PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY

Gauging nature on all scales

NIST.GOV/PML
NIST.GOV/PML | 2

OUR PEOPLE INCLUDE:

❱ 4 NOBEL LAUREATES

❱ 7 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

❱ MORE THAN 100 FELLOWS OF APS, OSA, 

IEEE, SPIE, AND AAAS

❱ MORE THAN 250 MEMBERS OF 

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS 

ORGANIZATIONS

❱ 470 FEDERAL AND 670 ASSOCIATE 

SCIENTISTS; 110 NON-SCIENTIST STAFF

❱ TRAINERS OF OVER 1,000 STATE WEIGHTS 

AND MEASURES OFFICIALS EACH YEAR

IMPACTS

❱ Provides 700 kinds of calibration services

❱ Numerous special testing services

❱ U.S. standard time dissemination

❱ Over 100 standard reference materials

❱ Atomic Data Center

❱ Fundamental Constants Data Center

❱ NanoFab User Facility

The Physical Measurement Laboratory (PML), a major 

operating unit of the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology (NIST), sets the definitive U.S. standards 

for nearly every kind of measurement in modern life, 

sometimes across more than 20 orders of magnitude. PML is a world leader in the science of physical 

measurement, devising procedures and tools that make 

continual progress possible. Exact measurements are 

absolutely essential to industry, medicine, the research 

community, and government. All of them depend on 

PML to develop, maintain, and disseminate the official 

standards for a wide range of quantities, including 

length, mass, force and shock, acceleration, time and 

frequency, electricity, temperature, humidity, pressure 

and vacuum, liquid and gas flow, and electromagnetic, optical, acoustic, and ionizing radiation. PML 

collaborates directly with industry, universities, professional and standards-setting organizations, and other 

agencies of government to ensure accuracy and to 

solve problems. It also supports research in many 

fields of urgent national importance, such as manufacturing, energy, health, law enforcement and 

homeland security, communications, military defense, 

electronics, the environment, lighting and display, 

radiation, remote sensing, space exploration, 

and transportation.

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY (PML)

NIST.GOV/PML

PMLINFO@NIST.GOV

100 BUREAU DRIVE

GAITHERSBURG, MD 20899-8400
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MESSAGE FROM THE DIRECTOR

The central mission of NIST’s Physical Measurement Laboratory (PML) 

is to develop and continuously improve the best and most trustworthy 

measurement science possible to support American commerce and 

ensure the nation’s preeminence in the world economy.

It is justly said that you cannot make what you cannot measure, and 

modern technology demands increasingly accurate and precise 

measurements of myriad properties and quantities at the lowest 

possible uncertainties and in ever smaller dimensions.

Progress in manufacturing, medicine, communications, defense,

and many other key endeavors depends critically on those capabilities. PML meets those 

needs through world-leading metrology research and authoritative calibration, testing, and 

measurement services.

Our scientists and technicians work at the outermost frontiers of physical science to 

identify and investigate the kinds of measurements that the future will require, from nanoscale 

imaging, ultra-high-precision timekeeping, and sub-picosecond signal processing to detection 

of subtle quantum effects, advanced photonics, spin electronics, artificial intelligence, precision 

medicine, and novel ways to realize the newly redefined SI units.

At the same time, PML provides industry, government, and academia with state-of-the-art 

standards, calibrations, and methods for making their essential measurements—both at NIST 

and at customer facilities—and helps solve problems they encounter. In addition, we provide 

many of the nation’s authoritative science databases, and operate numerous active teaching and 

training programs.

Finally, we are leading a sweeping new program called NIST on a Chip that aims to bring 

super-miniaturized, quantum-accurate measurement devices directly to the customer’s site

That work is conducted by PML’s 500 federal and 670 associate scientists; 80 administrative staff 

working at NIST’s Gaithersburg, MD, and Boulder, CO, campuses, and at two joint institutes: 

JILA with the University of Colorado Boulder, and the Joint Quantum Institute (JQI) with the 

University of Maryland at College Park.

Each of our many projects and programs, highlighted on the following pages, has a unique 

focus. But all reflect our devotion to provide unequaled metrology research and measurement 

services to America both today and tomorrow.

James Kushmerick, Director

Physical Measurement Laboratory
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NIST calibration services help the makers and users of 

precision instruments achieve the highest possible 

levels of measurement quality and productivity. These 

services provide customers with assurance in their 

results by communicating the NIST measurement 

results for carefully selected instruments and artifacts. Nearly all are conducted within or through PML. 

NIST performs, on average, more then 13,000 tests 

per year in nine metrology areas covering about 

500 calibration services, including: 

DIMENSIONAL: Length; Diameter and Roundness; 

Complex/3D Dimensional Standards; Optical Reference 

Plane Standards; Angular Measures; Laser Measurements; Surface Texture; Nanoscale Structures 

MECHANICAL: Hydrometers; Volume and Density; 

Flow; Air Speed Instruments; Mass Standards; Force; 

Vibration; Acoustics 

ELECTROMAGNETIC: Resistance; Impedance; 

Voltage; Precision Ratio; Phase Meters and Standards 

and VOR; Power and Energy at Low Frequency; 

RF, Microwave, and Millimeter Wave; EM Field Strength 

and Antennas; Field Strength Parameters; High-Speed 

Repetitive Wave Forms; Pulse Waveforms 

OPTICAL RADIATION: Photometric; Optical 

Properties of Materials; Surface Color and Appearance; 

Spectroradiometric; Detector Calibrations in EUV; 

High-Frequency Optical Detectors; Lasers and 

Optoelectronic Components 

THERMODYNAMIC: Pressure; Vacuum; Temperature; 

Humidity; Thermal Resistance 

ENVIRONMENTAL: Ozone; Mercury 

IONIZING RADIATION: Radioactivity; Neutron 

Sources and Dosimetry; X-ray, Gamma-Ray, and Electron Dosimetry; Dosimetry for High-Dose Applications 

TIME AND FREQUENCY: Broadcast and Measurement Services; Characterization of Oscillators; Phase 

Modulation and Amplitude Modulation Noise 

Measurement Systems 

METROLOGY AND WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

TRAINING: Metrology training at unique NIST 

training facility; numerous in-person and virtual 

classes around the country; training at NCSLI and MSC 

meetings

IMPACTS

❱ Provides NIST-traceable calibrations & reports

❱ Advises on best-practice test procedures & protocols

❱ Responds to unique and/or unusual customer requests

❱ Contributes to quality assurance metrics

MEASUREMENT SERVICES 

JAMES A. FEDCHAK

ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR

(301) 975-8962

james.fedchak@nist.gov

nist.gov/calibrations
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The NIST on a Chip program (NOAC) will develop 

practical quantum-based standards and sensors—often miniaturized to chip scale or smaller—that are 

traceable to the newly redefined International System 

of Units (SI). They will be: 

• DEPLOYABLE, where customers need them, 

on the factory floor, embedded into products, in 

laboratories, in space ,or at home;

• FLEXIBLE, providing a broad range of “zero chain” 

SI-traceable measurements and standards that 

are configurable into a single small-form package and adaptable to customers’ requirements; 

• MANUFACTURABLE, with production costs that 

scale appropriately for applications;

• RELIABLE, providing either the exact value of a 

measurement or no value at all; and

• FIT-TO-FUNCTION, miniaturized with low 

power consumption, rugged, easily integrated and utilized, with an operating range 

and uncertainty required by the application. 

Most NOAC designs can be produced with the same 

silicon platforms and fabrication processes already 

used to make integrated circuits and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), potentially resulting in devices that are inexpensive, robust, and small 

enough to be readily incorporated into new or existing 

equipment.

Many users in industry, government, medicine, 

defense, and standards labs now ship their often 

delicate and expensive instruments to NIST for 

calibration and testing against U.S. national standards. 

That establishes a chain of traceability, promoting 

user confidence. NOAC aims to bring that kind of 

confidence directly to the user’s own site.

Eventually, a single chip-scale package will be able to 

measure multiple quantities: A time and frequency 

tool might also serve as a length scale, mounted next 

to a magnetic-field sensor that sits atop a 

quantum-based thermometer.

IMPACTS

❱ Provides chip-scale, often quantum-based technology 

for precision measurement traceable to the SI

❱ Enables users to calibrate sensors on the factory floor 

without having to send devices to a laboratory

❱ Results in more flexible and efficient manufacturing

NIST ON A CHIP 

BARBARA GOLDSTEIN, 

PML ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR AND 

NOAC PROJECT MANAGER

(301) 975-2304

barbara.goldstein@nist.gov

nist.gov/noac
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Historical advances in precision control of materials, 

devices, and information have led to multiple revolutions in science, technology, and industry. New measurement science has preceded each step: If we can measure it, we can make it. Nanoscale measurements enable 

fabrication of diverse nanotechnologies, creation of 

devices to manipulate photons, phonons, and plasmons 

at the quantum limit, and probing of the structures and 

functions of atoms, (bio)molecules, and particles. All of 

these require new approaches. The Division develops 

measurement science and technology to advance the 

state-of-the-art nanofabrication and nanomanufacturing by top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid approaches, 

and applies these novel capabilities to make innovative, 

integrated microsystems for critical applications.

FABRICATION AND MEASUREMENT exist in a 

synergistic relationship in which more precisely 

fabricated devices enable improvements in 

measurement science, which in turn enable ever more 

precise fabrication. Particle beams, scanning probes, 

microscopy methods, and manufacturing processes are 

essential to developing microsystems and nanotechnologies in diverse physical domains including photonic, 

mechanical, biomolecular, and fluidic. Programs include 

approaches toward atomic-scale precision and 

accuracy in lithography and microscopy; fabrication 

and measurement of nanostructures in three dimensions; modeling to understand and predict fabrication and measurement processes; and realization of 

practical systems with high efficiency and performance.

PHOTONICS AND OPTOMECHANICS combine to 

provide arbitrary control over classical, quantum optical, and acoustic fields down to the level of single photons and phonons. Nanofabricated structures create 

photonic/phononic interfaces between systems from 

trapped atoms to micro- and nanoelectromechanical 

systems. Programs include development of metasurfaces/materials that shape light uniquely in temporal 

and spatial domains for new modulation technologies; chip-scale optical frequency combs as references 

for precision measurements, optical clocks, and quantum sensors; cavity optomechanical sensors to extend 

field-deployable measurements to the thermodynamic 

limit of sensitivity for inertial measurement; plasmonic 

switching for reconfigurable or adaptive photonic 

networks; and single photon/phonon transduction 

for quantum information storage, manipulation, and 

transmission—an enabling technology for future 

quantum networks.

QUANTITATIVE MEDICINE & BIOLOGY require 

new measurement tools, analyses, and diagnostics to 

combat existing and emerging threats to the nation’s 

health. Micro- and nano-scale devices and methods 

enable physical measurements—of systems ranging 

from single molecules and particles to cells in complex 

biological environments—with new levels of accuracy, 

precision, and efficiency. Programs include the creation 

of micro-physiological (body-on-a-chip) systems and 

kinetic cytometry for high-throughput interrogation of 

single cells to generate representative and statistically meaningful data on disease states and therapeutic 

efficacy for drug discovery; development of biotic/

abiotic interfaces that permit direct electronic measurement of biomolecular and cellular function with high 

sensitivity and selectivity; and the creation of measurement systems and biological structures for biomarker 

detection and biomolecular analysis. 

MICROSYSTEMS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY DIVISION 

IMPACTS

❱ Advanced fabrication for and by nanoscale measurement

❱ World-leading, field-deployable sensitivity via micro-fabricated optomechanical sensors

❱ Photonic devices to control quantum emitters for quantum information science

❱ Metamaterials for next-gen microprocessors, data centers, telecom, AI and IoT

❱ Manufacturable microsystems for precision medicine, biotechnology, and biological research
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J. ALEXANDER LIDDLE, 

DIVISION CHIEF

(301) 975-6050 

james.liddle@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/microsystems-and

nanotechnology
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Accurate and authoritative measurements of ionizing 

radiation and radioactivity are vital for a host of 

critical applications, including life-saving medical 

procedures, homeland security and public safety, 

advanced manufacturing and industrial processes, 

and basic and applied research including quantum 

information science.

The Radiation Physics Division develops, maintains, 

and disseminates U.S. primary standards for ionizing 

radiation metrology, and investigates and applies 

the fundamental physical interactions of ionizing 

radiation with a vast array of materials and systems, 

including advanced technological materials, 

biological systems, microelectronic components, 

environmental contaminants, and radiological and 

nuclear materials. 

In addition to realizing the SI units for absorbed 

radiation dose (the gray) and radioactivity (the 

becquerel), the Division conducts research in 

fundamental neutron physics and interferometry, 

radiation dosimetry, radionuclide metrology, and 

radiation imaging technologies.

This work has a dramatic impact on many critically 

important industrial sectors of the U.S. economy. 

In medical research and clinical practice, for 

example, each year the accuracy of nearly 40 million 

mammograms and 40,000 radiation treatment plans 

for prostate cancer depend on measurements made 

by the Radiation Physics Division. 

The Division comprises three technical groups.

THE DOSIMETRY GROUP DEVELOPS standards 

by realizing the gray and advancing measurement 

of quantities important to dosimetry of X-rays, 

gamma rays, electrons, and other charged particles. 

Applications include diagnostic and therapeutic 

uses of radiation in medicine, industrial processing 

of materials, homeland security imaging quality and 

radiation protection, and public safety.

THE RADIOACTIVITY GROUP ESTABLISHES the 

necessary standards and metrology infrastructure 

to enable the realization and dissemination of the 

becquerel. 

This mission is accomplished through the 

preparation and distribution of reference materials, 

the organization of proficiency testing programs, 

radioactivity calibrations, and basic research. 

Application areas include diagnostic and therapeutic 

nuclear medicine, nuclear security, fundamental 

nuclear science, and environmental monitoring.

THE NEUTRON PHYSICS GROUP PROVIDES

measurement services, standards, and fundamental 

research to support NIST’s mission in neutron 

metrology and physics. The Group maintains and 

disseminates neutron measurement standards 

through calibration, technical evaluation, and 

experimental work. Moreover, the Group maintains 

and supports NIST’s neutron user facility for imaging, 

interferometry, and fundamental neutron physics. 

RADIATION PHYSICS DIVISION

IMPACTS

❱ Radiation and nuclear applications in health care 

❱ Worker protection and assurance for the nuclear energy and radiation industries 

❱ The interaction of nuclear radiation with matter

❱ Environmental protection and monitoring 

❱ Homeland security and defense applications: detection and countermeasures

❱ Fundamental physics of the neutron and neutron imaging 
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JAMES ADAMS, DIVISION CHIEF

(301) 975-4202 

james.adams@nist.gov 

nist.gov/pml/radiation-physics
The Division develops and advances measurement 

science and fundamental knowledge to characterize nano- and atom-scale engineered materials 

and solid-state devices, enabling innovation in 

information processing, sensing, and future 

quantum technologies.

Those activities provide fundamental support for 

breakthroughs in a wide range of areas, including

nanoscale optical spectroscopy and imaging, 

nanoscale electron physics, future semiconductor 

devices and their integration in more complex 

systems, alternative computing, and fabrication and 

characterization of solid-state atom-scale devices. 

Research in the Division has a number of focus areas, 

including those listed below.

WORLD CLASS ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL 

MICROSCOPY PROVIDES provide “local” measurements that characterize nanoengineered solid-state 

materials and devices as a function of temperature, 

electrical bias, optical stimulus, or applied magnetic 

field to reveal the fundamental physical properties and 

processes that underpin emergent quantum 

behavior. Advances in nanoscale microscopy 

instrumentation complement innovative precision 

electrical and optical spectroscopic measurements, 

methodology, and test structure design and fabrication.

ADVANCED MICROELECTRONICS can minimize 

the measurement gaps hindering heterogeneous 

integration of emerging electronic and photonic 

materials and devices with aggressively scaled 

silicon CMOS. Innovations in measurements to 

assure authenticity and reliability of materials, 

devices, and systems are essential to ensure continued gains in performance and the creation of more 

complex and specialized functions in the face of 

revolutionary challenges to CMOS scaling.

MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS IN ALTERNATIVE 

COMPUTING, especially neuromorphic computing and AI, are being addressed, especially 

neuromorphic computing and AI, by investigating new devices for analog and stochastic 

computing and exploring new architectures and 

algorithms, both theoretically and in medium-scale 

integrated prototypes. 

This effort focuses on designing, fabricating, and 

characterizing hybrid circuit test platforms and 

disseminating them to researchers in industry and 

academia to enable more efficient validation of 

device and circuit properties at increasingly greater 

complexity and scale.

ATOM-SCALE DEVICES develop the foundational 

knowledge, measurements, and fabrication methods 

needed to enable nanoengineering of solid-state 

devices and systems that will lead to new, 

unexplored emergent quantum behavior. 

This effort is pushing electronic and quantum 

devices and sensors to their fundamental operation 

limits with single electrons and spins on deterministically placed atoms. These devices will be critical for 

realizing chip-scale quantum information processing, 

quantum simulators, and field-deployable quantum 

electrical standards.

STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT involves engaging in international standards development where 

rigor in measurement methodology, data analysis, and 

data reporting facilitate a robust consensus-based 

standards-creation process.

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IMPACTS

❱ World class microscopy: micro-eV tunneling resolution in an in-operando STM, AFM, and 

Magneto-transport System for Quantum Materials Research

❱ U.S. leadership in atom-scale device fabrication: single-atom transistor arrays with atom-scale 

control over the devices’ geometry

❱ Graphene-based quantum engineered systems: first creation and imaging of coupled quantum 

dots (islands of confined electric charge that act like interacting artificial atoms) in graphene

NANOSCALE DEVICE CHARACTERIZATION DIVISION
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DAVID GUNDLACH, DIVISION CHIEF

(301) 975-2048

david.gundlach@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/nanoscale-device

characterization-division

© Robert Rathe
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In the 21st Century, world-class metrology demands 

highly accurate measurements of properties on 

scales ranging from millions of kilograms to single 

photons and electron spins. 

This Division performs basic electrical, mass, and 

force calibrations, and applies quantum physics 

research methods to achieve fundamental advances 

in metrology. The Division has been heavily 

engaged with the international community in both 

proposing and contributing to the 2019 redefinition 

of the International System of Units. In particular, the 

Division’s design and fabrication of a state-of-the-art 

Kibble balance was essential to the redefining the 

kilogram.

Some focus areas of the Division are:

QUANTUM CONTROL. The ability to understand and 

manipulate objects at the quantum level is among the 

most urgent goals of modern science. The Division 

develops quantum measurement techniques 

and investigates quantum phenomena to better 

understand the many-body physics that governs 

behavior of semiconductors and superconductors, 

and quantum information. 

Ultracold atoms are used to perform quantum 

simulations to study the physics of solid materials 

where control and measurement of individual 

atoms and molecules are far more difficult, if not 

impossible, to do. Groundbreaking experiments 

have achieved quantum interference of photons 

from different sources. This basic knowledge and 

the techniques developed to quantify it are crucial 

for the development of improved time standards, 

quantum computers of unprecedented power, and 

quantum communication technologies.

NEW FRONTIERS. Division researchers are 

developing new quantum-based electrical standards. 

Novel graphene-based quantum Hall resistance 

standards are being transferred to industry, primary 

calibration laboratories, and national metrology 

institutes. An electric power standard known as the 

“quantum watt” is being developed to provide NIST 

measurement services for power and energy meters. 

At the same time, the Division is at work integrating 

the Kibble balance with measurement services to 

disseminate mass values based on the new Quantum 

SI (QSI) to U.S. calibration laboratories. Techniques 

and technologies that facilitate this transformation 

include a Magnetic Suspension Mass Comparator 

and a tabletop version of the Kibble balance.

DATA RESOURCES. Exploration of fundamental 

aspects of the quantum nature of light and matter – and 

development of quantum metrology to support the 

QSI—result in both advanced measurement services 

and authoritative, critically-evaluated reference data 

on atomic properties and fundamental constants 

disseminated through a searchable database. 

Part of that work is associated with the Division’s 

Fundamental Constants Data Center which 

determines the best values of the fundamental 

constants based on the latest measurements and 

contributes directly to improving international 

standards through the Committee on Data for Science 

and Technology (CODATA) and other organizations.

The Division also provides metrology for the “Smart 

Grid” program to improve America’s electric power 

distribution system.

QUANTUM MEASUREMENT DIVISION

IMPACTS

❱ Plasma modeling, atomic spectroscopy and data to support U.S. industry andresearch, 

including the search for extraterrestrial planets

❱ Quantum processes and metrology that includes quantum optics, laser cooling and 

trapping, ultra-cold atoms and molecules, quantum simulations, modeling of quantum 

systems, single-photon sources and non-classical light, and precision measurements

❱ Quantum-based mass and electrical standards to support the new QSI
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GERALD FITZPATRICK, 

DIVISION CHIEF

(301) 975-8922 

gerald.fitzpatrick@nist.gov 

nist.gov/pml/quantum-measurement
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The explosion of highly sophisticated sensor and 

imaging technology in recent years has enabled 

dramatic advancements in personal safety, medical 

diagnosis and treatment, lighting efficiency, 

temperature measurement, precision manufacturing, 

environmental monitoring, and space sciences, to 

cite a few examples.

The Division supports U.S. industry and technology 

research dependent on accurate and comparable 

measurements of length, optical radiation, surface 

properties, temperature, humidity, pressure, vacuum, 

flow, and related phenomena. Success is highly 

dependent on close collaboration with industry, 

universities, other Federal agencies, and standards 

development organizations. Our goals are to:

DEVELOP AND MAINTAIN STANDARDS and the 

necessary physical and knowledge infrastructure for 

three of the seven SI units: the kelvin (temperature), 

the meter (length), and the candela (luminous 

intensity). The Division participates in national and 

international committees, standards development 

organizations, and measurement intercomparisons 

to ensure acceptance of U.S. measurements worldwide. The Division also enters into formal research 

and development agreements with government and 

industry partners to collaborate on the development 

of measurement standards.

DISSEMINATE SI UNITS AND NATIONAL SCALES

by way of dimensional, mechanical, optical radiation, 

and thermodynamic measurement services and 

through the provision of reference standards and 

reference data. Services are continually evolving 

in order to provide the measurements and 

uncertainties needed to support U.S. innovation 

and industrial competitiveness.

IMPROVE AND ADVANCE THE STATE OF THE

ART IN MEASUREMENT SCIENCE through leading 

research in many fields including photometry and 

vision science, fluid flow, optical scattering from 

surfaces, infrared technology, process measurement, 

optical properties of materials and surfaces, medical 

imaging, and ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet 

radiation measurement. For example, recent Division 

research in picometer optical interferometry to 

accurately determine the refractive index of gases will 

fundamentally change the methods for realizing and 

disseminating the SI units of pressure, temperature, 

and length, while research on applications of coldatom traps is allowing the realization of the first 

absolute standard for the measurement of extreme 

levels of vacuum.

Advanced measurement protocols, models 

and novel measurement techniques are shared 

through participation in international metrology and 

standards-related activities, training, education,

and outreach.

DEVELOP AND MAINTAIN UNIQUE FACILITIES 

for testing extreme ultraviolet optics, detectors, and 

photoresists; calibrating optical and infrared sensors; 

providing precision dimensional measurements; 

advancing chip-scale sensors for the measurement 

of thermodynamic variables; testing sensors for 

measuring smokestack flows; advancing firearm 

forensics measurement science; and characterizing 

optical materials and light sources. Key facilities 

maintained by the Division include the Synchrotron 

Ultraviolet Radiation Facility (SURF III), the Low 

Background Infrared Facility (LBIR), and the Horizontal 

Smoke Stack Simulator.

IMPACTS

❱ Metrology and measurement services for the transition from incandescent and fluorescent 

to solid-state lighting

❱ Infrastructure for process plant operations and energy commerce 

❱ Standards and measurement methods for establishing the accuracy and international 

comparability of U.S. ground and space-based environmental measurements

SENSOR SCIENCE DIVISION
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GERALD T. FRASER, DIVISION CHIEF

(301) 975-3797 

gerald.fraser@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/sensor-science
NIST.GOV/PML | 16

The Applied Physics Division uses its expertise in 

radiometry, advanced communications, sensing, 

spectroscopy, quantitative imaging, and quantum 

measurements to work with academia, industry, and 

other government agencies to maximize the impact of 

its research in the United States and abroad.

OPTICAL POWER MEASUREMENTS—This work 

provides the optoelectronics industry with traceability to national standards. It involves measuring laser, 

detector, and component properties such as laser 

power, laser beam profile, detector spectral responsivity, detector linearity, and the attenuation of transmission components. That enhances the ability of industry 

to reliably utilize lasers in photovoltaic manufacturing, 

laser welding, and more. 

QUANTUM INFORMATION—From complex superconducting circuits to state-of-the-art singlephoton detectors and sources, this work is foundational to quantum information and quantum networking. 

Entangled photon sources lead to the generation of 

novel states of light with which to perform key tests of 

quantum mechanics and create truly random numbers 

in support of industry and cryptography.

MAGNETIC IMAGING—NIST develops calibration 

methods, standards, and contrast agents for magnetic imaging technologies to enable highly accurate 

images for diagnosis and treatment decisions. The U.S. 

healthcare industry benefits from advancing and validating quantitative bio-magnetic imaging methods, 

including shape-shifting biomedical probes, smart 

contrast agents, ultra low field MRI, and SI-traceable 

calibrations of MRI- based bio-markers. 

TERAHERTZ IMAGING RESEARCH—Imaging in 

the terahertz frequency range enables detection of 

concealed contraband, such as explosives under 

clothing, without the use of ionizing radiation. The 

Division’s unique capabilities in this frequency range 

also result in contributions to industrial processing and 

remote identification of chemicals.

OPTICAL FREQUENCY COMBS RESEARCH—

Groundbreaking research has led to high-precision 

spectral, temporal, and spatial measurement tools for 

gas monitoring, three-dimensional length metrology, 

and more. Highly accurate measurements of frequencies are also essential for many other advanced applications, such as detection of toxic biochemical agents, 

studies of ultrafast dynamics, and quantum computing. 

QUANTITATIVE NANOSTRUCTURE CHARACTERIZATION—Nanostructures are a critical component 

of innovations in high-performance computing, 

electronics, energy conservation, renewable energy, biomedical research, and health care. We develop 

and demonstrate metrology techniques to address 

nanoscale measurement challenges. These techniques include scanning microwave microscopy, atom 

probe tomography, transmission electron microscopy, 

Raman spectroscopy, and time-resolved photoluminescence. Our goal is to push these 

methods beyond comparative measurements by 

evaluating absolute uncertainties and systematic 

errors.

APPLIED PHYSICS DIVISION

IMPACTS

❱ Time transfer with optical frequency combs enables precise clock comparison, toward better 

space clocks

❱ Laser power measurements revolutionized by connecting to photon momentum

❱ Highest-performance camera ever composed of sensors that count single photons

❱ Brightest GaN nanowire LED may enable better display technologies and atom-scale sensing
NIST.GOV/PML | 17

KRISTAN CORWIN, DIVISION CHIEF

(303) 497-4411

kristan.corwin@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/applied-physics-division
Harnessing the electromagnetic spectrum—from direct 

current and voltage through fields in the gigahertz, microwave, and terahertz ranges to X-rays and gamma rays—

enables a wide range of present and future applications 

that are critical to economic and scientific advancement. 

The Division utilizes quantum-mechanical, electronic, magnetic, and photonic properties of materials and 

their interaction with electromagnetic waves to develop high-precision measurement tools, methods, and 

devices for quantum-based electrical standards, energyefficient spintronic devices, and high-resolution photon 

sensors for imaging and spectroscopy. Major focus areas 

are hardware for artificial intelligence, superconducting 

quantum information, and hyper-dimensional imaging.

Innovations in metrology and micro- and nanofabrication (and the rapid feedback between them 

provided by the fab-to-lab-to-fab cycle) propel 

critical advances in high-performance superconducting electronics, digital logic, data storage, materials 

development, quantum processing and engineering, nuclear forensics, and astronomical observations, 

as well as a deeper understanding of fundamental 

physics. Among a range of activities, the Division:

OPERATES THE STATE-OF-THE-ART BOULDER 

MICROFABRICATION FACILITY for chip-based 

quantum standards, sensors, integrated photonic 

circuits, and nanomagnetic devices. The 1,700 m2 ISO 5 

(class-100) cleanroom provides state-of-the-art microand nano-fabrication capabilities particularly for NISTBoulder researchers. Capabilities include: a full 

lithography suite, providing electron-beam lithography; deposition tools (evaporation, sputtering, chemicalvapor deposition, and molecular-beam epitaxy); reactive-ion etch tools, and chemical-mechanical polishing. 

DEVELOPS AND COLLABORATIVELY DISSEMINATES THE DC AND AC QUANTUM VOLTAGE 

STANDARDS that underpin measurements worldwide. 

Creates high-bandwidth signal generation techniques 

and instrumentation to characterize future communications systems and reduce spectrum crunch.

CONDUCTS APPLIED RESEARCH, FABRICATION, 

AND BENCHMARK TESTING of scalable, coupled 

quantum bits (qubits), resonators, ultra-low-noise 

amplifiers, and hybridized qubit and control circuitry 

for future large-scale, high-coherence, high-fidelity 

superconducting quantum computing. Develops 

quantum-based waveform synthesizers for selfcalibrated control and readout. 

INNOVATES IN SPIN ELECTRONICS AND 

NANOSCALE SPIN DYNAMICS RESEARCH, 

developing and measuring materials, devices, 

and scalable systems to accelerate progress toward 

dramatically higher-speed and lower-power electronics, 

information storage, and brain-inspired computing 

required by future industries and consumers. 

FABRICATES BEST-IN-CLASS, ULTRA-SENSITIVE, 

SUPERCONDUCTING DETECTOR ARRAYS used 

in ultra-high-resolution spectrometers for advanced 

materials analysis, microelectronics security, defect 

identification in integrated circuits, X-ray fundamental 

line metrology, nuclear nonproliferation applications, 

and cosmology. The Division develops amplifiers with 

near-quantum-limited low noise and microwave multiplexers for high-rate readout of superconducting sensors and quantum information processing. It advances 

the science of cryogenics to enable refrigeration systems 

for quantum electronics with reduced size, weight, power, 

and/or cost for sensing, communications, and computing.

NIST.GOV/PML | 18

IMPACTS

❱ Transfer of quantum-based voltage standards advances military and industry metrology

❱ X-ray sensors aid high-resolution material spectrometry and tomography for circuit security

❱ Electric-field noise reduction in ion traps greatly improves quantum computing capability

❱ Magnetic/superconductive neuromorphic hardware supports artificial intelligence

❱ Measurement of ultrafast dynamics in magnetic materials enhances computer memory

QUANTUM ELECTROMAGNETICS DIVISION
NIST.GOV/PML | 19

WILLIAM RIPPARD, 

DIVISION CHIEF (acting)

(303) 497-3882

william.rippard@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/quantum-electromagnetics
Much of the world’s modern technology infrastructure 

relies on exquisitely precise timing and synchronization, 

from the Global Positioning System to telecommunications and data networks to electric power generation 

and distribution. The Division provides official U.S. standards for time and frequency measurements and related 

quantities. These measurements trace back to the lasercooled NIST cesium fountain atomic clock, one of the 

world’s most accurate measuring devices of any kind.

The Division provides official time to the United States 

and is the source of the nation’s contribution to Coordinated Universal Time. In addition, the Division distributes 

numerous time and related measurements customized 

for different customer needs.

QUANTUM INFORMATION PROCESSING WITH 

TRAPPED IONS continuously demonstrates pioneering 

achievements in quantum information processing with 

trapped ions for over 25 years, amassing a long list of 

“firsts” and “bests.”

QUANTUM CONTROL OF SINGLE MOLECULAR 

IONS applies and adapts the quantum information toolbox developed for atomic ions to single molecular ions. 

With more complicated internal structure compared to 

atoms, molecules present both experimental challenges 

and great opportunities for exploring new physics. 

QUANTUM SIMULATION AND SENSING WITH 

LARGE TRAPPED-ION CRYSTALS pursue Feynman’s vision of using a well-controlled and measurable 

quantum system to emulate and study quantum many 

body systems that are not understood and cannot be 

straightforwardly simulated on a conventional computer.

NIST’S YTTERBIUM OPTICAL LATTICE CLOCK

achieves a nearly 100-fold improvement in validated 

accuracy over the cesium clocks currently used to define 

the second, making it one of the leading candidates for a 

future redefinition of the second.

NIST’S ALUMINUM ION QUANTUM LOGIC CLOCK 

demonstrates exceptional accuracy and is a pioneer in 

the use of quantum information techniques to enable 

and enhance metrology. It is another leading candidate for the coming redefinition of the SI second and a 

powerful tool for exploring open questions in 

fundamental physics and cosmology.

CHIP-SCALE WAVELENGTH REFERENCES AND 

CLOCKS explore new methods for integrating chip-scale 

photonics with atomic systems for creating compact, low -

power devices for precision metrology, atomic devices for precision measurement of time, magnetic field, 

acceleration, and a broad range of other applications.

OPTICAL FREQUENCY COMBS support the world’s 

most precise atomic clocks and enable the accurate 

transfer of phase and frequency information from the 

microwave to the optical domain to enable the characterization of developing optical atomic clocks against 

the current definition of the SI second.

MICRORESONATOR DEVICE RESEARCH develops 

microcombs, integrated reference cavities, and low-noise 

laser sources. The goal is to understand the fundamental 

and technical aspects for implementing precision time 

and frequency metrology in chip-scale devices.

TIME AND FREQUENCY DIVISION

IMPACTS

❱ The free Internet Time Service automatically synchronizes clocks in computers and network 

devices tens of billions of times every day and is built into most computer operating systems.

❱ Special time code radio stations, including radio station WWVB, synchronize many millions of 

radio-controlled clocks and watches to official NIST time.

❱ Researchers perform cutting-edge research in the measurement of time and frequency, 

expanding basic knowledge and measurement capabilities for stakeholders around the world.

NIST.GOV/PML | 20
ELIZABETH DONLEY, DIVISION CHIEF

(303) 497-5173 

elizabeth.donley@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division 

NIST.GOV/PML | 21
NIST.GOV/PML | 22

This Division is the NIST part of JILA, the joint 

research institute of NIST and the University of 

Colorado, Boulder. JILA develops fundamental 

measurement-science tools and technologies, and 

trains future generations of scientists and innovators. 

Division researchers explore some of today’s most 

challenging and fundamental scientific questions 

about the ultimate limits of quantum measurements 

and technologies. Understanding the quantum 

physics underlying the interactions of light and 

matter is central to the Division’s work, and this is 

then utilized for research applications in physics, 

chemistry, and biology. Being based on a university 

campus enables a research environment well-suited 

to quantum workforce development. 

Quantum Physics Division Research spans multiple 

focus areas.

QUANTUM INFORMATION SCIENCE (QIS) seeks to 

utilize the quantum properties of light and matter, such 

as squeezed and entangled states, for applications 

ranging from quantum-enhanced sensing to 

quantum information processing and simulation. 

Leveraging the Division’s strong background 

in laser cooling, atom trapping, and ultra-stable 

lasers, to understand and control complex quantum 

systems, drives advances in quantum metrology 

and the development of new tools for quantum 

networking and computing. Complementary to the 

Division’s atomic physics efforts in QIS is a major 

research effort on micro-fabricated electrical and 

electromechanical devices that are engineered to 

operate in regimes where quantum-mechanical 

properties dominate.

PRECISION MEASUREMENT is central to all the 

Division’s research, from fundamental explorations 

that seek to reveal new physics not predicted in 

established physical models of the universe, to 

investigations that bridge gaps between physics, 

chemistry, and biology by providing descriptions of 

important chemical and biological processes at their 

most basic physical levels. 

Flagship research efforts include the development 

of record-breaking optical clocks based on ultracold atoms in optical lattices, and a program to 

search for symmetry violations centered on precision 

measurements of the electric dipole moment (EDM) 

of the electron using exotic trapped molecular 

ions species.

ATOMIC & MOLECULAR research focuses on the 

study of the properties, behavior, and interactions of 

cold and ultra-cold atoms and molecules. Manipulating 

single atoms and controlling the interactions between 

them enables studies of quantum many-body physics 

and quantum control of molecule formation and 

chemical reactions.

CHEMICAL & BIOPHYSICS research adapts and 

applies measurement tools and concepts from 

physics to understanding the properties of elementary 

chemical, nanostructured, and biological systems. 

Research includes single biological molecules and 

applications of ultrastable atomic force microscopes, 

ultrafast and quantum-optical spectroscopy of 

complex molecules, and fundamental studies 

of the kinetics and dynamics of chemical and 

biophysical properties.

QUANTUM PHYSICS DIVISION

IMPACTS

❱ Record-setting accuracy for atomic clocks

❱ World’s first Bose-Einstein condensate & quantum-degenerate Fermi gas

❱ Understanding and controlling complex quantum systems

❱ Extending quantum measurement techniques to nanoscience, chemistry & biology

❱ Developing a highly skilled workforce for the growing quantum economy
NIST.GOV/PML | 23

ANDREW C. WILSON, 

DIVISION CHIEF 

(303) 492-6807

andrew.wilson@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/quantum-physics
This office ensures traceability of state weights and 

measures standards to the International System of Units 

(SI), develops procedures for legal metrology tests and 

inspections, provides technical guidance and online 

tools to facilitate the implementation and use of the SI, 

and conducts training for laboratory metrologists and 

weights and measures officials.

The Office of Weights and Measures (OWM) provides 

guidance on laws and regulations adopted by the National Conference on Weights and Measures (which 

promulgates uniform standards across states and other jurisdictions), and coordinates the development and 

publication of key NIST handbooks used by the states 

for enforcement purposes.

The work has substantial impact: Sales of products 

or services affected by weights and measures laws 

represent about 50 percent of the U.S. Gross 

Domestic Product.

In addition, this office serves as the U.S. Representative to the International Organization of Legal 

Metrology, which brings efficiency and cost savings 

to U.S. manufacturers and other stakeholders doing 

business overseas through the promotion of harmonized 

international standards and regulatory practices. The 

OWM training program is accredited by the International 

Association of Continuing Education and 

Training (IACET).

NIST.GOV/PML | 24

IMPACTS

❱ Publication of NIST Handbooks 44, 130, and 133

❱ Yearly training of 1,000 students in 50 classes for 

inspectors and metrologists

❱ Traceability recognition of U.S. state metrology 

laboratories to SI

❱ U.S. representative to International Organization of 

Legal Metrology

THE OFFICE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

KATRICE LIPPA, DIVISION CHIEF

(301) 975-4004

katrice.lippa@nist.gov

nist.gov/pml/weights-and-measures 
NIST.GOV/PML | 25

The Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology 

(CNST) NanoFab provides researchers with rapid access to state-of-the-art, commercial nanoscale measurement and fabrication tools and methods, along 

with technical expertise, at economical hourly rates. 

It is well-equipped to process and characterize a wide 

range of nanoscale materials, structures, and devices. Over 100 commercial tools are available within the 

NanoFab’s 5,600 m2 (60,000 ft2) of advanced laboratory space, which includes 1,900 m2

 (20,000 ft2) of cleanroom. Most tools are located in the 780 m2 (8,400 ft2

) 

ISO 5 (class-100) cleanroom. 

RAPID ACCESS: Applications are accepted continuously, with a streamlined application process designed 

to get projects started promptly. 

SHARED-USE OPERATION: Economical hourly rates, 

based on operating costs, with tools reserved through 

an online system accessible from mobile devices.

RESEARCHERS MAY APPLY FOR REDUCED 

RATES: If a non-proprietary project advances the NIST 

mission, reduced rates may be available. 

FLEXIBLE HOURS: The NanoFab is open and staffed 

weekdays from 7 a.m. to midnight, with access possible 

24 hours a day, 7 days a week. 

TRAINING: The NanoFab can train researchers in how 

to use tools. 

EXPERT STAFF: The NanoFab is operated by a 

dedicated support staff of process engineers and 

technicians who train and assist users, operate and 

maintain the tools, develop and control the processes, 

and provide consultation. 

REMOTE JOBS: Researchers can specify the work 

they need done and have it performed by the 

NanoFab staff. 

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS: NIST does 

not claim any rights to intellectual property used or 

developed in the NanoFab unless a NIST federal 

employee is a co-inventor. 

IMPACTS

❱ State-of-the-art fabrication and measurement equipment

❱ Expert staff for consultation and innovative solutions

❱ Support for diverse research programs from many 

sources

❱ Nanoscale technology to go from discovery to production

CNST NANOFAB 

ROBERT ILIC, MANAGER (acting)

(301) 975-3712 

robert.ilic@nist.gov 

nist.gov/cnst
NIST.GOV/PML | 26

was founded in 1962 as a 

joint institute of the University of Colorado Boulder (CU) 

and the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology.

JILA is one of the nation’s leading research institutes in 

the physical sciences. Researchers there are exploring 

some of today’s most challenging and fundamental scientific questions about the limits of quantum measurements and technologies, the design of precision optical 

and X-ray lasers, the fundamental principles underlying 

the interaction of light and matter, the role of quantum 

physics in chemistry and biology, and much more.

JILA’s current faculty includes two Nobel laureates, 

Eric Cornell and John Hall, as well as two John D. and 

Catherine T. MacArthur Fellows, Margaret Murnane and 

Ana Maria Rey. 

Creative collaborations among JILA Fellows, JILA 

research associates and students, CU professors, NIST 

staff members, and other world-leading scientists from 

around the globe play a key role in generating JILA’s 

renowned pioneering research.

In addition to research breakthroughs, JILA furthers 

science by training future generations of researchers 

and innovators. Its education and training initiatives 

positively impact both the students and our nation’s 

scientific workforce.

IMPACTS

❱ Record-setting accuracy for atomic clocks

❱ First table-top X-ray lasers

❱ World’s first Bose-Einstein condensate

❱ Creating tools for the quantum Internet

JOINT INSTITUTES
NIST.GOV/PML | 27

Founded in 2006 as a partnership between NIST, the 

University of Maryland, College Park (UMD), and the 

Laboratory for Physical Sciences, and housed on the 

UMD campus, the Joint Quantum Institute (JQI) conducts major experimental and theoretical research focused on controlling and exploiting quantum systems.

JQI IS A WORLD-CLASS RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 

home to dozens of leading quantum scientists from all 

three partner institutions working with more than 100 

postdocs and students. JQI’s mission includes:

CONDUCTING FUNDAMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS

of quantum phenomena to lay the foundation for 

engineering and controlling complex quantum systems 

capable of using the coherence and entanglement of 

quantum mechanics;

MAINTAINING AND ENHANCING THE NATION’S 

LEADING ROLE IN HIGH TECHNOLOGY through a 

powerful collaboration in a unique, interdisciplinary 

center that supports the exchange of ideas among 

atomic physicists, condensed matter physicists, and 

quantum information scientists; and

TRAINING a workforce of scientists and engineers for 

future industrial opportunities.

The Joint Center for Quantum Information and 

Computer Science (QuICS) is a partnership between 

the University of Maryland, College Park (UMD) and 

NIST. Located on the UMD campus, the center advances 

research and education in quantum computer science 

and quantum information theory.

Experts in areas including computer science, 

cybersecurity, mathematics, and physics collaborate 

with postdoctoral scholars, graduate students, and 

visitors to form a robust research community that is 

advancing the state of the art in the field of quantum 

information processing.

QuICS PURSUES THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH AT THE FRONTIERS OF QUANTUM 

INFORMATION SCIENCE:

• Quantum algorithms

• Quantum complexity theory

• Quantum communication

• Quantum error correction and fault tolerance

• Quantum-enhanced metrology

• Quantum cryptography and quantum-secure 

cryptography

• Implementations of quantum information 

processing

• Foundations of quantum mechanics

• Applications of quantum information to physics

jila.colorado.edu

jqi.umd.edu

quics.umd.edu
On May 20, 2019, the world metrology community 

dramatically redefined four of the seven base units 

of the International System of Units (SI), with the 

result that for the first time each unit is based on a fixed 

value of a fundamental constant of nature. Years of PML 

advances at the frontier of measurement science were 

critical to that outcome.

PML had a particularly significant role in the redefinition of the kilogram—the last SI unit still embodied in 

a physical artifact. In the mid-1970s, a scientist named 

Bryan Kibble working at the British National Physical 

Laboratory developed an instrument that compared 

force exerted on a coil by an electromagnet to the 

mechanical force exerted by a hanging mass.

By the early 1980s, PML built the first of successive 

generations of the Kibble balance, as the instrument 

came to be known. At that time, it was used to measure 

the value of the Planck constant (h) using a standard 

kilogram. Then two PML scientists realized that a Kibble 

balance employing a calibrated kilogram to measure 

the value of h could be used in reverse: By setting an 

exact fixed value of h, the same system could be used 

to realize the kilogram. They proposed the new method 

in 1999. 

A few years later, PML began constructing its fourth-generation balance (shown on the front cover of this 

brochure). Its high accuracy, combined with that of a 

similar instrument elsewhere, met the exacting criteria 

for redefinition of the kilogram—just as PML’s scientists 

had proposed 20 years earlier.

PML scientists remain actively engaged in projects 

related to the new SI. One team is working to develop 

an electrical current meter compatible with the new 

definition of the ampere based on the movement of 

ndividual elementary electric charges. Another group is 

exploring entirely quantum-based methods to measure 

temperature in terms of the kelvin, the SI base unit of 

temperature, now defined by the Boltzmann constant.

And, of course, PML scientists developed and are 

continuously improving the quantum-based global 

standard for ac and dc voltage measurements to meet 

the increasingly demanding needs of high-speed 

telecommunications and other applications.

NIST.GOV/PML | 28

SI REDEFINITION

IMPACTS

❱ World-class Kibble balance results essential to the redefined kilogram

❱ Cutting-edge research on quantum-based temperature measurement

❱ Development of microtechnology for measuring the redefined ampere

❱ Pioneering the quantum-based world standard for voltage

❱ Global leadership in metrology of all seven SI base units
NIST.GOV/PML | 29

nist.gov/si-redefinition
NIST.GOV/PML | 30

BILL PHILLIPS (1997) for pioneering the use of lasers

and magnetic fields to trap and cool a gas of atoms 

to within millionths of a degree above absolute zero. 

This breakthrough made possible much more accurate 

quantum measurements and provided a new kind of 

technology now used worldwide in many types of quantum research and in applications including ultra-precise 

timing.

The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded to scientists who 

revolutionize the way we understand and apply the 

fundamental laws of nature. Four PML scientists have 

received this award for advances that have enabled 

new types of measurements with direct 

impact on the progress of science, 

our national technology base, global competitiveness, 

economy, and quality of life.

NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS 

Credit: Alex Fine/NIST

ERIC CORNELL (2001) for extending Dr. Phillips’ 

laser cooling techniques to create an utterly new state of 

ultracold matter: a Bose Einstein condensate. At 

billionths of a degree above absolute zero, the atoms 

are all in exactly the same quantum state, constituting 

a “super atom” with exotic properties that make it an 

invaluable way to explore superconductivity, quantum 

magnetism, and more.

JAN HALL (2005) for inventing an entirely new kind 

of measurement technique—the laser frequency 

comb—that marked the most important revolution 

in precision measurement since the 1960 invention 

of the laser. The technology is now employed around 

the globe in many commercial devices and in ultraprecise optical atomic clocks 1,000 times more accurate than the current U.S. time standard.

DAVE WINELAND (2012) for perfecting measurement and control of quantum states in individual ions, 

and generating unique quantum interactions among 

collections of ions. His pioneering research has made 

possible dramatic advances in new technologies 

including quantum computing and simulation 

through mastery of key quantum phenomena: 

entanglement and superposition.

NIST.GOV/PML

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