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1 2. The Social Context for Community Resilience

2 2.1. Introduction

3 Achieving community resilience is a social process; hazard events can damage the built environment, 

4 making it difficult for the community to function. This framework provides communities with a 

5 methodology to plan for resilience by prioritizing buildings and infrastructure systems based on their 

6 importance in supporting the social and economic functions in the community. In other words, the social 

7 and economic functions of a community drive the requirements of the built environment.

8 For the purpose of this framework, a community is defined as “people who live, work, learn, and/or play 

9 together under the jurisdiction of a governance structure, such as a town, city or county.” However, it is 

10 acknowledged that “community” can also refer to groupings of people based on a number of other factors, 

11 including geography, demographics, values, common interests or goals, and economics. For example, the 

five frameworks within the National Preparedness Goal112 define community as “groups that share goals, 

13 values, and institutions. They are not always bound by geographic boundaries or political subdivisions. 

14 Instead, they may be faith-based organizations, neighborhood partnerships, advocacy groups, academia, 

15 social and community groups, and associations.” However, there is value in defining community by the 

16 presence of a local governance structure. It is within this structure that community leaders (both public 

17 and private) can come together to make decisions and take steps that improve the resilience of their 

18 community.

19 This chapter can guide community thinking on the social and economic drivers for community resilience

20 of the built environment. This chapter describes the social dimensions of communities, highlighting the 

21 needs of community members and the ways in which communities can organize to meet these needs (i.e., 

22 via social institutions, or the pattern of beliefs and behaviors that meet basic individual and household 

23 needs), while acknowledging that any type of organizational system can foster inequalities among people 

24 within a community. This chapter discusses a process of prioritizing social institutions, and in turn, the 

25 built environment, when planning for resilience, by identifying the ways social institutions rely on each 

26 other and the built environment to function. In an attempt to help communities plan for resilience, this

27 chapter also provides examples of communities that experienced extreme disasters and implemented their 

28 own prioritization processes for restoration, reconstruction, and recovery. The chapter concludes with a 

29 discussion of the importance of community engagement during the resilience planning process. 

30 2.2. Social Dimensions of a Community

31 The term, community, as defined in this framework, is situated between neighborhoods (which are made 

32 up of individuals and families) and states, regions and/or provinces, and the nation. Figure 2-1 shows this

33 organization. Although communities often interact with state, regional, and national entities, this chapter

34 focuses on individuals and families who live within neighborhoods and interact with their local systems, 

35 services, and the entities that exist in their communities to meet their needs.

36

37 Figure 2-1: Levels of a Community (Adapted from John Plodinec, CARRI, redrawn here)

 

1

https://www.fema.gov/national-preparedness-goal
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38 2.2.1. Understanding Needs of Community Members

39 Individuals and households in any community have a set of needs they strive to meet on a daily basis. 

40 Figure 2-2 presents these individual/household needs in a hierarchical manner, showing the most 

fundamental needs at the bottom (survival).241 Although there are more detailed conceptual models that 

42 discuss human needs (e.g., see Max-Neef 1991) this approach – adapted from Maslow‟s Hierarchy of 

43 Needs (1943) – captures the most essential dimensions with which this chapter is concerned. 

44 The first and most fundamental need is 

45 that of survival. Survival includes

46 necessary physical requirements, such 

47 as air, water, food, shelter, and 

48 clothing. If these needs are not met, the 

49 human body cannot sustain life –

50 people cannot live longer than 5 days 

51 without water and 6 weeks without 

52 food (assuming inadequate water 

supply).

3

53 Survival also includes

54 protection of life from the 

55 aforementioned disasters.

56 The second need, safety and security,

57 includes all aspects of personal, 

58 financial (economic) security, and 

59 health and well-being. People require 

60 safety and security in their personal 

61 lives from situations of violence, 

62 physical/verbal abuse, war, etc. They 

63 also must know their families and 

64 friendship networks are secure. 

65 Individuals need financial safety (e.g.,

66 job security, a consistent income, 

67 savings accounts, insurance policies, 

and other types of financial safety nets). Studies of disasters during the recovery phase4,568 show that people 

are likely to relocate to another community in search of new employment669 and/or economic gain (e.g., 

higher wages)7, or because they lost access to their non-liquid assets (e.g., farm land or fishing boats).

8,9

70

 

2 Adapted from Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs – from a psychological perspective

3

Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-long-can-a-person-sur/

4 Dickinson, Simon Bernard. 2013. Post-Disaster Mobilities: Exploring household relocation after the Canterbury Earthquakes. 

M.S. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ.

5 Binder, Sherri Brokopp. 2014. Resilience and Postdisaster Relocation: A study of New York’s home buyout plan in the wake of 

Hurricane Sandy. PhD Thesis, Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii, US.

6

Sanders, S., Bowie, S., & Bowie, Y. (2003). Lessons learned on forced relocation of older adults: The impact of Hurricane 

Andrew on health, mental health, and social support of public housing residents. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 40 [4], 

23-35; Fraser, J. C., Doyle, M. W., & Young, H. (2006). Creating Effective Flood Mitigation Policies. Eos, 87(27), 265–270; 

Hunter, L. M. (2005). Migration and Environmental Hazards. Population and environment, 26(4), 273–302. 

doi:10.1007/s11111-005-3343-x.

7 Belcher, J., & Bates, F. (1983). Aftermath of natural disasters: Coping through residential mobility. Disasters, 7 [2], 118-128.

8 Black, R., Kniveton, D., Skeldon, R., Coppard, D., Murata, A., & Schmidt-Verkerk, K. (2008). Demographics and Climate 

Change: Future Trends and their Policy Implications for Migration. Retrieved from

http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/MigrationGlobPov/WP- T27.pdf.

9 Gray, C., Frankenberg, E., Gillespie, T., Sumantri, C., & Thomas, D. (2009). Population Displacement and Mobility in Sumatra 

after the Tsunami. Retrieved from http://iussp2009.princeton. edu/papers/90318.

Growth

&

Achievement

Survival

Safety and Security

Belonging

Life, food, water, shelter, clothing

Law and order, stability, employment, health

Family/friends/neighborhood

Achievement, recognition, 

fulfillment

Figure 2-2: The hierarchy of human needs (Adapted from 

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – a psychological perspective)
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71 These studies emphasize the importance of providing employment and financial security to those within a 

72 community. Finally, people require safety from negative health conditions, so they can enjoy life and 

73 consistent well-being in their communities.

74 The third need is belonging, which can represent belonging and acceptance among various groups of 

75 people (e.g., family, friends, school groups, sports teams, work colleagues, religious congregation) or 

76 belonging to a place or location. In relation to groups of people, experts often discuss the concept of 

77 social capital within a community. Social capital describes the networks and relationships that connect 

members of a community10 78 , including the extensiveness and interconnectedness of social networks within 

79 the community, levels of civic engagement, and interpersonal, inter-organizational, and institutional 

trust.

11,12 80 Research into disaster recovery shows that the likelihood of people leaving a community 

increases when social networks are lost981 , showing the importance of a sense of belonging within a 

82 community.

83 In relation to place, disaster research demonstrates that individuals benefit from a strong sense of 

belonging to a place, which inhibits their desire to relocate after a disaster.

13,14 84 A strong place attachment 

85 or sense of belonging to a place can be influenced by, for example, home ownership or having strong,

86 extensive social networks within the community.

87 [Note to reviewers: In a future draft, this section will be expanded, especially the importance of social 

88 capital within a community and what that might mean for different places around the U.S.]

89 The fourth need, at the top of Figure 2-2, is labeled “growth and achievement.” Humans need to feel a 

90 sense of achievement and that they are respected in society. In the figure, this need is accompanied by a

91 need for continual growth and exploration within society, including an individual‟s ability to realize 

92 his/her full potential – to accomplish all that he/she can – within his/her lifetime. Although these needs

93 may seem less tangible than others, growth and achievement are as important as other needs, often being 

94 accomplished through educational achievement and/or participation in arts and recreation.

95 Maslow‟s hierarchy, supported by research studies from disaster recovery, identifies the functions of a 

resilient community.

15 96 For example, based on the hierarchy of needs, a resilient community: 1) safeguards 

97 human life; 2) delivers basic needs; 3) provides safety and security from a personal, financial, and 

98 health/well-being perspective; 4) facilitates human relationships and identification (with groups and to a 

99 place); and 5) supports growth and achievement. Communities perform all of these functions through 

100 social institutions. 

101 2.2.2. Social Institutions Common to all Communities

102 A social institution is a complex, organized pattern of beliefs and behaviors that meets basic individual 

103 and household needs. Traditional studies identify five major institutions as common to all societies: 1) 

104 family, 2) education, 3) government, 4) religion, and 5) economy – each of which is overlapping and 

105 interdependent. Recent conceptualizations include broader notions of each institution, identifying

106 additional types of social institutions. This chapter describes eight social institutions:

 

10 Reference the work of Robert Putnam and Daniel Aldrich‟s book on the topic Building Resilience.

11 National Research Council of the National Academies. 2006. Facing Hazards and Disasters; Understanding human dimensions, 

National Academies Press, Washington, DC.

12 Aldrich, D.P. and M.A. Meyer. 2014. “Social Capital and Community Resilience” American Behavioral Scientist, Published 

online 1 October 2014.

13 Groen, J. A. and A.E. Polivka. 2009. Going Home after Hurricane Katrina: Determinants of Return Migration and Changes in 

Affected Areas. Working Paper 428. BLS Working papers, U.S. Department of Labor, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

14 Cutter, S.L., K.D. Ash, C.T. Emrich. 2014. “The geographies of community disaster resilience” Global Environmental Change, 

Volume 29, Pages 65-77.

15 City Resilience Framework. April 2014. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378014001459. 
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107 1. Family and Kinship

108 2. Economic

109 3. Government 

110 4. Health Care

111 5. Education

112 6. Community Service Organizations

113 7. Religious Organizations and Others that Support Belief Systems

114 8. Media

115 Generally, these institutions satisfy the basic needs of society by defining dominant social values, 

116 socializing individuals, establishing patterns of social behavior, and providing roles for individuals. In 

117 doing so, institutions contribute to the welfare of society by preserving social order and supporting other 

institutions.

16 118 Sections 2.2.2.1 through 2.2.2.8 summarize the socially-based purposes and functions each 

119 institution serves in communities, as well as the human needs they meet in the context of Maslow‟s 

120 hierarchy.

121 2.2.2.1. Family and Kinship

122 Family is the first institution to which we are exposed within a community. Within a family, an individual 

123 can learn about the world and the importance of love, care, and a sense of belonging. The family unit is 

124 typically defined as a relationship between two or more people who are related by birth, marriage, or 

125 adoption. However, it is difficult to define fully what is meant by the term “family,” since our 

126 understanding varies across cultures and over time. We might consider only those within our family of 

origin as part of our family unit, even limiting the family unit to those living in the same residence.

17 127

128 More often, however, our definition of family broadens to include extended family members (e.g.,

129 grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins), or even long-time friends, friends of family, or other individuals 

130 who are not related by blood or marriage. Tight, close-knit bonds are developed within family/kinship 

131 units that, among other factors, can determine a community‟s level of resilience in response to a 

hazard/disaster event.

18 132

133 Proximity of family members to one another is also an important consideration. Family members may 

134 live within the same residence or different residences within the same community, providing larger 

135 numbers of close-knit groups within a community to respond and recover from an event. In other cases, 

136 family members may live in different geographical parts of the world. While such distance may decrease 

137 the opportunity for social capital, it provides additional sheltering options to family members who wish to 

138 evacuate a community that has been disrupted by a hazard event, either temporarily or permanently.

139 Family or kinship units exist to support all human needs in Maslow‟s hierarchy, from the very basic needs 

140 to the need for growth and achievement. It is the responsibility of the family or kinship unit to provide 

 

16 Notably, this description is primarily a functionalist characterization of social institutions, which may be met with some 

criticism. For example, the functionalist perspective tends to dismiss the role of human agency with respect to institutions and 

focuses on maintenance of the status quo – which are necessary in creating and supporting resilience. Readers are encouraged to 

consider social institutions to better understand which ways social needs are linked to and rely upon the built environment, rather 

than employing a strict functionalist approach.

17 “The Concept of The Family: Demographic and Genealogical Perspectives” by Charles B. Nam: 

http://www.ncsociology.org/sociationtoday/v22/family.htm

18 Aldrich, D.P. and M.A. Meyer. 2014. “Social Capital and Community Resilience” American Behavioral Scientist, Published 

online 1 October 2014. Ritchie, L.A. and Gill, D.A. Forthcoming. “The Role of Social Capital in Community Disaster 

Resilience.” Invited book chapter for The Resiliency Challenge: Transforming Theory to Reality. Virginia Tech Center for 

Community Security and Resilience.
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141 support and resources to meet survival, safety and security, belonging and acceptance, and growth and 

142 achievement needs.

143 2.2.2.2. Economic

144 Economic institutions facilitate the allocation of scarce resources across society. Producers and suppliers 

145 combine factors of production (e.g., land, labor, and capital) to create goods and services that meet the 

146 needs and desires of consumers. The availability of production factors, along with the demand of 

147 consumers, determines the final mix of goods and services produced, supplied, and consumed.

148 The economy is a mechanism by which most human needs are satisfied. While not all needs are provided 

149 for, the economy produces goods and services that fulfill some element of survival, safety and security, 

150 belonging, and growth and achievement from Maslow‟s hierarchy. Some needs are met through the direct 

151 consumption of goods and services (e.g., food and shelter). Other needs are satisfied as a result of a 

152 functioning economy. For example, employment affords individuals the means to provide, but also can 

153 afford opportunities for (career) growth and achievement. Further, many commercial and for-profit

154 venues (such as colleges, shopping malls, barbershops, and restaurants) facilitate the social gatherings of 

155 individuals with shared interests and life experiences, providing people with a sense of belonging. It is 

156 obvious then, that the pursuit of economic interests also creates values that have no market; yet, these 

157 potentially large, non-market values are also vulnerable to disasters.

158 Good Production and Service Supply. Industries within the economy are classified by their production or 

159 supply role. Three economic sectors exist: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

160  Primary Economic Sector: this sector includes producers of raw materials, such as the 

161 agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining industries. In 2011, these industries represented 3.1% of 

U.S. gross domestic product.19 162

163  Secondary Economic Sector: This sector includes producers of goods, such as the manufacturing 

164 and construction industries. In 2011, these industries represented 15.9% of U.S. gross domestic 

165 product.

166  Tertiary Economic Sector: This sector includes suppliers of services, such as utilities, wholesale 

167 and retail trade, transportation and warehousing, information, financial activities, professional and 

168 business services, education services, health care and social assistance, leisure and hospitality, 

169 other services, and federal, state, and local government. In 2011, these industries represented 

170 81.0% of U.S. gross domestic product.

171 Labor Supply. Of the 316 million people in the U.S. in 2013, approximately 144 million were employed, 

172 with around 11 million, aged 16 and over, unemployed (Table 2-1). Unemployed individuals are those 

173 that do not have a job, have recently looked for work, and are able to work. Industries that have low 

174 unemployment and high weekly hours might find it difficult to handle a disruption. For example, mining, 

175 quarrying, and oil and gas extraction has few unemployed individuals, who are likely spread out over a 

176 large area. Additionally, they work long hours compared to other industries. This situation might make it 

177 difficult for this industry to adapt to a disruption as few workers can fill in and the workers in place could 

178 not increase their hours by as much as other industries. 

179

 

19 Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of goods and services produced by labor and capital in a country. In 2011, 

U.S. GDP measured $15.1 trillion.
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180 Table 2-1: U.S. Employment Characteristics, 2013 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015)

Employed 

(Thousands)

Unemployed 

(Thousands)

Avg Wkly 

Hours

Avg Hourly 

Earnings

Agriculture and related 2 130 141 - -

Mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction 1 065 64 43.90 29.73

Construction 9 271 935 39.00 26.12

Manufacturing 14 869 1 019 40.80 24.35

Wholesale and retail trade 19 653 1 463 35.05 * 22.13 *

Transportation and utilities 7 415 406 40.45 ** 28.77 **

Information 2 960 175 36.70 32.90

Financial activities 9 849 424 37.10 30.15

Professional and business services 16 793 1 284 36.10 28.52

Education and health services 32 535 1 098 32.70 24.44

Leisure and hospitality 13 554 1 379 26.00 13.50

Other services 7 127 445 31.70 21.40

Public administration/Government 6 708 851 - -

Self-employed, family, and other - 1 774 - -

Total 143 929 11 458 - -

* Average of wholesale trade and retail trade

** Average of transportation/warehousing and utilities

181 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Current Population Survey. <www.bls.gov>

182 Consumer Demand. In 2013, personal consumption expenditures amounted to $11.5 trillion or 68% of 

183 GDP, while investment amounted to $2.6 trillion (16% of GDP). Government consumption amounted to 

184 $3.1 trillion (19% of GDP), and net exports were $-508.2 billion. As seen in Table 2-2, approximately a 

185 third of personal consumption expenditures went toward goods, while the rest went towards services.

186 Table 2-2: Consumption Expenditures as a Percent of Total, by Type of Product (2013)

Goods 34% Services 66%

 Durable goods 11%  Household consumption 64%

 Motor vehicles and parts 4%  Housing and utilities 18%

 Furnishings and household equipment 2%  Health care 17%

 Recreational goods and vehicles 3%  Transportation services 3%

 Other durable goods 2%  Recreation services 4%

 Nondurable goods 23%  Food services and accommodations 6%

 Food and beverages (off-premises) 8%  Financial services and insurance 7%

 Clothing and footwear 3%  Other services 9%

 Gasoline and other energy goods 4%  Consumption expenditures of nonprofit institutions 

serving households

3%

 Other nondurable goods 8%

187 2.2.2.3. Government 

188 Governments exist at the national, state, and local levels to write, execute, and interpret and enforce laws 

189 and regulations. The government acts as a mechanism by which human needs are satisfied, many of 

190 which are not provided for in the private market due to inefficiencies. The government‟s roles and 

191 functions are typically divided across the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Laws, regulations, 

192 and services provided by the government protect life and property, preserve peace and well-being, 

193 strengthen group identity and norms, and define social and economic goals for the future. In response to a 

194 disaster, the government may provide for many of Maslow‟s needs, starting with the necessities of food, 

195 water, and shelter and extending through safety and security. However, the governmental entity providing 
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196 service may shift during a disaster from federal to local, or even necessitate change from private to public, 

197 for example; and such shifts could alter local reliance on the built environment. 

198 Local governments, which are the focus of this framework, are made up of general and specific purpose 

199 entities. General purpose entities include county, municipal, and township governments. Specific purpose 

200 entities are more singular in function, such as school districts. In 2012, there were 90,059 local 

governments, with 43% serving a general purpose.20 201

202 Community Development. Community development is a major issue for local communities. Community 

203 development largely consists of attracting and retaining businesses and jobs, enhancing local amenities, 

204 addressing poverty and inequality, and maintaining the quality of the local environment. Communities 

205 that cannot attract and retain businesses and jobs tend to fare more poorly after disasters than 

206 communities that can. Generally, a community that cannot attract and retain businesses and jobs is in 

207 decline.

208 For most cities, local revenue sources consist of some combination of property and sales tax. Sales tax 

209 revenue is increased by attracting commercial businesses and jobs. Property tax revenue is generally

210 increased by rising property values. Improving disaster resilience can help increase property values, since 

211 a reduction in losses that a property owner will suffer increases the value of that property to the owner.

212 Poverty & Income Distribution. Poverty and income distribution are also a major concern of local 

213 communities. Many projects communities pursue are aimed at decreasing poverty in their neighborhoods;

214 and many external funding sources available to communities are aimed at alleviating poverty. These 

215 issues intersect with disaster resilience in that the disadvantaged are often most vulnerable to disasters.

216 Improving disaster resilience often starts with protecting the disadvantaged.

217 Local communities often hope to improve the quality of life for residents by developing and improving 

218 local amenities. Often communities hope that improving local amenities will indirectly attract and retain 

219 businesses and jobs. Providing local services is a core function of local governments. In particular, local 

220 governments typically supply schools, roads and public safety. Public safety and roads directly impact the 

221 resilience of a community in the face of hazards. Schools serve as an amenity that can attract jobs and 

222 businesses.

223 Sustainability. Local governments are interested in ensuring their communities are sustainable, via two 

224 distinct ideas. First, local governments hope to protect and improve their environments. Being “green”

225 and maintaining a small footprint are important to local communities. In turn, these can impact disaster 

226 resilience. Second, local governments strive for a vibrant and thriving economy. Communities with weak 

227 economies tend to fare poorly, relative to those with stronger economies, after disasters.

228 2.2.2.4. Health Care

229 Health is a “state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of 

disease or infirmity.”

21 230 Health care is the social institution within a community that specializes in 

promoting, monitoring, maintaining, and restoring health.

22 231 According to the World Health Organization, 

232 regardless of how they are organized, all health systems have to carry out six basic functions: 1) provide

233 health services; 2) develop health workers; 3) develop a functioning health information system; 4) provide 

234 equitable access to essential medical products, vaccines, and technologies; 5) mobilize and allocate 

finances; and 6) ensure leadership and governance.22 235

 

20 http://www2.census.gov/govs/cog/g12_org.pdf

21 Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 

19-22 June, 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization,

no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948.

22 WHO framework: http://www.who.int/healthsystems/strategy/everybodys_business.pdf. 
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236 The health care institution primarily meets the survival, and safety and security needs of Maslow‟s 

237 hierarchy. However, a community may consider that, through obtaining a higher level of well-being for 

238 its members, a strong community-based health care system can assist with the need for belonging as well 

239 as growth and achievement.

240 Health care systems consist of a complex and diverse set of players. Many individuals and organizations

241 are involved in the health care system, including educational and research institutions, medical suppliers, 

242 insurers, health care providers, payers (e.g., commercial insurers and employers), claims processers, and 

regulators/policy makers. 243 23 Within the health care system, many of these groups can fall under other 

244 institutions that are discussed in this section, including education, the economy, and government.

245 The different types of services delivered by health care providers within a community, however, are 

unique to the healthcare institution:23,24 246

247  Preventative care – aims to prevent future injury or illness, including blood pressure, diabetes 

248 and cholesterol tests, cancer screenings, counseling on topics such as quitting smoking or losing 

249 weight, routine vaccinations, counseling, screening and vaccinations to ensure healthy 

pregnancies, and flu shots25 250

251  Primary care – provides integrated health care services aimed at providing the patient with a 

broad spectrum of preventative and curative care over a period of time26 252

253  Specialized care – provides specialized care by physicians trained in a particular field (e.g., 

neurology, cardiology, dermatology, etc.), usually upon referral from primary care27 254

255  Chronic or long-term care – addresses pre-existing or long-term illness 

256  Sub-acute care – needed by a patients who do not require hospital care (acute care), yet need 

more intensive skilled nursing care28 257

258  Acute care – addresses short-term or severe illness with a shorter timeframe (i.e., emergency 

259 care)

260  Rehabilitative care – aids a person in restoring lost skills or function from an injury or illness

261 (physical or mental)

262  End-of-life care – care for those facing a life-limiting illness or injury

263  Mental or behavioral health care – treating health conditions that “are characterized by 

264 alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior (or some combination thereof) associated with distress 

and/or impaired functioning.”

29 265 Depression is the most common mental illness. Experts believe 

depression will be the second leading cause of disability throughout the world by 2020.

30 266

267 An element of each of these services can include prescription of medication to patients, highlighting the 

268 increasing importance of pharmacy services and staff. 

269 One important difference among all health care services is the urgency of care. Some services, for 

270 example, acute and chronic or long-term care (i.e., assisted living facilities, nursing homes, adult homes), 

 

23 Shi, Leiyu and Douglas A. Singh 2008. Delivering Health Care in America: A systems approach. Jones & Bartlett Learning, ... 24 Module 5: Healthcare Systems, US Healthcare Delivery Systems (Appropriate reference needed for this presentation), link: 

http://www.aptrweb.org/?page=module5. 

25 http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/rights/preventive-care/

26 http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5042

27 http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/patient_care/pay_bill/insurance_footnotes.html

28 http://www.dhcs.ca.gov/provgovpart/Pages/SubacuteCare.aspx

29 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental 

Health Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, 1999.

30 http://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/basics.htm
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271 provide patients with critical, life-saving care. Each community must assess health care services provided 

272 to its members and assign priority to those services rated as most critical.

273 2.2.2.5. Education

274 Education is the primary social institution dedicated to the transfer of knowledge, skills, and values from 

275 one individual or group to another. Typically, when one thinks of education, formal education comes to 

276 mind. Formal education can begin in nursery school, and continues through primary and secondary school 

277 – often referred to as elementary, middle, and high schools. Formal education also includes higher 

278 education in colleges and universities.

279 Formal education typically exposes young people to societal norms, customs, and ideologies; provides a 

280 means for cultural innovation and social integration; and facilitates their understanding of social roles. By 

281 its very nature, formal education serves the secondary, but equally important, functions of providing 

282 childcare for one-parent or two-career families and establishing social networks.

283 Knowledge, skills, and values transfer in other ways within the education institution, including adult 

284 education (or continuing education), special education, and informal education. Adult education provides 

285 educational programs or courses for adults who are out of the formal education system. Adult education 

286 ranges from basic literacy to personal fulfillment (e.g., culinary or language classes) to attainment of an 

advanced degree.

31 287 Special education provides “specifically-designed instruction to meet the unique needs 

of a child [or adult] with a disability.”

32 288 Finally, informal education can include any other means of 

289 knowledge, skills, or value transfer, including visiting museums, reading books, attending book clubs, or 

290 participating in recreational classes or demonstrations.

291 The educational institution primarily meets the growth and achievement needs of Maslow‟s hierarchy. 

292 However, attending any of the forms of education, described in the preceding paragraphs, satisfies an 

293 individual‟s need for belonging. Additionally, formal educational institutions provide meals to children in 

294 nursery, primary, and secondary schools, meeting the survival need.

295 2.2.2.6. Community Service Organizations

296 Community service organizations (CSOs) are non-profit and non-governmental entities of varying sizes 

297 and missions that provide services to individuals around the U.S. It is important to note here that, while 

298 organizations such as the Red Cross and the Salvation Army – which are active in disaster-related 

299 response and recovery efforts – may be considered CSOs, this section also considers organizations that do 

300 not necessarily have a disaster-related focus as part of their missions. Generally speaking, these 

301 organizations tend to operate at a local level, often relying on volunteers to support minimal full-time 

302 staff. CSOs typically focus in the arenas of human services, natural environment conservation or 

restoration, and urban safety and revitalization.

33 303 At the most fundamental level, CSOs may assist 

304 individuals in meeting basic needs, such as shelter, food, and clothing, as well as provide emotional and 

305 mental health support. They may also enhance the overall quality of life in a community by engaging in 

306 work related to neighborhood revitalization, affordable housing, food security, accessible transportation, 

307 senior citizens associations, community sustainability, humanitarian/disaster response, medical relief 

308 funds, after school programs, youth homes and centers, skill building and education, and civic 

309 engagement. 

310 With respect to Maslow‟s hierarchy, CSOs address human needs related to survival, safety and security, 

311 belonging, and growth and achievement. The nature of the needs met by any given CSO depends on its 

312 mission and the people it serves. In many cases, CSOs fulfill daily needs of survival, safety and security, 

 

31 http://adulted.about.com/od/whatisadultlearning/p/whatisadulteducation.htm

32 http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/,root,regs,300,A,300%252E39,

33 http://eder671nonprofit.pbworks.com/w/page/18541471/CBOs%20-%20Introduction
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313 belonging, and growth and achievement for the elderly, people living in poverty, racial and ethnic 

314 minority groups, people with disabilities, and those suffering from chronic debilitating illness. These 

315 needs may not otherwise be met by traditional family and kinship groups. Other types of CSOs, such as 

316 civic, social, and recreational clubs (e.g., Rotary Clubs, Boys and Girls Clubs, after school programs) are 

317 more likely to meet, on a regular basis, the needs associated with belonging and growth and achievement, 

318 rather than meeting basic needs. CSOs that comprise this social institution depend upon other social 

319 institutions, as well as on the built environment. 

320 2.2.2.7. Religious Organizations and Others that Support Belief Systems

321 This section addresses social institutions, including religious organizations, as well as other groups that 

322 support various belief systems, such as philosophies, ideologies, and science. From a traditional 

323 sociological perspective, religion is one of society‟s fundamental institutions. 

324 As an institution, religion involves shared patterns of beliefs and behaviors that bring people together, 

325 helping them to understand the meaning and purpose of life. Religion is additionally characterized as 

groups that provide a sense of solidarity and common purpose.

34 326 Generally, the institution of religion 

327 facilitates social cohesion, emotional support, and social control, in addition to serving as an instrument 

328 for socialization and providing answers for unexplained natural phenomena. Organizations, other than 

329 religious, that support belief systems serve a similar function. 

330 As an institution, organizations that support belief systems primarily meet the belonging and growth and 

331 achievement needs identified by Maslow. In some cases, they also address basic survival needs by 

332 providing food and shelter.

333 2.2.2.8. Media

334 Mass media refers to the channels of communication that, in some way, disseminate information to large 

335 numbers of people. A channel or form of communication is often referred to as “one-to-many” in that one 

336 person (for example, the author of a book) communicates his/her information to an audience of many. The 

communication is one-way, as there is rarely an ability to provide feedback to the author.

35 337 Mass media 

338 requires a vehicle – often print media (e.g., newspaper, books, magazines), radio, television, cable, and 

339 telecommunications (e.g., internet sites).

340 Within the last 25 years, the opportunity for many-to-many communication was created with development 

341 of computer networks. Internet chatrooms, peer-to-peer networks, and social network media provide 

342 means for mass audiences to simultaneously interact and communicate with each other.

343 The mass media institution has four main functions and four additional sub-functions. The main four 

344 functions are: dissemination of information, education of the masses (directly or indirectly, via 

345 documentaries, interviews, etc.), entertainment, and persuasion. Additional sub-functions include 

346 surveillance (watching society to warn about threatening actions); interpretation (supplying data and facts, 

347 explaining and interpreting events and situations); linkages, joining together other types of social 

institutions (Section 2.5.1); and socialization or the transmission of culture.

36 348

349 The media connects individuals with information from around the world, the nation, the state, and the 

350 local community. Most communities have local media outlets that disseminate information about local 

351 conditions on a daily basis, via local newspapers, websites, magazines, radio stations, and/or television. 

352 Additionally, some local communities house main offices or headquarters of world-, national-, or state353 level news outlets. For example, CNN‟s world headquarters is located in Atlanta, GA. 

 

34 https://globalsociology.pbworks.com/w/page/14711247/Religion

35 http://www.sociology.org.uk/media_defined.pdf

36 http://theonlinemedia.blogspot.com/2012/06/functions-of-mass-media.html
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354 When a hazard event occurs, information about the event can come from any level of mass media. 

355 Depending upon the hazard event‟s lead or warning time, all levels of news outlets often rush to the 

356 location provide coverage. For hazard events with little or no lead-time, local media broadcasters and 

357 writers are often first on scene; however, within hours or days, media outlets from around the world 

358 converge to cover the story. It is not until days – or even weeks – after an event, when all larger-scale 

359 media outlets have left the area, that the dissemination of response and recovery information falls solely 

360 to local media sources.

361 The media institution, at all levels, meets many of Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs. First, media meets safety 

362 and security needs, by providing information, interpretation and surveillance to the masses. Additionally, 

363 via its socialization function, it promotes belonging among its audience. Finally, the media institution 

364 meets the need for growth and achievement by educating and entertaining society.

365 2.2.3. Social Vulnerabilities and Disasters

366 In thinking about the roles of institutions in a community, it is important to recognize and address social 

367 vulnerability and inequity. Not all people use these systems and/or have access to community systems in 

368 the same ways. Therefore, the needs of everyone likely to be affected in a disaster (or on a day-to-day 

369 basis), such as the elderly, people living in poverty, racial and ethnic minority groups, disabled, and those 

370 suffering from chronic illness, may not be addressed. In addition, renters, students, single-parent families, 

371 small business owners, culturally diverse groups, and historic neighborhoods may not be adequately 

represented.

37 372 Therefore, interactions of individuals/households with community systems can introduce 

373 inequalities among certain subpopulations of a community.

374 These inequalities tend to worsen in the context of a disaster. Specifically, a large and growing body of 

375 empirical research on hazards and disasters shows that risk is not distributed or shared equally across all 

groups.

37 376 Pre-disaster vulnerability, inherent in social institutions, may negatively impact response, 

377 recovery, and resilience following a disaster event. For example, some individuals and groups face greater 

378 risks than others based upon where they are located in the community, the buildings in which they are 

379 located (e.g., inferior housing), or having to rely only on public transportation. These groups are also 

380 more likely to be marginalized from the political process, with little voice in disaster planning, response, 

381 and recovery activities.

382 [Note to reviewers: Additional text will be added here (i.e., Paton, Phillips Chapter 2, specifically noting 

383 that vulnerable populations bring resources to the table – e.g., Community and advocacy groups 

384 represent important sources of information and links to particular populations); Will also mention that 

385 community engagement and its importance is discussed at length later in this chapter.]

386 Vulnerability and inequity are mentioned here to ensure all community members and their resources (or 

387 lack of resources) are considered when planning for resilience. Community leaders should identify those 

388 populations who are most affected – not only in and after a disaster, but also on a day-to-day basis, to 

389 make resilience-based decisions that improve life-safety and the well-being of all community members. 

390 Communities can assess their social vulnerability using a variety of tools, including the Social 

Vulnerability Index,

38 and obtain further information on vulnerable populations here.37 391

392 2.3. Prioritization of Social Institutions and their Functions

393 The previous section (2.2) of this chapter discussed the social dimensions of a community, including 

394 individuals, families, neighborhoods, and the social institutions that exist to support the needs of 

395 community members. Additionally, Section 2.2.3 draws attention to the fact that not all community 

 

37 Phillips, Brenda. 2009. Disaster Recovery. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis CRC Press.

38 Reference to the Social Vulnerability Index (University of South Carolina): http://webra.cas.sc.edu/hvri/products/sovi.aspx
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396 members have equal access to social institutions. Overall, this chapter described eight social institutions 

397 in detail, including their functions, services, and the ways they meet particular needs from Maslow‟s 

398 hierarchy. 

399 It is important to understand the types of social institutions present in a community, especially in 

400 resilience planning, because hazard events can interrupt the functions of these institutions. Hazards can 

401 damage the built environment, making it more difficult for the community, and in turn, its social 

402 institutions, to function. However, social institutions may not all carry the same weight within a 

403 community – in that they meet different needs of communities in different ways, and some needs (as 

404 shown by Maslow‟s hierarchy) are more urgent than others, especially immediately after an extreme 

405 event. Therefore, the community must decide which social institutions (or aspects of those institutions) 

406 are required to function without interruption after a disaster (e.g., critical health care), while others can 

407 withstand partial functioning for some previously designated period of time (e.g., education). These types 

408 of decisions are made by the community when planning for resilience.

409 To help communities prioritize their social institutions, functions, and, in turn, their buildings and 

410 infrastructure systems, communities must answer the following questions: 1) How do social institutions 

411 rely on the built environment to function? and 2) How do social institutions rely on one another to 

412 function?

413 First, note that not all social institutions rely on the built environment in the same way. Some institutions 

414 rely more heavily on the built environment (for example health care via hospitals or other specialized 

415 buildings), while other institutions are less reliant. A religious congregation, for example, does not require 

416 a building in which to gather or worship.

417 Second, social institutions rely on one another to function as well. This reliance is called

418 “interdependencies” among social institutions. Even within particular institutions, such as the economic

419 or government institutions, industries/entities rely on each another to perform their functions. 

420 Communities should understand this interconnectedness when planning for resilience. 

421 The following two sections discuss the ways in which social institutions rely on the built environment 

422 (Section 2.3.1) and each other (Section 2.3.2). In each case, for each social institution, we provide 

423 examples of linkages.

424 2.3.1. Dependence of Social Institutions on the Built Environment 

425 The built environment supports many of the functions of social institutions within a community. It is

426 important that a community‟s own social institutions identify the ways in which the built environment 

427 supports each institution‟s functions. Each of the following sections offers several examples of linkages 

428 between social institutions and the built environment, specifically buildings, transportation, 

429 water/wastewater, power/energy, and communication systems under normal circumstances. Additional 

430 examples are provided to explore additional linkages between social institutions and the built 

431 environment in the event of a disaster.

432 2.3.1.1. Family and Kinship

433 In meeting the needs of Maslow‟s hierarchy, members of the family unit rely on one another and other 

434 social institutions, as well as on the built environment. The family institution relies directly on the built 

435 environment for housing and protection to meet its survival needs. Members of the family unit also rely

436 on the built environment to communicate with one another, to meet its safety and security, belonging, and 

437 growth and achievement needs. 

438 Table 2-1 provides examples of the ways the family and kinship institution relies on the built environment 

439 on a regular, day-to-day basis. In a disaster, additional links between family and the built environment can 

440 be made, including the link between transportation and family for evacuation, or the link between 
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441 communication and family to establish situational awareness about family members‟ safety after a hazard 

442 event occurs. Additionally, transportation and communication can be used to reunite family members 

443 following an event.

444 2.3.1.2. Economic

445 The built environment is integral to the U.S. economy. For example, buildings house manufacturing 

446 facilities, raw material processing plants, office space, commercial retail sales points, the workforce, and 

447 consumers. Water and power systems are used to create goods and services. Transportation is used to 

448 distribute raw materials and intermediate goods to producers and final goods to consumers. 

449 Communication networks transmit supply and demand signals. Components of the built environment also 

450 represent some of the final goods produced from economic activity. The built environment supports 

451 functions of the economy and is owned and/or created by it. 

452 Structures and critical infrastructure often play several roles in supporting economic activity. For 

453 example, roads support the transport of (1) raw materials to production facilities, (2) final goods to retail 

454 stores, and ultimately, to consumers, and (3) workers to their places of employment. Disruptions to 

455 individual components of the built environment have the potential to ripple through the economy. 

456 Table 2-2 through Table 2-6 illustrate some of the ways the built environment supports economic activity. 

457 It is important to acknowledge the role many of these assets play during the response and recovery phases 

458 of a disaster. The availability of goods that support survival (e.g., food and water) is critical during the 

459 response phase, suggesting the importance of functioning stores, and the means to access them. Whereas, 

460 places of employment are vital during the recovery phase by keeping the labor force in place while 

461 maintaining the tax base.

462 2.3.1.3. Government

463 Structures and critical infrastructure often play several roles in supporting major government functions. 

464 The government functions are grouped by executive, legislative, and judiciary. Table 2-7 through Table 

465 2-9 show their linkages with the built environment.

466 It is also important to acknowledge the role many of these assets play during the response and recovery 

467 phases of a disaster. Some assets may play an elevated role (e.g., emergency operation centers and police, 

468 fire, and EMS stations) while others may support an entirely different function than during ordinary times 

469 (e.g., schools to support government provided services, such as shelters).

470 2.3.1.4. Health care

471 The built environment supports many of the functions provided by the health care institution within a 

472 community. Table 2-10 provides examples of the ways in which the health care institution relies on the 

473 built environment on a regular, day-to-day basis. In a disaster, some functions may shift, increasing the 

474 importance of understanding the links between health and the built environment. One example is that 

475 particular health care buildings, like hospitals, could also be used as a shelter during a hazard event.

476 2.3.1.5. Education

477 The built environment also supports the functions of the education institution. In today‟s society, some of 

478 the ways in which we transfer knowledge, skills and values are done via the Internet or virtually, often 

479 without the need to congregate within the same building or structure. However, even in remote situations, 

480 where the need for a particular building is absent, we rely on communications systems to function. 

481 Table 2-11 provides examples of the ways in which the education institution relies on the built 

482 environment on a day-to-day basis. In a disaster, some functions may shift, increasing the importance of 

483 understanding the links between education and the built environment. One example is that school 
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484 buildings could serve as shelters during and after an event. In the aftermath of disasters, school buildings, 

485 in particular, could also emerge as central meeting locations for response and recovery activities.

486 2.3.1.6. Community Service Organizations

487 Increasingly, faith-based and other community organizations provide more services to a greater number of 

community residents on a daily basis.

39,40 488 CSOs, particularly those that provide essential services, such as 

489 shelter, food, and basic medical services, rely upon the built infrastructure to meet the basic survival 

490 needs of those they serve.

491 Table 2-12 provides some examples of the ways in which CSOs rely on the built environment on a 

492 regular, day-to-day basis. In the event of a disaster, the role of CSOs, particularly those that provide 

493 essential services, becomes even more critical, and the importance of understanding the links between 

494 CSOs and the built environment increases. As noted by Ritchie et al. (2008) in a comprehensive study of 

495 disaster preparedness among community-based organizations:

496 After major disasters, frail elderly people living alone still will need meals and other services; 

497 low-income disaster victims will need assistance from community clinics; services for people with 

498 AIDS and for those with chronic mental illness will need to remain operational; and immigrants 

499 still will need aid and support from the same organizations that provide assistance during non500 disaster times.

501 In the event of a disaster, buildings are vital to the protection and safety of staff and clients. It is also 

502 critical that CSOs communicate with their staff, volunteers, emergency providers, as well as those they 

503 serve, to meet safety and security needs. Similarly, CSOs rely upon transportation to ensure that staff and 

504 volunteers can reach their facilities to maintain operations, and that clients can reach the facilities to 

505 obtain services during the days and weeks following a disaster event. In many cases, demands for the 

506 types of assistance provided by CSOs increase substantially following a disaster, as more people seek 

507 assistance. In post-disaster contexts, CSOs of almost any type may adapt and expand their roles and 

508 services to support community disaster response and recovery efforts. 

509 In the long term, CSOs also provide settings in which Maslow‟s belonging and growth and achievement 

510 needs are met after a disaster. Apart from organizations that provide essential services, CSOs such as 

511 civic, social, and recreational clubs (e.g., Rotary Clubs, Boys and Girls Clubs, after school programs) 

512 become increasingly important in community recovery processes by providing opportunities and physical 

513 settings to draw upon, maintain, and to build social capital. For example, buildings that house CSOs may 

514 provide a place for recovery planning. This is an important consideration with respect to understanding 

515 the needs of CSOs as related to the built environment in terms of broader community resilience.

516 2.3.1.7. Religious Organizations and Others that Support Belief Systems

517 As mentioned earlier, religious organizations and others that support belief systems rely on the built 

518 environment to function, albeit not as heavily as other social institutions. Examples of linkages between 

519 the religious organizations and others that support belief systems and the built environment are shown in 

520 Table 2-13.

521 As with community service organizations, described in the previous section, the roles of religious and 

522 other organizations may change in the context of a disaster. For example, buildings regularly used for 

 

39 Ritchie, L.A., Tierney, K., Austin, D., Beres, M., Bevc, C., Gilbert, B., and Sutton, J. 2008. “Disaster Preparedness Among 

Community-Based Organizations in the City and County of San Francisco.” Boulder, CO: The University of Colorado, Institute 

of Behavioral Science, Natural Hazards Center.

40 Ritchie, L.A., Tierney, K, and Gilbert. B. 2011. “Disaster Preparedness among Community-Based Organizations in the City 

and County of San Francisco: Serving The Most Vulnerable.” Pp. 3-39 in D.S. Miller and J.D. Rivera (eds.) Community Disaster 

Recovery and Resiliency: Exploring Global Opportunities and Challenges. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis.
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523 worship and meetings might serve as evacuation shelters for congregants and members, as well as for 

524 residents from the broader community. In these cases, the buildings may also serve as places that protect 

525 vulnerable populations by continuing to or adapting to provide and house essential services such as food, 

526 water, and medical supplies; they may also protect and preserve religious and cultural artifacts and 

527 documents. In the aftermath of disasters, church buildings, in particular, tend to emerge as central meeting 

528 locations in the days and weeks during response and recovery activities.

529 2.3.1.8. Media

530 As with any institution, media relies on the built environment to serve its functions in one way or another. 

531 Table 2-14 provides some examples of the ways the media institution relies on the built environment on a 

532 regular, day-to-day basis. In the event of a disaster, some functions may shift, increasing the importance 

533 of understanding the links between the media and the built environment. For example, a functioning

534 communication system will allow for communication with the public prior to, during, and after a disaster 

535 (to disseminate response and recovery information).

536 [Note to reviewers: A future draft will include the importance of situational awareness before, during and 

537 after a disaster.]

538
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539 Table 2-1: Family and Kinship: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

the Family/kinship 

Institution

Provide a place to live, build a 

family, provide sustenance

Access to and from housing Provide for safe source of 

water for drinking/eating, 

cooking, cleaning, cooling, 

laundry, fire protection; 

provide for the removal and 

treatment of waste

Allow for use of housing

(lighting, heating, cooling), 

use of appliances, charging of 

electronics

Support communication 

within and outside of housing

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Housing (single-family, multifamily, etc.)Roads/bridges, airports, mass 

transit, sea ports

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones (landline and 

mobile), computers, TV and 

radio media

540 Table 2-2: Production of Raw Materials: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

the Production of Raw 

Materials

Prepare materials for 

transport, store materials, 

house equipment and 

machinery

Distribute goods for 

processing

Production input, cool or heat 

to facilitate production 

process, fire protection, 

eliminate production waste

Ability to operate machinery, 

use building (e.g., lighting)

Obtain market signals, support 

production and safety 

activities

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Processing facility, warehouse Roads and bridges, airports, 

railways and rail stations, 

seaports, pipelines

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet

541 Table 2-3: Production of Goods: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

the Production of Goods

Design and develop goods 

(buildings and manufactured 

products), process raw 

materials, production location, 

store goods, package and 

prepare for distribution

Obtain labor and capital, 

distribute intermediate goods, 

distribute final goods for sale

Production input, cool or heat 

to facilitate production 

process, fire protection, 

eliminate production waste

Ability to operate machinery, 

use building (e.g., lighting)

Obtain market signals, support 

production and safety 

activities, advertising

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Commercial office, Processing 

plant, manufacturing facility, 

warehouse, goods (buildings 

and manufactured products) 

for sale

Roads and bridges, airports, 

railways and rail stations, 

seaports

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet, TV and radio media
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542 Table 2-4: Supply of Services: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

the Supply of Services

Point of sale, non-sale, service 

use area

Bring sellers (providers) and 

consumers together

Service input, equipment 

operation, eliminate waste, 

fire protection

Service input, power for 

machinery, lighting for the 

building

Obtain market signals, 

support production and safety 

activities, advertising, 

transmit and receive financial 

transactions

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Stores, malls, restaurants, 

banks, commercial offices, 

hotels, schools and colleges, 

hospitals and medical 

facilities, arenas/stadia, salons 

and barbershops, internet 

cafes, online storefronts, gas 

stations, airports

Roads and bridges, airports, 

railways and rail stations, 

seaports

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet, TV and radio media

543 Table 2-5: Labor Supply: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

Labor Supply

Location of employment, 

residence

Getting to and returning from 

work

Allow for safe use of 

structure/comfort (drinking, 

cooling, cleaning, eliminating 

personal waste), fire 

protection

Power for point of sale 

devices, lighting, heating and 

cooling

Offer and deliver services 

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Production facility, 

commercial office, 

warehouse, store, houses and 

apartments

Roads and bridges, airports, 

railways and rail stations, 

seaports

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet, TV and radio media

544 Table 2-6: Consumption: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

Consumption

Point of sale, non-sale, 

service use area

Bring sellers (providers) and 

consumers together

Allow for safe use of 

structure/comfort (drinking, 

cooling, cleaning, eliminating 

personal waste), fire 

protection

Power for point of sale 

devices, power for point of 

non-sale, service use area, 

lighting, heating and cooling

Obtain information on goods 

and services available, 

process payments
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Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Stores, malls, restaurants, 

commercial offices, schools 

and colleges, hospitals and 

medical facilities, 

arenas/stadia, salons and 

barbershops, internet cafes, 

online storefronts, gas 

stations, airports, houses and 

apartments

Roads and bridges, airports, 

railways and rail stations, 

seaports

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet, TV and radio media

545 Table 2-7: Executive Function: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose ( or function) 

within Executive 

Provide work and meeting 

space for leaders and staff, 

serve as a document 

repository, protect 

communication systems, 

house public safety and 

emergency response 

capabilities (people, 

equipment, vehicles), provide 

public spaces

Provide access to services, 

facilitates delivery of services 

(including emergency 

response)

Allow for safe use of 

structure/comfort (drinking, 

cooling, cleaning, eliminating 

personal waste), fire 

protection

Lighting, heating and cooling Transmission of information, 

including emergency 

messaging, public access to 

government

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Offices, police stations, fire 

and EMS stations, emergency 

operations centers (EOCs), 

military installations, jails and 

prisons

Roads, airports, railways, 

seaports, bridges, tunnels

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet, TV and radio media, 

911 call centers, reverse 911, 

social media, community alert 

and warning systems

546 Table 2-8: Legislative Function: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

Legislative

Provide work and meeting 

space for leaders and staff, 

serve as a document 

repository, protect 

communication systems, 

public spaces

Provide physical access to 

lawmakers and law-making 

bodies 

Allow for safe use of 

structure/comfort (drinking, 

cooling, cleaning, eliminating 

personal waste), fire 

protection

Lighting, heating and cooling Transmission of information, 

public access to government

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Offices, government 

chambers

Roads, airports, railways, 

seaports, bridges, tunnels

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet, TV and radio media, 

911 call centers, reverse 911, 

social media
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547 Table 2-9: Judicial Function: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

Judicial

Provide work and meeting 

space for leaders and staff, 

serve as a document 

repository, protect 

communication systems, 

provide public spaces

Provide physical access to 

legal venues

Allow for safe use of 

structure (drinking, cooling, 

cleaning, eliminating personal 

waste), fire protection

Lighting, heating and cooling Transmission of information, 

public access to government

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Offices, courts and 

courthouses, libraries and 

archives

Roads, airports, railways, 

seaports, bridges, tunnels

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Telephones, computers, 

internet, TV and radio media, 

911 call centers, reverse 911, 

social media

548 Table 2-10: Health Care: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

Health Care

Provide a place for 

emergency, short- and longterm health needs (physical 

and mental); Storage for 

medical records, equipment, 

pharmaceuticals

Provide access to and from 

the facility for patients, staff

Allow for safe use of health 

care facility (drinking, 

cooling, cleaning, laundry, 

eliminating personal waste),

and ability to use specific 

medical equipment that 

require water (e.g., dialysis), 

fire protection

Allow for use of facility, 

including technology, 

equipment, lights/electricity 

for all rooms/offices, 

computers and appliances

Communicate within facility, 

access information/ resources 

(e.g., medical records), 

communicate outside of 

facility

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Hospitals, Clinics, Mental 

health agencies, clinics, 

hospitals, Urgent care centers, 

Poison centers, Dialysis 

centers, Rehabilitation 

centers, Hospices, Assisted 

living facilities, Nursing 

homes; Pharmacies

Roads/bridges, Vehicles -

buses – public, subways, 

personal vehicles

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Internet, emergency 

communication system, 

phones (voice and text), email

549 Table 2-11: Education: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

the Educational Institution

Provide a place to learn, to 

interact/connect, storage for 

equipment and books

Provide access to and from 

the facility to 

students/parents, teachers

Allow for safe use of 

educational facility/comfort 

(drinking, cooling, cleaning, 

eliminating personal waste), 

fire protection

Allow for use of educational 

facility, including power to 

classrooms, computers, 

appliances, offices

Communicate within facility, 

access information/resources 

(e.g., online), communicate 

outside of facility

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Schools, universities (campus 

and dormitories), educational 

offices, museums, libraries

Roads/bridges, Vehicles -

buses – public, subways, 

personal vehicles

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Internet, emergency 

communication system, 

phones (voice and text), email
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550 Table 2-12: Community Service Organizations: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

CSOs

Provide a place where basic 

needs can be met (in some 

cases, shelter and sustenance), 

facility where people can 

interact with others

Provide access to and from 

the CSO facility to 

clients/staff/

volunteers 

Allow for safe use of CSO 

facility/comfort (drinking, 

cooling, cleaning, eliminating 

personal waste), fire 

protection

Allow for use of CSO facility, 

including lights/electricity, 

power for appliances

Communicate with 

clients/staff/

volunteers; between CSOs; 

outside the CSO facility

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Housing and provision of 

sustenance

Roads/bridges, Vehicles –

public transportation (buses, 

subways) personal vehicles

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Internet, emergency 

communication system, 

phones (voice and text), email

551 Table 2-13: Religious Organizations and Others that Support Belief Systems: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

Religious Organizations and 

Others

Provide place of worship, 

social interaction, education, 

daycare, and other basic 

services;

Provide places to house and 

protect religious and cultural 

artifacts/ documents (the 

buildings themselves may be 

considered sacred or have 

symbolic meaning)

Provide access to and from 

the facility to organization 

leaders/staff/ congregation/

community members

Allow for safe use of 

religious/belief facility 

(drinking, cooling, cleaning, 

eliminating personal waste), 

fire protection

Allow for use of facility 

(congregation, community 

members), including 

lights/electricity to all rooms, 

power for appliances

Communicate with 

leaders/staff/

congregation/

community members; outside

of the facility

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

Churches, synagogues, other 

places of worship, meeting 

places

Roads/bridges, Vehicles –

public transportation (buses, 

subways) personal vehicles

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Internet, emergency 

communication system, 

phones (voice and text), email

552 Table 2-14: Media: Examples of Purposes with Links to the Built Environment

Buildings Transportation Water/ wastewater Power/energy Communication

Purpose (or function) within 

Media

Provide a place to 

disseminate news and 

information, protect all media 

technology and equipment

Provide physical access to 

and from facilities, also to 

news sites

Allow for safe use of facility 

(drinking, cooling, cleaning, 

eliminating personal waste), 

fire protection

Allow for use of facilities, 

allow for use of broadcasting/ 

media equipment

Communicate within facility,

access information/ resources 

(e.g., online), broadcast 

information outside of facility 

(media function)

How purpose is actualized 

through the built 

environment (examples)

News and broadcasting 

stations, Television stations, 

Radio station, Newspapers/ 

magazine publishing, 

Publishers‟ headquarters, 

Offices, Equipment/ computer 

storage 

Roads/bridges, Vehicles –

public transportation (buses, 

subways) personal vehicles

News/ broadcasting vehicles

Pipelines, pumps/stations, 

valves, fire hydrants, water 

and wastewater treatment 

facilities, storage tanks

Generation facilities, grids, 

substations, lines, pipelines

Internet, emergency 

communication system, 

phones (voice and text), email

Note to reviewer: Links will 

be made to Chapter 8
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553 In addition to relying on the built environment, social institutions also rely on one another to function. In 

554 turn, damage to the built environment may affect one social institution directly, which can have ripple 

555 effects on other institutions. The following section discusses the interdependencies of social institutions, 

556 to help communities think about prioritizing the built environment for resilience planning.

557 2.3.2. Dependence of Social Institutions on Other Social Institutions 

558 A disruption in the built environment that affects one social institution will likely also affect others, since 

559 social institutions are linked with each other in many ways. It is important for a community to identify the 

560 ways social institution are linked with each other, referred to here as interdependencies. Since each 

561 community is different, it is impossible to provide an exhaustive list of all of the ways social institutions 

562 can become dependent on one another. Instead, examples of interdependencies among social institutions 

are provided here41 563 :

564  Government and economic institutions: The longer it takes businesses to recover, the higher the 

565 potential for loss of local taxes (e.g., sales taxes); the longer it takes for law firms to recover, the 

higher the potential for courthouse delays42 566 .

567  Economic and family/kinship institutions: The longer it takes for businesses to recover, the higher 

568 the potential for unemployment; Suppliers of goods and service (e.g., restaurants, staff) need a 

customer base and, at the same time, people need places to shop for goods and services43 569 .

570  Economic (labor), family/kinship, and education/government: Without childcare, people may be 

571 unable to return to work and earn income, which may result in temporary or permanent relocation 

572 of the person/family. 

573  Government and family/kinship: People may encounter delays and/or difficulties in rebuilding (or 

574 may not wish to rebuild) due to new land use or zoning policies and building department policies 

575 (e.g., inspections or permitting).

576  Healthcare, education, economic, government, or media and family/kinship: Each social 

577 institution needs staff and/or employees (e.g., doctors, nurses, medical technicians, billing, as 

578 examples for health care) to function

579  Government, economic, and family/kinship: People may be unable to return to work without food

580 and water at home, insurance appointments, and/or disaster assistance.

581  Government, media, and family/kinship: The media serves as an intermediary between the 

government and the members of a community44 582 and often works to link certain social institutions 

583 together.

584 Additionally, interdependencies also exist among services located within each institution. For example, 

585 industries located within a community (i.e., the economic institution) can depend upon each other to 

586 function.

587 Industries can be important drivers of the economy due to their size (e.g., contribution to GDP), 

588 proportion of the workforce they employ, and/or their importance with other industries (e.g., as producers 

589 and consumers of intermediate goods from other industries). A disruption to the built environment has the 

590 potential to affect several, seemingly unrelated industries across the economy through these inter-industry 

591 relationships. National and regional input-output models capture the inter-industry linkages.

 

41 Holistic Disaster Recovery Document, Natural Hazards Center (PERI).

42 Case study/example of this was Cedar Rapids, Iowa:

(http://blogs.mlmins.com/ruatrisk/?p=25) 

(http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/cedar_rapids_law_firm_opens_offices_in_nearby_middle_school )

43 Brenda Phillips Infrastructure chapter.

44 http://theonlinemedia.blogspot.com/2012/06/functions-of-mass-media.html
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592 Table 2-15 presents each industry‟s (1) size in millions of dollars of GDP, (2) percent contribution to total 

593 GDP, (3) „impact per dollar demand,‟ and (4) „impact of dollar supply.‟ The percent contribution of GDP

594 shows the total flows from an industry as a percent of all flows in the economy. The impact per dollar 

595 demand is the value of GDP from other industries needed to produce one dollar of GDP from the listed

596 industry – it shows what happens when flows to an industry are disrupted. The impact per dollar supply is

597 the change in GDP that results from a dollar change in GDP from the listed industry – it shows what 

598 happens when the flows from an industry are disrupted. For example, the Wholesale and Retail Trade 

599 industry added $1.96 trillion dollars to the U.S. economy in 2011, which constituted 13% of U.S. GDP.

600 To produce $1.0 million of GDP in Wholesale and Retail Trade, required $1.4 million of GDP produced 

601 by the other industries in the economy. To produce $1.0 million of GDP from other industries in the 

602 economy requires $1.94 million of GDP produced by Wholesale and Retail Trade. 

603 Table 2-15: Industry size and inter-industry relevance (2011)*

Industry GDP 

($ million) % GDP Impact $/Demand

Impact $/

Supply

Agriculture and Mining 466,194 3.1 1.74 1.92

Food, Beverages and Tobacco 221,187 1.5 3.36 2.48

Other Manufacturing 1,627,644 10.8 2.08 1.66

Electricity, Gas and Water Supply 246,896 1.6 1.21 2.62

Construction 549,011 3.6 1.69 2.70

Wholesale and Retail Trade 1,960,689 13.0 1.40 1.94

Hotels and Restaurants 473,854 3.1 1.71 2.68

Inland Transport 191,587 1.3 1.82 2.51

Water Transport 14,819 0.1 2.14 2.99

Air Transport 65,468 0.4 2.07 2.97

Other Supporting and Auxiliary Transport Activities; 

Activities of Travel Agencies

142,442 0.9 1.44 2.33

Post and Telecommunications 370,637 2.5 1.62 2.33

Finance and Real Estate 5,034,867 33.4 1.50 1.36

Public Admin and Defense; Compulsory Social Security 1,853,704 12.3 1.54 2.68

Community, Social and Personal Services 1,869,079 12.4 1.57 2.35

604 *Data sources: World Input-Output Database. http://www.wiod.org/new_site/database/wiots.htm;

605 Marcel P. Timmer (2012), “The World Input-Output Database (WIOD): Contents, Sources and Methods”, WIOD Working 

606 Paper Number 10, downloadable at 

607 <http://www.wiod.org/publications/papers/wiod10.pdf>

608 A smaller impact per dollar demand value implies a larger potential for an industry to be affected by 

609 disruptions in other industries. For example, the Electricity, Gas, and Water Supply industry is the most 

610 sensitive to production value changes from the rest of the economy. A smaller impact per dollar supply 

611 value implies a larger potential for other industries to be affected by a disruption from an industry (e.g., 

612 the economy is most sensitive to production value changes from the Finance and Real Estate industry).

613 The example in Table 2-15 details data on industry size and inter-industry relevance at a national level. 

614 This example can help communities think about the ways their industries, at the local level, interconnect 

615 and provide some guidance on how to quantify interdependencies, if the industry size and relevance data 

616 exists at the local level.

617 2.4. Community Examples of Recovery and Resilience

618 The process of resilience planning and prioritization is community-specific. Communities vary in size, 

619 social make-up (including social vulnerabilities), culture and traditions, and disaster history, which can 

620 influence a community‟s industrial composition (i.e., major industries), governance and regulations, 

621 social capital, economics/budgeting, and access to and types of built environment (assets). Therefore, 
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622 there is no one-size-fits-all approach for communities in the U.S. to think about planning and prioritizing 

623 institutions, services, and/or systems for resilience.

624 Examples in this section show the ways in which communities, who experienced extreme disasters, have 

625 thought about and prioritized for the restoration of the built environment. Although resilience priorities 

626 can and should be set by communities of all types, regardless of their experiences with disasters, 

627 examples are provided here of community priorities set directly after experiencing large-scale, extreme 

628 disasters. 

629 Joplin, Missouri developed priorities/goals during their recovery from the EF5 tornado that devastated 

630 their city on May 22, 2011; a city of 50,000 residents that increases to over 200,000 people during the 

631 workweek. The 2011 Joplin, MO tornado, which left a path of destruction eight miles long and 3⁄4 miles 

632 wide, claimed 161 lives and injured over 1,000 people, in addition to damaging city infrastructure, parks, 

and 7,500 structures.

45 633 In response to the disaster, Joplin, MO created the Citizen Advisory Recovery 

634 Team (CART) to provide community members with a platform to bring post-disaster recovery ideas to

635 the table, form a consensus, and allow these ideas to be taken to the City Council for consideration. On 

636 November 7, 2011, after multiple public meetings, CART presented its recommendations to the City 

637 Council for consideration and adoption. The City adopted CART‟s report and created the Implementation 

638 Task Force (ITF) to be the lead public/private entity in the redevelopment. The ITF included leadership 

639 from the CART and representatives of the City of Joplin, Duquesne, Joplin Schools, and the Joplin Area 

640 Chamber of Commerce. The role of the ITF was to assign responsibilities and priorities to the plan. As a 

641 result, several projects were developed that fell under four main headings: housing and neighborhoods, 

642 schools and community facilities, infrastructure and environment, and economic development. As a way 

to summarize these projects, the ITF plan provided a list of recovery goals:

46 643

644  Replace lost residential housing, office, commercial, medical, etc.

645  Create ties from the redeveloped area to downtown Joplin

646  Expand opportunities for employment

647  Create destination activity center(s)

648  Establish a memorial to those lost in the storm 

649  Address other projects and goals as developed by the CART

650  Use redevelopment efforts as a catalyst to build upon existing goals for development and 

651 redevelopment in Joplin, including a parkway or series of neighborhood parks supporting the 

652 recovering neighborhoods; develop a performance and visual arts center; create a community 

653 and/or event center; and extend the walk/bike paths.

654 In another example, Greensburg, Kansas prioritized sustainable development after a tornado hit their 

655 town on May 4, 2007, killing 13 people and injuring more than 60 others. The tornado destroyed 95% of 

656 the town‟s structures and seriously damaging the other 5%. Immediately after the disaster, 50% of the 

657 population relocated to other areas, and eventually, FEMA installed mobile homes that housed around 

300 families.

47 658 Greensburg, KS is now the “world‟s leading community in LEED-certified buildings per 

capita.” 659 47 With support from the community, the Greensburg City Council adopted the resolution that, “all 

660 large public buildings in Greensburg with a footprint exceeding 4,000 square feet must meet the LEED661 platinum standards of the U.S. Green Building Council and utilize renewable energy sources.” 

662 Reconstruction is almost complete, with the entire community powered by renewable energy and the 

 

45http://www.joplincc.com/Joplin%20Pays%20It%20Forward%20-

%20Community%20Leaders%20Share%20Our%20Recovery%20Lessons.pdf

46 http://joplinmo.org/DocumentCenter/View/2687

47 http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/greenhouse/2013/04/13/greensburg-kansas/2078901/
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663 construction of six LEED-platinum certified buildings, including the city hall, the memorial hospital, and 

664 the K-12 school.

665 Additionally, one question that communities may ask even before setting priorities is whether their 

666 current geographical/physical location allows them to reach their recovery and resilience goals.

667 Community members, from Christchurch, New Zealand, for example, after their series of major 

668 earthquakes in 2010 and 2011 or Rockaway Peninsula in New York after Hurricane Sandy hit in 2012, 

669 are faced with short-term and long-term relocation decisions based on new land-use and zoning 

670 initiatives. In these cases, the first priority is relocation.

671 [Note to reviewers: In a future draft, this section will end with a paragraph relating to resilience, stating

672 that in the same ways that communities are planning for and executing recovery actions, communities can 

673 plan for and execute resilience actions – differently – in ways that work for them.]

674 2.5. Community Engagement in Resilience

675 [Note to reviewers: In a future draft, this section will begin with a discussion on the social science 

676 evidence of the role and importance of social capital. Also, may link this section with the section on 

677 Social Vulnerabilities (2.2.3) – discussion on how community engagement can help to identify and offset 

678 community vulnerabilities.]

679 For communities to become engaged in the pursuit of resilience, there needs to be a collective belief in 

680 the potential threat from the hazard(s) and the value of investing in resilience. These beliefs and values 

681 also reflect the level of risk a community is willing to tolerate, which is usually based on experience and 

682 available science. Without direct disaster experience, communities rely on science to present hazard 

683 probabilities and design options for reducing or avoiding exposure to these endemic community hazards. 

684 Without direct experience, the effectiveness of science to engage communities depends on the trust 

685 established between scientists and decision makers in having a common understanding of purpose, roles, 

686 responsibilities, and limitations as they relate to potential disasters and the means to plan, detect, notify 

687 and respond to threats. 

688 Communities may seek out opportunities to pursue resilience based on observed disasters at similar scales 

689 or levels of development as their own, which trigger changes in beliefs or values as to the merits of 

690 resilience. Another manner of engaging community decision makers may come from translating the value 

691 of investing in resilience into their performance goals of long-term growth and into the values of 

692 sustainability. Many communities have adopted sustainability as a goal for the sake of reducing the 

693 dependence on natural and other limited resources through efforts such as recycling, smart technologies, 

694 shared community resources and collective expectations of livability goals, such as the simplicity 

695 movement. These steps demonstrate a stronger and more dynamic interface between a built community 

696 and the natural environment – one that recognizes the interdependency between human systems and 

697 natural systems. The health of one affects the overall health and functionality of the other. 

698 Resilience comes into play when communities understand how their forbears‟ decisions resulted in their 

699 level of risk (increased or diminished) from potential disasters as well as available opportunities to reduce 

700 future losses, either by directly mitigating risk and/or planning to recover in a more risk-averse fashion 

701 following a damaging event. Ideally, resilience, as a concept, should help communities demonstrate 

702 credible investments toward improved livability during and after expected hazards. It should also expedite 

703 recovery following extreme disaster events due to forward thinking, planning and prioritizing in advance,

704 to take advantage of recovery and reconstruction opportunities. This pursuit of resilience should provide a 

705 competitive edge for potential business and residential prospects evaluating a location for investments. 

706 Resilience, like sustainability, encourages a better understanding of interdependence between a 

707 community and its geographical setting. This understanding can be viewed as a starting point for 

708 community identity and belonging that relates to a sense of place and quality of life that starts with 
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709 community members feeling safer, more secure, and less likely to have their lives disrupted by hazards. 

710 They share in the beliefs and values of resilience and that the investments in resilience are worthwhile for 

711 their sense of growth and achievement. 

712