OSAC 2021‐N‐0010

Standard for Skeletal

Preparation and Sampling in

Forensic Anthropology

Forensic Anthropology Subcommittee

Medicine Scientific Area Committee (SAC)

Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science
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OSAC Proposed Standard

OSAC 2021‐N‐0010

Standard for Skeletal Preparation and

Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

Prepared by  

Forensic Anthropology Subcommittee

Version: 2.1

December 2023

Disclaimer:

This OSAC Proposed Standard was written by the Forensic Anthropology Subcommittee of the

Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science following a process that

includes an open comment period. This Proposed Standard will be submitted to a standard

developing organization and is subject to change.  

There may be references in an OSAC Proposed Standard to other publications under

development by OSAC. The information in the Proposed Standard, and underlying concepts and

methodologies, may be used by the forensic science community before the completion of such

companion publications.

Any identification of commercial equipment, instruments, or materials in the Proposed Standard

is not a recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Government and does not imply that the

equipment, instruments, or materials are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

Version

No.

Issue Date Section Reason

2.0 November 7, 2023  ‐‐  Added to the OSAC Registry and publicly announced.

2.1 December 21, 2023 All Format and font updates only. No content changes made.
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Foreword:

This standard is intended to assist forensic anthropology practitioners when sampling and

preparing skeletal remains for forensic analyses and curation.  

In order to make skeletal material and features more accessible for forensic anthropological

analyses, and to procure material that may have additional investigative value, it is sometimes

necessary to sample and/or prepare skeletal remains.    This standard recognizes the need to

document the condition of remains upon arrival at the forensic anthropology laboratory and

throughout the process of preparation and sampling. This standard emphasizes the importance

of preparing and/or sampling skeletal remains in a manner that limits or prevents their

contamination, unnecessary destruction, and/or adverse alteration.  

Keywords: forensic anthropology; skeleton; sampling; maceration
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Table of Contents

1 Scope .....................................................................................................................................5

2 Normative References........................................................................................................... 5

3 Terms and Definitions............................................................................................................ 5

4 Requirements ........................................................................................................................ 6

Annex............................................................................................................................................9

   
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Standard for Skeletal Preparation and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

1 Scope

This standard sets forth techniques and requirements for sampling and preparing skeletal

remains for examination and curation. Its goal is to facilitate sampling and preparation in a

manner that limits or prevents contamination, unnecessary destruction, and/or adverse

alteration of the remains. The standard addresses the following aspects of evidence collection

and handling: the documentation, preparation, and preservation of skeletal material for forensic

anthropological analysis and future/downstream analyses (e.g., DNA or isotopic testing).

2 Normative References

There are no normative reference documents. Annex A, Bibliography, contains informative

references.  

3 Terms and Definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following definitions apply.

3.1

forensic anthropology laboratory

Any facility used in the analysis and/or testing of human skeletal remains of medicolegal

significance.  

3.2  

entomological preparation

The removal of soft tissue from skeletal remains using carrion beetles (typically Dermestes

maculatus).

3.3

maceration

The removal of soft tissue from skeletal remains through prolonged immersion in a liquid bath.

3.4  

mechanical preparation  

The removal of soft tissue and other materials from skeletal remains using tools.
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3.5

skeletal preparation (processing)

The removal of soft tissue and/or other materials from skeletal remains through mechanical,

maceration, and/or entomological methods.

3.6

skeletal reconstruction

The reassociation of bone and tooth fragments that originated from the same skeletal portion.

4 Requirements

4.1 General  

In order to make skeletal remains and features more accessible for forensic anthropological

analyses, and in order to procure material that may have additional investigative value, it is

sometimes necessary to sample and/or prepare skeletal remains or other tissues associated with

skeletal remains.    The condition of the remains upon arrival at the forensic anthropology

laboratory and throughout the process of preparation and sampling shall be documented.  Any

alterations caused by the process of sampling and preparation shall also be documented.  

4.2 Procedure  

4.2.1 General Requirements

4.2.1.1 All human remains shall be handled with appropriate personal protective equipment to

ensure safety of the practitioner and limit contamination of the evidence.  

4.2.1.2 Photographs shall be taken prior to any sampling or preparation of remains.

4.2.1.3 . All artifacts caused by sampling or preparation of remains shall be documented.  

4.2.1.4 Any alterations made during the preparation process shall be documented.  

4.2.1.5 Tools used in preparation and sampling should be documented.  

4.2.1.6 All applicable data collection procedures (e.g., visual examination, metric analyses), as

well as photographic documentation shall be completed before a skeletal element undergoes

sampling.  

4.2.2 Sampling

4.2.2.1 Sampling skeletal remains may be required for other analyses such as DNA, histological

examination, isotope, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy
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(EDS), etc. The type of sample will depend on the type of testing anticipated and the SOPs for the

forensic anthropology laboratory and/or testing facility’s requirements.

4.2.2.2 Sampling shall be conducted with the permission of the relevant jurisdictional authority

and with a specific investigative objective (e.g., DNA testing, isotopes, histology).

4.2.2.3 When sampling, techniques and equipment shall be employed that reduce and control

contamination, (e.g., the use of blades or saws that are new and/or have been treated with

bleach and/or UV light).   

4.2.2.4 Samples shall be treated as evidence (e.g., handled and packaged to prevent loss,

tampering, contamination, and/or deleterious change; packaging that is labeled to include a

unique case identifier and a brief description of contents; documentation of the sample’s

collection/separation from parent evidence, transfer, analysis, and disposition in a chain of

custody).

4.2.2.5 When appropriate, sampling of skeletal remains shall be taken from regions of bone not

typically used in establishing a biological profile, supporting a personal identification, or are

otherwise analytically relevant (e.g., age indicators, restored teeth, areas of trauma,

measurements).  

4.2.3 Skeletal Preparation

4.2.3.1 When possible, medical imaging (e.g., radiographs, CT imaging) shall be taken of remains

prior to skeletal preparation to detect or visualize objects such as foreign material as well as

features related to development, variation, trauma, surgical intervention and/or pathological

conditions.  

4.2.3.2 Physical measures (e.g., drain strainers, trays/containers) shall be in place to prevent the

loss of small bones, teeth, or other evidentiary items.  

4.2.3.3 When washing skeletal remains is not sufficient, there are three general approaches for

effective skeletal preparation: mechanical, maceration, and/or entomological.  

4.2.3.3.1 Mechanical preparation, if required, shall minimize the risk of alteration to the

skeleton. Instruments such as scalpels or scissors should be utilized in a manner that mitigates

damage.  For example,scalpel damage can be avoided by holding the blade parallel to the surface

rather than at a steep angle.

4.2.3.3.2 Sampling shall be performed prior to maceration. Maceration is typically through

immersion in a water bath.  Immersion times and temperatures shall be monitored throughout

the maceration process to maintain the integrity of the skeletal remains. Chemical detergents

and additives may be used to facilitate the breakdown of adhering soft tissues, degreasing, and

protein degradation.
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4.2.3.3.3 Entomological preparation ofskeletal material may be performed using dermestid

beetles. See, for example, Sanger Ciarlegio, et al. (2020) for details on establishing and

maintaining a colony. Exposure time to the dermestid colony shall be monitored to achieve

denuded skeletal material and to prevent damage and the loss of skeletal remains.  

4.2.3.4 Decisions regarding preparation method(s) shall include considerations of the condition

of the remains, the types of analyses anticipated, and whether long‐term curation is needed.  

4.2.3.5 Disposition of soft tissue shall follow appropriate jurisdictional regulations (e.g.,

biohazard waste, medical cremation).

4.3 Considerations

Skeletal elements may be labeled. Remains retained for extended periods of time should be

labeled. Labels shall be removable. For example, if labeling individual skeletal elements using

permanent ink, a removable acrylic base coat should be used.

The practitioner shall maintain close coordination and collaboration with the medicolegal

authority, particularly for the following:  

 Unexpected evidence (e.g., tattoos, finger or palm prints, projectile, trauma);

 Destructive testing of the entirety of the remains

In the event that remains require reconstruction or stabilization, the process and materials used

shall be documented. The methods or materials shall be reversible.  

The following practices are deleterious to the conservation of skeletal evidence and shall be

avoided:

 Unnecessary use of chemicals that damage or destroy skeletal remains (e.g., prolonged

exposure to bleach or hydrogen peroxide);

 Excessive maceration and/or heat (e.g., prolonged exposure to heat, boiling);

 Unnecessary alteration or destruction of skeletal remains;

 Unnecessary reconstruction or stabilization of skeletal remains (e.g., plastic‐based,

synthetic stabilizers)
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Annex

(informative)

Bibliography

1]   Arismendi JL, Baker LE, Matteson KJ. 2004. Effects of processing techniques on the forensic

DNA analysis of human skeletal remains.  Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 49, no. 5, pp 930‐

934.

2]   Hangay G, Dingley M. 1985.   Biological Museum Methods. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA.

3]   Lee EJ, Luedtke JG, Allison JL, Arber CE, Merriwether DA, Steadman DW. 2010. The effects of

different maceration techniques on nuclear DNA amplification using human bone. Journal of

Forensic Sciences, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 1032‐8.

4]  Rennick SL, Fenton TW, Foran DR. 2005. The Effects of Skeletal Preparation Techniques on

DNA from Human and Non‐Human Bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 1‐5.

5] Sanger Ciarleglio. JE, Perez KM, Motola HL, DiGangi EA. 2020. Recommendations for

maintaining a dermestid beetle colony (Dermestes maculatus) for processing human remains.  

Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 65, no. 5, pp 1698‐1703.  

6]  Steadman DW, DiAntonio LL, Wilson JJ, Sheridan KE, Tammariello SP. 2006. The effects of

chemical and heat maceration techniques on the recovery of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA

from bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 11‐17.