows the laser beam to be reflected onto 

itself to ensure that the phantom is placed perpendicular to the photon beam.

5. The front face of the phantom is then centered in the telemicroscope-scale reticule. 

6. A maximum of six passive dosimeters can be placed on the front face of the phantom using double 

sided adhesive tape. An effort is made in minimizing the gap between the dosimeter and the front 

face of the phantom. Ideally the dosimeter should be in direct contact with the phantom.
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7. Once the dosimeters are mounted on the phantom, exit the room and close the door. The dosimeters 

are ready to be exposed.

8. Set the preset time on the console using the thumb switches. Make sure the range switch is set to the 

appropriate position for the given time. 

9. Open the source shutter.

10. Record the time the exposure started. The timer should be running at this time. The source shutter 

will close automatically when it reaches the preset time.

11. Once the timer stops (the source shutter is now closed), record the actual time in the worksheet.

12. The total exposure delivered is calculated in the worksheet by multiplying the actual time by the 

exposure rate. 

13. Enter the room and remove the dosimeters. If there is a new batch of dosimeters, repeat the 

procedure described above. 

14. Shut down the power to the console. Remove the key from the irradiator unit and place it in the 

drawer in the control room. Sign out in the lab logbook. Turn all lasers off.

Quality Control

An in-house check of the irradiation system is performed by calibrating a NIST chamber at the same 

source-to-detector-distance where the dosimeters were placed. The NIST chamber must have a 

calibration history in order to be used for this purpose.

For all NIST reference-class chambers, a record is maintained of all calibrations, calibration results, 

calibration dates, and the previous calibrations are compared with the current calibration to detect any 

trend or measurement discrepancy. The calibration history and record for all NIST reference chambers 

can be accessed by the facility computer from L:\internal\846.02\Gamma-Chamber-Cal. Any 

discrepancy arising with a NIST check chamber greater than 0.5 % gives rise to a thorough investigation 

of the calibration and irradiation systems previous to exposing the customer dosimeters.

Documentation/Irradiation Certificates/Storage

After the dosimeters have been irradiated, the irradiation certificate is generated. Currently, certificates 

are generated in Microsoft Word. Templates are available to simplify this procedure and to ensure 
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consistency in the reporting format. A sample certificate is found in Appendix B. All results reported 

relate only to the dosimeters, instruments or items tested and/or calibrated for this irradiation. This 

statement is also included in the irradiation certificate. 

All irradiation certificates are signed by personnel explicitly authorized to do so. The review and 

signing process can be summarized as follows: the final copy of the irradiation certificate is reviewed 

and initialed by the preparer. An authorized Dosimetry Group calibration staff member later reviews the 

report and suggests any modifications that need to be made to the preparer who needs to address these 

comments prior to sending it to the Group Leader for further review. After the Group Leader approves 

and initials the report, it is sent to the Division Office for approval. Once all reviewers have approved 

and initialed/signed the report, the report is sent by the technical contact to the customer electronically. 

If the report is completed prior to the instruments being shipped, a hard copy of the report is also 

included in the box with the instruments

After all the requested work is completed, the technical contact informs the accounting office that the 

calibration work has been completed and that the instruments need to be returned to the customer. The 

instruments are packed either in the original container or in a more suitable one if necessary. A shipping 

document is available on Salesforce which is printed and attached to the box of instruments for shipping.

After shipment, all documents associated with the irradiation of dosimeters are kept in the facility 

computer and can be accessed from L:\internal\846.02\Gamma-Chamber-Cal. The calibration is 

identified by the NIST order number and by the DG number described previously.

Assessment of Uncertainties

The method of uncertainty assessment follows the NIST policy of expressing uncertainty, as outlined in 

the NIST Technical Note 1297. Conventional statistical estimates are given as standard deviations of 

the mean, and are designated as “Type A”, which can be considered to be objective estimates. All other 

uncertainty estimates, which are designated “Type B,” are subjective estimates, based on extensive 

experience. The “Type B” uncertainties are estimated so as to correspond to approximately one standard 

deviation. The Type A and Type B estimates are combined according to the usual rule for combining 

standard deviations, by taking the square root of the sum of the squares (the quadratic sum). The 

quadratic sum of the two types of uncertainties is then considered to be the combined uncertainty, which 

is in turn multiplied by the coverage factor of two (k=2) to give an expanded uncertainty. The 

uncertainty is considered to have the approximate significance of a 95 % confidence limit. Appendix A

lists the details of the assessment of uncertainty in the air-kerma rates determined for the different 

gamma-ray beams. The details of the assessment of uncertainty in the irradiation of passive dosimeters

are also listed in Appendix A.
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Safety

The main safety consideration is radiation protection. As described below, every effort is made to avoid 

any possibility of radiation exposure, even though it would be highly unlikely that serious exposures 

could occur accidentally. All radiation areas in the building are marked with striped tape and dosimeters 

must be worn by all personnel in these areas. Radiation safety training and assessment services are 

provided by the NIST Gaithersburg Radiation Safety Division (GRSD).

Radiation Safety

All doors permitting access to the gamma-ray calibration ranges have interlocks as required by the 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Safety indicator lights and an audible signal are available in each 

gamma calibration range. At each entrance to a gamma-ray calibration range, a set of two red lights 

indicates a "beam on" condition.

International Comparisons

International comparisons have been made with other National Metrology Institutes around the world. 

During these international comparisons, a reference class chamber is calibrated at both facilities, and the 

values of the calibration coefficients obtained at both institutions are compared. The reference section 

lists comparisons made in the last few years using the same 137Cs and 60Co gamma-ray beams that are 

used for the calibration service described in this procedure. 

Filing and Retention

The Radiation Physics Division (RPD) Quality Manager shall maintain the original and all past versions 

of this RPD Procedure.

References

1. Lamperti P.J., O’Brien M, “Calibration of X-ray and Gamma-ray Measuring Instruments,” NIST 

 Special Publication 250-58, (2001). 

2. Loftus, T. P. and Weaver, J. T., Standardization of 60Co and 137Cs gamma-ray beams in terms of 

 exposure, J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), 78A, 465-476 (1974). 

3. NIST Calibration Services Users Guide 1998.

4. NIST Technical Note 1297 Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST

 Measurements.
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5. P.J. Allisy-Roberts and M. Boutillon, “Comparison of the standards of air kerma of the NIST and the 

BIPM for 60Co gamma rays,” Rapport BIPM 96/9 (1996).

6. A. Leitner, J. Witzani, M. Boutillon, P. Allisy-Roberts, F. Delaunay, E. Leroy, P. Lamperti, C. 

Strachotinsky and I. Csete, “ International comparisons of air kerma standards in 137Cs gamma 

radiation,” Metrologia 34, pp. 169-175 (1997).

7. R. F. Laitano, P.J. Lamperti and M. P. Toni, “Comparison of the NIST and ENEA Air Kerma 

Standards,” Journal of Research of the NIST, Volume 103, Number 4, July-August 1998.

8. M. O’Brien, R. Minniti and Stanslaus Alwyn Masinza, “Comparison between the NIST and the 

KEBS for the determination of air kerma calibration coefficients for narrow x-ray spectra and 137Cs 

gamma ray beams,” Journal of Research of the NIST, Volume 115, Number 1, January-February 

2010.

9. I. Csete, A. G. Leiton, V. Sochor, A. Lapenas, J.-E Grindborg , I. Jokelainen, H. Bjerke, J. 

Dobrovodsky, A. Megzifene, H. J. Costas, R. Ivanov, B. Vekic, J. , Kokocinski, J. Cardoso, 

L.Buermann, W. Tiefenboeck , G. Stucki, E. van Dijk, M. P. Toni, R. Minniti, J. P. McCaffrey, C. N. 

M. Silva, I. Kharitonov, D Webb, M. Saravi, F. Delaunay, “Comparison of air kerma and absorbed 

dose to water measurements of 60Co radiation beams for radiotherapy, Report on EUROMET project 

no. 813, identifiers in the BIPM key comparison database (KCDB) are EUROMET.RI(I)-K1 and 

EUROMET.RI(I)-K4,” Metrologia, Vol 47, Tech. Suppl. 06012, April 2010.

10. C. Kessler, P.J. Allisy-Roberts, R. Minniti, “Comparisons of the radiation protection standards for 

air kerma of the NIST and the BIPM for 60Co and 137Cs gamma radiation”, Metrologia 51 (2014) 

Tech. Suppl. 0613. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/51/1A/06013
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Appendix A: Uncertainty Analysis

Air-kerma Rate Uncertainty Analysis for 

Gamma Rays Shown in %

Type A Type B

Uncertainty components specific to a chamber

charge 0.03 0.1

timing 0.04 0.1

volume 0.06 0.05

ksat, loss of ionization due to recombination 0.01 0.05

axial nonuniformity 0.07

radial nonuniformity 0.01

stem scatter 0.05

Uncertainty components common to all chambers

temperature 0.03

pressure 0.01

distance (axial) 0.02

air density 0.02

calculated humidity correction 0.06

kwall, zero wall thickness 0.17

energy-absorption coefficient ratio 0.06

stopping-power ratio 0.57

W/e, ion pair energy 0.15

(1-g), radiative loss correction 0.02

quadratic sum 0.08 0.65

combined standard uncertainty 0.65

expanded uncertainty (k = 2) 1.30
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Uncertainty analysis for Passive Dosimeters

Passive dosimeters

Uncertainty components Type A Type B

air-kerma rate 0.08 0.65

air density NA

charge NA

distance 0.01

humidity NA

leakage NA

radiation background NA

radial nonuniformity 0.02

recombination loss NA

scale reading NA

timing 0.1

quadratic sum 0.08 0.7

combined standard

uncertainty 0.7

expanded uncertainty 1.4
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Appendix B: Sample irradiation certificate
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