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ISBN: 0-309-14504-X, 48 pages, 8.5 x 11, (2009)

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An Assessment of the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology Electronics and 

Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009 

Panel on Electronics and Electrical Engineering; 

National Research Council 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS 

AND TECHNOLOGY 

ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL 

ENGINEERING LABORATORY 

FISCAL YEAR 2009 

Panel on Electronics and Electrical Engineering 

Laboratory Assessments Board 

Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences 

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 

Washington, D.C. 

www.nap.edu 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001 

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of 

the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National 

Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The 

members of the panel responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and 

with regard for appropriate balance. 

This study was supported by Contract No. SB3141-06-Z-0011, TO#6 between the National 

Academy of Sciences and the National Institute of Standards and Technology, an agency of the 

U.S. Department of Commerce. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations 

expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of 

the agency that provided support for the project. 

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-14503-9 

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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars 

engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to 

their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the 

Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. 

Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences. 

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of 

Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the 

selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the 

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meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of 

engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering. 

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services 

of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of 

the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its 

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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the 

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Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. 

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iv 

PANEL ON ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 

JENNIE S. HWANG, H-Technologies Group, Inc., Chair

DAVID K. BARTON, Independent Consultant, Hanover, New Hampshire 

DAVID E. BORTH, Motorola Corporation 

JONATHAN P. DOWLING, Louisiana State University 

MICHAEL ETTENBERG, DOLCE Technologies 

BRUCE GNADE, University of Texas at Dallas 

ANTHONY GUISEPPI-ELIE, Clemson University 

ROBERT HANSEN, R.C. Hansen, Inc. 

TATSUO ITOH, University of California, Los Angeles 

FRANZ X. KAERTNER, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

HERWIG KOGELNIK, Bell Laboratories, Alcatel-Lucent 

PAUL KWIAT, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 

MICHAEL P. LILLY, Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico 

BRUCE MONTGOMERY, Magplane Technology, Inc. 

RICHARD S. MULLER, University of California, Berkeley 

BRUCE NYMAN, Tyco Telecommunications 

ARUN G. PHADKE, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 

ALEXANDER J. RIMBERG, Dartmouth College 

JEFFREY A. SQUIER, Colorado School of Mines 

YUAN TAUR, University of California, San Diego 

MADOO VARMA, Intel Corporation 

DANIEL S. WEILE, University of Delaware 

Staff 

JAMES P. McGEE, Director 

CY L. BUTNER, Senior Program Officer

LIZA HAMILTON, Administrative Coordinator 

EVA LABRE, Senior Program Assistant 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

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v 

Acknowledgment of Reviewers 

 This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse 

perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National 

Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to 

provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published 

report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for 

objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft 

manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to 

thank the following individuals for their review of this report: 

Robert W. Bower, University of California, Davis (Emeritus), 

James P. Gordon, Consultant, Lucent Technologies, 

Robert Hellwarth, University of Southern California, 

Ivan Kaminow, University of California, Berkeley, 

Linda Katehi, University of California, Davis, and 

Dwight Streit, Northrop Grumman Space Technology. 

 Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and 

suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they 

see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by 

Alton D. Slay, Warrenton, Virginia. Appointed by the National Research Council, he was 

responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out 

in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully 

considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring 

panel and the institution. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12767.html

vii 

Contents 

SUMMARY 1 

1 THE CHARGE TO THE PANEL AND THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 4 

2 INTRODUCTION 6 

Organization of This Report and Selection of the Panel, 6 

Organizational Structure of the Laboratory, 6 

3 ASSESSMENT OF THE DIVISIONS 9 

Optoelectronics Division, 9 

Semiconductor Electronics Division, 13 

Quantum Electrical Metrology Division, 18 

Electromagnetics Division, 24 

4 EEEL RESPONSES TO CONCERNS FROM THE 2007 ASSESSMENT 28 

Optoelectronics Division, 28 

Semiconductor Electronics Division, 28 

Quantum Electrical Metrology Division, 29 

Electromagnetics Division, 29 

5 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND CONCERNS 31 

6 NEW THRUSTS OR NEW HIGH-IMPACT PROJECTS 33 

Photovoltaics, 33 

Bioelectronics, 33 

Graphene-Based Quantum Conductance Standards, 34 

Smart Grid System Initiative, 34 

7 CONCLUSIONS 36 

8 RECOMMENDATIONS 37 

General, 37 

Optoelectronics Division, 37 

Semiconductor Electronics Division, 38 

Quantum Electrical Metrology Division, 39 

Electromagnetics Division, 39 

 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

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1 

Summary 

 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), an agency of the U.S. 

Department of Commerce, carries out its mission of promoting U.S. innovation and industrial 

competitiveness by developing and applying technology, measurements, and standards across 

nationally and strategically important industries. NIST is uniquely positioned to contribute to the 

development of U.S. industry and to technology deployment, and thereby to U.S. economic 

growth. 

 This report contains the assessment by the Panel on Electronics and Electrical Engineering 

of NIST’s Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory (EEEL), focusing on the scientific 

and technical work performed by the laboratory. The assessment is conducted biennially. The 

panel was constituted by the National Research Council (NRC) through methodical and thorough 

consideration of the key expertise needed to perform the assessment. The NRC is the principal 

operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. 

The panel was charged to examine the broad factors of technical merit of the laboratory’s 

programs, the adequacy of its facilities and resources, and its achievement of its desired impacts. 

 The EEEL comprises four divisions—the Optoelectronics Division, the Semiconductor 

Electronics Division, the Quantum Electrical Metrology Division, and the Electromagnetics 

Division—and two operating offices: the Office of Law Enforcement Standards and the Office of 

Microelectronics Programs. The two offices were not subject to this formal assessment. 

 In this report, the panel’s findings are delineated in several chapters. Included are 

division-by-division assessments and project-specific evaluations (Chapter 3), EEEL responses to 

concerns from the previous assessment (Chapter 4), general observations of the panel (Chapter 5), 

future thrusts or high-impact projects (Chapter 6), conclusions (Chapter 7), and recommendations 

(Chapter 8). 

 The researchers and management of the EEEL have been highly effective in addressing 

the laboratory’s main objectives: anticipating future metrology and standards needs, enabling 

scientific and technology advances, and improving and refining existing measurement methods 

and services. 

 Most of projects reviewed are excellent and are exerting pervasive impact. The research 

on a superconducting single-photon detector in the Optoelectronics Division, which is an enabling 

technology for a variety of applications in leading next-generation computing, such as optical 

quantum computing, is the best in its field. The Electronic Kilogram project of the Quantum 

Electrical Metrology Division offers the most precise measurement of Planck’s constant to date, 

integrating many of the standards developed in the EEEL. The development of phantoms and 

metrology for quantitative biomagnetic imaging is another standout, providing superior metrology 

for Magnetic Resonance Imaging machines in medical diagnostic applications. 

 There is an overwhelming need for improvements in physical facilities in areas ranging 

from heating-cooling systems to the construction of new facilities. 

 Certain valuable projects are severely underfunded and understaffed, jeopardizing the 

intended progress and the viability of the projects. The funding system warrants a thorough 

review. A review process for internal funding is needed that is based on technical merit rather 

than on economic need. For older projects that have been receiving internal funding and either 

have come to an end or found other funding, there should be a mechanism in place to ensure that 

the internal funding is reallocated. Interaction with other groups within NIST is becoming 

more difficult because there is less “flexible money” to incentivize collaboration. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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2 

 The concept of fully documenting specialized knowledge before a staff member 

retires should be facilitated. Further collaboration between activities in Boulder, Colorado, 

and Gaithersburg, Maryland, is encouraged where overlap exists. 

 This report identifies high-impact and new thrust programs to augment the 

laboratory’s base for future growth. One such area is photovoltaics. Photovoltaics stands on 

its intrinsic merit of direct conversion from sun power to electricity. Solar energy is one of 

the critical renewable energy paths and will be in the necessary mix of future energy 

trajectories that must respond to the need for renewable and green energy sources. However, 

the exploration and use of solar energy have risen and sunk with oil prices; oil constitutes 

only a minuscule share of the U.S. electricity generation, and oil prices should not deter 

renewable energy deployment. For the United States, renewable and green energy is a must. 

Energy is a race involving technology and deployment in the global competitive landscape. 

Photovoltaic electricity is the story of the power play of atoms, photons, and the free path of 

electrons; no country can capture another country’s photons. The photovoltaics effort will 

also support the nation’s goal of implementing the Smart Grid system.

 The graphene-based quantum conductance standards, addressed in the Quantum 

Electrical Metrology Division, constitute another new thrust area that may provide solutions 

to today’s challenges in resistance metrology. The Semiconductor Electronics Division has 

proposed bioelectronics as a possible new focus to further innovative metrology. The recent 

advances in biotechnology hold great potential for targeted and preventive medicine that calls 

for sensitive, cost-effective, high-throughput tools. Bioelectronics is an important strategic 

priority area. Additionally, the proposed establishment of a center for nanoelectronics 

reliability in the Semiconductor Electronics Division will further the collaboration with 

industry and other agencies by providing the much-needed know-how and services in 

reliability metrology. 

 Another strategically important program is that of addressing the Smart Grid system. 

Globally, countries including those in the European Union, Canada, and China have 

promulgated government policies to endorse smart grid initiatives. In the United States, the 

Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Public Law 110-140) assigns to NIST a 

coordinating role in the development of standards for the Smart Grid capabilities. Smart Grid 

received further support with the passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 

2009 (Public Law 111-5), which set aside $11 billion for the creation of a smart grid. The 

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is also looking at the growth in renewable, clean 

energy accommodated by the evolving Smart Grid system. A working system with the 

desired reliability, efficiency, and safety is expected to revolutionize the electricity supply, 

distribution, and consumption. It will also enable the embracing of green energy electricity, 

as well as environmentally friendly transportation―hybrid and electric vehicles―making the 

Smart Grid system a sustainable energy model. In the context of the intense global energy 

activities, the success of the integrated Smart Grid system represents an opportunity for the 

United States to demonstrate its technical and commercial leadership. By fully employing 

the wealth of collective expertise and experience in the EEEL, NIST is poised to take a 

leadership position among other agencies in developing and deploying the measurements to 

enable multi-front technologies and the standards that govern the deployment of smart grids. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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3 

 The NIST mission is important to the national priority agenda that highlights energy, 

the environment, and manufacturing. The EEEL, equipped with diverse professional skills 

and comprehensive technical expertise, has demonstrated significant accomplishments in 

crucial areas and is ready to support further national strategic programs. The EEEL holds 

enormous promise, essential to NIST’s mission and the national interest. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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4 

1 

The Charge to the Panel and the Assessment Process 

At the request of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the 

National Research Council (NRC) has since 1959 annually assembled panels of experts 

from academia, industry, medicine, and other scientific and engineering environments to 

assess the quality and effectiveness of the NIST measurements and standards 

laboratories, of which there are now nine,1 as well as the adequacy of the laboratories’ 

resources. In 2009, NIST requested that five of its laboratories be assessed: the NIST 

Center for Neutron Research, the Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, the 

Information Technology Laboratory, the Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory, 

and the Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory (EEEL). Each of these was 

assessed by a separate panel of experts; the findings of the respective panels are 

summarized in separate reports. This report summarizes the findings of the Panel on 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering. 

For the fiscal year (FY) 2009 assessment, NIST requested that the panel consider 

the following criteria as part of its assessment: 

1. The technical merit of the current laboratory programs relative to current 

state-of-the-art programs worldwide; 

2. The adequacy of the laboratory budget, facilities, equipment, and human 

resources, as they affect the quality of laboratory’s technical programs; and 

3. The degree to which laboratory programs in measurement science and 

standards achieve their stated objectives and desired impact. 

The context of this technical assessment is the mission of NIST, which is to 

promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement 

science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve 

the quality of life. The NIST laboratories conduct research to anticipate future metrology 

and standards needs, to enable new scientific and technological advances, and to improve 

and refine existing measurement methods and services. 

In order to accomplish the assessment, the NRC assembled a panel of 22 

volunteers, whose expertise matches that of the work performed by the EEEL staff.2

 The 

panel members were also assigned to four subgroups (division review teams), whose 

expertise matched that of the work performed in the four divisions in the EEEL: 

Electromagnetics, Optoelectronics, Quantum Electrical Metrology, and Semiconductor 

Electronics. These division review teams individually visited EEEL facilities in 

 1

 The nine NIST laboratories are the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, the Center for 

Nanoscale Science and Technology, the Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory, the Electronics and 

Electrical Engineering Laboratory, the Information Technology Laboratory, the Manufacturing Engineering 

Laboratory, the Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory, the NIST Center for Neutron Research, and 

the Physics Laboratory. 2

 See http://www.nist.gov/eeel/ for more information on EEEL programs. Accessed May 1, 2009. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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5 

Gaithersburg, Maryland, and Boulder, Colorado, for one and a half days, during which 

time they attended presentations, tours, demonstrations, and interactive sessions with 

EEEL staff. Subsequently, the entire panel assembled for 2 days at the NIST facilities in 

Gaithersburg, Maryland, during which they attended overview presentations by EEEL 

management and conducted interactive sessions with EEEL managers; the panel also met 

at this time in a closed session to deliberate on its findings and to define the contents of 

this assessment report. 

The approach of the panel to the assessment relied on the experience, technical 

knowledge, and expertise of its members, whose backgrounds were carefully matched to 

the technical areas of EEEL activities. The panel reviewed selected examples of the 

technological research covered by the EEEL; because of time constraints, it was not 

possible to review the EEEL programs and projects exhaustively. The examples reviewed 

by the panel were selected by the EEEL. The panel’s goal was to identify and report 

salient examples of accomplishments and opportunities for further improvement with 

respect to the following: the technical merit of the EEEL work, its perceived relevance to 

NIST’s own definition of its mission in support of national priorities, and specific 

elements of the EEEL’s resource infrastructure that are intended to support the technical 

work. These examples are intended collectively to portray an overall impression of the 

laboratory, while preserving useful suggestions specific to projects and programs that the 

panel examined. The assessment is currently scheduled to be repeated biennially, which 

will allow, over time, exposure to the broad spectrum of EEEL activity. While the panel 

applied a largely qualitative rather than a quantitative approach to the assessment, it is 

possible that future assessments will be informed by further consideration of various 

analytical methods that can be applied. 

The comments in this report are not intended to address each program within the 

EEEL exhaustively. Instead, this report identifies key issues. Given the necessarily 

nonexhaustive nature of the review process, the omission of any particular EEEL 

program or project should not be interpreted as a negative reflection on the omitted 

program or project. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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6 

2 

Introduction 

ORGANIZATION OF THIS REPORT AND SELECTION OF THE PANEL 

 This report assessing the Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory of the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology (an agency of the U.S. Department of 

Commerce) represents the integration of the collective observations of the Panel on 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering, its on-site discussions, and off-site study of readahead materials. The latter include background, overview, and contextual information, as 

well as technical reports and program descriptions, provided by EEEL staff at the request of 

the panel chair and National Research Council staff. The Panel on Electronics and Electrical 

Engineering assesses the EEEL biennially. Its previous assessment occurred in 2007. 

 In this report, the panel’s findings are delineated in several chapters. Included are 

division-by-division assessments and project-specific evaluations (Chapter 3), EEEL 

responses to concerns from the previous assessment (Chapter 4), general observations of the 

panel (Chapter 5), future thrusts or high-impact projects (Chapter 6), conclusions (Chapter 

7), and recommendations (Chapter 8). 

 The panel membership for this assessment was carefully selected by the National 

Research Council to address the technical areas covered in the work pursued by the EEEL. In 

assembling the panel, the NRC identified areas of key expertise needed on the panel and 

solicited recommendations for panel candidates from a number of relevant sources, including 

the National Academies (National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, 

and Institute of Medicine), NRC boards and committees, and databases of experts in science, 

engineering, and medicine. 

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE LABORATORY 

 The Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory is currently organized in four 

divisions—the Optoelectronics Division, the Semiconductor Electronics Division, the 

Quantum Electrical Metrology Division, and the Electromagnetics Division—and two 

additional operating offices: the Office of Law Enforcement Standards and the Office of 

Microelectronics Programs. The two offices were not subject to this formal assessment. 

 Organized as follows, each of the four divisions comprises three groups, and each 

group focuses on several programs/projects: 

 Optoelectronics Division 

 —Sources, Detectors and Displays Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Laser Radiometry 

 High-Speed Measurements 
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7 

 —Optoelectronics Manufacturing Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Semiconductor Growth and Devices 

 Optical Materials Metrology 

 Nanostructure Fabrication and Metrology 

 Quantum Information and Terahertz Technology 

 —Optical Fiber and Components Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Fiber Sources and Applications 

 Semiconductor Electronics Division 

 —Enabling Devices and ICs Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Power Device and Thermal Metrology 

 MicroNano Technology 

 Nanobiotechnology 

 —CMOS and Novel Devices Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Nanoelectronic Device Metrology 

 Macro Electronics 

 CMOS Device and Reliability 

 —Electronic Information Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Infrastructure for Integrated Electronics Design and 

Manufacturing 

 Knowledge Facilitation 

 Quantum Electrical Metrology Division 

 —Fundamental Electrical Measurements Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Metrology of the Ohm 

 AC-DC2

 Electronic Kilogram 

 Quantum Conductance 

 —Applied Electrical Metrology Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Farad and Impedance Metrology 

 Electric Power Metrology 

 Smart Grid Interoperability Standards Development 

 —Quantum Devices Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Quantum Voltage 

 Quantum Sensors 

 Quantum Information and Measurements 

 Quantum Materials 

 Quantum Fabrication Facility 
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8 

 Electromagnetics Division 

 —Radio-Frequency Electronics Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Fundamental Guided Wave Metrology 

 Advanced High-Frequency Devices 

 Advanced Materials Metrology 

 —Radio-Frequency Fields Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Field Parameters and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) 

Applications 

 Antenna Metrology 

 Wireless Systems 

 —Magnetics Group 

oPrograms/Projects: 

 Nanomagnetics 

 Biomagnetics 

 Superconductivity 
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9 

3 

Assessment of the Divisions 

 Focusing on the three assessment criteria that it was requested to consider (see 

Chapter 1), the Panel on Electronics and Electrical Engineering presents the following 

assessment, outlined by division, and includes a discussion of selected specific projects. 

OPTOELECTRONICS DIVISION 

 The Optoelectronics Division’s key projects are well chosen and focus on 

important and growing segments of the optoelectronics industry. The limited resources 

currently available do not allow coverage of all industry segments with sufficient critical 

mass. New funding is required in order to add other programs focused on areas of current 

national priorities. The scientific and technical work meets the highest standard of 

excellence. However, the conditions of some individual laboratories were found to be 

overcrowded and cluttered. Resources should be allocated to tidy up the laboratories and 

improve the environmental conditions so as to ensure the workers’ safety and health. 

 Key segments of the optoelectronics industry include biophotonics, displays, 

lighting, lasers, optical communications, optical storage, photovoltaics (PV), terahertz 

technology, and quantum information. Owing to the limited resources available, the 

division’s choices are to focus on four strategic program themes—radiometry, waveform 

metrology, quantum information and metrology, and nanophotonic metrology—which are 

outstanding choices given the existing resources. 

 Calibration services are strong and should remain at the same level. 

Laser Radiometry Project 

 The technical merit of the Laser Radiometry project continues to be the best in its 

field, among other national metrology institutes (NMIs) internationally, and has been 

engaged in international comparisons of laser power with Germany, Great Britain, Japan, 

Mexico, Russia, and Switzerland. For example, the project has set the benchmark in highpower coatings, with a demonstrated damage threshold exceeding 15 kW/cm2

. A 

comprehensive program includes a strong theoretical effort that is modeling the opticalto-amorphous carbon/carbon nanotube interaction. This work is benchmarked with 

experimental results, and it has resulted in an improved understanding of the underlying 

photophysics of carbon nanotube (CNT) coatings, which should further broaden their 

application base. The researchers can do a comprehensive experimental analysis of CNT 

material to quantitatively determine composition—work that can be done on bulk and not 

just on isolated samples. 

 The Laser Radiometry Project team does a remarkable amount of work with 

modest resources. Out of NIST’s $5 million per year of calibration income, this team 

accounts for 10 percent of total NIST income from calibration services. It performs 

approximately 300 tests per year (1.5 tests per day), with an on-time completion rate of 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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10 

95 percent and an average turnaround time of 22 days. This is done with a modest-sized 

group of 5 people. The addition of new equipment, such as a state-of-the-art tunable 

optical parametric oscillator system, could greatly facilitate the work. Facility renovation, 

including updated fume hoods, is needed. 

Along the same lines, a better infrastructure for handling nanotubes would 

facilitate the CNT work. The project team also has limited access to tools such as 

scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray 

diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic force 

microscopy (AFM) for its nanotechnology work. If the EEEL were able to add one or 

more of these costly items, the work of this group would be further amplified, and the 

resource could be made available to other groups at NIST as well. 

 This project is well aligned with the laboratory’s mission, providing the best 

traceable laser radiometry measurements. It has evolved into a more comprehensive 

program with the addition of the CNT theory component, and the extended wavelength 

capability (200 to 1,800 nm) and extended power range of the detector program 

(spanning orders of magnitude―from hundreds of kilowatts to single photons) are a 

critical service to the optoelectronics industry. 

 The availability of CNT type identification is key to developing standards for 

toxicity―a significant problem for which this team could play a leadership role in setting 

rigorous standards. This should be encouraged. 

High-Speed Measurements Project 

 The High-Speed Measurements project has demonstrated the group’s capability to 

achieve state-of-the-art calibration of oscilloscopes in the frequency range from 110 to 

400 GHz. Its covariance-based analysis technique represents a new methodology for 

calibrations. The project team is developing test methods, including linear optic 

sampling, that are very useful for the characterization of components for advanced 

modulation methods. These advanced modulation methods, including phase modulation 

and polarization multiplexing, are being used for 40 and 100 Gb/s communications 

system development. Software to end users who want to perform their own calibrations is 

also provided. 

 Reasonable resources in equipment and space are provided for this project. 

However, there appears to be a serious problem with environmental stability. There are 

incidents of delayed programs owing to variations in the laboratory temperature that 

disrupt measurements and calibrations and cause them to be repeated in order to achieve 

the state-of-the-art results of which this group is capable. The root cause of the 

temperature variations seems to be problems in the chilled-water system. 

 The project meets its stated objectives of improving the calibration capabilities 

and measurements of high-speed waveforms. One suggestion for a new program is to 

look for collaborations between the optical frequency combs and the high-speed 

measurements projects. In order to establish some relationships with industry to apply 

their techniques to component manufacturers, for example, the design of lithium niobate 

modulators for 40 and 100 Gb/s phase-modulated systems would be beneficial. 
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Frequency Combs Project 

 The scientific work of the Frequency Combs project is one of the top five comb 

efforts, but at present it is not completely clear what applications the frequency comb is 

good for other than NIST-specific goals for timekeeping and time and frequency transfer. 

Specifically, the EEEL is pursuing its own program with these combs separate from the 

timekeeping group, and there is possibly a huge potential for the combs outside of 

frequency standards that needs to be pursued. The use of the combs in 

telecommunications-component characterization was very good, but other applications to 

communications, other than the long-distance time transfer, were not apparent. For 

example, in satellite communications there is a need for extremely accurate time 

synchronization. The frequency-comb time-transfer experiment between clocks in the 

Boulder, Colorado, area was spectacular but now seems completed. The group could 

explore whether these techniques can be useful over longer distances or from Earth to 

space platforms. Another potential application is in systems such as light detection and 

ranging (LIDAR) remote sensing. 

 The laboratory equipment seemed adequate, given that the fiber comb technology 

is less sensitive to environmental factors, such as temperature, than is some of the other 

interferometric work. 

 A challenge now is to find in the EEEL the nonfrequency transfer and 

timekeeping applications of the combs, of which there are likely many. More outreach 

and discussion between NIST scientists and other agencies are needed to flesh out all of 

the applications. 

Terahertz Technology Project 

 One goal of the Terahertz Technology project is to develop methods for 

calibrating optical power in the millimeter-wave to terahertz frequency range. The EEEL 

has served industry by acting as an unbiased tester for participants in a program of the 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and has demonstrated new 

methods such as the blackbody calibration source for terahertz measurements. Other 

projects include the demonstration of a video-rate passive imaging. The results are among 

the best for uncooled niobium micro-bolometers used in concealed weapons detection. 

 Funding sources for this project include the Department of Homeland Security. It 

is unclear whether there is there a plan to transfer this technology to industry. 

 Overall, the project seems to be meeting the goal of real-time video systems. This 

effort represents a good example of the leadership that NIST can provide to new 

industries. The project is also achieving the goal of supporting industry. 

Quantum Information and Terahertz Technology Project 

 The most striking work in the Quantum Information and Terahertz Technology 

project group is the development and deployment of the transition-edge superconducting 

(TES) photon-number-resolving detectors. This unique work is in demand worldwide, as 

high-efficiency detectors with number-resolving capability are viewed as a critical 
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element in optical quantum information processing, quantum imaging, and quantum 

sensing. The TES detectors are currently the most efficient photon counters at any 

wavelength, but in particular, in the important telecommunications band. In order to be 

relevant for some applications (e.g., optical quantum computing), however, the time 

response still requires further improvements. The superconducting single-photon detector 

(SSPD) work is also excellent, and the high-speed response has been critical for 

applications, such as large-bandwidth quantum communications; however, the SSPD 

efficiency (approximately 0.5 percent now) needs further improvement, but there is 

steady work in this direction. 

 The generation of approximate Schrödinger cat states (by photon subtraction) is 

an interesting application of the photon-number-resolving characteristics of the highefficiency TES detectors. Although it may be hard to justify this sort of fundamental 

project on a mission basis, it is an example of the unique fundamental research that NIST 

can do, because of a combination of a very good source of squeezed light combined with 

a TES detector that nobody else has. The correlated-photon work using four-wave mixing 

seems to be progressing very well, with very high coincidence to accidental rates, a 

necessary prerequisite to generating efficient heralded photons and high-fidelity 

entanglement. 

 The project’s researchers all demonstrate commitment and dedication. However, 

inadequate infrastructure was clearly observed by the panel. For instance, some of the 

work requires stable interferometers that are extremely difficult to maintain in the current 

laboratories, with the radical temperature swings and a poor heating, ventilating, and airconditioning (HVAC) system. The laboratory spaces in general are severely cramped, and 

the temperature control was almost completely lacking in some areas. The laboratories 

that require stable optical alignment associated with single-photon production, 

characterization, and detection probably should be relocated in the new building that is 

being constructed on the NIST campus in Boulder, Colorado. The planned renovations of 

existing space may mitigate this concern. 

 There is a growing need to be able to transition the TES detectors into other 

research laboratories around the country. The demand for the TES detectors may grow 

considerably in the next few years. More funding will be needed, not only to produce the 

detectors (and associated support systems) at a more rapid rate, but also for the training of 

support personnel, who can assist with the transport, installation, and maintenance of the 

detectors in government, university, and industrial laboratories. 

 The efforts of this group have helped to push the worldwide effort toward faster 

and more efficient detectors for quantum information applications—for example, 

quantum cryptography, especially in collaboration with other, external groups. These 

detectors have enabled some of the best results in this area. Increasing the speed of the 

TES detectors and increasing the efficiency of the SSPDs are obviously major goals, as is 

improving the system robustness to facilitate the adoption of the technology by outside 

entities. The detectors based on semiconductor quantum dots could eventually have a 

large impact (given the need to have fully integrated systems), though at present the low 

net efficiencies preclude this. 
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Linear Optical Waveform Metrology Project 

 In the Linear Optical Waveform Metrology project, linear optical methods for the 

full-vector (amplitude, phase, and polarization) characterization of repetitive optical 

signals have been developed. The state of the art of pulse measurement is usually 

nonlinear optical methods, such as frequency-resolved optical gating. Nonlinear optical 

methods can be limited in their utility by weak optical signals or an inability to achieve 

high resolution over long time periods. Competing linear optical methods include spectral 

interferometry, which can perform a similar analysis. However, there is a real niche for a 

full-vector characterization platform that employs single-element detection (performed in 

the time domain) as developed by NIST―especially as work continues on arbitrary 

waveform generation. 

 The laboratory space suffers from the same problems that other laboratory spaces 

are experiencing, specifically, lack of sufficient HVAC capacity. The staffing resources 

seem to be sufficient. 

 This calibration capability is a significant technical achievement that will be of 

service to the optoelectronics industry. 

Nanostructure Characterization Project 

 The gallium nitride (GaN) nanowire growth effort in the Nanostructure 

Characterization project is making superb defect-free material, potentially providing 

breakthroughs for unique devices; the quality is particularly impressive given the 

comparatively limited investment in this project. The development of other novel singlephoton detection techniques—for example, using semiconductor quantum dots to realize 

an optically gated field-effect transistor—should also be pursued as a means of realizing 

high-efficiency photon-number-resolving detectors; this is particularly true given the 

push toward fully integrated systems. 

 The molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) facility dedicated to gallium nitride growth is 

“home-built,” and the facility is quite cramped. An improved facility would increase the 

rate of progress on this effort. 

 While the nanowire material is unique in terms of its perfection, the 

measurements characterizing the material are fairly standard. The proposed goal of 

creating a quantum wire ultraviolet laser as a source for quantum computing is a good fit 

to the goals of the Optoelectronics Division. In order to be successful, the effort needs 

stronger collaboration, guidance, and support from device designers. 

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS DIVISION 

 Overall, the quality of the technical work of the Semiconductor Electronics 

Division is very good, being nationally competitive and with some areas being among the 

best in the field. The division appears to be positioning itself well to play a significant 

role in the emerging priorities, such as the Smart Grid and bioelectronics, and it provides 

a leadership role on many of the electronics measurement and standards committees. 

There continues to be significant infrastructure renovation within the division. A 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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proposed center for nanoelectronics reliability is an important focus that takes advantage 

of expertise residing in the division. 

MicroNano Technology Project

 The focus of the MicroNano Technology project is “more than Moore”: that is, 

increasing integration of functions in combination with the size reduction of components 

producing the positive effect of stimulating the enhancement rates for both system 

miniaturization and system complexity. These effects are strongly in play at the present 

time, stimulated by developments in areas such as wireless systems, bioelectronics, 

distributed-sensor arrays, and micro-robotics, among others. NIST has a role to play in 

defining standards and in stimulating the U.S. efforts for this area. The continuing 

reduction in component sizes poses challenges in the understanding of materials, as well 

as in the behavior of structures and electronic devices. The listing of project-related 

internal proposals, press releases, reports, peer-reviewed technical papers, and the 

participation of project staff in professional activities was impressive, reflecting the 

team’s diverse achievements. However, more attention should be devoted to reporting 

research publications. 

 The budget and staffing for this area both appear to be adequate. 

 Some of the important work of the MicroNano Technology project includes the 

development of three ASTM International and three SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment 

and Materials International) microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) standards (five for 

MEMS structures and one for wafer bonding); the wafer-bonding work involves 

extensive collaborations in the United States and European Union and collaborative 

associations to define values and measurement standards for the Young’s modulus in 

materials used for MEMS structures. Micro-/nano-fluidic metrology provided three new 

measurement tools for nanoparticles. These include the microfluidic formation of 

liposomes to enable the electronic control of particle size and the composition of 

encapsulated species, with ongoing work to extend the capability to control charge and 

species. Researchers have demonstrated microwave heating in microfluidics to generate 

steep temperature gradients that enable temperature-gradient focusing. This appears to be 

a pioneering effort that can open new application avenues. The bioMEMS area to monitor 

cell growth using electronic monitoring is being investigated at an increasing number of 

laboratories around the world as more and more researchers become aware of the 

unfolding promise when nanotechnologies are applied to problems and opportunities in 

bioelectronics. 

 As technologies advance for the production of structures with nanometer 

dimensional resolution, commercial progress is strongly in need of new standards and 

characterization procedures. The project team is responding appropriately to meet these 

needs. 
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Macro Electronics Project 

 Organic electronics is a new thrust in the industry. 

 There were 10 publications from the Macro Electronics project between 2006 and 

2008, several in journals such as Nature Materials, Applied Physics Letters, and

Chemistry of Materials. The principal investigator for this project is well recognized in 

the area of organic/flexible electronics, having more than 40 peer-reviewed publications 

and more than 3,400 citations to his credit—an impressive record. 

 The project, undertaken by 1 full-time equivalent in staff and 1.5 associates, is 

barely at critical mass. With the activity expanding into organic photovoltaics and 

displays, the project will be severely strained without additional staffing. 

 The effort in understanding of device characterization and device reliability has 

just begun for organic electronics and flexible electronics. The team can provide a 

leadership role in developing the proper procedures for characterizing organic thin-film 

transistors and PVs. Because the degradation mechanisms are not well understood, there 

are no defined procedures for accelerated life testing. These methodologies need to be 

developed in order for organic electronics to become pervasive. Macroelectronics is as 

important as nanoelectronics and microelectronics. This project is severely underfunded. 

Infrastructure for Integrated Electronic Design and Manufacturing Project 

 While the project on Infrastructure for Integrated Electronic Design and 

Manufacturing (IIEDM) continues to do good work, there is little interaction between the 

division’s core technology groups and the IIEDM group. Approximately 80 percent of 

the funding for the group comes from NIST non-base funding. The group appears to have 

adequate space and infrastructure to carry out its work. 

Knowledge Facilitation Project 

 The Knowledge Facilitation project provides computer programming expertise for 

NIST. The project constitutes primarily a service organization providing information 

technology (IT) project support to the rest of NIST. The group does a good job of 

developing NIST-specific IT tools and is not involved in developing measurement 

standards. It has developed an active radio-frequency identification (RFID) inventory 

tracking system for tracking capital assets within NIST. The group also developed a tripreport tracking system. 

Nanobiotechnology Project 

 The metrology involved in the Nanobiotechnology project is enabled by the use of 

biological nanopores, using high-input impedance electrical measurement tools to 

characterize the direct current (dc) and alternating current (ac) electrical and gating 

properties of single biological molecules. The three key activities within the project are 

bioelectronics for systems biology, bioelectrical optical measurements related to anthrax 

detection, and the structural biology of membrane proteins. These activities have 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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garnered significant national and international recognition arising from the project 

members’ high-impact publications and multiple national and international invited talks. 

 The Nanobiotechnology project team has been highly productive in applying 

high-performance electrical tools, leading in the demonstration of the detection and 

measurement of the electrical properties of single molecules and in providing insight into 

the mechanistic performance of biological nanopores. These efforts are addressing a 

critical need in the qualified metrology of single molecules and of biological nanopores. 

The system for single-molecule detection of spontaneously assembled and immobilized 

biological nanopores on solid surfaces has the potential to emerge as a high-throughput 

detection platform when combined with a suitable solid-state transduction modality. If 

realized, this activity will contribute to the development of a novel technology platform 

that becomes enabling for functional proteomics, and these broad capabilities at the 

intersection of silicon and biology could be leveraged toward analyses of other 

macromolecules for a variety of applications, such as drug screening and the analyses of 

neuromorphic systems. This project has the potential to serve as a cornerstone for a new 

bioelectronics thrust; it can greatly benefit from an integrated in silico component and 

from strengthened collaborations with established protein molecular modelers. 

 Given the available human, budgetary, and facilities resources, the output of this 

project is impressive. However, the small group appears to be engaged in far too many 

different activities, given the available resources. The group will need to add capabilities 

in areas such as theoretical modeling and simulation, through either collaborations or 

internal new hiring. 

 The Nanobiotechnology project is focused on developing technologies that will 

permit the accurate and simultaneous measurement of many macrobiomolecules. This 

area has major unknowns, and fundamental understanding and breakthroughs are needed 

across multiple disciplinary boundaries. The three key activities mentioned above are 

being used as models to help push forward the basic understanding in the field. 

Power Devices and Thermal Metrology Project 

 The emphasis for the Power Devices and Thermal Metrology project is to develop 

electrical and thermal management methods and equipment in support of the 

development of advanced power semiconductor devices and integrated circuits (ICs). 

This project has the opportunity to make use of its expertise in device reliability and 

power device system integration to help improve the fundamental understanding of 

device aging, degradation, and failure mechanisms. The power device group will be a 

focal point for the Smart Grid work. 

 The team is an established leader in silicon carbide (SiC) power device insertion 

into power system switching applications and is currently the leader in high-voltage/highpower measurement techniques. Its principal investigator is recognized as one of the 

leaders in the field of high-voltage device characterization and the integration of highvoltage devices into power systems. The Department of Defense and Department of 

Energy rely heavily on this team to characterize high-power devices for many of their 

applications. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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 The current infrastructure and budget for the Power Device and Thermal 

Metrology group seem to be adequate. 

 The team has developed a unique set of capabilities for making high-voltage and 

high-temperature measurements and is recognized as the national leader in making these 

measurements. This expertise will be critical in implementing Smart Grid technologies, 

where high-voltage switches and solid-state power converters will be required. As it 

expands into Smart Grid activities, this project should be a focal point for the division. 

Nanoelectronic Device Metrology Project 

 The Nanoelectronic Device Metrology project seeks to create test structures and 

associated measurement methodologies for specific target technologies: electronics based 

on semiconductor nanowires and confined-Si (the logical extension of silicon 

complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor, Si-CMOS); molecular electronics; organic 

spintronics; memristors; and selected carbon-based electronics. Its activities are divided 

into four areas of concentration: 40 percent addresses target molecular electronic 

structures and technologies, 50 percent is divided equally between silicon and nonsilicon 

nanoelectronic devices and technologies, and 10 percent is devoted to capacitance 

metrology at ultimate scales. 

 The team is providing standards for capacitance measurements in the attofarad 

(10-18 F) range and is pursuing a number of issues in the molecular electronics area. 

Obtaining reliable interfaces to measurement structures for molecular-electronic 

assemblies is particularly challenging. Another research area centers on interfaces of 

CMOS with molecular structures in order to enable new configurable characterization 

methods. An important achievement in this work has been a capability to produce 

ultrasmooth gold—specifically, large areas on a flexible substrate. The gold is five times 

smoother than any surfaces reported thus far. 

 Office of Microelectronics Programs support for the project has consistently been 

strong, ranging from 62 percent of the total budget projected in fiscal year (FY) 2009 to 

71 percent in FY 2008, 63 percent in FY 2007, and 77 percent in FY 2006. 

 The team has demonstrated strong productivity, being responsible for 30 papers 

and 52 talks (15 invited) since FY 2007. Members are also active in leadership roles in 

professional activities. 

 However, two important research capabilities should be established in support of 

this work: a direct link to modeling and simulation studies and a closer tie to experts with 

a focus on the properties of materials. The significance of modeling and simulation to the 

success of the silicon IC technologies is unquestioned. Especially for the research 

involving CMOS interfaces with molecular structures, there is need either for in-house 

modeling and simulation or for strong bridging to places where these skills exist. 

Materials and their characterization are central to the full gamut of research, and it is 

important that researchers with a strong understanding in these areas be involved. The 

possible links to basic materials research areas in NIST should be explored. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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Advanced Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) Device Reliability and 

Characterization Project 

 With the CMOS technology scaled to below 50 nm dimensions at integration 

levels of 109

 transistors per chip, device reliability is becoming an ever more critical issue 

in very large scale integration (VLSI) product assurance. A single defect developed 

during the use period could cause chip and system failure. The role played by the project 

team is vital to the microelectronics industry and national interest. 

 With the team’s recognized leadership position in metal-oxide-semiconductor 

field-effect transistor (MOSFET) device reliability characterization, its recent 

accomplishments extend to the following: understanding of the physical mechanism of 

negative-temperature bias instability—one of the most serious reliability issues in 

advanced CMOS technology; the study of defect generation in a high-k dielectric stack 

under electrical stress; the development of an ultrasensitive capacitance probe for 

measuring a nanometer transistor directly; the application of microelectron paramagnetic 

resonance spectrometer for measuring a single defect; the characterization of new 

materials by scanning capacitance microscopy and scanning Kelvin probe microscopy; 

and the optical-electrical characterization of a high-k gate dielectric on III-V compound 

semiconductors. The team has also extended its expertise in the characterization of 

semiconductor-insulator interfaces to other material systems needed by the 

microelectronics industry or by national defense, including high-k/silicon dioxide (SiO2) 

on SiC MOSFETs, high-k dielectric on III-V compound semiconductors, zinc oxide 

(ZnO) nanowire MOSFETs, and time-dependent dielectric breakdown of SiO2/SiC 

devices. Its technical accomplishments have enabled this group to interact extensively 

with the microelectronics industry and other agencies, allowing it to respond to industry 

priorities and to meet their needs. 

 The impact of this team on the science and technology (S&T) of MOS reliability 

is evidenced by the high-quality papers that this group has published and the invited talks 

presented at major international workshops and conferences. A weakness of the project is 

the lack of extensive simulation efforts for more in-depth understanding and modeling of 

the characterization results. 

QUANTUM ELECTRICAL METROLOGY DIVISION 

 The Quantum Electrical Metrology (QEM) Division, located in the Boulder, 

Colorado, and Gaithersburg, Maryland, NIST facilities, executes an impressive, wellcoordinated, and highly synergistic effort in applied and fundamental, leading-edge 

research and is well matched to the mission of NIST and, in particular, to that of the 

EEEL. 

 The three groups in this division, which are the Quantum Devices group in 

Boulder and the Gaithersburg groups in Fundamental Electrical Measurements and 

Applied Electrical Metrology, provide the following technologies and services: quantumbased standards in the area of dc and ac voltage, power, and resistance; quantum sensors 

with ultrahigh energy resolution; quantum information devices for the realization of 

quantum networks, as well as quantum measurements; advanced materials research that 
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enables the sustained improvement of these devices; a classical standard for capacitance; 

a realization of the electronic kilogram; and increasing activities toward smart energy 

grid technology and related measurement devices and protocols, such as the synchrophasor and power measurement units and cryogenic current comparators (CCC) to 

provide a direct link to quantized Hall resistance (QHR) over nine orders of magnitude. 

The efficiency and effectiveness of the division are maximized through the phaseout of 

programs that are not productive, that are missing synergy, or that are not important to the 

mission. There is collaboration with other agencies, industry, and academia, and common 

S&T goals are pursued; for example, high-resolution gamma-ray and alpha-particle 

detectors are delivered to the Los Alamos National Laboratory. 

 Despite continued flat funding over years, the Quantum Electrical Metrology 

Division has been able to acquire increasing outside funding and to excel in new areas, 

such as quantum information. Though the division has not received new funding for work 

on smart grid technologies, it is shifting resources to start this new, important program 

area. A key asset of the division is its unique Quantum Device Fabrication Facility, 

which is well managed and will be enhanced substantially by the new construction under 

way in Boulder. The equipment at both locations is excellent and state of the art. 

However, due to the continued decline of scientific and technical research services 

(STRS) funding and the fact that the number of permanent staff is at an all-time low, 

further reductions in staff may threaten core programs of the division. The cohesive and 

synergistic group organization has so far been able to cope with the reduced internal 

funding and is continuing to provide stability to the division. 

 The Boulder group has achieved an effective level of integration, not just in 

technical tools but also in the innovation of aligned and cooperative advances. One 

example is the Josephson voltage standard (JVS) work, which ranges from Josephson 

array fabrication to the development of a fully automated measurement tool for 

metrological evaluation and application that enables the dissemination of this standard to 

Gaithersburg and around the world. The complexity of this system needs a sustained 

engineering effort to maximize its impact. 

Quantum Voltage Project 

 As one of the leaders in the use of Josephson voltage standards for purposes of 

electrical metrology, the Quantum Voltage project is now close to demonstrating a 10 V 

programmable standard that would significantly simplify many calibration procedures 

worldwide by allowing more direct comparisons. The project team is also the leader in 

generating state-of-the-art waveforms with amplitudes of 275 mV at up to a few hundred 

kilohertz. The goal is to extend these results to amplitudes up to 1 V with frequencies up 

to 1 MHz. Ultimately, the hope is to replace existing standards such as thermal 

converters. An exciting application of this arbitrary waveform synthesis is related to 

measurements of the Boltzmann constant by using a quantized voltage noise source to 

calibrate the Johnson noise of a resistor at a known temperature. The result will be the 

first electrical measurement of the Boltzmann constant. The expected uncertainty (on the 

order of 6 ppm) would be competitive with other measurements. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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 Support for this project, unlike many at the Boulder site, is currently based 

entirely on internal NIST funding. For many years this was not the case, but changes in 

the funding climate caused a shift away from outside-agency funding. This change has 

created pressure on the Quantum Voltage project leader to consider a greater focus on 

more applied programs that could bring in external support. 

 The Quantum Voltage project has an enormous impact. Its efforts often drive the 

direction followed elsewhere. For example, recently the team convinced others in the 

field that the usual dc Josephson voltages standards, while appropriate for dc and 60 Hz 

applications, will not work as a standard for higher frequencies. The result has been 

significant work worldwide over the past 2 years in ac quantum standards. 

 International partnerships are formed to foster the advancement of scientific 

frontiers and accelerate the progress of science across borders through the exchange for 

standards, for example the JVS, and formal collaborations with other national metrology 

institutes (NMIs; in China and Mexico). 

Quantum Sensors Project 

 The Quantum Sensors project team continues to produce leading sensors, 

primarily based on superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), including 

spectrometers for x-ray, gamma/alpha, and microwave background polarimetry. Many of 

these have spectral resolution several times better than that of the closest classical 

technology. Recent work has included the development of multiplexed SQUID arrays for 

the International X-ray Observatory. Continued work on transition-edge sensors has 

allowed a new understanding of excess noise issues, which should allow continued 

device optimization. The project is also leading an effort in nuclear forensics. The use of 

high-resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy, driven by a leading gamma energy resolution of 

22 eV at 100 keV, may allow the nondestructive assay of spent reactor fuel. 

 This project has recently enjoyed a very high level of outside-agency support. 

Sensors produced by this project have been delivered to multiple users in government and 

academia, including the Los Alamos National Laboratory and multiple telescopes around 

the world. The project has very high impact. 

Quantum Information and Measurements Project 

 Efforts in the Quantum Information and Measurements project are competitive 

with other major groups worldwide, as evidenced by recent publications in leading 

journals such as Nature. The team is involved with the development of air-gap capacitors 

for improved qubit performance. The elimination of an oxide dielectric has given some 

improvement in coherence times. Efforts are ongoing to couple multiple qubits together 

through a superconducting bus in an attempt to create prototype quantum processors. 

 A large portion of the support for this project is derived from competitive internal 

NIST funding. 

 The work, particularly with regard to the coupling of qubits through a 

superconducting bus, is having significant impact on its field, as indicated by high-profile 

publications. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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Quantum Materials Project 

 Developing epitaxial dielectrics for use in Josephson-junction-based qubits is the 

main task of the Quantum Materials project. The project members were the first to use 

such techniques to produce and characterize qubits based on epitaxial Josephson 

junctions, and they demonstrated that such growth techniques can significantly increase 

decoherence times. Support for the project is good; it includes some outside-agency 

funding. There is potential for extremely high impact in the quantum information science 

community once the results associated with epitaxial growth are more widely 

disseminated. 

Quantum Fabrication Facility Project 

 The Quantum Fabrication Facility project maintains the Boulder clean room and 

its extraordinary capability for the fabrication of integrated Josephson-junction circuits. 

The pressure on the Boulder fabrication facility will be reduced by the new fabrication 

facility under construction and enabled by stimulus funds from the American Recovery 

and Reinvestment Act of 2009. However, the existing clean-room management model 

(i.e., the facility is run by the QEM group in Boulder but used by many other Boulder 

groups) cannot be extended to the new enlarged facility. A new approach toward 

fabrication facility management is being developed to maintain this unique fabrication 

facility while expanding its throughput. 

 Particular support for this project includes the new clean room and associated 

fabrication equipment that will be created in the new building on the Boulder campus. 

This project enables many of the other activities at the Boulder campus. Its impact is, 

therefore, best measured through that of the other projects, which, as discussed above, is 

extremely high. 

Metrology of the Ohm Project 

 The Metrology of the Ohm effort provides an excellent calibration service that is a 

significant and stable source of income and serves a broad array of industrial and 

government customers. The project team has made efforts to expand its work into new 

areas. These include the development of a new, easier-to-operate cryogenic current 

comparator that will, it is hoped, be commercialized and made generally available. New 

efforts also include collaboration with the new Quantum Conductance project, which 

involves the development of graphene-based quantum Hall devices, as well as the 

development of expertise in bioelectronics. 

 The Metrology of the OHM project is supported in part by a stable, well-regarded 

calibration service that is highly valued by industry. The project has led comparisons of 

resistance measurements at multiple scales and has delivered the new CCCs to three other 

national metrology institutes, in Argentina, Australia, and Mexico. 
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AC-DC2 Project

 The AC-DC2 project combines the earlier AC/DC and DC projects for simplified 

management. A significant amount of effort is given to very high quality calibration 

services for both ac and dc measurements. Research is focusing on the development of 

new thermal voltage converters, based on multijunction technology that should allow 

operation at frequencies up to 100 MHz and voltages of 2 V. This will cover a range of 

frequencies, voltages, and currents that cannot be reached by the ac Josephson voltage 

source (ACJVS). Project staff is also working with the Quantum Voltage project team in 

Boulder in the development of a 10 V programmable Josephson voltage standard (PJVS). 

 Calibration services, while excellent, are currently at risk, especially dc voltage 

calibrations. The service provided for standard calibration is not properly charged, 

leading to low revenue for NIST. The project has begun the dissemination of ac voltage 

standards based on ACJVSs, allowing state-of-the-art accuracy in comparison of ac and 

dc voltages to become more widely available. 

Electronic Kilogram Project 

 The artifact mass standard for the kilogram unit is suffering from 120 years of 

wear and contamination, so its value over time is becoming uncertain at several parts in 

108

. As a potential replacement, the Electronic Kilogram project compares the energy in 

power generated by mechanical and electrical means. Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2

can relate this energy measurement to mass. Except for the kilogram, the standard units 

involved are all quantum-based: the second (atomic clocks), meter (laser wavelength), 

volt (Josephson effect), and ohm (quantum Hall effect). These are all unchanging in time. 

The result is a measured value for the Planck constant, h, relative to the mass artifact 

standard, or vice versa, if the international community redefines mass in terms of a value 

for h. Stable results have been produced by the Electronic Kilogram project for the past 4 

years, and the project is aiming to produce improved results by the end of 2010 in 

considering the redefinition of the kilogram. The project has attained the best relative 

uncertainty, and work is in progress to improve the uncertainty to 20 ppb. Efforts to 

design a new electronic kilogram calibration system for use after a potential redefinition 

are also underway. Support for this project, despite its fundamental significance, has 

been minimal over the past few years, with staffing dropping from four or five people to 

only one at present. 

 To the present time, this project has produced the most accurate measurement of 

Planck’s constant. The project also plays a leading role in the upcoming redefinition of 

the International System (SI) of units. 

Quantum Conductance Project 

 The goal of the Quantum Conductance project is to develop graphene-based 

quantum Hall effect devices that will do for resistance metrology what the development 

of the Josephson voltage source did for voltage metrology. These graphene-based devices 

should be able to operate at higher temperatures than gallium arsenide (GaAs)-based 
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quantum Hall devices, and they could possibly be easier to produce. An informal 

graphene group, involving NIST staff at both Gaithersburg and Boulder, has been formed, 

and collaboration with the Resistance Metrology project is also underway. 

 The support for the Quantum Conductance project is reasonable, although at the 

moment the project has only one staff member. The project is new, and its impact has yet 

to be determined. The potential impact could be very high if an easily disseminated 

quantum resistance standard can be developed. 

Farad and Impedance Metrology Project 

 A significant new effort—the Farad and Impedance Metrology project—is 

underway, focusing on the development of a new capacitance metrology project. This 

project would make use of frequency combs for length measurement and will, it is hoped, 

result in a 10-fold improvement in calibration accuracy. It may allow calibration to be 

extended to the femtofarad regime, which is important for efforts in nanoscale science. It 

is hoped that the new standard will be more portable and automated than the existing 

calculable capacitor; the new standard has a target accuracy of 5 ppb. 

 This project is the leader in the field of uncertainties for capacitance 

measurements. The project staff recently organized and led a multination capacitance 

comparison for several countries in the Americas. Capacitance calibrations, driven by 

customer needs, have generated income of $200,000 in FY 2008, which is commendable. 

Electric Power Metrology Project 

 The Electric Power Metrology project has now moved to a quantum standard, 

based on stepwise sine wave approximation using a Josephson voltage source. As a 

result, uncertainties have been reduced by a factor of five. The other major effort of this 

project has been focused on the synchro-phasor effort, and on the development of 

techniques for the measurement of dynamical waveforms. Synchro-phasors have become 

increasingly important to power system operators, and the synchro-phasor test laboratory 

developed at NIST provides a state-of-the-art testing tool for phasor measurement units 

(PMUs), to verify that they meet the current industry standard and to provide an 

assurance of the interoperability of PMUs of different manufacture. Support for this 

project seems reasonable. The work of this project has significant impact on industry, 

and the project staff is also closely involved with the new Smart Grid effort. 

Smart Grid Interoperability Standards Development Project 

 Unlike the other projects of the Quantum Electrical Metrology Division, the 

Smart Grid Interoperability Standards Development project is not technical in nature, but 

instead leverages NIST’s position as a neutral and objective source of technical 

information to play a role in developing a new set of standards and performance testing. 

This fast-moving project represents both a significant opportunity and a risk for the 

division. The effort has greatly raised NIST’s visibility in this area and is expected 

eventually to lead to new research programs. Although this project is too new for its 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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impact to be accurately judged, it is nonetheless the focus of intense interest and has the 

potential for extremely high impact. 

ELECTROMAGNETICS DIVISION 

 The Electromagnetics Division consists of top-quality researchers who serve in 

several journal editorial positions and on standards bodies. Much progress in the projects 

of this division was noted by the panel. However, project prioritization and budgets 

remain sketchy. Strategic projects were not well defined, in part due to the uncertainty 

associated with the leadership and budgets. There might be too many projects for the 

number of full-time staff in the division. 

 While some calibration/standards functions are curtailed and mothballed at end of 

life, there needs to be a means of capturing the years of learning associated with these 

efforts. One way is to put together handbooks on the standards calibration and 

methodology that would otherwise be lost. One example of this is the book Experimental 

Techniques for Low Temperature Measurements, published by Oxford University Press in 

2006 (ISBN-13: 9780198570547; see the subsection below). 

Superconductivity Program 

 The Superconductivity program team has a reputation for being the best for its 

sustained work in characterizing the behavior of superconductors. This team has been 

uniquely influential in setting worldwide standards for making such measurements and in 

improving the basic understanding of the impact of mechanical strain on behavior. Team 

collaborations with other U.S. government agencies, U.S. industry, and institutions and 

projects throughout the world are commendable. It is noted that the continuity in the 

specialized skills is maintained by overlap between the long-term members and the young 

members of the team. 

 The volume Experimental Techniques for Low Temperature Measurements

referenced above, written by a recently retired staff member, presents a model for 

outreach and transfer of information. The concept of fully documenting specialized 

knowledge before retirement should be facilitated. The concept of writing teams can be 

useful in this regard. 

Biomagnetics Program 

 New metrology work being done by the Biomagnetics program to support 

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices has high technical merit. The necessary close 

collaboration with the medical community is evident. The initiative by the team to 

develop a smart contrast medium for use with MRI devices also has widespread potential. 

 The decision by the EEEL to purchase a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) 

system, needed for biomagnetics as a dedicated MRI machine, free from clinical 

scheduling, is strongly supported. However, it will be a requirement that such a facility 

also have a close collaboration with one or more medical radiologists. The development 

of spectroscopic detection at terahertz frequency for molecule identification (for purposes 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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of biology and homeland security) and of microsystems for quantitative metrology of 

scanning probe microscopes (magnetic nanoparticle manipulation) are two new activities 

considered incubator initiatives. 

Nanomagnetics Program 

 Initiatives of the Nanomagnetics program in spintronics and in dense-pack 

recording medium and switching are in sync with rapid and widespread growing interest 

in the broader community. The underlying goal of the work is to develop the metrology 

for studying these nanodevices, but in pursuing that goal it is necessary to be intimately 

familiar with the development and improvement of those devices. The necessary depth 

of understanding for device development is evident in the work presented. Nevertheless, 

the staff must be vigilant to undertake work that is generic and focused on widely useful 

metrology and not on device development for its own sake. 

Field Parameters and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Applications Project 

 The Field Parameters and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Applications 

project is advancing the state of the art in measurements for transverse electromagnetic 

(EM) cells, reverberation chambers, calibration field probes, and open-air test sites. It 

also provides measurements in an anechoic chamber. The resources for the project are 

adequate. This project is important for the metrology mission of the division. 

Wireless Systems Project 

 The wireless industry has welcomed the development, standardization, and 

popularization of reverberation chambers for EMC use, as the chambers enable easy, 

compact, and inexpensive measurements. The reverberation chamber provides a 

repeatable multipath simulation environment for wireless device testing. However, NIST 

has the responsibility to inform its wireless customers that conventional measurements of 

pattern and polarization are critical in the design and development of new systems and 

hardware. Reverberation chambers alone are insufficient. The project completed an 

interesting study of the electromagnetic environment in buildings that are being 

destroyed. The facilities for this project are adequate. The project is in keeping with the 

metrology and standards missions of NIST and has been specifically sought by wireless 

providers. 

Antenna Metrology Project 

 The work in the Antenna Metrology project on the development of near-field 

scanning metrology for antennas is outstanding. NIST led the development of near-field 

scanning many years ago and has, in the intervening years, significantly refined the 

technique for gain and pattern measurements, especially for very short wavelengths. The 

resources for the project are adequate. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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Fundamental Guided Wave Metrology Project 

 The enhanced effort of the Fundamental Guided Wave Metrology project on the 

waveform for over 200 GHz is timely, as the operating frequencies have continued to 

rise. The measurement of noise other than thermal noise should also be looked at, and the 

swift development of four and multiport s parameters and Automatic Network Analyzer 

(ANA) measurement calibration is essential because more and more differential circuits 

are penetrating into radio-frequency (RF) front ends. 

 There is need for updating of equipment to handle new connector types and 

higher frequencies and for extending metrology to waveforms of greater complexity and 

bandwidth. 

 The Electromagnetics Division’s stated objective for measurement services is to 

evolve services for greater efficiency and better support for customers. This objective is 

being met. With respect to the objective of developing better on-wafer noise and sparameter techniques, the work is in early stages, with appropriate direction. For the 

objective of redeveloping primary power standards (to find substitutes for nonreplaceable 

primary transfer standards), the work is in early stages, with appropriate direction. With 

respect to the objective of developing fast pulse sources for waveform measurements up 

to 400 GHz, at present up to 200 GHz has been worked out, and work is in progress for 

200 to 400 GHz. 

Advanced High-Frequency Devices Project 

 For the Advanced High-Frequency Devices project’s objective of developing 

techniques for determining EM device characteristics of nanoscale devices (spin currents, 

resistivity, etc.), an understanding of electrical characteristics and nanoscale devices, such 

as nanowires and nanotubes, is critically important and encouraged for the beyondCMOS era. The results eventually contribute to industrial device development. For the 

project’s objective of expanding network analysis to beyond the 50 ohm world, at present 

most high-frequency measurement is carried out in the 50 ohm environment; however, 

non-50 ohm characterization is increasingly relevant for such environments as nanowire 

electronics. The establishment of more streamlined procedures is encouraged. 

 The scope of the work of this project appears to be aligned with its resources. No 

significant lack of instrumentation appears to exist. 

Advanced Materials Metrology Project 

 Five tasks of the Advanced Materials Metrology project were briefed to the panel 

during the review. The basic thrust of these tasks is to support the electronics industry 

through classical measurements of substrates and printed-circuit-board materials and to 

apply this knowledge to such areas as homeland security and bioscience. 

 An understanding of the basic interaction between EM waves and molecular 

structure is essential. The challenge is to extend this understanding to terahertz 

frequencies and nanometer scale. What the EEEL brings to this effort, in contrast to 

university and commercial laboratories, is the ability to identify and describe best 
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practices and a respect for uncertainties in measurement. The project has been 

characterizing the permittivity and permeability of various materials. It has developed onwafer probing for substrate and thin films, in particular, low-k materials for 

microelectronics applications. The method based on a split-cylinder resonator for material 

characterization has been developed within NIST, together with some international 

collaboration. This technique has been transitioned to industry successfully. In many 

measurement schemes, there is a difference between measurement uncertainty and device 

physics uncertainty. Such information is desirable. Recent work on the evanescent probe 

method provides a new dimension of noninvasive and nondestructive measurement 

capabilities. The biochemistry project is in line with national priorities. 

 Because of the limited resources, it is necessary to concentrate on the unique 

mission of supporting basic physics with metrology, analysis of uncertainties, and 

reduction of errors through an understanding of instrumental and basic physical 

limitations. The stated objectives of the project are broad and generally amount to 

maintaining and expanding NIST’s ability to support industry and other government 

agencies. The project team appears to be making adequate progress toward these goals. 
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4 

EEEL Responses to Concerns from the 2007 Assessment 

 The following items of concern were noted in the 2007 report of the Panel on 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering.1

 The sections below present the responses of the 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory to these concerns. 

OPTOELECTRONICS DIVISION 

Concerns About Funding 

 The Optoelectronics Division noted that its current level of non-NIST external 

funding (approximately 20 percent) seems to work well to maintain the scientific 

excellence of its work. The division suggested that although the burden of obtaining 

external funding is non-negligible, the external funds provide a very useful, ongoing 

“reality check” on programs and provide one measure of a project’s importance. 

Biophotonics Initiative 

 NIST agrees with the panel’s conclusion that biophotonics is a very important and 

rapidly growing industry with strong potential impact on medical applications and the 

national priority of health care. In 2007, three NIST operating units summarized their 

assessment of biophotonics for the panel, but the specific current plans for action in this 

field by the Optoelectronics Division remain unclear to the panel. It appears that NIST 

needs an exploratory program to understand the field and to see where it can be of the 

most help. Two important areas where NIST can help immediately are the toxicity of 

carbon nanotubes and power standards for laser surgery instruments. 

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS DIVISION 

System-on-a-Chip Project 

 Responding to the panel’s suggestion, in 2007 the EEEL phased out the Systemon-a-Chip project. Staff and funding were moved to other projects. 

Spintronic Devices 

In 2007 the panel suggested that the EEEL look at how the Semiconductor 

Electronics Division and the Electromagnetics Division might be able to interact on 

spintronic devices. The Semiconductor Division and the Electromagnetics Division 

 1

 National Research Council, An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2007. Washington, D.C.: The National 

Academies Press, 2007. 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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combined on an Innovations in Measurement Science proposal in 2007 to work on 

spintronics, which was funded in 2008. The groups are putting the equipment in place to 

start making measurements. 

Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology 

 There remains a concern about how the Semiconductor Electronics Division can 

best make use of the Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology (CNST), a recently 

established center at NIST whose mission focuses on providing nanofabrication and 

nanotechnology resources to NIST and to the outside community, as well as performing 

targeted research in nanoscience and nanotechnology (research in these areas is also 

performed in other NIST laboratories). The extent to which the Semiconductor 

Electronics Division has adequate access to the CNST resources remains unclear to the 

panel. 

QUANTUM ELECTRICAL METROLOGY DIVISION 

Boulder and Gaithersburg Facilities and Synergy 

 The EEEL reported that the work has been reduced to fewer, strongly focused and 

highly synergistic efforts in Boulder; work on single-electron transistors and on magnetic 

materials was put on hold. There is strong collaboration between the Boulder and 

Gaithersburg groups in the area of dc-ac JVS. Other projects (graphene and calculable 

capacitor) have found NIST collaborators outside of the division. 

Sustainability 

 The EEEL reported to the present panel that the ratio of permanent to associate 

staff is further declining. The new focus on Smart Grid offers opportunities for 

Gaithersburg to establish a new core effort of national interest and, therefore, also for 

more outside or new funding. 

Management and Use of Fabrication Facilities 

 The position of a clean-room manager for the current fabrication facility has been 

implemented but is currently vacant. The relationship with the CNST is still evolving. A 

unified approach toward using the various clean-room facilities at NIST needs to be 

established in order to use resources efficiently. 

ELECTROMAGNETICS DIVISION

Gradual Degradation of Facilities and Infrastructure at NIST Boulder 

 In order for the Electromagnetics Division to perform its stated missions, some 

areas require updating. For example, electronic communications, heating and cooling, 
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lighting, and space utilization all need to be improved to accommodate the staff, 

experiments, and calibration services. The new buildings being constructed are expected 

to improve the conditions noted in both 2007 and 2009. The Building 1 Extension (B1E) 

is an example of this construction. 

Cost and Burden of Providing Calibration Services 

 The Fundamental Guided Wave Metrology group is to be commended for easing 

out the repetitive tasks of calibrating industrial-type equipment and limiting its services to 

upper-level standards laboratories. The group should continue the transfer of repetitive 

tasks to other standards laboratories to make limited EEEL resources available for unique 

NIST responsibilities already identified or still below the horizon.

Planning Process 

 At the start of a political transition year in the U.S. government, despite the best 

efforts of the (acting) leadership of the Electromagnetics Division, project prioritization 

and budgeting remain a bit sketchy. 
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5 

General Observations and Concerns 

 The funding system of the Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory 

warrants a thorough review. A review process for internal funding is needed 

that is based on technical merit rather than on economic need. For older 

projects that have been receiving internal funding and either have come to an 

end or have found other funding, there should be a mechanism in place to 

ensure that the internal funding is reallocated. 

 The physical structure and the temperature control in some of the existing 

laboratories of the EEEL need work. It seems that any maintenance takes a 

very long time. This situation should be corrected. 

 The number of permanent staff is barely adequate to maintain existing 

programs, albeit all are of high quality; the possible loss of expertise is a 

concern. 

 The concept of fully documenting specialized knowledge before a staff 

member retires should be facilitated. 

 Interaction of EEEL groups with other groups in NIST is becoming more 

difficult because there is less “flexible money” to incentivize collaboration. 

Internal collaborations seem to be particularly difficult in the biotechnology 

area. 

 While the work related to the Knowledge Facilitation project is good, it seems 

to be more of a NIST-wide infrastructure function rather than a divisional 

function. 

 As projects are developed, the EEEL should remain attuned to opportunities 

for further collaboration between the Boulder and Gaithersburg groups. 

 There were two examples of issues where the organizational processes may be 

getting in the way of the efforts. One example involves the external calibration 

services in the Optoelectronics Division. The Boulder group has an internal 

goal of decreasing the calibration time. There were several complaints from 

this group suggesting that the routing of external funds or work through 

Gaithersburg may lead to increased cost and delays, with no added value 

resulting from adding Gaithersburg into the loop. EEEL management should 

examine this complaint and, if appropriate and feasible, improve the process 

in a way that would lead to lower costs and better customer service in terms of 

turnaround for service work. The other issue pertains to the work in display 

technology. This effort is being phased out, but there is still interest in the 

measurement course in the external community. EEEL management should 

consider whether it would be a good thing to sell any equipment that is no 

longer needed by NIST to a commercial enterprise; if so, the process needs to 

be facilitated. 

 The required payback for capital equipment limits the acquisition of new 

equipment, and the purchase of large new equipment now requires greater 
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coordination across organizational entities. At the present time, the lack of 

people seems to be a bigger limitation than the lack of new capital equipment 

in the Semiconductor Electronics Division (SED). 

 There is a general lack of modeling and simulation expertise and work in the 

Semiconductor Electronics Division. The laboratory understands the need for 

more modeling and simulation work, but there is not enough funding to 

support it. The SED tries to augment the modeling and simulation work by 

collaborating with universities. This area could benefit from additional 

resources. 

 The Semiconductor Electronics Division depends heavily on money from the 

Office of Microelectronics Programs; reliance on such focused funding could 

limit the ability of the SED to start much-needed new research initiatives. 

 A flat or declining budget is also a concern within the Quantum Electrical 

Metrology (QEM) Division. A long-term evaluation of the overall funding 

model for the division to support core metrology functions and services is 

encouraged. 

 In the management and use of the fabrication facilities, the financial burden of 

clean-room operation in the new Building 1 Extension (B1E) needs to be 

spread beyond the QEM Division. 

 The change in management structure, in which the EEEL director and the 

QEM Division leader are now both stationed in Boulder, has created 

challenges and uncertainty in Gaithersburg. This has led to significant stress 

and morale problems, particularly among the staff most closely involved with 

the calibration effort. 

 One of the items of interest in the Electromagnetics Division is measurement 

related to metamaterials. Although metamaterial measurement was mentioned, 

no details were provided during this year’s review. 
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6 

New Thrusts or New High-Impact Projects 

PHOTOVOLTAICS 

 The exploration and use of solar energy have risen and sunk with oil prices. 

Energy sources used in generating electricity in the United States roughly comprise 49 

percent coal, 21 percent natural gas and other gases, 19 percent nuclear energy, less than 

2 percent petroleum, 7 percent hydroelectric power, and less than 3 percent other 

renewable sources. Oil constitutes a minuscule share of the U.S. electricity generation, 

and its price should not deter renewable energy deployment. 

 As part of the future electrical energy portfolio, photovoltaics stands on its 

intrinsic merit of providing direct conversion from sun power to electricity. Photovoltaic 

electricity is the story of the power play of atoms, photons, and the free path of electrons. 

As to solar energy, no country can capture another country’s photons. When the 

technology can offer cost parity with the grid, or closer to it, photovoltaic solar energy 

will become an essential part of mainstream electricity in everyone’s life. The winning 

technology is the one that can deliver the desired economics. 

 Going forward, as manufacturing capacity continues to increase and production 

techniques continue to improve, the expanded scale and enhanced manufacturability will 

drive the cost of photovoltaics down. Technologically, the global efforts on increasing the 

cell efficiency are ever more rigorous and vigorous. The scale effect, coupled with the 

anticipated technological advancements, will move solar-cell-generated electricity toward 

grid parity. 

 Tying the NIST effort with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 

needs that will support the goals of the Smart Grid Initiative is another important effort. 

Photovoltaics is a growing industry and highly relevant to the national priorities of 

alternate energy sources and green energy technology. A photovoltaics project is 

warranted. 

BIOELECTRONICS 

 The Semiconductor Electronics Division has proposed bioelectronics as a possible 

new focus area for furthering its innovation and metrology within the EEEL. The recent 

advances in biotechnology have generated much exciting potential for targeted and 

preventive medicine. However, understanding of the underlying mechanisms in human 

health and complex diseases has barely begun. There is a lack of predictive and 

diagnostic biomarkers for complex diseases. This prompts the need for ultrasensitive, 

cost-effective, high-throughput tools, which can derive from the sophisticated metrology 

established in the semiconductor industry. The convergence of biology and electronics is 

at an early but critical juncture, with a great deal of isolated work going on within 

academia, small entrepreneurial companies, and federal laboratories. It is appropriate that 
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the Semiconductor Electronics Division take a leadership role, not only within NIST, but 

in concert with academic and industrial partners to propel the field forward. 

 With the highly multidisciplinary nature of research and development in 

bioelectronics, the EEEL should approach this initiative with project-minded leadership, 

drawing on human and materiel resources across divisional lines in a matrix-like 

structure. Bioelectronics is an important new thrust area deserving support. 

GRAPHENE-BASED QUANTUM CONDUCTANCE STANDARDS 

 The project involving graphene-based quantum conductance standards is viewed 

as a potential new thrust in the Quantum Electrical Metrology Division. At present, the 

resistance standard is based in the integer quantum Hall effect in devices fabricated from 

gallium arsenide/aluminum gallium arsenide (GaAs/AlGaAs) heterostructures. It is quite 

difficult to produce GaAs-based devices that are suitable for resistance metrology, and 

today there are no reliable sources of the material needed to produce them. (Very high 

mobility GaAs is routinely available, but for technical reasons it is unsuitable for 

resistance metrology.) In addition, the integer quantum Hall effect in GaAs devices 

reaches metrological accuracy only at sub-kelvin temperatures (typically 0.3 K), making 

measurements of such devices quite demanding.

 Quantum Hall devices based on graphene instead of GaAs may provide a solution 

to both of these issues if their mechanical and electrical stability prove acceptable. 

Energy-level spacings in graphene are roughly 100 times or more than in GaAs, 

potentially allowing operation at up to room temperature. In addition, graphene-based 

devices are potentially much simpler to fabricate and optimize than are GaAs-based 

devices. The development of a simple-to-produce quantum Hall standard capable of 

room-temperature operation could revolutionize resistance metrology as the development 

of the Josephson voltage standard revolutionized voltage metrology.

 

SMART GRID SYSTEM INITIATIVE 

 The Smart Grid program is being implemented in NIST, and the effort of 

deliberating and structuring an integrated, collaborative process across the divisions 

based on the respective expertise is essential to the program’s timely progress. 

 Countries around the globe are launching concerted activities in addressing 

energy independence and climate and environmental issues. As the world’s energy needs 

continue to increase, the energy generation, distribution, and consumption must resort to 

a more sustainable model by embracing all energy sources and delivering higher 

efficiency and lower cost. 

 The Smart Grid system holds high promise of revolutionizing how electricity is 

generated, distributed, consumed, and conserved by automatically monitoring and 

controlling two-way energy flow. It also can enable the use of renewable and alternative 

energy more effectively, efficiently, and intelligently, thus potentially transforming 

today’s economy. 

 The ultimate goals of smart grids are to enhance the power grid’s reliability, 

efficiency, and safety through real-time communication; to provide flexibility of power 
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consumption; to enable decentralized power generation; and to increase the nation’s 

economic growth by integrating renewable energy sources and creating green jobs. 

 By using real-time information from embedded sensors and automated controls, 

power outages, power-quality problems, and service disruptions can be mitigated. The 

ability to anticipate, detect, and respond to system problems and to isolate affected areas 

and redirect power flows around damaged facilities makes a self-healing loop. The 

optimized power flow reduces waste and maximizes the use of lowest-cost generation 

resources. Through seamlessly interconnecting renewable energy sources and other 

distributed generation technologies at local and regional levels, the energy efficiency is 

maximized. The decentralized power generation provided by smart grids also can 

increase fault tolerance. 

 Technologies in communications, sensing, measurement metering, and digital 

infrastructures are key elements of smart grids. Also, innovations in superconductivity, 

fault tolerance, storage, power electronics, and diagnostics components constitute its 

foundation.

 On top of many other facets of the Smart Grid system, the system’s security is of 

the ultimate importance. To secure the nation’s critical electrical power infrastructure, 

smart encryption is a necessity. This should be taken into consideration at the outset of 

the program. 

 In the Smart Grid arena, NIST can play a leading role in developing and 

deploying the multi-front technologies and national standards. 
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7 

Conclusions 

 Overall the deliverables and the accomplishments of the EEEL are commendable, 

considering the broad criteria for assessment listed below: 

 The technical merit of the current laboratory programs relative to current 

state-of-the-art programs worldwide; 

 The adequacy of the laboratory budget, facilities, equipment, and human 

resources, as they affect the quality of laboratory’s technical programs; and 

 The degree to which laboratory programs in measurement science and 

standards achieve their stated objectives and desired impact. 

 The EEEL staff in management and research alike have earned high regard for their 

professionalism and dedication. However, a balance between the permanent staff and onassignment researchers is needed. The number of permanent staff is declining, threatening 

the operation’s continuity and stability. 

 Some projects (as outlined in Chapter 3) are under strain due to budget constraints. 

For example, the Macro Electronics project is severely underfunded. Macroelectronics, 

parallel to nanoelectronics and microelectronics, is equally important to the fulfillment of the 

EEEL’s overall objectives. 

 Further roadmapping of each project should be done, and possible synergy among the 

projects is encouraged. 

 Certain facilities are in need of updating, renovation, and augmentation. 

 An incremental progress continues, yet new thrusts are also desired, conducive to the 

future of the institution. The new thrusts and strategic projects recommended in Chapter 6 

will further propel the EEEL to a growth mode and impart increasingly high impact to the 

NIST mission. 

 The success of an integrated Smart Grid system will epitomize the country’s 

commercial leadership and technological prowess. A working Smart Grid system, with the 

desired reliability, efficiency, and safety, is expected to revolutionize electricity supply, 

distribution, and consumption. It also will demonstrate the capability of embracing green 

energy electricity, as well as environmentally friendly transportation (hybrid and electric 

vehicles), making it a sustainable energy model. By fully employing the wealth of collective 

expertise and experience in the EEEL, NIST is poised to take the leadership position among 

other agencies in developing and deploying the multi-front technologies and the standards 

that govern the deployment of smart grids. 

 The Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory, equipped with diverse 

professional skills and comprehensive technical expertise, has demonstrated significant 

accomplishments in crucial programs and is ready to take on challenging national strategic 

programs. 
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8 

Recommendations 

 The panel recommends that the concerns detailed in Chapter 5, “General 

Observations and Concerns,” be addressed. Additional recommendations in general areas 

across divisions, as well as those that are division-specific, are listed below. 

GENERAL 

 Calibration services in all divisions call for a transparent process, guideline 

criteria, and a monitoring procedure. Considerations include funding sources, 

fees generated, initiating new services, terminating old services, and 

increasing or decreasing services in relation to industry needs and strategic 

rationale. 

 The current panel assessment criteria used for this report are adequate and 

comprehensive, yet additional considerations should include the following: 

—Synchronization in the strategic plans of NIST, the EEEL, and EEEL’s 

divisions; 

—Project priority setting, using clearly defined factors; 

—Workability of the administrative boundary between NIST and the EEEL; 

and 

—Projects’ alignment with the national priorities. 

 The Smart Grid program, in need of an integrated and collaborative effort, 

calls for the deliberation of a technical management structure that sets the 

program’s roadmap, selects expertise, monitors the process, and manages the 

operation, being responsible for the program’s progress. 

 Initial planning of the Smart Grid program should include the security of data 

links with more than one encryption scheme. Multiple, redundant data links 

including fiber, microwave, and radio frequency are essential. 

 Photovoltaics is a growing industry and highly relevant to the national 

priorities of alternate energy sources and green energy technology. A 

photovoltaics project is warranted. 

OPTOELECTRONICS DIVISION 

 In the strategic program theme area of Quantum Information and Metrology, 

which includes very fine work, the underlying connecting theme requires 

clarification. There are projects in detectors, sources, the quantum candela, the 

Schrödinger cat, the entangled photon, and other areas. These form the 

components of a potentially exciting program with great impact, but the 

details of what the program is, where it is going, and how staff are 

interconnected require clarification. There is a need for better explication of 

how the single- and entangled-photon source work fits into the overall vision 
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An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

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38 

of the EEEL and how the sources play into the detector. It is clear, for 

example, that to develop high-efficiency detectors and also ways to 

characterize (e.g., quantum entanglement), one must also be able to produce 

clean sources of single photons, photon pairs, and entanglement. This overall 

mission and the relation of each project to it need to be stated more clearly. A 

clearer roadmap is needed, or at least a more coherent picture of how the 

detector work complements the source work and how this all comes together 

into a coherent program that encompasses all of the interesting research. There 

should be a specific roadmap for the quantum candela project, stating the 

problem, the specific goal of the single-photon source to replace the current 

blackbody source, and a proposed plan on how to get from here to there. 

Perhaps the roadmap will change as more is learned, and that is fine, but the 

importance of such a roadmap is to concentrate thought into a concrete plan. 

 There is a need to tie the materials analysis of the carbon nanotubes to toxicity 

studies. This is a great opportunity to provide some interorganizational efforts 

and also points out the need for providing a safe environment for NIST 

researchers. 

 Stating the goal of the project and a brief description of the roadmap to the 

goal would be helpful for all projects during future reviews. 

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS DIVISION 

 Until now, most of the power-device testing has been at the device level. With 

the emphasis on smart grid technology, it will be more important for the 

power-device group to look at reliability, not only at the device level, but also 

at the system level. The smart grid work should provide an opportunity for 

other-agency funding, since the DARPA SiC project is winding down. The 

division is planning the establishment of a center for nanoelectronics 

reliability. The idea is to leverage the resources at NIST and to coordinate 

research efforts of universities, industry, and other agencies to meet the future 

reliability challenge. It has already gained the support of the Semiconductor 

Research Corporation, SEMATECH, and the National Science Foundation. 

The goal of the center will be to develop new measurement techniques to push 

the frontier, to provide measurement facilities too costly for universities to 

acquire, and to enable universities to access samples from the industry while 

protecting sensitive information. One of the visions of the group is to develop 

a microelectron paramagnetic resonance spectrometer for nondestructive 

detection of a single defect by full wafer probing. The plan and the effort 

merit support. 

 The Semiconductor Electronics Division should play a leadership role in the 

development of metrologies in the emerging area of bioelectronics. This 

would require adding new personnel. 

 There is a resurgence in analog and mixed-signal electronics because of the 

large growth in sensor networks, sensor arrays, and wireless interconnectivity. 

Analog will be a critical component of bioelectronics because of the need to 
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An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

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39 

interface bioelectronic sensors with digital processors. The SED currently has 

a very small effort in analog and mixed-signal electronics. Since the U.S. 

semiconductor industry is expanding its activities in analog technology, it 

would be important for the SED to have an activity to support analog 

development. The focus could be analog reliability, which would fit in the 

planned center for nanoelectronics reliability, but it could also be a bridge 

between bioelectronics and device reliability. There is need for an intersection 

with mixed-signal electronics to support projects in bioelectronics. Among the 

projects that could benefit from mixed-signal electronics would be the 

impedimetric cell physiometer. This should align well with work in the Office 

of Microelectronics Programs. 

QUANTUM ELECTRICAL METROLOGY DIVISION 

 The business model for calibration services at the facilities of the Quantum 

Electrical Metrology Division in Gaithersburg, Maryland, should be clarified. 

 The excellent fabrication facilities at Boulder, Colorado, and the Center for 

Nanoscale Science and Technology are particularly valuable. The pressure on 

the Boulder fabrication facility will be reduced by the new fabrication facility 

under construction, which was supported by the stimulus money. However, 

the existing clean-room management model (i.e., the facility is run by the 

QEM group in Boulder but used by all other Boulder groups) should not be 

extended to the new, enlarged facility. A new approach toward fabrication 

facility management must be developed to maintain the internationally leading 

fabrication while expanding the throughput. 

ELECTROMAGNETICS DIVISION 

 A focus on the application of superconductivity to the future smart electrical 

grid initiatives should be pursued to continue the Superconductivity program 

team’s national leadership role in superconducting measurements and to 

participate in an important cross-divisional laboratory project. 

 Widespread collaboration is essential; the extent of these collaborations 

should be more formally explained during future reviews. 

 The division should consider open sourcing the work to avoid potentially 

inhibiting intellectual property concerns in the new fields. 

 The area of metamaterials warrants investigation, particularly from the point 

of view of metrology, in developing the capability for rigorous metamaterial 

measurements. Metamaterial slab properties should be measured with 

sufficient bandwidth to elucidate the effects of dispersion. Metamaterial 

performance versus sample size should be studied; negative-index materials 

(NIMs) that are large in wavelengths may have certain useful properties―a 

critical question is how the NIM properties degrade as the sample size is 

decreased. The behavior of metamaterials in near fields (as opposed to plane 

waves) should be studied, because most proposed antenna applications are in 
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

An Assessment of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Electronics and Electrical Engineering Laboratory: Fiscal Year 2009

http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12767.html

40 

the near field. Methods for measuring the phase, loss, and reflection 

coefficient of artificial magnetic conductors should be developed and 

calibrated. This work should be carried out with both experiments and 

numerical simulations in which the microscopic structure of the metamaterial 

is faithfully represented.