Standard Practice for Training in the

Forensic Examination of Primer

Gunshot Residue (pGSR) Using

Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy

Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

(SEM/EDS)

Gunshot Residue SC

Chemistry SAC

Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science

1
OSAC Proposed

Standard Practice for Training in the Forensic Examination

of Primer Gunshot Residue (pGSR) Using Scanning

Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray

Spectrometry (SEM/EDS)

Prepared by Gunshot 

Residue Subcommittee

Version: 1.0 

March 2020 

Disclaimer: 

This document has been developed by the Gunshot Residue Subcommittee of the Organization

of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science through a consensus process and 

proposed for further development through a Standard Developing Organization (SDO). This 

document is being made available so that the forensic science community and interested parties 

can consider the recommendations of the OSAC pertaining to applicable forensic science 

practices. The document was developed with input from experts in a broad array of forensic 

science disciplines as well as scientific research, measurement science, statistics, law, and policy. 

This document has not been published by a SDO. Its contents are subject to change during the 

standards development process. All interested groups or individuals are strongly encouraged to 

submit comments on this proposed document during the open comment period administered by 

ASTM International (www.astm.org).

2
This document is not an ASTM standard; it is under consideration within an ASTM technical committee but has not received all approvals 

required to become an ASTM standard. You agree not to reproduce or circulate or quote, in whole or in part, this document outside of ASTM 

Committee/Society activities, or submit it to any other organization or standards bodies (whether national, international, or other) except with 

the approval of the Chairman of the Committee having jurisdiction and the written authorization of the President of the Society. If you do not 

agree with these conditions please immediately destroy all copies of the document. Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, 

West Conshohocken, PA 19428. All Rights Reserved.

Date: March 12, 2020

To: Main Committee E30 members and Subcommittee E30.01 members (Concurrent Ballot)

Tech Contact: David Freehling, dfreehling@ncdoj.gov, 919-582-8920

Work Item #: WK58457

Ballot Action: Revision of “Standard Practice for Training in the Forensic Examination of Gunshot 

Residue (GSR) Using Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray 

Spectrometry (SEM/EDS)”.

Rationale: The OSAC Subcommittee for Gunshot Residue Analysis has developed a standard 

practice for the training in the forensic examination of gunshot residue using SEM/EDS. 

This is the fourth time this new standard has been balloted at the subcommittee level. 

Negatives were found to be persuasive and comments from the previous ballots have 

been addressed. 

Standard Practice for Training in the Forensic Examination of Primer Gunshot 

Residue (pGSR) Using Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray 

Spectrometry (SEM/EDS).

1. Scope

1.1 This practice provides an outline of goals for a comprehensive training program in primer 

gunshot residue (GSR) analysis by scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray

spectroscopy (SEM/EDS).

1.2 The primary purpose of this practice is to facilitate the development and implementation of 

training programs in crime laboratories or other such analytical entities that participate in the 

detection, analysis, and classification of primer GSR particles.

1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its 

use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health 

practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

1.4 The trainees and training program shall meet or exceed the minimum training requirements set 

forth in E2917.
2. Referenced Documents

2.1 ASTM Standards

2.1.1 E1588 Guide for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy/ 

Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry.

2.1.2 E1732 Standard Terminology Related to Forensic Science.

2.1.3 E2917 Standard Practice for Forensic Science Practitioner Training, Continuing Education, 

and Professional Development Programs.

2.2 Other Documents

2.2.1 Guide for Primer Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry 11-29-11; SWGGSR.

3. Terminology

3.1 Refer to ASTM E1588, E1732, and E2917 for terms relative to this Document.

4. Summary of Practice 

3.1 This practice provides a summary of the knowledge and skills to establish competency as an 

independent primer GSR analyst. These are to be used in conjunction with the laboratory’s

existing training protocols, standard operating procedures, and quality practices. It is intended 

as a practice for use by laboratory personnel responsible for training GSR analysts to prepare 

them to perform examinations using SEM/EDS to analyze samples for the presence of primer 

GSR.

3.2 This practice contains relevant suggested reading assignments and structured exercises for 

hands-on practical experience for the trainee.

3.2.1 Consider additional sources of information on primer GSR examination not specifically 

mentioned in this practice. Review new sources of information on general forensic 

methods and forensic GSR examinations on a regular basis to incorporate wellestablished current findings and methods into the training program and replace any 

outdated methods.

3.2.2 When possible, make additional training available to the trainee. Such training might 

include off-site short courses, short internships, and specialized training by experienced 

examiners. Additional training will provide a primer GSR examiner the opportunity to 

remain current in the field.

3.2.3 This practice focuses on the SEM/EDS examination of samples for primer GSR particles.

3.3 This practice sets out lessons, practical exercises, and methods of progress monitoring and 

trainee evaluation designed to be incorporated into an individual laboratory’s training program. 

Topics for discussion occur between the trainee and the trainer.
3

3.4 A training program provides a theoretical foundation and basic practical skills to prepare a 

trainee to become a fully qualified forensic primer GSR examiner. At the end of the training 

program, the trainee, under supervision of a fully qualified examiner, interprets results, forms

opinions, and presents and explains evidence based upon sound scientific knowledge, proper 

examination, and practical experience.

3.5 This training guide complements the SWGGSR Guide for Primer Gunshot Residue Analysis by 

Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry 

https://www.swggsr.org/publications2.

4 Significance and Use

4.1 This practice is intended to be used by experts in the field of forensic science who have met 

their laboratory’s technical requirements to be assigned to the role of trainer in the category of 

testing that deals with the detection, analysis, and classification of primer GSR particles.

4.2 The procedures outlined in this practice are grounded in the generally accepted body of 

scientific literature that exists in the field of forensic primer GSR examination.

4.3 Ensure that upon completion of this training program, the trainee gains the theoretical 

knowledge and practical skills needed to undertake and report the results of primer GSR 

examinations.

4.3.1 Include the following for the forensic examination of primer GSR using SEM/EDS:

4.3.1.1 Occurrence, transfer, and persistence of primer GSR;

4.3.1.2 Contamination minimization and the prevention of loss of trace evidence;

4.3.1.3 Other forms of trace evidence [such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and fibers] 

that could be associated with persons or exhibits that require sampling for primer 

GSR;

4.3.1.4 Evidence recovery methods;

4.3.1.5 Evidence handling procedures;

4.3.1.6 Evidence packaging and documentation;

4.3.1.7 Use and maintenance of SEM-EDS and auxiliary equipment;

4.3.1.8 Quality assurance procedures;

4.3.1.9 The analysis of primer GSR using SEM/EDS;

Other techniques that have been/can be used to analyze GSR;

4.3.1.10 The formation of primer GSR and other forms of GSR, such as organic GSR;

4.3.1.11 Identification and classification of primer GSR;

4.3.1.12 The demonstrated ability to differentiate between primer GSR and non-firearm, 

GSR-like particles;

4.3.1.13 Interpretation of results;

4.3.1.14 Preparation of scientific reports for potential inclusion as court evidence; and
4

4.3.1.15 Presentation of expert opinion evidence pertaining to primer GSR in court.

5 Syllabus

5.1 Training guidelines provide the trainee theoretical knowledge and practical skills in primer GSR 

examination, analysis, and interpretation. Include a combination of the following training 

methods:

5.1.1 Reading of relevant literature;

5.1.2 Instruction by and observation of GSR examiners:

5.1.2.1 Lectures and discussions;

5.1.2.2 Demonstration of skills;

5.1.2.3 Observation of case work; and

5.1.2.4 Observation of expert court testimony.

5.1.3 Supervised practice of skills:

5.1.3.1 Practical exercises and

5.1.3.2 Assisting in and performing supervised casework.

5.1.4 Examinations and tests:

5.1.4.1 Written and/or oral tests;

5.1.4.2 Practical laboratory tests; and

5.1.4.3 Mock/moot court.

5.2 This is an extensive training program and it is expected that an inexperienced forensic examiner 

would take approximately six months to one year to complete.

5.2.1 For the purpose of this practice, an inexperienced examiner is an individual who has

little knowledge in trace evidence, minimal knowledge of SEM or EDS, and/or minimal

knowledge of GSR evidence.

6.2.2 Portions of this training program can be substituted or removed based on the 

trainee’s previous knowledge and experience of the theory or instrumentation

related to this type of analysis.

6 Records of Training

6.1 Refer to ASTM E2917 section 4-Documentation.

7 Responsibilities

7.1 The trainer is technically competent in all aspects of the scientific discipline of primer GSR 

examination.

7.2 Responsibilities include:

7.2.1 Introducing the trainee to the relevant scientific literature, laboratory and technical 

procedures, training material, and appropriate reference collections;

7.2.2 Instruction in the laboratory evidence management systems;

7.2.3 Instruction in the documentation of casework;

7.2.4 Instruction in and discussion of the relevant scientific literature and theory pertaining 

to SEM/EDS and primer GSR with the trainee;
7.2.5 Instruction, guidance, and supervision of practical skills pertaining to:

7.2.5.1 Contamination minimization and the prevention of loss of trace evidence;

7.2.5.2 Evidence recovery methods;

7.2.5.3 Evidence handling procedures;

7.2.5.4 Evidence packaging and documentation;

7.2.5.5 Use and maintenance of SEM/EDS and auxiliary equipment;

7.2.5.6 Quality assurance procedures;

7.2.5.7 The analysis of primer GSR using SEM/EDS;

7.2.5.8 Other techniques that have been/can be used to analyze GSR;

7.2.5.9 The formation of primer GSR and other forms of GSR;

Identification and classification of primer GSR;

7.2.5.10 Interpretation of results;

7.2.5.11 Preparation of scientific reports for potential inclusion as court evidence; and

7.2.5.12 Presentation of expert opinion evidence pertaining to primer GSR in court.

7.2.6 Establishing and reviewing:

7.2.6.1 Oral and written assignments or tests or both;

7.2.6.2 Supervised case work tasks undertaken by the trainee.

7.3 The trainer monitors the trainee’s progress to ensure thoroughness and completeness.

The trainee meets the objectives set forth in the training program by:

7.3.1 Self-study of reading materials;

7.3.2 Demonstrating competence in the application of the practical skills covered by the 

training program;

7.3.3 Successful completion of practical exercises;

7.3.4 Successful completion of written or oral tests or both;

7.3.5 Observation of and assisting in casework being conducted by an experienced examiner;

7.3.6 Observation of court testimony given by an experienced examiner or reviewing

transcripts in which primer GSR evidence was presented or both;

7.3.7 Conducting themselves in an ethical and professional manner;

7.3.8 Participating in the quality assurance and quality control program of the laboratory 

and, particularly, pertaining to primer GSR examinations, sampling and analysis using 

SEM-EDS;

7.3.9 Successful completion of competency tests in the detection of primer GSR and

subsequent interpretation and reporting of primer GSR results; and

7.3.10 Demonstrating competency in supervised casework.

8 Training

8.1 The following sections of this practice provide recommendations and guidance in relation to the 

key issues of the laboratory’s training program:

8.1.1 Each section specifies the skill and knowledge to be gained in that particular subject as 

determined by the trainer and laboratory protocols, the trainee should demonstrate 

knowledge of specified topics by a combination of literature review, oral examinations, 

written examinations, and practical exercises.
8.1.2 Recommended literature provides the trainee with a sound theoretical background and

solid foundation in topics necessary for primer GSR analysis. Additional References 

supplement the listed publications as available.

8.1.3 Demonstrate essential skills.

8.1.4 Design practical exercises to allow the trainee to learn and practice the skills needed to 

perform casework. Review the trainee’s performance during the exercises to evaluate 

the trainee’s ability to conduct primer GSR examinations and make conclusions. 

Document the performance of the trainee in all exercises.

8.1.5 Written or oral tests along with practical laboratory tests are recommended as a means

of determining the trainee’s comprehension of the material and to document the 

training. Design questions to test the trainee’s theoretical and practical knowledge. 

Establish a pass criterion at the beginning of the training program.

8.1.6 Design simulated casework to demonstrate understanding of the various aspects of 

casework including: record keeping; processing of evidence; sample preparation; 

SEM/EDS analysis of prepared samples; and identification, classification, and 

interpretation of primer GSR evidence.

8.1.7 Administer a comprehensive competency test(s) before the trainee analyzes primer 

GSR cases independently. This mimics actual casework, requiring the trainee to 

demonstrate his/her knowledge of the laboratory’s procedures in handling evidence, 

taking notes, maintaining chain of custody, and writing a report, as well as the actual 

examination of primer GSR evidence.

8.1.8 Provide the opportunity for the trainee to observe experienced examiners testifying in 

court when possible. 

8.1.8.1 Guide the trainee to pay attention to general courtroom procedures, the witness’s 

appearance and demeanor, and the presentation of technical or expert 

knowledge.

8.1.9 Include a moot court exercise. The moot court mimics as closely as possible a real 

courtroom experience.

8.1.9.1 Evaluate appearance, demeanor, and knowledge of the case, knowledge of the 

discipline, scientific accuracy, and presentation skills.

8.1.9.2 Incorporate any local legal considerations, especially pertaining to expert 

witnesses and primer GSR testimony.

8.1.10 Monitor the trainee’s progress according to objective criteria established by the 

laboratory.

8.1.10.1 Conduct periodic progress assessments.

8.1.10.2 Address deficiencies in the trainee’s performance.

8.1.10.3 Remediate through additional training and a reevaluation of the training 

program, if necessary.

8.1.10.4 Continued deficiencies could suggest the unsuitability of the trainee for 

casework in this area.

8.2 Training Course Evaluation – Allow the trainee the opportunity to evaluate the primer GSR 

training program and the trainer. Address perceived deficiencies.

8.3 If permitted by laboratory policies and procedures, allow the trainee to participate in 

supervised casework. 
8.3.1 Verify and document all laboratory results obtained by the trainee.

8.4 Provide authorization for casework upon successful completion of the training program,

including competency test(s) and moot court.

9 Introduction to Primer GSR Evidence

9.1 Include the following:

9.1.1 Types of primer GSR:

9.1.1.1 Inorganic GSR and

9.1.1.2 Organic GSR

9.1.2 Concepts and techniques of particle analysis relevant to primer GSR by SEM/EDS.

10 Primer GSR Formation

10.1 Include the following:

10.1.1 Basic primer composition;

10.1.2 The physical processes involved in the initiation of the primer;

10.1.3 The chemical and physical processes that lead to the formation of primer GSR particles;

10.1.4 Particle morphologies;

10.1.5 Different types of firearms and how they vary in the emission of primer GSR;

10.1.6 Factors affecting the deposition and distribution of primer GSR:

10.1.6.1 The shooter;

10.1.6.2 The victim of a gunshot;

10.1.6.3 Persons or items in the proximity of a firearm discharge; and

10.1.6.4 The environment in which a firearm is discharged

11 Firearms/Ammunition

11.1 Include the following:

11.1.1 Different types of firearms and their mechanisms;

11.1.2 Basic components of ammunition and their purpose and function, and how the 

chemical composition of how each contributes to primer GSR

11.1.2.1 Bullet/projectile;

11.1.2.2 Cartridge case;

11.1.2.3 Propellant; and

11.1.2.4 Primer

11.1.3 Various types of primers, including, at a minimum:

11.1.3.1 Sinoxid;

11.1.3.2 Rimfire; and

11.1.3.3 Lead free

11.1.4 Typical primer components, their elemental composition and their purpose

11.1.4.1 Shock-sensitive explosives or initiators;

11.1.4.2 Sensitizers;

11.1.4.3 Oxidizers;

11.1.4.4 Fuels; and
11.1.4.5 Frictionators

12 Retention and Transfer

12.1 Include the following:

12.1.1 Factors that can affect the retention, redistribution, or loss of primer GSR particles 

including: 

12.1.1.1 The time since discharge; 

12.1.1.2 The physical characteristics of the surface on which the primer GSR particles 

have deposited; and

12.1.1.3 The activity that that surface has been exposed to since discharge such as 

vigorous, physical activity, washing, and exposure to the environment.

12.1.1.4 Transfer of primer GSR particles subsequent to the initial deposition from the 

discharge of a firearm.

13 Collection of Primer GSR Samples

13.1 Include the following:

13.1.1 The various types of collection media including adhesive lifters, swabs, and vacuum 

filtration and their advantages and disadvantages.

13.1.2 Presumptive field test kits for GSR, their limitations, advantages, and disadvantages.

13.1.3 Impact of sampling environment, including the presence of moisture, blood, and soil on 

the collection of primer GSR particles.

13.1.4 Proper collection techniques from the following, where applicable:

13.1.4.1 Human subjects from the hands, face, hair, ears, and nose; and

13.1.4.2 Clothing and inanimate objects

14 Contamination

14.1 Include the following:

14.1.1 Potential sources of primer GSR contamination that can be encountered in the field 

(out of the laboratory) including police officers, squad cars transporting suspects, and 

objects in crime scene locations.

14.1.2 Potential sources of primer GSR contamination that can be encountered in the 

laboratory, such as in exhibit storage, examination, and sample preparation areas.

14.1.3 Contamination minimization and monitoring procedures.

14.1.4 The potential for contamination and/or loss or destruction of other forms of trace 

evidence that could be associated with persons, clothing, or inanimate objects from 

which sampling for primer GSR is required and the possible impact on co-processing 

and sequential processing efforts for evidence such as DNA, fingerprints, and fibers.

14.1.5 Procedures that can be used to minimize contamination, loss, or destruction of other 

forms of trace evidence when examining and sampling from persons, clothing, or 

inanimate objects from which sampling for primer GSR is required and capability to 

apply these procedures, if applicable.
15 Instrumentation and Analysis

15.1 SEM/EDS

15.1.1 Evaluate the trainee’s ability to optimize SEM performance and SEM/EDS detection 

parameters for the automated analysis and detection of primer-inorganic GSR. Include 

the following, where applicable:

15.1.1.1 SEM electron gun filament saturation and filament replacement, where 

applicable;

15.1.1.2 SEM column alignment;

15.1.1.3 Understanding of SEM/EDS parameters for optimum imaging resolution to 

include accelerating voltage, beam current, condenser lens (CL) aperture selection 

(if so equipped), and final aperture (if interchangeable);

15.1.1.4 Understanding of EDS data collection to optimize for an automated analysis;

15.1.1.5 Knowledge of the current particle classification scheme in the manufacturer’s 

EDS software for identifying detected particles;

15.1.1.6 Modification or addition of particle classes to the particle classification scheme, 

if allowed by the software;

15.1.1.7 Set up and optimization of SEM imaging;

15.1.1.8 Setting of stage positions to define the locations and analysis regions for any 

standards, reference materials, and the case specimen samples;

15.1.1.9 Set up of automated analysis run with appropriate reference materials to 

ensure that the SEM/EDS system will properly detect primer GSR particles;

15.1.1.10 Ability to evaluate the performance of the completed automated analysis to 

determine that the instrument was working properly; and

15.1.1.11 Storage of results from the automated analysis.

15.1.2 Evaluate the trainee’s ability to perform manual examinations, relocation, and 

confirmatory analysis of particles detected by automated analysis. Include the 

following, where applicable:

15.1.2.1 Understanding of the laboratory protocols for the selection of specific primer 

GSR particle types and the quantity of detected particles requiring relocation and 

manual confirmatory analysis.

15.1.2.2 Set up of appropriate SEM/EDS parameters for manual imaging to show the 

particle size and morphology using backscattered electron and secondary electron 

imaging modes, as appropriate.

15.1.2.3 Set up EDS collection parameters of relocated particles to ensure that detected 

element peaks in the spectra are clearly identified.

15.1.2.4 Understanding of potential peak overlaps, particularly as they relate to 

elements detected in primer GSR particles. Include escape peaks, sum peaks, and 

system peaks.

15.1.2.5 Procedures for storing SEM images and EDS spectra obtained from the manual 

confirmatory analysis.

15.2 Sample Preparation 

15.2.1 Include the conductive coatings of primer GSR adhesive lifters, where applicable.
15.3 Variable Pressure/Low Vacuum (VP/LV) SEM

15.3.1 Include the following, where applicable:

15.3.1.1 Knowledge of, and capability to, operate VP/LV SEM/EDS systems if the 

laboratory is so equipped;

15.3.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of using VP/LV mode rather than high-vacuum 

mode for primer GSR analysis; and

15.3.1.3 Capability to adjust the vacuum to eliminate electrical charging issues on the 

specimen stub surfaces in VP/LV mode when no conductive coatings are applied.

15.4 Quality Assurance

15.4.1 Include the following:

15.4.1.1 Laboratory protocols for SEM/EDS maintenance and verification of 

performance;

15.4.1.2 Environmental Control Samples; and

15.4.1.3 Positive Primer GSR Controls and Reference Samples and their importance, use, 

and storage.

16 Interpretation and Reporting

16.1 Include the following:

16.1.1 Identification and classification of primer GSR particles by shape, morphology, and 

composition and understand the difference in significance between classes of primer 

GSR particles.

16.1.2 Distinction between primer GSR and non-firearm, GSR-like particles, including the 

following:

16.1.2.1 Cartridge Operated Tools;

16.1.2.2 Air Bag Devices;

16.1.2.3 Hand Grenades and “Flash Bang” Devices;

16.1.2.4 Fireworks and Pyrotechnics;

16.1.2.5 Brake Pads;

16.1.2.6 Starter Pistols; and

16.1.2.7 Pistol Style Marine Signal Flares

16.1.3 Interpretation of particle population;

16.1.4 Consideration of mechanisms of transfer of primer GSR particles; and

16.1.5 Significance of no primer GSR particles being identified on a sample.

16.2 Awareness of occupations, hobbies, and activities in which primer GSR particles could be 

present, including the following:

16.2.1 Law enforcement officers;

16.2.2 Active duty military personnel;

16.2.3 Hunters; and

16.2.4 Gun enthusiasts or sport shooters.

16.3 Awareness of occupations, hobbies, and activities that could result in the presence of 

particles that could be confused with particles consistent with primer GSR, including, but not 

limited to, the following:

16.3.1 Fireworks technicians;
16.3.2 Automobile mechanics;

16.3.3 Lead smelters; and

16.3.4 Construction workers.

17 Practical, Written and Oral Exercises

17.1 Conduct training using a combination of the following methods:

17.1.1 Instruction and demonstration by the trainer and other appropriate peers;

17.1.2 Reading of relevant journal articles and texts;

17.1.3 Supervised practical exercises;

17.1.4 Written exercises, such as set assignments and examinations (question and answer);

and

17.1.5 Oral exercises, such as question and answer and mock court testimony. Document the 

training to enable an evaluator to assess the related knowledge and skills of the GSR 

trainee.

17.2 Evaluate the following technical skills:

17.2.1 Collection of primer GSR samples from human subjects, clothing, vehicles, and other 

objects, if applicable;

17.2.2 Preparation of primer GSR samples for analysis;

17.2.3 Operation of SEM/EDS;

17.2.4 Classification of primer GSR particles;

17.2.5 Completion of practical exercises;

17.2.6 Completion of competency test(s); and

17.2.7 Evaluation of testimony in a moot court.

17.3 Include practical exercises such as the following:

17.3.1 Observation of the analytical process;

17.3.2 Analysis of a variety of samples, including known positive and negative primer GSR

samples as well as the following:

17.3.2.1 Automobile brake pads;

17.3.2.2 Fireworks and pyrotechnics;

17.3.2.3 Samples from persons having occupations of interest; and

17.3.2.4 Samples related to time between discharge and collection

18 Evaluation

18.1 An individual competent in the analysis of primer GSR performs the evaluation of the 

trainee.

18.2 Verify and document successful completion of the training program including the 

following:

18.2.1 Practical exercises;

18.2.2 Written exercises;

18.2.3 Oral exercises;

18.2.4 Independent studies;

18.2.5 Supervised casework, where applicable;
18.2.6 Competency tests; and

18.2.7 Moot court testimony

19 Continuing Education

19.1 Refer to ASTM E2917 section 6-Continuing Education and Processional Development.

20 Keywords

20.1 EDS - energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer; GSR - gunshot primer residue; SEM -

scanning electron microscope; training.

21 References

NOTE—The references cited are recommended for the purpose of acquiring the requisite foundational 

knowledge necessary for the successful completion of a training program in the analysis of primer GSR 

using SEM/EDS. This is not intended to be an exhaustive list. Encourage the trainee to search the 

literature for further relevant references.

(1) Aaron, Roger, “Gunshot Primer Residue: The Invisible Clue”, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 1991.

(2) Anadasko, J. and Maehly, A. C., “Detection of Gunshot Residues on Hands by SEM,” Journal of

Forensic Sciences, Vol 22, No. 2, April 1977, pp. 279-287.

(3) Basu, S., “Formation of Gunshot Residues,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 27, 1982, pp. 72-91.

(4) Bergman, P., Springer, E., and Levin, N., “Hand Grenades and Primer Discharge Residues,”

Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 36, No. 4, July 1991, pp. 1044-1052.

(5) Berk, R. E., “Automated SEM/EDS Analysis of Airbag Residue I: Particle Identification,” and

“Automated SEM/EDS Analysis of Airbag Residue II: Airbag Residue as a Source of Percussion 

Primer Residue Particles,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 54, 2009, pp. 60-68 and 69-76.

(6) Brozek-Mucha, Z.; “Chemical and physical characterization of welding fume particles for 

distinguishing from gunshot residue”, Forensic Science International, Vol 254, 2015, pp. 51-58.

(7) Chavez, D., Crowe, C., and Franco, L., “The Retention of Gunshot Residue on Clothing after

Laundering,” SWAFS Journal, Vol 20, Issue 2, August 1998, pp. 22-29.

(8) Cowan and Purdon, “A Study of the ‘Paraffin Test,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 12, No. 1, 

January 1967, pp. 19-36.

(9) DeGaetano, D. and Siegel, J. A., “A Comparison of Three Techniques Developed for Sampling and 

Analysis of Gunshot Residue by Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Analysis 

(SEM-EDX),” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 37, No. 1, January 1992, pp.281-300.

(10)ENFSI, Best Practice Manual in the Forensic Examination of Gunshot Residues, ENFSI Working 

Group FIREARMS, 2003.

(11) ENFSI, Guide for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy-Dispersive 

X-Ray Spectrometry, ENFSI Working Group FIREARMS, Version 2, 2008.

(12) Garofano et al, “Gunshot residue—Further studies on particles of environmental and

occupational origin,” Forensic Science International, Vol 103, 1999, pp. 1-21.
(13) Gialamas, D. M., Rhodes, E. F., and Sugarman, L. A., “Officers, Their Weapons, and Their Hands: 

An Empirical Study of GSR on the Hands of Non-Shooting Police Officers,” Journal of Forensic 

Sciences, Vol 40, No. 6, November 1995, pp. 1086-1089.

(14) Goldstein, J., Newbury, D. E., Joy, D. C., Lyman, C. E., Echlin, P., et al, Scanning Electron

Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis, Fourth Edition, Springer, 2017.

(15) Jalanti, T., Henchoz, P., Gallusser, A., and Bonfanti, M. S., “The Persistence of Gunshot Residue

on Shooter's Hands,” Science and Justice, 1999, pp. 48-52.

(16) Kilty, J. W., “Activity after Shooting and Its Effect on the Retention of Primer Residue,” Journal

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(17) Krishnan, S. S., “Detection of GSR on the Hands by NAA and AA,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, 

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