Figures and Tables that complements SC42 Japan National Body comment

Figure 1. Cognitive model of human and AI

Table 1. Example of terminology list for biases 

Terminology Explanation Source or reference

NIS

T 

127

0 

Acquiescence 

bias 

A category of response bias in which 

respondents to a survey have a tendency 

to agree with all the questions or to 

indicate a positive connotation

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 2.

also in 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquiescence_bias

Activity bias

A type of selection bias that occurs when 

systems/platforms get their training data 

from their most active users, rather than 

those less active (or inactive) 

R. Baeza-Yates, Bias on the web, Commun. ACM. 61 (2018) 54–61.

Actor observer 

bias 

the tendency for explanations for other 

individual's behaviors to overemphasize the 

influence of their personality and 

underemphasize the influence of their 

situation. This is coupled with the opposite 

tendency for the self in that one's 

explanations for their own behaviors 

overemphasize their situation and 

underemphasize the influence of their 

personality. (see also fundamental 

attribution error).

https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
Ad hominem

short for argumentum ad hominem, is a 

form of criticism directed at something 

about the person one is criticizing, rather 

than something (potentially, at least) 

independent of that person. When used 

inappropriately, it is a fallacy in which a 

claim or argument is dismissed on the basis 

of some irrelevant fact or supposition about 

the author or the person being criticized.[2] 

Ad hominem reasoning is not always 

fallacious, for example, when it relates to 

the credibility of statements of fact or 

when used in certain kinds of moral and 

practical reasoning

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hominem

Affect 

heuristic

A good feeling toward a situation would lead 

to a lower risk perception and a higher 

benefit perception, even when this is 

logically not warranted for that situation

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 2.

also in 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_heuristic

All-or-nothing 

thinking

Cognitive 

distortions 

Splitting (also called black-and-white 

thinking or all-or-nothing thinking) is the 

failure in a person's thinking to bring 

together the dichotomy of both positive and 

negative qualities of the self and others into 

a cohesive, realistic whole. It is a common 

defense mechanism.[1] The individual tends 

to think in extremes (i.e., an individual's 

actions and motivations are all good or all 

bad with no middle ground).

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 13.

also in 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splitting_(psychology)

Ambiguity 

effect

the avoidance of options for which missing 

information makes the probability seem 

"unknown".

The ambiguity effect is a cognitive bias 

where decision making is affected by a lack 

of information, or "ambiguity".[1] The effect 

implies that people tend to select options 

for which the probability of a favorable 

outcome is known, over an option for which 

the probability of a favorable outcome is 

unknown. The effect was first described by 

Daniel Ellsberg in 1961

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity_effect
Amplification 

bias 

Arises when the distribution over prediction 

outputs is skewed in comparison to the 

prior distribution of the prediction target

I. Misra, C.L. Zitnick, M. Mitchell, R. Girshick, Seeing through the Human 

Reporting 

NIS

T 

Anchoring

Common human tendency to rely too 

heavily, or "ancho," on one trait or piece of 

information when making decisions

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 3.

also in 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/anchoring.htm

Annotator 

bias, 

Human 

reporting bias 

When users rely on automation as a 

heuristic replacement for their own 

information seeking and processing

Bias: Visual Classifiers from Noisy Human-Centric Labels, in: 2016 IEEE 

Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), IEEE, Las 

Vegas, NV, USA, 2016: 

pp. 2930–2939

NIS

T 

Anthropic bias

The bias arising when "your evidence is 

biased by observation selection effects," 

according to philosopher Nick Bostrom.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 3.

also in 

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Anthropic_bias

Apophenia

The experience of seeing patterns or 

connections in random or meaningless data.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 4.

also in 

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/reality-play/201207/being-amusedapophenia

Argument from 

authority

a common form of argument which leads to 

a logical fallacy when misused.

In informal reasoning, the appeal to 

authority is a form of argument attempting 

to establish a statistical syllogism. The 

appeal to authority relies on an argument of 

the form:

A is an authority on a particular topic 

A says something about that topic 

A is probably correct

http://neuroclusterbrain.com/appeal_to_authority.html

Argument from 

Ignorance

Also known as appeal to ignorance (in which 

ignorance stands for "lack of evidence to 

the contrary"), is a fallacy in informal logic. 

It asserts that a proposition is true because 

it has not yet been proven false (or vice 

versa). This represents a type of false 

dichotomy in that it excludes a third option, 

which is that there is insufficient 

investigation and therefore insufficient 

information to prove the proposition 

satisfactorily to be either true or false. Nor 

does it allow the admission that the choices 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance
may in fact not be two (true or false), but 

may be as many as four,

1.true

 2.false 

3.unknown between true or false

4.being unknowable (among the first three)

In debates, appeals to ignorance are 

sometimes used to shift the burden of 

proof.

Attentional 

bias 

A form of cognitive bias in which a person 

does not examine all possible outcomes 

when making a judgment about a correlation 

or association. They may focus on one or 

two possibilities, while ignoring the rest.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 4.

also in 

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.324.4312&rep=rep1&ty

pe=pdf 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_bias#cite_note-Bar-Haim2007-1

Attitude 

polarization 

The tendency of people to search for and 

interpret evidence selectively, to reinforce 

their current beliefs or attitudes.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 5.

also in 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_polarization

Attribute 

substitution 

It occurs when an individual has to make a 

judgment (of a target attribute) that is 

computationally complex, and instead 

substitutes amore easy calculated heuristic 

attribute.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 5.

also in 

https://biasandbelief.wordpress.com/2009/06/01/attribute-substitution/

Attributional 

bias 

Cognitive biases which affect attribution --

the way we determine who or what was 

responsible for an event or action. Such 

biases typically rely on actor/observer 

differences -- people involved in an action 

view things differently from those people 

outside (Observers).

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 7.

also in 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribution_bias#attribution_bias

Automation 

complacency

When humans over-rely on automated 

systems or have their skills attenuated by 

such over-reliance (e.g., spelling and 

autocorrect or spellcheckers).

NIS

T 

automation 

bias 

a kind of 

human 

cognitive bias

type of human cognitive bias (3.3.4) due to 

over-reliance on the recommendations of 

an AI system (3.2.4)

ISO TR 24027
Availability 

heuristic

One important corollary finding to this 

heuristic is that people asked to imagine an 

outcome tend to immediately view it as 

more likely than people that were not asked 

to imagine the specific outcome.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 7.

also in 

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Availability_heuristic

Bandwagon 

effect

Also known as social proof or "cromo 

effect", is the observation that people often 

do and believe things because many other 

people do and believe the same things.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 8.

also in 

http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Bandwagon_effect

Base rate 

fallacy

The base rate fallacy, also called base rate 

neglect or base rate bias, is an error that 

occurs when the conditional probability of 

some hypothesis H given some evidence E 

is assessed without taking into account the 

"base rate" or "prior probability" of H and 

the total probability of evidence E.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 9.

also in 

http://abuse.wikia.com/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy

Behavioral 

bias 

Systematic distortions in user behavior 

across platforms or contexts, or across 

users represented in different datasets

H. Miller, J. Thebault-Spieker, S. Chang, I. Johnson, L. Terveen, B. Hecht, 

“blissfully happy” or “ready to fight”: Varying interpretations of emoji, in: 

Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Web and Social Media, 

ICWSM 2016, AAAI press, 2016: pp. 259–268.

NIS

T 

Beneffectance 

bias 

perceiving oneself as responsible for 

desirable outcomes but not responsible for 

undesirable ones. (Term coined by 

Greenwald (1980))

= Self Serving Bias

Medical Error and Harm: Understanding, Prevention, and Control

By Milos Jenicek, pp 317

bias 

systematic difference in treatment of 

certain objects, people, or groups in 

comparison to others

Note 1 to entry: Treatment is any kind of 

action, including perception, observation, 

representation, prediction, or decision

ISO TR 24027

Bias blind spot

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, 

Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 11.

also in 

A cognitive bias about not compensating for 

one's own cognitive biases.

Psychology-Problem Solving, Books LLC ®, Wiki Series, Memphis, USA, 2011, 

WWW.booksllc.net, pp 11.

also in 

http://cognitivebiasoftheday.com/story/10-cognitive-biases-explain-why-wefall-for-fake-news

bias in model 

interaction

a kind of ML 

model 

ISO TR 24027
architecture 

bias 

Bias in rulebased system 

design

ISO TR 24027

Brand Loyalty

When consumers become committed to 

your brand and make repeat purchases over 

time. Brand loyalty is a result of consumer 

behavior and is affected by a person's 

preferences. Loyal customers will 

consistently purchase products from their 

preferred brands, regardless of convenience 

or price. Companies will often use different 

marketing strategies to cultivate loyal 

customers, be it is through loyalty programs 

(i.e. rewards programs) or trials and 

incentives (ex. samples and free gifts). 

http://blog.bluemediaconsulting.com/explaining-psychological-differencerepeat-purchase-brand-loyalty

bystander 

effect

The bystander effect, or bystander apathy, 

is a social psychological phenomenon that 

refers to cases in which individuals do not 

offer any means of help to a victim when 

other people are present. The probability of 

help is inversely related to the number of 

bystanders. In other words, the greater the 

number of bystanders, the less likely it is 

that any one of them will help. Several 

variables help to explain why the bystander 

effect occurs.

http://evc-cit.info/psych018/imaginary2238.pdf