AN ASSESSMENT OF FOUR DIVISIONS OF THE 

 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY 

AT THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND 

TECHNOLOGY 

FISCAL YEAR 2018 

Panel on Review of Four Divisions of the Physical Measurement Laboratory 

at the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Committee on NIST Technical Programs 

Laboratory Assessments Board 

Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences 

A Consensus Study Report of 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 

This activity was supported by Contract No. SB134117CQ0017/18107 with the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this 

publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the 

project. 

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-48545-6 

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-48545-2 

Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.17226/25281 

Copies of this publication are available from 

Laboratory Assessments Board 

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 

500 Fifth Street, NW #928 

Washington, DC 20001 

Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 

360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313; http://www.nap.edu. 

Copyright 2018 by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. All rights reserved. 

Printed in the United States of America 

Suggested Citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. An Assessment of 

Four Divisions of the Physical Measurement Laboratory at the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology: Fiscal Year 2018. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 

doi:https://doi.org/10.17226/25281.
The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by 

President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues 

related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding 

contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president. 

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the 

National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising the nation. 

Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. C. D. 

Mote, Jr., is president. 

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 

1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical 

and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to 

medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president. 

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, 

and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice to the nation and 

conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The 

National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding 

contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, 

engineering, and medicine. 

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at 

www.nationalacademies.org.

 
Consensus Study Reports published by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and 

Medicine document the evidence-based consensus on the study’s statement of task by an 

authoring committee of experts. Reports typically include findings, conclusions, and 

recommendations based on information gathered by the committee and the committee’s 

deliberations. Each report has been subjected to a rigorous and independent peer-review 

process and it represents the position of the National Academies on the statement of task. 

Proceedings published by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and 

Medicine chronicle the presentations and discussions at a workshop, symposium, or 

other event convened by the National Academies. The statements and opinions contained in 

proceedings are those of the participants and are not endorsed by other participants, the 

planning committee, or the National Academies. 

For information about other products and activities of the National Academies, please 

visit www.nationalacademies.org/about/whatwedo.
v 

PANEL ON REVIEW OF FOUR DIVISIONS OF THE PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT 

LABORATORY AT THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY 

ELSA M. GARMIRE, NAE,1

 Dartmouth College (ret.), Santa Cruz, California, Chair 

ROBERT H. AUSTIN, NAS,2

 Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 

JESSE “JACK” L. BEAUCHAMP, NAS, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 

LOUIS E. BRUS, NAS, Columbia University, New York, New York 

THOMAS F, BUDINGER, NAE/NAM, University of California, Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley 

National Laboratory 

ANDREW N. CLELAND, University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory 

JAMES J. COLEMAN, NAE, University of Texas at Dallas 

GRAHAM R. FLEMING, NAS, University of California, Berkeley 

DEREK F. JACKSON KIMBALL, California State University—East Bay, Hayward 

AHARON KAPITULNIK, NAS, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 

DANIEL KLEPPNER, NAS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 

MICHAEL J. MANFRA, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 

PIERRE MEYSTRE, University of Arizona, Tucson 

CLARK TU-CUONG NGUYEN, University of California, Berkeley 

M. ALLEN NORTHRUP, NAE, MIODx, San Jose, California 

JOHN D. PRESTAGE, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California 

DANIEL E. PROBER, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 

CHARLES TAHAN, Laboratory for Physical Sciences, College Park, Maryland 

DAVID A. THOMPSON, NAE, IBM Almaden Research Center (ret.), San Jose, California 

ADAM P. WAX, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 

ANDREW M. WEINER, NAE, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 

ALAN E. WILLNER, NAE, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 

Staff 

AZEB GETACHEW, Senior Program Assistant 

LIZA HAMILTON, Associate Program Officer 

EVA LABRE, Administrative Coordinator 

JAMES P. McGEE, Director 

MARTIN OFFUTT, Senior Program Officer 

 

 

1

 Member, National Academy of Engineering. 

2

 Member, National Academy of Sciences. 
vi 

COMMITTEE ON NIST TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 

ELSA REICHMANIS, NAE, Georgia Institute of Technology, Chair 

MICHAEL I. BASKES, NAE, Mississippi State University 

LEWIS BRANSCOMB, NAS/NAE/NAM,3

 University of California, San Diego 

MARTIN E. GLICKSMAN, NAE, Florida Institute of Technology 

JENNIE S. HWANG, NAE, H-Technologies Group 

CHRISTOPHER W. MACOSKO, NAE, University of Minnesota 

C. KUMAR PATEL, NAS/NAE, Pranalytica, Inc. 

BHAKTA B. RATH, NAE, Naval Research Laboratory 

ALICE WHITE, Boston University 

Staff

AZEB GETACHEW, Senior Program Assistant 

LIZA HAMILTON, Associate Program Officer 

EVA LABRE, Administrative Coordinator 

JAMES P. MCGEE, Director 

MARTIN OFFUTT, Senior Program Officer 

 

 

3

 Member, National Academy of Medicine. 
vii 

LABORATORY ASSESSMENTS BOARD 

ROSS B. COROTIS, NAE, University of Colorado, Boulder, Chair

WESLEY L. HARRIS, NAE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

JENNIE S. HWANG, NAE, H-Technologies Group 

W. CARL LINEBERGER, NAS, University of Colorado, Boulder 

C. KUMAR N. PATEL, NAS/NAE, Pranalytica, Inc. 

ELSA REICHMANIS, NAE, Georgia Institute of Technology 

LYLE H. SCHWARTZ, NAE, U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research (retired) 

Staff

AZEB GETACHEW, Senior Program Assistant 

LIZA HAMILTON, Associate Program Officer 

EVA LABRE, Administrative Coordinator 

JAMES P. MCGEE, Director 

ARUL MOZHI, Senior Program Officer 

MARTIN OFFUTT, Senior Program Officer 

ix 

Acknowledgment of Reviewers 

This Consensus Study Report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse 

perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and 

critical comments that will assist the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in 

making each published report as sound as possible and to ensure that it meets the institutional standards 

for quality, objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft 

manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. 

We thank the following individuals for their review of this report: 

 Ingrid Daubechies, NAS1

/NAE,2 Duke University, 

 Laura H. Greene, NAS, Florida State University, 

Paul Kwiat, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 

 Jochen Lauterbach, University of South Carolina, and 

 David Weitz, NAS/NAE, Harvard University. 

Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they 

were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of this report nor did they see the final 

draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Arden L. Bement, Jr., NAE, Purdue 

University. He was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was 

carried out in accordance with the standards of the National Academies and that all review comments 

were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content rests entirely with the authoring committee 

and the National Academies. 

 

1

 Member, National Academy of Sciences. 

2

 Member, National Academy of Engineering. 

xi 

Contents 

SUMMARY 1 

1 THE CHARGE TO THE PANEL AND THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 7 

2 ORGANIZATION AND MISSION OF THE PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY 9 

3 APPLIED PHYSICS DIVISION 12 

4 QUANTUM ELECTROMAGNETICS DIVISION 24 

5 TIME AND FREQUENCY DIVISION 33 

6 QUANTUM PHYSICS DIVISION 40 

7 KEY RECOMMENDATIONS 47 

ACRONYMS 49 

1 

Summary 

INTRODUCTION 

In 2017, at the request of the Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST), the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine formed the Panel on Review of 

Four Divisions of the Physical Measurement Laboratory of the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology (the “panel”) and established the following statement of task: 

The National Academies shall appoint a panel to assess independently the scientific and technical 

work performed by four divisions of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 

Physical Measurement Laboratory. This panel will review technical reports and technical program 

descriptions prepared by NIST staff and will visit the facilities of four divisions of the Physical 

Measurement Laboratory. The visit will include technical presentations by NIST staff, 

demonstrations of NIST projects, tours of NIST facilities, and discussions with NIST staff. The 

panel will deliberate findings in closed sessions of the panel meeting and will prepare a report 

summarizing its assessment findings. 

NIST specified that the following four divisions of the Physical Measurement Laboratory (PML) 

would be reviewed: Applied Physics Division (APD), Quantum Electromagnetics Division (QED), Time 

and Frequency Division (TFD), and the Quantum Physics Division (QPD). All four of these divisions are 

located in Boulder, Colorado, and were visited by the panel on May 1-3, 2018. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 

Previous Appraisal of PML Enterprise 

The Summary of the National Research Council’s (NRC’s) assessment of the PML in 2015, 

which included both Gaithersburg, Maryland, and Boulder, Colorado, locations, had general observations 

that began as follows:1,2

The PML remains an outstanding institution of the highest standards and accomplishments. 

Broadly speaking, the PML is dedicated to three fundamental and complementary tasks: (1) 

increase the accuracy of our knowledge of the physical parameters that are the foundation of our 

technology-driven society; (2) disseminate technologies by which these physical parameters can 

be accessed in a standardized way by the stakeholders; and (3) conduct research at both 

fundamental and applied levels to provide knowledge that may eventually lead to advances in 

measurement approaches and standards. 

 

1

 National Research Council, 2016, An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Physical Measurement Laboratory—Fiscal Year 2015, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. 2

 Effective July 1, 2015, the institution has been called the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and 

Medicine. References in this report to the National Research Council are used in a historical context identifying 

programs prior to July 1, 2015. 
2 

The scientific staff is of uniformly high quality, but preserving the quality of the staff will be 

a challenge because of the large number of anticipated retirements of such excellent staff. The 

physical infrastructure of the PML is heterogeneous and complex but still fundamentally adequate 

to the tasks at hand. It is generally of a world-class quality, although there remain some weak 

infrastructure areas in the Radiation Physics Division that need to be addressed immediately. 

The PML is a large organization, dispersed on two main campuses, one at Gaithersburg, 

Maryland, the other at Boulder, Colorado. 

It is vital that the excellence of the PML be maintained as the United States faces increasing 

competition for resources and technology from rapidly advancing countries. 

Current Appraisal of the Success of PML Enterprise 

The present committee fully backs the assessment made in 2015. It is heartening to see the extent 

to which PML maintains outstanding staff, operating with the highest standards and accomplishments at 

levels that are often among the best in the world. All divisions within the Boulder group were found to 

have achieved impressive results and to operate at the highest levels in each of the three tasks listed 

above. The PML seems to be able to find the expertise they need within their institution or other 

institutions—universities, private organizations, and other government institutions. 

No gaps in PML’s scientific expertise were found such as might hinder excellent technical 

performance of the tasks that PML has chosen to perform, nor were other tasks identified that PML 

should be performing. PML is fully capable of supporting its technical programs with the ability to 

achieve its stated objectives. No area of concern was identified with respect to scientific expertise. 

Dissemination of research results and interaction with relevant external communities are excellent and 

include work with standards-setting groups, provision of calibration services, and development of 

industrially and medically useful techniques. 

Challenges to PML’s Achieving Its Goals 

The 2015 NRC report noted concern for possible staff turnover due to retirements. The staff at 

the divisions reviewed this year has met this challenge very successfully. Unexpectedly large turnover 

was partly caused by the unanticipated death of a very successful researcher. However, no projects were 

dropped or diminished, primarily because of the interactive group structure in the research laboratories. 

Unusually large turnover in the administration has caused minimal disruption, because staff stepped up 

to address PML needs and met the unexpected challenges. 

PML did report considerable turnover, much of it due to the short-term nature of many technical 

appointments, including graduate fellowships, visiting faculty, and other short-term visitors. Retirements 

occur as usual, but it seems that many professional staff who leave do so for other technical opportunities. 

Discussions with several women staff suggested that it would be important for the PML to 

investigate analytically whether the excellent technical support that is provided to the women is 

complemented by support for their career goals, including promotion, and for the PML to act upon the 

results of that analysis as appropriate. The PML reported that they have an acceptably good record in 

recruiting women early in their careers, but promotions have not kept up with the norms for other 

institutions. Data can be collected to establish whether there is indeed basis for concern, and to identify the 

issues in which possible inequitable treatment manifests itself. 

There appears to be a need for a human resources professional resident at the Boulder campus— 

someone who can get to know the staff and respond to career considerations in a timely manner. A 

resident human resources professional could monitor promotional norms and assure that they were the 

same across the institution for equivalently performing individuals, independent of their gender, age, race, 

or other relevant demographic variables. The PML staff have appointed one woman to take on the 

retention of women as her task, but she apparently has no specific training or experience in this role. It is 
3 

not clear how much difference she can make without authority. A further possible approach might be to 

establish a review group of NIST and non-NIST scientists who could establish the appropriate analytics 

for management to track on a longitudinal basis to monitor this issue and advise on any new policies. 

The weak infrastructure highlighted in the 2015 report persists in some areas. NIST responded to 

this challenge by bringing on board the new Katharine Blodgett Gebbie Laboratory Building, which is 

devoted to research. Some fortunate PML staff have excellent research space in that new building. At the 

same time, however, some staff laboratories are in a building that has not been upgraded since the 1960s. 

The environmental controls in the laboratory space need to be improved. While the ability of PML 

researchers to operate in less-than-optimal physical space was impressive, they are rapidly reaching the 

day when the decaying infrastructure will limit their ability to perform their necessary duties, continue the 

accuracy of the standards that PML researchers have developed, and show the applicability of their 

research to ever-advancing high-tech industry. 

Recommendation 1. The PML should develop with NIST management a plan to remodel 

and upgrade, as soon as possible, the infrastructure utilized by the PML and should 

perform an assessment to determine which PML infrastructure assets are weakest in 

supporting the scientific mission. 

Global Challenges 

The researchers at PML are aware of the competition they have throughout the world. 

Fortunately, they have been allowed to travel when needed to conferences and workshops, giving papers 

and talks. This keeps them abreast of breakthroughs in their respective fields. They seem admirably up-todate technically. Their technical and scientific awareness is at the level of the highest educational 

institutions in the United States and considerably more than in many government laboratories. It is urgent 

that the government continues to fund this travel. Similarly, access to a variety of library resources is 

critical. Portions of PML have the good fortune to be located on the University of Colorado, Boulder 

(CU) campus, and researchers have access to their state-of-the-art libraries. 

The ability to purchase or have access to state-of-the-art equipment is also crucial to maintaining 

a world-class effort. Researchers expressed faith that continued funding would be available through the 

Department of Commerce (DOC). This faith is crucial to maintaining forward-looking researchers with 

ambitious plans—the kind that have made PML world-class in many areas. NIST in Boulder is fortunate 

to have the backing of both current Colorado senators. Nonetheless, the funding profile in recent years 

does not suggest long-range stability of the funding of PML. Funding for JILA—a joint organization of 

NIST and the University of Colorado, Boulder (CU), established in 1962 and located on the CU 

campus—has recently benefited from being awarded an additional 5 years from the National Science 

Foundation, but nothing is guaranteed after that. The management at PML, in collaboration with NIST 

upper management, needs to do long-range planning about what to do if the funding dips. PML is hiring a 

person to market PML to private entities, with the plan to ultimately cover any loss of government funds. 

This is an essential endeavor. 

Patents and Intellectual Property 

The 2015 NRC report noted that NIST procedures and policies relating to patents and intellectual 

property (IP) were not clearly defined for technical staff. The present panel revisited this issue and found, 

for example, that JILA—the host institution of the QPD—is mostly engaged in basic scientific research 

not compatible with patent protection and licensing. Protecting some of the work would allow its 

translation into the commercial sector. Without IP protection, companies will not want to invest the time 

and money to complete translation to market. Incentives for JILA researchers could be constructed that 
4 

reward IP development, compatible with government restrictions, in a manner that does not distort the 

basic scientific effort but promotes technology transfer. 

At the conclusion of the committee’s site visit, the chair of the committee and National 

Academies staff met with the Director of NIST, who explained that a priority for him was developing and 

regularizing workable procedures and policy positions on patents and IP for all parts of NIST. The 

Director reported this year that he is addressing this matter throughout the DOC, so that all DOC staff, 

including those at NIST, will be afforded a clear understanding of IP procedures and policies. NIST 

researchers need to be part of the conversation. The prospect of changes in patent and IP procedures and 

policies, being developed by the NIST Director, is encouraging and represents an opportunity for PML to 

regularize these procedures. 

Recommendation 2. The PML should maintain awareness of changes in patent and 

intellectual property procedures to encourage and more efficiently enable the movement of 

PML discoveries into commercial space. 

Collaboration Across Organizational Boundaries 

Divisions in PML are meeting the needs of stakeholders in other laboratories of NIST. Within 

PML itself, there is an opportunity for greater interaction and dissemination of results between the Time 

and Frequency Division and the Quantum Physics Division, which are located on different campuses. 

SIGNIFICANT ACCOMPLISHMENTS 

Applied Physics Division 

The seven groups of the APD are broadly concerned with measurement of electromagnetic 

radiation and address stakeholder needs in a range of applications, including magnetic imaging in health 

care, quantum communication and computing, brain network cognitive processes simulation, single 

photon detection, gas sensing, and other areas. 

The APD has responded to a global need to standardize and calibrate magnetic resonance (MR) 

imaging and spectroscopy systems used in clinical medicine and medical research by successfully 

fabricating phantoms that allow not only physical system calibration but also allow evaluation of slight 

differences in pulse sequences, including radio frequency (RF) and gradient protocols. A major 

innovation from the Magnetic Resonance Group is the development of new micro- and nanoparticlebased contrast agents for new MR imaging and sensing schemes. The high-moment synthetic 

antiferromagnet nanoparticles provide enhanced contrast in T2-weighted studies for in vivo cell-tracking 

and remote sensing of biological tissue mechanical stresses in human physiology research. 

The success of atmospheric horizontal and vertical path assessment of gases (e.g., carbon dioxide 

and methane) using fiber-based optical comb technology opens new and highly accurate methodologies 

for monitoring a large volume of three-dimensional air space by remote and flexible systems. This 

technology has the potential for a significant improvement in environmental monitoring. 

Quantum computation relies on fast and high fidelity coupling between quantum informationholding systems. The Advanced Microwave Photonics Group has developed a parametric-based 

architecture that dramatically increases the connectivity between qubits, thereby advancing significantly 

the practicality of quantum computing. 

Three groups in this division are engaged in development of neuromorphic systems designed to 

simulate circuit functions of the human brain’s memory and data processing functions by utilizing 

superconducting single flux quantum (SFQ) and spintronics devices that will measure spatial and 

temporal correlations in high-density networks to understand memory and data processing. The group has 
5 

developed a stochastic model of magnetic Josephson junctions suitable for high-density neural 

simulations. The circuits allow simulation of most known neurophysiology functions, including 

inhibition. 

One of the groups is extending atom probe tomography to include laser-assisted tomography and 

extreme atom probe tomography and is extending this work to the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) regime and 

adding in situ transmission electron microscopy analysis. This work has the potential to significantly 

advance the practical utility of atom probe tomography. 

Quantum Electromagnetics Division 

The QED’s interdisciplinary program of research focuses on high-performance computing; 

superconductive electronics, quantum sensors, nanomagnetic measurements, and spin electronics; and 

molecular photonics and biophotonics. The division is also responsible for the Boulder Microfabrication 

Facility, utilized by NIST-Boulder and its direct collaborators. 

The QED develops highly precise measurements and instrumentation using a range of techniques 

and phenomena such as Josephson standards and millimeter-wavelength detectors. The division maintains 

a programmable DC voltage standard with current demonstrated accuracy to a few parts in 1011. This has 

been disseminated to national metrology institutes (NMIs) in other countries and is available for sale as a 

certified NIST reference instrument. 

The QED has maintained the microfabrication facility’s impressive capabilities; adding an ebeam lithography tool has allowed greatly enhanced resolution (below 10 nm), essential for magnetic 

sensors and devices. The new clean room has been key in enabling production of the large (150 mm) 

wafers that are essential in current and future astronomy projects. 

Time and Frequency Division 

The mission of the TFD is to provide official U.S. time and frequency, entailing not only their 

accurate realization but also their dissemination through various devices and services. A measure of the 

value of the service NIST provides in dissemination is the 40 billion Internet synchronization requests it 

serves each day. Additionally, the TFD performs state-of-the-art research in time and frequency and 

related technologies. As an example, two independent ytterbium lattice frequency standards were 

constructed within the TFD, which demonstrated agreement to better than one part in 1018, nearly a factor 

of five beyond the previous state-of-the-art research in atomic clock. The division has also made 

important contributions to research in optical frequency combs, quantum information/computing, and 

chip-scale atomic clocks and sensors. 

Quantum Physics Division 

The QPD is the NIST component of JILA and operates within a cooperative agreement between 

NIST and CU. The QPD/JILA cooperative addresses measurement science, including focus areas of 

quantum many-body physics, quantum technologies, and more recently, biophysics. The division’s 

optical lattice clocks have a precision of approximately 10−19, with the further promise to reach 10−21, 

owing to development of a fermionic atomic lattice clock. A further accomplishment is the realization of 

a superradiant laser that is 500,000 times less sensitive to cavity length than conventional stable lasers. In 

biophysics, QPD utilized biological atomic force microscopy (AFM) for membrane protein studies and 

achieved record time resolution (~1 μs) and low noise. 
6 

ADDITIONAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Applied Physics Division 

Instrumentation and space resources are excellent for most of the groups, but the Magnetic 

Resonance Imaging group is badly in need of a clinical-class magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner 

so that appropriate phantom design, as well as initial testing, can be readily accomplished without going 

to other sites. NIST has access to nearby clinical commercial MRI systems, but nonetheless might 

evaluate whether a clinical system of its own might not improve productivity by eliminating wait times, 

providing opportunities for CRADAs and other partnerships that might offset costs, and decreasing costs 

it would otherwise occur using other clinical scanners in the area. In its work on quantitative 

nanostructure characterization, APD may benefit from broader collaborations on different materials 

systems. APD’s work on advanced microwave photonics applied to quantum computing and its 

stakeholder community would benefit from experimental validation or the development of theoretical 

manuscripts describing the proposals. 

Recommendation 3. PML should study the costs and benefits of acquiring a clinical-class 

magnetic resonance imaging machine that would assist in phantom design and enable 

testing onsite. 

Quantum Electromagnetics Division 

The QED would benefit from increased guidance on the value to NIST of patent activity vis-à-vis 

journal publications and other metrics. (See Recommendation 2 above.) The environmental controls in the 

laboratory space need to be improved. The aging facilities have problems with the building envelope, 

such as the observed roof leaks. (See Recommendation 1 above.) 

Time and Frequency Division 

The problem of transmitting time signals and comparing frequency standards in this new regime 

of precision poses a serious scientific and technical challenge for the TFD. Comparisons in the same 

laboratory are relatively straightforward, but the problem of comparisons at large distances remains to be 

solved. 

Recommendation 4. PML should continue its work to develop methods for distributing time 

over long distances at the newly attainable levels of precision. 

Quantum Physics Division 

QPD/JILA has strong overlapping interests with other PML divisions, such as the TFD. Because 

QPD/JILA is housed in a CU facility and not at NIST Boulder, there is little trickle down to QPD/JILA of 

technical improvements in TFD. 
7 

1 

The Charge to the Panel and the 

Assessment Process 

At the request of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the National 

Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine has, since 1959, annually assembled panels of experts 

from academia, industry, medicine, and other scientific and engineering communities to assess the quality 

and effectiveness of the NIST measurements and standards laboratories, of which there are now seven,1

 as 

well as the adequacy of the laboratories’ resources. The context of this technical assessment is the mission 

of NIST, which is to promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement 

science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve the quality of 

life. The NIST laboratories conduct research to anticipate future metrology and standard’s needs, enable 

scientific and technological advances, and improve and refine existing measurement methods and 

services. 

At the request of the Acting Director of NIST, in 2017 the National Academies formed the Panel 

on Review of Four Divisions of the Physical Measurement Laboratory at the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (the “panel”) and established the following statement of task for the panel: 

The Panel on Review of Four Divisions of the Physical Measurement Laboratory at the National 

Institute of Standards and Technology will assess the scientific and technical work performed by 

the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Physical Measurement Laboratory. 

The panel will review technical reports and technical program descriptions prepared by NIST staff 

and will visit the facilities of the NIST laboratory. The visit will include technical presentations by 

NIST staff, demonstrations of NIST projects, tours of NIST facilities, and discussions with NIST 

staff. The panel will deliberate findings in a closed session panel meeting and will prepare a report 

summarizing its assessment findings. 

The Director of NIST also suggested that the panel consider during its assessment the following 

factors: 

1. Assess the organization’s technical programs. 

• How does the quality of the research compare to similar world class research in the 

technical program areas? 

• Is the quality of the technical programs adequate for the organization to reach its stated 

technical objectives? How could it be improved? 

2. Assess the portfolio of scientific expertise within the organization. 

• Does the organization have world class scientific expertise in the areas of the 

organization’s mission and program objectives? If not, what areas should it be improved? 

• How well does the organization’s scientific expertise support the organization’s technical 

programs and the organization’s ability to achieve its stated objectives? 

3. Assess the adequacy of the organization’s facilities, equipment, and human resources. 

 

1

 The seven NIST laboratories are the Engineering Laboratory, the Physical Measurement Laboratory, the 

Information Technology Laboratory, the Material Measurement Laboratory, the Communication Technology 

Laboratory, the Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, and the NIST Center for Neutron Research. 
8 

• How well do the facilities, equipment, and human resources support the organization’s 

technical programs and its ability to achieve its state objectives? How could they be 

improved? 

4. Assess the effectiveness by which the organization disseminates its program outputs. 

• How well are the organization’s research programs driven by stakeholder needs? 

• How effective are the technology transfer mechanisms used by the organization? Are 

these mechanisms sufficiently comprehensive? 

• How well is the organization monitoring stakeholder use and impact of program outputs? 

How could this be improved? 

The expertise of the panel of 22 volunteers matched that of the work performed by the Physical 

Measurement Laboratory (PML) staff.2

 

On May 1-3, 2018, the panel assembled at the NIST facilities in Boulder, Colorado, for a twoand-a-half-day assessment, during which it received welcoming remarks from the Director of NIST and 

from the PML director, heard overview presentations by PML management and presentations by 

researchers at the PML, toured portions of the PML facilities, and attended an interactive session with 

PML management. The panel also met in a closed session to deliberate on its findings and to define the 

contents of this assessment report.3

The panel’s approach to the assessment relied on the experience, technical knowledge, and 

expertise of its members. The panel did not attempt to report an exhaustive assessment of every project 

reviewed. Rather, the panel’s goal was to identify and report accomplishments and opportunities for 

further improvement with respect to the following: the quality of the technical programs at the PML; the 

portfolio of scientific expertise within the laboratory; the adequacy of the laboratory’s facilities, 

equipment, and human resources; and the effectiveness by which the organization disseminates its 

program outputs. The panel illustrated its conclusions with salient examples of programs and projects that 

are intended collectively to portray an overall impression of the laboratory, while preserving useful 

suggestions specific to projects and programs. 

To accomplish its mission, the panel reviewed the material provided by the PML prior to and 

during the review meeting. The choice of projects to be reviewed was made by the PML. The panel 

applied a largely qualitative approach to the assessment. Given the nonexhaustive nature of the review, 

the omission in this report of any particular PML project should not be interpreted as a negative reflection 

on the omitted project. For all the projects reviewed, at least two panel members had direct expertise.

 

2

 See the NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory website at https://www.nist.gov/pml for information on 

Physical Measurement Laboratory organization and programs (accessed July 10, 2018). 3

 The agenda for the May 1-3, 2018, assessment meeting is at the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, 

and Medicine website, http://www8.nationalacademies.org/cp/meetingview.aspx?MeetingID=9904&MeetingNo=1. 
9 

2 

Organization and Mission of the Physical Measurement Laboratory 

The nine divisions that comprise the NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory (PML) are in either 

Boulder, Colorado, or Gaithersburg, Maryland. The Boulder campus of NIST includes four divisions—

Applied Physics, Quantum Electromagnetics, Time and Frequency, and Sensor Sciences.1

 A fifth 

division, Quantum Physics, is located on the campus of the University of Colorado, Boulder. The balance 

of the nine divisions are located in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and include Engineering Physics, Quantum 

Measurement, Radiation Physics, and Weights and Measures. The divisions themselves are further made 

up of groups; this report discusses the science in four of the groups located in Boulder that were 

specifically the subject of the present review. 

APPLIED PHYSICS DIVISION 

One of the four divisions in Boulder, the Applied Physics Division has the mission to advance 

measurement science and technology throughout the electromagnetic spectrum in areas of critical 

importance to national priority needs. These areas include advanced manufacturing, national security, 

biological innovations, climate change science, and clean energy. The division provides industry, and its 

suppliers and customers, with comprehensive measurement capabilities and standards, as well as 

traceability to those standards.2

 Its groups are as follows: 

 Advanced Microwave Photonics, 

 Faint Photonics, 

 Fiber Sources and Applications, 

 Magnetic Imaging, 

 Molecular and BioPhotonics,3

 Quantitative Nanostructure Characterization, 

 Quantum Nanophotonics, and 

 Sources and Detectors. 

QUANTUM ELECTROMAGNETICS DIVISION 

The Quantum Electromagnetics Division (Boulder) has the mission to provide the metrological 

foundation for strategic, emerging electronic, magnetic, and photonic technologies by developing highprecision measurement devices, systems, standards, and methodologies and disseminating them to 

address national needs. The group interacts and collaborates with stakeholders in industry, academia, and 

other government agencies to ensure that responsiveness to their measurement needs in quantum 

electrical standards; advanced materials analysis using X-ray sensor arrays; superconducting electronics 

 

1

 The Sensor Science Division, although located in Boulder, Colorado, was not reviewed. It includes the 

following groups: Fluid Metrology Group, Optical Radiation Group, Remote Sensing Group, Thermodynamic 

Metrology Group, and Ultraviolet Radiation Group. 2

 Adapted from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), “Physical Measurement Laboratory 

Divisions,” available at https://www.nist.gov/pml/divisions, accessed September 27, 2018. 3

 Was located within the Quantum Electromagnetics Division at the time of the panel’s review. 
10 

and nanomagnetics for high-speed, energy-efficient, future-generation computing; and quantitative 

medical diagnostic imaging.4

 Its groups include the following: 

 Microfabrication, 

 Nanoscale Spin Dynamics, 

 Quantum Processing, 

 Quantum Sensors, 

 Spin Electronics, and 

 Superconductive Electronics. 

TIME AND FREQUENCY DIVISION 

The Time and Frequency Division (Boulder) maintains the standard for frequency and time 

interval for the United States, provides official time to the United States, and carries out a broad program 

of research and service activities in time and frequency metrology.5

 The division’s research and 

metrology have three major thrusts: (1) accurate and precise realization of UTC (Coordinated Universal 

Time), (2) a range of measures to disseminate this time, and (3) research and technology development.6

Its groups are as follows: 

 Atomic Devices and Instrumentation Group, 

 Atomic Standards Group, 

 Ion Storage Group, 

 Optical Frequency Measurements Group, 

 Time and Frequency Metrology, and 

 Time and Frequency Services. 

QUANTUM PHYSICS DIVISION 

The Quantum Physics Division, located on the campus of the University of Colorado, Boulder, at 

a joint institute, JILA, performs experimental and theoretical research and innovation advancing 

fundamental measurement science through quantum optics, quantum degenerate gases of atoms and 

molecules, quantum many-body physics, chemical physics, biophysics, and nanoscale quantum science.7

Its functional research and training focus areas are as follows: 

 Quantum Information Science and Technology, 

 Precision Measurement, 

 Nanoscience, 

 Laser Physics, 

 Chemical Physics, 

 Biophysics, 

 Atomic and Molecular Physics, and 

 Astrophysics. 

 

4

 Adapted from NIST, “Physical Measurement Laboratory Divisions,” available at 

https://www.nist.gov/pml/divisions, accessed September 27, 2018. 5

 Adapted from NIST, “Time and Frequency Division,” available at https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-andfrequency-division, accessed September 27, 2018. 6

 Adapted from C. Oates, 2018, Time and Frequency (688) Report 2018, NIST, Boulder, Colo. 7

 Adapted from NIST, “Quantum Physics Division,” https://www.nist.gov/pml/quantum-physics, accessed 

September 27, 2018. 
11 

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL RELEVANCE 

Adding together the contributions of both the Gaithersburg and Boulder branches, PML develops 

and disseminates the national standards of length, mass, force and shock; acceleration; time and 

frequency; electricity; temperature; humidity; pressure and vacuum; liquid and gas flow; and 

electromagnetic, optical, microwave, acoustic, ultrasonic, and ionizing radiation. Activities range from 

fundamental measurement research through provision of measurement services, standards, and data. PML 

applies its measurement capabilities to problems of national significance through collaborations with 

industry, universities, professional and standards setting organizations, and other agencies of government. 

PML supports the research community in such areas as communication, defense, electronics, energy, 

environment, health, lighting, manufacturing, microelectronics, radiation, remote sensing, space, and 

transportation. 

PML establishes spectroscopic methods and standards for infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-ray, and 

gamma-ray radiation; investigates the structure and dynamics of atoms, molecules, and biomolecules; 

develops the electrical, thermal, dimensional, mechanical, and physical metrology for measuring the 

properties of precision measurement devices and exploratory semiconductor, quantum electronic, 

nanoelectronic, bioelectronic, biooptical, optoelectronic, and quantum information devices and systems; 

and examines the thermophysical and interfacial properties of streams of flowing fluids, fluid mixtures, 

and solids. 

It develops and disseminates national standards by means of calibrations, measurement quality 

assurance, standard reference materials, technology transfer, education and training, and a comprehensive 

weights and measurement program to promote uniformity and accuracy at the international, federal, state, 

and local levels. 

It generates, evaluates, and compiles atomic, molecular, optical, ionizing radiation, electronic, 

and electromagnetic data in response to national needs, measures and improves accuracy of the 

fundamental physical constants, and develops and operates major radiation sources for measurement 

science and metrology. 
12 

3 

Applied Physics Division 

INTRODUCTION 

The Applied Physics Division (APD) has seven groups with a complement of 140 personnel, 

many of whom work on projects in multiple groups. These groups are Advanced Microwave Photonics, 

Faint Photonics, Quantum Nanophotonics, Fiber Sources and Applications, Magnetic Imaging, Sources 

and Detectors, and Quantitative Nanostructure Characterization. There appears to be an extensive cross 

interaction of personnel and resources between groups and excellent communications within the division. 

Total annual funding is $22 million of which NIST base funding is 53 percent, decided centrally. 

Budgets allocated to groups range between $2 million and $ 4 million per year. The other sources are 

from NIST initiatives, including targeted funding such as laser welding, integrated photonics, and 

LIDAR; calibration services; and external funding sources, such as the Department of Defense (DoD), the 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPAE), and Cooperative Research and Development Agreements (CRADAs) with universities and industry. 

ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 

Advanced Microwave Photonics 

The activities of the program are summarized by the division as follows: “We research and 

develop technical approaches that address near- and medium-term resource bottlenecks in quantum 

information and quantum computing, specifically in the microwave frequency domain using 

superconducting circuits.”1

The Advanced Microwave Photonics Group (AMPG) consists of three NIST principal 

investigators, any one of whom could be a professor at a top-25 physics department. Also in the group are 

six associate scientists. Although relatively small in size, the AMPG investigates broad areas of 

superconducting quantum systems, perhaps indicating that “quantum microwave photonics” is a more 

natural designator. Given the impressive technical impact to date (e.g., pioneering optomechanical 

systems in the microwave regime and making seminal contributions to superconducting amplifiers), NIST 

may consider further augmenting the group with more staff scientists and/or technicians. In particular, 

there may be opportunities for this group to participate technically at a leadership level in helping develop 

and maintain standards of components for the emerging quantum information technology area. 

Similar to other groups in the APD, the AMPG relies on NIST funding as well as external 

support, the latter predominantly from DoD. Notably, one research group is currently being partially 

supported by a Presidential Early Career Award, a testament to the group’s ability to attract top talent. In 

the long run, an additional outside funding source would give the group’s varied research interests more 

 

1

 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), “Applied Physics Division NRC Review,” 

presentation to the committee, May 1, 2018. 
13 

stability. 

The AMPG uses state-of-the-art equipment to conduct its research, mostly purchased from 

companies (e.g., dilution refrigerators), although custom amplifiers and devices are designed and 

fabricated in-house. 

Quantum Computing 

The AMPG has extensive expertise in superconducting devices and systems—of direct relevance 

to superconducting quantum computing. Quantum computation relies on fast and high-fidelity coupling 

between quantum information-holding systems, that is, qubits. The most successful two-qubit gates today 

rely on direct, resonant, or dispersive coupling between two qubits; the nature of this coupling is such that 

only two qubits can be coupled at a time, and it is very difficult to turn off coupling in the qubit’s idle 

state. 

Accomplishments 

AMPG scientists have been leaders in developing parametric-based gates. Parametric-based 

strategies for qubit gates have percolated through the superconducting qubit community over the past few 

years; they offer opportunities to improve scaling of many-qubit systems, such as reducing wire count and 

reducing the need for microwave passives (hardware volume in the cryostat), while increasing 

connectivity and gate speed. The AMPG has developed a parametric-based architecture that dramatically 

increases the connectivity between qubits in a superconducting qubit system and reduces wire counts by 

almost a factor of four. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

AMPG scientists are well connected with the quantum computing community, so dissemination 

of their ideas is not difficult. There has been a lack of publications in this area over the past couple years. 

Validation of the group’s concepts experimentally, or even the dissemination of theoretical manuscripts 

describing their proposals, would benefit the community and the group. 

Optomechanics 

AMPG scientists are pioneers of the relatively new field of optomechanics in the microwave 

regime. They are the inventors of a novel “drum-based” approach to mechanical motion-microwave 

photon coupling, with dramatically increased coupling strengths beyond the state of the art. Utilizing 

mechanical motion strongly coupled to photons offers the ability to both demonstrate fundamental 

quantum measurement concepts in well-controlled systems and provides opportunities for new devices. In 

particular, mechanical systems offer an excellent means to transduce information between energy regimes 

of relevance to many fields. 

Accomplishments 

The AMPG has demonstrated efficient nonreciprocity in a microwave optomechanical circuit. 

The group has also performed significant work on mechanically mediated microwave frequency 

conversion in the quantum regime. 
14 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The optomechanics activities of the AMPG are well integrated within the group and with JILA; 

this synergy could reveal further opportunities for progress in work on optomechanics. 

Amplification and Measurement 

The AMPG uses coupled-mode theory to understand nonreciprocity and to synthesize directional 

parametric amplification. Parametric multimode theory promises a new class of directional parametric 

amplifiers, signal routers, programmable filters, and even creation of synthetic gauge fields—of interest 

for exploration of new quantum systems. 

Accomplishments 

 The AMPG has created novel and useful superconducting amplifiers and nonreciprocal systems. 

The group has developed a novel graph-theoretic approach to designing and understanding driven 

amplifier (and related) systems, which they applied to develop new and useful microwave components, 

which is relevant to quantum computing and measurement science. In a sense, these amplification and 

measurement efforts attempt to unify the disparate quantum technologies across AMPG under a single 

conceptual umbrella. The AMPG investigators are leaders in superconducting amplifier development. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

AMPG’s scientists have taken steps to apply their technology to standards—both for traditional 

research thrusts and for the nascent quantum information science and technology industry. The field could 

use an expert body to qualify and develop standards for cryogenic, superconducting, and microwave 

components. These standards are generally and widely needed across the community. The AMPG could 

take a leading role in this space, but it would require resources for the needed staff technicians, along with 

relevant equipment. 

Faint Photonics Group and Quantum Nanophotonics Group 

The activities the Faint Photonics Group (FPG) and Quantum Nanophotonics Group (QNG) are 

summarized as follows: “We are developing the best metrology at faint light levels. We provide and use 

optical single-photon sources, detectors to solve challenging research, industrial, and governmental 

problems when applicable.”2

 

Superconducting Detectors 

The FPG develops two types of single-photon detectors; both are based on the fragility of the 

superconducting state close to its transition. 

The high-efficiency (70 to 95 percent) superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors 

(SNSPDs) from ultraviolet to mid-infrared are currently the fastest single-photon detectors for counting 

photons. Unlike most groups, who use niobium-nitride superconducting meander structures,3

 the FPG is 

 

2

 NIST, “Applied Physics Division NRC Review,” presentation to the committee, May 1, 2018. 3

 The meander structure is a geometrical configuration of the detector in which the conductors are folded back 

and forth to make the overall length of detector shorter than the original length of straight wire. 
15 

using amorphous tungsten silicide (WSi), which offers better homogeneity and therefore less possibility 

for weak spots. 

The high-efficiency (~98 percent) transition edge sensors (TESs) for 1550 nm are made of 

superconducting tungsten. The current version of these detectors was initially developed at NIST and is a 

widely used method for cryogenic particle detectors. It is evident that the FPG is a world leader in the 

development and use of both detectors. 

Accomplishments 

Noteworthy FPG accomplishments in superconducting detectors include the following: 

 Increasing the efficiency of the SNSPD by using amorphous WSi. 

 Developing the fastest detector for single photon counting (< 100 picoseconds) while 

working at approximately 5 K, which is easily obtained with, for example, closed-cycle 

refrigeration. 

 Using its SNSPD in the first (one of three) Loophole-free Bell inequality experiments with 

photons. 

 Providing its TES detectors to the Zeilinger group for their Loophole-free Bell inequality 

experiments with photons. 

 Demonstrating a high-efficiency SNSPD at a wavelength of 315 nm and an operating 

temperature of 3.2 K, with a background count rate below 1 count per second at saturated 

detection efficiency.4

Opportunities and Challenges 

FPG’s opportunities are primarily in the use of its detector capabilities in exploratory projects 

(with the QNG), such as three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence imaging with entangled photons, in the area 

of quantum biometrology, and use of Bell inequality experiment as a random-number generator. 

Nanophotonic Devices to Enable Optoelectronic Measurements 

The QNG uses one chamber of a double-molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) system for growth of 

gallium-arsenide (GaAs)-based MBE structures (the second chamber is used by the Quantitative 

Nanostructure Characterization Group for gallium-nitride (GaN)-based structures). The following projects 

associated with this facility: 

 Semiconductor saturable absorber mirrors (SESAMs), 

 GaAs:Er for ultrafast carrier recombination (terahertz generation, photoconductive switches), 

 InAs quantum dots for single-photon sources and transduction, 

 Vertical (external) cavity surface-emitting lasers (NIST-on-a-Chip), and 

 GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures for chip-scale nonlinear optics. 

Accomplishments 

Obviously, the QNG group is not an MBE-centered group, but rather uses the MBE to fabricate 

structures that are needed for its projects. It seems to be achieving high-quality growth, which will allow 

it to integrate the semiconductor-based sources with its experiments. It develops and produces novel 

devices such as sources and saturable absorber mirrors. An example is the ultra-low-noise, monolithic, 

 

4

 D.H. Slichter, V.B. Verma, D. Leibfried, R.P. Mirin, S.W. Nam, and D.J. Wineland, 2017, UV-sensitive 

superconducting nanowire single photon detectors for integration in an ion trap, Opt. Express 25:8705-8720. 
16 

mode-locked solid-state laser. The group has a fabrication facility that enables development of state-ofthe-art structures. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The MBE facility and its projects are well integrated into the research of the APD, and so this 

synergistic collaboration may yield future applications of the group’s device development efforts. 

Integrated Optics, Quantum Optics, and Quantum Biometrology 

The QNG develops nanophotonic devices to enable optoelectronic measurements in a wide range 

of wavelengths. Guided by fundamental physics measurements, or by technological challenges, the group 

works on a wide range of projects. 

Accomplishments 

A notable integrated optics experiment, which utilized the single-photon detectors produced by 

FPG and single-photon sources produced by QNG, is the Loophole-free Bell Inequality experiment. 

Supporting another thrust on neuromorphic computing, the group developed multiplanar 

amorphous-Si waveguides exhibiting low-loss crossings, low crosstalk, and efficient interplanar coupling. 

A new direction is in microscopy, involving entangled photons. Entangled photons significantly 

improve ordinary optical techniques, particularly in enhanced microscopy. PML and the NIST Materials 

Measurement Laboratory (MML) joined efforts to develop entangled photon microscopy capabilities, 

directed toward biomedical applications. The main advantage of the technique is the ability to use low 

power, which will minimize biologic cell damage. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The present project concentrates on 3D fluorescence imaging with entangled photons. Other 

biomedical applications will be enabled with the successful demonstration of this capability. 

Non-Conventional Superconducting Electronics 

 The FPG integrates the single-photon detectors into superconducting structures for a variety of 

applications. In collaboration with JILA, it also develops optical/microwave hybrid quantum systems. 

Accomplishments 

The group has integrated silicon nitride waveguides with evanescently coupled ring resonator 

filters of SNSPDs to couple specific colors to the SNSPDs. 

Fiber Sources and Applications 

The Fiber Sources and Applications Group currently performs four projects: fiber-optic based 

combs, dual-comb spectroscopy, time-frequency transfer, and laser ranging. Personnel include 

approximately eight full-time equivalent staff (FTEs) with nine associates. The group leader is also 

presently serving as interim division director. More than half of this group’s $4 million budget is external 

in the form of significant DoD funding, along with CRADAs and support from the U.S. Department of 

Energy. 
17 

Accomplishments 

The work of the Fiber Sources and Applications Group is primarily based on the scientific 

understanding, development, and application of fiber-based frequency combs; in this field, the group is 

world-renowned for its contributions and leadership. One notable and important application is dual-comb 

spectroscopy that is broadband and requires no moving parts. The technology is based on 

telecommunications wavelengths and components. Initial demonstrations show that these combs can be 

used for remote optical sensing of greenhouse gases or hazardous gases with highly accurate spatial 

resolution and ranging information. 

The group has developed a free-space, open-path testbed on the NIST campus and a longer-range 

path over the city of Boulder, Colorado. These systems have been operated for periods of multiple weeks 

with accuracies for quantification of CO2 and CH4 concentrations that are 10 to 100 times better than 

other open-path systems. A demonstration of an open-path measurement using a drone as an airborne 

reflector showed collection of greenhouse gas data at arbitrary distances and altitudes. Further trials at 

longer distances and remote sites are under way. 

Another important application of these fiber-based frequency combs is for time and frequency 

transfer (i.e., dissemination) for multiple potential applications, including highly accurate position, 

navigation, and timing. In particular, coarse and fine two-way timing can be obtained by employing a 

redefinition of the “second” as precisely placed optical pulses in a comb-based synchronization system. A 

pair of clocks has been synchronized in this manner via the flight path of an airborne retroreflector on a 

quadcopter. 

The level of external interest in this work is impressive, as evidenced by the significant level of 

external financial support. In addition, the breadth of the work—from concept to field-test—is also 

impressive. 

Challenges and Opportunities 

There are major challenges inherent in the mission of this group, but these are primarily of a 

technical nature that the group is well-equipped to attack, including enhancing the amplitude uniformity 

and output power of the comb lines and increasing the coherency and reducing the noise. The group is 

successful at choosing, addressing, and solving problems that are of interest to others in the commercial 

and governmental world. Laudably, the group intends to continually push the state of the art of their 

technology and applications. 

The group has used drones with retroreflective mirrors for signal return in order to do vertical 

sampling of the air. While the concept is an opportunity for environmental monitoring, the use of drones 

entails potentially undesirable consequences. Consideration might be given to helium-filled balloons 

equipped with global positioning system (GPS) and gas jets for positioning and station keeping. 

Magnetic Imaging 

The Magnetic Imaging Group, a research and service group, serves the global need for calibration 

standards—ensuring that imaging instruments perform to specifications, making commercially available 

calibration standards (phantoms) for human magnetic resonance imaging systems, and calibrating or 

measuring the relaxation parameters of proposed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. The 

group also has embarked on micro-fabricated contrast agents for MRI, ultralow-field MRI, and 

neuromorphic computing. 

The principal scientific personnel consist of three career scientists, four term scientists, and two 

affiliates. The annual budget is $2.51 million, with 81 percent NIST-base funding and 19 percent split 

between non-base NIST and external contracts. 
18 

NIST has an in-house variable field nonclinical scanner and access to other clinical scanners in 

the Boulder and Denver area, including clinical commercial MRI systems and a small-bore 14 Tesla 

nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) system at the University of Colorado. The group is installing a verylow-field, portable MRI system with 100 milliTesla capability to enable agricultural optimization studies 

of feed grasses. 

Major improvements in space available to this group have occurred in the past 3 years with the 

opening of a new building and renovations of laboratory spaces needed for the specific goals of this and 

other groups (e.g., clean rooms). 

Accomplishments 

Physical Phantoms 

Phantoms for breast imaging, conventional, and diffusion-weighted brain-imaging MRI have 

been fabricated and to some extent commercialized. These were developed in collaboration with the 

major MRI society, the Radiological Society of North America (RSNA), and the National Cancer Institute 

and the University of California, San Francisco, Medical Center. 

The MRI Standards project develops “phantoms” (i.e., calibration structures) and validates 

quantitative imaging protocols. Its area of emphasis is on standards for cancer, brain, and multimodal 

imaging. 

This work of the Magnetic Imaging Group is of global importance because the phantoms allow 

calibration and standardization work, which is vital to population studies and multicenter trials of 

proposed medical therapies where imaging endpoints are needed. 

New work is under way on a phantom that would provide evaluation of diffusion-weighted 

imaging and nerve bundle tractography, where algorithm optimization is a major issue in neuroimaging of 

brain circuit connectivity. 

The group envisages that future directions may focus on multimodal imaging, such as combine 

information from two or more imaging modalities—MRI, computed tomography (CT), positron emission 

tomography (PET), or ultrasound (US). These combined techniques, such as PET-Magnetic Resonance 

(PET-MR) or MR-US, necessitate the development of quantitative imaging protocols. These projects 

develop the calibration structures and quantitative imaging protocols with collaborators from academic 

institutions, professional societies (International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine [ISMRM], 

RSNA), and where applicable, other federal agencies. 

Biomarker Calibration Service 

An excellent example of the sophistication and elegance of the NIST culture in calibration and 

standards is the service for calibration of contrast-agent proton-spin relaxation times,5

 which describes the 

calibration service as providing T1 and T2 relaxation times of materials used in phantoms in order to 

verify the accuracy of quantitative MRI measurements. The measurements are made at fields of 1.5, 3.0, 

and 7 Tesla and temperatures between 0 and 50°C, as specified by the customer. A unique aspect of NIST 

calibration is the careful attention to precise temperature control, because the community has not yet 

recognized that there is a 2 percent change per degree C in both T1 and T2 relaxation times.

 

5

 M.A. Boss, A.M. Dienstfrey et al., 2018, Magnetic Resonance Imaging Biomarker Calibration Service: 

Proton Spin Relaxation Times, NIST Special Publication 250-97, U.S. Department of Commerce. Gaithersburg, 

Md., May. 
19 

Neuromorphic Computational and Simulation Systems 

Three groups in the APD are engaged in development of systems that measure attributes of the 

human central nervous system. To understand how the human brain works, experiments investigate brain 

function and dysfunction. Neural systems that can operate 10 billion times faster than biological systems 

are intended to measure spatial and temporal correlations in high-density networks to understand memory 

and data processing.

This project utilizes superconducting single flux quantum (SFQ) and spintronics devices. The 

Magnetic Imaging Group has developed a stochastic model of magnetic Josephson junctions suitable for 

high-density neural simulations. The circuits allow most, if not all, known neurophysiology functions, 

including inhibition. 

Ultra-Low Magnetic Field Instrumentation 

Ultra-low field (0.1 milliTesla) scanners can serve major biomedical applications as well as for 

materials characterization. New magnetic imaging modalities are being developed, including magnetic 

particle imaging (MPI), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-enhanced MRI, and micro-fabricated 

sensors and contrast agents visible in an MRI.6

 For example, the Magnetic Imaging Group is developing a 

plant root/soil imaging system that is expected to allow studies of the effect of climate, irrigation, 

fertilizer, and so on, on plant growth. The goal is to provide an image of roots in an intact soil column, 

using MRI with a very low magnetic field in order to avoid the magnetic susceptibility heterogeneity 

between plant tissues and various components of soils. These susceptibility differences lead to magnetic 

resonance signal-phase differences with the creation of large artifacts. The project is run by Texas 

Agricultural and Mechanical University (TAMU), and the instrumentation is led by a researcher at 

Harvard University. NIST is developing appropriate phantoms for the project, as well as doing some inlab studies to advise some of the in-field work. The funding proposal to ARPA-E was $10 million; $4 

million was made available. The goal now is to produce 15 MRI systems that can be implanted in the soil. 

The current instrument is copied after the Boston system and serves as a testbed to show any influences of 

the instrument on normal plant growth. The prototype is nearly ready for experiments. 

The project is supported by ARPA-E and a collaboration with TAMU, with partners at the 

Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging in Charlestown, Massachusetts, and ABQMR, 

Inc., in Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

Innovations in MRI In Vivo Sensors of Tissue Physiology 

Work on MRI injectable “smart” agents is aimed at developing new micro- and nanoparticlebased contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging and sensing schemes. The major benefit is that 

these sensors, plus MRI detection, do not suffer from attenuation of light photons and limitations of 

ionizing radiation; however, they do have the limitations of sensitivity inherent in magnetic resonance 

imaging and spectroscopy. The new agents include synthetic antiferromagnet nanoparticles. The highmoment iron microparticles provide enhanced T2* contrast for in vivo cell tracking. The radio-frequencyaddressable sensor assemblies comprise pairs of magnetic disks with interstitial, swellable hydrogel 

material; these are able to reversibly reconfigure in rapid response to select stimuli and provide dynamic 

NMR spectral signatures that are geometry dependent. The sensors can be fabricated from biocompatible 

materials and are themselves detectable at low concentrations.7 Applications include remote sensing of 

biological tissue mechanical stresses in human physiology research.

 

6

 Adapted from NIST, “Advanced Magnetic Imaging Methods,” https://www.nist.gov/programsprojects/advanced-magnetic-imaging-methods, accessed October 1, 2018. 7

 G. Zabow, S.J. Dodd, and A.P. Koretsky, 2015, Shape-changing magnetic assemblies as high-sensitivity 

NMR-readable nanoprobes, Nature 520:73-77. 
20 

Challenges and Opportunities 

The Magnetic Resonance Group provides a vital service to the magnetic resonance clinical and 

research communities. Not only does this work on standards address the wide variations in MRI 

equipment performance from manufacturer to manufacturer, but from clinic to clinic and even day to day 

for the same manufacturer. The phantom systems allow not only physical system calibration but also 

allow evaluation of slight differences in pulse sequences, including radio frequency and gradient 

protocols so that algorithms may be optimized. 

In addition to service, the group has launched projects where a national need is perceived and has 

taken on the challenge of investigating how its talents can provide solutions. Collaborations both within 

the division and outside NIST exist for every one of the seven groups (e.g. neuromorphic systems, 

imaging plant growth). 

While instrumentation and space resources are excellent for most of the groups, the Magnetic 

Resonance Group is badly in need of a clinical-class MRI so that appropriate phantom design, as well as 

initial testing, can be readily accomplished without going to other sites. NIST has access to nearby 

clinical commercial MRI systems, but nonetheless might evaluate whether a clinical system of its own 

would improve productivity by eliminating wait times, provide opportunities for CRADAs and other 

partnerships that offset costs, and decrease costs that would otherwise occur using other clinical scanners 

in the area. 

Productivity of the investigators is great in spite of sparse evidence of administrative support 

(e.g., no human resources staff in Boulder). 

Sources and Detectors 

The Sources and Detectors Group is an excellent example of the value that NIST brings to the 

scientific and industrial communities. The group uses its expertise to significantly advance the science of 

measuring light; it makes prototypes, such as detectors, for measuring light pressure from laser sources. In 

doing so, NIST reduces fundamental advances to practical instruments, and it provides essential service to 

outside entities in calibrating optical technologies that cannot be calibrated elsewhere with the required 

accuracy. From a technical standpoint, the group has made excellent advances, identified key challenges, 

and is planning for future approaches. The funding for this group is $4.11 million, with 11 percent from 

calibration for outside entities on a cost-neutral basis, making it highly valuable to external stakeholders 

in the true spirit of NIST. The group’s expertise and personnel are highly qualified and productive. 

Accomplishments 

Examples of Sources and Detectors Group accomplishments include the following: 

 The group’s goal of advancing the science of accurately measuring optical power from very 

high to very low powers over wide wavelength ranges is laudable. This vision makes their 

current excellent advances applicable to an extremely wide variety of commercially 

significant applications. Their scope includes all properties of light, including phase, 

polarization, and spatial distribution. 

 Measurements of mass tend to have errors that compound as the mass size is reduced. The 

group’s approach is to break this condition when measuring optical power, such that 

measuring extremely low power will be accomplished by comparisons to single photons 

rather than by tracing back to the larger powers. This new approach makes the measurement 

errors more independent of power level. The science and impact of this work are highly 

significant. 
21 

 The group’s advances in miniaturization of radiometry equipment are innovative. It has 

reduced the size and weight of many types of optical measurement equipment, with an 

increase in robustness and reduction in cost. This opens up many new avenues of deployment 

for optical metrology in the field, where it is most needed. One example is to place 

radiometry devices on small satellites. It has taken seriously the vision of NIST-on-a-Chip. 

 Metrology science could benefit greatly by their work in tracing optical power back to the 

kilowatt. This can holistically tie together multiple different metrology subfields under a 

single paradigm. 

Challenges and Opportunities 

The group’s equipment and facilities are outstanding, provide capabilities that are among the best 

in the world, and merit support at a high level so that it can remain a world leader. 

It has hosted various impressive workshops in order to disseminate ideas, facilitate collaborations, 

and make available its capabilities and expertise. 

Quantitative Nanostructure Characterization 

The Quantitative Nanostructure Characterization Group currently performs four projects: atomic 

scale characterization, quantitative precision imaging facility (PIF), nanoelectromagnetics, and 

nanostructure synthesis. Personnel include seven FTEs, two post-doctoral researchers, and one graduate 

student. The annual budget is $3.15 million, with 71 percent NIST base and 12 percent from service. A 

significant infrastructure for the group includes a cluster of four ion- and electron-beam imaging tools, 

near-field scanning microwave microscopy, and GaN MBE growth capability. The group is developing 

new atom probe tomography tools. 

Accomplishments 

The Quantitative Nanostructure Characterization Group has modified commercial instrumentation 

to obtain broadband microwave reflection and transmission measurements in the frequency range 1 to 17 

GHz. This instrumentation has been used for sensitive defect localization in two-dimensional (2D) 

materials. In addition, the group has investigated carrier dynamics in 2D tellurene under electrically 

biased operation. 

The group has assembled a sophisticated tool set cluster for ion- and electron-beam analysis of 

materials and structures. These tools are usually commercial instruments that have been modified by 

NIST investigators to make them at or ahead of the state of the art. NIST investigators have also used the 

cluster tools for projects that serve the twin purposes of proving the limits of the tools and of making 

original contributions to the art. Two excellent examples include transmission electron microscopy-based 

analysis of crystal phases at interfaces in rhenium– gold (Re+Au) superconducting films, and selectivearea growth of GaN nanowires by MBE. Studies of the regrowth interface of these nanowires, grown in 

the NIST MBE chamber, yielded information on polarity differences in hexagonal GaN. The NIST LED 

nanowire device results have shown the need to consider these post-processing regrowth interfaces. 

The group is extending atom probe tomography to include laser-assisted tomography and extreme 

atom probe tomography. Laser assistance has been used to trigger field evaporation and has been used in 

collaboration with the University of California, San Diego, to reveal Si incorporation in Hf-doped ZnO 

multilayers. The group is developing extreme atom probe tomography to eliminate the conventional laser 

and move to the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) regime, adding in situ transmission electron microscope 
22 

analysis. This work has the potential to significantly advance the practical utility of atom probe 

tomography. 

The technical programs in this group are strong and reflect development of sophisticated 

characterization tools that are among the best in the world. Although its mission is primarily development 

of these tools, its research contributions using these tools are strong and include a mix of collaborative 

research and unique NIST-based research. 

The expertise within the group is diverse. The group’s personnel have strong interactions with 

other scientists in the division and some effective collaborations outside NIST. The group’s facilities, 

equipment, and human resources are adequate and balanced with respect to instrumentation development. 

Its research programs seem to be well coupled to stakeholder needs. 

Challenges and Opportunities 

There are two major challenges inherent in the mission of this group. The first is to continually 

push the state of the art of their unique characterization tools and processes in order to remain a world 

leader. At the same time, it is important to make the most of these capabilities while at the leading edge. 

There is, of course, tension between these challenges, because upgrading equipment often takes it out of 

service. Additionally, while there is significant collaboration, it could be increased. The group may 

benefit from broader collaborations on different materials systems, particularly with the atom probe 

tomography development. Validation and then commercial transfer of atom probe tomography could be 

accelerated. 

As a potential provider of unique characterization, it is incumbent on the group to broadly 

articulate its expertise. The group participates in the normal avenues for dissemination—papers, patents, 

and presentations—and has a significant investment in workshops held locally. 

PORTFOLIO OF SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE 

Overall, the review panel found APD’s accomplishments and current leadership outstanding, as 

evidenced by the groups’ activities and contributions. This progress is particularly noteworthy in view of 

the major changes in leadership and administrative posts since September 2017. 

The visit left the panel with the clear impression that APD’s principal investigators are competent 

scientists engaged strongly with external partners and with one another working at the forefront of their 

fields. The division has an impressive list of former alumni, some of whom are now leading principal 

investigators. 

ADEQUACY OF FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND HUMAN RESOURCES 

APD’s personnel resources have experienced major changes occasioned by the loss of 7 persons 

(of a total of 17) from leadership and administrative personnel since September 2017, including the 

division leader and one of the group leaders. Replacements in four areas have occurred with acting 

appointments, including the division leader, who has kept the division on a steady and progressive path of 

continuing high performance. An overall administrative concern in Boulder is the apparent absence of an 

onsite human resource support office and personnel. 

DISSEMINATION OF OUTPUTS 

Dissemination of APD outputs is through publications, conference presentations, interactions 

with other federal agencies (e.g., DARPA, DoD, Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity, and 
23 

ARPA-E), contracts with industry and university, and provision of measurement services (e.g., 

calibrations and standard reference data and materials). 

Collaboration with universities and industry, as well as CRADAs and patents, are additional 

modes of dissemination. Other forms of dissemination are workshops, symposia, visiting science and 

engineering personnel, and the fact that many postdoctoral researchers and affiliates leave NIST to join 

industry and universities, as well as other government research organizations. 

Information on involvement in the scientific community through leadership roles, recognition 

through awards, invited presentations, and international activities was not completely available at the time 

of this assessment, but members of this division had received national recognition for innovations. As part 

of the dissemination portfolio, an enhanced division-wide culture that values increased involvement in 

external professional activities, such as conference organization, journal editorships, and professional 

society governance, would lead to greater visibility for the investigators and NIST in general. These also 

lead to society fellowships, research awards, and other forms of recognition. 

Accomplishments 

The scientists in APD have placed highly cited publications in refereed journals, including two 

with over 400 citations in 2015;8,9

 one with over 300 in 2014;10 and one with over 700 in 2013,11 to pick 

just a few examples. More recent publications will likely accumulate comparable numbers of citations.

 

8

 L.K. Shalm, E. Meyer-Scott, B.G. Christensen, P. Bierhorst, M.A. Wayne, M.J. Stevens, T. Gerrits, et al., 

2015, Strong loophole-free test of local realism, Phys. Rev. Lett. 115:250402. 9

 M. Giustina, M.A.M. Versteegh, S. Wengerowsky, J. Handsteiner, A. Hochrainer, K. Phelan, F. Steinlechner, 

et al., 2015, Significant-loophole-free test of Bell’s Theorem with entangled photons, Phys. Rev. Lett. 115:250401. 10 R.W. Andrews, R.W. Peterson, T.P. Purdy, K. Cicak, R.W. Simmonds, C.A. Regal, and K.W. Lehnert, 2014, 

Bidirectional and efficient conversion between microwave and optical light, Nature Physics 10:321. 11 F. Marsili, V.B. Verma, J. A. Stern, S. Harrington, A. E. Lita, T. Gerrits, I. Vayshenker, B. Baek, M. D. 

Shaw, R. P. Mirin, and S.W. Nam, 2013, Detecting single infrared photons with 93% system efficiency, Nature 

Photonics 7:210. 
24 

4 

Quantum Electromagnetics Division 

ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 

High-Performance Computing 

The Quantum Electromagnetics Division (QED) has an active and externally visible program in 

quantum computing based on superconducting qubits. This activity leverages NIST’s world leading 

expertise in superconducting electronics and the laboratory’s many advances in the materials science of 

Josephson junctions. NIST plays an important role in materials development and analysis, working as a 

trusted partner to large corporate players in quantum computing, such as IBM. Recent device 

development at NIST benefits greatly from the well-equipped and well-utilized microfabrication facility. 

Fabrication capabilities are remarkable. Superconducting device fabrication capabilities are state of the 

art, and the basis for a broad range of activities across the laboratory. Responsibility for this capability 

rests within the QED. This is an important service to the entire Physical Measurements Laboratory. 

Development of quantum accurate arbitrary waveform synthesis in the gigahertz range is under way 

within the QED. If successful, this exciting project may find applications in qubit control. This project 

naturally combines NIST’s expertise in quantum voltage standards and single flux quantum logic (SFQ). 

Through ongoing work in the QED, NIST is positioned to make important contributions to quantum 

computing for years to come. 

Accomplishments 

At the well-equipped, well-utilized microfabrication facility, superconducting device fabrication 

capabilities are state of the art and the basis for a broad range of activities across the laboratory. 

Challenges and Opportunities 

Development of quantum accurate arbitrary waveform synthesis in the gigahertz range, if 

successful, may find applications in qubit control. 

Quantum Computing 

Accomplishments 

This group is developing capabilities to verify novel developments from researchers in this field. 

In addition, the new microfabrication facility is enabling creation of novel devices that optimize 

performance. 
25 

Opportunities and Challenges 

In view of the significant efforts from sizeable groups working at IBM and Google, as well as at 

academic institutions, NIST recognized that it should not be aiming to develop large-scale efforts that 

would compete with these other sectors. Instead, the group is developing capabilities to confirm 

performance of devices from these other groups, as is appropriate for a standards group. 

Superconductive Electronics 

The Superconductive Electronics Group maintains direct current (DC) and alternating current 

(AC) voltage standards based on the Josephson effect. The Josephson junction’s quantization of magnetic 

flux make it an ideal frequency-to-voltage converter. Frequency is among the most precisely defined of 

quantities, an attribute that enables a very precise voltage standard.1

 

To realize a voltage standard requires synchronous operation of a large number of junctions in 

series. This is accomplished in part using the resources of the excellent microfabrication facilities that are 

managed by the QED. Recent advances in voltage standards have been enabled by the development of 

new material systems that produce better Josephson tunnel junctions. The enablers of these developments 

included the modernized clean room facilities at NIST. 

NIST has used its apparatus developed for electronic measurements of Boltzmann’s constant in 

the development of a fundamental method to measure temperature without using fixed points and 

extrapolation. This work will harness the Josephson quantum AC voltage generator that has recently been 

developed by the same group. 

Using the advanced thin-film facilities of the new clean room, the group has developed an 

improved material, niobium-doped silicon, for the Josephson tunnel barrier. This allows more reliable 

production and more reproducible and precise operation of the voltage standard. Moreover, work in the 

Spin Electronics group has further modified the manganese-doped silicon barrier material with magnetic 

inclusions to allow incorporation into novel magnetic random-access memory (MRAM) nanodevices. 

This synergy of the materials development was a benefit of both the new facilities, and also of the crossfertilization within the division. 

Accomplishments 

The group has realized a programmable DC voltage standard that has demonstrated accuracy to 

nine parts in 1012, has been disseminated to national metrology institutes (NMIs) around the world, as 

well as to U.S. military primary standards laboratories, and is available for sale as a certified NIST 

reference instrument. 

This group is the best in the world in AC waveform synthesis with quantum-derived accuracy. Its 

synthesizers can perform this function from audio to microwave frequencies with the exceedingly small 

harmonic distortion implicit in a frequency standard. 

The group has also played a key role in the electronic measurement of Boltzmann's constant, in 

anticipation of its conversion from a measured to a defined quantity. 

Additionally, the group has developed niobium-doped silicon for the Josephson tunnel barrier, 

enabling more precise operation of the voltage standard. 

 

1

 Adapted from National Research Council (NRC), 2016, An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology Physical Measurement Laboratory—Fiscal Year 2015, The National Academies Press, Washington, 

D.C. 
26 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The apparatus that NIST has devised for electronic measurement of Boltzmann's constant will 

have immediate application in advancement of the measurement of static temperature, which will 

concomitantly be unhooked from its current definition utilizing specific physical conditions, such as the 

triple point of water. 

Quantum Sensors 

The Quantum Sensors Group develops detectors and readouts used in millimeter-wavelength 

astronomy, and for x-ray spectroscopy. The latter NIST-produced devices are used in various x-ray beam 

lines, with x rays generated from circulating electrons that produce intense synchrotron radiation. The 

group is the leading supplier in the United States of both of these and is the dominant supplier of the 

complex Semiconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) readouts used to read out the detector 

signals, usually with time-domain multiplexing. 

The future needs in millimeter-wavelength astronomy will be for even larger detector arrays in 

the instrument focal plane, moving from the present ≈10,000 or so elements to an order-of-magnitude or 

more detector elements. This will likely require a more highly multiplexed readout. This can be most 

efficiently accomplished with a newer kind of millimeter-wavelength detector, the Microwave Kinetic 

Inductance Detector (MKID)—a detector with which the Quantum Sensors Group has experience. A very 

large number of detector elements can be read out with one on-chip microwave line, using a microwave 

frequency comb generated and de-multiplexed by room-temperature electronics. This allows a small and 

practical number of microwave lines between room temperature and the cryogenic environment.

Accomplishments 

The group’s detectors and readouts are used in millimeter-wavelength astronomy and in detection 

of individual soft x rays. The users in the astronomy community of the millimeter-wavelength range, and 

in the materials analysis, communities using soft x rays, are very well served by these detectors. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The future needs for detectors in millimeter-wavelength astronomy applications can be most 

efficiently accomplished with the Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detector (MKID). Development of the 

latter is in its beginning stages at NIST, and the development and integration of such superconducting 

detectors is a significant skill of the NIST group. 

Spin Electronics 

The Spin Electronics Group is concerned with the frontiers of measurement of magnetic devices 

and phenomena essential to small-scale and high-frequency spintronic devices. MRAM is an example of 

such devices. (As discussed above, in the section, Superconductive Electronics, the Group has further 

modified the manganese-doped silicon barrier material with magnetic inclusions to allow incorporation 

into novel MRAM nanodevices.) MRAM has been an also-ran contender for computer memories for 

decades, even though it is superior to the semiconductor dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) by 

being nonvolatile and by being faster and superior to flash memory because it’s fatigue-proof. It also 

attracts interest due to its being radiation resistant. A perennial problem with such devices has been 
27 

scaling with respect to write current—current density did not scale downward properly as device size was 

decreased. This dilemma has now changed with the invention of spin-torque writing, which improves as 

devices get smaller. MRAM is now a hot topic for future high-performance, low-power computers. 

The projects in this group span the gamut from basic physics to the understanding of (externalpartner-produced) devices’ defects and error performance. The group’s expertise in high-frequency and 

nanoscale measurements and its partnerships with industry and universities afford it a unique advantage 

for advancing the art in this rapidly growing field. The staff have a fine mix of laboratory skills and 

physical understanding. The creativity found on the laboratory tours was noteworthy. 

Accomplishments 

The new e-beam tool in the clean room makes it possible to produce test samples in the 10 nm 

range, which, while below the range of interest for Josephson devices, are perfectly relevant for memory 

chips. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The invention of spin-torque writing, which improves as devices get smaller (i.e., as they scale), 

makes MRAM a promising topic in the development of future high-performance, low-power computers. 

Spintronics 

The QED supports a successful program focused on non-Boolean spintronic computing; 

spectroscopic measurement of spin-charge transduction; and magneto-optical measurements of spintronic 

materials. (These activities are carried-out in the Spin Electronics Group and the Nano-scale Spin 

Dynamics Group.) In this area, the division impressively balances core activities in measurement 

development with simultaneous production of exciting new results in the fundamental science of 

magnetism. For example, experiments employing the ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) world-record 

sensitivity, developed within the group, have identified ultra-low damping in binary compounds of cobalt 

and iron. The Nano-scale Spin Dynamics Group has also used inelastic photon-magnon scattering 

(Brillouin light scattering) to study the relationship between interfacial Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction 

(DMI) and Heisenberg exchange interactions in thin metal films, demonstrating for the first time their 

proportionality. The development of heterodyne magneto-optic microwave microscopy within the group 

holds promise to interrogate magnetic properties of individual nano-magnets as small as 10 nm. The 

group is also collaborating with faculty at University of Colorado to build a system for time-resolved 

extreme-ultraviolet magneto-optics for time-resolved studies of spin dynamics in magnetic multilayers. 

This is a wise combination of local expertise to develop a new probe of magnetic systems that will surely 

yield new information. 

The aforementioned development of measurement techniques are great examples of how NIST’s 

core mission also generates understanding of key physical mechanisms underpinning the operation of 

technologically important materials. 

Accomplishments 

The Nano-scale Spin Dynamics group has utilized FMR with world-record sensitivity to identify 

ultra-low damping in binary compounds of cobalt and iron. The group demonstrated the proportionality of 

the relationship between interfacial Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction (DMI) and Heisenberg exchange 
28 

interactions in thin metal films, using inelastic photon-magnon scattering (Brillouin light scattering). 

While the research thrust in quantum computing is visible both within NIST and externally, the quality of 

the work in the area of spintronics also deserves recognition and strong support from NIST. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The group’s development of heterodyne magneto-optic microwave microscopy will, if successful, 

facilitate experiments that interrogate magnetic properties of individual nano-magnets as small as 10 nm. 

A further area of promise is the development, with University of Colorado, of a system for time-resolved 

extreme ultraviolet magneto-optics for time-resolved studies of spin dynamics in magnetic multilayers. 

Optical Medical Imaging 

The Optical Medical Imaging Group is providing standardized benchmarks, known as phantoms, 

for state-of-the-art biomedical optical imaging techniques. The group has developed a layered phantom 

for optical coherence tomography (OCT), a widely used tomographic technique for imaging the layers of 

the retina to find disease. There is a significant lack of imaging standards by which these instruments are 

calibrated. The group has demonstrated fabrication using techniques developed in-house and is preparing 

to disseminate the phantoms by offering them for sale. Another phantom is under development for 

photoacoustic tomography (PAT), a recently developed technique that enables depth-resolved imaging of 

hemoglobin through thick tissues by combining the biochemical specificity of light absorption with the 

deep penetration of ultrasound. The phantom is based on creating precision distributions of carbon 

nanotubes, which offer uniform absorption across the visible spectrum. This phantom is in a 

developmental stage and will likewise provide a much-needed standard for researchers developing PAT 

instrumentation. A third area of emphasis is to develop a phantom that can be used to calibrate 

measurements of hemoglobin oxygen saturation. The group possesses a state-of-the-art hyperspectral 

imaging system, which will enable its development. This is a much-needed resource across the field, as it 

can be quite difficult to create accurate oxygen saturation distributions. 

Accomplishments 

Responding to a national need for standardized imaging benchmarks, the group has developed a 

layered phantom for OCT and begun dissemination. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The group is developing a phantom to serve as an imaging standard for PAT. It is likewise 

developing a phantom that can be used to calibrate measurements of hemoglobin oxygen saturation. Both 

these endeavors respond to the need for instrument calibration to be standardized across research groups 

nationwide. 

Remote Sensing Laboratory 

The Remote Sensing Laboratory Group is conducting measurements of atmospheric gasses, such 

as carbon dioxide and methane, using differential absorption LIDAR. This is an important area of 

research, but there seems to be a disconnect with its application to environmental monitoring between the 
29 

monitoring and sensing tasks, on the one hand, and the environmental impact, on the other. The group 

employs unique sensing capabilities such as the use of high power, multi-frequency tunable laser lines to 

monitor atmospheric gases with high sensitivity and specificity. They have implemented an impressive 

gantry on the fifth floor that enables them to conduct these measurements. This new facility is still under 

renovation but will provide a suitable site with rooftop access for continued research. 

Accomplishments 

The group is using the technique of frequency combs to develop unique sensing capabilities and 

has implemented an impressive gantry as platform for these unique measurements. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The environmental monitoring researchers need to establish clearer linkages between the sensing 

and monitoring tasks that detect atmospheric constituents and the imputed environmental impacts. 

Boulder Microfabrication Facility 

As noted in the 2015 review,2

 the state-of-the-art Boulder Microfabrication Facility (BMF) 

provides clean-room facilities and fabrication tools vital to the success of many of the technical groups, 

such as the Quantum Sensors and Superconductive Electronics groups. The BMF has impressive 

capabilities for materials deposition and for sophisticated fabrication of superconductive tunnel junctions 

and semiconductor quantum well, dot, and nanowire structures.3

 The recently added e-beam lithography 

tool has allowed greatly enhanced resolution (below 10 nm), which is essential for magnetic sensors and 

devices. 

The precision imaging facility (PIF), managed by the Applied Physics Division, offers a variety 

of microscopy tools, including some relatively uncommon techniques, such as local-electrode atom probe 

and helium ion microscopy. 

An innovation at the BMF, is its unique and successful scheme for handling fabrication requests. 

Instead of allowing numerous amateurs in the clean room, which would degrade it, or going to a fullservice system, which would swamp it with sample requests and billing nightmares, the group instituted a 

system whereby a small, dedicated staff works with super-users from the requesting groups who help 

maintain the tools essential to their own projects. Among other things, this has kept the facility working at 

near-optimal capacity while turning out thousands of extremely useful sensors, programmable Josephson 

arrays, and test samples. One measure of that operational success is that they are making magnetic-atomdoped spin-torque oscillators in the same facility as yield-critical Josephson arrays, without mishaps and 

with collegiality between groups. 

The new clean room has been key in allowing production of the large (150 mm) wafers that are 

essential in current and future astronomy projects. The cross-fertilization of the thin-film materials ideas 

has been notable, and likely is facilitated by the flexibility of the clean room equipment and the non-rigid 

arrangement of user/maintainer people. 

 

2

 National Research Council, 2016, An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Physical Measurement Laboratory—Fiscal Year 2015, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. 3

 NRC, 2016, An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Physical Measurement 

Laboratory—Fiscal Year 2015. 
30 

Accomplishments 

The group has maintained the microfabrication facility’s impressive capabilities, adding e-beam 

lithography tool has allowed greatly enhanced resolution (below 10 nm), essential for magnetic sensors 

and devices. They have kept the facility working at near-optimal capacity while turning out thousands of 

extremely useful sensors, programmable Josephson arrays, and test samples. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

Continuing the cross-fertilization of the thin-film materials ideas represents an opportunity, and 

likely is facilitated by the flexibility of both the clean room equipment and the users and maintainers. 

General Comment 

This division has commendably maintained continued focus on standards and calibration devices, 

in spite of the siren song of doing basic science and technology research. The numerous projects that 

reflect this core responsibility of NIST are very well served in the projects that were reviewed. Who 

would do them properly if NIST didn’t? 

PORTFOLIO OF SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE 

The QED is best in the world with respect to Josephson standards and also millimeter-wavelength 

astronomy detector arrays. The large testing capabilities at NIST are fully appropriate for almost all nearand medium-term astronomy applications in ground-based observatories. These observatories employ the 

same kind of large cryogenic systems that are at NIST. 

 The technical programs reviewed are at the leading edge of measurement and are adequate to 

meeting their stated goals. While the program in quantum computing is visible both within NIST and 

externally, the quality of the work in the area of spintronics deserves similar recognition and strong 

support from NIST. 

 The quantum computing effort is a partnership with large industrial teams and is also externally 

visible in its own right through its publications and conference presentations. The QED works to 

understand the material science needed for highly coherent qubits. This is a valuable service to the 

community. It appears well-coupled to stakeholders. The Spintronics Group also performs within several 

large-scale collaborations with industrial partners, providing valuable service to the community. It also 

has an impressive record of high-profile publications originating at NIST, which further amplify the 

group’s impact. The Spintronics Group deserves recognition as it seems to couple to stakeholders needs 

and generate high-quality science in equal measure. 

 The Quantum Computing and the Spintronics groups have strong technical expertise within 

their ranks. The Spintronics Group appears to have a broad range of measurement expertise. The 

Quantum Computing Group’s core expertise is in material science of materials used for quantum 

computing. It is also involved in device design and circuit testing. As currently configured, the group is 

well positioned to perform as a collaborator on large-scale quantum computing programs of the sort 

typically led by larger players in industry and academia. This is a strong position for NIST. 

The QED has a good mix of experts, both senior and more junior. Recent retirements have been 

manageable, and the more junior researchers are also impressive. Being located in Boulder appears to be 

an advantage in attracting new staff. 
31 

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT 

The QED facilities at NIST are among the best in the world, with the exception of the physical 

state of the older buildings. The clean room facility is state of the art and well run. It is the cornerstone of 

much of the division’s success in quantum computing voltage standards, and spintronics. The 

measurement laboratories appear to be well-equipped with the latest technology. The laboratory space is 

adequate in size, but improvements need to be made in environmental control. A bucket in a hallway 

catching rainwater, observed during the laboratory tour, was a reminder that the older buildings were built 

a half-century ago.

The new clean room has been key in allowing production of the large (150 mm) wafers that are 

essential in current and future astronomy projects. The cross-fertilization of the thin-film materials ideas 

has been notable and likely is facilitated by the flexibility of the clean room equipment and the non-rigid 

arrangement of user/maintainer people. 

Accomplishments 

The QED has maintained the microfabrication facility’s impressive capabilities, and adding the ebeam lithography tool has allowed greatly enhanced resolution (below 10 nm), essential for magnetic 

sensors and devices. The facility has been working at near-optimal capacity while turning out thousands 

of extremely useful sensors, programmable Josephson arrays, and test samples. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The environmental controls in the laboratory space need to be improved. The aging facilities have 

problems with the building envelope, such as the observed roof leaks. 

DISSEMINATION 

Dissemination of outputs varies (appropriately) by project. Standards projects are expected to 

have infrequent publications aimed at a small and focused audience. Device and physical phenomena 

projects are of much wider interest and require conference and journal publication. Patent applications 

and patent-protective publications have been inadequate and seem to require a more pro-active policy by 

management. However, unlike journal publication, which is subject to peer review and subsequent 

citation count, patent activity and its resulting impact are difficult to evaluate in the short term. It is easy 

to stimulate an increased number of worthless patent applications. Therefore, the QED would benefit 

from increased guidance in this area. 

The division has demonstrated laudable use of guest scientists, students, postdoctoral researchers, 

and visiting researchers as a way of increasing technical vitality and spreading NIST expertise and 

knowledge to the outside world. It broadens the impact of their device and technique advances, especially 

in astronomy, where there is a large U.S. community that will benefit by learning more, in a hands-on 

fashion, than is accomplished from reading publications about microfabrication. The posting of a Stanford 

University graduate student to the device fabrication group is a good example of how such technology 

transfer can be done to benefit both sides. 
32 

Accomplishments 

The division’s use of guest scientists, students, postdoctoral researchers, and visiting researchers 

increases both its technical vitality and the spread of NIST expertise and knowledge to the outside world. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The division would benefit from increased guidance on the value to NIST of its patent activity 

vis-à-vis journal publications and other metrics.
33 

5 

Time and Frequency Division 

INTRODUCTION 

The Time and Frequency Division (TFD) is located in Boulder, Colorado. The division has 121 

staff, including 8 administrative support; 40 NIST scientists; 70 associates (postdoctoral researchers, 

graduate and undergraduate students, and visiting scientists); and 3 emeritus scientists.1

 The annual 

budget is $22 million, 23 percent of which is sourced from other agencies. 

Disseminating accurate and reliable time and frequency information is a core responsibility of 

NIST and the core responsibility of the TFD. Accurate time and frequency services are critical to areas of 

the U.S. economy, such as coordination of the phase of electrical power generation for the smart grid, the 

Global Positioning System (GPS), synchronization of computer networks, time stamping of financial 

transactions, and national security and research. The TFD, in coordination with the U.S. Naval 

Observatory, is responsible by law for disseminating time throughout the United States to all 

stakeholders. 

ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 

Time and Frequency Services 

NIST disseminates time signals based on the coordinated universal time (UTC) time scale, the 

internationally generated scale that is coordinated by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 

France. UTC is not available for dissemination, and therefore NIST employs UTC1, a version of UTC 

that is controlled by two atomic frequency standards, NIST-F1 and NIST-F2. These employ fountains of 

laser-cooled cesium atoms that are interrogated by microwaves and have fractional uncertainty in their 

generation of the SI second of 1 part in 1016. NIST-F1 and NIST-F2 (along with the NIST-F2 copy 

housed at Italy's National Metrology Bureau) are the world’s most accurate frequency standards. 

The time scale UTC1 is generated by an ensemble of about 10 commercial atomic clocks (mostly 

hydrogen masers). The “tick rate” of this ensemble is calibrated against NIST-F1 and NIST-F2 every few 

months, permitting UTC1 to be steered to UTC. This system operates effectively, efficiently, and reliably. 

Time must be disseminated continuously and in a variety of forms depending on the need. A 

measure of the value of the service NIST provides in dissemination is the 40 billion synchronization 

requests it serves each day. The primary methods for disseminating time and frequency are the following: 

 For the most stringent requirements, NIST provides frequency uncertainty of 1 part in 1013

and time uncertainty of 1 nanosecond, using specialized black-box devices that NIST makes 

available to the user. NIST uses telecommunications and GPS satellites to broadcast time and 

frequency to such devices. These are the only such remote time and frequency measurement 

 

1

 Chris Oates, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Physical Measurement Laboratory, “Division 

688: Time and Frequency,” presentation to the committee, May 1, 2018. 
34 

services in the world at this level of precision and accuracy and are used by about 50 hightech companies. 

 For broad public use, NIST broadcasts time and frequency information by radio on station 

WWVB, with a frequency stability of 1 part in 1011 and time uncertainty of 1 microsecond. 

Signals are broadcast at different frequencies for purposes ranging from synchronizing wall 

clocks and wristwatches to high-precision scientific experiments. 

 The Internet Time Service (ITS) synchronizes computers and network devices to NIST time 

with an accuracy of about 1 millisecond and is used billions of times per day. ITS is the most 

heavily used network time service in the world and is built into all major computing operating 

systems (e.g., Windows, Apple, and Linux). 

For their respective applications, these three primary methods of time distribution are widely 

regarded as among the best in the world. 

Optical Frequency Metrology and Ion Storage 

A New Generation of Frequency Standards 

A revolution in metrology is under way, enabled by the invention of the optical frequency comb 

and the development of trapped ion and atom lattice optical clocks. 

NIST’s TFD is a leader in all of these developments. The optical frequency comb was created by 

John Hall in the Quantum Physics Division (JILA) and Theodor Hänsch in Garching, for which they 

received the Nobel Prize in 2005. David Wineland of the Ion Storage Group received the Nobel Prize in 

2012 for developing the trapped ion technique. There has been major progress in time and frequency 

metrology since those prizes were awarded. 

The optical comb makes it possible to read out optical signals with the same facility that 

microwave, and lower, frequencies can be manipulated. Its creation opened the road to the development 

of frequency standards that operate at optical frequencies. The advantage of optical frequencies is that 

they are 100- to 1,000-times higher than the microwave frequencies of current frequency standards, 

permitting a corresponding decrease in uncertainty. The advances in high-precision time metrology at the 

TFD have been rapid. 

One of the new generation of optical frequency standards employs ytterbium atoms trapped and 

cooled in an optical lattice. The ytterbium optical standard has achieved a world-record uncertainty of a 

few parts in 1019 after several hours of observation. Two independent ytterbium lattice frequency 

standards were constructed within the TFD and compared, confirming that they agree to better than 1 part 

in 1018. A second type of standard is based on a single-trapped and cooled aluminum ion. The ion is 

interrogated by entanglement with a co-trapped beryllium ion using quantum logic protocols pioneered at 

NIST. A third type of optical standard with comparable uncertainty, based on strontium atoms trapped 

and cooled in an optical lattice, was created at JILA. These three standards have the lowest uncertainty in 

the world, and the fact that all three co-exist within the same institution enables unique studies. For 

example, direct comparison between these frequency standards constitutes one of the most sensitive tests 

of the invariance of fundamental constants. 

The problem of transmitting time signals and comparing frequency standards in this new regime 

of precision poses a serious challenge. Comparisons in the same laboratory are relatively straightforward, 

but the problem of comparisons at large distances remains to be solved. 
35 

Compact Frequency Combs 

Frequency combs are a crucial component of optical clocks, making it possible to compare clocks 

and to generate outputs at chosen frequencies. They also enable a host of additional applications in 

precision signal generation and measurement. For example, TFD researchers have applied combs to 

generate 10 GHz microwave signals with the smallest low-frequency phase noise ever reported. Because 

sensing slow motion requires low phase noise, this advance is important for radar detection of slowly 

moving objects. The original combs involved mode-locked lasers. These are bulky and power-hungry 

laboratory devices that are unsuited for many commercial and military applications. Also, the frequency 

spacing of their comb lines is too small for some important needs. 

TFD researchers have investigated alternative approaches that overcome both problems. One 

frequency comb alternative uses micro-resonators that are small, require little power, and are well suited 

to portable operation; some realizations are compatible with integrated silicon photonics. The TFD is 

among the most active laboratories, both in elucidating the science of micro-resonator frequency combs 

and in developing them for applications, with an emphasis on those central to time and frequency—for 

example, chip-scale atomic clocks (CSAC), low-phase noise microwave generation, and precision optical 

frequency synthesis. In another alternative approach, TFD researchers have developed electro-optic 

combs (combs generated via strong-phase modulation of a single-frequency input laser) for broad optical 

bandwidth while maintaining low-phase noise. Recently, they have installed a portable version of their 

electro-optic comb at the 10-meter Hobby-Eberly telescope in the McDonald Observatory in Texas, 

where it provides precise astronomical spectrograph calibration with application to the search for 

exoplanets. 

Accomplishments 

The advances in high-precision time metrology at the TFD have been rapid. Two independent 

ytterbium lattice frequency standards were constructed within the TFD and compared to confirm that they 

agree to better than one part in 1018. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The definition of the SI second is exactly 9,192,631,770 cycles of the unperturbed ground-state 

hyperfine transition in the cesium-133 atom. The second can be realized in practice only to the limit of the 

accuracy of the cesium atomic clocks, currently 1 part in 1016. This is widely regarded as the limit for 

cesium-based frequency standards, but it is far below the stability and accuracy already demonstrated for 

optical clocks. To take advantage of the hundred-fold improvement in determination of time and 

frequency that has been enabled by optical clocks, the SI second must be redefined. There are plans to do 

this in about a decade, but several significant challenges must first be overcome.

The first challenge is to create and select the best practical optical frequency standard. Several 

types have already been demonstrated, and others may yet be created. The task of turning these laboratory 

devices into practical frequency standards is enormous, but work is under way. For instance, the TFD is 

constructing a portable ytterbium optical lattice clock that can be physically moved to other locations for 

local clock comparisons with laboratories throughout the world. One can reasonably look forward to 

advances in making ion and atom-lattice clocks practical. 

The problem of transmitting time signals and comparing frequency standards separated by long 

distances remains a challenge. The second challenge is to develop methods for distributing time over long 

distances at the new levels of accuracy. Presently, NIST employs the GPS system and two-way 

microwave satellite time and frequency transfer to synchronize NIST time with UTC. These techniques 

are suitable for time coordination at the level of 1 part in 1016, but they are not adequate for the future. 
36 

The TFD is seriously engaged with the problem. In collaboration with the Applied Physics Division, it 

has carried out studies using optical fibers to transfer frequency and has demonstrated stability and 

accuracy at a few parts in 1019 over distances of a few hundred kilometers. (Time transfer has been 

demonstrated over distances of up to about 10 km with a similar level of degradation.) This accuracy 

would be sufficient to coordinate UTC at the 1 part in 1018 level that will be required in the future. They 

have demonstrated similar stability and accuracy of time and frequency transfer using laser beams 

propagating through free space over distances of a few kilometers. The challenge for extending either 

fiber- or free-space techniques to intercontinental transfer is formidable. Future experiments with longer 

distance fiber networks and free space time/frequency transfer are essential for taking advantage of the 

levels of precision being provided by the new generation of optical frequency standards. 

A final challenge to the redefinition of the second is gravity, which is a nuisance, an opportunity, 

and a dilemma. Near Earth, gravity causes time to change by about 1 part in 1018 per centimeter of 

altitude, as predicted by General Relativity. The effect is already significant for metrology: corrections for 

it had to be made in high-precision comparisons of frequency standards in NIST’s own laboratories, some 

of which are separated by 4 km. For large distances, the problem is severe. Altitude is essentially the 

distance above the geoid, a hypothetical surface of constant gravitational potential. Because of 

fluctuations in Earth’s mass distribution, the geoid fluctuates by millimeters or more over periods of a day 

or less, and by centimeters over periods of longer than a month. The new generation of frequency 

standards and clocks will be sensitive to these fluctuations.

In preparation for clock comparisons at large distances, NIST carried out a geodetic survey of its 

campus and its laboratories at JILA (separated by about 4 km) to facilitate comparisons of clocks in those 

locations.2

 The survey achieved a precision that corresponds to a frequency uncertainty at the level of 

approximately 5 parts in 1018, somewhat larger than the estimated uncertainty of the test clocks. At very 

large distances, one would expect the geodetic precision to be even lower. Furthermore, as noted above 

the geoid is known to fluctuate at this level. This implies that ultimately it will not be possible to transfer 

terrestrial time and frequency information with the accuracy of forthcoming frequency standards. The 

underlying problem is that at such a level of precision, time is inextricably coupled to the gravitational 

field. It would be natural to reverse the logic and use frequency standards as a tool for geodesy, a step that 

is being mentioned increasingly. This offers the possibility of opening new pathways for geodesy. This 

could have important applications, but it does not solve the problem of time transfer. 

The ultimate significance of the new regime of frequency accuracy is that it forces a 

confrontation between the concepts of space, time, and mass. Clocks cannot be compared without 

knowing the distribution of nearby mass. The problem could be avoided by requiring that clocks be 

compared close to the same location. This procedure would necessarily introduce some imprecision. More 

seriously, it requires giving up the fundamental concept of space, time, and mass as independent physical 

quantities. 

Such a situation has occurred once before. Space and time are now joined by the definition of the 

speed of light, c. The meter is the distance traveled by light in the time 1/c. Formally, we refer not to 

space and time but to space-time. With gravity entering the picture, space-time and mass are joined by 

General Relativity. There is, however, a dramatic difference between the issues of space-time and spacetime-gravity: the speed of light, which connects space and time, is the most precisely measured 

fundamental constant, whereas the gravitational constant, G, which connects mass to space-time, is the 

least precisely known constant. Consequently, it is difficult to visualize a metrological procedure that 

involves G. This problem must be resolved in the process of redefining the SI second. 

 

2

 N.K. Pavlis and M.A. Weiss, 2017, A re-evaluation of the relativistic redshift on frequency standards at NIST, 

Boulder, Colorado, USA, Metrologia 54:535. 
37 

Atomic Devices and Instrumentation Group 

Chip-Scale Atomic Sensors: NIST-on-a-Chip 

The Atomic Devices and Instrumentation Group (ADIG) was founded in 2008, with its precursor 

elements having had a role in developing the chip-scale atomic clock (CSAC) under Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funding. This stimulated the military and telecommunications 

industry to develop a new class of small and relatively inexpensive metrological instruments that are 

described under the rubric of NIST-on-a-chip, a NIST-wide initiative to which the ADIG is a contributor 

and PML the lead. One class of the proposed chip instruments involves metrological tools based on 

accurate representations of SI base units such as length, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity, 

and, of course, time. Common to these applications is a vapor cell under development at ADIG that may 

be able to provide length (meter), electric current (ampere), temperature (Kelvin), luminous intensity 

(candela), and time (second). Another innovation within the group involves chip-scale inertial sensors that 

would take over when GPS becomes unavailable. Such devices have the potential to make high precision 

widely available without the user needing to turn to NIST to assure calibration. Design goals emphasize 

miniaturization and portability. Manufacturing would employ micro-fabrication techniques to achieve 

high-volume production that would decrease costs. The chip-scale magnetometers developed by the 

ADIG are now widely used in industry. 

Accomplishments 

The ADIG has made important contributions to the vapor cell metrological tool—which provides 

numerous measurements such as that of length, electric current, and so forth—resident in NIST-on-achip.3

 The group is also developing a novel chip-scale inertial sensor. 

PORTFOLIO OF SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE 

NIST is widely regarded as the world’s leading time standards laboratory. Reasons for this 

include its long history of atomic clocks—the atomic clock was invented at NIST—and the tradition of 

carrying out time-keeping activities in an atmosphere of frontier research, a tradition of excellent 

management that permits the TFD to attract and retain outstanding talent, excellent facilities, and 

adequate resources. NIST’s TFD has a culture in which routine operations are constantly analyzed and 

improved. For example, research on the effect of blackbody radiation on the primary frequency standards 

resulted in a significant reduction in their fluctuations. Furthermore, NIST has a culture of collegiality 

that encourages a free flow of ideas between the various groups within the TFD, with other divisions 

throughout the PML, and with the many visiting researchers and students. Ultimately, these visiting 

researchers and students are NIST’s most effective envoys for spreading the new knowledge and 

technology to the broad community. 

FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND HUMAN RESOURCES 

The TFD is primarily located in the new Katharine Blodgett Gebbie Laboratory Building in 

Boulder. This building has superb facilities. The equipment is judged by the staff to be adequate for the 

TFD’s needs. Some of the work is located in Wing 5, which is slated for renovation in the coming year 

 

3

 For a discussion of atomic vapor cells, see National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), “NIST-ona-Chip: Atomic Vapor,” https://www.nist.gov/pml/nist-chip-atomic-vapor, accessed July 10, 2018. 
38 

with a predicted completion date of 2021. Once Wing 5 is renovated, all the facilities will be adequate. 

PML envisages the renovation as closing the gap between its “world-class lab space” and its 1960s-era 

space.4

Judged by the presentations, the quality of conversations with staff members, and the scientific 

output of the TFD, the quality of the staff is outstanding. Further evidence for the quality of scientific 

expertise is provided by their honors. These include numerous awards from the Institute of Electrical and 

Electronics Engineers, NIST’s Condon and Astin awards, fellowship in the American Physical Society, 

and others. Their publications appear in the most prestigious scientific journals and are more numerous 

and impactful than publications from similar national time and frequency metrology laboratories around 

the world. The scientific atmosphere, facilities, and staff at NIST attract luminaries, visiting scholars, 

postdoctoral researchers, and students, who contribute significantly to NIST’s programs. 

The human resources appear to be well matched to TFD’s needs. 

DISSEMINATION AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER 

At the top of TFD’s agenda is the dissemination of time and frequency, an enormous 

responsibility that it meets at the highest level. However, the TFD provides many other services to the 

community: it performs 500 to 600 calibrations per year—for example, precision phase-noise calibrations 

at a level unique in the world; it provides calibration equipment and specialized services directly to about 

50 industrial firms, which greatly reduces calibration time for industry and reduces the calibration burden 

on the TFD; and it helps industry to develop new products such as the chip-scale atomic clocks, 

magnetometers, and phase noise test equipment. 

Accomplishments 

The TFD has an outstanding record of sharing its scientific and technical advances and 

stimulating new industries for commercial, military, and scientific use. For example, today CSACS are in 

use for important military applications, and about 100,000 CSACS are used commercially with sales of 

about $100 million in telecommunications systems, seismic exploration activities, and other areas. In a 

closely related technical development, chip-scale magnetometers are now widely used by the oil industry. 

The magnetometers are also being applied in medicine, making magneto-encephalography a practical 

diagnostic tool that has been commercialized by a number of companies. 

In another application, the TFD, working with external collaborators, has developed a compact 

and portable version of a laser-cooled microwave frequency standard. This was created through 

partnership with a nearby small company, Spectradynamics. The device was funded in part through a 

DARPA Small Business Innovation Research grant and is near commercialization. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

Notwithstanding these remarkable successes, there are some issues related to the 

commercialization of NIST-on-a-chip. Given that people from NIST, especially in the TFD, are the 

strongest evangelists for the NIST-on-a-chip concept, and given the success of their vapor-cell-based 

CSAC and miniature atomic magnetometer efforts, both of which have been commercialized, NIST is 

arguably in the best position to develop the concept to a level to where industry would take over. While 

NIST is adept at working the science of this initiative, there are questions regarding how far they are 

 

4

 Chris Oates, NIST, Physical Measurement Laboratory, “Division 688Time and Frequency,” presentation to 

the committee, May 1, 2018. 
39 

prepared to do the engineering needed to make the product viable for development. Perhaps more 

important than solving the scientific problems is the need to realize the control mechanisms and 

packaging around the science that assure low power consumption and low cost. Much of the work needed 

might be most appropriate for engineers, particularly those skilled in microelectromechanical systems 

(MEMS). 

NIST-on-a-chip is somewhat new territory for NIST; its success requires a much higher volume 

product output than previous NIST outputs. NIST will probably need to court companies unlike the lowvolume, timing- and frequency-control companies that speckle their past. Companies familiar with 

MEMS technology will likely be most appropriate for NIST-on-a-chip, and these companies will require 

some amount of convincing to jump on the NIST-on-a-chip bandwagon. If this requires that NIST take 

NIST-on-a-chip closer to a product than previously needed, using more MEMS and integrated circuit 

technology, then they may need to invest in engineering talent. In particular, although the current NIST 

staff seems happy to do the needed science, they perhaps are not as interested in undertaking the needed 

engineering. With a new cleanroom fitted with nanofabrication technology, NIST has equipment 

appropriate to do the engineering itself. 

Another approach might be to (continue to) rely on companies or academic institutions proficient 

in MEMS technology and integrated circuit design to do the necessary engineering. This approach, 

however, would likely require more support from NIST, not only on technical fronts, but political and 

financial, as well. Specifically, NIST might need additional funds to direct to technology transfer sites. 

Alternatively, the local NIST-on-a-chip evangelists might need to focus their convincing arguments on 

funding agencies that can direct funding to companies interested in commercializing NIST-on-a-chip. 

This issue is important to consider. 

A major emphasis of the TFD is transfer of scientific and technical knowledge through training 

its many students, postdoctoral researchers, and visiting workers, as well as through publications, talks, 

seminars, and direct work with collaborators and colleagues. They do this very well. Technology transfer 

via product development is somewhat secondary to TFD’s main line of activities, despite a number of 

successes, as narrated above. The review did not include presentations of policies regarding mechanisms 

for fostering product development through spinning off companies, sponsoring Small Business 

Innovation Research grants, or policies such as employee leaves to pursue commercialization activities. It 

is worth making sure that clear policies governing such activities related to technology transfer are in 

place and communicated to staff. 
40 

6 

Quantum Physics Division 

INTRODUCTION 

The Quantum Physics Division (QPD) and JILA—the latter established in 1962 and located on 

the campus of the University of Colorado, Boulder (CU)—together comprise a very unusual but 

extremely successful collaboration involving the NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory and CU. In 

fiscal year 2017, JILA received 31 percent of its funding for research and training from CU, 32 percent 

from NIST, and 38 percent from other federal agencies.1

 An important aspect of JILA funding is the JILA 

Physics Frontier Center (JILA PFC). The first National Science Foundation (NSF) PFC grant to JILA 

covered the 5-year period from mid-2006 through mid-2011. The award was $3.2 million per year. The 

NSF PFC 5-year renewals since that time have remained at $3.2 million per year, including the most 

recent renewal to begin in mid-2018 through mid-2023. There has never been a lapse in group grant or 

PFC funding since that funding began. 

JILA has 10 NIST-supported fellows, the chair of JILA among them, out of a total of 28 JILA 

fellows. The JILA fellows act effectively as a faculty department at NIST/CU. They collectively and 

remarkably coherently make hiring decisions and try to guide JILA toward new frontiers in quantum 

physics and biological physics, among other areas. The presence of biological physics NIST JILA fellows 

is another example of how JILA marches somewhat to its own drumbeat as to the future of quantum 

physics very broadly defined. 

ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL PROGRAMS 

The NIST QPD/JILA effort is clearly among the best in the world. Two of the fellows have been 

among the Reuter’s top 100 most-cited physicists2

 for the past 5 years. The Cornell group is both 

overseeing the first Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) experiment in microgravity at the International 

Space Station (ISS) and testing fundamental high-energy physics with work to set limits on the electron 

electric dipole moment. The Rey Theory Group is driving a spectacular theoretical effort to understand 

quantum many-body effects in cold atom three-dimensional (3D) lattices, central to the remarkable10−19

stability limits in the Ye Group’s lattice clocks. 

The death of Deborah Jin in September 2016 was a tragic loss. Her work on fermion cold atom 

lattices was central to the Ye Group’s work. Because her group was extremely well embedded in many 

JILA projects and central to them, her group was seamlessly absorbed into other groups and what could 

have been a really major technology blow was averted. 

QPD/JILA has strong overlapping interests with other PML divisions, in particular the Time and 

Frequency Division (TFD). Because QPD/JILA is housed in a CU facility and not at NIST Boulder, there 

is little trickle down of improvements in the TFD to QPD/JILA. 

 

1

 Tom O’Brian, “JILA: NIST/CU Partnership for Research, Innovation and Training,” presentation to the 

committee, May 1, 2018. 2

 Further information, see Clarivate Analytics, “2017 Highly Cited Researchers,” 

https://clarivate.com/hcr/2017-researchers-list/#categories%3Dphysics, accessed September 27, 2018. 
41 

 It would be worth exploring the possibility of stronger technical coordination between the TFD 

and QPD/JILA to avoid barriers to cooperation (e.g., “not invented here”) within the divisions, given the 

overlapping agendas. CU, the partner with NIST in JILA, funds only a small portion of its total budget 

from state appropriations and depends ever more heavily on increases in tuition charges. Maintaining 

JILA facilities and paying the salaries needed to attract the best people could become extremely difficult 

as costs rise and federal budgets are less assured. With respect to the latter, the group relies on NSF to 

fund its PFC and must apply for renewed funding every 5 years. 

Quantum Physics 

Much of the current research carried out by the Ye Group, the Rey Theory Group, and the Bohn 

Group exploits the remarkable control achieved in the preparation and observation of ultra-cold atoms 

trapped in optical lattices to produce revolutionary advances in metrology, in many-body physics, and 

fundamental physics. 

A substantial part of this work finds its original motivation in the desire to build atomic clocks of 

increasing precision, with a current state of the art of about 1 part in 1019. Understanding what limits this 

precision and degrades the performance of such atomic clocks relies on a detailed study of many-body 

effects in atomic and molecular systems. This, in turn, has led to the realization that these many-body 

effects, which can be under exquisite experimental control in clock development, permit the investigator 

to simulate experimentally, and study theoretically, a number of challenging problems at the interface 

between atomic, molecular, and optical (AMO) physics and condensed matter physics. As a result, in 

addition to their metrological applications, lattice clocks can now be used as quantum simulators of 

complex interacting, open driven quantum systems whose understanding remains a considerable 

challenge. In a sense, the research in the Quantum Physics Group can be understood as exploring 

quantum physics with highly accurate clocks. 

Examples of such problems tackled by the Rey Theory Group and its collaborators include, but 

are not limited to, quantum magnetism, the study of AMO analogs of systems where localized magnetic 

moments interact with one another or with mobile fermions, such as AMO analogs of the SU(N) lattice 

models;3

 quantum systems and quantum engineering, the investigation of the behavior of open driven and 

interacting many-body systems, one of the frontiers of modern quantum physics; and cold molecule 

physics, a topic driven by and feeding into the experimental capability developed in the Ye Group to 

control experimentally the initial state of molecules, monitor how they approach each other and their 

intermediate states, and analyze the end products in a situation where the molecular reaction processes are 

essentially limited only by the laws of quantum mechanics. 

The experimental side, led by the Ye Group as well, implements this broad vision, together with 

the fusion of quantum many-body physics and metrology, which results in world-leading research of the 

highest quality and interest. Noteworthy here is the work on the optical lattice clock, currently having a 

precision of approximately 10−19, with the further promise to reach 10−21 in the coming years, owing to 

developments of a fermionic atomic lattice clock. There seems to be no apparent fundamental limit to 

how good this system can become, and at this point, the fusion of metrology and many-body physics 

should be expected to be further enlarged, opening up fascinating new directions of research in both 

applied and fundamental physics. The latter might include use of such clocks for gravitational wave 

detection, searches for dark matter, long baseline interferometry, geodesy, searches for physics beyond 

the Standard Model, and more. Much as the development of clocks has historically been at the center of 

discovery and scientific breakthroughs, and so too the quest for ever-increasing precision will continue to 

open up unexpected avenues of inquiry. 

 

3

 See, for example, M.E. Beverland, G. Alagic, A.P. Koller, A.M. Rey, and A.V. Gorshkov, 2016, “Realizing 

exactly solvable SU(N) magnets with thermal atoms, Phys. Rev. A 93(5):051601(R). 
42 

The Thompson Laboratory has extended the discussion of precision measurements with single 

quantum objects to new possibilities with many quantum objects. One important application is reducing 

quantum noise by entangling, for example, spin states. This has already enabled surpassing the standard 

quantum limit by 17.7 decibels (dB). The group also described realizing an idea of the noted physicist 

Robert H. Dicke—a superradiant laser that is insensitive to fluctuations in the cavity length because the 

bandwidth of the emission is much smaller than that of the cavity resonance frequency.4

 This results in a 

laser 500,000-times less sensitive to cavity length than conventional stable lasers. 

The exceedingly narrow linewidth of the superradiant laser can be further improved by utilizing 

forbidden transitions with even longer lifetimes (i.e., with narrower linewidths). The potential exists for 

orders of magnitude improvement, which can lead to improved clocks and applications in fundamental 

science, such as general relativity. The approximately 60-fold improvement over the standard quantum 

limit obtained by squeezing via entanglement can be further improved, opening up applications to optical 

lattice clocks and matter wave interferometers. 

The research plan of the Kaufman Group is to marry the tools of quantum gas microscopy, optical 

tweezer technology, and high-precision spectroscopy in order to gain single-particle control at 

fundamental length scales and very small energy scales. The work of this group is expected to continue to 

impress. 

The work of the Cornell Group has carved out a unique space in the world of BEC, and their 

work with the electron electric dipole moment (EDM)—work that is already challenging some of the 

more conventional improvements to the Standard Model—is among the best in the world. The purpose of 

this experiment is to make a precision measurement of the EDM of the electron. Because a finite electron 

EDM violates time symmetry, and thus by the CPT5

 theorem violates CP symmetry as well, a precision 

upper bound on an electron EDM constrains the Standard Model. Cornell also works in collaboration with 

the Ye Group6

 using an ultracold gas of Rubidium-85 to create a strongly interacting BEC, which will 

provide an ideal platform to study few- and many-body physics. 

The Lehnert Laboratory works on a number of different topics, including the transduction of 

mechanical motion into electrical signals; development of Josephson parametric amplifiers from an 

arcane and poorly understood device to what is now a heavily used, quantum-limited amplifier central to 

superconducting qubit development; and, more recently, development of an optomechanical transducer 

connecting microwave and optical signals. Prior to starting this last effort, the group had led the first 

effort to successfully use light to cool a mechanical resonator to its quantum ground state, adapting the 

AMO technique of sideband cooling and applying it to a microwave system to achieve this result.7

 The 

group’s parametric amplifiers are being used in a collaborative effort involving Yale University, the 

University of California, Berkeley, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to search for axions,8

which, if detected, would have very important implications for fundamental physics and searches for dark 

matter. 

The optomechanical transduction effort is in a highly competitive area, with perhaps a dozen 

quite different but similarly targeted efforts worldwide. This effort is being pursued, in what seems a 

signature of JILA, as a close collaboration with the Regal Laboratory of JILA. This JILA collaboration 

has achieved more benchmark advances than any of the competing efforts. The most recent demonstration 

includes the highest-efficiency (by a couple of orders of magnitude) bi-directional transduction of 

coherent signals between the optical and microwave frequency domains. While not yet operating in the 

 

4

 James Thompson, JILA, “Quantum many-body states for precision measurement,” presentation to the 

committee, May 1, 2018. 5

 CPT = charge conjugation (C), parity transformation (P), and time reversal (T). 

6

 Further information available at JILA, “About the Ye Group,” http://jilawww.colorado.edu/ye/, accessed 

September 27, 2018. 7

 Konrad Lehnert, JILA, “Quantum transduction between the microwave and optical domains,” presentation to 

the committee, May 2, 2018. 8

 The axion was postulated to account for strong charge-parity symmetry in the Standard Model. 
43 

quantum limit, this experiment is close to doing so, with no obvious roadblocks other than improving the 

performance of each element involved in the transduction. 

This technology could prove central to building practical quantum communication networks and 

comprises a very remarkable advance. Note that the devices involved in this are highly sophisticated 

combinations of a superconducting, extremely low-loss, microwave resonator; a very high finesse optical 

cavity; and a carefully designed, high-quality-factor silicon nitride membrane with superconducting metal 

patterned on its surface, through which the optical and microwave signals are coupled to one another. The 

successful fabrication of these devices uses the PML cleanroom9

 quite heavily, and the use of these 

devices employs very sophisticated microwave techniques (relying on the Lehnert Laboratory’s expertise) 

combined with optical techniques (relying on the Regal Group expertise) in a way that would be hard to 

reproduce anywhere but at JILA. 

The Nesbitt Laboratory performs experiments in the areas of biophysics, nanoscience, chemical 

physics, and molecular spectroscopy. One nanoscience project focuses on the fundamental nature of the 

quantum confined exciton state, and luminescence blinking, in single core/shell chemical quantum dots 

via their response to very high electric fields. This is a central problem in semiconductor quantum dots, 

and despite intensive worldwide effort remains poorly understood. A second project explores 

femtosecond (fs) hot electron relaxation dynamics and photoemission in single plasmonic gold (Au) 

nanostructures of various shapes. Here the laboratory has made the remarkable discovery that the 

direction of photo-emitted electrons is often at right angles to the optically excited plasmon axis. This 

points to unexpectedly complex relaxation kinetics during the 30-fs relaxation process. This discovery is 

an important step in helping to understand the recently discovered ability of hot electrons in optically 

excited Au nanostructures to catalyze surface chemical reactions. 

Accomplishments 

The division’s optical lattice clocks have a precision of approximately 10−19, with the further 

promise to reach 10−21, owing to development of a fermionic atomic lattice clock. A further novelty is the 

realization of Robert H. Dicke’s idea of a superradiant laser that is insensitive to fluctuations in the cavity 

length owing to its emissions bandwidth being much smaller than that of the cavity resonance frequency. 

The result is a laser 500,000 times less sensitive to cavity length than conventional stable lasers. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

QPD/JILA has strong overlapping interests with other PML divisions, in particular the Time and 

Frequency Division. Because QPD/JILA is housed in a University of Colorado, Boulder (CU) facility and 

not at NIST Boulder, there is little trickle down of improvements in the Time and Frequency Division to 

QPD/JILA. 

Biological Physics 

In biophysics, the Nesbitt Laboratory studies the effects of molecular crowding such as occur in 

live cells on the kinetics and thermodynamics of biochemical processes, including ribonucleic acid (RNA) 

folding. Under crowded conditions, single-RNA molecules folded 35-times faster than in the dilute 

solution. Crowding also led to a modest decrease in the unfolding rate. In related work, the folding–

unfolding kinetics of a ubiquitous tertiary interaction motif, the GAAA10 tetraloop–tetraloop receptor 

 

9

 The clean room is part of the Quantum Electromagnetics Division of the Physical Measurement Laboratory. 10 G = guanine; A = adenine. 
44 

(TL–TLR), was investigated by single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer spectroscopy in 

the presence of natural amino acids both with (e.g., lysine, arginine) and without (e.g., glycine).11 This is a 

productive line of research relevant to cellular chemical biology. 

Impressive advances were made in the time resolution and noise characteristics of biological 

atomic force microscopy (AFM) for membrane protein studies at the Perkin’s Laboratory.12 By shaping 

the cantilever, by focused ionic beam (FIB) machining, and by optical stabilization of both sample and 

tip, remarkable combinations of time resolution (~ 1 microsecond) and low noise were achieved. This 

very substantial advancement was applied to the unfolding dynamics of bacteriorhodopsin in near native 

purple membranes. The experiments are now sensitive enough to reveal multiple unfolding intermediates 

and reveal the stabilizing effect of binding retinal and of individual amino acids. 

The work of the Jimenez Laboratory combines ultrafast laser spectroscopy with microfluidic 

development in biological physics. The group is working on developing microfluidics-based single-cell 

spectroscopy techniques to characterize photophysics in vivo on 105

-member libraries of fluorescent 

proteins. This laboratory uses microfluidics to isolate fluorescent protein clones with new properties and 

discover structure-dynamics relationships that would not be apparent from conventional biophysical 

studies focusing on a small number of variants.13 

The Jimenez Laboratory also is conducting a new effort exploring the unique properties of 

entangled photons interacting with fluorescent proteins and other fluorophores used in cellular imaging. 

Time-energy entanglement can significantly enhance nonlinear light-matter interactions. Entangled twophoton absorption follows linear rather than the classical quadratic intensity dependence and can be 

observed at much lower photon fluxes than two-photon absorption in conventional multiphoton 

microscope. 

Accomplishments 

The use of single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer spectroscopy in the presence 

of natural amino acids, both with (e.g., lysine, arginine) and without (e.g., glycine), is a productive line of 

research relevant to cellular chemical biology. The use of biological atomic force microscopy (AFM) for 

membrane protein studies achieved time resolution (~ 1 microsecond) and low noise. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

The efforts in biological physics are strong, but at a subcritical mass, with the compounding 

circumstance that the two biophysicists are somewhat isolated, making it a challenge to ensure their work 

is relevant. The Biology Frontier Center on the CU campus may be an important resource. PML could 

provide an environment in which JILA scientists working in biophysics continue to work on problems of 

priority to both biologists and biophysicists. This could include fostering collaborations and other 

mechanisms that bring them closer to the Biology Frontier Center as well as other options. 

 

11 A. Sengupta, H.-L. Sung, and D.J. Nesbitt, 2016, Amino acid specific effects on RNA tertiary interactions: 

Single-molecule kinetic and thermodynamic studies, J. Phys. Chem. B. 120(41):10615-10627. 12 Thomas Perkins, JILA, “Improved bioAFM for probing diverse molecular systems,” presentation to the 

committee, May 1, 2018. 13 Adapted from JILA, “The Jimenez Lab: About Ralph Jimenez,” 

http://jila.colorado.edu/jimenez/node?page=2, accessed October 1, 2018. 
45 

PORTFOLIO OF SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE 

The program’s scientific expertise is closely matched to the technical programs and strongly 

enables QPD/JILA’s ability to be a world leader in quantum physics. 

ADEQUACY OF FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND HUMAN RESOURCES 

The facilities at QPD/JILA are unique and the envy of many physics departments around the 

world, who have seen the steady erosion of facilities, in particular in human resources, in the shortsighted interests of local budget issues. QPD/JILA maintains a strong electronics shop where students 

work with staff to build things, an excellent machine shop both at the professional level and for students, 

and a fantastic glass shop. It is extremely important that this range of facilities and support staff remain. 

Challenges and Opportunities: Facilities 

However, there are some black clouds on the horizon. The JILA Laboratory is a mix of old and 

new construction, with the oldest part of the laboratories being simply incompatible with the 

extraordinary experiments being pursued there, and the newer parts of the laboratories not having been 

built to the highest level of temperature and humidity control. In spite of this, the control of vibration in 

the basement is at world-class level. 

A complete renovation of the oldest wing of the laboratory, at the least, needs to be funded jointly 

by NIST and CU and completed in a timely fashion, in order that the world-class researchers have the 

best vibrational-, temperature-, and humidity-controlled laboratory space. 

DISSEMINATION OF OUTPUTS 

Outreach 

JILA participates in the CU Wizards program, which explores the exciting worlds of physics, 

chemistry, biology, geology, mathematics, psychology, astronomy, and more. It is free to the public and 

geared toward children in grades K-12 and their families. 

The CU Physics Department offers several 1-hour talks on Saturday afternoons. These afford 

adults and high school students the opportunity to interact with a CU professor, including JILA fellows. A 

further program, called Alice’s Adventures in Quantumland incorporates JILA research on the novelties of 

quantum physics. It is in a whimsical narrative form, aimed at introducing a younger audience to the 

concepts of quantum physics. 

JILA embraces the goal of providing “a supportive and welcoming environment for women 

scientists of all ages.”14 However, while JILA has some high-profile women and minority researchers, as 

well as a number of female postdoctoral researchers and graduate students, efforts to further recruit and 

advance both groups need to be continued. 

 

14 University of Colorado, Boulder, “Outreach,” http://amalfi.colorado.edu/resources/outreach, accessed 

October 1, 2018. 
46 

Stakeholder Needs 

It is difficult to assess to what degree the work of the division is driven by stakeholder needs. By 

its very title, the QPD has a strong emphasis on fundamental quantum physics. Remarkably QPD/JILA 

has now moved into the realm of testing fundamental aspects of general relativity and physics beyond the 

Standard Model of high-energy physics. In that sense, the stakeholders of the QPD/JILA effort are the 

community of fundamental scientists. 

Owing to the unique charter of JILA among NIST laboratories, consideration is given to the 

educational stakeholders of QPD/JILA by recruiting and training the next generation of top students and 

postdoctoral researchers. QPD/JILA does a remarkable job for the educational stakeholders, which is a 

beneficial arrangement for CU. It might be instructive to see an accounting of the numbers of students and 

postdoctoral researchers passing through JILA in the past 5 years, together with categorization of where 

these people are now (industry, national laboratory, academia, entrepreneurs, and so forth). 

Another interesting area with respect to stakeholders is biological physics. Here the Jimenez 

Laboratory, Perkins Laboratory, and Nesbitt Laboratory perform valuable functions. The Jimenez 

Laboratory is deeply involved in doing directed evolution of fluorescent protein biomarkers using 

advanced laser technology and microfluidics, and it recently has a very challenging but exciting project to 

use entangled 2-photon excitation to dramatically increase 2-photon cross-sections for use in biomedical 

tissue imaging. The Perkins Laboratory has made dramatic improvements in AFM cantilever technology 

to achieve microsecond response times in AFM microscopes, which will have immediate and important 

use in the rapidly expanding AFM imaging world, both for materials sciences and biology. The Nesbitt 

Laboratory is expanding fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) imaging microscope technology, 

which plays an important role in many aspects of protein dynamics, and the work on electron emission 

from nanoscale objects could have important implications for electron gun development used in many 

technology areas. 

Opportunities and Challenges 

Technology Transfer 

The challenges are complex. While JILA is mostly engaged in basic scientific research not 

compatible with patent protection and licensing, protecting some of the work would allow it to be 

translated into the commercial sector. Without intellectual property (IP) protection, companies will not 

want to invest the time and money to complete translation to market. Incentives for JILA researchers 

could be constructed that reward IP development, compatible with government restrictions, in a manner 

that does not distort the basic scientific effort but promotes technology transfer. Currently, it appears that 

IP protection and technology transfer are not seen as priorities and are not part of the reward structure, 

and therefore there is minimal effort to seek patents and transfer valuable technology. 

Funding Sources 

One concern regarding sources of funding is the degree to which JILA relies financially on its 

Physics Frontier Center, recently renewed for another 5-year term. There is need for planning how to 

handle the possible funding downturn should this center not be renewed in the future. 

JILA’s plans to hire an embedded fund raiser whose mission will be to raise funds for JILA from 

philanthropists is sensible.
47 

7 

Key Recommendations 

The weak infrastructure highlighted in the 2015 assessment report1

 persists in some areas. NIST 

responded to this challenge by bringing on board the new Katharine Blodgett Gebbie Laboratory 

Building, which is devoted to research. Some fortunate PML staff have excellent research space in that 

new building. At the same time, however, the laboratories of some of the staff are housed in a building 

that has not been upgraded since the 1960s. The environmental controls in the laboratory space need to be 

improved. While the ability of PML researchers to operate in less-than-optimal physical space was 

impressive, they are rapidly reaching the day when the decaying infrastructure will limit their ability to 

perform their necessary duties, extend the accuracy of the standards that PML researchers have 

developed, and show the applicability of their research to ever-advancing high-tech industry. 

Recommendation 1. The PML should develop with NIST management a plan to remodel 

and upgrade, as soon as possible, the infrastructure utilized by the PML, and should 

perform an assessment to determine which PML infrastructure assets are weakest in 

supporting the scientific mission. 

The 2015 assessment report noted that NIST procedures and policies relating to patents and 

intellectual property (IP) were not clearly defined for technical staff. The present panel revisited this issue 

and found, for example, that JILA—the host institution of the Quantum Physics Division—is mostly 

engaged in basic scientific research not compatible with patent protection and licensing. Protecting some 

of the work would allow its translation into the commercial sector. Without IP protection, companies will 

not want to invest the time and money to complete translation to market. Incentives for JILA researchers 

could be constructed that reward IP development, compatible with government restrictions, in a manner 

that does not distort the basic scientific effort but promotes technology transfer. 

At the conclusion of the committee’s site visit, the chair of the committee and staff met with the 

Director of NIST (Dr. Walter Copan), who explained that a priority for him was developing and 

regularizing workable procedures and policy positions on patents and IP for all parts of NIST. The NIST 

Director reported this year that he is addressing this matter throughout the Department of Commerce 

(DOC), so that all DOC staff, including those at NIST, will be afforded a clear understanding of IP 

procedures and policies. NIST researchers need to be part of the conversation. The prospect of changes in 

patent and IP procedures and policies, being developed by the NIST Director, is encouraging and 

represents an opportunity for PML to regularize these procedures. 

Recommendation 2. The PML should, maintain awareness of changes in patent and 

intellectual property procedures to encourage and more efficiently enable the movement of 

PML’s discoveries into commercial space 

Instrumentation and space resources are excellent for most of the groups, but the Magnetic 

Resonance Imaging group is badly in need of a clinical-class magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) so that 

 

1

 National Research Council, 2016, An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Physical Measurement Laboratory—Fiscal Year 2015, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. 
48 

appropriate phantom design as well as initial testing can be readily accomplished without going to other 

sites. NIST has access to nearby clinical commercial MRI systems, but nonetheless might evaluate 

whether a clinical system of its own might not improve productivity by eliminating wait times, providing 

opportunities for Cooperative Research and Development Agreements and other partnerships that might 

offset costs, and decreasing costs it would otherwise incur using other clinical scanners in the area. In its 

work on quantitative nanostructure characterization, the Applied Physics Division (APD) may benefit 

from broader collaborations on different materials systems, recognizing that the group is not primarily a 

user community resource. APD’s work on advanced microwave photonics applied to quantum computing 

and its stakeholder community would benefit from experimental validation or the development of 

theoretical manuscripts describing the proposals. 

Recommendation 3. PML should study the costs and benefits of acquiring a clinical-class 

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine that would assist in phantom design and 

enable testing on-site. 

The Quantum Electromagnetics Division would benefit from increased guidance on the value to 

NIST of patent activity vis-à-vis journal publications and other metrics. (See Recommendation 2 above.) 

The environmental controls in the laboratory space need to be improved. The aging facilities have 

problems with the building envelope, such as the observed roof leaks. (See Recommendation 1 above.) 

The problem of transmitting time signals and comparing frequency standards in this new regime 

of precision poses a serious scientific and technical challenge. Comparisons in the same laboratory are 

relatively straightforward, but the problem of comparisons at large distances remains to be solved. 

Recommendation 4. PML should continue its work to develop methods for distributing time 

over long distances at the newly attainable levels of precision. 
49 

Acronyms 

AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science 

AAPM American Association of Physicists in Medicine 

AC alternating current 

AFM atomic force microscopy 

AMO atomic, molecular and optical 

APD Applied Physics Division 

ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 

ASD Atomic Spectra Database 

BEOL back-end-of-line 

BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Mesures 

BMF Boulder Microfabrication Facility 

cavity QED cavity quantum electrodynamics 

CIPM International Committee for Weights and Measures 

CIRMS Council of Ionizing Radiation Measurements and Standards 

CMOS complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor 

CODATA Committee on Data for Science and Technology 

CSAC Chip Scale Atomic Clock 

CT computed tomography 

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

DC direct current 

DHS Department of Homeland Security 

DOC Department of Commerce 

DoD Department of Defense 

DOE Department of Energy 

DWSS DoD-focused DoD-wide strategic sourcing 

EBIT electron beam ion trap 

EDM electric dipole moment of the electron 

EPD Engineering Physics Division 

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute 

EUV extreme ultraviolet 

FDA Food and Drug Administration 

FRET Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer 

FTS Fourier transform spectrometer 

GaN gallium nitride 

GDP gross domestic product 

HgCdTe mercury cadmium telluride 

HIA highly ionized atom 
50 

HPS Health Physics Society 

HSI hyperspectral imaging 

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 

ILMP International Legal Metrology Program 

ISO International Organization for Standardization 

ISS International Space Station 

ITL Information Technology Laboratory 

IUPAP International Union of Pure and Applied Physics 

JILA joint institute between NIST and the University of Colorado, Boulder 

JHU Johns Hopkins University 

JQI Joint Quantum Institute 

KRb ultracold potassium-rubidium 

LBIR low-background infrared 

LED light-emitting diode 

LIDAR differential absorption light detection and ranging 

LMDP Legal Metrology Devices Program 

low-SWaP low size, weight, and power 

mAb monoclonal antibody 

MBE molecular beam epitaxy 

MDA Missile Defense Agency 

MEMS microelectromechanical system 

MPD measurement program description 

MRI magnetic resonance imaging 

NCNR NIST Center for Neutron Research 

NCWM National Conference on Weights and Measures 

NCSLI National Conference of Standards Laboratories International 

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency 

NIH National Institutes of Health 

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NMI National Metrology Institute 

NML national measurement laboratory 

NMR nuclear magnetic resonance 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NPOESS National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System 

NRC National Research Council 

OCT optical coherence tomography 

OIML International Organization of Legal Metrology 

OWM Office of Weights and Measures 

PACE preaerosol, clouds, and ocean ecosystem 

PET positron emission tomograph(y) 

PIF precision imaging facility 

PML Physical Measurement Laboratory 

PMU phasor measurement unit 
51 

PTB Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt 

QED Quantum Electromagnetics Division 

QI quantum information 

QMD Quantum Measurement Division 

QMS quality management system 

QPD Quantum Physics Division 

QuICS Quantum Information and Computer Science 

R&D research and development 

RF radio frequency 

RPD Radiation Physics Division 

RSNA Radiological Society of North America 

SANS small-angle neutron scattering 

SEMI Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International 

SESAM Semiconductor Saturable Absorber Mirror 

SGIP Smart Grid Interoperability Panel 

SI international system of units 

SIM Sistema Interamericano de Metrología 

SIRCUS spectral irradiance and radiance responsivity calibrations using uniform sources 

SNM Society of Nuclear Medicine 

SNMMI Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging 

SNSPD superconducting nanowire single-photon detector 

SQUID superconducting quantum interference devices 

SSD Sensor Science Division 

SURF III Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility 

TDCR triple-to-double coincidence ratio 

TES transition edge sensor 

TFD Time and Frequency Division 

UTC coordinated universal time 

VIIRS visible infrared imaging radiometer suite 

VUV vacuum ultraviolet