Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

Standard Practice for Gunshot 

Residue Analysis by Scanning 

Electron Microscopy/Energy 

Dispersive X-Ray 

Spectrometry

Gunshot Residue Subcommittee 

Chemistry Scientific Area Committee

Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science

1
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

OSAC Proposed Standard

Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning 

Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

Prepared by

Gunshot Residue Subcommittee

Version: 1.0 

 March 2020

Disclaimer:

This document has been developed by the Gunshot Residue Subcommittee of the Organization 

of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science through a consensus process and 

proposed for further development through a Standard Developing Organization (SDO). This 

document is being made available so that the forensic science community and interested parties 

can consider the recommendations of the OSAC pertaining to applicable forensic science 

practices. The document was developed with input from experts in a broad array of forensic 

science disciplines as well as scientific research, measurement science, statistics, law, and 

policy.

This document has not been published by an SDO. Its contents are subject to change during the 

standards development process. All interested groups or individuals are strongly encouraged to 

submit comments on this proposed document during the open comment period administered by 

ASTM (www.astm.org).

2
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

Date: 3/12/2020

To: Main Committee E30 members and Subcommittee E30.01 members (Concurrent Ballot) 

Tech Contact: David Freehling, dfreehling@ncdoj.gov, 919-582-8920

Work Item #: WK70036

Ballot Action: Revision of E1588-17

Rationale: This document was reviewed by the OSAC Gunshot Residue Subcommittee. This is the 

second time this standard has been balloted. Negatives were found to be persuasive and 

comments from the previous ballot have been addressed. Only the tracked changes are up 

for comment. Any extra text is provided for context.

Standard Practice for

Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive 

X-Ray Spectrometry.1

1. Scope

1.1 This practice covers the analysis of gunshot residue (GSR) by scanning electron 

microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM/EDS). The analysis is performed using 

automated software control of both the SEM and EDS systems, to screen the sample for 

candidate particles that could be associated with GSR. Manual control of the instrument is then 

used to perform confirmatory analysis and classification of the candidate particles. This practice 

refers solely to the analysis of electron microscopy stubs(1).2

1.2 Since software and hardware formats vary among commercial systems, guidelines will be 

offered in the most general terms possible. For proper terminology and operation, consult the 

SEM/EDS system manuals for each instrument.

1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement 

are included in this standard.

1.4 This practice offers a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This 

document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with 

professional judgment. Not all aspects of this practice may be applicable in all circumstances. 

This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the 

adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied 

without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title 

means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

1.5 This practice does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its 

use. It is the responsibility of the user when applying this practice to establish appropriate safety 

and health practices and deter- mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior touse.

1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E30.01 

on Criminalistics. Current edition approved Feb. 1, 2017. Published February 2017. Originally approved in 1994. Last previous version approved 

in 2016 as E1588 – 16a. DOI: 10.1520/E1588-17.

2 The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of this standard.
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized 

principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of 

International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization 

Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

1. 2. Referenced Documents

2.1 E1492 Practice for Receiving, Documenting, Storing, and Retrieving Evidence in a Forensic 

Science Laboratory.

2.2 E2917 Practice for Forensic Science Practitioner Training, Continuing Education, and 

Professional Development Programs.

3. Terminology

3.1 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard that are accepted based on consensus of the 

forensic GSR community (1):

3.1.1 stub, n—sample device with an adhesive surface used to collect materials for 

SEM/EDS analysis.

3.1.2 characteristic particles, n—particles that have compositions rarely found in 

particles from any source other than GSR.

3.1.3 consistent particles, n—particles that have compositions that are found in GSR and 

also arise from other non-firearm sources.

3.1.3.1 Discussion- Particles within this group are produced through the 

operation of a variety of processes, equipment, or devices and can be found in 

the environment with varying levels of frequency.

3.1.4 commonly associated particles, n—particles have compositions that are also 

commonly found in environmental particles from numeroussources.

3.1.4.1 Discussion - When present in addition to particles that are characteristic 

of, and/or consistent with, GSR these particles can be of use in the 

interpretation of a population of particles and, consequently, the likelihood that 

that population is GSR. In isolation, however, such particles have little use in 

examinations for GSR.

3.1.5 morphology, n; morphological, adj—referring to size, shape, structure, and 

texture.

4. Summary of Practice

4.1 Particles composed of high mean atomic number elements are detected by their SEM 

backscattered electron signals and an EDS spectrum is obtained from each. The EDS spectrum is 

evaluated for constituent elements that could identify the particle as being consistent with or 

characteristic of GSR (2-4). See Section 9 for discussion on classification of particles.
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

5. Significance and Use

5.1 This document will be of use to forensic laboratory personnel who are involved in the 

analysis of GSR samples by SEM/EDS (5).

5.2 SEM/EDS analysis of GSR is a non-destructive method that provides (6, 7) both 

morphological information and the constituent elements detected in individualparticles.

5.3 Particle analysis contrasts with bulk sample methods, such as atomic absorption 

spectrophotometry (AAS) (8), neutron activation analysis (NAA) (9), inductively coupled plasma 

atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry 

(ICP-MS), where the sampled material is dissolved or extracted prior to the determination of 

total element concentrations, thereby sacrificing size, shape, and individual particle 

identification.

6. Sample Preparation

6.1 Once the evidence seal is broken, care should be taken so that no object touches the surface 

of the adhesive SEM/EDS sample collection stub and that the stub is not left uncovered any 

longer than is reasonable for transfer, mounting, or labeling.

6.2 The sample collection stub shall be labeled in such a manner that it is distinguishable from 

other sample collection stubs without compromising the sample; for example, label the bottom 

or side of the stub.

6.3 If a non-conductive adhesive was used in the sample collection stub, the sample will need to 

be coated to increase its electrical conductivity, unless an environmental SEM or variablepressure/low-vacuum SEM is used for the analysis. Carbon is a common choice of coating 

material, since it will not interfere with X-ray lines of interest. For high-vacuum SEM, coat the 

sample sufficiently to eliminate charging of the sample.

6.4 Observe the appropriate procedures for handling and documentation of all submitted 

samples, for example Practice E1492.

7. Sample Area

7.1 Sample collection stubs for SEMs typically come in one of two diameters: 12.7 mm or 25.4 

mm, which yield surface areas of 126.7 mm2 and 506.7 mm2respectively.

7.2 Automated SEM/EDS analysis can enable data collection from nearly the entire surface area 

of the sample collection stub. Due to the disparity between the shape of the sample collection 

stub (round) and the SEM field of view search area (square or rectangular), analysis of 100% of 

the sample collection area is not always possible in some systems.

7.3 Analysis of the maximum allowable surface area of the sample is recommended, however, 

many automated systems can be programmed to terminate the analysis of a stub or series of 

stubs once a pre-established number of particles have been detected. The decision as to how 

many particles satisfy the requirements of a particular case should be set out in the laboratory’s 

standard operating procedures.
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

8. Instrument Requirements and Operation

8.1 General:

8.1.1 Most commercial-grade SEM/EDS systems should be adequate for GSR analysis 

given that the criteria set forth in 8.2 and 8.3 aremet.

8.1.2 Automated data collection of GSR involves some portion of the data collection 

being controlled by instrument automation software. The extent to which the SEM and 

EDS systems communicate and are integrated varies according to the manufacturers 

and the capabilities of the hardware/software. The system shall have the ability to 

recall stage locations of particles for verification and software for particlerecognition.

8.2 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM):

8.2.1 The SEM, operating in the backscattered electron imaging mode, shall be 

configured to detect particles down to at least 1.0 μm in diameter.

8.2.2 The SEM shall be capable of an accelerating voltage of at least 20 kV.

8.2. SEM/ systems shall include: a motorized stage with automated stage control.

8.3 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry (EDS):

8.3.1 The detector shall be configured to produce a resolution of better (less) than 150 

eV during analysis, measured or extrapolated as the full width at half the maximum

height of the Mn Ka peak (1).

8.3.2 At a minimum, the EDS spectrum shall be acquired at 20 eV per channel.

8.3.3 Display of the EDS output shall encompass the X-ray lines of analytical utility, with 

a minimum range of 0–15 keV.

8.3.4 Automated systems will also include software capable of acquiring X-ray spectra 

for a specified collection time or total X-ray counts.

8.3.5 The instrument shall be capable of recording spectra obtained from the analysis of 

candidate particles. At a minimum, an automated system shall be capable of storing all 

of the particle location coordinates.

8.4 Sample Placement:

8.4.1 Record the positions of the stubs (sample and standard/reference stubs) on the 

SEM stage when the samples are inserted.

8.4.2 If it is anticipated or required that additional analyses will be needed, it is desirable 

that the stub can be returned to the same orientation as before its removal. This could 

consist of marking the side of each stub and aligning it with marks on the microscope 

stage or by having stubs that fit into the stage in only one position (for example, stubs 

with a pin that is a half-circle in cross section).
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

8.5 Detection and Calibration:

8.5.1 Particles of GSR are detected by their backscattered electron signal intensity. The 

absolute signal intensity that a particle produces is related to the electron beam current, 

mean atomic number, and size of the particle (for particle sizes on the order of the 

beam diameter). Particles whose mean atomic numbers are high will appear brighter 

than those of lower mean atomic number composition. As the beam current increases, 

the amount of signal each particle produces also increases(10).

8.5.2 The brightness and contrast settings (low and high thresholds) of the 

backscattered electron detector system determine the limits of detection and 

discrimination of particles based on their mean atomic number. Threshold settings for 

the backscattered electron signal should be done with a suitable reference sample of 

known origin (often supplied by the EDS manufacturer) or elemental standards at the 

same instrumental settings used for sample analyses. This reference sample should, if 

possible, be in the microscope chamber at the same time as the samples to beanalyzed.

8.5.3 The backscattered electron detector’s brightness and contrast should be set to 

include the high atomic number particles of interest and exclude low atomic number 

particles that are not of interest. Typically, high contrast and low brightness settings 

provide an adequate range between threshold limits for ease of detection. If the beam 

current is changed or drifts, the brightness and contrast threshold limits, which were 

based on the previous beam current, could no longer be compatible with the new 

conditions and should be readjusted. Beam current measurements can be taken with 

(but are not limited to) a Faraday cup, a specimen current meter, or monitored by 

comparing the integrated counts within the same peak in sequentially collected spectra 

from a known standard.

8.6 Quality Control:

8.6.1 When conducting automated analysis of GSR, special measures have to be chosen 

in order to meet common quality management demands. The use of control charts 

and/or tracking of instrument parameters and quality control metrics is recommended. 

Therefore, as minimum conditions:

8.6.1.1 Establish a protocol to confirm appropriate instrument operation 

parameters prior to sample analysis.

8.6.1.2 Monitor the EDS X-ray energy calibration and SEM beam current stability 

at least once per batch of samples using appropriate reference materials of 

known elemental composition such as copper, cobalt, etc.

8.6.1.3 Analyze a reference material with particles of known size range and 

composition to test the accuracy of particle detection and identification. It is 

recommended that the reference material has been prepared and mounted in a 

manner comparable to the collection method in use by the submitting agency. 

The reference material can be a sample of GSR from a known source. Additional 

environmental particles may be added to ensure the inclusion or exclusion of
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

particular classes of particles. Alternatively, a synthetic, GSR standard containing 

particles comprised of the primary elements of interest may be used for this 

purpose. The frequency of analysis of this sample shall be subject to guidelines 

set out in the laboratory’s standard operating procedures.

8.6.1.4 The incorporation of environmental or control samples into the 

analytical protocol is recommended in order to monitor the cleanliness of the 

sample collection or analytical system, or both. An environmental sample can be 

prepared in a number of ways: for example, it may be an unused stub that has 

been prepared contemporaneously with the questioned samples or a sample 

taken from the sample collection or analytical environments (exposed to the air 

or as a direct sample collection from clean workspace), or both.

8.6.1.5 Care should be taken when transferring samples to and from the 

instrument to prevent cross contamination. Tools should be cleaned using a 

solvent and lint free tissue between samples from differentsources.

9. Data Analysis

9.1 Definition and Classification:

9.1.1 Morphology:

9.1.1.1 Particles identified as characteristic of or consistent with GSR using this 

method are often spheroid particles, typically between 0.5 μm and 5.0 μm in 

diameter; the remainder are irregular in shape or vary from 0.5 μm to 100+ μm 

in size, or both (6, 11, 12). In general, it is not consistent with the mechanisms of 

GSR formation to find particles by SEM- displaying crystalline morphology. 

However, such particles have occasionally been observed in known primer GSR 

residues. Since morphology can vary greatly, it should never be considered as 

the only criterion for identification of GSR.

9.1.2 Elemental Composition:

9.1.2.1 The elemental composition is the most diagnostic property to determine 

if a particle could be GSR (13). In some instances, it could provide additional 

forensic value to compare the elemental composition of the recovered 

particulate with case-specific known source items, such as the recovered 

firearm, cartridge cases, or victim-related items.

9.1.2.2 Particles with unusual elemental compositions could be encountered in 

case work. In this circumstance, the elemental compositions of these particles 

should be compared to case-specific sources, such as cartridges or 

ammunition/firearm test fire deposits.

9.1.3 Particles classified as characteristic of GSR will have the following elemental 

composition:

9.1.3.1 Lead, antimony, barium (7).
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

9.1.4 Particles classified as consistent with GSR will have one of the following elemental 

compositions:

9.1.4.1 Lead, barium, calcium, silicon.

9.1.4.2 Barium, calcium, silicon.

9.1.4.3 Antimony, barium (15).

9.1.4.4 Lead, antimony.

9.1.4.5 Barium, aluminum.

9.1.4.6 Lead, barium.

9.1.5 Particles classified as commonly associated with GSR will have one of the following 

elemental compositions:

9.1.5.1 Lead.

9.1.5.2 Antimony.

9.1.5.3 Barium.

9.1.6 The following compositions have been observed from different kinds of 

ammunition with “lead-free/non-toxic” primers (16, 17).

9.1.6.1 Particles that have a composition characteristic of GSR, will have one of 

the following elemental compositions:

(1) Gadolinium, titanium, zinc (18)

(2) Gallium, copper, tin (18).

9.1.6.2 Particles with compositions consistent with GSR from different kinds of 

“lead-free or non-toxic” ammunitions will have one of the following elemental 

compositions:

(1) Titanium, zinc (16, 19).

(2) Strontium (19, 20).

9.1.7 It is common for additional elements to become incorporated into particles of 

these classes. Such particles can contain but not be limited to one or more of the 

elements: aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, potassium, calcium, iron, 

nickel, copper, zinc, zirconium, and tin (1, 7). The presence of sulfur in classified particles 

that contain barium without lead should be viewed with caution as barium sulfate is 

used in many applications unrelated to the discharge of a firearm. Although rare, the 

presence of iron should be viewed with caution as these particles can be associated with 

brake dust (21). The presence of zirconium should be viewed with caution as these 

particles can be associated with vehicle air bags(22).
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

9.1.8 Additional classifications can be developed for specific types of primer 

compositions not included in the previous sections. Any new classification should aid in 

differentiating environmentally or occupationally produced particles that could be 

found in a sample from GSR. An assessment of the significance of these classifications 

shall be made in consideration of appropriate research and documentation (14).

9.2 X-Ray Analysis - Data Collection and Confirmation:

9.2.1 An automated SEM/EDS system should collect elemental data from particles 

whose backscattered electron signal brightness exceeds the desired threshold setting. It 

should be able to provide hard copy output and electronic storage of the data including, 

at minimum, stage X and Y coordinates, field of analysis X and Y coordinates, total 

number of particles detected, and total number of particles classified asGSR.

9.2.2 The candidate particles meeting the above criteria (9.1) shall only be considered 

confirmed after manual relocation of the particles and re-acquisition of the X-ray 

spectra. The operator shall collect an EDS spectrum from candidate particles by placing 

the electron beam in spot mode near the center of the particle or raster an area 

completely within the particle’s volume. X-ray counts should be collected to permit 

robust manual identification of all elements of interest. If a brief spectral acquisition 

indicates that the elements are not characteristic of or consistent with GSR acquisition 

may be stopped. The number of candidate particles to be confirmed shall be subject to 

guidelines set out in the laboratory’s standard operating procedures.

10. Documentation

10.1 The following documentation is required for each particle confirmed in section9.2.2:

10.1.1 Images of the particles showing their morphologies (as defined in 9.1.1).

10.1.2 X-ray spectra of the particles, with all relevant elements present clearly identified 

and labeled.

10.1.3 The operator/analyst should follow other intra- laboratory protocols for 

documentation as appropriate.

11. Keywords

11.1 energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry; forensic science; gunshot residue; scanning electron 

microscopy

REFERENCES

(1) SWGGSR, “Guide for Primer Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy 

Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy,” pp. 17–21; available from http://www.swggsr.org.

(2) Nesbitt, R. S., Wessel, J. E., and Jones, P. F., “Detection of Gunshot Residue by Use of the 

Scanning Electron Microscope,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 21, 1976, p.595.
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

(3) Andrasko, A., Maehly, A. C., “Detection of Gunshot Residues on Hands by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 22, 1977, pp. 279 – 287.

(4) Wolten, G. M., Nesbitt, R. S., Calloway, A. R., Loper, G. L., and Jones, P. F., “Particle Analysis for 

the Detection of Gunshot Residue. I: Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray 

Characterization of Hand Deposits from Firing,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 24, 1979, p. 

409.

(5) Zeichner, A., “Recent Developments in Methods of Chemical Analy- sis of Firearm-Related 

Events,” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, Vol 376, No. 8, 2003, pp. 1178–1191.

(6) Krishnan, S. S., “Detection of Gunshot Residue: Present Status,” Forensic Science Handbook, 

Volume I, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982.

(7) Wolten, G. M., Nesbitt, R. S., Calloway, A. R., Loper, G. L., and Jones, P. F., “Final Report on 

Particle Analysis for Gunshot Residue Detection,” Report ATR-77 (7915)-3, Aerospace 

Corporation, Segundo, CA, 1977.

(8) Renshaw, G. D., Pounds, C. A., and Pearson, E. F., “The Quantitative Estimation of Lead, 

Antimony and Barium in Gunshot Residues by Non-Flame Atomic Absorption 

Spectrophotometry,” Atomic Absorption Newsletter, Vol 12, 1973, p. 55.

(9) Hoffman, C. M., “Neutron Activation Analysis for the Detection of Firearm Discharge Residues 

Collected with Cotton Swabs,” Journal of the Association of Offıcial Analytical Chemists, Vol 56, 

1973, p. 1388.

(10) Goldstein, J. I., Newbury, D. E., Echlin, P., Joy, D. C., Lyman, C. E., Lifshin, E., Sawyer, L., and 

Michael, J. R., Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis, 3rd Edition, Kluwer 

Academic/Plenum Publishers, NY, 2003.

(11) Basu, S., “Formation of Gunshot Residues,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 27, 1982, p.72.

(12) Wolten, G. M., and Nesbitt, R. S., “On the Mechanism of Gunshot Residue Particle Formation,” 

Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 25, 1980, p. 533.

(13) Romolo, F. S., and Margot, P. “Identification of Gunshot Residue: A Critical Review,” Forensic 

Science International, Vol 119, No. 2, 2001, p. 195.

(14) Zeichner, A., and Levin, N., “More on the Uniqueness of Gunshot Residue (GSR) Particles,” 

Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 42, No. 6, November 1997, pp. 1025–1026.

(15) Wallace, J. S., and McQuillan, J., “Discharge Residues from Cartridge-Operated Industrial Tools,” 

Journal of Forensic Science Society, Vol 24, 1984, pp. 495–508.

(16) Gunaratnam, L., and Himberg, K., “The Identification of Gunshot Residue particles from Leadfree Sintox Ammunition,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 39, 1994, pp. 532–536.
Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

(17) Harris, A., “Analysis of Primer Residue from CCI Blazer* Lead-free Ammunition by Scanning 

Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 40, 1995, pp. 

27–30.

(18) Niewoehner, L., et al., “New Ammunitions for the German Police,”SCANNING The Journal of 

Scanning Microscopies, Vol 27, No. 2, 2005, p. 69.

(19) Charpentier, B., and Desrochers, C., “Analysis of Primer Residue from Lead Free Ammunition by 

X-Ray Microfluorescence,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 45, No. 2, 2000, pp. 447–452.

(20) Oommen, Z., and Pierce, S. M., “Lead-Free Primer Residues: A Qualitative Characterization of 

Winchester WinClean, Remington/ UMC Leadless, Federal BallistiClean, and Speer Lawman 

CleanFire Handgun Ammunition,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol 51, No. 3, 2006, pp. 509–519.

(21) Garofano, L., et al., “Gunshot Residue—Further Studies on Particles of Environmental and 

Occupational Origin,” Forensic Science International, Vol 103, 1999, pp. 1–21.

(22) Berk, R., “Automated SEM/EDS Analysis of Airbag Residue. 1: Particle Identification,” Journal of 

Forensic Sciences, Vol 54, No. 1, January 2009, pp. 60–68.

RELATED MATERIAL

Niewoehner, L., Andrasko, J., Biegstraaten, J., Gunaratnam, L., Steffen, S., and Uhlig, S., “Maintenance of 

the ENFSI Proficiency Test Program on Identification of GSR by SEM/EDX (GSR2003),” Journal of 

Forensic Sciences, Vol 50, No. 4, 2005; Paper ID JFS2004454.

Wallace, J. S., “Discharge Residue from Mercury Fulminate-Primed Ammunition,” Science and Justice, 

Vol 38, No. 1, 1998, pp. 7–14.

Zeichner, A., Levin, N., and Dvorachek, M., “Gunshot Residue Particles Formed by Using Ammunitions 

That Have Mercury Fulminate Based Primers,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA, Vol 37, No. 6, 

November 1992, pp. 1567–1573.

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Standard Practice for Gunshot Residue Analysis by Scanning Electron 

Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry