PROGRESS UNDER THE NEXT-GENERATION FIRE SUPPRESSION 

TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM (NGP) IN 1999 

Richard G. Gann 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

National Institute of Standards & Technology 

INTRODUCTION 

Halon I301 (CF3Br) has long been the choice for fire extinguishment in most weapon systems 

and mission-critical facilities. It is also a potent depleter of stratospheric ozone. As part of its 

effort to eliminate its dependence on Halon 1301, in FY 1997 the Department of Defense (DoD) 

initiated its Next-Generation Fire Suppression Technology Program (NGP). Originally a broadbased effort. the scope of the NGP has recently been narrowed: “to develop and demonstrate, by 

2005. technology for economically feasible, environmentally acceptable and user-safe processes. 

techniques, and fluids that meet the operational requirements currently satisfied by Halon 1301 

systems in aircraft.” Candidate technologies must do well in the following: fire suppression 

efficiency and reignition quenching, ozone depletion potential. global warming potential. atmospheric lifetime, electrical conductivity, metals non-corrosivity and polymeric materials compatibility, long-term storage stability, low toxicity of the chemical and its combustion and decomposition products, speed of dispersion. safety and occupational health requirements, and compatibility with the host design of the platform. 

Support for the NGP comes from DoD funding and cost sharing from the participating laboratories. Most of the DoD support has come from the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, with additional support from the Army Tank and Automotive Command. 

The NGP has just completed its third year of research. This paper highlights the new knowledge 

gained from the NGP research and the progress made towards the NGP Goal. Much of the NGP 

findings have appeared in the current and prior HOTWC Proceedings. Additional references 

appear at the end of this paper and at the NGP website: www.dtic.rnil/ngp/. 

TECHNICAL PROGRESS 

NEW FLAME SUPPRESSION CHEMISTRY 

In searching for new chemicals that perform as well as CF3Br but without the environmental 

limitation, a comprehensive view of chemical fire suppression has emerged. Catalytic agents, 

such as CFjBr and metal compounds, reduce the superequilibrium levels of flame radicals toward 

equilibrium levels. Adding heat capacity reduces the flame temperature and thus the flame 

reaction rates below the level needed to sustain combustion. The minimum extinguishing 

concentrations thus appear to be perhaps on the order of I%. 

There are new findings on several promising suppi-essant chemicals: 

HiCOC4Fv (HFE-7 100) was shown to be an efficient non-chemically active suppressant. 

About twice the mole percent of the gas as Halon 1301 vapor is needed to suppress a 

flame. As an aerosol, only half the Halon 1301 vapor level is needed. 
Small amounts (ca. mole percent) of Fe(CO), are near the ideal limit at reducing 

premixed flame velocities. At higher concentrations the agent becomes less efficient. as 

the active iron species condense to form relatively inactive particles. Ferrocene is nearly 

identical, indicating no dependence on the binding of the iron. Manganese-containing 

compounds behave similarly, but are 5-7 times less efficient at reducing burning velocity. 

Also of interest are tropodegradable bromocarbons. For example, bromodlkenes are 

expected to have atmospheric lifetimes of a few days. In work jointly supported with the 

Advanced Agent Working Group, a series of bromofluoroalkenes and bromofluoroamines 

generally had cup-burner extinguishment values below about 4 mole percent. AAWG 

data show that rats exposed for 30 min to 5% of four of the compounds (I-bromo-3,3,3- 

trifluoropropene, 2-bromo-3,3,3-trifluoropropene, 4-bromo-3,3,4,4-tetrafluorobutene, and 

2-bromo-3.3,4,4,4-pentdfluorobutene) showed no ill effects. The Ames tests were also 

negative. 

b 

Work has begun on developing a set of quantitative structure-activity relationships for compound 

volatility. These would be used in conjunction with values of agent discharge rates and the 

known dimensions of and thermal conditions in the fire compartment to determine whether compounds having a specified chemical structure can be expected to put out the fire in the required 

time frame (e.g., on the order 0.5 s in the case of an engine nacelle fire). 

SUPPRESSANT SCREENING TESTS 

A set of efficient, accurate screening tests for new suppressant chemicals is near completion. 

The Dispersed Liquid Agent Screen (DLAS), based on the Tsuji diffusion burner, is now in use 

both to obtain suppression efficiency data and as a research tool. Tests with well-characterized 

droplets of fluids of widely varying density, viscosity, and surface tension (water, 30% and 45% 

potassium lactate by mass, and 1000 and 2000 m@ sodium dodecyl sulfate), showed the 

average droplet diameters of the fluids were within f15% (Figure 1) and that this variation 

affected the extinction efficiency by under f15% (Figure 2), well within useful tolerance for a 

screen apparatus. 

32 

. Distilled W~BI 

o 

v 30 % K-ladale 

q 2000 mgll SDS 

- E 30! i . 45 % K-ladate 

1000 mgll Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate 

Figure 

18 - 

1. Effect of fluid and fluid flow 

02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 

Volumetric flow rate (mliminj 

on droplet size. 

240 , 

220 

200 

- 180 . 5 160 ~ 

s 

- 

A 140 

_D 120 

.- - 

Y 

100. 0 

3 60~ 

2 80- 

40 

20 I 

00 0.2 04 0.6 0.8 

Flow rate (mllmin) 

D 

Figure 2. Effect of fluid and fluid flow on 

flame extinction effectiveness. 

4 Halon Options Technical Working Conference 2-4 May 2000 
The Transient Application, Recirculating Pool Fire apparatus (TARPF), a screening tool for the 

effectiveness of suppressants that are impulsively discharged, is nearly complete. An injection 

system for the effluent from solid propellant gas generators has been tested. Direct numerical 

simulation of the flow over various obstacles in the TARPF has been conducted to help interpret 

the experimental results and extend them to other conditions. 

A tiered screening system for environmental impact, toxicity. and materials compatibility has 

been developed. 

A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of a human system to describe the 

short-term inhalation of volatile halogenated hydrocarbons is nearing completion. This niodel 

incorporates a breath-by-breath description of respiration and follows the inhaled suppre 

the bloodstream, enabling prediction of safe exposure duration for a given agent used at a known 

extinguishing concentration. Data have been developed for Halon 1301, CF?I, HFC-I 25, HFC227%~ and HFC-236fa. Extension of the model 10 other suppressants requires the following: 

Partition coefficients, i.e., solubility of the chemical into blood and other body tissues 

Metabolic rate, the rate at which chemical is broken down by the body 

LOAEL for cardiac sensitization measured in beagle dogs or other endpoint 

Arterial blood concentrations measured in bcagle dogs exposed at the LOAEL 

concentration (without epinephrine challenge). (Data should be collected over a I O-min 

period, with the 5-min data point being the most critical.) 

0 

0 

The NGP research to develop a computational screening tool for a suppressant’s atmospheric 

lifetime and infrared absorption is continuing. Calculated rate constants for the reaction of OH 

with halomethanes are in good agreement with their experimental counterparts, establishing the 

viability of ah initio calculations as the basis of a screening tool. Calculations for the reactions 

of OH with several fluoroethanes and the ethers derived from them have reproduced the experimental trends, with predictions in absolute reactivity within a factor of three. Calculations are 

being extended to ethers with several carbons and conlaining tluorinc along with one or more 

bromine atoms. 

NEW AND IMPROVED AEROSOL SUPPRESSANTS 

Nearly dl compressed fluid suppressants emerge from storage containers as liquids or powders, 

along with a gaseous component. The properties of the aerosol determine (a) its transport 

effectiveness to the fire, (b) the magnitude of its effect on the flames, (c) its ability to quench 

condensed-phase fuels, and (d) its impact on preventing reignition. The values of the aerosol 

properties that optimize each of these may be uniform for the four impacts or may be in conflict. 

It is important to know the properties of fine droplet sprays that promote suppression of the fircballs cxperienced in aircraft dry bays. NGP studies of water droplets injected into propane/air 

and methane/air counterflow non-premixed flames have shown that extinction effectiveness 

correlates with the degree of evaporation. If all of the water droplets can evaporate in or near the 

flame, which happens for diameters Os30pm, water is as effective as Halon I301 on a mass 

basis. Calculations for fine sprays (diameters 40 pm) indicate nominally complete evaporation 

near the flame front, consistent with the experimental results above. For these small droplets, 

other parameters such as the droplet transport time to the fireball must he considered. 
It is possible to encapsulate a practical mass of a suppressant onto an inert host for transport to 

the fire. A large mass fraction of Fe(C0)S can be absorbed into zeolites (33%) and aerogels (up 

to 200%). Further, thermogravimetric analysis showed that at 250 "C a large fraction of the 

Fe(CO)5 is desorbed. Flame tests will allow assessment of whether the agent can be liberated in 

the time available in a flame. It was found that sometimes matrix materials (is., zeolites) can 

exacerbate the pyrophoricity of Fe(C0)5, likely due to reaction with residual absorbed water. 

However, ferrocene has been shown to be as effective as Fe(C0)5 (Figure 3) and is less toxic and 

pyrophoric. Combining iron compounds with HFCs is not an effective combination because 

stable iron-halogen species act as sinks for active gas-phase iron compounds. 

Tin=353K 

i 

i 

,$=l.O 

--~ --- -- -- 4 

200 400 

Ferrocene or Fe(C0)5 Mole Fraction (ppm) 

Figure 3. Comparison of premixed CHd02/N2 flame inhibited by ferrocene and Fe(C0)5. 

IMPROVED SUPPRESSANT DELIVERY 

The complement to identifying new suppressants is improving the efficiency of getting the 

suppressant to the site of the fire. This comprises storage and discharge technology, transport 

through any distribution piping and dispersion throughout the compartment. 

Replacement fluids must function within the existing distribution plumbing. Replacing the 

piping is a major cost in retrofit and is to be avoided. Therefore one has to know how a new, 

multiphase chemical will behave in a long run of bent pipe. 

A new computer code for prediction of transient two-phase fire suppressant flows during 

discharge is now complete. The user can select water, Halon 1301, COz, HFC-227ea or HFC125 as the suppressant. The software tracks both the fluid and nitrogen as a pressurizing gas. 

Figure 4 compares the vessel pressure calculations with published data (Elliott et a]., FLOW of 

Nitrogen-Pressurized Halon 13OI in Fire Extinguishing Systems, JPL Publication 84-62, 1984). 

New data have also been generated using a unique test facility with the capability to measure the 

instantaneous (a) mass flow of fluid during transient discharge from the source vessel, (b) fluid 

temperatures along the discharge pipe, (c) local pressure at five different locations in the system, 

6 Halon Options Technical Working Conference 2-4 May 2000 
Wlth N2 RBleam 1 

Dala (Elliott et al) 

No N2 Release 

. 

. 

1 

I 

2.0 

Tlme (9) 

Figure 4. Comparison of calculated supply vessel pressure with experimental data. 

(d) void fraction at the end of the pipe, and (e) mass flow from the discharge vessel. The code is 

portable to a variety of commonly used operating systems. 

A principal reason for the historic overdesign of Halon 1301 systems was to overwhelm the 

impedance of distribution by the extensive clutter. NGP engineers have quantified these 

penalties for different fuels (methane, ethane, JP-8). fire suppressants (Halon 1301, HFC- 125, 

nitrogen), and bluff body shapes (step, baffle. J-flange). These results will both quantify the 

potential gains from redesigned distribution systems and assist in screening for the effectiveness 

of candidate suppre 

An NGP model based on a well-stirred reactor relates the agent concentration and injection 

period to the coilcentration needed for extinguishment and a characteristic mixing time for agent 

entrainment into the recirculation zone. Figure 5 shows that this model captures the normalized 

agent mole fraction at extinction as a function of agent injection period for a range offlow 

conditions, agents, and clutter shapes. 

Based on these results, a fire suppression system should he designed to provide a critical 

concentration of agent for a period at least three or four times the characteristic mixing time of 

the system. 

NGP research is developing new types of solid propellant gas generators (SPGG) that have high 

flame suppression efficiency with reduced SPGG combustion temperatures. One approach 

directs a rapid gas generator discharge of additive-enhanced propellant formulation into a flame 

zone. A second approach directs the hot gas generator discharge from an “inert” solid propellant 

across an “activated” agent bed, entrains a chemically active additive into the gas stream, and 

carries it to the flame zone. 
la: 

cLdA . & &..L ............ : . I . I . : ,: ...... , .... ,L ,.,.., 

0 2 4 6 h' ?!I 0 2 'I ri F .,!I 1; 

.\! ITM,', i I > IjD 

Figure 5. Calculated and measured normalized extinction concentrations as a function of 

normalized agent residence time. 

VIABILITY OF NEW SUPPRESSANT TECHNOLOGIES 

The success of new NGP technologies requires that (1) the laboratory research replicate the 

suppression phenomena in real-scale fires and (2) the NGP be able to demonstrate that candidate 

fire suppression methods are quenching flames as they would under the threats experienced in the 

field. Meeting both of these needs entails improved instrumentation in the test articles already 

owned by the military department laboratories. 

NGP researchers are complementing prior instrumentation advances by developing a timeresolved (1 0 ms), multipoint, fieldable, fiber-coupled, near-infrared tunable diode laser-based 

sensor for measurement and detection of combustible mixtures of oxygen and hydrocarbon fuels 

(heptane and JP-8) before, during, and after the fire suppression event of 250 ms duration. 

Detection of fuel and oxygen concentration is especially important after the suppression event in 

order to predict the possibility of reignition. Two separate lasers, one to detect each species, are 

combined to produce the probe beam. Initial tests of this system have shown that detection of 

fuel and oxygen at the anticipated levels is feasible (Figure 6). 

Research is also continuing on developing an instrument for measuring agent concentration with 

a IO-ms time response for quantification of the transient agent concentration during suppression 

of the fastest fires involving military systems. Tests of a second-generation version of the Differential Infrared Agent Concentration Sensor (DIRRACS-2) showed that the device is able to 

follow HFC-125 discharges with acceptable signal-to-noise ratio and time response. The next 

stage in the development of the DIRRACS-2 will be the assembly of two portable units to be 

deployed in the field. 

Numerous contributing factors are to be considered when making a decision to retrofit a fire 

suppression system (or not). These include objective cost factors and subjective value factors. 

8 Halon Options Technical Working Confcrence 2-4 May 2000 
p__I .. I 

a 

0 

C 

m 

e 

8 a 

4 

0 007 

0 005 

0 003 

0 001 

-0 001 

-0 003 

-0 005 

-0 007 

1270 1370 1470 1570 1670 1770 1870 1970 

Wavelength (nanometers) 

g ZOOE-02 

e 150E02 

1 OOE 02 

5 00E-03 

0 00E+00 

C 

m 

8 

I 7625 I 759 759.5 760 7605 761 761.5 762 

Wavelength (nanometers) 

JP-8 vapor, 10 crn path length 

355K, 4crn-l resolution, 

256 scans. 

0,, 1 rn path length, 

296K, calculated using 

HITRAN database. 

Figure 6. Measured near-infrared absorbance in the region near JP-8 vapor at 355 K, and the 

calculated absorbance spectrum of 02. 

Thus, the NGP is developing a methodology to quantify a fire suppression technology by its total, 

life-cycle cost and to enable superimposing on this a subjective value system. 

The data gathering for and formation of the baseline (Halon 1301) case has been completed, as 

has the structuring of the cost benefit analysis process. The latter provides a framework for 

evaluating a range of weapons systems, taking financial and technical variables into consideration. Figure 7 displays a framework for qualifying benefits. Expert Choice will be the methodology for evaluating benefits. 

IMPROVED FUEL TANK INERTION 

Research in this area has been limited. Two aircrdft use CFjBr to inert fuel tanks when entering 

comhat-the F-I6 and the F-117. Should the Air Force's current consideration of CFjI for this 

application be positive. then fuel tank inerting will not be an NGP task. Meanwhile, NGP staff 

have begun a project to assess the current status of alternate systems that had in prior decades 

shown promise for fuel tank inerting. Tasks underway include assessment of in-flight fuel tank 

operating environments and identification of whom to consult in gathering information about 

these alternate systems. 
lneffciencies 

with Cumnt 

Environment Environment 

Expected Futu 

Enuronment 

Benefits of Ne 

Environment 

Categonze 

Benefits 

I 

Organization id 1 Benefits 1 

the Benefit Benefiting I 

Probability 

1 Chain ,~ ~~~ ~J 

Figure 7. Framework for quantifying benefits. 

SELECTED READINGS 

General 

Gam, R.G., “Next-Generation Fire Suppression Technology Program (NGP) FY 1999 Annual Report,” 

NISTIR 6479, National Institute of Standards and Technology, in press, 2000. 

New Flame Suppression Chemistry 

Babushok, V.I., Tsang, W., Linteris, G.T., and Reinelt, D., “Chemical Limits to Flame Inhibition,” 

Combustion and Flume 1 15,55 1-560, 1998. 

Noto, T., Babushok, V.I., Hamins, A., and Tsang, W., “Inhibition Effectiveness of Halogenated 

Compounds,” Combustion and Flame 112, 147.160, 1998. 

Skaggs, R.R., Daniel, R.G., Miziolek, A.W., and McNesby, K.L., “Spectroscopic Studies of Inhibited 

Opposed Flow Propane/Air Flames,” Proceedings ofthe 1998 JANNAF Cornbustion Meeting, Tucson, 

1998. 

Davis, M.P., Fleming, J.W., Williams, B.A., and Ladouceur, H.D., “Flow Field Considerations for 

Counter Flow Burners,” Proceedings ofthe Fall Technical Meeting of the Eastern Stutes Section of the 

Cornbustion Institute, pp. 200-203, Raleigh, NC, 1999. 

Fleming, J.W., ‘Chemical Fire Suppressants: How Can We Replace Halon?” Proceedings of the Fall 

Technical Meeting ofthe Eastern States Secri~in ofthe Comhustion Institute, pp. 16-23, Raleigh, NC, 

1999. 

10 Hdon Option\ Technicdl Working Conference 24 Mdy 2ooO 

.___~ ~ 
Skaggs, R.R., McNesby, K.L., Daniel, R.G., Homan, B. and Miziolek, A.W., “Spectroscopic Studies of 

Low Pressure Opposed Flow MethaneiAir Flames Inhibited by Fe(CO)s, CFjBr, or N2,” Conhn.stion 

Science uud T~chno/n~yj, accepted for publication, 1999. 

Williams, B.A., and Fleming, J.W., “Factors Influencing Chemical Flame Suppression,” Comhu.srioti und 

Flume, submitted for publication, 1999. 

Pitts, W.M., Yang, J.C., Huber, M.L., and Blevins, L.G., Churucterirurion and Iden~Ificurion OJ‘Sqw-- 

Efectii,e Thermul Fir-e Extinguishing Agents-First Arrnuul Report, National Institute of Standards and 

Technology Internal Report, NISTlR 6414, 1999. 

Tapscott, RE., and Mather, J.D., “Research on Main Group Element Compounds and Tropodefradable 

Halocarbons as Halon Substitutes,” P rocefdir~gs, Fire Suppression und Delccrion Resror.ch Ap/dicu~Io~ 

Syn7posirm7, pp. 190-195, Fire Protection Research Foundation, 1999. 

Tapscott, R.E. and Mather, J.D., “Tropodegraddble Fluorocarbon Replacements for Ozone Depleting and 

Global Warming Chemicals,” .lonrnu/ of‘Fluorine Chcmistrj 101, 209-2 13, 2000. 

Suppressant Screening Tests 

Grosshandler, W.L., Hamins, A., McGrattan, K.B., and Presser, C., “Transient Agent, Recirculating Pool 

Fire (TARPF) Suppression Screen,” in Beall, K, ed., Annual Conference on Fire Research: Book of 

Ahsrrocis, NISTIR 6242, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1998. 

Yang, J.C., Donnelly, M.K., Prive, N.C., and Grosshandler. W.L., “Fire Suppression Efficiency Screening Using a Counterflow Cylindrical Burner,” Procredinjis qffhe 5”’ ASMELISME ./oinr Thermul Engimwing Corlfkrence, San Diego, 1999. 

Yang, J.C., Donnelly, M.K., Prive, N.C., and Grosshandler, W.L., “On the Des@ of an Apparatus for 

Screenins Liquid Fire Suppre 

Conjiwnw, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1999. 

Yang, J.C., Donnelly, M.K., Prive, N.C., and Grosshandler, W.L., Diq~ersrd Liyuid Agcnr Fir-e Snppressiori Scrfwi AppururLls, NISTIR 63 19, Kational Institute of Standards and Technology, 1999. 

Yang, J.C., Donnelly, M.K., Prive, N.C., and Grosshandler, W.L., “An Apparatus for Screening Fire 

Suppression Efficiency of Dispersed Liquid Agents,” Firr Sufijtj .lo~~rrrul, submitted for publication, 

1999. 

Nyden, M.R.. and Skaggs, S.R., “Screenitig Methodsfor Ager7r Compurihi/ir,v wit/7 Pwplc. Murer-ids, und 

rhe En,~ir-onn?~~t,” NISTIR 6323, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1999. 

Orkin. V.L., Villenave, E., Huie, R.E., and Kurylo, M.J., “Atmospheric Lifetimes and Global Warminf 

Potentials of Hydrofluoroethers: Reactivity Toward OH, UV Spectra, and IR Absorption Cross Sections,”.I. Phys. Chem. A 103,9770-9779. 1999. 

Louis, F., Gonralez, C., Huie, R.E., and Kurylo, M.J., “An uh liiirio Study of the Kinetics of the Reactions of Halomethanes with the Hydroxyl Radical. Part 1: CH2Br2,”J. Phys Chem. A. in press, 1999. 

Louis. F., Gonzalez, C., Orkin. V., Huie, R.E., and Kurylo, M.J., “An uh lnirio Study of the Kinetics of 

the Reactions of Halomethanes with the Hydroxyl Radical. Part 2: A Coinparison between Theoretical 

and Experimental Values of the Kinetic Parameters for 12 Partially Halogenated Substituted Methanes,” 

J. Phys Chem. A, submitted for publication, 2000. 

Louis, F., Gonmler, C., Orkin, V., Huie, R.E., and Kurylo, M.J., “An oh Initio Study of the Kinetics of 

the Rzactions of Halomethanes with the Hydroxyl Radical. Part 3: Reactivity Trends and Kinetics 

tits,” Procrcdings ofrhc 8’” Inrernuriunul Fire Scienci, und Engiwrwing 

Ilakrn Options Technical W<irhing Conlcrcnw 2-4 May XHXJ 1 1 
Parameter Predictions for the Potential Halon Replacements CH2FBr, CHFBr2, CHFCIBr, CHCI*Br, and 

CHCIBr2,” J. Phys Chem. A, submitted for publication, 2000. 

Vinegar, A,, Jepson, G., Cisneros, M., Rubenstein, R., and Brock, W., “Setting Safe Acute Exposure 

Limits for Halon Replacement Chemicals Using Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling,” 

Inhalation Toxicology, in press, 2000. 

Grosshandler, W.L., Hamins, A,, McGrattan, K.B., Charagundla, R., Presser, C., “Suppression of a NonPremixed Flame Behind a Step,” Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, submitted for publication, 

2000. 

New and Improved Aerosol Suppressants 

Sivathanu, Y., Oke, H.P., Fu, C., and Sojka, P.E., Droplet Interaction With Hot Surjbces, Annual Report 

to the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, 1998. 

Fuss, S.P.. Dye, D.J., Williams, B.A., and Fleming, J.W., “Inhibition of Premixed Methane-Air Flames 

by Water Mist,” Proceedings ofthe Fall Technical Meeting ofthe Eastern States Section of the Combustion Institute, Raleigh, pp. 105-108 1999. 

Zegers, E.J.P., Williams, B.A., Sheinson, R.S., and Fleming, J.W., “Water Mist Suppression of NonPremixed Counterflow Flames,” Proceedings of the Fall Technical Meeting ofthe Eastern States Section 

of the Combustion Institute, Raleigh, pp. 109-1 12, 1999. 

Fu, C., Sojka, P. E., and Sivathanu, Y. R., “Water Mist Impingement Onto a Heated Surface,” Proceedings of the 5th Joint ASMEIJSME Joint Thermal Engineering Conference, 1999. 

Fu, C., Sojka, P. E., and Sivathanu, Y. R., “On the Interaction Between Evaporating Sprays and Heated 

Surfaces,” Proceedings ofthe 12th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, 1999. 

Oke, H.P., Sojka, P.E., and Sivathanu, Y. R., “Flame Spread Over Polymethylmethacrylate With 

Opposed Air Flow,” Fire Safety Journal, submitted for publication, 1999. 

Oke, H.P., “An Experimental Study of Flame Spread Over PMMA Subject to a Water Mist,” M.S. Thesis 

submitted to the School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, November, 1999. 

Rumminger, M., Reinelt, D., Babushok, V., and Linteris, G. T., “Numerical Study of the Inhibition of 

Premixed and Diffusion Flames by Iron Pentacarbonyl,” Combustion and Flame I 16,207-219, 1999. 

Rumminger, M.D., and Linteris, G.T., “Particle Measurements in Flames Inhibited by Iron Pentacarbonyl,” Joint Meeting ofthe United States Sections of the Cornbustion Institute, Washington, DC, March 

1999. 

Linteris, G.T., and Rumminger, M.D., “Flame Inhibition by Ferrocene, Carbon Dioxide, and Trifluoromethane Blends: Synergistic and Anti-Synergistic Effects,” 1999 Fall Technical Meeting, Eastern States 

Section of the Combustion Institute, 1999. 

Rumminger, M.D., and Linteris, G.T., “Inhibition of Premixed Carbon Monoxide-Hydrogen-OxygenNitrogen Flames by Iron Pentacarbonyl,” Combustion and Flame, accepted for publication, 1999. 

Linteris, G.T., and Rumminger, M.D., “Premixed Carbon MonoxidelNitrous OxideEIydrogen Flames: 

Measured and Calculated Burning Velocities With and Without Fe(C0)5,” Combustion and Flame, 

submitted for publication, 1999. 

Rumminger, M.D., and Linteris, G.T., “An Experimental Study of the Role of Particles in Flame 

Inhibition by Iron Pentacarbonyl,” Comhustion and Flame, submitted for publication, 1999. 

12 Halon Options Technical Working Conference 2-4 May 2000 
Linteris, G.T., Rumrninger, M.D., Babushok, V., and Tsang, W., “Flame Inhibition by Ferrocene and 

Blends of Inert and Catalytic Agents,” Proceedings ofrhe Comhiisrion Imtituie, The Combustion 

Institute, Pittsburgh, accepted for publication, 1999. 

Rumminger, M.D, and Linteris, G.T.. “Numerical Modeling of Inhibition of Counterflow Diffusion 

Flames by Iron Pentacarbonyl,” Proc~edii7g.s ofthe Sis-rh /nterriuiionu/ Syniposiimi on Fire Sufory 

Scirwc,, in press, 2000. 

Improved Suppressant Delivery 

Takahashi, F., Schmoll, W.J., and Belovich, V.M., “Extinction of Bluff-Body Stabilized Diffusion 

Flames,” Procccdiqs ofth~, S/ring Technicd Mwting uf the Crtitrul Stores Sec~ion of the Comhusfiorr 

In.stirute, Lexinfton, KY, Paper No. 37, 199X. 

Takahashi, F., Schmoll, W.J., and Belovich, V.M., “Suppression of Bluff-Body Stabilized Diffusion 

Flames,” 34th AIAAIASMEISAWASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, Cleveland, Paper No. 98-3529, 

1998. 

Takahashi, F., Schmoll, W.J.. and Belovich, V.M., “Suppression of Bluff-Body Stabilized Pool Flames,” 

AlAA 37th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, NV, Paper No. 99-0327, 1999. 

Takahashi, F., Schmoll, W.J., and Belovich, V.M., “Stabilization and Suppression of a Diffusion Flame 

Behind a Step,” P ru[.wdirig.y ufthe Joint U.S. Sections Mwtitrg ofthr Comhusriorr /~sIiturc, Washington, 

DC, 1999. 

Takahashi, F., Schmoll, W. J., Strader, E., and Belovich, V. M., “Suppression ora Non-Premixed Flame 

by a Backward-Facing Step,” Con7hustion ad Flunir, accepted for publication, 2000. 

Viability of New Suppressant Technologies 

McNeshy, K.L., Skagps, R.R., Miziolek, A.E., Clay, M., Hoke, S., and Miser, C.S., “Diode Laser-Based 

Measurements of Hydrogen Fluoride Gas During Chemical Suppression of Fires,” App. Phys. B 67,443- 

441, 199X. 

Bennett. M.V., “Use of the Department of Defense Operational Requirements-Based Casualty Assessment (ORCA) Software System to Determine Occupant Response to Fire and the Extinguishment 

Process,” H~niu!7 Behavior it7 Fire, P rocredings of Ihr Fir-sr Inf<wiutiotru/ Symposium, Belfast, Northern 

Ireland, 1998. 

Williamson, C.K., McNesby, K.L., Daniel, R.G., and Miziolek, A.W., “Laser-Induced Breakdown 

Spectroscopy for Real-Time Detection of Halon Alternative Ageiits,”A,iu/yticul C7hemistr.v 70, I 186- 

1191,1998. 

McNeshy, K.L., Skaggs, R.R., Miziolek, A.W., Daniel, R.G.. and Miser, C.S., “Near-Infrared Tunable 

Laser Diagnostics in Laboratory Scale Flames,” Pr~(.wding.s /!flasei- Applicutiom to Cheniicul ur7d 

Environmetirol Amilysis Topica/ Mwtirrx, p. 203, 1 998. 

Skaggs, R.R., Daniel, R.G., Miziolek, A.W., McNesby, K.L., Herud, C. Bolt, W.R.. and Horton D., 

“Diode Laser Measurements of HF Concentrations from HeptaneiAir Pan Fires Extinguished by FE-36 

and FE-36 Plus Ammonium Polyphosphate,” IYYH Proceedings ufthc Inrernutionul Sucicryfor Opricu/ 

Eqyineering: Phoronics East, in press, 1999. 

McNesby, K.L., Skaggs, R.R., Miziolek, A.W., Clay, M., Hoke, S., and Miser, C.S., Diode Lusrr-Buscd 

M~,u.sirr-mie/ir.s uf Hydr-ogw F/iwride Gus During Chemicul Suppr-c~ssion of Fii-c~, ARL-TR-I 7x5. I99X. 

Skaggs, R.R., Daniel, R.G., Miziolek, A.W., McNeshy, K.L., Herud, C., Bolt, W.K., and Horton. D., 

Diudc Laser Measurmients (If’ HF ConcPntrutions.ti-om Hcpfaw/Air Pati Fires ELiinguishrd hy FE-36 

and FE-36 Plus Ammonium Po/y/ihosphute, ARL-TR-2 143, 2000. 

Halm Oplions Technic;d Working Conlcrcnce 2-4 May ?OOO I 3 
Skaggs, R.R., Daniel, R.G., Miziolek, A.W., McNesby, K.L., Herud, C., Bolt, W.R., and Horton, D., 

“Diode Laser Measurements of HF Concentrations Produced from Heptane/Air Pan Fires Extinguished 

by FE-36, FM-200, FE-36 Plus APP, or FM-200 Plus APP,” Applied Spectroscupy 53, 1143-1 148,1999. 

Lancaster, E.D., McNesby, K.L., Daniel, R.G., and Miziolek, A.W., ‘‘ Spectroscopic Analysis of Fire 

Suppressants and Refrigerants by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy,” Applied Optics 38, 1476- 

1480, 1999. 

Skaggs, R.R., Daniel, R.G., Miziolek, A.W., McNesby, K.L., Herud, C., Bolt, W.R., and Horton, D., 

“Diode Laser Measurements of HF Concentrations Produced from Heptane/Air Pan Fires Extinguished 

by FE-36, FM-200, FE-36 Plus APP, or FM-200 Plus APP,” Proceedings ofthe 1998 JANNAF Comhustion Meeting, Tucson, in press, 2000. 

McNesby, K.L., Wainner, R.T., Miziolek, A.W., Jackson, W.M., and McLaren, LA., “High Sensitivity 

Laser Absorption Measurements of Broad Band Absorbers in the Near Infrared Spectral Region,” 

Applied Optics, submitted for publication, 2000. 

14 Halon Options Technical Working Conference 2-4 May 2000