AN ASSESSMENT OF THE 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS 

AND TECHNOLOGY 

PHYSICS LABORATORY 

FISCAL YEAR 2010 

Panel on Physics 

Laboratory Assessments Board 

Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences 

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 

Washington, D.C. 

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www.national-academies.org 
iv 

PANEL ON PHYSICS 

JOHN F. DICELLO, JR., Johns Hopkins University (professor emeritus), Chair

ROBERT H. AUSTIN, Princeton University 

PHILIP H. BUCKSBAUM, Stanford University, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory 

THOMAS F. BUDINGER, University of California, Berkeley, Lawrence Berkeley 

National Laboratory 

STEPHEN Y. CHOU, Princeton University 

SUSAN N. COPPERSMITH, University of Wisconsin-Madison 

ROBERT P. FRUEHOLZ, The Aerospace Corporation 

DANIEL R. GRISCHKOWSKY, Oklahoma State University 

WAYNE A. HENDRICKSON, Columbia University 

BRYAN JACOBS, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory 

STEPHEN D. KEVAN, University of Oregon 

LUTE MALEKI, OEwaves, Inc. 

ROBERT T. MENZIES, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology 

DAVID E. PRITCHARD, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

PETER M. RENTZEPIS, University of California, Irvine 

WILLIAM C. STWALLEY, University of Connecticut 

DEMETRIUS D. VENABLE, Howard University 

DAVID A. VROOM, Independent Consultant, Palo Alto, California 

DEBORAH K. WATSON, University of Oklahoma 

MICHAEL J. WELCH, Washington University School of Medicine 

Staff 

JAMES P. McGEE, Director 

CY BUTNER, Senior Program Officer 

LIZA HAMILTON, Administrative Coordinator 

EVA LABRE, Program Associate 
v 

Acknowledgment of Reviewers 

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their 

diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by 

the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this 

independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the 

institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the 

report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the 

study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect 

the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for 

their review of this report: 

David Auston, University of California, Santa Barbara, 

Anthony DeMaria, Coherent, Inc., 

Steven Larson, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 

Marc Levenson (retired), Saratoga, California, and 

David Schultz, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments 

and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor 

did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was 

overseen by Alton D. Slay, Warrenton, Virginia. Appointed by the National Research 

Council, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this 

report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review 

comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report 

rests entirely with the authoring panel and the institution.

vii 

Contents 

SUMMARY 1 

1 THE CHARGE TO THE PANEL AND THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 9 

2 ATOMIC PHYSICS DIVISION 11 

3 ELECTRON AND OPTICAL PHYSICS DIVISION 19 

4 IONIZING RADIATION DIVISION 26 

5 OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY DIVISION 33 

6 QUANTUM PHYSICS DIVISION 43 

7 TIME AND FREQUENCY DIVISION 54 

8 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS 6 1 

1 

Summary 

 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a nonregulatory 

agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce whose mission is to promote U.S. 

innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards, 

and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve the quality of life. 

The institutional vision is to be the world’s leader in creating critical measurement 

solutions and promoting equitable standards, with core competencies in the areas of 

measurement science, rigorous traceability, and the development and use of standards. 

The NIST laboratories conduct research that advances the nation’s technology 

infrastructure and is needed by U.S. industry to improve products and services 

continually. The mission of the NIST Physics Laboratory is to support U.S. industry, 

government, and the scientific community by providing measurement services and 

research for electronic, optical, and radiation technology. In this respect, the laboratory 

provides the foundation for the metrology of optical and ionizing radiation, time and 

frequency, and fundamental quantum processes, historically major areas of standards and 

technology. 

 The organizational structure of the Physics Laboratory for accomplishing its 

mission and goals includes six vertically integrated divisions: 

 Atomic Physics Division, 

 Electron and Optical Physics Division, 

 Ionizing Radiation Division, 

 Optical Technology Division, 

 Quantum Physics Division, and 

 Time and Frequency Division. 

 The Physics Laboratory also includes an Office of Electronic Commerce in 

Scientific and Engineering Data to coordinate and facilitate the electronic dissemination 

of information on the Internet. In line with the vertical integration of the laboratory, each 

division is further divided into groups and projects, which are considered in more detail 

in the following individual chapters discussing each division. 

 For the fiscal year (FY) 2010 assessment cycle, the National Research Council 

(NRC) panel assessing the NIST Physics Laboratory was asked by the NIST Director to 

focus its assessment on the following broad factors: 

1. The technical merit of the current laboratory programs relative to current 

state-of-the-art programs worldwide; 

2. The adequacy of the laboratory budget, facilities, equipment, and human 

resources, as they affect the quality of the laboratory’s technical programs; 

and 

3. The degree to which laboratory programs in measurement science, standards, 

and services achieve their stated objectives and desired impact. 
2 

 The agreed assessment procedure consisted of panel review teams performing 

individual site visits to their respective Physics Laboratory divisions, with the full panel 

reconvening to draft a comprehensive report for the Physics Laboratory. Members of the 

Panel on Physics visited the six divisions of the laboratory and reviewed a selected 

sample of their programs and projects, with the chair of the panel participating in all 

visits. 

 The general observations of the panel relative to the assessment criteria requested 

by the NIST Director are presented in the following sections. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO THE ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 

The Technical Merit of the Current Laboratory Programs Relative to Current 

State-of-the-Art Programs Worldwide 

 The Physics Laboratory has had two decades or more of outstanding research 

accomplishments because of a group of dedicated, exceptional scientists and technical 

staff responding to the needs of NIST, the nation, and the world, along with an 

administration that fostered a collegial and intellectual climate conducive to such 

productivity. During this same period, the laboratory has maintained its exceptional 

leadership role in metrology and standards, in part because of the dedication of its staff in 

these areas and because of the staff’s groundbreaking research. The technical merit of 

the laboratory’s programs is particularly noteworthy in view of the fact that the Physics 

Laboratory is a small facility in comparison with other research-oriented federal and 

national institutions, with its primary commitment being to commerce and industry. At 

the same time, changes within the laboratory in terms of scientific and administrative 

personnel, organization, and infrastructure have raised issues, detailed in the report, 

concerning planning and resources for the maintaining and fostering of this productive 

environment. 

The Adequacy of the Laboratory Budget, Facilities, Equipment, and Human 

Resources, As They Affect the Quality of the Laboratory’s Technical Programs 

 Since the previous NRC assessment in 2008, the budget for the Physics 

Laboratory has generally been maintained or increased in most areas in absolute dollars. 

With the condition of the overall economy, this is most certainly to be lauded and 

represents an endorsement of the laboratory and its accomplishments. At the same time, 

increased costs and increased commitments such as budget line items or funding from 

external agencies for specific programs have resulted in serious funding decreases in 

major responsibilities, particularly in some areas or standards and services with 

reductions in key personnel and/or services. The laboratory and most divisions have 

updated or initiated long-term strategic plans as recommended by the panel in 2008, 

which helps delineate the needs, but it does not generate the financial resources. 

The laboratory has new facilities in the planning stage, under construction, or 

completed since the previous panel report in 2008, as well as acquisitions of major 

equipment in key areas, in many cases partly in response to the 2008 recommendations 

from the NRC assessment panel. There appears to be increased commitment to the 
3 

refurbishment of the existing facilities and maintenance, although there remain areas of 

concern for specific programs and groups as noted in the chapters on the individual 

divisions. There also remain major groups with facilities that negatively impact 

productivity, time lines, and quality. For example, despite recent renovations, the 

building housing the majority of the Ionizing Radiation Division remains a concern. 

There are also concerns about the buildings and facilities used by the Atomic Physics, 

Electron and Optical Physics, Quantum Physics, and Time and Frequency Divisions. 

 In terms of human resources, the technical scientists and staff continue to 

represent the major strength of this laboratory, but budget and reallocation issues appear 

to be impacting retention, salaries, permanent appointments, and recruitment. For 

example, the percentage of permanent staff appears to have remained constant or to have 

decreased in most groups. While an influx of junior and senior scientists is good for 

training and the intellectual climate, many of the temporary appointments appear to be 

motivated by budgetary and bureaucratic considerations. The staff of the Radiation 

Interactions and Dosimetry Group of the Ionizing Radiation Division has decreased, and 

the ratio of permanent staff to temporary, contractor, and part-time personnel is relatively 

low in the Optical Technology Division and declining in the Time and Frequency 

Division. Care should be taken to ensure that important NIST capabilities are not left 

understaffed or that important NIST functions, such as the establishment and 

maintenance of standards and related services, are not adversely affected by an 

insufficient number of permanent staff. The NIST management also should assess the 

potential impact of any changes in laboratory organization on future staffing, if they have 

not already done so. 

The Degree to Which Laboratory Programs in Measurement Science, Standards, 

and Services Achieve Their Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 The availability of more strategic planning has helped in the achievement of 

objectives, although some groups, such as the Electron and Optical Physics Division, 

would benefit from additional long-term planning for balancing core activities and 

allocating resources. The strategic planning could suggest appropriate paths to organize 

personnel among divisions in the Physics Laboratory so that the talented staff can work 

more closely and efficiently with their collaborators in other divisions. Similarly, 

additional strategic planning with greater consultation with its user community would 

benefit the Ionizing Radiation Division. In addition, it would be helpful for the Physics 

Laboratory to elucidate a comprehensive plan for organizing and staffing its expanded 

role in the biophysics area in order to optimize its effectiveness. 

 New, improved, and/or more accurate services were apparent even in comparison 

with the panel’s visit to the Physics Laboratory in 2008. However, several service and 

standards areas, even those with the most public visibility and recognition such as time 

and frequency, suffered reduced funding and reduction in services. The Ionizing 

Radiation Division lost one position and reassigned two others at a time when medical 

and industrial services and calibrations are increasing within the laboratory and are a 

national issue before Congress. The assessments of individual divisions are summarized 

in the sections below and then detailed in Chapters 2 through 7. Chapter 1 provides a 
4 

description of the charge to the panel and the assessment process, and Chapter 8 provides 

the panel’s overall conclusions. 

ATOMIC PHYSICS DIVISION 

 The goal of the Atomic Physics Division is to investigate and exploit quantum 

behavior and interactions of atomic matter and radiation. The major projects are Cold 

Atomic Matter, Nanoscale and Quantum Metrology, Quantum Behavior of Light and 

Matter, and Critically Evaluated Atomic Data. 

 In terms of overall quality, the Atomic Physics Division is doing an 

extraordinarily effective job of fulfilling its charges, as laid out by the NIST Director. 

The Joint Quantum Institute (JQI)1 is a major success and a powerful addition to the 

research enterprise at NIST. The remarkable advances in quantum information, quantum 

measurement, and quantum control are potentially revolutionary for science, technology, 

and national security. 

 Major accomplishments include the generation of a synthetic vector potential for 

cold atoms, the fabrication and metrology of novel magnetic tunnel junctions, the 

generation of entangled photons from distinct quantum dots, and the development of new 

databases for atomic spectra. 

 This division is one for which the salary levels are becoming uncompetitive in 

comparison with those at academic research universities. 

ELECTRON AND OPTICAL PHYSICS DIVISION 

 The mission of the Electron and Optical Physics Division is to improve 

measurement science and to develop the measurements and standards needed by 

emerging science-and-technology-intensive industries. It supports emerging electronic 

and optical technologies, particularly precision optical measurements in the extreme 

ultraviolet (EUV) radiation range, using the NIST Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation 

Facility (SURF III). The programs within the Electron and Optical Physics Division are 

technically sound and well aligned with many other programs at NIST and beyond. This 

should lead to a good coordination of effort across the Physics Laboratory in crosscutting 

research activities. 

 The division’s largest program is the development of measurement capabilities for 

EUV optics, including EUV metrology and damage issues, the maintenance of national 

primary standards for radiometry in the EUV and adjoining spectral regions, and the 

operation of national user facilities for EUV science and applications. The division’s 

metrology program has played an important role in the calibrating of detectors on several 

satellites focused on monitoring solar weather. A recent result demonstrating that a 

popular EUV resist is twice as sensitive as previously thought is very important and 

underscores the value of the division’s careful and precise EUV metrology efforts. The 

division has arrangements with several companies focused on EUV source and optics 

 1

 The Joint Quantum Institute is a partnership of the University of Maryland (UM), NIST, and the 

Laboratory for Physical Sciences of the National Security Agency for research in the area of quantum 

physics. It is located on the College Park campus of UM and is staffed by researchers from both NIST and 

UM. 
5 

development, and its ability to test large, aspheric EUV reflection optics is unique and 

crucially important. 

 A newer research thrust area supported within the division chief’s office is 

Coherent Matter-Wave and Quantum Information Processing Metrology focusing 

primarily in two areas. The first is nonlinear matter-light interactions in cold atoms, for 

sensors and atom interferometers; the second is a concentration in quantum 

communication. The group has demonstrated continuous one-time-pad encryption of a 

streaming video signal as well as one of the highest-speed quantum random number 

generation systems ever produced. Another significant achievement, which combines the 

division’s theoretical and experimental resources, is the detection of zitterbewegung in 

atoms. Analogous to the predicted but unobserved effect in electrons predicted by the 

Dirac theory of the free electron, this is a rapid oscillation in position caused by 

interference between atom and antimatter atom states. 

 The diversity of activity in the division requires strong management and suggests 

development of a strategic plan to guide resource allocation and balance core activities. 

The EUV interferometric patterning apparatus is an important part of the EUV portfolio, 

and its completion should be pursued. The continued development of the SURF III EUV 

program will benefit from strong and focused intellectual leadership. 

IONIZING RADIATION DIVISION 

The goal of the Ionizing Radiation Division is to provide the foundation of 

ionizing radiation measurements for our nation through its mission to develop, maintain, 

and disseminate the national standards for ionizing radiation and radioactivity to meet 

national needs for health care, the environment, U.S. industry, and homeland security. 

 The current programs in the Ionizing Radiation Division are well recognized and 

are judged to be state of the art. Examples of programs that demonstrate the leadership 

position of the laboratory both in developing new standards and in ensuring that current 

and new standards intercompare favorably with those of other nations include the 

following: the determination of exposure and absorbed dose standards for developing 

medical practices involving ionizing radiation, the development of low-level 

radiochemistry protocols for nuclear forensics and radiochronology, the development of 

experiments to measure basic physical properties of the neutron, the application of 

neutron radiography to next-generation energy production programs, and interlaboratory 

comparisons of values for specific measurements which have established that the NIST 

values are as good as or better than those of most other national and international 

laboratories. 

 Major projects that support these programs include, in the medical area, imaging 

measurement standards for single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and 

positron emission tomography/x-ray computed tomography (PET/CT), maintenance of 

the national mammography standard, and prostate seed brachytherapy dosimetry and 

calibration of miniature x-ray sources used for brachytherapy. In the radiochemistry 

group, a major thrust is the development, production, and dissemination of standard 

reference materials needed for many applications in which small quantities of radioactive 

materials are produced or are used as part of a measurement system. In the neutron 

physics area, major projects include neutron phase contrast imaging, the production of a 
6 

polarized helium-3 system that provides a type of filter for the production of polarized 

neutrons, and the use of cold neutrons for imaging objects, such as fuel cells, in support 

of programs to develop alternate energy sources. All three division groups include 

programs of major importance to national security—these programs are the performance 

standards for radiation-detection devices used for the detection of nuclear explosives, and 

the development of national x-ray standards for security-screening systems. 

The budget, facilities, equipment, and human resources available to the Ionizing 

Radiation Division are below those necessary to sustain the present quality of work being 

achieved and what is needed from this group by both internal and outside customers. 

OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY DIVISION 

 The mission of the Optical Technology Division is to develop and provide 

national measurement standards and services to advance optical technologies spanning 

the terahertz through the infrared (IR), visible, and ultraviolet spectral regions. The 

division’s main responsibility is to advance, maintain, and disseminate standards for the 

candela and kelvin base Système International (SI) units and related radiometric 

quantities. Its core competency in this area is evident through the execution of several 

high-profile projects, including the following: the Spectral Irradiance and Radiance 

Calibrations with Uniform Sources (SIRCUS) facility, Traveling SIRCUS, Primary 

Optical Watt Radiometer (POWR), and the Low-Background Infrared (LBIR) facility. 

 Generally, this division appears to be in good health. Energetic, highly qualified, 

and productive leadership is executing a diverse program of applied research and 

calibration services. The facilities and equipment appear to be appropriate and well 

maintained. The division appears to be delivering on its stated mission as witnessed by 

its external sponsor base, which includes other U.S. government agencies, foreign 

national metrology organizations, and prestigious U.S. industry and academic 

institutions. Additionally, its leadership and participation in international standards 

organizations and conferences, its capture of a relatively large number of competed NRC 

postdoctoral researchers, the number and quality of workshops and short courses, and the 

overall publication record indicate the high caliber of delivered products, services, and 

research accomplishments. 

 Although the mix between permanent staff and temporary and contract personnel 

appears suboptimal for long-term health and consistency in meeting strategic objectives, 

this issue is being addressed, and progress toward hiring additional permanent staff is 

being made. The existence of a vibrant and dynamic strategic planning process can be 

seen in the development of the division’s 2010 strategic plan. 

 Accomplishments of this division include the continued delivery and refinement 

of core radiometric calibrations to external customers, including other government 

sponsors, as a sustainable accomplishment. The utilization of the Traveling SIRCUS 

calibration system to calibrate the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental 

Satellite System (NPOESS) Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) 

instrument is a recent major accomplishment. The development of the new Spectrally 

Tunable Lighting Facility to enable modern vision experiments using a bank of calibrated 

light-emitting diode (LED) sources is enabling a major advance in the understanding of 

lighting quality using energy-efficient LED sources. 
7 

QUANTUM PHYSICS DIVISION 

 The Quantum Physics Division, as an integral part of JILA2 and of NIST, strives 

to be at the forefront of research and measurement science in key areas related to the 

division’s historical strengths and developing new strategic areas: (1) cold atoms and 

molecules, (2) precision measurements, (3) ultrafast phenomena, (4) nanotechnology 

related to quantum physics, and (5) areas of biological physics that connect to the first 

four areas at the interface of metrology and biology. As a fully integrated part of JILA, 

the Quantum Physics Division operates not only to serve the NIST mission, but also to 

serve the broader mission of JILA. Further, because of the Quantum Physics Division 

connection with the University of Colorado (CU), it has an objective to help produce the 

next generation of scientists. 

 The Quantum Physics Division is a premier laboratory that can favorably 

compete, in most of the fields of research that it pursues, with the best academic and 

federal research institutions in the world. 

 Major accomplishments of this division include the following: (1) the world’s 

most precise neutral atom clock, (2) the first controlled quantum demonstration of a 

chemical reaction, (3) the measurement of nanomechanical motion with an imprecision 

below the standard quantum limit, (4) the first high-resolution IR spectra of a jet-cooled 

phenyl radical, (5) the use of three-pulse photon echo peak shift spectroscopy as a probe 

of flexibility and conformational heterogeneity in protein folding, (6) optical twodimensional Fourier transform spectroscopy to explore coherent light-matter interactions 

in semiconductor quantum wells, (7) Bragg spectroscopy of a strongly interacting 85Rb 

Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), and (8) an extension of atomic-scale tip-sample control, 

previously restricted to cryogenic temperatures and ultrahigh vacuum, to a wide range of 

perturbative operating environments.

 Major projects include the following: (1) ultracold fermions and the development 

of ultraprecision clocks; (2) studies of dense cold polar molecules in the lowest energy 

state; (3) the measurement the electric dipole moment of the electron (if it exists!); 

(4) research on entangled atoms/spin-squeezed states; (5) the structure, interactions, and 

dynamics of molecules and molecular ions and quantum dots; (6) an optically stabilized 

atomic force microscope (AFM) as a force standard with sub-piconewton resolution; 

(7) high-resolution control of frequency combs to generate arbitrary optical waveforms; 

(8) the development of one of the world’s only laboratories integrating biochemistry, cell 

biology, ultrafast lasers, microfluidics technologies, and optical technologies; and (9) the 

development of ultrasensitive force and motion detectors with precision beyond the 

quantum zero point of motion (of an atom in a lattice). 

 The accomplishments have been dramatically aided by the infrastructure of this 

division and by JILA scientists, and the students and postdoctoral researchers training at 

JILA obtain a unique educational advantage through their close interactions with expert 

instrument makers, electronics designers, and information technology (IT) staff. 

However, the state of Colorado is facing a severe budget shortfall. Likewise, the 

 2

 JILA is a joint research institute of the University of Colorado (CU) and NIST that is engaged in 

research in the areas of the physical sciences. It is supported by both CU and NIST, and its administration 

is overseen by a chair who is selected every 2 years, alternating between individuals from CU and NIST. 
8 

University of Colorado is facing a severe budget cut next fiscal year, after having made 

significant cuts in the past year. If this results in a significant reduction in CU funding to 

JILA, the research infrastructure (instrument shop, electronics shop, IT shop, 

administrative support) should be protected as much as possible, as this is a unique 

contributor to JILA’s excellence. 

TIME AND FREQUENCY DIVISION 

 The Time and Frequency Division is responsible for the realization and 

dissemination of the SI unit of time in the United States. Also, the division provides a 

broad range of advanced measurement services, performs research and development 

(R&D) for the future generations of time and frequency standards, and in addition is a 

key U.S. resource advancing quantum information processing. 

 The division represents the only organization in the world in which a complete 

range of time and frequency research and metrology tools can be combined for unique 

research and metrology. NIST provides an array of services to a very broad user 

community in the United States: the NIST Internet Time Service is used more than 

3 billion times every day; NIST radio station WWVB is widely used to synchronize 

commercial timekeeping devices to NIST time; and the NIST Automated Computer Time 

Service helps industry meet Securities and Exchange Commission requirements to 

synchronize the time-stamping of hundreds of billions of dollars of electronic financial 

transactions to NIST time. 

 The Time and Frequency Division operates the world’s most accurate primary 

frequency standard (NIST-F1), a timescale that is among the best in the world (NIST 

timescale), state-of-the-art femtosecond laser frequency comb systems to mediate the 

comparison across a factor-of-100,000 frequency range, the world’s narrowest linewidth 

laser for precision frequency measurement, and the unique logic clock. These sorts of 

assets and experiments lead to unique by-products, such as improvements by a factor of 

10 in setting limits on the possible time variations in fundamental constants such as the 

fine structure constant, and the world’s most accurate tests of special and general 

relativity. 

 There has been progress in improving the existing laboratory space, an issue 

raised by the panel that visited the division in 2008; as a result, improved operational 

efficiency has been achieved. At the same time, the ratio of permanent staff to associates 

has been declining, and the division productivity would be improved by increasing 

technical support personnel. Another area of concern is the declining and inadequate 

funding supplied to primary standards and the NIST timescale. 
9 

1 

The Charge to the Panel and the Assessment Process 

 At the request of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the National 

Research Council has, since 1959, annually assembled panels of experts from academia, 

industry, medicine, and other scientific and engineering environments to assess the 

quality and effectiveness of the NIST measurements and standards laboratories, of which 

there are now nine,3 as well as the adequacy of the laboratories’ resources. In 2010, 

NIST requested that five of its laboratories be assessed: the Building and Fire Research 

Laboratory, the Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory, the Materials Science and 

Engineering Laboratory, the NIST Center for Neutron Research, and the Physics 

Laboratory. Each of these was assessed by a separate panel of experts; the findings of the 

respective panels are summarized in separate reports. This report summarizes the 

findings of the Panel on Physics. 

 For the FY 2010 assessment, NIST requested that the panel consider the 

following criteria as part of its assessment: 

1. The technical merit of the current laboratory programs relative to current 

 state-of-the-art programs worldwide; 

2. The adequacy of the laboratory budget, facilities, equipment, and human 

resources, as they affect the quality of the laboratory’s technical programs; 

and 

3. The degree to which laboratory programs in measurement science, standards, 

and services achieve their stated objectives and desired impact. 

The context of this technical assessment is the mission of NIST, which is to 

promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement 

science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve 

the quality of life. The NIST laboratories conduct research to anticipate future metrology 

and standards needs, to enable new scientific and technological advances, and to improve 

and refine existing measurement methods and services. 

In order to accomplish the assessment, the NRC assembled a panel of 20 

volunteers, whose expertise matches that of the work performed by the Physics 

Laboratory staff.4

 The panel members were also assigned to six subgroups (division 

review teams), whose expertise matched that of the work performed in the six divisions 

in the Physics Laboratory: (1) Atomic Physics, (2) Electron and Optical Physics, 

 3

 The nine NIST laboratories are the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, the Center for 

Nanoscale Science and Technology, the Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory, the Electronics and 

Electrical Engineering Laboratory, the Information Technology Laboratory, the Manufacturing Engineering 

Laboratory, the Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory, the NIST Center for Neutron Research, and 

the Physics Laboratory. 4

 See http://www.nist.gov/physlab/ for more information on Physics Laboratory programs. 

Accessed May 1, 2010. 
10 

(3) Ionizing Radiation, (4) Optical Technology, (5) Quantum Physics, and (6) Time and 

Frequency. These division review teams individually visited Physics Laboratory 

facilities in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and Boulder, Colorado, for 1 day, during which time 

they attended presentations, tours, demonstrations, and interactive sessions with Physics 

Laboratory staff. Subsequently, the entire panel assembled for 2 days at the NIST 

facilities in Gaithersburg, Maryland (on February 25-26, 2010), during which they 

attended welcoming remarks from the NIST Director’s representative, overview 

presentations on the Physics Laboratory and its divisions by Physics Laboratory 

managers, and an interactive session with Physics Laboratory management. The panel 

also met in a closed session to deliberate on its findings and to define the contents of this 

assessment report. 

 The approach of the panel to the assessment relied on the experience, technical 

knowledge, and expertise of its members, whose backgrounds were carefully matched to 

the technical areas of Physics Laboratory activities. The panel reviewed selected 

examples of the technological research covered by the Physics Laboratory; because of 

time constraints, it was not possible to review the Physics Laboratory programs and 

projects exhaustively. The examples reviewed by the panel were recommended by the 

Physics Laboratory in consultation with the NRC and the panel. The panel’s goal was to 

identify and report salient examples of accomplishments and opportunities for further 

improvement with respect to the following: the technical merit of the Physics Laboratory 

work, its perceived relevance to NIST’s own definition of its mission in support of 

national priorities, and specific elements of the Physics Laboratory’s resource 

infrastructure that are intended to support the technical work. These examples are 

intended collectively to portray an overall impression of the laboratory, while preserving 

useful suggestions specific to projects and programs that the panel examined. The 

assessment is currently scheduled to be repeated biennially, which will allow, over time, 

exposure to the broad spectrum of Physics Laboratory activity. While the panel applied a 

largely qualitative rather than a quantitative approach to the assessment, it is possible that 

future assessments will be informed by further consideration of various analytical 

methods that can be applied. 

The comments in this report are not intended to address each program within the 

Physics Laboratory exhaustively. Instead, this report identifies key issues. Given the 

necessarily nonexhaustive nature of the review process, the omission of any particular 

Physics Laboratory program or project should not be interpreted as a negative reflection 

on the omitted program or project. 
11 

2 

Atomic Physics Division 

MISSION 

 The goal of the Atomic Physics Division is to investigate and exploit quantum 

behavior and interactions of atomic matter and radiation. The strategy for achieving the 

division’s mission is to develop and apply atomic-physics and condensed-matter research 

methods, particularly those making novel use of electromagnetic fields, to achieve 

fundamental advances in measurement science—including measurement at and beyond 

the standard quantum limit. 

SCOPE 

 The Atomic Physics Division, located at NIST’s Gaithersburg, Maryland, campus, 

has 3 NIST fellows, 27 scientists/engineers, 1 technician, 74 NIST associates (the 

associates category includes contractors, NRC postdoctoral researchers, foreign guest 

researchers, and guest researchers/workers from universities and industry), and 5 

administrative support staff, as of January 2010. Its FY 2009 budget was about $15.4 

million, 86 percent of which was scientific and technical research services (STRS) 

internal funding. 

 The scope of the Atomic Physics Division includes the following four strategic 

elements. 

1. To advance the understanding and applications of cold atomic matter, 

including the study of many-body quantum systems, exotic states of matter, 

atomic analogs of condensed-matter systems, metrology of and with cold 

atoms, and quantum information; 

2. To advance measurement science at the atomic and nanometer scale, focusing 

on precision optical metrology, quantum optics of nanoscale systems, 

nanoscale devices at the quantum limit, and nano-optical systems; 

3. To explore fundamental aspects of the quantum nature of light and its 

interaction with quantum matter and to develop applications relating to 

metrology and other areas of NIST’s mission, including measurement at and 

beyond the standard quantum limits; and 

4. To measure, calculate, critically compile, and disseminate reference data on 

atomic structure and fundamental constants in support of basic research, 

commercial development, and national priorities. 
12 

PROJECTS 

Cold Atomic Matter 

 The current effort in cold atomic matter focuses on the physics and applications of 

laser cooling and the electromagnetic trapping of neutral particles, the manipulation of 

ultracold atoms and Bose-Einstein condensates, and the creation of exotic states of matter 

through control of ultracold atoms. It includes both fundamental studies, such as the 

investigation of superfluidity, and applied studies, including quantum information 

processing and the engineering of synthetic charge along with synthetic electric and 

magnetic fields for neutral atoms. 

 The pioneering development of laser cooling and trapping techniques, much of 

which was done at NIST, allows exquisite control over the motion of atoms. Such 

control has been exploited to build more precise atomic clocks and other precisionmeasurement devices at NIST and elsewhere. These techniques also enable the study and 

manipulation of atoms and molecules under conditions in which their quantum behavior 

dominates. This research has revolutionized the field of matter-wave optics, given rise to 

the field of quantum simulation, and now allows the simulation of the behavior of 

charged particles using neutral atoms. 

Nanoscale and Quantum Metrology 

 The effort in nanoscale and quantum metrology focuses on developing and 

exploiting precision metrology at the interface between atomic and nanoscale systems. 

Systems under study include quantum dots and wires, optical microcavities, the quantum 

optics of nanosystems, metallic nanoparticles, and those with nanoscale features induced 

on surfaces by highly charged ions. Such systems arise in advanced 193 nm and 157 nm 

lithography, plasma etching of semiconductor wafers, nanolasers, detectors, biomarkers 

and sensors, nanomaterials, quantum devices, and quantum information. 

 The research in this effort combines theory and experiment. Theory is used to 

extend the fundamental understanding of systems at the atomic-nanoscale interface as 

necessary to interpret experiments, to explore new applications in nanoscale and quantum 

technologies, and to motivate new and enhanced precision metrology. The researchers 

are developing the theoretical understanding needed to create nano-optics structures that 

will be needed in emerging quantum and nanoscale technologies. 

Quantum Behavior of Light and Matter 

 The strategic element involving the quantum behavior of light and matter focuses 

on entangled states of light and analogous states of matter. These quantum features are 

studied in situations that range from the generation of quantum light in atomic vapors and 

condensed-matter systems, to the effect of quantum light on quantum degenerate atomic 

gases, to the behavior of mechanical oscillators at the quantum level. 

 The goals of this effort include the following: the evaluation of quantum light, 

atoms, and fabricated micromechanical systems for metrology beyond the standard 

quantum limits; the development of quantum information transfer between different 
13 

physical qubit platforms according to which ones are most appropriate for a given 

function; and the fundamental study of quantum phenomena, such as measurement and 

the quantum-classical interface. 

Critically Evaluated Atomic Data 

 The aim of the strategic element on critically evaluated atomic data is to maintain 

an authoritative and publicly accessible source of atomic data and related fundamental 

constants. Two examples of databases maintained by this group are the Fundamental 

Constants database and the Atomic Spectra database, but there are many other similar 

databases that address specific areas of high impact. Some of the data in the NIST 

databases are compiled from the open scientific literature. NIST adds great value through 

the process of critical compilation. Other data are generated by experiments at NIST, 

such as measurements of highly charged ions with the NIST Electron Beam Ion Trap 

(EBIT), the development of standard spectral sources for calibration of the next 

generation of space- and ground-based telescopes, and the development of new 

measurement platforms for improved determination of fundamental constants. 

Theoretical calculations also address needs for atomic data and for the improvement of 

fundamental constants. Theoretical work includes atomic structure calculations, studies 

of fundamental constants, and kinetic modeling of highly charged ions and high-energydensity plasmas. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE DIVISION

 As stated above, the mission of the Atomic Physics Division is to investigate and 

exploit the quantum behavior and interaction of atomic matter and radiation. The 

division succeeds in reflecting this mission. Its major projects strike a healthy balance 

between fundamental studies that yield new knowledge which may lead to new 

technologies that are important to maintaining U.S. leadership economically and 

scientifically, and applied studies that target high-priority needs of industry, the energy 

community, and the space astronomy program. The work in the division also has 

important positive impact on issues relevant to national security. 

 The major accomplishments of the division since the previous assessment, in 

2008, include both institutional progress and technological accomplishments. Examples 

of institutional progress include the following: 

 The NIST Quantum Information Program, started in 2000, is a crosslaboratory effort in quantum information science. The scope of this program 

was further expanded in 2006 with the establishment of the Joint Quantum 

Institute, a partnership of NIST with the University of Maryland and the 

Laboratory for Physical Sciences of the National Security Agency to study 

coherent quantum phenomena and quantum information science. The JQI has 

had and will continue to have a profound and lasting positive effect on the 

research efforts of the division. 

 NIST is taking a leadership role in the U.S. government in delineating the 

opportunities for quantum information science and technology to address 
14 

national priorities. This effort includes ultrasecure encryption, code breaking, 

database searching, weather forecasting, drug design, and the solution of 

many other challenging scientific and technological problems. The chief of 

the Atomic Physics Division also serves as the co-director of the JQI and as 

coordinator of the NIST Quantum Information Science Program, and currently 

also leads a federal initiative in quantum information science in the Office of 

Science and Technology Policy. 

 The Atomic Spectroscopy Group, which received funds to enhance the 

Atomic Data Center, has received an increase in its level of base funding. 

 The technological accomplishments of the division are strongly aligned with the 

mission of the laboratory and are of high technical merit. Technological 

accomplishments in the division since the previous NRC assessment of the Physics 

Laboratory include the following: 

 Theorists in the Atomic Physics Division provided critical theoretical support 

for experiments at JILA that produced for the first time a dense sample of 

ultracold, 330 nK 40K87Rb polar molecules in their ground state of electronic, 

rotational, and vibrational motion. This work, which is important because it 

could provide new phases of matter for quantum information and quantum 

control, provided an important part of a successful Multi-University Research 

Initiative proposal from JQI funded by the Air Force Office of Scientific 

Research. 

 NIST scientists have developed a technique for generating entangled light by 

four-wave mixing in atomic vapors. It produces “twin beams” of light that are 

more closely correlated than for any classical sources. One particularly useful 

feature of this technique is that entangled light can easily be made in multiple 

spatial modes. That is, images with quantum correlations can be produced. 

Pixel by pixel, the light in these pairs of images is correlated at levels better 

than the shot noise for the photon numbers involved. 

 NIST scientists have used an Electron Beam Ion Trap to produce and study 

highly charged ions of heavy elements that are relevant to the development of 

controlled fusion energy. Atoms of the heavy elements hafnium, tantalum, 

tungsten, and gold were stripped of 60 or more electrons and held in the EBIT 

while their radiative properties and atomic structure were studied. 

Experimental observations in combination with sophisticated plasma kinetic 

modeling uncovered combinations of soft-x-ray emission lines that are 

suitable for use by fusion scientists in analyzing the super-hot plasmas in 

fusion-energy devices. 

 Following is the panel’s assessment of the overall quality of the Atomic Physics 

Division (including opportunities for improvement) in terms of the three criteria as 

requested by the NIST Director (see Chapter 1). 
15 

Assessment Relative to Technical Merit 

Cold Atomic Matter

 The area of atom cooling and trapping was pioneered at NIST, leading to a Nobel 

Prize in 1997. This group also pioneered the confinement of cold atoms in optical lattices 

formed by the interaction of atoms with a standing wave of light. The trapped atoms are 

being explored as a possible route to quantum computation and for the quantum 

simulation of problems of interest in condensed matter. This work is among the best in 

its field. 

Nanoscale and Quantum Metrology 

 The efforts on quantum metrology are addressing interesting issues with the 

potential for transformative advances. They are well integrated with other efforts in 

related areas around the world. 

Quantum Behavior of Light and Matter 

 The work on entangling photons in quantum dots is among the best in the world. 

It is potentially extremely important for quantum communication and information 

applications. 

Critically Evaluated Atomic Data 

 The atomic data evaluated and compiled by the Atomic Spectroscopy Data Center 

provide a definitive and accessible source of atomic spectral data for applications in areas 

including astronomy and fusion research. The effort could be improved even further by 

integrating state-of-the-art information technology advances into the effort. 

Assessment Relative to Adequacy of Resources 

Staffing 

 The Atomic Physics Division has had one staff member depart and has made two 

promising hires of permanent staff over the past 2 years. One-third of the permanent 

scientific staff was new to the division over the course of the past decade. The total 

number of permanent staff has been constant in recent years even though the level of 

funding increased during that time; this is because of the inflation, not included in the 

division’s base budget, that increased the cost to support each investigator. An 

increasingly important problem is that salaries at NIST are becoming more and more 

uncompetitive with those paid by major research universities, particularly for senior 

scientists. 

 The JQI has had an extremely positive impact on the number of graduate students 

and postdoctoral researchers contributing to the scientific efforts of the division. The JQI 

effort effectively leverages the expertise of the Atomic Physics Division staff, exposing 
16 

young physicists to the important missions of the laboratory as aligned with national 

priorities and increasing the overall impact of the division. 

 One concern is that hiring qualified non-U.S. citizen scientists who have green 

cards is extremely difficult, slow, and time-consuming. To remain competitive on a 

global scale, it is critically important for the division to be able to hire the most highly 

qualified scientists. 

Major Equipment, Facilities, Ancillary Support, and Resources 

 The status of equipment, facilities, and ancillary support and resources in the 

division is good overall, but some of the buildings housing experiments in the division 

are in need of renovation. Laboratory management is aware of infrastructure needs and is 

working hard to address them. 

 The current equipment of the division is state of the art. The older generalpurpose laboratories do have problems, particularly in the areas of humidity control 

(which leads to serious condensation problems), temperature control, and air quality. The 

other facilities are excellent and are well maintained. The Advanced Measurement 

Laboratory building provides state-of-the-art facilities for the Cold Atomic Matter 

activity and for parts of the Nanoscale and Quantum Metrology activity. These activities 

receive significant outside funding—a recognition of the importance of the research to 

outside funding agencies. This laboratory is maintained and used at a high level. The 

Joint Quantum Institute is constructing a new building on the campus of the University of 

Maryland at College Park that will provide new laboratory space for this group. 

Assessment Relative to Achievement of Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 The Atomic Physics Division is doing an excellent job of achieving its objectives. 

The high impact of its work is demonstrated on multiple fronts, including the large 

number of highly prestigious awards given to investigators in the division and the large 

number of articles published in high-impact journals.5 In addition, the use of the Atomic 

Spectroscopy Data Center continues to increase, with more than 45,000 hits per month 

over the past year. The impact of this division is also seen in the formal training provided 

by division staff for the 27 postdoctoral fellows (of which 23 are associated with the JQI) 

and the 19 graduate students (18 are associated with the JQI). The number of 

 5 V. Boyer, M. Marino, R. Pooser, and P.D. Lett, “Entangled Images from Four-Wave Mixing,” 

Science 321:544, 2008; G.K. Campbell, M.M. Boyd, J.W. Thomsen, M.J. Martin, S. Blatt, M.D. Swallows, 

T.L. Nicholson, T. Fortier, C.W. Oates, S.A. Diddams, N.D. Lemke, P. Naidon, P.S. Julienne, J. Ye, and 

A.D. Ludlow, “Probing Interactions Between Ultracold Fermions,” Science 324:360, 2009; K.P. 

Helmerson, “Surviving the Transition,” Nature 455:880, 2008; Y.J. Lin, R.L. Compton, K. Jimenez-Garcia, 

J.V. Porto, and I.B. Spielman, “Synthetic Magnetic Fields for Ultracold Neutral Atoms,” Nature 462:628, 

2009; A.M. Marino, R.C. Pooser, V. Boyer, and P.D. Lett, “Tunable Delay of Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen 

Entanglement,” Nature 457:859, 2009; K.-K. Ni, S. Ospelkaus, M.H.G. de Miranda, A. Pe'er, B. 

Neyenhuis, J.J. Zirbel, S. Kotochigova, P.S. Julienne, D.S. Jin, and J. Ye, “A High Phase-Space-Density 

Gas of Polar Molecules in the Rovibrational Ground State,” Science 322:231, 2008; J.V. Porto, “Improving 

Correlations Despite Particle Loss,” Science 320:1300, 2008; S. Ospelkaus, K.-K. Ni, D. Wang, M.H.G. de 

Miranda, B. Neyenhuis, G. Quéméner, P.S. Julienne, J.L. Bohn, D.S. Jin, and J. Ye, “Quantum-State 

Controlled Chemical Reactions of Ultracold Potassium-Rubidium Molecules,” Science 327:853, 2010. 
17 

postdoctoral fellows and students has increased significantly owing to the new 

partnership with the JQI. This training of future scientists in the mission-oriented work 

aligned with national priorities is a particularly valuable contribution. Every effort 

should be made to support the factors that encourage such training, particularly financial 

support for the new Joint Quantum Institute. 

Cold Atomic Matter 

 The Cold Atomic Matter team continues to make world-leading breakthroughs. 

One recent example is the generation of a synthetic vector potential for cold atoms.6 This 

work is important because it enables the cold atom system to be used to simulate the 

behavior of charged particles in the presence of a strong magnetic field, potentially 

enabling a new level of understanding of the properties of complex materials. 

Nanoscale and Quantum Metrology 

 The Nanoscale and Quantum Metrology team’s use of highly ionized atoms to 

control properties of tunnel junctions is novel. The work on the complementary metal 

oxide semiconductor-compatible process for silicon devices for low-noise applications is 

potentially extremely important. 

Quantum Behavior of Light and Matter

 The team working on Quantum Behavior of Light and Matter has made important 

breakthroughs. These include the demonstration of entanglement between photons from 

different sources and entanglement of nanomechanical and optical degrees of freedom. 

Critically Evaluated Atomic Data 

 The NIST work in the area of Critically Evaluated Atomic Data sets the standard 

for the world. The critically evaluated data from the scientific literature and targeted 

original investigations that are combined and made available to the public provide a 

definitive standard in this area. 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

 The technical merit of all of the groups in the Atomic Physics Division continues 

at a very high level, driving the current state of the art in the relevant research areas. The 

Joint Quantum Institute is a major success and a powerful addition to the research 

enterprise at NIST. The remarkable advances in quantum information, quantum 

measurement, and quantum control are potentially revolutionary for science, technology, 

 6

 Y.J. Lin, R.L. Compton, K. Jimenez-Garcia, J.V. Porto, and I.B. Spielman, “Synthetic Magnetic 

Fields for Ultracold Neutral Atoms,” Nature 462:628, 2009. 
18 

and national security. One concern is that hiring qualified non-U.S. citizen scientists who 

have green cards is extremely difficult, slow, and time-consuming. 
19 

3 

Electron and Optical Physics Division 

MISSION

 The goal of the Electron and Optical Physics Division is to support emerging 

electronic, optical, and nanoscale technologies, particularly precision optical 

measurements in the EUV radiation range using the NIST Synchrotron Ultraviolet 

Radiation Facility (SURF III). A number of very interesting supplementary research 

efforts are also pursued, as described below. 

SCOPE 

 The Electron and Optical Physics Division, located at NIST’s Gaithersburg, 

Maryland, campus, has 1 Senior Executive Service (SES) staff member, 12 

scientists/engineers, 1 technician, 43 NIST associates, and 1 administrative support staff, 

as of January 2010. Its FY 2009 budget was about $4.9 million, 81 percent of which was 

STRS funding. 

 There are several primary research focuses within the scope and mission of the 

Electron and Optical Physics Division. The largest program is that on the development 

of measurement capabilities for EUV optics, including both EUV metrology and damage 

issues; the maintenance of national primary standards for radiometry in the EUV and 

adjoining spectral regions; and the operation of national user facilities for EUV science 

and applications. A second focus area provides measurements and data to enable the 

development of atom and photon technology in sensors, atom interferometers, and 

quantum information-processing devices. 

PROJECTS

 The division has invested in upgrades of the SURF III facility that have made it an 

ideal source of extended ultraviolet radiation, and this facility now forms an important 

resource for several different activities. SURF III supports long-standing efforts in 

vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) and EUV detector calibration, which are an important part of 

the division’s core mission. Strong collaborations with the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA) over several decades, and more recently with the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), have been essential to many different 

satellite missions. The implementation of a cryogenic radiometry capability has improved 

the accuracy of these calibrations by nearly an order of magnitude. Future improvements 

that will extend this methodology to shorter wavelengths will be very valuable. 

 EUV detector, source, and optical metrology activities have grown in recent years 

in support of the nation’s EUV photolithography technology. There are collaborations 

with several industrial partners that involve a unique capability to characterize large-area, 

large-numerical-aperture (NA), aspherical, multilayer-coated EUV reflection optics that 
20 

are crucially important to the EUV program. This work cannot at present be done 

elsewhere in the United States; it is made possible by recent upgrades to the SURF III 

facility and experimental capabilities. 

 A key barrier to the broad implementation of EUV lithography technology 

involves the development of new EUV photoresists, the generally polymeric materials 

into which a pattern is written when one is making small electronic devices. Successful 

implementation of EUV lithography is currently of dominant importance to the 

semiconductor industry. As yet, no photoresist offers the required combination of 

radiation sensitivity, spatial resolution, and low line-edge roughness. The division is 

actively pursuing some of these issues as well. A recent result demonstrating that a 

popular EUV photoresist is twice as sensitive as previously thought is very important and 

demonstrates the value of the division’s careful and precise EUV metrology efforts. The 

division has also established a collaborative program designed to further the 

understanding of resist photochemistry at the level of fundamental polymer chemistry. 

This is an important effort that will have a long-term impact on efforts to optimize resist 

performance. At present, the division does not have any EUV patterning capability. A 

grating-based EUV interferometer that can employ sources of limited spatial coherence to 

pattern lines with widths on the order of 10 nm has been designed and partly constructed. 

This instrument will be an important complement to existing capabilities, as it can be 

used to test the lithographic performance of existing and candidate photoresists. 

Completion of this apparatus should be pursued aggressively, along with synergistic 

collaborations with photoresist vendors and the Polymers Division in the Materials 

Science and Engineering Laboratory at NIST. 

 The recent implementation of autonomous operation of the SURF III accelerator 

with about 0.3 A of circulating current, also a unique capability, has significantly 

expanded the capacity of the facility. This capacity represents an underutilized resource, 

and the division should consider research areas that might be developed in which it could 

have a major long-term impact. 

 EUV surface photochemistry cuts across many different disciplines and 

laboratories, including plasma physics, space physics, optics, materials science, and 

several areas of chemistry. The SURF III-based EUV program is a common ingredient in 

all of these disciplines, and it increasingly acts as a focal point for EUV activities inside 

and outside NIST. The division should continue the active pursuit of more collaborations 

and connections to the growing industrial base focused on EUV lithography. There is a 

need for the development of a clear plan for central oversight of the entire NIST EUV 

program. 

 In an additional VUV-based project, the division has participated in developing a 

new kind of neutron detector based on the production of vacuum ultraviolet radiation 

following the n + 3He → 1H + 3H nuclear reaction. By producing multiple photons per 

neutron that can be detected with a low-noise phototube, very high detection efficiency is 

possible. While originally thought to be hydrogen Lyman-alpha photons, more recent 

work suggests that the VUV light is related to noble gas excimers, which will 

significantly limit the bandwidth of the detector because of their long decay time and will 

limit the range of linearity with neutron intensity. This development should be pursued 

further to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages relative to existing neutron 

detectors. 
21 

 One of the newer research thrust areas supported within the Office of the Division 

Chief is Coherent Matter-Wave and Quantum Information Processing Metrology, which 

has focuses primarily in two areas. This first is nonlinear matter-light interactions in cold 

atoms, for sensors and atom interferometers; the second is a concentration on quantum 

communication. 

 In the nonlinear cold atoms area, there are efforts in both theory and experiment. 

The theoretical program is well integrated with JQI activities supported by the Atomic 

Physics Division in the area of modeling magneto-optical atom traps and lattices loaded 

to an atomic density high enough that quantum effects are of primary importance. 

 The experimental group in this research thrust area has developed a unique 

magneto-optic trap capable of creating high column densities of ultracold atoms. This 

trap can be used as a testbed for studying new quantum optical effects that will lead to 

new applications in quantum technologies. For example, the group is working on 

information storage and retrieval, and on fast gates utilizing this system and building on 

the insights that have come from quantum optical investigations of slow light in this 

system. Another fundamental investigation that combines both theoretical and 

experimental resources in the division is the detection of zitterbewegung in atoms. 

Analogous to the predicted but unobserved effect in electrons predicted by the Dirac 

theory of the free electron, this is a rapid oscillation in position caused by interference 

between atom and antimatter atom states. 

 This experimental effort, though small, can take advantage of the large 

community at NIST of atomic physicists interested both in the fundamental aspects of 

ultracold atoms and in applications, particularly in quantum information. It is important 

that those connections be made as strong as possible in order to optimize the impact of 

this work. 

 There is another small group within this thrust area, studying quantum key 

distribution (QKD) at high rates. This is a collaboration with several groups both within 

and outside NIST. The researchers are aiming at the development of transmission 

through the atmosphere of a polarization-encoded QKD system with a clock rate of over 

1 GHz. Efforts have focused on optimizing the speed of avalanche photodiode detectors 

without sacrificing the quantum efficiency. This project involves a sophisticated 

integration of the optical and electronic system and custom high-speed electronics that 

adapt telecommunications clock-recovery techniques. 

 This group has demonstrated continuous one-time-pad encryption of a streaming 

video signal, as well as one of the highest-speed quantum random number generation 

systems ever produced. It has taken successful live demonstrations to the highly visible 

DEFCON conference (the world’s largest hacker convention) for the past 2 years. 

 The plans of this group are growing in response to increased interest to overcome 

a technical roadblock in the deployment of quantum information and communication 

systems. The division is pursuing several of these: 

 A key future advance in this technology will come from moving to the 

Balmer-alpha wavelength of 656 nm, where light from the Sun is attenuated 

by 7 dB in a narrow interval, greatly improving the fidelity of daylight 

operation of free-space QKD systems. 
22 

 This group is also developing a fiber-laser-based source of correlated photon 

pairs, in collaboration with the JQI and the University of Illinois. 

 The data rates are sufficiently high that pixel-by-pixel entanglement of video 

images is possible, and the group is working to demonstrate this new video 

quantum image as a new milestone in quantum information. 

 These efforts in quantum optics and quantum information within the Electron and 

Optical Physics Division are technically sound and well aligned with many other 

programs in the Physics Laboratory. They provide a strong conduit for communication 

among scientists in different divisions. This asset should lead to good coordination of 

effort across the Physics Laboratory in the crosscutting research activities. 

STAFFING

 The division currently supports 14 full-time-equivalent scientific staff, about 

half of whom are involved with SURF III operations and EUV technology 

development. This appears to fit the current diverse research scope reasonably well, 

although the ratio of research thrusts to scientific staff is low, and this suggests the 

need for some thought and organizational planning. 

 The emergence of the SURF III facility as an important resource for EUV 

technologies suggests the need for a reexamination of the current management structure. 

The present arrangement, with the division director assuming primary responsibility for 

SURF/EUV operation, is not optimal. The overall program will benefit from strong and 

focused intellectual leadership and robust outreach to other NIST divisions and the 

broader EUV community in the United States. 

MAJOR EQUIPMENT, FACILITIES, ANCILLARY SUPPORT, AND 

RESOURCES 

 The Electron and Optical Physics Division supports a state-of-the-art quantum 

telecommunications laboratory, as discussed above. The speed records of the system here 

are impressive; the division’s current move to develop sources of entangled and 

correlated photons for future studies is appropriate. Ongoing and/or planned connection 

of this effort to such source development elsewhere at NIST (e.g., the Optical 

Technology Division) is encouraged. 

 The division operates the SURF III facility and supports a variety of beam lines 

devoted to detector and instrument calibration as well as EUV optics testing, as discussed 

above. Several of these beam lines provide unique and important capabilities. Twenty 

years ago, this facility was used extensively for VUV spectroscopy. In the early 1990s, 

however, many of those programs migrated to newer facilities around the country, 

leaving SURF III with a mission focused primarily on the core activity of detector and 

instrument calibration. The emergent role of EUV radiation in next-generation 

lithography has offered the facility a new mission of national prominence. This area 

should continue to be a major focus of this division. 
23 

ASSESSMENT OF THE DIVISION 

 Following is the summary of the panel’s assessment of the overall quality of the 

Electron and Optical Physics Division (including opportunities for improvement) in terms 

of the three criteria as requested by the NIST Director (see Chapter 1). 

Assessment Relative to Technical Merit 

 The unique and state-of-the-art capabilities of the division include the following: 

 The precision reflectometry of large-area and large-NA multilayer-coated 

EUV optics for at-wavelength testing and characterization; 

 The provision of transfer standard EUV photodiodes and the development of 

cryogenic radiometric capability, which improved calibration accuracy by an 

order of magnitude; 

 The primary national standard for source-based optical radiometry in the EUV 

regime; 

 On-site calibration capabilities for satellite EUV detectors; 

 The integration of EUV optical measurements with surface analytical 

photochemistry capabilities; 

 The high-rate testbed for secure quantum encryption key distribution in free 

space; and 

 The highest-column-density 60 mm-long magneto-optical trap for quantum 

optics and quantum information applications. 

Assessment Relative to Adequacy of Resources 

 The SURF III upgrades have been very successful and useful, and the 

development of the quantum telecommunications laboratory has been very productive. 

The building that houses most division activities, including SURF III, is old and lacks 

optimal environmental controls. Although this is probably not a large impediment to 

most existing programs, it clearly affects program efficiency and, to a lesser extent, the 

morale of personnel. The implementation of the EUV interferometric lithography 

capability, as strongly recommended above, may be limited by environmental constraints. 

 The primary reason that the EUV interferometric patterning apparatus has not 

been completed is budgetary limitations and the consequent lack of staffing. This is an 

important part of the EUV portfolio and should be pursued. 

 Continued development of the SURF III EUV program will benefit from a group 

leader who will provide strong and focused intellectual leadership. 

Assessment Relative to Achievement of Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 The Electron and Optical Physics Division supports an active and very useful 

service activity, combined with several application-driven research programs that will 

prove useful in facilitating future developments. The service activities amount to about 
24 

30 percent of the aggregate effort. Each year, about 20 external users use SURF III, 

mostly for instrument calibration; about 30 photodiode and 5 deuterium gas (D2) lamp 

calibrations are performed; the reflectivities of between 50 and 100 EUV optics are 

measured; and the radiation damage testing of EUV optics is done for about 2,000 hours 

per year. The last three of these activities are performed on a cost-recovery basis and are 

supported by vendors, mostly in the developing EUV sector. This support offers good 

evidence of the value of the SURF III EUV programs. The division has a robust record of 

publication and presentations. Several workshops in the EUV technology area have been 

organized. 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 The Electron and Optical Physics Division integrates a valuable, and in several 

cases essential, service component with cutting-edge, application-driven R&D. The 

division maintains a diverse portfolio of activities, and most collaboration is with 

researchers from other NIST divisions or from outside NIST. There is a need for 

strategic planning in which the division should consider what it wants to look like in 5 

and 10 years and should address the following issues: 

 The improvements to SURF III operations will lead to increased EUV activity 

in the near term, and the division should develop strategic objectives and a 

leadership plan to make the best use of this resource. 

 The EUV lithography effort has gone in the direction of analysis of 

photoresists and analysis of damage to EUV optics. Both of these are 

bringing with them the need for increased local expertise in EUV 

photochemistry. The division should consider how best to organize this 

activity, through either strategic hiring or collaboration with chemistry and 

materials groups. 

 SURF capabilities are distinct from other user-facility sources in the EUV 

such as laser-plasma sources or VUV free-electron lasers. The division 

should consider how it integrates its activities with those of other sources. 

Current examples include support roles such as sharing calibration standards 

and collecting and distributing accurate data. As EUV applications expand, in 

both the commercial and the research sectors, new ways should be found to 

utilize the special value of the NIST activities. For example, a longer-term 

program in “EUV surface photochemistry” could be considered. 

 This division could play a leading role in the deployment of quantum 

communications and cryptography. The division currently houses an 

important primary resource in experimental quantum optics at NIST, and 

ways should be found to develop that leadership position to integrate this 

activity across NIST as well as in the emerging community of users of this 

technology. 

 The division should develop a strategic plan to help guide decisions about 

how to balance and strengthen the core activities properly and to decide on 

what is the correct balance of staffing and projects. All of the division’s 

individual projects are functioning at a very high level, but they are quite 
25 

diverse. Synergy among projects in the division needs to be fostered. A solid 

strategic plan could suggest appropriate paths for organizing personnel among 

divisions in the Physics Laboratory so that the talented staff can work more 

closely with their collaborators in other divisions with a procedure that would 

more explicitly delineate the accomplishments of the contributing divisions 

and institutions. 
26 

4 

Ionizing Radiation Division 

MISSION 

 The goal of the Ionizing Radiation Division is to provide the foundation of 

ionizing radiation measurements for the nation through its mission to develop, maintain, 

and disseminate the national standards for ionizing radiation and radioactivity to meet 

national needs for health care, the environment, U.S. industry, and homeland security. 

SCOPE 

 The Ionizing Radiation Division, located at NIST’s Gaithersburg, Maryland, 

campus, has 39 scientists/engineers, 5 technicians, 125 NIST associates, and 4 

administrative support staff, as of January 2010. Its FY 2009 budget was about $13.4 

million, 43 percent of which was STRS funding. 

 The major programs in the division include the following: 

 Standards and calibrations—The division is a recognized world leader in the 

area of radiation standards. The importance of this function is currently 

growing, with increased needs in the medical imaging, therapy, and homeland 

security areas. 

 Neutron physics—The division has a unique program in basic nuclear physics 

that has several important experiments currently underway and a number of 

unique studies awaiting execution. 

 Medical imaging and therapy—Although this activity has been a focus in the 

division for a number of years, through the work in mammography and 

brachytherapy calibrations, it has recently become a wider program with the 

impending installation of a PET/CT scanner. 

PROJECTS 

Radiation Interactions and Dosimetry Group 

 The mission of the Radiation Interactions and Dosimetry Group is to develop 

dosimetric standards for x-rays, gamma rays, and electrons based on the Système 

International (SI) unit, the gray, for homeland security, medical, radiation processing, and 

radiation protection applications. These standards are disseminated by means of 

calibrations and proficiency testing services provided to maintain quality assurance and 

traceability. The projects in the group are classified in six areas: theoretical dosimetry, 

quantum metrology, medical dosimetry, homeland security applications, industrial 

applications, and protection and accident dosimetry. Work on homeland security issues 

has continued since the previous panel review, in 2008. There has, however, been an 
27 

increasing focus on standards, calibrations, and traceability with respect to medical 

imaging. 

 Significant progress has been made in a number of the group’s measurement 

standards and calibration services, including the following: 

 Low-energy absolute x-ray calibration wavelength metrology—production of 

data needed in a number of areas in quantum metrology; 

 Maintenance of the national mammography standard—necessary to ensure 

that the radiation doses delivered in this medical imaging technique are 

consistent and safe; 

 The development of dosimetry systems for industrial applications—necessary 

to meet the growing need for accurate dosimetry in the radiation sterilization 

of medical disposables and the treatment of food and other biological 

materials; 

 Prostate seed brachytherapy dosimetry—necessary to ensure that the radiation 

doses delivered during radiation treatment for certain cancers are accurate in 

intensity and spatial distribution; and 

 The calibration of miniature x-ray sources used for brachytherapy—necessary 

to establish a national primary air-kerma-rate standard for this developing 

technique for in situ irradiation of cancerous tissue in humans. 

 The group regularly compares its standards for radiation dose with those of other 

national and international standards laboratories, and in most cases they compare to 

within 0.5 percent with the averaged measurements of these other laboratories. This is an 

excellent outcome. 

 Two new projects of major need for the nation with respect to the safety of 

patients and technicians are calibration and dosimetry for part- and whole-body 

diagnostic studies and the calibration and ongoing monitoring of external radiation 

therapy (linear particle accelerators [LINACs] producing beams of x-rays, electrons, and, 

more recently, protons and heavier charged particles for conventional and conformal 

delivery systems, and cobalt-60 [Co-60] systems). This undertaking has priority for 

action commencing immediately. These needs have arisen in a fashion similar to the 

brachytherapy calibration and mammography work now successfully underway. 

 Budget and staffing are critical issues for this group, which is experiencing 

decreases in personnel and funding. Three researchers left the group in February 2010—

one retired and two transferred to other groups owing to a lack of funding. This decrease 

in staff is occurring even as the workload for calibrations is increasing. This attrition 

should be reversed. 

Radioactivity Group 

 The mission of the Radioactivity Group is to develop, maintain, and disseminate 

radioactivity standards, develop and apply radioactivity measurement techniques, and 

engage in research to meet the requirements for new standards. This mission leads to the 

development, maintenance, and dissemination of the national measurement standards for 

ionizing radiation and to engagement in research for meeting the requirements for new 
28 

standards needed by industry, medicine, and government. Further, it provides standards 

for the radioactivity based on the SI unit, the becquerel, for homeland security, 

environmental, medical, and radiation protection applications. 

 There are a number of good, technically advanced programs in the Radioactivity 

Group. The following are notable examples. The Low-Level Radiochemistry Program is 

involved in many research projects dealing with analysis of low levels of radioactivity. 

These include the investigations of methods for radionuclide speciation in soil, 

techniques for isolation in the characterization of various radioactive particles in cells and 

sediments, the development of rapid radioactivity screening methods for emergency 

situations, including approaches to assess internal contamination by radionuclides that are 

difficult to measure. 

 Through the Medical Imaging Standards Program, NIST has taken up the national 

need for the calibration and standardization of nuclear medicine imaging systems by the 

acquisition of a PET/CT instrument that will provide the platform for the development of 

calibration phantoms to be used by manufacturers and clinics for instrument-performance 

calibrations. An international collaboration program through the International Atomic 

Energy Agency has been initiated so that both primary institutions and second-world 

countries can have materials and protocols for instrument-performance assessments and 

calibrations. This work is encouraged by the panel, and it is important to note that the 

national needs go beyond phantom creation and calibration standards for PET/CT. 

Indeed, the current instrumentation being commercially produced requires 

standardization for the safety and quality of medical diagnostics. These standardization 

needs include the robustness of attenuation correction, motion compensation, and scatter 

correction. In addition, this program should include single photon emission tomography 

and standard multidetector x-ray CT within its charge. SPECT instruments have 

additional algorithmic components, such as depth-dependent collimator response, 

truncation compensation, and methods of attenuation compensation. (For clarity, it is 

noted that NIST is not involved in the development of the instruments themselves or their 

applications, except to the extent of understanding their operation and applications 

sufficiently to establish standards.) 

 The investigators have carried out significant work on the development of 

standards for radionuclides employed in SPECT positron emission tomography and 

nuclides used directly for therapy. These studies have resulted in a significant number of 

publications in appropriate journals. A PET/CT scanner for humans has been ordered to 

allow the assessment both of the standards developed for PET/CT and of phantoms 

developed to determine the characteristics of the various PET/CT scanners being utilized. 

This is an important project, and the group is well qualified to carry out these studies. At 

present, the group involved in this work consists of three staff members; however, other 

individuals are being transferred to this program. 

Neutron Interactions and Dosimetry Group 

 The mission of the Neutron Interactions and Dosimetry Group is to maintain and 

disseminate measurement standards for neutron dosimeters, neutron survey instruments, 

and neutron sources, and to improve neutron cross-section standards through both 

evaluation and experimental work. This effort will provide neutron standards and 
29 

measurements needed for worker protection, nuclear power, homeland security, and 

fundamental applications and will provide the world’s most accurate measurements of 

neutron coherent scattering lengths, important to materials science research and the 

modeling of the nuclear potentials. 

 Eight permanent scientific staff, 2 technicians, and approximately 20 visiting 

scientists with various residence times comprise the personnel involved in neutron 

innovative physics experiments and the neutron dosimetry and calibration program of 

NIST. The facility’s major resource is a 20 MW reactor with nine beam lines available 

for a variety of experiments. The program plans an expansion to extended space and 

additional beam lines. 

 This program is responsible for a number of very significant accomplishments. 

The neutron radiography program relies on the unique characteristics of neutrons to 

penetrate metals and interact with light elements as well as with structural aspects of the 

medium (e.g., metal fine structure) so as to allow high-sensitivity detection of water, 

boron, lithium, and so on as well as regional defects in metals. This program has major 

projects of national importance. The industrial applications have recently gone beyond 

the fuel cell evaluation of water distribution to the study of lithium-ion batteries. 

Resolution is obtainable at 10 micrometers. A new development, first in the world, is 

neutron phase contrast imaging. The contrast mechanisms leading to good target-tobackground images are based on material property changes associated with stressed 

metals or the carbon/hydrogen composition of biological objects. The images show 

unprecedented results. Other advances are the production of a polarized helium-3 system 

that provides a type of filter for polarized neutrons that enables physics experiments not 

otherwise possible. The NIST technology serves programs both at NIST and at the Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory. The unique aspect is the preparation of neutron polarizer 

cells available to a wide range of fundamental physics experimenters. 

 The service component of the Neutron Interactions and Dosimetry Group includes 

the best-in-the-world results of calibration using the unique manganese sulfate (MnSO4) 

bath as well as the new smaller but portable MnSO4 system. The assessment of their 

excellence is based on a comparison at an international intercomparison with 10 other 

facilities. The current and planned calibrations and evaluations of dosimeters using the 

group’s californium-252 (Cf-252) neutron sources as well as its innovations in a 

scintillation/lithium dosimeter are significant advances that make this one of the best 

service centers in the world. 

 Some of the service projects have been canceled. For example, reactor-materials 

dosimetry calibrations related to commercial power plants are no longer provided by 

NIST, and another project was not pursued owing to a lack of personnel. The service 

component of the neutron group is extremely important to the nation and should be 

expanded as warranted either by perceived need or by customer requests. 

Programs Important to National Security 

 Programs in all three groups in the Ionizing Radiation Division that are of major 

importance to national security are the performance standards for radiation-detection 

devices (portal screening and handheld devices) used for the detection of nuclear 

explosives, and the development of national x-ray standards for security-screening 
30 

systems. These projects are essential activities for activities of the Department of 

Homeland Security’s Domestic Nuclear Detection Office. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE DIVISION 

 Following is the summary of the panel’s assessment of the overall quality of the 

Ionizing Radiation Division (including opportunities for improvement) in terms of the 

three criteria as requested by the NIST Director (see Chapter 1). 

Assessment Relative to Technical Merit 

 In general, the programs currently underway in the Ionizing Radiation Division 

are as good as or better than those in other national and international laboratories. 

Examples include the neutron radiography and basic physics programs, the development 

of standards and calibration techniques in which the results obtained generally agree 

extremely well with those of other laboratories, and calibration programs supporting 

advanced medical imaging techniques such as PET/CT. 

Assessment Relative to Adequacy of Resources 

Budget 

 The funding of the Ionizing Radiation Division is not adequate at this time, when 

the need for its services is increasing. It is the panel’s understanding that, subsequent to 

its visit to the Ionizing Radiation Division for this assessment, two members of the 

Radiation Interactions and Dosimetry Group were transferred to other groups for 

budgetary reasons and the group leader has retired, with his responsibilities being 

assumed by an existing lead. 

 The Radiation Interactions and Dosimetry Group’s losses come at a time when the 

needs for standards and the demand for calibrations are increasing. Moreover, the 

Neutron Interactions and Dosimetry Group’s loss of two researchers to retirement in the 

past years comes at a time when new reactor beam lines are being constructed for the 

specific use of this group. Although attrition is to be expected, there appears to be no 

plan to replace the losses. 

Facilities 

 The building in which the majority of the division is housed is old and in need of 

a major upgrade. With the confirmation of a new chief for the division, an aggressive 

strategic plan should be put in place by the chief that will ensure the continuation of the 

high quality of work being done by the division and increase funding for the group. 

Human Resources 

 The Ionizing Radiation Division currently has 48 full-time staff and 125 NIST 

associates. The high number of associates versus full-time employees is a matter of 
31 

concern; the full-time staff should be expanded in the future at the expense of associates. 

Clearly, there are budgetary issues associated with this recommended change. 

Assessment Relative to Achievement of Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 The Ionizing Radiation Division is recognized worldwide for its expertise in the 

measurement of standards related to radiation. 

 The mission, projects, and performance of the Ionizing Radiation Division are 

good. The situation with respect to major equipment has improved since the previous 

panel review, in 2008. Since that review, some older, unreliable equipment has been 

decommissioned, and other equipment has been moved. These changes have freed up 

space for the installation of a high-power LINAC needed to do the high-dose calibrations 

required for industrial processes. In addition, new beam lines for neutron physics are 

under construction, and a PET/CT scanner has been ordered that will greatly enhance the 

medical imaging capability. The time required to complete some projects appears to be 

longer than might be desired, but much of this is due to staff and budget constraints. 

 Building 245, where most of the Ionizing Radiation Division is housed, is one of 

the oldest on the NIST campus. During the 2008 panel review, it became very clear that 

the condition of this building was very poor, as was noted in the panel’s 2008 report. 

Since that time, the building has seen some improvement, but it still needs a major 

upgrade. 

 The following comments pertain to the division’s responses to items raised by the 

panel that conducted the 2008 review: 

 Much of the division’s radiation-producing equipment is obsolete or in poor 

condition and should be modernized or replaced.—The division has made 

significant progress in this area since the 2008 review. The decommissioning 

of old equipment has freed up space for a new high-power LINAC and the 

installation of a PET/CT scanner. Further, the construction of an extension to 

the existing experimental hall at the NIST Center for Neutron Research’s 

(NCNR’s) neutron-producing reactor facility will allow the installation of 

more experiments in this facility. 

 The NCNR experimental hall is being enlarged and the Neutron Interactions 

Group will be acquiring new beam lines. These new facilities will require 

new experimental equipment and staff.—Little progress has been made in this 

regard, but construction at the NCNR has been delayed, so there is no need for 

the equipment and staff at this time. Purchase of the equipment is budgeted 

for FY 2010. 

 The Neutron Interactions Group should pursue interagency agreements as a 

means of getting increased funding and manpower for additional neutron 

experiments.—This suggestion is being vigorously pursued. 

 External Advisory Committees should be appointed to help the Radioactivity 

Group select and prioritize research projects.—There appears to be some 

resistance to this suggestion, and there may be some legal issues related to 

implementing this recommendation, as there are federal regulations restricting 

NIST and other government entities from having outside advisory committees. 
32 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Conclusions 

1. The Ionizing Radiation Division may be losing its leading position in the 

national and international radiation measurements community as a result of an 

increasing workload in the standards area and a lack of funding to cover this 

increase, and the loss of personnel due to retirements and the transfer of 

personnel to other, fully funded programs. 

2. Interviews with division management and employees conveyed the overall 

impression that more frequent and open communications with NIST 

administration on staffing, funding, and technical direction would be of 

benefit in giving direction to the division and in discovering ways to 

increase funding. 

3. The process through which the Ionizing Radiation Division prioritizes and 

selects projects to pursue is of concern. For example, in the medical imaging 

area, input on clinical experience should be considered. 

4. The physical plant occupied by most of the Ionizing Radiation Division 

equipment and personnel (Building 245) is still substandard, although some 

improvements have been made. 

Recommendations 

1. NIST in general and the Ionizing Radiation Division in particular need to 

develop a mechanism whereby the critical standards work of importance to 

the nation receives the necessary funding to maintain quality standards 

assessments. 

2. The division chief and others in the division should seek advice on programs 

and priorities from experts in the field outside the NIST laboratory. Such 

advice may assist the division chief in determining which programs will allow 

the division to develop cutting-edge research projects to support and advance 

the measurements of standards in the field. 

3. The Ionizing Radiation Division’s nuclear measurements and research 

programs are of the highest quality. Funding for these efforts should be 

maintained or, preferably, increased. Although there is the potential for work 

of Nobel Prize quality, the major goal is and should be to serve the nation in 

measurements, standards, and safety that underpin advances in technology 

throughout the country. 

4. A major upgrade of Building 245 must be a priority for NIST. 
33 

5 

Optical Technology Division 

MISSION AND STRATEGIC PLAN

 The mission of the Optical Technology Division (OTD) is to develop and provide 

national measurement standards and services to advance optical technologies spanning 

the terahertz through the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet spectral regions. In particular, 

this division is charged with maintaining two primary standards: (1) the unit of luminous 

intensity, the candela; and (2) the unit of temperature, the kelvin, above 1234.96 K. The 

strategic elements of the OTD are (1) to maintain and advance optical radiation standards 

traceable to the SI system of units, (2) to advance optical radiation measurement science 

to solve problems in critical and emerging technology areas of national importance, and 

(3) to disseminate optical radiation measurement technology and standards to industry, 

government, and academia. 

SCOPE 

 The Optical Technology Division, located at NIST’s Gaithersburg, Maryland, 

campus, has 42 scientists/engineers, 81 NIST associates, and 6 administrative support 

staff, as of January 2010. Its FY 2009 budget was about $18.5 million, 61 percent of 

which was STRS funding. 

 The division’s projects and sustained activities fall roughly into three main 

categories: development and refinement of optical radiation standards, optical 

measurement methods, and the provision of optical measurement services. 

Optical Radiation Standards 

 The OTD provides the optical radiation measurement science and standards to aid 

the advancement and application of optical technology. 

 Unique capabilities of the division include (1) the Spectral Irradiance and 

Radiance Calibrations with Uniform Sources facility, coupled with cryogenic radiometry; 

(2) the Low-Background Infrared facility, developed to calibrate user-supplied 

blackbodies that are used in turn to characterize low-background IR detectors; and (3) the 

Spectrally Tunable Lighting Facility for studies of spectrally tunable light-emitting diode 

lighting. 

Optical Measurement Methods 

 The OTD strives to improve the accuracy, quality, and utility of optical 

measurements in burgeoning technology areas. Its accomplishments include the 

following: (1) spectral and spatial stray-light correction in optical systems, (2) follow-on 

satellite instrument-calibration conference, (3) bacteria identification with the quantum 
34 

dot method, (4) long chains of magnetic nanoparticles, and (5) an efficient, correlated 

two-photon source. 

Optical Measurement Services 

 The OTD builds and maintains optical radiation measurement facilities that are 

among the best in the world in order to meet the continued need for standards and 

specialized measurements by governments and industry. 

 Selected accomplishments in this area include the following: (1) a hyperspectral 

image projector for the calibration of remote sensing instruments; (2) a 

goniospectrometer that tackles translucence and other color challenges; (3) perceived and 

measured colors of retroreflective materials in traffic signs; (4) the Missile Defense 

Transfer Radiometer, employing a cryogenic Fourier transform spectrometer and an 

absolute cryogenic radiometer; and (5) improvements to the transportable SIRCUS 

system (Traveling SIRCUS). SIRCUS is a reference calibration facility to calibrate 

detectors and radiometers for spectral irradiance responsivity and spectral radiance 

responsivity from the UV to the IR. Tunable lasers are coupled to integrating spheres 

with an exit port to produce either uniform irradiance at a reference plane or uniform 

radiance within the sphere exit port at high levels. 

PROJECTS 

 The projects and sustained activities of the Optical Technology Division are listed 

below in the subsections on the individual groups, although there is extensive intergroup 

collaboration underlying much of this work. 

Optical Thermometry and Spectral Methods Group 

 The Optical Thermometry and Spectral Methods Group maintains, improves, and 

disseminates the national scales for the spectroradiometric measurement of radiation 

sources and temperatures. Methods developed for extremely accurate determination of 

aperture areas are important for Earth-orbiting sensors of the solar irradiance. A new 

activity in optical medical imaging involves members of this group. They are also 

engaged in basic research aimed at applying new techniques in quantum optics to 

revolutionize future radiometry standards. 

Optical Properties and Infrared Technology Group 

 The Optical Properties and Infrared Technology Group establishes and 

disseminates primary measurement scales for the transmittance and reflectance of 

materials in the IR spectral region; it studies optical properties of materials in the near-, 

mid-, and far-IR spectral regions; it provides blackbody calibrations, research and 

development of accurate, high-precision radiometric measurements in low and ambient 

thermal background environments; and it develops and calibrates transfer standard 

radiometers to be used for on-site NIST-traceable measurements of missile defense 

sensor test chambers. The LBIR radiometry system is used for the latter activity. It is a 
35 

unique resource for calibrating sensors—a capability that must be maintained for 

customers of the future. 

Optical Sensor Group 

 The Optical Sensor Group establishes the national measurement scale for the SI 

unit the candela; it provides measurements of the absolute spectral responsivity of optical 

detectors in the spectral region from 200 nm through the IR traceable to a high-accuracy 

absolute cryogenic radiometer. Solid-state lighting, a critical component of future 

energy-efficiency improvements, is an important thrust of this group. The group is 

developing novel test methods for high-power LEDs and developing new metrics to 

evaluate the color rendering of light sources in general. 

Laser Applications Group 

 The Laser Applications Group advances laser technology for applications in 

optical radiation and optical properties of materials measurements. This group developed 

the SIRCUS facility and the Primary Optical Watt Radiometer system. The Traveling 

SIRCUS development is currently being used for the calibration of future space-based 

instruments that are designed for long-term, high-accuracy measurements of radiance 

and/or irradiance. It will play an increasingly important role in instrument calibration. 

Biophysics Group 

 The Biophysics Group develops advanced spectroscopic and microscopic 

measurement methods, nano-optical probes, and imaging technologies and associated 

theoretical models to solve important biophysics and bio-nanotechnology measurement 

science problems. The new activity in optical medical imaging involves members of this 

group. Group members are also involved in spectroscopic studies in the terahertz 

spectral region. 

STAFFING 

 There are 42 full-time technical staff members in the Optical Technology 

Division; 3 more permanent staff will be added by the end of 2010. In addition, a far 

greater number of temporary, contractor, and part-time personnel than of permanent staff 

also contribute to this division. For example, there are 81 NIST associates. In the 2008 

panel report, a concern was expressed that the ratio of permanent staff to total staff was 

quite low. This is being addressed. 

MAJOR EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES 

 Major facilities of the Optical Technology Division associated with maintaining 

national standards include the following: 
36 

 National Standard for Optical Power: POWR—provides the optical power 

standard to 0.01 percent; 

 LBIR Facility—maintains the NIST infrared radiometric standard for 

instruments that need to be calibrated in background environments that are 

80 K and below; 

 SIRCUS—a tunable laser-based facility for the absolute calibration of optical 

instruments, with the companion Traveling SIRCUS, used at external sites; 

 Facility for Spectral Irradiance Calibration of Sources (FASCAL 2)—

provides the NIST spectral irradiance scale, covering the 200 nm to 2500 nm 

wavelength range; 

 Spectral Tri-function Automated Reference Reflectometer Facility—maintains 

the national scale of reflectance, including the bidirectional reflectance 

distribution function; 

 Telescope Calibration Facility—for the laboratory testing and evaluation of 

telescopes and telescope radiometric calibration methods; and 

 Spectrally Tunable Lighting Facility—for the study of spectral properties of 

LED lighting sources related to the effects of chromaticity, color rendering, 

and other aspects of spectra on lighting quality. Research results are coupled 

with LED “wall-plug efficiency” characteristics (as they evolve with 

continuing improvements in LED fabrication) to evaluate the overall energy 

efficiency of a variety of lighting sources. 

 These facilities are at the core of the NIST mission. Research on new methods is 

also being carried out, with the possibility that new approaches (e.g., single-photon 

source and photon-counting detection) may supplement or substitute for certain of the 

current facilities. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE DIVISION 

 Following is the summary of the panel’s assessment of the overall quality of the 

Optical Technology Division (including opportunities for improvement) in terms of the 

three criteria as requested by the NIST Director (see Chapter 1). 

Assessment Relative to Technical Merit 

 The Optical Technology Division maintains a long-term core commitment to 

high-accuracy measurements in radiometry, photometry, and spectroradiometry. The 

division’s continuing efforts to develop new approaches to calibration over a wide 

spectral range, from the far infrared through the ultraviolet, are commendable. The 

division has invested significant resources in these areas, and it justifiably places 

emphasis on maintaining the laboratory investments as well as careful measurement 

methodologies as tools for external customers in the private and government sectors. 

 The division has the institutional responsibility for maintaining two base Système 

International units: the unit of temperature, the kelvin, above 1234.96 K; and the unit of 

luminous intensity, the candela. The division also maintains the national scales for other 
37 

optical radiation measurements and ensures their relationship to the SI units. These 

measurement responsibilities include derived photometric and radiometric units, the 

radiance temperature scale, spectral source and detector scales, and optical properties of 

materials, such as reflectance and transmittance. The division has maintained spectral 

irradiance standards and has validated through international comparisons that the 

achieved uncertainties are the lowest in the world over a wide spectral range. The POWR 

system has enabled the standard for optical power to be provided with an accuracy of 

0.01 percent. The division has undertaken several collaborative projects for the 

calibration of satellite-based sensors. Its impact on space-based climate change 

assessments should grow in the future owing to these collaborations with NOAA and 

NASA. 

 A core activity of the Optical Technology Division is the development of 

technical standards for industries relying on optical technologies. The division also has 

research programs to develop optical and spectroscopic tools for the improved 

understanding of processes required to support evolving technologies in industries such 

as the semiconductor, solid-state lighting, biotechnology, and health science industries. 

The division has led efforts in the development of new American National Standards 

Institute (ANSI) standards of the chromaticity of solid-state lighting products. 

 In view of the wide range of activities in optical technology, the distinctiveness 

and relation to similar activities elsewhere must be examined using differing criteria. 

Within the area of optical standards, the activities in the Optical Technology Division are 

clearly distinctive in the United States. The facilities for maintaining standards that have 

been developed in the division do not exist elsewhere in the nation. The natural technical 

point of comparison for the optical standards lies in the research carried out in national 

laboratories in Europe. The division staff members are very well aware of comparable 

research and, indeed, engage in ongoing international comparisons and cross-calibration. 

Many of the other activities in optical technology, while not involving specific 

international optical standards, rely on highly refined measurement capabilities. Here the 

uniqueness of the activities results from the choice of the problems addressed as well as 

from the distinctiveness of the measurement capabilities themselves. One common 

standard of technical merit is the number and quality of publications in the technical 

literature and presentations at conferences. The division has a good record in this regard. 

The activities of the overall program constitute forefront research in areas that are 

relevant to the NIST mission. 

Assessment Relative to Adequacy of Resources 

Facilities 

 Laboratory space has been much improved over the past few years. The division 

appears to have adequate resources to undertake its stated mission and objectives. 

Several laboratories are in new locations, and in general the overall increase in floor 

space offers much more flexibility and a much-improved environment in which the 

researchers work with their equipment. In 2008 it was known that the residents of the 

Advanced Measurement Laboratory, in large part the new Biophysics Group, would have 

to move in order to create space for a new center. Laboratory moves are always 
38 

disruptive to some degree. The affected personnel have made the move. There have 

been a few start-up transients in the new locations; however, the staff is up and running in 

the new locations. 

Equipment 

 The equipment and instrumentation are of high quality, evidence of healthy 

spending on equipment over the past few years. The equipment budget appears to be 

adequate, and the staff appears to be making insightful decisions in the vendor-selection 

process. 

Human Resources 

 The permanent staff is capable, experienced, and motivated. Their results attest to 

their commitment to high-quality research and products. The panel does not review the 

capabilities and productivities of the short-term staff and contractors. The percentage of 

the research and technical population who are permanent staff is low, much less than 50 

percent. The relatively low permanent staff population appears to be partially related to 

the NIST overhead structure, which places the preponderant portion of the overhead on 

the permanent staff, with little or no overhead being attached to the other technical 

personnel or the office or laboratory space usage. Another factor appears to be related to 

the extent to which support depends on external funding sources, which can create a 

mood of conservatism regarding hiring. 

 The permanent members are the leaders of the division. There are many tasks and 

responsibilities of an institutional nature that they alone are capable of assuming. They 

also direct and mentor the other technical staff. Obviously the smaller the number of 

permanent staff, the greater the proportion of time required to fulfill these 

responsibilities. The risk is high that, in the event of the loss of one or two permanent 

staff, a multimonth disruption in progress would occur. It takes continuity and flexibility 

both to maintain a laboratory of outstanding quality and to be able to respond to new 

needs and new opportunities. Both capabilities are at risk with a low ratio of permanent 

staff to total researcher population. 

 This issue is being addressed, and progress is being made toward the hiring of 

additional permanent staff. The division management has exhibited the confidence in the 

future needed to commit to offering additional permanent positions to a select group of 

very capable people. This is the start of a trend that should continue. 

Assessment Relative to Achievement of Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 The research program in the Optical Technology Division in large part reflects 

careful strategic planning to respond to NIST and national priorities. The existence of a 

vibrant and dynamic strategic planning process can be seen in the development of the 

division’s 2010 strategic plan. Additionally, the development of the Solid State Lighting, 

Vision Science, and Greenhouse Gas measurement efforts demonstrate agility in 

addressing national priorities. 
39 

 The Optical Technology Division also demonstrates a commitment to developing 

technology that could be foundational in future standards, as evidenced by its continued 

investment in its quantum measurement program and related activities. Although these 

single-photon-based technologies may not be integrated into the larger standards effort 

for some time, the compact prototype units being developed by the Optical Thermometry 

and Spectral Methods Group could be deployed in the near future to help streamline 

calibration activities for research groups relying on single-photon-counting detection. 

 Whereas several years ago there was no OTD work related to biological sciences, 

staff and projects are now in place (with extensive external collaborations) to address this 

strategic thrust. Also, in a related vein, the frontier of optical spectroscopy of nano- and 

molecular-scale objects has been impressively extended. 

 The Optical Technology Division makes use of a variety of effective means for 

delivering the technical output of the division. For long-term research, the means are 

primarily the traditional methods of publication in the technical literature and 

presentations at conferences. For standards work, the division’s output takes the form of 

providing calibrations of customer sources and detectors and making available transfer 

standards. 

 Several additional forms of disseminating the technical capabilities of the division 

have also been implemented. Notable among these are the organizing and/or hosting of 

specialized courses, tutorials, and workshops and the dissemination of specialized 

software. The latter has been implemented very effectively with respect to the analysis of 

optical scattering data. This flexible analysis program, developed in the division, has 

been very popular, with more than 1,000 downloads. The division evidently places a 

healthy emphasis on publicizing and disseminating much of its technical output. 

 The OTD has an excellent balance, meeting immediate needs while developing 

new long-term programs. This approach will keep the division at the technical forefront 

and ensure significant long-term impact. The standards work has an impact through a 

widespread chain of technology, since calibration is essential for a wide spectrum of 

applications. Similarly, fundamental advances in the optical characterization of materials 

have broad impact beyond the immediate field of optical science. 

 NIST has identified biosciences as a strategic area of emphasis. Activities of the 

Biophysics Group in this division are distributed among diverse optical technologies in 

applications related to biology. This diversity is elaborated in the expanded group 

descriptor of “Biophysics, Nanobiotechnology, and Biophotonics.” Altogether, this is a 

nascent effort, still in early stages of development. It is a vigorous enterprise as is 

evident from its appeal to postdoctoral fellows (five NRC fellows and three National 

Institutes of Health [NIH] fellows currently) as well as graduate students (two currently). 

Although currently a small number, the research personnel are a very capable group and 

obviously enthusiastic about their research. The biosciences thrust in the OTD relies 

heavily on multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research. Collaborations are in place 

with NIH and university groups. A more formalized association with biologists is 

recognized as beneficial, but efforts to effect such an association with the Center for 

Advanced Research in Biotechnology (CARB) are currently on hold, as CARB’s own 

association with the University of Maryland is undergoing reorganization. 

 One particularly promising new project within the biophysics focus is a NIST 

Director’s Innovations in Measurement Science program in optical medical imaging. A 
40 

team of division scientists is working to achieve an enhanced surgical lighting 

environment for obtaining images with optimal human-vision contrast. Well-calibrated 

hyperspectral images of normal and diseased tissues are being acquired through 

collaborations with partners at various universities, and algorithms are being developed 

for quantifying disease and tissue states. 

 Another effort applies biophotonic-based measurement science to support 

research into biomolecular structure, function, and interactions in cells and tissues. 

Recent accomplishments include a NIST Integrated Colony Enumerator, which may be a 

useful tool, and developments in the molecular imaging of cells based on fluorescent 

nanocrystal (nanodot) probes, which have been tested in malaria-infected red blood cells. 

 Another division effort with biological implication concerns the physicochemical 

characterization of engineered nanoparticles. Raman spectroscopy and other 

measurements are being used to characterize carbon nanotubes and other nanoparticles 

with an aim to establishing improved standards. Such data are key to the assessment of 

the environmental, health, and safety impact of nanomaterials. Another component of the 

group is concerned with the molecular modeling of nanoscopic properties. Quantum 

mechanics and molecular dynamics simulations are used in coordination with 

experimental observations to establish force standards. Demonstrations include work on 

single-molecule extensions of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in comparison with 

observations by atomic force microscopy. 

 Finally, the terahertz metrology project is studying applications to protein 

misfolding. These studies are complicated by spectroscopic challenges from water, 

which is typically essential for biological systems. 

Additional Considerations 

 The projects and sustained activities in the Optical Technology Division are well 

publicized and articulated in terms of the participation of the personnel—for example, in 

technical conferences, workshops, and short courses—and in terms of publications. 

 In general, the division leadership was responsive to the findings expressed in the 

2008 NRC panel report. Some particulars are discussed in the following paragraphs. 

 It was stated in the 2008 NRC panel report that although the Biophysics Group 

seemingly fits into the Optical Technology Division, several other division chiefs 

included the activities of this group in their presentations of division activities. This 

brought up questions about the present and future “ownership” of this promising group. 

The 2008 panel suggested that it would be helpful to address this issue and to articulate 

the understanding of the extent of the “sharing” of the objectives and products of the 

biophysics thrust among the various divisions. A concern was the perception of a lack of 

coordination of efforts in this research area. It suggested that it would be helpful for the 

Physics Laboratory to elucidate a comprehensive plan for organizing and staffing its 

expanded role in the biophysics area to optimize its effectiveness. 

 The Optical Technology Division has been responsive to this issue. It has 

provided more clarity about the application in this division of its expertise in 

spectroscopy, imaging, and remote sensing to biophysics investigations. It was clear that 

personnel in the Biophysics Group are in touch with ongoing biophysics investigations in 
41 

the Quantum Physics Division (e.g., in developing biological force standards 

capabilities). This appears to be healthy collaboration, with promising results. 

 The Optical Technology Division has outstanding measurement capabilities in the 

terahertz spectral region, originally based on traditional Fourier transform techniques, 

more recently developing forefront capabilities for measurements using laser sources, 

including both frequency-domain and time-domain approaches. The suite of 

measurement capabilities is outstanding. A significant investment has been made in the 

terahertz laser source technology resident in this division, and it is attracting a number of 

outstanding postdoctoral fellows. 

 It was stated in the 2008 NRC panel report that the terahertz research appeared to 

be at a crossroads. It was obvious (and still is) that the senior researchers in this area are 

very capable and are internationally recognized for their research in spectroscopy. The 

2008 panel had questions about the future applications and future customers of this 

capability in this division. 

 The principals on the permanent staff are associated with the new Biophysics 

Group and have been investigating potentially relevant applications of terahertz 

spectroscopy. They have been addressing the obvious problem associated with 

application of terahertz tools to biological research, namely, the very strong water 

absorption throughout the terahertz region of the spectrum. The terahertz spectroscopic 

study of the amino acid L-proline molecule within a reverse micelle is an interesting way 

of mitigating the water absorption problem. The observed terahertz resonances will be 

used to refine a structural model of this protein building block in an aqueous 

environment. 

 Terahertz spectroscopy is also being applied to other investigations not related to 

biophysics. This appears to be of the nature of curiosity-driven research. One 

application area, related to submillimeter-wave and terahertz observations of Earth’s 

atmosphere from space, may become an area of emphasis as observations in this spectral 

region become increasingly important in climate change studies. 

 The expansion of the Traveling SIRCUS capability is an ongoing activity. The 

OTD is pursuing this expansion by using American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 

2009 (ARRA; Public Law 111-5) funding to commercially acquire advanced laser 

systems and other associated equipment. Once the equipment is delivered, the system 

will be configured. The new system will permit the deployment of the Traveling 

SIRCUS to two additional facilities simultaneously. 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Conclusions 

 The Optical Technology Division is successfully maintaining its long-term core 

commitment to high-accuracy measurements in radiometry, photometry, and 

spectroradiometry. This capability is central to the NIST mission. Core facilities 

continue to be operational, and new methods and techniques are continuing to be 

developed. The OTD has engaged in strategic planning that involves new areas of 

emphasis. The staff are capable and motivated; however, the mix between permanent 
42 

staff and temporary and contract personnel appears suboptimal for long-term health and 

consistency in meeting strategic objectives. 

 The calibration and sensor facilities have only two or three peers worldwide and 

clearly no domestic equivalents. One notable example of the use of this capability as an 

important element of the climate change initiative is highlighted. SIRCUS—Spectral 

Irradiance and Radiance Calibrations with Uniform Sources—is designed to provide a 

means of absolute calibration of optical instrumentation. The combination of coupling 

the light from stabilized tunable lasers with integrating spheres has led to a revolutionary 

facility for irradiance and radiance calibration. The Primary Optical Watt Radiometer 

system is an element of SIRCUS. The Traveling SIRCUS version can support a wide 

range of activities, including system calibration for satellite sensors, including calibration 

of total solar irradiance sensors. The staff reported that the Traveling SIRCUS and 

several members of staff were involved in the calibration of the NPOESS Visible Infrared 

Imager Radiometer Suite instrument, a very important sensor that has the potential to 

provide valuable data for the study of climate change, if properly calibrated. 

 The advanced research effort in the area of Quantum Information Science is also 

of high quality, comparable to major academic programs throughout the country. The 

research into the radiometric applications of correlated photon states is unique. 

 Concerns remain regarding the relatively small number of permanent staff—that 

is, those who must be counted on to continually lead the effort to achieve the core 

mission and realize the strategic plan of the division. The staffing issue is being 

addressed, and a trend in the right direction has begun. 

Recommendations 

 A specific recommendation relates to the Greenhouse Gas Measurements thrust, a 

recent OTD initiative with the aim of quantifying greenhouse gas emissions from 

distributed-area sources. The instrumentation in this laboratory is in the early stages of 

development. At present the laboratory is developing direct absorption methods using 

differential absorption lidar. Although this laboratory has potential, considerable effort 

will be required to accomplish its objectives. Additional funding will be required to 

upgrade the instrumentation currently available in the laboratory. Care must also be 

taken in the efforts to measure quantities such as greenhouse gas fluxes using a limited 

number of ground-based sensors. The researchers should also take care in designing the 

proposed differential absorption lidar testing facilities to make certain that the test range 

will provide the necessary absorption paths to meet the needs for the required validation. 
43 

6 

Quantum Physics Division 

MISSION 

 The goal of the Quantum Physics Division is to make transformational advances 

at the frontiers of science, in partnership with the University of Colorado at JILA. (JILA 

is a joint research institute of CU and NIST that is engaged in research in the areas of the 

physical sciences. It is supported by both CU and NIST, and its administration is 

overseen by a chair who is selected every 2 years, alternating between individuals 

from CU and NIST.) The Quantum Physics Division’s mission includes helping to 

produce the next generation of scientists and to investigate new ways of precisely 

directing and controlling light, atoms, and molecules; measuring electronic, chemical, 

and biological processes at the nanoscale; and manipulating ultrashort light pulses. 

SCOPE 

 The Quantum Physics Division, located at JILA on the campus of the University 

of Colorado in Boulder, has 4 NIST fellows, 13 scientists/engineers, and 3 administrative 

support staff, as of January 2010. Its FY 2009 budget was about $10.0 million, 77 

percent of which was STRS funding. 

 The strategic elements of the Quantum Physics Division are as follows: 

 

 To develop measurement science tools and their applications to technology; 

 To exploit Bose-Einstein condensation, quantum degenerate Fermi gases, and 

cold molecules for metrology and ultralow-temperature physics; 

 To advance ultrafast science and apply it to physics and biophysics; 

 To apply cutting-edge measurement science to biological systems; 

 To apply laser spectroscopy to important problems in chemical physics and 

biophysics; and 

 To educate a supply of top-quality scientists for NIST and elsewhere. 

PROJECTS 

 Essentially all of the research projects pursued by the Quantum Physics Division 

are very well conceived and conducted, and proven to be relevant to and enhancing of the 

stated mission of the Physics Laboratory and NIST. The atomic and molecular physics at 

JILA has received top rating by U.S. News and World Report. Projects are described in 

detail in the section “Major Projects,” below. 
44 

STAFFING 

 The division and JILA expect that the current number of 29 JILA fellows will 

remain approximately constant. But many of the current fellows are in the early stages of 

their careers, and both their expressed plans and historical trends indicate that their group 

sizes are likely to grow significantly, as allowed by the new space added by the new 

building. 

 JILA and the Quantum Physics Division have an excellent shop infrastructure, 

including the following: 

 An advanced instrument shop with seven highly experienced and capable 

instrument makers. The JILA instrument shop participates directly and 

substantially in designing complex instruments, based on general ideas and 

needs expressed by the researchers. 

 An advanced electronics shop, with five experienced and talented staff. As 

with the instrument shop, electronics shop staff design complex systems based 

on general descriptions of need from the researchers. 

 An experienced and capable information technology staff providing direct 

support to complex computing needs (clusters, etc.) and interfacing equipment 

with computers. 

 A highly qualified administrative staff helping to manage the complex 

activities of JILA, including crucial grant application processes. 

 The success of division and JILA scientists is dramatically aided by this 

infrastructure, and the students and postdoctoral researchers training at JILA obtain a 

unique educational advantage through their close interactions with expert instrument 

makers, electronics designers, and IT staff. This substantial infrastructure is supported by 

all JILA researchers—in the division and at CU—and any loss of the infrastructure would 

be highly detrimental to the division. 

 However, the state of Colorado is facing a severe budget shortfall, as is the case 

for most states, and state funding for the university is gravely threatened. The University 

of Colorado is facing a severe budget cut in FY 2011, after making significant cuts in FY 

2009. If this results in a significant reduction in CU funding to JILA, the research 

infrastructure (instrument shop, electronics shop, IT shop, administrative support) should 

be protected as much as possible, as this infrastructure is a unique contributor to JILA’s 

excellence. 

MAJOR EQUIPMENT 

 In addition to the shop infrastructure and staff component discussed in the section 

“Staffing,” above, new, significant equipment purchases are also important to the 

division’s ongoing and future work. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds are 

being used to purchase a new state-of-the-art femtosecond laser system; a new state-ofthe-art atomic force microscope; and a new state-of-the-art scanning electron microscope 

(SEM) with a resolution of 1.0 nm, imaging voltages from 200 V to 30,000 V, a precision 

stage with five-axis motion control, and capability for electron beam lithography (EBL). 
45 

The new SEM/EBL will not only substantially improve imaging capabilities for 

nanotechnology applications, but will also provide new precision fabrication capabilities 

to extend nanotechnology research and measurements further. 

FACILITIES 

 It is clear that inadequate facilities have severely hampered the progress on and 

efficiency of research in the Quantum Physics Division in two major areas: (1) Poor 

control of air temperature, air cleanliness, vibration, and other environmental conditions 

in the outdated laboratories has seriously compromised precision measurements. 

(2) Insufficient laboratory and office space prevents the expansion of research activities. 

 The staff provided suggestions of factors that hinder research: 

 

 “We’ve come to a point where we could progress faster if we had a 

laminar flow of dust-free air over our optical tables. We’re holding off 

on installing this technology pending resolution of uncertainties about 

the new building.” 

 “Temperature control has been an issue.” 

 “Space is limited.” 

 “Our state-of-the-art AFM is housed in an unrenovated basement 

dating back to 1962 with all the expected problems with temperature 

stability and noisy ventilation.” 

 These are indeed serious issues. The planned JILA expansion should help solve 

the problem with lack of space overall, and should resolve the environmental problems 

for those fortunate enough to move into the new laboratories. However, the new building 

creates two pressing needs for funding, namely: 

 Costs of moving complex laboratories into the newly constructed space, and 

 Renovations of the existing laboratories to bring them up to current 

standards—especially urgent because it is easier to renovate the laboratories 

vacated by the move before staff moves back in. 

 NIST and the University of Colorado should be working together to identify 

sufficient funding for both the relocation and the start of renovations of vacated 

laboratories in FY 2012. 

ANCILLARY SUPPORT AND RESOURCES 

 There is always the problem in a very successful program such as the Quantum 

Physics Division and JILA that the fellows become ingrained. In the past, JILA had a 

vigorous Visiting Fellows Program funded by the division that brought top scientists 

from around the world to work at JILA for periods of a few months to a year. This 

program was highly effective in the past for both JILA and the visitors. An active JILA 

Visiting Fellows Program provides the opportunity to spread knowledge, insights, 

technology, and NIST culture more widely and to bring new knowledge, insights, and 
46 

technology into NIST. Over the past decade or so, the number and quality of interested 

visitors have significantly declined, and the value of the Visiting Fellows Program has 

likewise declined. Staff offered the following comment regarding this decline in the 

fellows program: 

 “If I were to put in a personal word, I would say that the JILA Visiting 

Fellows Program has been substantially reduced over the past 10 

years, due to understandable budgetary pressures. However, this is a 

program which has traditionally gotten absolutely top scientists (say, 

in chemical physics) to come on sabbatical and work with us in our 

labs—this has a superbly nonlinear impact on how quickly science 

proceeds and evolves into exciting new areas at JILA and should be 

supported as best as one can.” 

 That comment suggests that this aspect of the success of the Quantum Physics 

Division is being neglected. 

MAJOR PROJECTS

Ultracold Atoms and Molecules 

 In the area of ultracold atoms and molecules, a dramatic experiment has converted 

highly interacting pair states of colliding cold atoms into polar molecules in their lowest 

bound state by removing the appropriate energy with an optical Raman process. This 

opened up the field of ultracold single state-to-state chemical reactions. Reaction rates 

have been dramatically changed by polarizing the molecules with electric fields, 

changing the internal hyperfine state, and raising the temperature. 

 Work continues on a difficult, high-payoff experiment to measure the dipole 

moment of the electron in a trapped polar molecule. This experiment has the possibility 

of contributing to fundamental extensions of the Standard Model of high-energy physics. 

The work has also involved the study of fundamental elementary excitations of a BoseEinstein condensate such as vortices. Another example is the confinement of a BEC in 

two dimensions to access the interesting (and somewhat controversial) physics that 

happens in restricted geometries. 

 Ultracold clouds of Fermi atoms are also studied. In this system correlated pairs 

of atoms form, and the pairs can Bose condense, similar to the formation of Cooper pairs 

in a superconductor. The ability to tune the pair interaction has led to a wealth of 

phenomena. 

 In one experiment, a sudden pulse of magnetic field puts pairs of atoms into a 

novel quantum superposition, which oscillates in time between bound and unbound 

states. Another study explores the variation from the BEC regime, where localized pairs 

could form a Bose condensate to the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) regime, where 

pair formation is mediated by the surrounding condensate atoms and the size of the pair 

could become very large. 

 This BEC-BCS crossover is important theoretically, and its understanding could 

impact the theory of high-critical-temperature (Tc) superconductivity. This work has 
47 

been enabled by novel techniques developed for extracting information on the pair 

correlations from noise in absorption images of the cold atomic cloud. 

Development of New Systems and Techniques in Frequency Measurement 

 The laser frequency comb has produced a revolution in optical frequency 

measurement and is key to the development of ultra-stable optical atomic clocks. Current 

work in the Quantum Physics Division applies the frequency comb technique to a new 

atomic clock system composed of an optical lattice of laser-cooled strontium atoms. This 

novel optical clock features a large number of atoms responding identically, thus 

providing the precision of a single atom with enhanced signal-to-noise ratio. Fractional 

frequency instability of 1.5 × 10-17 has already been achieved. The frequency comb is 

also being extended to the VUV and is approaching 50 nm. 

 Another experiment addresses a problem of fundamental interest and great 

applicability, that of measuring the center of a resonance line to better precision than is 

allowed by the shot noise due to having only N atoms. Modern techniques of quantum 

information have provided routes to this; a squeezing approach is being adopted and is 

close to demonstration. 

Approaching Quantum Limited Nanoscale Mechanical and Electronic 

Measurement 

 In the effort of approaching quantum limited nanoscale mechanical and electronic 

measurement, the quantum limits to microwave measurement, amplification, and 

interferometry are tested in a series of elegant experiments that use novel microwave 

interferometers and nonlinear Josephson devices to explore the concept of microwave 

quantum optics. A microwave Fabry-Perot interferometer has been fabricated containing 

the microwave equivalent of a nonlinear Kerr medium composed of a metamaterial built 

from a series of 400 Josephson junctions. This device is a phase-sensitive parametric 

amplifier, capable of the near-noiseless amplification of one quadrature of a microwave 

signal. It can also be used to generate squeezed states of the microwave field, and as 

much as 85 percent phase-dependent noise suppression has been observed. 

 Using related technology, a low-noise, superconducting quantum interference 

device (SQUID) multiplexer has been developed for the readout of arrays of lowtemperature astronomical sensors. This multiplexer has the potential to read out an array 

of thousands of detectors in a single channel with gigahertz bandwidth, and could have 

application to novel detector arrays used in nuclear and particle physics, materials 

science, and astronomy. 

Ultrashort Femtosecond Laser Pulse Interactions with Matter 

 The work on ultrashort femtosecond laser pulse interactions with matter is divided 

into three areas: interactions between alkali atoms in the gas phase, condensed-matter 

systems, and spintronics dynamics. 

 In the gas dynamics work, the effort is primarily on the study of the collision 

dynamics of potassium atoms. Potassium atoms are illuminated with a sequence of two 
48 

pulses. The first excites the atom to a specific state, and the second has a frequency that is 

absorbed only by the excited atoms and thus induces emission, as long as the excited 

atoms have not lost their energy by collision. The intensity variation as a function of 

delay provides a measure of collision dynamics. 

 The condensed-phase work involves cross-correlation two-dimensional near-IR 

spectroscopy of excitons in semiconductors using three, femtosecond, near-IR pulses to 

generate excitons in semiconductors such as gallium arsenide (GaAs). The correlation 

between absorption and emission was determined in a plot of wave patterns and 

frequency. This two-dimensional spectroscopy method is capable of determining 

correlated oscillation of two groups in a molecule or lattice. Using this rather new twodimensional spectroscopic method, the structure of groups of large biological molecules 

and also the electronic properties of semiconductors may be revealed, which would be 

impossible when only the normal one-dimensional spectroscopic methods are used. The 

knowledge obtained on GaAs and other semiconductors by this method may lead to 

better electronic devices. This work is at the leading edge of work in the broader 

community. 

 The spintronics work involves developing the capability of maintaining electron 

spin direction for several nanoseconds while being transported micron distances, and is of 

paramount importance for high-capacity storage and other devices. A group at JILA has 

determined that the spin direction is more stable when confined in the defects of 

semiconductors and that it loses alignment fast when embedded in a perfect single-crystal 

environment. It was determined that the place of highest spin stability is located in a 

crossover “magic” point somewhere between perfect crystal and defect. This work is 

also leading edge. 

Laser Spectroscopy Kinetics and Dynamics of Organic Molecular and 

Nanoparticle Systems 

 The area of laser spectroscopy kinetics and dynamics of organic molecular and 

nanoparticle systems involves ultrashort, femtosecond laser pulse interactions with matter 

and has a close connection with chemistry and biological physics that is described below. 

 The techniques determine basic chemical-reaction dynamics by means of laser 

spectroscopy of jet-cooled molecular ions and radicals, intermolecular energy surfaces, 

and low-temperature radical and ion dynamics. In addition, a considerable effort is made 

in the study of single-molecule kinetics and microscopy. These techniques have been 

used to study single quantum dot emission kinetics of cadmium sulfide and silver 

involved in nanoparticle lithography. 

 This group has been very active and is successful in the design of new equipment 

and devices and the improvement of standard equipment for use in specific experiments. 

For example, it developed, designed, and built a novel, near-field, apertureless scanning 

optical microscope capable of less than 10 nm resolution that finds use in many areas of 

physics, chemistry, and biology. Utilizing their slit jet discharge spectrometer, the 

researchers have studied high-resolution vibrational spectra of jet-cooled large organic 

radicals that were obtained for the first time. 
49 

Biological Physics 

 The two main biological physics groups have quite different areas of expertise 

and interact with different groups within JILA and at the University of Colorado. Both 

groups study single molecules, but the second group uses fluorescence energy transfer 

techniques whereas the leader of the first group is a world expert in the use of optical 

tweezers and lately of atomic force microscopes in the incredibly precise measurements 

of subnanometer motions of biological molecules. This researcher’s recent work on the 

molecular motor RecBCD (a protein consisting of three polypeptides RecB, RecC, and 

RecD) is an example of how much is yet to be learned about how nanomotors move 

along biological polymers. The questions of the step sizes of these motors, the role of 

thermal noise, and the basic physics of very small displacement measurements all come 

into play here. 

 The first main group in biological physics is working to improve the resolution of 

optical tweezers by increasing sensitivity while reducing system noise, which is clearly 

connected to the JILA tradition of precision measurements. This group has explored the 

use of a more stable optical design (with improved laser-pointing stability and reduced 

microscope-stage drift), active sample stabilization, and the introduction of a grid of 

nanofabricated fiducial marks. 

 One researcher with this first group has made significant progress in the past 2 

years. His microfluidic work, aimed at increasing the ability to screen fluorescent 

proteins, is an important and needed means for the judicious selection of the appropriate 

fluorescing proteins from the rather vast collection available. The work on singlemolecule spectroscopy, microscopy, and dynamics is very interesting research but not 

unique; nonetheless, it has the potential of yielding surprising, excellent data. This 

researcher’s ultrafast research would be enhanced by closer collaboration with one of the 

laser groups—but not enough to provide the system(s) and the in-depth expertise that he 

needs to perform the rather intricate structural and dynamics experiments on biological 

systems that he is pursuing. 

 The second group described above has built on its expertise in single-molecule 

optical detection to elucidate the folding conformational thermodynamics of single 

ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules and single DNA molecules in electrophoresis. The 

group has used fluorescence energy transfer techniques at the single-molecule level to 

measure distances of 2 to 8 nm between specifically labeled sites on the RNA. This 

information is crucial to understanding RNA-based enzymes, or ribozymes. In the future, 

the group’s techniques should make it possible to probe the folding and unfolding of 

biomolecules in chemically active states. 

 Finally, an outstanding example of the cross-fertilization of technologies 

developed at JILA for the core mission of the development of measurement science tools 

is the extension of John Hall’s Nobel Prize-winning work on optical combs to another 

researcher’s application of this technology to biomolecule detection. This research group 

invented cavity-enhanced direct frequency comb spectroscopy, and it has shown that it 

can perform ultrasensitive detection of unknown chemicals. It has recently developed a 

more sensitive, smaller, and less costly fiber laser for this system, which can perform 

ultrasensitive and fast detection of organic molecules using a simple charge-coupled- 
50 

device camera, opening the door for using this technique for medical and for homeland 

security applications. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE DIVISION 

 Following is the summary of the panel’s assessment of the overall quality of the 

Quantum Physics Division (including opportunities for improvement) in terms of the 

three criteria as requested by the NIST Director (see Chapter 1). 

Assessment Relative to Technical Merit 

 The Quantum Physics Division is a premier laboratory that favorably competes, in 

most of the fields of research that it pursues, with the best academic and federal research 

institutions in the world, and the graduate school of the University of Colorado was 

recently ranked in a national rating as number one in atomic physics. The laser frequency 

comb work and the cold atom and now the new cold molecule research are definitely 

among the best in the world. The division has attracted applicants with competing offers 

from top-five U.S. institutions in areas identified for expansion, such as biological 

physics and nanoscale physics. 

Assessment Relative to Adequacy of Resources 

 Facilities remain a problem for the continued excellence of the division. The new 

building should provide the needed space to expand present crowded laboratories and 

make vibration-free areas and, hopefully, clean rooms available for ultrafast and other 

experiments. The JILA shops, by general opinion, provide service that is unmatched in 

pure university environments in the design and construction of various types of 

mechanical and electronic equipment, and it is absolutely critical that they be maintained 

at that high level. However, there are severe financial pressures being exerted on the 

division that must be addressed, as noted above. 

Assessment Relative to Achievement of Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 The impact of the Quantum Physics Division is outstanding as measured against 

its stated goal and mission of making important advances at the frontiers of science that 

enable future precision measurement technology and in producing graduates that form a 

talented pool of scientists who are now dispersed throughout the NIST laboratories and 

elsewhere. These researchers are also having significant impact through applications of 

their technology outside NIST—for example, in sensitive, high-resolution frequency 

comb spectroscopy for trace detection and molecular fingerprinting and in the 

development of technology for multiplexed low-temperature detector arrays for 

astronomy. 
51 

Additional Considerations 

 The comments and recommendations resulting from the panel’s 2008 visit to the 

division were very seriously considered both by the Quantum Physics Division and by 

NIST. In the 2008 review, the panel expressed three key concerns, which are identified 

below, along with the Quantum Physics Division’s 2010 response. 

1. The first concern expressed by the panel in the 2008 review: The increased 

emphasis on nanotechnology needs to be supported by upgrades to better 

instrumentation, especially an improved scanning electron microscope with a 

state-of-the-art field emission source. The existing SEM available to the 

Quantum Physics Division at JILA was evaluated not as state of the art, and it 

was proposed by the panel that JILA needed in-house a very high quality 

SEM for the imaging of the nanostructures and to do nanolithography. 

 The response of the division: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 

funding for NIST equipment purchases includes funding for a new, state-ofthe-art scanning electron microscope with resolution of 1.0 nm, imaging 

voltages from 200 V to 30,000 V, precision stage with five-axis motion 

control, and capability for electron beam lithography. The new SEM/EBL will 

not only substantially improve imaging capabilities for nanotechnology 

applications, but it will also provide new precision fabrication capabilities to 

further extend nanotechnology research and measurements. The procurement 

is underway at this time, and the group (Lehnert group) hopes to take delivery 

within several months. 

 In addition to being used for the SEM/EBL, ARRA funds are also 

being used to purchase the following for the Quantum Physics Division: 

 A new, state-of-the-art femtosecond laser system to support 

research and measurements on the structure and dynamics of 

enzymes that could be used for the high-efficiency production of 

biofuels and to extract cleaner energy sources from petroleum and 

other fossil fuels; 

 A new, state-of-the-art femtosecond laser system to support 

research and measurements on the interaction of ultrafast laser 

pulses with solid-state systems and other matter; and 

 A new, state-of-the-art atomic force microscope for especially 

challenging measurements and research on biological samples in 

both air and fluid environments, with the best available control of 

positioning, temperature, and vibration isolation. 

 In total, an estimated $1.7 million of new ARRA-funded research and 

measurement equipment is being procured to support Quantum Physics 

Division programs. 
52 

2. The panel noted the following in its 2008 review: The interaction with the 

astrophysics group at the University of Colorado is of some concern; it should 

be enhanced and the number of researchers of this group should be increased. 

 The response of the division: JILA fellows, representing both the University 

of Colorado and NIST researchers, have recently jointly agreed on a revised 

JILA strategic plan. One of the key issues identified in the plan is the need to 

improve integration of the collaborative astrophysics research into the other 

JILA activities. As one approach to this integration, the strategic plan 

identifies a preference for hiring an experimental astrophysicist who would 

focus on developing innovative imaging and measurement technologies. Such 

a new member of the division and JILA would be well positioned to help 

foster collaborations among the existing astrophysics research and other 

traditional strengths in JILA such as experimental atomic, molecular, and 

optical physics and experimental chemistry. 

 There was also agreement among the group that the current size of 

JILA is nearly optimal, given expectations for future financial resources and 

space, and in recognition of the challenges of maintaining a coherent 

organization as the organization’s size increases. Thus JILA does not expect 

to grow appreciably in the foreseeable future. Instead, it will focus on 

improving the balance of various research areas through replacements as 

fellows retire or otherwise leave JILA. 

3. The third issue raised by the panel in its 2008 review: Steps should be taken at 

JILA to ensure that space limitations do not create potentially unsafe working 

conditions detrimental to productivity. It was recommended that funding to 

build additional space be provided in a timely fashion. It was acknowledged 

that the Joint Quantum Institute had plans for a new building that would 

provide new laboratory space for the Laser Cooling and Trapping Group, and 

these plans should be brought to completion. The panel concluded that it was 

critical for the Quantum Physics Division that funding for the new JILA 

building be provided; the lack of space was detrimental to productivity, 

created potentially unsafe working conditions, and could affect the ability to 

attract and hire top-class scientists in the future. This was to be considered a 

top-priority item for this division. It was critical that funding for the new JILA 

building be put in place and that the plans for design and construction move 

forward. 

 The response of the division: Construction of the JILA Expansion (also known 

as the JILA X-Wing) will begin in May 2010. The new building will add 

approximately 50,000 square feet of laboratory, office, and meeting space, 

expanding the total JILA space by about 50 percent. The new laboratory space 

will include high-performance labs with tight control of temperature, 

vibration, and air quality, to facilitate the most demanding research and 

measurements. 
53 

 The total cost of the new building is currently estimated at 

approximately $35 million, although the actual cost will not be known until 

final construction bids are received in late February 2010. NIST has already 

contributed $22.5 million to the construction, and the University of Colorado 

has committed to providing the balance of the required funds. 

 Construction of the JILA Expansion is currently scheduled to begin 

May 2010, with building occupancy tentatively scheduled for January 2012. 

 The additional space is planned to accommodate approximately 30 

JILA fellows and their research groups, based both on polling of the current 

JILA fellows about their plans for group size and using historical trends. 

There are many early-career researchers among the current 29 JILA fellows, 

and their research groups are expected to grow significantly. Thus the JILA 

Expansion is intended to support the natural growth of research groups for the 

current fellows, but it is not intended to support a significant increase in the 

number of fellows. The growth in staff will be almost entirely among students, 

postdoctoral researchers, visitors, and other temporary staff. 

 Meeting current standards of air cleanliness and temperature control and freedom 

from vibration in the new laboratories does nothing to improve the poor conditions in the 

old laboratory. Since the space vacated by groups moving to the new building is now 

empty, it is most economical to renovate its air system as soon as possible—certainly 

prior to moving new groups into that space. 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Conclusions 

The Quantum Physics Division remains one of the premier fundamental research 

physics laboratories in the world, a jewel in the crown for NIST and the Physics 

Laboratory. Although severe economic pressures are being brought to bear on NIST, the 

Quantum Physics Division, and JILA, at present there has been a strong response by 

NIST that will strengthen and maintain the level of excellence for the near future. 

The Quantum Physics Division has been growing in scope over the past few 

years, but this growth cannot continue forever, and there is concern that JILA cannot 

grow larger without sacrificing its strong sense of community. Atomic, molecular, and 

optical physics and biological physics should not continue to expand, but rather the 

Quantum Physics Division should maintain the present levels of excellence in its present 

fields of endeavor. 

Recommendations 

 It is recommended that the Physics Laboratory should continue a high level of 

funding for the Quantum Physics Division, renovate the laboratories in the old building, 

increase the number of visiting fellows by shortening visits for one or two weeks, and 

seek both established experts and highly talented young researchers (e.g., postdoctoral 

researchers). 
54 

7 

Time and Frequency Division 

MISSION 

The mission of the Time and Frequency Division is to advance measurement 

science and to provide time and frequency standards and measurement services to 

commerce, industry, and the public. 

SCOPE 

 The Time and Frequency Division, located at NIST’s Boulder, Colorado, campus, 

has 3 NIST fellows, 32 scientists/engineers, 4 technicians, 52 NIST associates, and 6 

administrative support staff, as of January 2010. Its FY 2009 budget was about $15.6 

million, 68 percent of which was STRS funding. 

 The programs of the Time and Frequency Division are effectively focused on 

achieving its stated objectives. Accordingly, the division programs focus on four 

principal thrusts: (1) the realization of national and international time and frequency 

standards (Coordinated Universal Time, UTC) with the greatest accuracy and precision; 

(2) the dissemination of time and frequency through a wide variety of measurement 

services directed to customers at all levels, from industrial and research customers with 

the most stringent needs to the general public; (3) research on future time and frequency 

standards and dissemination methods; and (4) quantum computing with trapped ions, 

which evolved directly from research on new atomic clocks and which has become a 

major NIST-wide focus area. 

 The division has established itself as a leader in these areas, providing a level of 

organizational performance (e.g., demonstrated frequency accuracy and stability, scope 

and quantity of time dissemination services, publication of scientific results) which 

exceeds that of any metrologic laboratory in the world. The division’s outstanding staff 

members have produced the world’s best time standard, the world’s smallest atomic 

clock, and the world’s most popular time dissemination system. 

 There has been progress in improving the existing laboratory space, and improved 

operational efficiency has been achieved as a result. The new building under 

construction will be available for occupancy in 2012 and will further improve the 

performance and reliability of the laboratory space. It is recommended that efforts to 

maintain and upgrade existing laboratory facilities continue, even after the new building 

is completed. 

 The division has an exceptionally talented group of permanent and temporary 

staff members to perform its primary responsibilities. This is particularly true in the 

areas of fundamental improvements to primary frequency standards and in the field of 

quantum logic. However, the ratio of permanent staff to associates has been declining, 

thereby producing less opportunity for a new generation of staff with long-term focus on 
55 

the NIST mission. This imbalance in the ratio is influenced by the current structure of 

the overhead for permanent and associate staff. 

 Examples of the division’s high-impact accomplishments include the aluminum 

ion “logic clock” (best in the world for precision), the femtosecond laser frequency 

combs enabling the world’s most precise intercomparisons, with a wide range of other 

applications in diverse fields such as astronomy and biological/chemical detection, 

remote time and frequency calibrations (best-in-the-world accuracy and usability), phasenoise metrology, NIST network time services, and chip-scale atomic clocks and sensors. 

 An important area of concern is related to the declining and inadequate funding 

supplied to division core services, such as network time services, radio stations, time and 

frequency calibrations, and maintaining the operation of the F-1 time standard. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE DIVISION 

 Following is the panel’s assessment of the overall quality of the Time and 

Frequency Division (including opportunities for improvement) in terms of the three 

criteria as requested by the NIST Director (see Chapter 1). 

Assessment Relative to Technical Merit 

 The technical quality of the work of this division is among the best in the world. 

The Time and Frequency Division is indeed an important national asset and fills a major 

need. The staff is first-rate, and its accomplishments, as measured by the academic 

standards of publications, conferences, and professional recognition, are first-rate. Some 

important highlights of the division’s accomplishments include the following: 

 Realization of the SI Second: 

—Primary frequency standards: best-in-the-world accuracy with the atomic 

standard F-1 (3 × 10-16 frequency uncertainty reported to BIPM [the 

International Bureau of Weights and Measures]). 

—The upcoming cryogenic F-2 primary standard, which will improve the 

above accuracy by the factor three (to 10-16 uncertainty). 

—One of two best timescales in the world in terms of accuracy and stability. 

 Measurement Services: 

—Remote time and frequency calibrations: best-in-the-world accuracy and 

usability. 

—Phase-noise metrology: unique capabilities, best-in-the-world metrology. 

—NIST network time services: the world’s most heavily used Web clock 

(more than 3 billion hits per day). 

—NIST radio stations: best-in-the-world accuracy, stability; heavily used. 

—Global time service: low cost, ubiquitous 10 ns uncertainty service. The 

division has a new Web-based capability to track timescales across many 

laboratories in several countries around the world. 

—Time Measurement and Analysis Service: real time, 15 ns uncertainty; 

expanded to the Sistema Interamericano de Metrologia (SIM) Time 

Network. 
56 

—Timescale coordination in North, Central, and South America; Department 

of State funding (generates international goodwill). 

—Phase-noise metrology: extending capability to 800 GHz, a capability that 

does not exist today, as driven by advancing Department of Defense 

technology requirements. Advancing the art of oscillator characterization 

beyond phase noise to acceleration sensitivity measurements, at frequencies 

and scales not achieved before. 

 Research and Development: 

—Aluminum ion logic clock, best in the world (8.7 × 10-18 uncertainty). 

—Single-ion optical frequency standards: mercury ion second-best in the 

world (1.6 × 10-17 uncertainty). 

—Cold neutral atomic optical standards: calcium (excellent short stability); 

ytterbium lattice, one of the world’s best. 

—Femtosecond laser frequency combs: the world’s most precise frequency 

intercomparisons (1 × 10-19 uncertainty); the world’s top-performing 

octave-plus spanning combs. Significantly advancing the range of 

applications with the optical comb to fields as diverse as astronomy and 

bio/chem detection. 

—Chip-scale atomic sensors: numerous first demonstrations (chip clock, chip 

magnetometer); progress in expanding the “microsensor” work from 

clocks, to magnetometers and gyros. The chip-scale-device activities are 

state of the art for miniature devices that could have significant applications 

in the commercial world. The next level of development of these devices 

to multiple device fabrication by means of clean-room-based wafer 

fabrication should be encouraged and supported. 

 Quantum Information Processing: 

—Sole technology to demonstrate all seven DiVincenzo criteria for scalable 

quantum computing; first single-atom quantum logic gate; first 

deterministic entanglement; first robust error correction; first quantum 

teleportation of massive particles; first quantum Fourier transforms. 

—The ability to perform quantum processing and an extensive demonstration 

of quantum logic operations is very significant. 

Assessment Relative to Adequacy of Resources 

Human Resources 

 The Time and Frequency Division has an exceptionally talented group of 

permanent and temporary staff members, well suited to perform its primary 

responsibilities. This is particularly true in the areas of fundamental improvements to 

primary frequency standards and in the field of quantum logic. However, the ratio of 

permanent staff to associates has been declining, thereby producing an older and more 

experienced staff with fewer young developing staff and more inertia with respect to 

changes in the direction of work. This approach may serve the scientifically fashionable 

areas of research, but it does not serve the mission of NIST as it relates to advancing 

commerce. 
57 

The division has become overly dependent on temporary NIST associates, with 

over 60 percent of its staff in that category. These individuals are generally very well 

suited for conducting frontier research, but their awareness and interest in the 

fundamental mission of the division, particularly with respect to its responsibility to “our 

nation” is limited. A continuity of association with NIST and the Time and Frequency 

Division as provided by permanent employment provides the best opportunity to develop 

this familiarity. Such permanent staff members then have the ability to identify areas of 

investigation and pertinent capabilities of high relevance to serving our nation. The 

current overhead structure also tends to encourage the use of temporary staff. At the 

NIST level, changing to a more uniform burdening of salaries should result in gradually 

increasing the permanent-to-temporary staff ratio. 

The division’s productivity will be improved by increasing the number of 

technical support personnel. As an example, the most senior staff member associated 

with the establishment of the NIST timescale and Network Time Services is spending an 

excessive amount of his time responding to an IT audit. This work should be done 

primarily by IT-knowledgeable support staff, with guidance supplied by the senior staff 

member. Such senior staff should be focusing on improving the timescale and the NIST 

ability to disseminate such information. Similarly, it is desirable to have electronics 

technicians. The alternative is to invest graduate student and postdoctoral researchers’ 

time in this area. 

Budgets 

 An area of concern with respect to the Time and Frequency Division is related to 

the declining and inadequate funding supplied to primary standards and the NIST 

timescale. This area does not seem to be fully appreciated. Increased attention to clearly 

identifying the value that NIST products have to areas of practical impact is necessary. 

An increase in the level of discretionary funding at the division level would allow 

division leadership greater ability to address this need. Ultimately, laboratory 

management will have to make a conscious decision to shift resources to these areas. 

The division’s network time distribution continues to lead the world, with more 

than 3 billion automated synchronizations per day of computer clocks and network 

hardware, and the usage continues to grow. However, this area of core metrology has 

been chronically underfunded. The greatest need in this area is to hire a new staff 

member as an apprentice to begin learning this program from the developer and current 

project leader. Evidently, a lack of funds prevents this from happening, jeopardizing the 

long-term health of NIST’s most heavily used service. 

ARRA funding for a new NIST time code radio station, or for upgrading the 

existing WWVB time code station, should be a high priority for NIST. Attempts to 

identify a suitable East Coast location for a new station have failed for a variety of 

reasons beyond NIST’s control. A major upgrade of the existing WWVB time code 

station appears to be the best alternative, and NIST should focus on this option and take 

all necessary actions to implement the upgrade. 

Miniature atomic clocks and instruments are doing well with Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA) support, but there is no budget mechanism to 

provide for the continuity of this work when the support runs out or takes its course to 
58 

completion. This area is a good example of NIST doing its job in helping to address a 

major need with specialized capabilities, but the work is not high on the budgetary 

priority list. Budget flexibility should be developed to provide more stable support to this 

important area. The next level of development of these devices to multiple device 

fabrication by means of clean-room-based wafer fabrication should be encouraged and 

supported. 

Three points of note remain. Resource limitations prevent the division’s engaging 

in more extensive technology transfer; this area of the NIST mission needs more attention 

and support. The infusion of funds from the ARRA has been very helpful, and appears to 

have been used wisely. And finally, the Ion Storage Group appears to be the only group 

with adequate resources and adequate space. 

Major Equipment and Facilities 

 Poorly performing laboratories have been a significant problem for the division—

poor control of temperature, vibration, and other environmental conditions has seriously 

compromised the progress on and efficiency of research and metrology. The ongoing 

construction of the new advanced laboratory for Boulder should lead to major 

improvements for the division and for all of NIST Boulder. Progress to this end should 

be commended. However, the new laboratory probably will not be ready for occupation 

until approximately early 2012, so the division will continue to be hindered by obsolete 

laboratory conditions until then. With the level of accuracy and precision sought by the 

division, environmental control in its laboratories is critically important. There has been 

some progress in improving the existing laboratory space, particularly improving the 

temperature control for the NIST timescale. This should continue even after the 

completion of the new building. 

Although there has been considerable improvement in the state of facilities, there 

remain major problems associated with the lack of space in the phase-noise measurement 

area and in the optical frequency standards area. 

Assessment Relative to Achievement of Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 As an excellent example of serving the nation, the NIST Internet Time Service 

continues to grow in use, with an average of more than 3 billion automated 

synchronizations of computers and network devices every day. The service continues to 

expand the number and geographical diversity of servers across the United States to meet 

the continually growing demand. 

 Frequency combs are a major advance and a very enabling technology, 

transferable through optical fibers to characterize all frequencies through clockwork. 

Praiseworthy efforts are underway to connect this technology to problems in 

spectroscopy biochemistry, astronomy, the generation of arbitrary optical waveforms, and 

the generation of a new type of ultra-stable microwave and millimeter-wave sources. 

 The accuracy of the time standard has been realized, but its reliability needs to be 

improved. The use of highly accurate time should be promoted through sharing, 

portability, and new applications. Optical clocks sent through fibers appear to have much 
59 

promise. The calcium clock’s portability and fast stabilization are important features for 

expanding outside connections and opportunities. 

 America needs to be covered by radio time. Another group of antennas or an 

additional transmitter site is clearly needed to expand opportunities and 

commercialization. These ongoing efforts need encouragement and high-level support. 

 The division’s research staff is doing exceptionally well in their topical areas. By 

all research university metrics, they are giving excellent performance. However, because 

they are embedded in NIST, their outreach and impact on real-world problems could be 

expanded. Every research staff member should be concerned about the impact that his or 

her work is having on the world and about the possibilities of solving previously 

insurmountable measurement, technical, and scientific problems with their techniques 

and new instruments. 

 NIST could do a better job of translating its science and technology into 

commercial value. For example, the chip-scale device activities, which could have 

significant commercial applications, should be supported for their next level of 

development. Some of its very important services require higher attention, for example, 

the network time services, radio time stations, time and frequency calibrations, and 

maintaining the operation of the F-1 time standard. The division’s core metrology 

mission is underfunded and inadequately appreciated, as judged by its budgetary support. 

The human resources are primarily through contractors, who come and go without 

knowing what the mission really is. The transient nature of scientists’ engagement with 

the division promotes National Science Foundation-style investigations whereby science 

is done for knowledge, not as a directed force to solve national problems. 

 A final comment is an encouragement for the Time and Frequency Division to 

continue to clarify the relationships between all of its technical products and commercial, 

military, and related scientific applications. 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions 

 The technical work in the Time and Frequency Division is excellent and serves as 

a model for other laboratories in the world. The physical facilities in which this work is 

performed have shown much improvement since the previous NRC panel visit to the 

division in 2008, but some of these facilities remain substandard, and inadequate space 

continues to be a problem. The construction of the new laboratory, appropriate for the 

work and technology of the division, is on schedule to be occupied in 2012 and will start 

a new era for expected experimental accomplishments of the division. 

The Time and Frequency Division conducts a solid portfolio of efforts effectively 

directed toward achieving the stated division goals. The technical quality of its work in 

each area of emphasis is excellent and is the best or among the best in the world. The 

division is indeed an important national asset that fills a major need. The staff are firstrate, and their accomplishments, as measured by the academic standards of publications, 

conferences, and professional recognition, are of the highest quality. 
60 

Recommendations 

 The following recommendations address means to enhance the quality of the 

division’s products and the ability of the division to achieve its objectives. 

 Research applied toward solving problems of national interest should be 

encouraged by rewarding work in this area through increased recognition and 

increased funding and by including the concept as part of the division strategic 

goals. 

—The level of technology transfer should be increased and ways devised 

whereby technology developed at NIST over years and decades is 

transferred to commercial use for the best value to the public. 

—Investments in areas of research should be prioritized and reviewed so as to 

better serve the objectives and charge of the Time and Frequency Division 

and NIST as a whole. 

 The goal of increasing the ratio of permanent to associate staff for the division 

and its management should be established. 

—An overhead structure that supports increasing the number of permanent 

staff should be developed. 

—The need for support staff should be reexamined to ensure that the time 

spent by senior researchers is best utilized. 

—The need for expanded funding for core metrology functions and services is 

apparent. 

—A higher level of discretionary funds should be provided for division 

management to help with future strategies and directions and with the 

current mission. 

 Budgetary structures should be established that allow a smooth transition and 

“gap funding” between phases of externally supported work, such as work 

supported by DARPA. 

 Adequate support should be ensured for the ongoing upgrading of facilities, 

both new facilities and facility renovations. 
61 

8 

Overall Conclusions 

 The following conclusions apply to the Physics Laboratory overall and are 

organized by the three major criteria against which the panel was charged to perform its 

assessment. 

The Technical Merit of the Current Laboratory Programs 

Relative to Current State-of-the-Art Programs Worldwide

 Within the United States, there is no other national laboratory or facility that 

focuses on the missions of the NIST Physics Laboratory, and there is no other laboratory 

worldwide working on the physics of standards and technology that has had the successes 

in physics that this laboratory has achieved during the past two decades. The laboratory 

has maintained this leadership position despite being among the smallest national 

laboratories addressing physics standards and technology, both in the number of 

personnel and in the size of the operating budgets. Despite its small size, it has 

maintained its exemplary performance by remaining focused on providing constantly 

improving measurement services relevant to the state-of-the-art industrial, medical, and 

commercial needs, keeping in close communication with its customers to anticipate their 

needs, and doing the research needed to improve those services and keep pace with 

developments in the field. 

The Adequacy of the Laboratory Budget, Facilities, Equipment, and Human 

Resources, As They Affect the Quality of the Laboratory's Technical Programs 

 The budget for the Physics Laboratory has generally been maintained or increased 

in most areas in absolute dollars, although decreased budgets and/or decreases have been 

observed in some areas, with the standards and service areas appearing to be bearing a 

higher fraction of the burden. These reductions appear to result in part from three factors: 

increased operational costs, increased commitments for budget line items, and funding 

from external agencies for specific programs that represent a significant fraction of the 

increased funding. Funding restrictions are exacerbated by a continual decrease in 

discretionary funds at every level of NIST and the Physics Laboratory. State funding for 

collaborators and affiliated institutions also has begun to decrease, with further reduction 

expected. Despite these issues contributing to lesser support for standards and services, 

reduced funding for some standards and services appears in some cases to be a 

reallocation because of the prioritization for research. 

 The laboratory has new facilities in the planning stage, under construction, or 

completed since 2008, and it has acquired major equipment in key areas, in many cases 

partly in response to recommendations from the 2008 NRC assessment panel. There 

appears to be increased commitment to the refurbishment of the existing facilities and to 

maintenance, although there remain areas of concern for specific programs and groups. 
62 

There also remain major groups with facilities with shortcomings that interfere with 

productivity, time lines, and quality. 

 In terms of human resources, the technical scientists and staff continue to 

represent the major strength of this laboratory, and the laboratory administration has 

effectively applied a proactive approach that retains many of its outstanding personnel 

and has attracted new, highly qualified people. Budget and reallocation issues appear to 

be adversely affecting retention, salaries, the ratio of permanent staff to temporary 

appointments, and recruitment. More recently, the Office of Security within the 

Department of Commerce has begun reinterpreting existing policies regarding (1) out-ofhours access and (2) the unescorted access of foreign guest researchers. NIST leadership 

appears to be working with the Office of Security to ensure that none of these policies 

will be detrimental to NIST, but previous, less restrictive policies had already been noted 

by the panel as affecting productivity. Further constraints on the ability of foreign guest 

researchers to carry out their research are likely to decrease severely the number of these 

researchers, who are a valuable component in the Physics Laboratory’s overall research 

program. 

 Salaries of permanent staff are becoming less competitive, and the complex, 

lengthy employment process with initial working restrictions remains a concern, although 

there were improvements in this area over the past 2 years. Major laboratory 

administrators responsible for the successes of the past decades are advancing and/or 

retiring. There should be an explicit plan not only for selecting exceptional people as 

replacements or for new projects but also for providing the training and resources needed 

to maintain the past level of leadership. 

 A generally flat and in some cases decreased budget for the laboratory may have a 

deleterious effect on its ability to maintain senior scientific and technical staff. Without 

vigilance and continued adequate support, the past and present reputation and position of 

the laboratory may not extend into the future. The laboratory and several of its divisions 

and groups have responded to budgetary pressures and to recommendations of the 2008 

NRC assessment panel by developing long-range detailed strategic plans, but sufficient 

resources must be provided if the laboratory is going to be able to achieve its goals. 

Although the laboratory’s strategic plan includes provisions for the increased support 

needed to maintain its new facilities and to upgrade and maintain the existing facilities, 

the inadequacy of past levels of funds for maintenance suggests that this matter deserves 

continued attention. 

The Degree to Which Laboratory Programs in Measurement Science, Standards, 

and Services Achieve Their Stated Objectives and Desired Impact 

 Recent strategic plans at both the laboratory and division levels have succinctly 

enumerated objectives and, in turn, provide elucidation of the significance of the 

individual achievements and their contributions to these objectives. Some groups, 

however, would benefit from additional long-term planning for balancing core activities 

and allocating resources. The strategic planning could suggest appropriate paths for 

organizing personnel among divisions in the Physics Laboratory so that the talented staff 

can work more closely and efficiently with their collaborators in other divisions. New, 

improved, and/or more accurate services are being provided; however, some important 
63 

service and standards areas have had reductions in funding, reduction in services, or 

increased workloads, as noted in the individual division chapters, impacting their ability 

to meet their responsibilities. Recently, as a result of a U.S. Government Accountability 

Office audit of the NIST Working Capital Fund, attorneys from the Department of 

Commerce General Law Division questioned the terms of the agreements by which other 

federal agencies transfer funds to NIST. The panel understands that NIST may be 

required to implement alternative procedures for accepting funding from other federal 

agencies. The panel recommends that any new administrative options should not reduce 

the efficiency or rapidity with which research addressing the needs of other federal 

agencies is conducted at NIST. 

 The panel concludes that NIST, the Department of Commerce, and the nation 

have been well served by the Physics Laboratory, with the past two decades being an era 

of exceptional accomplishment. The laboratory and its scientific, technical, and 

administrative personnel, as well as the service organizations and personnel supporting 

them, are to be lauded for their achievements.