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Input to the Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity

Information on Current and Future States of Cybersecurity in the Digital Economy

(NIST RFI on August, 10, 2016)

Pertinent topics: a) Cybersecurity Workforce; b) Public Awareness and Education

Felix Alba/President

Felix ALBA Consultants, Inc.

Draper, UT 84020

Executive Summary

President Obama said in 2009 that “America’s economic prosperity in the 21st century will depend on 

cybersecurity”. In 2012, Defense Secretary Panetta ominously coined the expression “Cyber Pearl 

Harbor”. In April 2016, Symantec reported 1M web attacks per day, 75% unpatched websites, and 0.5B 

personal records stolen or lost [1]. Accordingly, in February 2016, per the Cyber Security National 

Action Plan (CNAP), the Federal Cybersecurity 2017 Budget was increased 30% ($19B) and on July 

12, 2016 the White House released the first-ever Federal Cybersecurity Workforce Strategy [2] [3].

A main weakness behind Classical Cyber Security (CCS) is its relying on two unwarranted articles of 

faith: Eve (the archetypal spy) has neither the knowledge nor the computer power to: a) infer the secret 

key from the public one in current asymmetric security cyphers, or b) cryptanalyze the current symmetric 

AES-256 cyphertext [4] [5]. To aggravate the situation, it is estimated that quantum computers will be 

available by 2030 and then all current crypto-infrastructure will be utterly vulnerable [4] [6]. In fact, in

August 2015, the NSA stated: ...research on quantum computing has made it clear that elliptic curve 

cryptography [ECC] is not the long term solution many once hoped it would be. Thus, we have been 

obligated to update our strategy [7].

A new paradigm -called Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)- was needed: In 2013, the DHS’s TTP 

Program announced the transition to market of a Quantum technology developed at Los Alamos National

Laboratory (LANL) [8] [9]. Likewise, the Battelle Memorial Institute, jointly with ID Quantique (IDQ), 

has built a QKD network in Ohio, and plans to extend it throughout North America [6] [10]. More 

recently, on August 8, 2016, the National Science Foundation awarded $12M to six Universities to 

develop systems that use photons in pre-determined quantum states as a way to encrypt data [11] [12].

Cognizant of this worldwide revolution incubating for over 3 decades, interactions with Don Hayford 

(Battelle’s Senior Research Leader till January 2016) and with Dr. Richard Hughes (former Research 

Director and co-inventor of LANL’s technology) led us to conclude that in 5-10 years a multitude of 

governmental and private entities will use quantum cryptography for data protection though -upon 

inaction- without the workforce properly trained in this emerging and fundamentally-different technology.

We firmly believe that a globally-competitive workforce for Quantum Cyber Security (QCS) is crucial 

to protect our Nation and, ergo, its creation has to start immediately. Furthermore, because Workforce

creation and Education must go hand-in-hand, a new paradigm in Cyber Security (based on Quantum 

Physics) calls for a new paradigm in Teaching [13] [14] -- particularly at secondary school and 

undergraduate levels. Also, as Malcolm & Feder state in [15] “...higher education institutions function 

more like a collection of discrete practices and policies, rather than being interconnected and synergistic.” 

Based on those premises/facts, I have united the Salt Lake Community College and the University of 

Utah to conceive a 10-year/3-phase plan to develop a nationally-scalable curricula/infrastructure (K-12 to 

Ph.D.) as well as to outreach to the human capital (trainers/trainees/employers) necessary for creating the 

National Workforce for Quantum/Classical Cyber Security (QCS/CCS) and enhancing the public 

awareness/literacy. To start our Phase I -of which I would be the Project Director- on October 6, 2016, the 

Salt Lake Community College will submit a Collaborative Proposal to the NSF ATE (Advanced 

Technological Education) Program entitled Creating the National Workforce for Quantum Cybersecurity, 

Phase I: Curricula/Infrastructure for K-12/College/University Career Pathways [14]. Upon request, we 

will be pleased and honored to submit to the Commission the full-text of our NSF Proposal.
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1. Current/Future Challenges – Classical Cyber Security (CCS) and its Vulnerabilities

In the US there are about 6,000 hospitals, tens of thousands of banks and many more financial, 

educational, military, industrial, and utility enterprises whose data integrity/availability are crucial for 

social stability, privacy, public trust, health, economy, civil liberties, and security of our Nation. The 

‘Internet of Things’ (IoT) is at the heart of our economy with critical functions like transportation, 

electrical power, health, etc. More than six billion things will be connected in 2016 [1]. Their 

uninterrupted-real-time requirements make them overly vulnerable. DOE, DHS, and FBI stated Ukraine’s 

Power Grid failure in 2015 was an “unprecedented cyberwarfare attack”. U.S. systems aren't any more 

protected, the official said [16]. Per the DOE’s roadmap, by 2020 the Power Grid should survive a cyber 

incident while sustaining critical functions [17]. NIST 800-160 (5/2016) clearly states this problem [18].

Online banking relies upon the HTTPS/TLS protocol to secure web traffic, with server authentication 

and key establishment using X.509 certificates and RSA public keys. The SWIFT network uses a Public 

Key Infrastructure (PKI) to sign and encrypt messages/transfers of funds [19]. The Advanced Encryption 

Standard (AES-256) is used worldwide to encrypt data on hard drives, email systems, and web browsers.

In sum: the Internet uses asymmetric-key cyphers (e.g. RSA, DH, ECC) for sharing the secret key

needed for a symmetric-key protocol like the AES-256. However: These schemes are not unconditionallysecure because they rely upon two weak articles of faith: Eve has neither the knowledge nor the computer 

power to: a) infer the secret key from the public one, or b) cryptanalyze the AES-256 cyphertext.

The NSA will have in 2018 an exaflop machine (1018 flops /sec) to cryptanalyze AES-256 cyphertext

[20]. If we can do it, our adversaries can as well... so the only way to retain our faith is to increase the key

length and change it often. In fact, NIST declared RSA-1024 not safe five years ago and RSA-2048 will 

soon follow suit as RSA-3072 is already used for ‘top secret’ [21]. Most importantly: Eve’s computing 

resources are unknowable, and the only way to know secret data have been compromised is after the fact! 

Finally, once quantum computers are available, increasing the key length will not work. All web traffic 

will be very vulnerable [19] [4] [6] [1] [10]. This is not academic: Google [22], IBM [23], Microsoft [24], 

Jeff Bezos [25], Intel [26], Lockheed Martin [27], and US Government [28] [12] are determined to make 

it a reality. Revealingly, IBM, in May 2016, launched the first quantum platform in the Cloud [29]. And 

that is why NSA in 2015 announced its plan for transitioning to new quantum-resistant cryptosystems [7].

2. Promising and Innovative Approaches already entering the Market

The solutions to CCS vulnerabilities are: a) Quantum Key Distribution (QKD): Each bit of the 

cryptographic key is encoded into a ‘quantum object’ like a single photon, instead of into the signal level 

of a laser beam (1016 photons/sec) as in classical optical networks; and b) Post-Quantum Cryptography

(PQC), i.e. the design of new asymmetric cyphers resistant to quantum computers [7] [30]. PQC will be

still somehow vulnerable because it will have to dynamically adjust to progress in quantum computing

(hardware and new algorithms). With QKD, instead, secrecy is guaranteed by the Laws of Physics, not by 

computational complexity and human ingenuity (or lack thereof). The QKD secret key can be used in an 

unbreakable One-Time-Pad (OTP) encrypted message or in a robust classical symmetric-key cypher like 

the AES-256 [4].

2.1 Quantum vs. Classical Physics – QCS/CCS Unconditional Security

The quantum version of a Bit is the Qubit. A Bit has one property with two values; instead, a Qubit has 

a continuum of attributes, all of them random variables with the same two possible values. That makes all 

statements about a Qubit probabilistic. A Bit has only two states; a Qubit can be instead in two so-called 

eigenstates as well as in linear combinations of them. Unlike for a Bit, the Qubit state does not convey its 

value but the probabilities for its two values. Each state’s component is a complex number whose squared 

magnitude is the probability. There are many ways to implement a Qubit, e.g. with the polarization of a 

photon or the spin of an electron. For High-School/2-year-degree curricula, standard vector algebra and

probability prerequisites would be acceptable. For a 4-year-degree audience we could further say: states
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of a Qubit belong to a 2-D Hilbert vector space; each property is related to a linear operator whose

eigenstates constitute an orthonormal basis for the space, and its eigenvalues are the two possible values. 

Another peculiar behavior of Qubits is entanglement: their intrinsically-random values can exhibit 

strong correlations that persist regardless of their distance (non-locality). This is what Einstein 

colloquially called ‘spooky action at a distance’. Non-locality is now an established fact and is the essence

of some QKD protocols and of quantum repeaters under development [19] [6] [12].

This counterintuitive behavior of Qubits is the result of the Heisenberg’s Principle of Uncertainty: the 

standard deviations (STDs) of any two so-called conjugate properties of a quantum object are inversely 

related: the lower is one, the higher is the other. QKD guarantees Eve knows neither the transmitted bit

nor the basis because Alice quantumly randomizes them. If Eve uses the wrong basis to measure the 

Qubit, its state will be stochastically altered and Alice and Bob will statistically detect her presence:

In current commercial implementations of QKD, the qubits in the cryptographic key are encoded using 

four photon polarization states. Alice sends photons to Bob who measures them. Neither quantum 

computation nor storage are necessary, only transmission through standard optical fibers. After the raw 

key is transferred, Alice and Bob openly communicate through a classical-authenticated channel and 

statistically determine whether Eve is around or not before transmitting the actual critical data.

Finally, instead of measuring and resending to hide her presence, Eve could copy each photon’s

quantum state, save it and, after listening to Bob ↔ Alice classical communication (learning the bases

used for each qubit), measure them correctly. However, even though when classically dealing with 

legions of photons Eve can copy the signal with impunity, when dealing with a single photon, the NoCloning Theorem [31] assures the impossibility of copying its quantum state. In conclusion:

3. Quantum Cyber Security in the USA and around the World

As solid evidence that QCS has entered already the market to stay, below we present a brief nonexhaustive review of the current and future state of Quantum Cyber Security in the world.

3.1 Quantum Cyber Security around the World - Education, Research, and Manufacturers

In 2008, the European SECOQC Project demonstrated the first optical QKD network in Vienna. In 

2010, a QKD network in Tokyo encrypted video data in real-time; likewise in Madrid and London. In

2009-2011, the ‘SwissQuantum’ Project tested ID-Quantique’s QKD for 2 years in the Geneva area. In 

2014, the National Physical Laboratory (UK), Toshiba, BT, and ADVA proved that quantum signals can

coexist with classical telecom signals in an optical fiber [32]. The longest QKD network is being tested in 

China (2,000 km – Shanghai ↔ Beijing). Remarkably, on 8/9/2016 China successfully launched the firstever quantum-communications satellite into orbit [33]. Quintessence Labs (Australia) has a QKD project 

with Lockheed Martin. NASA has a 560km QKD link to its JPL Laboratory.

The Institute for Quantum Computing (University of Waterloo, Canada) offers a graduate course on 

Applied Quantum Cryptography, a summer school on QKD, and a Quantum Cryptography course for 

‘young students’. The EU has a QKD Certification Project (Q-CERT). The Austrian Institute of 

Technology and the University of Vienna are working on entanglement-based QKD systems. The Vienna 

Center for Quantum Science and Technology has developed a MatLab® QKD Simulator. The University 

of Luxembourg has published a Web QKD simulator [34]. QCRYPTO, a European consortium for

quantum-cryptography, released in 2015 a report recommending cryptographic techniques resistant to 

Unlike classical cryptography, quantum cryptography detects Eves’ intrusion...

before secret data are sent!

1) “A photon is in different places at once”; 2) “A photon interferes with itself”; 3) “A Qubit has its 

two values at once”; 4) “Light is a wave and a particle”; 5) “Nothing exists until it is measured”; etc.

QCS (properly implemented) is unconditionally-secure, even if the attacker has a quantum computer

1) “A photon is in different places at once”; 2) “A photon interferes with itself”; 3) “A Qubit has its 

two values at once”; 4) “Light is a wave and a particle”; 5) “Nothing exists until it is measured”; etc.
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quantum computers [35]. Chinese and European striking R & D and workforce-creation current and 

future plans are described in Section 4.

3.1.1 ID-Quantique (IDQ) Quantum Cybersecurity Technologies

IDQ is a QCS leader with government/commercial/academic customers worldwide. They deployed the 

world first QKD system over a commercial network [5]. IDQ technology was employed by Battelle in its 

QKD network within Ohio (see below), by ORNL in its Power Grid Project [36], and it is planned to be 

used by Acronis’ data protection solutions for the Cloud [37]. ID-Quantique is one of our collaborators. 

3.2 Quantum Cyber Security in the USA - Education, Research, and Manufacturers 

The Federal Government plays a crucial role in the incubation and adoption of emerging technologies

for cybersecurity. Conspicuous examples include the ‘Transition to Practice’ (TTP) programs of the DHS 

Advanced Research Projects Agency (HSARPA) and of the NSF SaTC. The first QKD network was the 

‘DARPA Network’ linking Harvard University, Boston University, and BBN Technologies in 2004 [38]. 

LANL and NIST have worked on QKD for over 15 years. The Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL), with 

IDQ and GE, had a project called ‘Practical Quantum Security for Grid Automation’ [36]. The University 

of Arizona (UA) has a DOD R&D project on QKD with the Universities of Illinois, Duke, and Boston. 

Pace University (NY) has a project on QKD. Caltech and TU Delft offer an online course on QKD [39].

In FY 2017, IARPA and DOE plan to support new programs in Quantum Information Science (QIS) [12].

There are four main domestic QCS/CCS vendors: Qubitekk, which focuses on Power Grid Security

[40]; MagiQ with QCS/CCS integration [41]; Acronis with data protection for the Cloud [37], and 

Whitewood Encryption Systems (licensee of LANL’s technology) marketing an Entropy Engine [9]. 

3.2.1 NIST on Cyber Security (Standards, Education, and Research) – NICE Resources

NIST’s role in Cybersecurity is vital. The Advanced Data Encryption Standard (AES) is now the 

preferred crypto for IEEE 802.11 (wireless networks), and mandatory in the Transport Layer Security 

(TLS) protocol [42]. In 2013, NIST established the National Cybersecurity Center of Excellence 

(NCCoE) to adopt standards-based solutions to the diversity of configurations across the Government,

which creates significant vulnerabilities [43].

NIST also focuses on metrology for quantum communications, quantum computation, and quantum

measurements [12]. In a QKD survey [44], 93% agreed that standards, quality assurance, and metrology 

are crucial for QKD commercial success. NIST has developed a QKD test bed for OTP video signals [45]

and is working on QKD networks, quantum repeaters, and the Quantum Randomness Beacon [46]. In 

April 2015, NIST hosted the ‘Workshop on Cybersecurity in a Quantum World’ [47]. After NSA’s

announcement of its plan to transition to quantum-resistant algorithms in August 2015 [7], on April 28, 

2016, NIST released its first Report on Post-Quantum Cryptography (NISTIR 8105) [48]. 

NICE is a partnership between government, academia, and the private sector focusing on cybersecurity 

education, training, and workforce development. Under its Strategic Plan, NICE developed the National 

Cybersecurity Workforce Framework to provide a common taxonomy/lexicon to categorize workers [49]. 

In tune with NICE’s value of Drive Change – seek creative and innovative solutions that might disrupt or 

defy the status quo [49], we look forward to collaborating within NICEWG on the inclusion of QCS/CCS 

in the NSA/DHS/NICE Cybersecurity Core Curriculum to be developed under the White House’s Cyber

Security National Action Plan (CNAP) [2].

3.2.2 Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) 

LANL has worked on QKD for 17 years. In 2013, DHS-HSARPA identified LANL’s technology as “a 

next-generation encryption system that leverages the quantum properties of light, as an innovative 

solution to better protect the nation’s critical cyber infrastructure”. Patents were granted to R. Hughes et 

al, and licensed to Whitewood Encryption Systems [8].
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3.2.3 The Battelle Memorial Institute

In 2013 Battelle deployed the first QKD commercial network between Columbus and Dublin. IDQuantique servers protect its technical, IP, financial, and customer data using QKD/AES encryption. 

Battelle plans to connect Ohio to Washington DC and build a North-America Network [6] [10].

4. Workforce Demand for Cyber Security Technologies (QCS/CCS)

In 2015, 29% of North America traffic was encrypted, and the number is steadily growing. At the same 

time, over 80% of enterprises currently lack the right skills and human resources to protect their IT assets; 

“little wonder why cybercrime is so rampant” [50]. According to the US Department of Labor’s 

Occupational Outlook for Computer and Information Technology, employment will grow 12% from 2014 

to 2024, faster than for all occupations [51]. This is due to cloud computing, big data, IoT, and mobile 

computing -- and these projections do not include the emerging quantum technologies for cyber security. 

The US Government hired over 3,000 CCS workers in the first half of 2016 and expects to hire 3,500 

more by Dec 2016, stating that supply is “simply not sufficient’ to meet demand [3]. At the May 2016 

NICEWG meeting we learnt that 1.5M more CCS jobs will be needed by 2020; only 25% of applicants 

were qualified; the biggest skill gap was lack of business understanding; and only 10% of the workforce 

comprises women [52]. Likewise, the unemployment rate for ages 16-24 is 35.5%; 20% of Latinos and 

30% of Blacks with ages 18-24 are unemployed; and 41% of students in low-performing districts finish 

high school with no access to STEM education/career guidance. It is thus clear that, even for CCS, there 

is plenty of education and outreach to employers and potential employees to be undertaken. 

QCS merges Quantum Physics with Information/Communications Technology (ICT). In 2013, ICT 

accounted for 41% of the $323B US private R & D -- 2.5 times bigger than Pharmaceuticals [53]. Internet 

traffic has exploded and new technologies affecting consumer and job markets emerge daily, e.g. photon 

detectors are widely used in medical devices, LIDAR, communications, automotive, cell phones, etc.

[28]. Ergo, cybersecurity challenges are gigantic and unpredictable: “2016 will be a year of massive 

ramp-up in the arms race around quantum encryption” [54]. 

A few examples: a) The UK invested £270M in quantum technologies for 2014-2019, and committed 

£204M for workforce training in 2016 [55]; b) The European Commission announced in April 2016 a 

€1B project in quantum technologies [56] [57]; c) Researchers at the Niels Bohr Institute have received 

millions to produce ‘photon-gun’ chips, essential for a future cost-effective and secure quantum internet

[58]; d) In 8/29/2016, the Australian Government invested over $25M to “initiate the Quantum Era” [59]; 

e) On 7/7/2016, Google announced that its Chrome browser will use a post-quantum key-exchange 

algorithm on top of the classical ECC [30]; and f) On 8/8/2016, NSF awarded $12M to six Universities 

for the photonic implementation of Quantum Cyber Security [11]. However, to put things in the proper 

perspective, U.S. Federal Quantum Research funding is a mere $200 million annually, while China 

allegedly invested $101 billion in 2015 on basic research in Quantum Technologies [33].

It is thus evident that -after over 3 decades of incubation- QCS/CCS technology is reaching maturity and 

its commercial reality is inevitable. However, the cited QKD survey [44] stated that the real bottleneck 

will be installation & maintenance. In fact, about 60% of Swiss IDQ’s employees are technicians, and 

Chinese QuantumCTek employs around 300 technicians. Likewise, a NSTC Report dated July 2016 

identified education and workforce training needs as one of the “impediments to progress” in Quantum 

Information Science [12]. Clearly thus, the properly-trained workforce is paramount -- reinforcing the 

need for a long-term comprehensive educational vision whose immediate implementation is imperative.

5. A Proposed 10-year 3-phase Project to Create the Workforce and Educate the Public

Cognizant of this worldwide revolution gestating for over 3 decades, interactions with Don Hayford

(Battelle’s Senior Research Leader till January 2016) and with Dr. Richard Hughes (former Research 

Director and co-inventor of LANL’s technology) led us to conclude that in 5-10 years a multitude of 

governmental and private entities will use quantum cryptography for data protection though -upon 

inaction- without the workforce properly trained in this emerging and fundamentally-different technology.
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Most millennials do not receive in high-school any insights on how to pursue a cyber career [60]. The 

Community College Research Center (CCRC) provides revealing statistics [61]. Paraphrasing Malcolm & 

Feder: ... completion for STEM aspirants is under 50%, with the lowest rates for Blacks/Hispanics/Native 

Americans... It is clear 2 & 4-year institutions do not deliver a high-quality education experience...

Improving STEM education for all requires a systemic approach that includes evidence-based decisions, 

learning communities, faculty networks, and partnerships across the education system [15].

We firmly believe that a globally-competitive workforce for Quantum Cyber Security is crucial to 

protect our Nation and, ergo, its creation has to start immediately. Furthermore, a new paradigm in Cyber 

Security (based on Quantum Physics) calls for a new paradigm in Teaching [13] [14] -- particularly at 

secondary school and undergraduate levels. In addition, Malcolm & Feder also stated that “...higher 

education institutions function more like a collection of discrete practices and policies, rather than being 

interconnected and synergistic.” [15].

Quantum Physics is a century old and scientists and educators are still debating its meaning in terms 

of Reality, causality, locality, and observer’s independence [62]. In 1965, Richard Feynman said: ...I 

can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics. So do not take the lecture too seriously, 

feeling that you really have to understand. With all due respect and admiration, such an attitude is 

against the progress fired by understanding. What about those with a middle-skill job [63] who do not 

command the mathematics but will still have to install and troubleshoot QCS technology? What about 

K-12 teachers whose job is to inspire, discover, and kindle talent? And educators at all levels 

(Certificates, AAS, etc.)? In 1982, Karl Popper [64] said: The denial that we can understand quantum 

theory has had the most appalling repercussions, both on the teaching and on the real understanding of 

the theory. Alas, not much has changed since 1982 and, well into the 21st century, our students and 

educators deserve better. Education and workforce creation must go hand-in-hand for the successful 

transition to practice of novel technologies [65]. Ergo, didactic techniques involving interactive learning 

and novel pedagogical approaches [66] [67] [13] [68] [69] [70] [71] are paramount to improving student 

learning/retention in STEM, particularly for women and underrepresented students [15].

Based on those premises/facts, I have united the Salt Lake Community College and the University of 

Utah to conceive a 10-year/3-phase plan to develop a nationally-scalable curricula/infrastructure (K-12 to 

Ph.D.), as well as to outreach to the human capital (trainers/trainees/employers) necessary for creating the 

National Workforce for Quantum/Classical Cyber Security (QCS/CCS) and enhancing the public 

awareness and literacy. To start our Phase I -of which I would be the Project Director- on October 6, 

2016, the Salt Lake Community College will submit a Collaborative Proposal to the NSF ATE (Advanced 

Technological Education) Program entitled Creating the National Workforce for Quantum Cybersecurity, 

Phase I: Curricula/Infrastructure for K-12/College/University Career Pathways [14]. Upon request, we 

will be pleased and honored to submit to the Commission the full-text of our NSF Proposal.

Phase-I aims to create a vigorous synergy between both Institutions and the High-School system to 

develop the QCS/CCS curricula/infrastructure needed for a rich cybersecurity-pathways structure, 

allowing students/prospective teachers to successfully navigate from High-Schools, through 2-year 

Colleges, to the University -- acquiring 21st century technical/employability skills [72] [73]. The longterm goal (Phases II and III) is to achieve a self-sustained capacity/infrastructure for outreaching, 

educating, mentoring, and training the workforce needed for QCS/CCS technologies up to the Ph.D. level 

-- while promoting the nationwide adoption of our curricula/pedagogics/pathways model.

A sizable part of our work plan involves outreaching to prospective students, teachers, employers and

educating the general public. The SLCC has partnerships with over 500 businesses and school districts 

providing skills training, professional development, internships, etc. to employees and employers. 

Besides, our close partnership with the University of Utah’s Division of Continuing Education will 

provide us with an additional and fluid liaison to employers, employees, and policy makers.
It is irrefutable that US prosperity and security does and will depend on cybersecurity, so we resolutely 

believe that -upon inaction in QCS/CCS workforce creation and education- the inevitable advent of 

quantum computers will turn our vital data instantly vulnerable, with dire consequences to our Society. 

References Cited 

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