PRESENT: Lemons, C.J., Goodwyn, Mims, McClanahan, Powell, and Kelsey, JJ., and Russell, 

S.J. 

ROBERT ALLEN WILKINS

 OPINION BY

v. Record No. 151068 CHIEF JUSTICE DONALD W. LEMONS

 June 2, 2016 

COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

FROM THE COURT OF APPEALS OF VIRGINIA

 In this appeal, we consider whether it was error to require the defendant to wear jailissued clothing that the defendant claims was identifiable as such to the jury during a jury trial.

I. Facts and Proceedings

 The appellant, Robert Allen Wilkins (“Wilkins”), was convicted by a jury of petit 

larceny, third or subsequent offense, in violation of Code § 18.2-104, in the Circuit Court of the 

City of Portsmouth (“circuit court”). He was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment. 

Before his jury trial in the circuit court, Wilkins’s counsel objected to Wilkins being tried 

while wearing jail-issued clothing. The only description in the record of Wilkins’s clothing is 

from his counsel—“a green, sort of scrub outfit,” black sneakers, and “a visible bracelet on his 

left arm.” The circuit court ordered a recess for Wilkins’s counsel to look for non-jail clothing in 

“a clothes closet” maintained by the public defender’s office. The record does not indicate 

whether Wilkins’s counsel used the opportunity to look for clothes, nor does it reveal the length 

of the recess.

After the recess, Wilkins’s counsel renewed his objection, explaining to the circuit court 

that Wilkins’s “lady friend” had twice attempted to bring Wilkins non-jail-issued clothes but that 

the Portsmouth City Jail had refused to accept them both times. The circuit court judge 

overruled the objection, saying: 
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I understand that the normal practice is to, you know, not have 

people in jail clothes. I don’t know whether the jury is 

sophisticated enough to know what jail clothes look like or not. 

The difficulty that we always have is that I’ve been doing this for 

almost 50 years, and I can see somebody in jail clothes and I can 

generally tell you what jail they are from, because they tend to 

vary. It’s the defendant’s responsibility to, you know, provide his 

own clothes within the parameters of the sheriff’s department. 

And if he doesn’t do it, then I guess we have to try him in jail 

clothes.

Wilkins remained in the courtroom as the jury was brought in. The record does not contain any 

of the voir dire before the jury was empaneled and sworn. 

At trial, a security guard at a Wal-Mart store in Portsmouth testified he had seen Wilkins 

take merchandise off the shelves and leave the store. When confronted by the security guard, 

Wilkins said, “Just let me go. I won’t do it again,” and began to take the merchandise out from 

under his coat. Additionally, the evidence at trial included five certified conviction orders 

showing Wilkins had been convicted of shoplifting more than three times prior to this event. 

The Commonwealth rested and Wilkins did not put on any evidence. The record does not 

contain any of the closing arguments made by either party. The jury was instructed that Wilkins 

was presumed innocent until proven guilty, but did not receive any instruction concerning his 

clothing or appearance at trial.

While the jury was deliberating, the circuit court judge said: 

Since we might have some confusion there are a couple of things I 

want to put on the record. Obviously this is my point of view from 

what has occurred but nonetheless, I want them on the record. 

At one point in time the defendant wanted to be here and then 

didn’t want to be here, and then he did. I want the record to reflect 

he’s been present during all parts of the trial, including the 

preparation of the instructions. I would also comment that the 

defendant’s conduct here today has been somewhat less than civil, 

but such interruptions that we have had were largely spontaneous. 

They were not things I could prevent ahead of time. I certainly 
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tried. Whatever extent that may influence the trial, it is a problem 

the defendant created for himself.

I think he failed to produce [street] clothes, which falls into what I 

view as a pattern of trying to avoid going to trial in this matter. 

This case has been pending since April. It has been continued 

three times. There has been [sic] three lawyers, because the 

defendant has been dissatisfied with counsel. And even as late as 

yesterday, he tried to get a continuance for what the Court viewed 

as no good reason. Obviously, he didn't get a continuance, and I 

think the issue with the jail clothes is part of that pattern. 

The jury returned with a guilty verdict. After a penalty phase hearing—none of which is in the 

record—the jury returned with a sentence of five years’ imprisonment. The circuit court held a 

brief hearing before imposing the jury’s verdict as Wilkins’s sentence.

 Wilkins appealed his conviction to the Court of Appeals, and a divided panel affirmed the 

conviction. Wilkins v. Commonwealth, 64 Va. App. 711, 771 S.E.2d 705 (2015). The Court of 

Appeals first held that the Commonwealth had not compelled Wilkins to wear jail-issued 

clothing because the circuit court had “afforded appellant a reasonable opportunity to procure 

street clothes by ordering a recess so that defense counsel could explore alternatives to the jail 

clothing.” Id. at 716-17, 771 S.E.2d at 707 (internal quotation marks, alteration and citation

omitted). Next, the Court of Appeals concluded that even if there had been compulsion, 

“viewing the circumstances in the light most favorable to the Commonwealth . . . , the record 

fails to establish that appellant’s clothing at trial actually was clearly identifiable as jail 

clothing.” Id. at 718, 771 S.E.2d at 708. Finally, the Court of Appeals ruled that Wilkins’s 

appearance at trial in jail-issued clothing was a product of his own actions, and that the evidence 

could not support reversing the circuit court’s “specific finding of fact” that Wilkins had been 

“acting in bad faith.” Id. at 719, 771 S.E.2d at 709. The dissenting judge disagreed and stated 

that the Commonwealth had the burden of justifying Wilkins’s appearance in jail-issued clothing 
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and disagreeing with the majority’s view that the circuit court had afforded Wilkins a reasonable 

opportunity to obtain non-jail-issued clothing. Id. at 724-33, 771 S.E.2d at 710-16. 

Wilkins appealed to this Court. We granted his appeal on the following assignment of 

error:

The trial court erred by allowing the jury [trial] to proceed when 

the defendant was wearing his jail uniform.

II. Analysis

A. Standard of Review 

Under well-settled principles of appellate review, we consider the evidence presented at 

trial in the light most favorable to the Commonwealth, the prevailing party below. Baldwin v. 

Commonwealth, 274 Va. 276, 278, 645 S.E.2d 433, 433 (2007); Robinson v. Commonwealth, 

273 Va. 26, 30, 639 S.E.2d 217, 219 (2007). We also accord the Commonwealth the benefit of 

all inferences fairly deducible from the evidence. Riner v. Commonwealth, 268 Va. 296, 303, 

601 S.E.2d 555, 558 (2004). Constitutional questions are questions of law, which the Court 

reviews de novo. Shivaee v. Commonwealth, 270 Va. 112, 119, 613 S.E.2d 570, 574 (2005). 

But the factual findings of the circuit court are not to be disturbed unless they are plainly wrong 

or are without evidence to support them. Commonwealth v. Davis, 290 Va. 362, 368-69, 777 

S.E.2d 555, 558 (2015). 

B. Jail attire in jury trials

In Estelle v. Williams, 425 U.S. 501 (1976), the Supreme Court of the United States held 

that states “cannot, consistent[] with the Fourteenth Amendment, compel an accused to stand 

trial before a jury while dressed in identifiable prison clothes.” Id. at 512. Applying Estelle, we 

have said that “being compelled to appear before a jury in clearly identifiable jail or prison 

clothes may undermine the fairness of the fact-finding process and, thus, violate the accused’s 
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fundamental right to a presumption of innocence while furthering no essential state interest.” 

Jackson v. Washington, 270 Va. 269, 276, 619 S.E.2d 92, 95 (2005). “Because the particular 

evil proscribed is compulsion, a defendant must properly object to being compelled to appear 

before the jury in prison clothes.” Id. (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). 

However, if a defendant wears jail attire before the jury because of a knowingly made tactical 

decision or because the defendant is otherwise “frustrat[ing] the process of justice by his own 

acts,” then there is no state compulsion and no deprivation of rights. Id. at 505 n.2, 507-08. 

This case presents a very narrow question for resolution: whether Wilkins’s attire was 

“readily identifiable” as jail-issued clothing. To answer that question, we first must determine 

which party has the burden of proof. In other words, does Wilkins have to prove that the 

clothing he wore at trial was readily identifiable as jail attire? Or, does the Commonwealth have 

to prove that it was not? 

We hold that the defendant bears the burden of proving that the clothing he or she wore at 

trial was readily identifiable to the jury as jail attire. We find support for this in the language of 

Estelle itself: even the narrow language of the holding emphasizes that the constitutional 

violation occurs only when the defendant is “dressed in identifiable prison clothes.” Id. at 512 

(emphasis added). This approach also finds support in how Estelle has been applied in the 

federal courts and in our sister states. See, e.g., United States v. Henry, 47 F.3d 17, 22 (2d Cir. 

1995) (deferring to the lower court’s finding “that a jury would not readily identify [the 

defendant’s jail-issued] denim as prison issue”); United States v. Martin, 964 F.2d 714, 720 (7th 

Cir. 1992) (ruling for the government because “the defendant is unable to demonstrate that the 

plain/unmarked jumpsuit that he wore during the two days of trial was clearly identifiable as 

prison clothing”); United States v. Rogers, 769 F.2d 1418, 1422 (9th Cir. 1985) (“A person 
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seeking reversal of his conviction because he was compelled to stand trial in prison garments 

must demonstrate from the trial record that a juror would recognize the clothing as having been 

issued by prison authorities.”); Shackelford v. State, 498 N.E.2d 382, 384 (Ind. 1986) (“[T]he 

defendant must show he was compelled to wear jail attire and that it was readily identifiable as 

such.” (citing Estelle, 425 U.S. at 512) (emphasis in original)). 

A defendant must meet this burden with evidence of his or her appearance in court. A 

record that shows the defendant wore clothes marked with the word “jail” or “prison” would go 

far in helping the defendant meet his or her burden. See, e.g., Estelle, 425 U.S. at 502 (the 

defendant’s clothes “were distinctly marked as prison issue”). Clothing marked with serial 

numbers or other indicia of incarceration would also weigh in favor of a defendant satisfying his 

or her burden. See Randle v. State, 826 S.W.2d 943, 946 (Tex. Crim. App. 1992) (ruling that an 

Estelle violation occurs when a defendant, against his will, is “placed before the jury while 

wearing clothing which bears the indicia of incarceration”); see also Scott v. State, 80 S.W.3d 

306, 306-08 (Tex. Crim. App. 2002) (reciting the defense counsel’s detailed description of the 

defendant’s clothing at trial as “orange overalls marked ‘P-5, P-6, No. 27, No. 25,’” and citing 

Randle). Even unmarked clothing could be readily identifiable as jail-issued clothing, such as 

the orange jumpsuits or striped outfits widely associated with prison attire. See Smith v. United 

States, 182 F.3d 1023, 1025 (8th Cir. 1999) (determining that it was “virtually certain that jury 

members would identify the orange outfit worn by [the defendant] as prison garb,” despite the 

clothing not being marked with “numbers, letters, or other markings”). 

In this case, the evidence in the record is inadequate for Wilkins to meet his burden of 

proving that the clothing he wore at trial was readily identifiable as jail attire. The entirety of the 

description in the record is as follows: 
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He’s wearing Portsmouth City Jail clothes. They are kind of like a 

green, sort of scrub outfit. He is wearing black sneakers that I 

think they have the inmates wear. He’s got a visible bracelet on 

his left arm.

There is no indication that Wilkins’s outfit was marked in any manner that would indicate it was 

from the Portsmouth City Jail, or any other detention facility. Neither the “sneakers” nor the 

“visible bracelet” as described in this record are clear indicia of incarceration. There are no 

photographs in the record of either Wilkins’s attire specifically or the uniform given to 

Portsmouth City Jail inmates generally. Because we determine that Wilkins has failed to meet 

his burden of proving that his clothing at trial was readily identifiable as jail-issued clothing, we 

do not need to reach the question whether Wilkins was compelled to wear said clothing. 

Likewise, we do not need to address whether Wilkins’s failure to obtain non-jail clothing was a 

result of his own actions in bad faith. 

III. Conclusion 

For the reasons stated, we will affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeals, affirming the 

judgment of the circuit court. 

Affirmed.