INFLUENCE OF DISPOSITIONAL AND 

SITUATIONAL FACTORS ON HUMAN 

PERCEPTIONS OF FIRE RISK

Justin W. Bonny Aand Isaac T. Leventon *

B

A Morgan State University, Department of Psychology;

1700 East Cold Spring Lane, Behavioral and Social Sciences Center, Room 431; Baltimore, MD, 

21251; United States

B National Institute of Standards and Technology, Fire Research Division,

100 Bureau Drive; Building 224, Room A265; Gaithersburg, MD, 20899; United States

Keywords: Decision Making, Egress Modeling, Human Behavior in Fire, Psychological Traits, Risk 

Perception

ABSTRACT

At what point does an individual perceive a growing fire as dangerous and decide it is necessary 

to take action? Studies of human behavior during emergencies have observed that when presented with 

situational cues that a hazard may be present, humans can fail to act on this information in a timely 

manner. Models of human behavior in response to fire-related emergencies explicitly account for 

potential delays in identifying and acting on the presented risk of a fire. For example, the protective 

action decision model incorporates the tendency of individuals to notice an aberrant signal, but fail to 

recognize the cue as indicative of the need to evacuate, until it has become more salient. Past research 

has indicated that variations in the disposition of individuals, such as psychological traits, can also 

influence responses to emergencies. The present study examines the extent to which responses to 

images of growing room fires were influenced by situational and disposition factors. Participants judged 

whether words reflecting normalcy, risk, or protective action applied to images of room fires that varied 

in intensity. Psychophysical models of responses revealed, as the visual extent of the fires increased, 

deviation from normalcy words were first reliably judged to apply, then risk, and finally protective 

action, in line with models of human evacuation behavior. Individual differences in a specific 

dispositional trait, self-reported discomfort when exposed to sensory stimuli, was significantly related 

to performance: those who reported greater negative affect with sensory stimulation took longer to 

identify a growing fire as indicative of risk. The presence of moderate correlations between performance 

and other dispositional measures suggests future studies with greater statistical power may observe 

additional relations. Results of the current study lend support to the presence of a normalcy bias: even 

though participants noticed small fires and identified the scene as abnormal, they did not reliably view 

them as a risk until they grew larger. Furthermore, in line with evacuation models, once participants 

judged the fire cues to be a risk, fire size further increased before participants judged a protective action 

was applicable. The corroborating evidence in the present study suggests that psychophysical and 

observational data align with models of human evacuation behavior.

INTRODUCTION

A growing number of fire and life safety codes used around the world provide performancebased design options 1

. To ensure adequate provisions for occupant life safety, egress calculations are 
increasingly part of performance-based analyses 2

. The role of human behavior in egress calculations 

can vary from simple models that assume occupants will display identical responses with regard to preevacuation behavior (e.g., prescribed delay times in hydraulic based models 3

) to more comprehensive 

models that account for individual differences in occupant decision making processes (e.g., perception 

of hazards, and identification and assessment of risk 4–6). Review papers of human behavior in fire stress 

the need to accurately assess pre-movement time (i.e., the time between first exposure to fire cues and 

movement towards a safe place) and have noted that it may be a more important element of required 

escape time than the time needed to move to a safe place 7,8. Further, studies of real emergencies have 

shown that there is a connection between pre-evacuation time (delays in evacuation) and the number of 

fire deaths or injuries 8. Unfortunately, multiple studies have highlighted that pre-evacuation behavior 

receives comparatively less attention than the actual process of evacuation behavior 9–12. 

Pioneering efforts identified behaviors that are now recognized as key human responses to fire by 

surveying individuals after they had experienced a fire event and investigating the actions taken (as 

distinct from movement) when they encountered a fire in a building 13,14. Later work would seek to 

better understand factors affecting human response (and related timing) in real fires including (but not 

limited to) occupancy 9,15, cues received 10, and occupant action prior to fire cue 11. However, the fidelity 

of human behavior in response to fire cues incorporated within computational models that simulate 

egress is still limited 16 and further research is still needed to identify the underlying processes that 

produce these observable human behaviors in fire 12. Including behavioral theories of human decision 

making regarding the timing of pre-evacuation actions and research linking influential factors (e.g., 

individual characteristics and environmental cues) to occupant decision making (e.g., identifying 

threats, perceiving risk, and selecting appropriate protective actions 17) can improve these models. 

Greater understanding of how fire is identified as an imminent risk, a specific aspect of human decision 

making, could improve models and calculations of required safe egress time (RSET). 

Models of occupant responses to fire emergencies suggest that specific factors can influence the 

perception of cues and assessment of the inherent risk of a situation. A specific model that has been 

applied to human behavior during emergencies, the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM), places 

an emphasis on the early processing of cues indicative of danger. According to this model, human 

responses to indicators of a present or imminent emergency depend on a series of processes where 

environmental cues can be perceived and considered when making decisions about how to respond 18. 

When applied to fire-related emergencies, earlier processes are composed of perceiving environmental 

cues related to the emergency, with subsequent processes involving identifying whether these cues are 

indicative of risk, and later processes focusing on the decision making regarding taking protective action 

17

. Studies of human behavior during emergency evacuations have observed that humans, at times, fail 

to perceive signs of a hazardous event as indicative of risk 19. When applied to fire-related emergencies, 

the PADM explicitly incorporates biases to account for the potential delays in identifying and acting on 

the presented indicators of risk. Specifically, applications of the PADM to fire-related emergencies 

incorporate the tendency of individuals to fail to recognize aberrant signals (e.g., smoke) as abnormal; 

this is known as the normalcy bias 17. This type of bias can shape initial perceptions as to whether 

changes in the environment are out of the ordinary and can lead to delays in responding to an emergency

17. Previous research suggests that perception of cues as indicative of risk can be influenced by 

dispositional (e.g., psychological traits of the individual) and situational (e.g., environmental) factors 

20

. This likely also extends to decision making regarding whether such cues warrant taking protective 

action 21. When examining the impact of situational and dispositional factors on decision making, 

research that has applied the PADM to fire emergencies has predominantly used post hoc evaluations 

of human behavior during emergencies and interviews of individuals affected by emergencies as 

sources of data 19,20. This leaves open questions regarding the extent to which perceptions and judgments 
when viewing fire cues are influenced by dispositional traits and situational factors.

In the present research, psychophysical models were used to assess at what point individuals viewing 

images of a developing fire reliably perceived a risk was present and required protective action. 

Participants viewed images selected from four full-scale compartment fires conducted in realistic, fullyfurnished settings (two kitchen and two bedroom fires) and subsequently made judgments about the 

state of the room. Situational factors were varied by manipulating the stage in fire development that the 

image was taken from (pre-ignition to flashover) and by varying the type of judgment. Specifically, 

participants indicated whether a word prompt from select categories did or did not apply to the displayed 

image. Words were selected to generally reflect earlier versus later processes of the PADM, namely 

assessment of threat credibility, cues as indicators of a threat, and assessing need for protective action 

22 – ‘normal’ or ‘ordinary’ (normalcy), ‘danger’ or ‘emergency’ (risk), ‘evacuate’ or ‘flee’ (protective 

action). The images ranged from rooms that did not contain flames or smoke, to rooms that had small 

fires that produced smoke, to rooms that had reached flashover. Psychometric functions were then fitted 

to collected responses to assess the point during fire growth at which participants reliably judged a word 

applied to the scene. To evaluate the extent to which variations in dispositional traits influenced 

judgments, participants also completed a series of questionnaires that assessed temperament (reactivity 

and self-regulation to changes in environment) and risk-taking tendencies. Individual differences in 

these factors have been observed to correlate with real-world behaviors such as risky driving 23 and 

pedestrian behavior 24, and recreational drug use 25. Variations in temperament reflect differences in the 

way individuals react and self-regulate to changes in the environment, rooted in biological processes 26. 

The focus of theories of temperament on the processes by which individuals respond to environmental 

factors suggests that individual differences in temperament may shape the ways in which individuals 

respond to fire cues. Furthermore, with risk taking involving actions that place an individual at an 

increased chance of experiencing harm 25, it was anticipated that risk-taking tendencies may also 

influence reactions to environmental indicators of an emergency. Correlational analyses examined 

whether individual differences in the psychometric curves were connected to variations in these

psychological traits.

The anticipated impact of this research is two-fold. First, the novel application of psychophysical 

models to fire risk perception aimed to address concerns regarding past qualitative and rating-scale 

research when investigating the impact of situational factors 20. It was predicted that judgments of 

growing room fires would align with earlier and later processes associated with human responses to 

emergencies: participants would initially detect environmental cues indicative of a deviation from 

normalcy, then interpret more intense fire cues as indicative of risk, and finally judge that the growing 

fire would require protective action. If successful, the novel approach can be systematically used to 

study the influence of multiple factors on fire risk perception. Second, the results can be used to inform 

models of risk perception in emergency scenarios. The development and evaluation of such 

comprehensive models could enable competent model users to predict key evacuee behaviors, and 

account for individual differences in dispositional traits, rather than directly prescribing such behaviors, 

a priori, for a given scenario.

METHOD

Participants

The responses from a total of 40 participants (5 males; age: mean, M = 20.55, standard deviation, SD = 

2.34) were included in the present study. The majority of participants identified as being black (N = 37 

including 4 Hispanic) with others identifying as white (N = 2 including 0 Hispanic) and of mixed race 
(N = 1 including 0 Hispanic). Participants were recruited from undergraduate psychology courses at a 

mid-sized university in the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area in the United States. Recruiting 

materials for the study emphasized that, as part of the study, participants would be viewing real images 

of room fires. For completing the study, participants received course credit. The research protocol was 

approved by an institutional review board and abided by the Declaration of Helsinki.

Hardware and Software

All study materials were presented on a laptop computer (39.6 cm diagonal screen) running the 

Windows 10 operating system. The judgment task was coded and presented via the Tobii Pro Lab (Tobii 

AB) software system. A custom Unity3D program was used to administer questionnaires.

Procedure

After providing written informed consent, participants were presented with the judgment task. 

Participants then completed three questionnaires and were provided with a debriefing form. Participants 

completed the study in about 35 to 45 minutes.

Judgment Task

Images presented during the judgment task were selected from four video clips of fires in realistically 

furnished rooms. Each video clip contained a room scene: specifically, two bedroom scenes and two 

kitchen scenes. A sequence of nine still images were extracted from each video clip such that the 

apparent size or intensity of the fire increased from no fire or smoke present, to low intensity (e.g., no 

flames, little smoke), and to high intensity (e.g., large flames, heavy smoke). Images were edited to 

occlude any labels that included timestamps or watermarks. The final set of images were 1024 x 768 

pixels. Figure 1 plots each sequence of images (for each of the bedroom and kitchen scenes) viewed by 

participants in this study.

During the task, a set of words was presented with each still image (pseudorandom order). Words 

visually presented to participants during the judgment task were selected to reflect earlier versus later 

processes associated with human responses to emergencies. Specifically, two words reflecting normalcy 

(‘ordinary’, ‘normal’), risk (‘danger’, ‘emergency’), and protective action (‘escape’, ‘flee’) were 

identified during a literature search and pilot testing.

Images were presented full-sized on a black background followed by words presented on a black 

background in a white font. For the task, participants were presented with room fire images and were 

asked whether a presented word did or did not match the image. During each trial, participants were 

first presented with a fixation point (800 ms) that was replaced by an image of a room fire which 

remained on-screen for four seconds. Afterwards, a word was presented and remained on-screen until 

participants made a keypress response as to whether the word matched the previously presented image 

(‘Y’ key = does match, ‘N’ key = does not match) and the next trial began.

Blocks of trials that contained different words were presented in a pseudorandom order. At the 

beginning of each block, instructions were presented to the participants indicating the word that they 

were to use to judge each image (within-subject factor). Within each block, all room fire images were 

presented in a pseudorandom order (within-subject factor; 36 trials total per block; 216 total trials across 

blocks). Participants were randomly assigned to complete one of three different trial orders.
Figure 1. Room fire images presented during the judgment task. The images were selected to display 

no fire or smoke (#1), low intensity fire, up to high intensity fires (#9). Immediately after each image, 

a word was presented and participants judged whether the word applied to the image.
Demographic Questionnaire

A series of questions asked participants to provide select demographic information (e.g., age, sex, race). 

Participants were asked to select from the following options for each demographic factor: biological 

sex (‘male’, ‘female’), race (‘Asian’, ‘black’, ‘Native American’, ‘white’), and ethnicity (‘Hispanic or 

Latino’, ‘Not Hispanic or Latino’).

Adult Temperament Questionnaire – Short Form (ATQ-S)

This 77-item questionnaire has been used in previous research to reliably assess different aspects of 

adult temperament 26. For each item, individuals judged the extent to which a statement described

themselves using a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = extremely untrue of you; 7 = extremely true of you; 

e.g., “Sometimes minor events cause me to feel intense happiness.”). If an individual judged a statement 

to be not relevant, they could respond “not applicable” (this was replaced by the sample mean for that 

item, following previous research 26). The responses to the adult temperament questionnaire (ATQ)

were compiled into four factor scores, each with subfactors; higher scores indicated higher levels of the 

factor. Of interest to the present study were the following subfactors: fear (negative affect from 

anticipated negative event), discomfort (negative affect from sensory stimulation), attentional control

(ability to focus and shift attention), and neutral perceptual sensitivity (ability to detect low intensity 

stimuli) 27.

Risk-Taking Questionnaire 18 Items (RT-18)

Composed of 18 items, the RT-18 has been observed to reliably assess the extent to which young adults

engage in risky behaviors 25. For each item, participants indicated whether they agreed or disagreed that 

a statement applied to themselves. Scores were summed into two subscales, behavior (extent to which 

individuals engage in risk-taking behavior; e.g., “I sometimes do “crazy” things just for fun.”) and 

assessment (extent to which individuals engage in behavior without consideration; e.g., “I often do 

things on impulse.”), with higher scores indicating higher risk-taking tendencies (scores ranging from 

0 to 9 for each subscale).

RESULTS

Task Responses

Prior to analysis, responses for normalcy words were reverse coded to reflect deviation from normalcy, 

in alignment with responses for risk and protective actions words (resulting responses: normalcy, no 

risk, no protective action = 0; deviation from normalcy, risk, protective action = 1; α = 0.05, two-tailed 

for all analyses). To assess the extent to which responses to room fires changed as fire size increased 

and varied with the type of word being applied to an image, a logistic regression was used to model the 

transition of responses from ‘does not match’ (0) to ‘does match’ (1). Using the ‘glmer’ R package, a 

generalized liner mixed model (‘logit’ link; ‘bobyqa’ optimizer) with fixed effects of sequence number, 

word type, and an interaction between sequence number and word type was fitted to the response data 

with random intercept factors of participant, specific word, and scene, and a random slope and intercept

for sequence number by scene.

Using an analysis of deviance, significant main effects of sequence number, χ

2

(1) = 70.936, p < 0.001, 

word type, χ

2

(2) = 70.947, p < 0.001, and interaction effect between sequence number and word 

category, χ

2

(2) = 29.871, p < 0.001, were observed. The significant main effects suggested that word 

prompts were more likely to be judged to apply with later sequence images (i.e., as the fire developed)

and, overall, deviation from normalcy prompts were more likely to be judged to apply than ‘risk’ or 

protective action prompts. The significant interaction between the word type and the sequence 
suggested that the rate of change of the applicability of that word with respect to sequence number 

varied by word type. Linear contrast codes used to examine the interaction between sequence number 

and word category were based on the PADM model, namely that the rate of change for deviation from 

normalcy (contrast code: 1) would be greater than identifying risk (contrast code: 0), followed by taking 

protective action (contrast code: -1; analysis used ‘glht’ R-package). Post-hoc tests revealed a

significant effect for the planned contrasts, z = 4.204, p < 0.001: the largest rate of change was observed 

for deviation from normalcy, a smaller rate of change for risk, and the smallest rate of change for 

protective action (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Response patterns on judgment task across word types. Data points reflect mean performance 

for each image sequence number (95% confidence interval error bars). Solid lines reflect logistic curves 

fitted to the data points for each word type. The horizontal line reflects 75% performance.

Threshold and Questionnaire Scores

To examine individual differences in performance on the judgment task, models were used to estimate 

psychophysical thresholds for each word type. Specifically, for each participant, the thresholds 

estimated the sequence number at which the participant reliably responded (75%) that a word matched 

subsequent images 28. To do so, for each participant a logistic regression with sequence number as the 

predictor and response as the dependent variable was fit for each word type. Due to a poor fit, six

participants were dropped from further analysis. Similar to analyses of task responses, planned contrasts

using a linear mixed model (random intercept for participant) revealed a linear increase in threshold for 

word types, t(58.948) = 7.400, p < 0.001, with participants waiting later in the sequence to reliably 

judge images as indicating requiring protective action compared to risk, while waiting less for 

deviations from normalcy compared to risk. Correlational analyses using the Pearson r statistic 

examined whether relations were present between individual variations in word type thresholds and 

scores on the ATQ and RT-18 (see Error! Reference source not found.). Significant positive 

correlations were observed between deviation from normalcy and risk thresholds and between risk and 
protective action thresholds (trend for positive correlation between deviation from normalcy and 

protective action thresholds). A significant positive correlation was observed between the temperament 

factor ‘discomfort’ and risk threshold. Although not statistically significant, moderate correlation

coefficients were observed between a subset of additional temperament factors and thresholds.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations between estimated thresholds and dispositional traits

(N = 34).

Factor Mean SD Median Min Max 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1-

Deviation 

from 

normalcy 

Threshold

2.755 1.05 2.463 1.625 6.099 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

2-Risk 

Threshold 3.378 1.119 3.488 1.567 6.081 0.502**

--- --- --- --- --- --- ---

3-Action 

Threshold 4.530 1.512 4.623 1.87 6.699 0.289† 0.545***

--- --- --- --- --- ---

4-ATQ 

Fear 4.005 0.911 4.143 2.143 5.571 0.075 0.199 0.05 --- --- --- --- ---

5- ATQ 

Discomfort 4.181 1.045 4 2.5 6 0.248 0.381* 0.178 0.446**

--- --- --- ---

6-ATQ 

Attentional 

Control

4.253 1.026 4.2 1 7 0.236 0.095 -0.055 -0.347*-0.158 --- --- ---

7-ATQ 

Neutral 

Perceptual 

Sensitivity

5.247 0.896 5.3 3.2 6.8 0.238 0.036 0.042 -0.093 -0.021 0.643***--- ---

8-RT-18 

Assessment

6.029 2.249 7 1 9 0.036 0.112 -0.001 -0.108 0.288† 0.309† 0.342*---

9-RT-18 

Behavior 3.412 2.439 3 0 9 -0.048 0.012 0.075 0.145 0.188 -0.04 -0.14 0.064

† p < 0.1, *

p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

DISCUSSION

In the present study, the extent to which judgments of developing room fires were influenced by 

situational and dispositional factors was assessed. Performance on the judgment task varied with

situational factors, the apparent size of the room fire and word type (i.e., words indicating either, 

normalcy, risk, or protective action). This pattern of performance aligns with the PADM, suggesting 

that participants viewed the room fire scenes as indicative of emergencies. Across all word types, as the 

intensity of the fire cues increased, participants were more likely to judge that words applied to the 

image. However, the point during the developing room fire at which participants reliably judged that a 

word matched an image varied by word type. Both logistic model analyses and threshold estimates 

indicated that participants initially detected fire cues as indicative of a deviation from normalcy 

(between the second and third images in sequences), then indicative of risk (between the third and fourth 

images), and finally judged that fire cues indicated required protective action (between fourth and fifth 

images). This pattern of performance generally aligns with earlier and later stages of the PADM 17 as 

well as previous observational and self-report evidence collected from fire-related emergencies 20.
Overall, the observed impact of situational factors on judgments of room fires suggests that judgments 

of presented visual fire cues can be used to examine how humans perceive a fire-related emergency.

When examining performance on the judgment task, participants varied in the point at which they 

viewed the developing room fires as indicative of risk and requiring protective action. Specifically, 

individual differences were present in the estimated thresholds for deviation from normalcy, risk, and 

action, which reflected the point across sequences that participants reliably viewed images as matching 

the presented words. This provides further evidence that individuals vary in their perceptions and 

judgments of fire-related cues. When examining connections between word type thresholds, the 

strongest correlations were between risk and protective action, and deviation from normalcy and risk. 

These connections align with previous applications of the PADM to fire-related emergencies in two 

ways. First, the strong positive correlation between risk and protective action thresholds indicates that 

participants who judged images with less intense fire cues as indicative of risk also judged images as 

indicative of protective action with less intense cues (and vice versa). This aligns with the stages of the 

PADM which suggest that when individuals decide a situation poses an imminent risk, they are more 

likely to take protective action 17. The correlation between deviation from normalcy and risk thresholds 

supports previous research indicating that normalcy biases can influence the point at which individuals 

identify cues as indicative of an emergency 21; individuals who were later to judge a deviation from 

normalcy required more intense fire cues before judging the cues as indicative of a risk. Although this 

aligns with the PADM, a key aspect of the model is the extent to which individuals perceive an 

emergency as posing a risk to themselves and others 22. The extent to which participants in the present 

study simulated themselves, or others, within the images of the room fires may have influenced whether 

they perceived the fire as posing a risk to themselves or others. This could account for some of the 

individual differences in thresholds observed in the present study.

When examining individual variations in dispositional traits and judgments of room fires, weak 

connections were observed. In the present study, temperament and risk-taking measures were selected 

since previous research has observed that individual differences in these self-reported measures have 

been connected to real-word behaviors. Of the measures included, the temperament factor discomfort 

was significantly correlated with variations in risk threshold. Specifically, individuals who had higher 

discomfort scores took longer to identify images as indicative of risk. With higher levels of discomfort 

reflecting greater negativity towards sensory stimulation (e.g., greater negative reactions to more 

intense visual stimulation 27), this relation suggests that individual differences in dispositional traits may 

affect perceptions of risk cues in the environment. The lack of statistically significant effects between 

judgments of room fires and other dispositional traits included in the present study raises questions 

about the extent to which the present study was able to detect such relations. Specifically, the extent to 

which participants viewed the images of a fire as posing a risk to other persons may have moderated 

connections with dispositional traits. Future research that increases the perception that the room fires 

pose an imminent risk to humans may be better suited to determine whether temperament of individuals 

influences judgments of fire emergencies.

Future Considerations and Directions

The results of the present study provide initial evidence that judgments of still images of developing 

room fires align with past observations of human responses to emergencies. Although the words used 

during judgments for the present study were selected to reflect earlier versus later decision making 

processes present in the PADM, it remains to be determined which stages or phases of the model the 

words most directly align with. Earlier phases of the PADM focus on the perception of cues in the 

environment that are indicative of an emergency with later phases emphasizing the interpretation of the 
cues 22. Although the sequence in which words were judged to apply to developing fires generally

aligned the order of PADM phases, questions remain regarding the extent to which participants 

interpreted the words selected to reflect risk and protective action as indicative of a threat to others. By 

design, the fire cues included in the present study were limited to visual forms and did not include 

human occupants. With evidence that decision making during emergencies can be influenced by the 

perceived risk of the hazard to the self and others, this may have influenced the judgments of 

participants. Future research that utilizes more realistic or immersive cues and/or information sources 

(e.g., virtual reality) and more descriptive emergency scenarios may be able to increase the perceived 

risk to the self and others. For example, with evidence that using virtual reality can increase perceived 

presence in an environment 29, presenting a three-dimensional virtual room fire, with the participant 

situated inside the room, may be able to increase perceived presence and sense of risk to the individual. 

Alternatively, providing participants with scenarios that emphasize the potential risk to others (e.g., 

describing a bedroom room fire as occurring adjacent to another bedroom where a child is currently 

sleeping), could lead to a different pattern of responses and relations to dispositional traits. Additionally, 

the stimuli in the present study were strictly within the visual modality. When conducting interviews 

with survivors of fire emergencies, many report that cues within other sensory modalities, such as smell, 

were noticed in addition to visual cues 8. Open questions remain as to whether patterns in performance 

observed in the present study would be observed when using fire cues of different, or multiple, sensory 

modalities. 

The stimuli selected for the present study focused on bedroom and kitchen fires that were video recorded 

as part of controlled burns. Although the videos were of real fires, some aspects of the videos may have 

led participants to view the rooms as atypical. For example, the angle of the video camera (e.g., near 

floor) and inclusion of measurement devices and recording instruments in a subset of the videos may 

have made it difficult for participants to visualize themselves as present in the room. Future research 

should include additional room fire scenes that are likely to be familiar with the targeted population of 

participants. Furthermore, there were differences across the room scenes with regard to the visual extent 

of the fires and sequence number. To account for differences in the rate at which visual cues of fire 

intensity changed across room fire scenes, mixed models that included a random effect of scene were 

utilized. Although this statistical procedure was used to minimize the effect of cross-scene differences, 

future research should more systematically match visual cues of fire intensity across different rooms 

and environments. Furthermore, the words included in the present study were selected to reflect 

different stages of the PADM, but future research could include a range of words, or phrases, to examine 

the impact on judgment performance.

Overall, the present study provides a decision-making task for examining how individuals judge fire 

cues in different situations. With evidence that judgment performance aligned with the PADM, future 

research can make use of the paradigm to continue to examine different facets of human perception and 

processing of cues present during fire, and non-fire, emergencies.

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