Best Practice Recommendation for Skeletal Preparation

 and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

Best Practice

Recommendation for

Skeletal Preparation and

Sampling in Forensic

Anthropology

Forensic Anthropology Subcommittee 

Medicine Scientific Area Committee

Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science 

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Best Practice Recommendation for Skeletal Preparation

 and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

DRAFT OSAC Proposed Standard

OSAC 2021-N-0010

Best Practice Recommendation for 

Skeletal Preparation and Sampling in 

Forensic Anthropology

Prepared by 

Forensic Anthropology Subcommittee 

Version: 1.0 

January 2021 

Disclaimer: 

Disclaimer: This OSAC Proposed Standard was written by the Forensic Anthropology 

Subcommittee of the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) for Forensic Science 

following a process that includes an open comment period. This Proposed Standard will be

submitted to a standards developing organization and is subject to change. 

There may be references in an OSAC Proposed Standard to other publications under 

development by OSAC. The information in the Proposed Standard, and underlying concepts and 

methodologies, may be used by the forensic-science community before the completion of such 

companion publications. 

Any identification of commercial equipment, instruments, or materials in the Proposed Standard 

is not a recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Government and does not imply that the 

equipment, instruments, or materials are necessarily the best available for the purpose. 

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DRAFT
Best Practice Recommendation for Skeletal Preparation 

and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

Foreword

This best practice recommendation was developed to provide guidance to practitioners for the

sampling and preparation of skeletal remains for forensic analyses and curation. 

In order to make skeletal material and features more accessible for forensic anthropological

analyses, and to procure material that may have additional investigative value, it is sometimes

necessary to sample and/or prepare skeletal material or other tissues associated with skeletal

material. The condition of the remains upon arrival at the forensic anthropology laboratory and

throughout the process of preparation and sampling shall be documented. Any alterations caused

by the process of sampling and preparation shall also be documented. Skeletal preparation and

sampling should be done in a manner that limits or prevents contamination, unnecessary

destruction, or adverse alteration of the remains. 

The initial draft of this document was developed by the Anthropology subcommittee of the

Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC) using the document initially published by

the Scientific Working Group of Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH) and recognizing skeletal

sampling and preparation of skeletal remains as an important part of the investigation of human

remains. All hyperlinks and web addresses shown in this document are current as of the

publication date of this document. 

Keywords: forensic anthropology; skeleton; sampling; maceration

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DRAFT
Best Practice Recommendation for Skeletal Preparation

 and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

Best Practice Recommendation for Skeletal Preparation 

 and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology 

1 Scope

This best practice recommendation sets forth methods and guidance for sampling and preparing

skeletal remains for examination and curation. Skeletal preparation and sampling shall be done

in a manner that limits or prevents contamination, unnecessary destruction, or adverse alteration

of the remains. 

2 Normative References

There are no normative reference documents. Annex A, Bibliography, contains informative

references. 

3 Terms and Definitions

For purposes of this document, the following definitions apply. 

3.1

forensic anthropology laboratory

Any facility used in the analysis and/or testing of human skeletal remains of medicolegal

significance. 

3.2

macerate

The removal of soft tissue by soaking in a liquid. 

3.3

skeletal preparation (processing)

The removal of tissue from skeletal remains through various methods. 

3.4

skeletal reconstruction

The reassociation of bone and tooth fragments that originated from the same skeletal portion. 

4 Requirements 

4.1 General 

In order to make skeletal remains and features more accessible for forensic anthropological

analyses, and in order to procure material that may have additional investigative value, it is

sometimes necessary to sample and/or prepare skeletal remains or other tissues associated with

skeletal remains. The condition of the remains upon arrival at the forensic anthropology

laboratory and throughout the process of preparation and sampling shall be documented. Any

alterations caused by the process of sampling and preparation shall also be documented. 

Practitioners should implement this best practice recommendation to the fullest extent as

applicable, practical, and appropriate.

4.2 Procedure 

4.2.1 General Recommendations

All human remains shall be handled with appropriate personal protective equipment to ensure

safety of the practitioner and limit contamination of the evidence. 

Photographs shall be taken prior to any sampling or preparation of remains. All artifacts caused

by sampling or preparation of remains shall be documented. 

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DRAFT
Best Practice Recommendation for Skeletal Preparation

 and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

All tools used in preparation and sampling shall be documented. 

All applicable data collection procedures (e.g. visual examination, metric analyses), as well as

photographic documentation shall be completed before a skeletal element undergoes sampling. 

4.2.2 Sampling

Sampling of soft tissue and skeletal elements may be required for other analyses such as DNA,

histological examination, SEM/EDS, etc. Sampling shall be conducted with the knowledge and

permission of the relevant jurisdictional authority and with a specific objective. 

Soft tissue sampling should be conducted prior to skeletal preparation. 

Sampling of skeletal elements for DNA analysis shall employ techniques and equipment that

help reduce and control contamination, including the use of blades or saws that are new and/or

have been treated with bleach and/or UV light. Consultation with DNA laboratories should

occur prior to sampling, and ideally, entire bones are submitted to a DNA laboratory to control

contamination. 

4.2.3 Skeletal Preparation

Radiographs, when available, shall be taken of remains prior to skeletal preparation to detect or

visualize objects such as foreign material, sesamoid bones, and secondary ossification centers. 

Coordination with relevant jurisdictional authority regarding the disposition of extraneous soft

tissue shall be done prior to processing. 

As much adhering soft tissue as possible should be removed without the use of tools. If tools are

required in the removal of soft tissue, those made from material which will minimize alteration,

such as wood or plastic, are preferred, although it is recognized that tools such as scissors or

scalpels may be necessary. 

There are three general approaches (mechanical, chemical, and entomological) in skeletal

preparation. The use of various methods and techniques within these methods is acknowledged

and accepted. Decisions regarding preparation should include consideration of the types of

analyses being conducted and if long-term curation is a goal. 

Care shall be taken to allow discovery of additional evidence (e.g., entomological, projectile)

during preparation. Any additional evidence shall be documented and handled in accordance

with applicable procedures.

Any procedure used to macerate the soft tissue is acceptable as long as it does NOT: 

● Alter the dimensions of the bone/tooth

● Deteriorate the surfaces of the bone/tooth

● Introduce processing artifacts (e.g. cuts, cracking)

● Change the structure of the bone/tooth

● Render the bone/tooth unsafe or unstable for handling

● Render the bone/tooth unfit for other analyses (e.g., DNA analysis)

● Create the opportunity for commingling of remains

● Interfere with the chain of custody or security of the evidence

Upon completion of skeletal preparation, skeletal elements may be labeled, as appropriate.

4.3 Considerations

In the event that remains require reconstruction, the process and materials used shall be

documented. Any reconstruction methods or materials used should be reversible.

The following practices are considered unacceptable and shall be avoided when preparing and

sampling skeletal remains:

● The use of chemicals that damage or destroy bone, teeth, or DNA, except for curation

purposes

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DRAFT
Best Practice Recommendation for Skeletal Preparation

 and Sampling in Forensic Anthropology

● Excessive soaking of skeletal elements and excessive heat that can damage or destroy

bone, teeth, and DNA

● Unnecessary alteration or destruction of skeletal elements

● Unnecessary sampling of skeletal elements useful in identifying the biological profile or

the investigation of the cause and manner of death (e.g., restored teeth, areas of trauma,

age indicators)

● Unnecessary consumption of complete skeletal elements or complete transverse

sectioning of skeletal elements

● Unnecessary reconstruction of skeletal elements

4.4 Reporting

Reports or other means of communication accompanying the analyses of skeletal elements that

have undergone preparation or sampling shall include documentation of any damage or

destruction to these elements during the preparation or sampling process. Descriptions of the

methods used for sampling and preparations should be included in the case documentation.

Annex A

(informative) 

Bibliography

1] Arismendi JL, Baker LE, Matteson KJ. 2004. Effects of processing techniques on the forensic

DNA analysis of human skeletal remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 49, no. 5, pp

930-934.

2] Hangay G, Dingley M. 1985. Biological Museum Methods. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA.

3] Lee EJ, Luedtke JG, Allison JL, Arber CE, Merriwether DA, Steadman DW. 2010. The effects

of different maceration techniques on nuclear DNA amplification using human bone. Journal of

Forensic Sciences, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 1032-8.

4] Rennick SL, Fenton TW, Foran DR. 2005. The Effects of Skeletal Preparation Techniques on

DNA from Human and Non-Human Bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 1-5.

5] Steadman DW, DiAntonio LL, Wilson JJ, Sheridan KE, Tammariello SP. 2006. The effects of

chemical and heat maceration techniques on the recovery of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA

from bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 11-17.

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