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Aeronautics 

and Space Report 

of the President 

1987 

Activities 

1989 

Nation a I Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 
summary .............. ........................................... 1 

Space Science and Applications .............. 

Communications ............... ............................. 5 

Space Transportation .......................................... 7 

Quality Assurance .............................................. 8 

Space Station ............... ....................................... 8 

Space Operations ....................................... .. 9 

Technology .......................................... 9 

... 2 

Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and 

Commercial Use of 

Aeronautics and Space Research and 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 15 

Space Science and Applications .................................. 15 

Space Transportation ................................... 37 

Safety. Reliability. Maintainability and 

Quality Assurance ............................................... 42 

Commercial Use of Space .................. 

Space Station .................. ............................... 46 

.......... 43 

Space Operations ................................................ 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

Space Research and Technology ................................ 65 

Department of Defense .......................................... 75 

Space Activities ............................................................ 76 

Aeronautical Activities ................................................. 80 

Department of Commerce ..................................... 87 

Space Systems .............................................................. 87 

International Activities ............................ 95 

Research ....................................................................... 97 

Other Uses of Satellites .... 102 

Department of Energy .......................................... 107 

Space Nuclear Power Systems ................................... 107 

Nuclear Test Detection .............................................. 113 

Department of the Interior .................................. 115 

Processing ................................................................ 115 

Remote Sensing Applications .................................... 117 

International Activities ............................................... 123 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and 

Department of Agriculture ................................... 125 

Federal Communications Commission ............. 127 

Communications Satellites ......................................... 127 

New Satellite Services ................................................ 130 

International Conference Activities ........................... 130 

Department of Transportation ............................ 133 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control ...................... 142 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation ............. 145 

.. Aviation Safety ............................................................ 133 

11 
Environmental Protection Agency .................... 149 

Nationd Science Foundation ............................... 15 1 

Astronomical Sciences ............................................... 15 1 

Atmospheric Sciences ................................................ 15 1 

Smithsonian Institution ........ 

Space Sciences ........................................................... 155 

Planetary Sciences ...................................................... 155 

Terrestrial Studies ....................................................... 156 

Space Technology .................. ...... ..... ,155 

Department of State .............................................. 157 

Activities Within the United Nations ......................... 157 

COSPAS/SARSAT ....................................................... 158 

International Telecommunications ........................... 158 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ......... 159 

Bilateral Discussions on Space Arms Control 159 

Multilateral Discussions on Space Arms 

Control 159 

Space Policy ............................................................... 160 

........... 

.................................................................... 

United States Information Agency ...................... 16 1 

Voice of America ........................................................ 161 

Television Service ...................................................... 161 

Other USIA Activities ................................................. 161 

163 

163 

A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ........ 

A-3 Successful U.S. Launches--1987 ...................... 165 

B-1 US-Launched Applications Satellites, 

1981-1987 ........................................................ 166 

B-2 US.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

B-3 

C 

1981-1987 168 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1987 ......... 169 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

1961-1987. ..... ...... 170 

D U.S. Space Launc es ............................. 177 

E-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

Historical Budget Summary-Budget 

Authority ......................................................... 178 

Budget Authority 

Chart: U.S. Space BudgetFY 1971-1987 .................................................. 179 

E-2 Space Activities Budget ..................................... 180 

E-3 Aeronautics Budget .......................................... 180 

F Agreement Between the United States of 

America and the Union of Soviet Socialist 

Republics Concerning Cooperation in the 

Exploration and Use of Outer Space for 

Peaceful Purposes . . ...... 181 

iii 

Summary 

During 1987 research and development in the areas 

of aeronautics and space, involving several federal 

agencies, continued to open new horizons for technological understanding and answer numerous questions 

about how the solar system, including Earth, and the 

universe were created. 

space shuttle to flight status. Crew escape and landing 

system changes recommended by the Presidential 

Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident 

were being incorporated into the orbiter; design 

changes were made to the Solid Rocket Motor and 

static test firings of it were conducted; and a program 

was initiated to address key problems involving the 

space shuttle main engine that were identified following the Challenger accident on January 28, 1986. 

Studies were completed concluding that a mixed 

fleet, consisting of the space shuttle and expendable 

launch vehicles, would be required for continued U.S. 

operations and access to space. 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA) conducted four spacecraft launches using 

expendable launch vehicles, three of which were the 

launch of GOES-H, the last in the current series of 

Geostationary Operdticnal Environmental Satellites. 

In the areas of space observation and exploration, 

Supernova 1987a, discovered in the Large Magellanic 

Cloud which is located 160,000 light years from Earth, 

was observed and studied. Since this was the brightest 

supernova observed since 1604, astronomers from 

around the world had an unprecedented opportunity 

to study the death of a star. In related activity, scientists theorized that the massive black holes (M31 and 

M32) at the center of two galaxies close to the Milky 

Way have a mass 10 to 100 times that of the sun, and 

are favored to explain the energy source of quasars. 

The Pioneer 10 spacecraft traveled past the orbit of 

Pluto, and Pioneer 11 approached the orbit of Neptune. Like the Pioneers, the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft continued measuring the properties of the interplanetary medium in the outer solar system. PreparaMajor efforts continued to focus on returning the 

tions were initiated for Voyager 2’s final encounter 

with Neptune in 1989. Also, after successfully operating for 10 years, the International Sun-Earth Explorers 

ISEE-1 and -2 reentered Earth’s atmosphere. 

Based in Antarctica, scientists from U.S. agencies 

and universities conducted extensive studies to determine the causes of ozone depletion in the atmosphere. 

In the area of national security, the Strategic Defense Initiative program demonstrated the ability to 

intercept targets within the atmosphere and in space. 

Certain technologies and concepts to be used in this 

program were approved for analysis of their feasibility 

as critical elements of the program. 

Surveillance and warning systems continued to 

provide warning capability for attacks by ballistic 

missiles or threats by air-breathing vehicles. During 

1987 two phased-array warning-system radars became 

operational; two have been in use since 1980. A joint 

program by the Federal Aviation Administration and 

the U.S. Air Force was planned for modernizing the 

Canadian-American Joint Surveillance System radar, in 

addition to other surveillance and warning systems. 

Increased capacity in the 11/12/14-GHz band 

allowed the Federal Communications Commission to 

approve applications for several small Earth-based 

antenna networks that will increase satellite-delivered 

communications services. 

Congress approved a revised Landsat program 

commercialization plan that called for the release of 

additional funding to continue the development of the 

space and ground systems for the Landsat 6 satellite. 

In addition, the Department of Commerce will direct a 

study aimed at developing a commercial system more 

advanced than the Landsat 6 system. 

In the international arena, the United States moved 

closer to agreement with its partners in the multibillion 

dollar, permanently occupied Space Station program. 

Secretary of State Shultz signed a new space cooperation agreement between the United States and the 

Soviet Union that established 16 bilateral cooperative 

space science projects. The Federal Communications 

1 
Commission was involved in international efforts 

concerning equitable access by all countries to the 

geostationary satellite orbit and the frequency bands 

allocated to space services, as well as participating in 

the examination and revision of the International 

Telecommunications Union Radio Regulations pertaining to mobile services. The Department of State 

continued to evaluate and advance U.S. foreign policy 

interests in the context of space activity. The Arms 

Control and Disarmament Agency continued to work 

on multilateral space arms control issues, both in the 

United Nations General Assembly and in the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva. The Department of 

Energy worked on developing spaceborne nuclear 

detonation detector systems in order to support 

national requirements to verify international compliance with the Limited Test Ban Treaty and the Nonproliferation Treaty. Also, the United States Information 

Agency distributed articles which examined the 

prospects for space over the next 25 years and reviewed “Who’s Who” in space during the first 25 years 

of space travel and exploration. Through its information activities, the U.S. Information Agency continued 

to promote world awareness of U.S. achievements in 

space research and the development of the peaceful 

uses of space. The National Science Foundation 

collaborated with agencies of other nations on an 

extensive global study of Earth, the oceans, and the 

atmosphere. The U.S. Geological Survey of the Department of the Interior participated in cooperative work 

with Norway to analyze Landsat thematic mapper 

images for surface temperature mapping of an area of 

Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. Also the Survey is 

working with 30 other countries to document the areal 

extent of glacier ice on Earth. The Antarctic volume in 

this study is being prepared in cooperation with Britain 

and New Zealand. 

The remainder of this chapter is a summary by 

function of U.S. aeronautics and space activities in 

calendar year 1987. The succeeding chapters present 

activities of individual agencies in greater detail. 

Space Science and Applications 

The Space Science and Applications program of 

NASA endeavors to increase understanding of basic 

physical, chemical, and biological processes, Earth and 

its environment, the other planets, the sun and the 

other stars, and the rest of the universe. Scientific 

disciplines included are astrophysics, solar system 

exploration, space physics, Earth science and applications, life sciences, microgravity science and applications, and communications and information systems 

The National Science Foundation has continued to 

make important contributions to the furtherance of 

research in atmospheric sciences and ground-based 

astronomy. The Sniithsonian Institution, through its 

Astrophysical Observatory, contributes to basic research in the space sciences. The Smithsonian’s Air and 

Space Museum provides public exhibits, lectures, and 

educational programs. The Museum’s Center for Earth 

and Planetary Studies also conducts basic research in 

planetary geology and terrestrial remote sensing. 

Astrophysics 

The NASA Astrophysics program studies the origin 

and evolution of the universe, the fundamental physical laws of nature, stars, planets, and life itself. The 

program centers on space observatories that are 

supported by instrument developments, suborbital 

research activities, data analysis, and theoretical 

studies. 

Supernova 1987a. February 24, 1987 marked the 

discovery of Supernova 1987a in the Large Magellanic 

Cloud. The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) 

detected the initial ultraviolet spectrum of this exploding star and acquires spectral data from it regularly. 

By comparing ultraviolet spectral data from IUE with 

pre-explosion measurements of other stars, researchers 

determined the progenitor of Supernova 1987a to be a 

blue supergiant star known as Sanduleak-69 202. Data 

from continued observations could help answer many 

questions about the birth of a solar system. 

L 
Hubble Space Telescope. In 1987 NASA completed assembly and testing of the Hubble Space 

Telescope (HST), the first of the four Great Observatories. The HST is scheduled for launch into space in 

1989, allowing scientists and astronomers to see clearly 

10 to 30 times beyond what can be seen in the universe with existing instruments. 

Gamma Ray Observatory. NASA neared completion of the manufacturing of the mechanical components and electronic systems for the Gamma Ray 

Observatory (GRO). Scheduled for launch into space 

in 1990, the GRO will be used to study extraterrestrial 

gamma rays, the highest energy radiation in the 

electromagnetic spectrum. 

Facility. Definition phase studies of this proposed 

facility were completed by two competing contractors. 

Planned for launch in the 1990’s, the Advanced X-ray 

Astrophysics Facility will be designed to observe 

celestial sources of x-rays, and to help answer fundamental questions in astronomy and physics. 

Proposed Space Infrared Telescope Facility. 

Detailed studies were made of the Facility and its 

mirror. Expected to be the fourth of the Great Observatories, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility will 

make the most sensitive observations yet of infrared 

radiation from celestial objects. 

Sofar System €xpforation 

Pioneer Venus. Orbiting Venus since 1978, the 

Pioneer Venus spacecraft has made continual observations of the planet and its interaction with the solar 

wind. During 1987, NASA researchers emphasized 

collecting data that contributed to understanding the 

solar cycle effects on the Venusian atmosphere and 

ionosphere. 

The Interplanetary Medium. The Voyager 1 and 

2 spacecraft, like the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft, are 

measuring the interplanetary medium in the outer solar 

system. Both the Voyager spacecraft are beyond the 

orbit of Uranus. Pioneer 10 is beyond the orbit of 

Proposed Advanced X-ray Astrophysics 

Pluto, and Pioneer 11 is approaching the orbit of 

Neptune. 

Galileo. NASA re-established the launch date, 

mission trajectory, and upper stage for the Galileo 

mission to Jupiter. Scheduled for launch on the space 

shuttle in late 1989, Galileo will conduct investigations 

of Venus and the asteroids Gaspra and Ida while en 

route to Jupiter. 

Ulysses. The Ulysses mission, a joint endeavor 

with the European Space Agency (ESA), will provide 

the first view of the sun and the solar system from 

above the ecliptic plane. After extensive negotiations 

with ESA, the launch date for the m 

uled for 1990. 

Mars Observer. The Mars Observer mission will 

obtain images of the surfxe and atmosphere of Mars 

during the four seasons of one Mars year. The mission 

was rescheduled for launch in 1992. 

Magellan. Development of the Magellan mission to 

Venus continued toward an expected 1989 launch by 

the space shuttle. The radar-equipped spacecraft will 

map the surface of the planet for one Venus year (243 

days). 

Space Physics 

Space Physics programs support investigations of 

the origin, evolution, and interactions of particulate 

matter and electromagnetic fields in a variety of space 

plasmas. Research is conducted in the areas of 

Ionospheric Physics, Magnetospheric Physics, Solar 

Physics, and Cosmic and Heliospheric Physics. 

Global Geospace Science Program. Planning 

began for this program that will involve contributions 

by the United States, Japan, and the European Space 

Agency. The U.S. contribution to this effort will be in 

the International Solar Terrestrial Physics Program. 

These nations plan to launch a series of satellites in the 

early-to-mid 1990’s to provide the measurements and 

to test models for the study of the interior of the sun; 

the origin of the solar wind; the cause-and-effect 

relations of the flow of energy in Earth’s key magneto3 
spheric source and storage regions; and the microphysics of plasma interactions in Earth’s magnetosphere. 

Operational Explorers. Launched in 1780, the 

Solar Maximum Mission continued to provide valuable 

observations of the sun and measurements of ozone 

concentrations in Earth’s atmosphere. The data are 

expected to play a significant role in solving the 

mystery of Antarctica’s “Ozone Hole.” 

The workhorse of the Explorers, the 14-year-old 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP-8) satellite, 

continued to function well as the only existing monitor 

of solar wind interactions with Earth’s magnetosphere 

and to provide crucial information for missions to 

other planets. 

After operating successfully for 10 years, the International Sun-Earth Explorers ISEE-1 and -2 reentered 

Earth’s atmosphere. The data they had provided 

resulted in the publication of numerous scientific 

papers. The International Sun-Earth Explorer-3, 

retargeted and renamed the International Cometary 

Explorer (ICE), is still operational. Its observations 

result in over 100 scientific papers published annually 

that cover the full range of space plasma phenomena. 

Earth Science and Applications 

During 1987, considerable progress was made in 

understanding Earth, its atmosphere, and its environment. 

Satellite Operations. NASA-developed satellites 

operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) include both geostationary and 

polar-orbiting spacecraft that are used to forecast 

weather and issue storm or natural disaster warnings. 

In February, the last of the current series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites, GOES-H, 

was launched and became operational as GOES-7, 

providing primary weather coverage of the east coast 

of the United States. Launch of the first in the nextgeneration series of satellites, GOES I through M, is 

expected in early 1990. NOAA 7 and NOAA 10 

satellites continued to provide polar-orbiting service 

throughout the year. Orbiting 450 miles above Earth’s 

surface, these spacecraft provide total global imaging 

Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Geologic Research. 

NASA, NOAA, the National Science Foundation, and 

the Chemical Manufacturers Association sponsored two 

expeditions to study the Antarctic Ozone Hole, using 

ER-2 and DC-8 aircraft and ground-based experiments. 

Preliminary results indicate that it is caused by both 

human and natural activities. More precise analysis is 

expected in early 1988. 

Satellite Cloud Climatology Project was conducted off 

the coast of southern California to study marine 

stratocumulus clouds. The results of this experiment, 

along with data taken from the first regional experiment on the role of cirrus clouds in the radiation 

budget, will help scientists understand the relationships 

between microphysics and macrophysics and the 

radiative transfer properties of clouds. 

Research continued on both active and passive 

remote sensing techniques to improve capabilities for 

observing Earth’s atmosphere. Several techniques 

using lasers to measure aerosols, water vapor, temperature, and wind profiles were tested aboard NASA 

research aircraft. 

NASA and NOAA established a joint panel to study 

the feasibility of developing a spacehorne lightning 

sensor. The proposed instrument would be carried on 

a satellite in geosynchronous orbit, and would be 

capable of detecting both cloud-to-cloud and cloud-toground lightning strokes. The data it would provide is 

expected to yield new insights into the role of atmospheric electricity, cloud growth, storm development, 

intensity and precipitation processes, and Earth’s global 

electrodynamic circuit. 

The FAA continued to improve the 6-sensor Low 

Level Wind Shear Alert System, the ground-based wind 

shear detection system that is used by air traffic 

controllers to issue advisories to departing and arriving 

aircraft. New algorithms for the system designed to 

coverage. 

The second regional experiment in the International 

4 
reduce the impact of false alarms and enhance the 

system’s ability to detect microbursts were developed 

and tested. Also, the FAA continued to conduct tests 

using Doppler weather radar capable of “seeing” inside 

storms to measure rainfall intensity and the speed of 

winds. 

NASA’s oceanography program focused on obtaining and analyzing remotely sensed satellite data to 

study ocean circulation, atmospheric forcing of the 

ocean surface, biological productivity, and sea ice. 

Several federal agencies and international organizations 

are collaborating on ocean research, and a system of 

satellite sensors is expected to be in use by the early 

1990’s to support several global experiments. Science 

teams from NASA and the French Space Agency began 

developing a science plan for TOI-’EX/POSEIDON, a 

satellite altimetry system that will measure sea surface 

height and allow scientists to determine the ocean 

response to wind forcing and ocean circulation. 

NASA and the University of Alaska continued 

developing the Alaska Synthetic Aperture Radar Facility 

in Fairbanks, Alaska, which will allow scientists to 

receive, process, and archive data about sea ice from 

the Special Sensor Microwave Imaging Radiometer that 

was launched into space in June, and from sensors on 

European, Japanese, and Canadian satellites. 

Geodynamics research contributes to the understanding of earthquakes, the evolution of Earth, and 

the interaction between the solid Earth, the oceans, 

and the atmosphere. During the year. the United 

States participated in joint projects and programs with 

several nations that included not only using fixed and 

mobile laser ranging systems to measure tectonic plate 

motion and Earth rotation, but also studying earthquake hazards in the Caribbean basin. 

The Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Land 

Management uses data from both the French SPOT 

satellite and the Landsat Thematic Mapper to assess 

and monitor mineral development on public lands. 

Data were used to map areas where mineral materials 

are extracted and oil and gas are located, and to 

monitor compliance with U.S. management regulations 

governing mining claims. 

NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey initiated a 

program to map the surface of Mars using highresolution images from Viking spacecraft. The resulting geologic maps are expected to show in detail the 

structure, stratigraphy, and morphologic aspects of the 

Martian surface. 

Life Sciences 

NASA’s Life Sciences program investigates biological 

processes and life in the universe and endeavors to 

promote health and productivity in human space flight. 

Space Station era, with emphasis on maintaining health 

and perforinance during extended exposure to the 

weightlessness of space. A Health Maintenance 

Facility under developinent for the Space Station will 

incorporate advanced technology and capabilities to 

monitor space crews. 

understand the effects of gravity and weightlessness on 

the biological processes of plants and animals. 

Ground-based research clarified some mechanisms that 

control the differential growth and orientation of 

plants. This research contributes directly to the 

program to develop a Controlled Ecological Life 

Support System, which will be designed to recycle the 

food, air, and water needed to support extended 

missions with humans in space. Additional studies in 

the space environment are needed to confirm and 

complement current developmental and metabolic 

research. 

Microgravity Science and Applications 

NASA’s Microgravity Science and Applications 

program strives to foster the development of nearEarth space as a national resource. Research is conducted in the fundamental sciences, materials science, 

and biotechnology. Experimenting in the microgravity 

environment increases understanding of the following: 

the fundamental sciences that govern processes on 

Space Medicine. NASA initiated planning for the 

Gravitational Biology. This program strives to 

5 
Earth, such as those influencing the behavior of fluids; 

the role of gravity in Earth-based industrial processes, 

such as those used to produce metals and alloys; and 

the production of high-value materials, such as protein 

crystals. During the year, some outdated research 

hardware was replaced by systems with expanded 

capabilities. 

Vessels; and SARSAT, is the acronym for Search and 

Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking, the US. contribution 

to the system). A final draft of an intergovernmental 

agreement to extend service beyond the 1990's was 

completed. Also, plans were under way to expand the 

ground system network and to test the system using 

both polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites. 

Communications 

to expand the technology base for commercial and 

military satellite communications systems in today's 

highly competitive, data-intensive environment. 

Advanced Communications Technology 

Satellite. The Advanced Communications Technology 

Satellite project essentially completed the design, 

implementation, and testing of this satellite's communication engineering models (transponders and antennas), the heart of this spacecraft. High-technology 

items designed for the spacecraft, such as the spacebased processor, steerable antenna, and high-powered, 

fast-hopping, spot-beam antenna system, will contribute to U.S. prominence in the future international 

telecommunications marketplace. 

provide telephone service to rural areas, long-range 

vehicle dispatch and location service, emergency 

communications, aeronautical communications, and 

service to industries operating in remote locations. 

The Federal Communications Commission allocated 27 

MHz of spectrum in the L-Band for mobile service, and 

concluded that joint ownership of the first-generation 

system would best serve the public. Eight applicants 

have reached general agreement on a joint venture, 

and are expected to submit a system proposal in early 

1988. 

system, an international service which locates aircraft 

and vessels in distress has been credited with saving 

over 950 lives (COSPAS, translated literally from 

Russian means Space System for Search of Distressed 

Programs in satellite communications are designed 

Mobile Satellite. A mobile satellite system will 

Search and Rescue. To date, the COSPAS/SARSAT 

Advanced Technology Satellite (ATS-3). The 

ATS-3 celebrated its 20th anniversary and continued to 

support the activities of not only several federal, state, 

and local agencies, but also a number of domestic and 

international disaster-relief organizations. Through 

satellite voice and data links in science and communications application experiments, support is provided to 

North and South America, most of the Atlantic Ocean, 

and a large part of the eastern Pacific, including 

Hawaii and Antarctica. 

the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) maintained 13 satellites in geosynchronous orbit: 1 IV-A, 4 V's, and 2 V-A's in the 

Atlantic Ocean Region; 2 V's and 1 V-A in the Indian 

Ocean Region; and 1 IV-A and 2 V's in the Pacific 

Ocean Region. The IV-A satellites have exceeded their 

estimated maneuver life. During the year, the Federal 

Communications Commission approved the construction and operation of 19 new Earth station facilities to 

access the INTELSAT system in the Atlantic and Pacific 

Ocean Regions. 

Second-generation satellites of the 53 membercountry International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT) will have a capacity about triple that of 

the present leased satellites. The first of these satellites 

is expected to become operational in 1989. INMARSAT serves over 6,500 vessels; 20 coast stations in 13 

countries are in operation, with two more expected by 

1988. 

Domestic Communications Satellites. At year's 

end, there were 27 domestic communications satellites 

in orbit at locations between 69" and 143" west 

INTELSAT and INMARSAT. At the end of 1987, 

6 
longitude on the orbital arc. In September, 20 applications for new or replacement satellites were filed as 

part of the next domestic satellite group to be 

processed. 

round” companies previously granted conditional 

permits in the fall of 1986 to construct Direct Broadcast 

Satellites, three were actively doing so. They are 

required to have their satellite systems in operation by 

the last quarter of 1988. One demonstrated “due 

diligence” in construction of its satellite system and 

requested channel and orbital position assignments. 

One application for a Direct Broadcast Satellite system 

was filed, and another applicant requested placement 

in a pending status. Of the six “second-round” applicants previously granted conditional permits, one has 

demonstrated “due diligence” and was awarded 

channels, orbital position, and launch authority. 

Military Communications Satellites. Military 

Satellite Communicationr (MILSATCOM) are provided 

by several satellite systems. The Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) system consists of government-owned satellites, augmented by leased, contractor-owned satellites (LEASAT). FLTSATCOM provides 

low-capacity, worldwide command and control 

communications in the Ultra High Frequency band. 

Using the same frequency band, the Air Force Satellite 

Communications system provides specialized command and control capabilities for U.S. nuclear forces. 

In the Super High Frequency band, the Defense 

Satellite Communications System provides highcapacity, multi-channel service to a diverse group of 

strategic, tactical, and non-Defense Department 

customers. Planning continued on the future deployment of the Milstar satellite communications system, 

which will use the Extremely High Frequency band to 

provide highly survivable communications for critical 

users. 

Navigation Satellites. Seven Global Positioning 

System (GPS) developmental satellites were operating, 

Five of which were performing well. The remaining 

Direct Broadcast Satellites. Of the eight “firsttwo were operating substantially beyond their design 

lifetimes and were performing marginally. Procurement of GPS operational satellites was in its sixth year, 

under a multiyear, 28 spacecraft contract. The first 

operational launch is scheduled for 1988 and full 

operational capability of the GPS network is expected 

in late 1990 or early 1991. 

Defense Meteorological Satellites. The Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program continued to be the 

Department of Defense’s most important source of 

weather data. The Department of Defense continued 

the development of improved sensing capability to be 

incorporated into all new satellites of this system. 

Space Transportation 

Major efforts in NASA’s Space Flight program 

continued to focus on returning the space shuttle to 

flight status. 

Transportation Services 

developing a combined shuttle and expendable launch 

vehicle manifest. This mixed fleet manifest incorporated major elements of the President’s policy on the 

commercialization of space, which provides that NASA 

will no longer launch commercial satellites except for 

those that are shuttle-unique or have foreign policy 

implications. The policy revised Department of 

Defense requirements and broadened the definition of 

secondary payloads to include those up to approximately 8,000 pounds. 

Orbiter 

escape and landing system changes recommended by 

the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle 

Challenger Accident were being incorporated into the 

spacecraft. Other safety-related areas under review 

included the critical items list, launch commit criteria, 

hazard analyses, and design requirements and certification. The production of an orbiter to replace Challenger was initiated in August when a contract was 

signed with Rockwell International. 

Activity in Transportation Services centered on 

Orbiter safety modifications that include crew 

7 
Solid Rocket Booster 

All areas of the Solid Rocket Boosters were reviewed for minimum impact on the return-to-flight 

schedule. Primary design changes were made to the 

for a balanced use of the shuttle and expendable 

launch vehicles. NASA conducted four spacecraft 

launches using expendable launch vehicles, three of 

which were successful. 

Solid Rocket Motor field joints, nozzle-to-case joints, 

case insulation, and seals. Several tests of case and 

nozzle-to-case joints with intentionally flawed insulation and O-rings were completed. Also, two of the 

four static motor test firings were conducted and were 

successful. 

Subsequent to the Challenger accident, the five 

major solid-propulsion contractors were funded to 

study changes to the existing Solid Rocket Motor joint 

design and to propose new concepts for improving 

Solid Rocket Motor performance. The results of these 

studies were reported to Congress, as required by law. 

Also, NASA submitted a plan to Congress indicating it 

would initiate Phase €3 studies for an Advanced Solid 

Rocket Motor. Subsequently, the five solid propulsion 

contractors were awarded contracts for preliminary 

design studies of both a monolithic and segmented 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor. 

Space Shuttle Main Engine 

A program was initiated to address the key problems of the space shuttle main engine identified 

following the Challenger accident. It resulted in 23 

mandatory changes that will be required before flights 

of the space shuttle resume. The test rate to complete 

all certification testing was increased from 8 to 12 per 

month. The engine certification test program reached 

a major milestone when engine 2105 was tested for 

30,000 seconds. A third test stand was completed at 

the National Space Technology Laboratories and 

should be activated early in 1988. 

Advanced Planning 

Architecture Studies to define future space transportation requirements. Specifically, they coordinated 

studies to define concepts for heavy-lift launch vehicles 

that would satisfy both near- and long-term mission 

requirements. For human space flight, NASA continued efforts to enhance the shuttle’s near-term performance, initiated studies for space shuttle evolution, and 

continued studies of a next-generation (Space Shuttle 

11) vehicle. To support advanced lunar and Mars 

missions, studies were conducted on techniques for 

on-orbit storage of large cargoes and on space transfer 

vehicles that would be required in the next century. 

Safety, Reliability, Maintainability 

and Quality Assurance 

NASA and DOD continued the Space Transportation 

As part of efforts to improve the communication of 

safety problems, NASA’s Office of Safety, Reliability, 

Maintainability and Quality Assurance established the 

NASA Safety Reporting System. It is a confidential, 

voluntary, and independent reporting system through 

which NASA’s 100,000 employees and contractor 

personnel may directly and anonymously inform the 

NASA Headquarters Safety Division of their concerns 

over safety aspects of the space shuttle program. It is 

intended as a supplementary reporting system to be 

used when standard reporting methods fail to provide 

timely or satisfactory resolution. 

tives from the Space Transportation System (STS) 

A Technical Advisory Group, comprising representaExpendable Launch Vehicles 

the Department of Transportation developed a Space 

Launch Recovery Plan, in conjunction with the commercial and scientific communities, which would allow 

Centers and the Office of Space Flight, and chaired by 

the Manager of the STS Safety Program, was formed to 

investigate concerns reported through the NASA Safety 

Reporting System. Currently, the Program is handling 

During 1987 the Department of Defense, NASA, and 

8 
only STS-related safety issues. However, it will be 

expanded in the future to include safety issues in all 

NASA programs and projects. 

Commercial Use of Space 

The Office of Commercial Programs was established 

in NASA to encourage private sector investments in 

commercial space activities. 

NASA’s Centers for the Commercial Development of 

Space, which are nonprofit consortia of universities, 

industry, and government, conduct space-based, hightechnology research with commercial potential. 

During 1987, 7 additional Centers were established, 

bringing the total number to 16. Over 100 organizations are affiliated with the Centers. Two researchers 

that received support from the Centers were responsible for the highly publicized breakthrough in hightemperature superconductivity, the fabrication of 

material superconducting above the temperature of 

liquid nitrogen. 

When the space shuttle resumes flight operations, it 

will carry a payload developed by the 3M Corporation 

to study the properties of highly ordered organic 

materials produced ir. space. It also will carry equipment to grow protein crystals of a size and quality that 

will facilitate detailed analysis of their characteristics 

and that have significant implications for the future 

manufacture and use of pharmaceuticals. 

Two notable spinoffs from NASA-developed technology are the Programmable Implantable Medication 

(PIM) System which can eliminate the diabetic’s need 

for intravenous insulin and the Automatic Implantable 

Defibrillator (AID) which can sense the onset of 

fibrillation and deliver a balanced electric pulse to 

restore the heart to normal rhythm. During 1987 the 

PIM System was implanted in a total of 18 diabetic 

patients and the AID was implanted in approximately 

20 heart patients per month. 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation of 

the Department of Transportation continued to encourage and coordinate the development of commercial 

expendable launch vehicle operations by private U.S. 

enterprises. In 1987 the Office worked with the Air 

Force to develop the terms and conditions that will 

govern commercial use of the nation’s launch facilities. 

By the end of the year American launch firms had final 

contracts to launch 12 satellites. 

Space Station 

NASA took a major step toward establishing a 

permanently occupied Space Station by selecting four 

aerospace firms to design and build the orbital research base. 

The Space Station will serve, initially, as an orbiting 

observatory and microgravity laboratory. As it evolves, 

it is expected to become a servicing center, transportation node, spacecraft assembly facility, manufacturing 

Facility, storage depot, and staging base for lunar and 

planetary exploration. Phns call for the Space Station 

to be assembled in orbit beginning in 1994, and serve 

as the cornerstone for continued exploration of the 

solar system in the next century. 

Station’s international partners were nearly complete. 

Canada informally agreed to develop the facility’s 

Mobile Servicing System; Japan is expected to develop 

a laboratory module and two logistics carriers; and the 

European Space Agency’s plan to develop a laboratory 

module and a polar orbiting platform is pending. 

A National Research Council committee conducted 

an independent technical and cost review of the Space 

Station and concluded that NASA’s Phase I baseline 

configuration was the most practical first step in Space 

Station development. 

In the area of Space Station utilization, the Space 

Station Operations Task Force completed a 6-month 

review of the options and concepts for managing and 

conducting operations aboard the Facility; a preliminary 

draft was completed of a Space Station Users Handbook that will be used as a guide for commercial and 

government users; and a NASA-sponsored workshop 

provided the Agency with a commercial perspective on 

making the Space Station a valuable tool for industry. 

By the end of the year, negotiations with the Space 

9 
Space Operations 

In a reorganization, the functions of the former 

Office of Space Tracking and Data Systems became an 

integral part of the new Office of Space Operations. 

This office is responsible for developing a plan for 

managing NASA’s increasingly complex space operations, with initial priority given to man-tended and 

man-related space operations. 

The Space Tracking and Data Systems program 

continued to provide vital tracking, command, telemetry, communications, data relay, and data processing 

support to meet the requirements of flight programs. 

The current orbiting Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

(TDRS) supported Landsat, Solar Mesospheric Explorer, 

and Earth Radiation Budget Satellite missions. Final 

assembly, test, and launch preparations for two 

additional TDRS spacecraft were conducted to continue the transition from a ground-based tracking 

network to a space-based network for low-Earth-orbit 

missions. The space network will become operational 

when three fully functioning satellites are in geosynchronous orbit and spacecraft and ground systems 

have been tested. The next TDRS is scheduled for 

launch when space shuttle operations resume. Also, a 

TDRS Replacement Spacecraft program was initiated to 

replace the satellite lost in the Challenger accident. 

The Deep Space Network (DSN) prepared for 

Voyager 11’s encounter with Neptune in August 1989. 

To increase the capabilities of deep space antennas for 

this and future missions, the diameter of the DSN 

antennas in Spain and Australia were increased from 

64 meters to 70 meters. 

Basic elements of the Communications and Data 

Systems program form the vital link between data 

acquisition stations and users and provide communications, mission control, and data gathering and processing. During 1987, this program continued to support 

low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft for both scientific and 

applications missions. 

Aeronautics and Space Research 

and Technology 

New capabilities in aeronautics and significant 

advances made in space research and technology 

marked the year 1987 as one of promise in several 

Federal agencies’ endeavors to expand US. capabilities 

in civil and military aviation and to maintain U.S. leadership and security in space. 

Aeronautics 

The aeronautics research and technology program 

managed by NASA includes both fundamental disciplinary research and systems (vehicle-specific) research. 

This program includes joint efforts with both the 

Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of 

Defense. In addition to traditional aeronautical research, considerable progress has been made in the 

application of new disciplines, such as artificial intelligence and advanced computational simulation. 

Disciplinary Research and Technology. The 

disciplinary research and technology activities endeavor to improve understanding of basic physical 

phenomena and to provide the technological base for 

new concepts and ideas necessary for future advances. 

These activities are in the areas of aerodynamics, 

propulsion, materials and structures, information 

sciences and human factors, and flight systems. 

AerodynamicsNASA developed the computational 

fluid dynamics techniques that were applied to the hull 

and keel design of the America’s Cup yacht “Stars and 

Stripes.” In addition, two NASA-developed aerodynamic concepts were applied to the vessel-“riblets,” 

to reduce skin friction drag, and swept wingtips, on 

the winglets of the keel, to reduce induced drag. 

related to computational fluid mechanics analysis and 

advanced computational analysis in general aviation 

engine research, the major accomplishment was the 

start-up of three new facilities for component research 

that will expand the experimental validation data base. 

Propulsion-In addition to achievements in research 

10 
Materials and structuresA new thermoplastic 

composite material developed by NASA’s Langley 

Research Center is under evaluation by the aircraft 

industry for high-temperature composite structures that 

offer the potential for improved aircraft performance. 

Researchers have developed an advanced analytical 

capability to predict the unsteady aeroelastic response 

of aircraft configurations. Called the Computational 

Aeroelasticity Program-Transonic Small Disturbance, 

this analysis code may also be used to predict flutter 

boundaries and to simulate hypersonic three-dimensional flow fields and three-dimensional rotor-stator 

interactions, giving researchers insight and understanding into very complex flow fields. 

Information sciences and human factoreNASA 

and the Federal Aviation Administration are working 

together to find ways to increase the efficiency of the 

U.S. Air Traffic Control System. A time-based concept 

for controlling traffic flow in terminal areas was 

evaluated in the NASA Ames Research Center’s ATC 

simulation system. It is designed to allow new techniques for fully utilizing runway capacity and improving fleet operational efficiency. Flight evaluation of 

this concept is planned for the Denver terminal area in 

Flight systemsResearch on safety continued in the 

1988- 1989. 

specific areas of lightning, rain, and icing effects. 

Accomplishments included the installation at the 

Aircraft Landing Dynamic Facility of a water spray 

system that will be able to test sections of full-scale 

wings; the completion of computer codes for simulating iced airfoil performance whose simulation results 

were found to compare favorably with experimental 

data; and the start of the calibration of the completely 

studies included wind shear computer modeling that 

was used to develop and evaluate a wind shear hazard 

warning index. 

Systems (vehicle-spec &,I research a n d t e c h n o l o w 

Systems (vehicle-specific) research and technology 

focuses on areas that have the potential for increasing 

ted Icing Research Tunnel. Other safety 

the capabilities of specific classes of vehicles, such as 

transports, rotorcraft, high-performance military 

aircraft, and hypersonic vehicles. 

Transpol.lts--As part of the Advanced Turboprop 

Program, NASA and industry continued flight evaluation of a large-scale propfan propulsion system. A 9- 

foot diameter propfan was installed and flight tested 

on a Gulfstream I1 twinjet at speeds up to Mach 0.85 

and altitudes of 5,000 to 40,000 feet. All blade stresses 

were consistently below unlimited life levels, and noise 

levels agreed closely with model test data and analytcal predictions. Unducted Fan Model testing for 

acoustic and reverse thrust evaluation was completed, 

providing a data base for a variety of variations in 

geometry. This model promises to reduce wake swirl 

and thereby increase propulsive efficiency. 

Research continued on laminar (smooth) flow over 

aircraft surfaces. An important milestone in the 

technology of active laminar flow control was achieved 

when simulated commercial airline operations tests on 

a Jet Star verified the effectiveness and practicality of 

two different system concepts for maintaining laminar 

flow over the leading edge of the wing. 

RotorcraftIn NASA’s rotorcraft research, developments continued in the key areas of noise reduction, 

improved rotor performance, and high-speed performance. The research was highlighted with the beginning of flights of the X-Wing Rotor Systems Research 

Aircraft. The X-Wing points the way to future aircraft 

that at low speeds can hover like helicopters, yet at 

high speeds can stop the rotor in a fixed X-Wing 

configuration for airplane-like speed. 

High-performance milita y aircrafhSeveral advances were made in this area in 1987. Flight tests on 

the first system to integrate an aircraft’s propulsion and 

flight control systems, called the Highly Integrated 

Digital Electronic Control System, were completed in 

an F-15. A modified and highly instrumented HighAngle-of-Attack Research Vehicle made its first research flight to obtain and assess the aerodynamic 

characteristics of its design. Investigation was initiated 

11 
into the effects of ingestion, by an advanced, short 

takeoff and vertical landing (ASTOVL.) aircraft, of its 

hot exhaust gases. A joint program with the United 

high-temperature superalloy honeycomb material was 

successfully tested in extreme heat under hypersonic 

flow conditions. 

Kingdom, Department of Defense, and NASA was 

under way to develop technology for ASTOVL aircraft. 

NASA conducted an extensive flight test program on 

vertical and short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) 

research aircraft to validate control laws. Flight testing 

was successfully completed in the first phase of flightenvelope expansion for the X-29 Forward Swept Wing 

research aircraft, expanding the envelope to a Mach 

number of 1.4 at 40,000 feet. A testbed aircraft called 

the Advanced Fighter Technology Integration/F-lll 

Mission Adaptive Wing, with a wing modified so that 

its camber could be changed in flight, cleared a flight 

envelope to a Mach number of 1.3 with better than 

predicted performance. 

Hypersonic vehiclesHypersonic vehicle research 

focused on the following three areas: vehicle configuration, propulsion, and materials and structures. The 

National Aerospace Plane (NASP) program, which is 

jointly sponsored by NASA and the Department of 

Defense, completed the conceptual design phase for 

this hypersonic vehicle, the X-30. The NASP program 

seeks to merge aeronautics and space technologies 

into a flightworthy vehicle. The requirements imposed 

by the need to test such a hypersonic vehicle have 

spawned significant progress in the development of 

computational methods for analyzing fluid dynamics 

that will permit extrapolating beyond the limits of 

testing provided by ground facilities. Other analytical 

methods were being developed for predicting the 

length and stability of laminar (smooth) flow over 

surfaces in the transition from transonic to hypersonic 

speeds. Significant progress was achieved toward a 

hypersonic propulsion system through tests on supersonic combustion ramjet (scramjet) engines. In related 

structures research, an advanced technology fuelinjection side strut for the scramjet engine was developed and determined to be a feasible approach. A 

Space Research and Technology 

Space Research and Technology program are propulsion, controls and guidance, automation and robotics, 

human factors, computer science, sensors, data systems, and communications. 

included improved cryogenic ball bearings and extended blade life for single-crystal, hollow turbine 

blades for Earth-to-orbit propulsion systems. Another 

development was an engine diagnosis tool that uses a 

spectrometer to view the exhaust plume of an engine 

and identify bearing materials that are degrading in the 

plume. For propulsion systems for use in space-based 

transfer vehicles, testing was begun on reusable, highperformance, variable thrust engines that could be 

stored and fueled in space. Ikvelopments in electric 

propulsion included advances in magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters, which have the potential advantages 

over chemical propulsion devices of being simple in 

concept and compact in size. 

Space enew conversion-Research was continued 

in space energy conversion to improve performance in 

areas such as solar photovoltaic cells and arrays; 

power systems for potential future occupied bases; a 

power module for a space-qualified, free-piston Stirling 

engine; and a new electrode for a high-efficiency 

thermoelectric conversion system. In addition to 

refining and developing current space nuclear power 

systems, the Department of Energy made Considerable 

progress in designing and developing the next generation of space nuclear power systems for civil and 

military use. 

Aerothemzodynamics-Developments in research 

on the flow phenomena of aerospace vehicles, called 

aerothermodynamics, included simulation studies for 

safe separation of the space shuttle orbiter from the 

Discipline and systems technologies included in the 

Propulsion-Developments in chemical propulsion 

12 
booster stack during Solid Rocket Booster burn, and 

studies of aerobraking of vehicles returning from orbit. 

Aerobraking is the use of Earth's atmosphere to 

decelerate the vehicle, thus eliminating the weight of 

braking rockets and fuel. 

Materials and structures-Research on materials and 

structures included the redesign and concurrent testing 

of the Solid Rocket Motor field joint and O-ring 

materials, design of a lightweight material for a multiwall thermal protection system that could withstand 

temperatures of 900" F to -423" F, and development 

and testing of a mast, which is a large structure used in 

developing dynamic analyses, ground test methods, 

and control methods for future large space structures. 

Controls and guidanceDevelopments in the area 

of controls and guidance were focused on demonstrating on the ground advanced control concepts for 

generic large space structure hardware; developing 

innovative sensor and actuator concepts suitable for 

large space systems; and developing modeling, simulation, and control software. 

Automation and roboticsDevelopments in the 

area of automation and robotics during 1987 featured 

the use of telerobots to assist an astronaut in the 

assembly of a Space Station-type truss structure as well 

as demonstration of the grappling and docking of a 

telerobot with a satellite in simulated free spin and 

tumble. 

Space human factorsData were collected on the 

design and operational qualities for an advanced, highpressure, hard space-suit that would allow planning of 

realistic tasks and timeliness in extravehicular activity. 

Computer science-This area included the continuing development during the year of a reconfigurable, 

fault-tolerant architecture for a space-borne symbolic 

processor. 

Sensorsln the area of sensor development, work 

concentrated on demonstrating and understanding the 

laser amplification characteristics of the titanium-doped 

sapphire for use in an Earth-observing laser transmitter. 

Also development continued of small area devices 

such as heterodyne receivers based on superconductor-insulator-superconductor mixers, and of the 

necessary coolers to keep these devices at the required 

very low temperatures. 

Space data systemswork continued in 1987 on an 

optical disk recorder having a high-performance mass 

memory, for use in potential Earth-observing and 

Space Station missions. 

ment of high-power, diffraction-limited lasers in order 

to improve laser systems which will transmit data 

between satellites. 

activity, NASA initiated Inreach and Outreach Programs 

to define potential spaceflight technology experiments 

for both the NASA community and the outside aerospace community of industry, universities, and the 

Department of Defense. 

Communications-NASA worked on the developIn-space experimentsh the absence of launch 

13 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), established in 1958, is responsible for planning, conducting, and managing civilian research and 

development activities in aeronautics and space. Other 

federal agencies, state, local, and foreign governments, 

as well as educational institutions and private industry, 

also share in NASA’s programs. 

NASA’s mission continues to reflect the intent of 

Congress in creating the agency; that is, to explore 

space for peaceful purposes with international cooperation, for the benefit of all humankind. Technological advances have resulted in significant economic and 

social benefits for the United States and other nations, 

and remain the catalyst for national pride, progress, 

and achievement. The continued success of NASA’s 

programs will allow the United States to maintain its 

leadership status in aeronautics and space. 

Space Science and Applications 

Space Science and Applications programs are 

directed toward increasing understanding of basic 

physical, chemical and biological processes, and of the 

Earth and its space environment, the planets, the Sun, 

the stars, and the universe. Research activities involve 

observation of the distant universe, exploration of the 

near universe, and the characterization of the Earth 

and its environment. Space Science and Applications 

science disciplines include astrophysics, solar system 

exploration, space physics, Earth science and applications, life sciences, microgravity science and applications, and communications and information systems. 

Astrophysics 

Study of the Distant Universe. The NASA Astrophysics program has as its objectives the study of the 

origin and evolution of the universe, the fundamental 

physical laws of nature, and the birth of stars, planets, 

and ultimately life. Research in these areas requires 

observations at wave lengths absorbed by the Earth’s 

atmosphere, and therefore must be made from instruments carried into space. The program is centered 

around a series of space observatories, supported by a 

research base consisting of instrument developments, 

sub-orbital research activities, data analysis, and 

theoretical studies. The four Great Observatories, the 

Hubble Space Telescope, the Gamma-Ray Observatory, 

the proposed Advanced X-ray Astronomical Facility, 

and the proposed Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

will provide significantly improved sensitivity and 

resolution over their selected regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Smaller spacecraft in the Explorer 

series are used for exploration, all-sky surveys, specific 

studies, or unique investigations inappropriate for the 

Great Observatories. As part of the sub-orbital program, rockets, balloons, and aircraft provide the means 

to make preliminary observations, conduct selected 

low-cost investigations, test instrumental concepts, and 

nurture groups capable of developing instruments for 

future space missions. 

Supernova 1987a. On February 24, 1987, Supernova 1987a (SN 1987a) was discovered in the Large 

Magellanic Cloud by observers at Las Campanus 

Observatory in Chile. Since this is the nearest observed supernova since 1604, this discovery represents 

an unprecedented opportunity for astronomers to 

actively study the death of a star. 

NASA and its international partners used existing 

spacecraft and radio observatories to study SN 1987~. 

The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) detected 

the initial ultraviolet spectrum of the supernova and 

has since taken spectral data on a regular basis. The 

IUE also made key observations which confirmed the 

identification of the progenitor star. NASA’s Solar 

Maximum Mission (SMM) gamma-ray spectrometer 

monitored the supernova for gamma-ray emissions, 

and the Japanese spacecraft, Ginga, observed the xray’s emissions. 

NASA is also implementing an extensive rocket, 

balloon, and airborne campaign from the Southern 

Hemisphere to make high-sensitivity, high-resolution 

measurements of various supernova phenomena. This 

campaign will result in a coordinated study of the 

15 
gamma-ray, x-ray, ultraviolet and infrared emissions as 

they evolve. An extensive series of balloon and 

sounding rocket flights from Australia started in the fall 

of 1987, and the infrared telescope on the Kuiper 

Airborne Observatory was flown from New Zealand on 

several expeditions. 

testing of the first of the four Great Observatories, the 

HST, has been completed and is expected to be 

launched into space in 1989. Serviced by the Shuttle 

and the Space Station, it will be a long-term, major 

observatory that will extend our vision of the universe 

by allowing scientists to see clearly 10 to 30 times 

beyond what can be seen with existing instruments. 

Observing the solar system, HST will provide the first 

images of the surfaces of Pluto and its moon, Charon; 

and by looking back in time and space, will determine 

how galaxies evolved in the initial period after the Big 

Bang. 

Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). The GRO will 

be launched by the Space Shuttle in 1990. GRO will 

carry four instruments to explore extraterrestrial 

gamma rays, the highest energy radiation in the 

electromagnetic spectrum, covering the energy range 

from 0.1 million electron volts (MeV) to 30,000 MeV. 

Manufacturing of the mechanical components and 

electronic systems for GRO neared completion during 

1987. The primary structure for the Observatory was 

fabricated and assembled, and modal survey testing 

completed. Development of one of the four scientific 

instruments, the Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer 

Experiment, was completed, and the instrument has 

been placed in storage until needed for integration 

with the Observatory in late 1788. Assembling and 

testing continued on the remaining three instruments. 

Proposed Advanced X-ray Astrophysics 

Facility (AXi4.F). This proposed Facility will be a 

space-based observatory that will be designed to 

observe celestial sources of x-rays, and will address 

fundamental questions in astronomy and physics. It 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Assembly and 

I 

INTERNATIONAL ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER 

FINE ERROR SENSOR DATA 

6C 

++ 

++++++ Y -1 I I I 

1 MAR 1 MAY 1 JULY 1 SEW 

5.51 I 

1987 

Spectral data obtained by the International Ultraviolet 

Explorer of Supernova 1987a. 

will be developed around a large area, high-resolution, 

grazing-incidence telescope which will focus x-rays 

onto a complement of high-quality imaging and 

spectroscopic instruments. Definition phase studies of 

the observatory were completed by two competing 

industrial contractors in February 1987. AXAF is 

planned for launch in the 1990’s, and will be a longlived facility utilizing Shuttle and Space Station 

servicing. 

(SIRTF). Expected to be the fourth of the Great 

Observatories, SIRTF will make the most sensitive 

observations yet of infrared radiation from stars, 

planets, quasars, and many other astronomical objects. 

Detailed studies were made of the spacecraft structure, 

optical performance of the mirror and mirror mount. 

Progress was made in understanding the requirements 

for transferring superfluid helium while in orbit and 

Proposed Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

16 
other in-orbit servicing needs. The principal investigators of the definition phase instruments have demonstrated low-read noise, dark current, and power 

dissipation in the infrared camera and a simplified 

optical design for the infrared spectrograph. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories 

(HMO’s). Application of a new technique for 

analyzing fields with no detectable point sources 

observed by HEAO-2 yielded a significant new constraint on the nature and origin of the cosmic diffuse xray background. This new result demonstrates that the 

background cannot be accounted for solely by the 

integrated emission from distant quasars as suggested 

earlier. Instead, approximately one-half of this emission must arise from either diffuse hot gas (as indicated 

by HEAO-1 spectral data) or from a new population of 

numerous, discrete, low-luminosity x-ray sources. 

Further analysis of the HEAO-2 data set also uncovered 

a number of new and peculiar objects. Among these 

are the discovery of diffuse, soft x-ray emission from 

the disk of the galaxy M33, perhaps arising from a hot 

phase of the interstellzr medium energized by stellar 

activity; an extremely unusual x-ray emitting supernova 

remnant in the Large Magellanic Cloud; and a neutron 

star with a mass well below the “standard” value set by 

the Chandrasekhar Limit. Data from the HEAO 

missions, now part of the Astrophysics Data Program 

archives, remains in high demand by astronomers 

investigating phenomena across the broader electromagnetic spectrum. 

International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE). The 

International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) is in its tenth 

year of operation. More than 1,000 U.S. astronomers 

have used this orbiting facility to observe objects at 

distances ranging from inside the solar system to the 

edge of the universe. In February 1987, the IUE 

initiated periodic observations of Supernova 1987a. 

These observations provided the key data required to 

identify the true progenitor of the Supernova. IUE 

continues to monitor the condition in the expanding 

cloud of material in this nearby Supernova. 

~sm~~kg~u~Exp~~(CThe COBE 

mission will investigate the earliest structure of the 

universe, as revealed by the cosmic microwave background radiation thought to have originated shortly 

after the creation of the universe. From polar orbit, 

COBE’s precise and sensitive instruments will measure 

the spectrum of this radiation, search for evidence of 

unevenness in energy from the earliest days of the 

universe, and look for light from the earliest galaxies. 

Early in 1987, a new design approach for the COBE 

mission was approved that uses a spacecraft small 

enough to be launched into polar orbit aboard a Delta 

launch vehicle instead of the Shuttle, thus avoiding a 

major program delay. Throughout the rest of the year, 

development continued on the scientific instruments 

and on the new spacecraft hardware, and by the end 

of the year, the instruments were being calibrated and 

spacecraft hardware was delivered for integration into 

the new spacecraft structure. 

Explorer Platform Missions. The Explorer 

Platform represents a major step forward in regaining 

momentum in conducting on-orbit space science 

research by providing, for the first time, a long-life 

spacecraft designed to be serviced rather than replaced 

for each mission. In this new approach, the scientific 

instruments on the platform will be replaced, and the 

entire science mission will be reconfigured in orbit by 

the Shuttle or the Space Station. In early 1987, work 

on the Explorer Platform concentrated on designing 

the spacecraft bus based on the Multi-mission Modular 

Spacecraft, and in the summer, the detailed technical 

approach was approved. By the end of the summer, 

all major contracts were let, and a decision was 

reached to concentrate further design activities on 

launching the Explorer Platform and its first payload, 

the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), on a Delta 

launch vehicle. Throughout 1987, development of the 

EUVE payload continued at the University of California 

at Berkeley in preparation for launch in 1991 to 

conduct the first highly sensitive, all-sky survey at 

wavelengths between ultraviolet light and x-rays. Also 

17 
in 1987, definition continued on the X-ray Timing 

Explorer (XTE), the mission that will replace EUVE on 

the Explorer Platform in 1994. XTE will investigate 

physical processes in black holes, quasars, and x-ray 

pulsars that are revealed in variations of their x-ray 

luminosity in time-scales as short’ as microseconds and 

as long as years. 

provide a fundamental test of Einstein’s theory of 

relativistic gravitation, known as General Relativity. 

While all earlier tests of General Relativity looked for 

relativistic effects due to the motion of objects in fixed 

gravitational fields, this will be the first experiment to 

look for relativistic effects due to the motion of the 

gravitational field itself. In GP-B, four essentially perfect gyroscopes will be orbited over the poles of the 

Earth to trace not only the curvature of space predicted 

for ordinary gravitation, but the mix of space and time 

predicted to originate from the rotation of the Earth 

and its gravitational field. In 1987, technology developments continued in preparation for a first integrated 

system test in 1989 and a test flight of GP-B gyroscopes on the Shuttle planned for 1992. The GP-B 

free-flyer science mission is planned for the late 1990’s. 

program is a cooperative activity in which the United 

States provides a Scout launch vehicle, technical advice 

and some instruments to Italy (University of Rome) for 

integration with its San Marco-D spacecraft. Activities 

in 1987 concentrated on preparing for launch from the 

Italian San Marco launch platform located off the coast 

of Kenya. Launch is expected in late March to midApril 1988. In a similar cooperative program, a Soft Xray Telescope (SXT) is in the final definition phase for 

fabrication in December. The SXT will be delivered to 

Japan for integration into its Solar-A spacecraft for 

launch in 1991. Activities in 1988 will be directed 

toward finalizing design details and fabricating instruments and other components. 

Gravity Probe-B (GP-B). This mission will 

Other Explorer Activities. The San Marco-D 

Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT). The ROSAT, a 

cooperative flight project with West Germany, will 

provide a full-sky, x-ray survey with unprecedented 

sensitivity. ROSAT was originally manifested on the 

Space Shuttle, but will now be boosted into orbit in 

February 1990 by a Delta I1 launch vehicle supplied by 

the United States. During 1987, the Germans redesigned the ROSAT spacecraft to be compatible with the 

Delta I1 and began manufacturing the ROSAT structural 

parts necessary for the launch change from the Space 

Shuttle. One of the x-ray focal plane instruments, the 

High Resolution Imager, supplied by the United States, 

was completed and placed in storage, where it will 

remain until the integration and testing of the ROSAT 

spacecraft in 1988. 

Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). IRAS 

was one of the most successful space astronomy 

missions ever conducted. Discoveries made from the 

IRAS data have resulted in major advances in astrophysics and astronomy. In the three years since the 

original IRAS data products were released, there have 

been more than 300 papers published in refereed 

journals. Scientists continue to process the IRAS data 

to produce new archival information and to support an 

extensive program involving members of the original 

IRAS science team and a large number of Guest Investigators (approximately 70 groups per year). 

Solar System Exploration 

Pioneer Venus. The Pioneer Venus spacecraft has 

been in orbit around the Earth’s sister planet since late 

1978. Throughout this period, it has made almost daily 

ObSerVdtiOnS of the planet and its interaction with the 

solar wind. This span of observation has encompassed 

nearly a complete solar cycle, with solar activity being 

maximum in 1980 and minimum in 1986. Data acquisition and analysis during 1987 was directed toward 

developing an understanding of solar cycle effects on 

the Venusian atmospherehonosphere system, which is 

quite different from that of Earth because Venus has 

no planetary magnetic field. Results indicate that 

18 
DEC95 

TIME TICKS 

S/C = =days 

EARTH = JOdayr 

VENUS = =days 

Planned flight path of Galileo spacecraft to Jupiter. 

during the 1986-87 solar minimum, the density of the 

dayside Venus ionosphere was reduced, the usual flow 

of plasma to the planet's nightside was shut off, and 

the nightside ionosphere was thus greatly depleted. 

These fundamental studies of the Venus environment 

are important because this planet is the first field-free 

solar system body to be investigated in detail. Venus is 

expected to have much in common with comets and 

the planet Mars, whose magnetic field is apparently 

weak or nonexistent. 

11 spacecraft continue to function well as they move 

outward from the Sun at a speed of about 2.5 astronomical units (AU) per year (an AU is the distance 

between the Sun and the Earth). Pioneer 10 is now 

beyond the orbit of Pluto, and Pioneer 13 is approaching the orbit of Neptune. Power-sharing among 

instruments, necessary because of declining power 

levels avaikdbk from thermoelectric generators aboard 

the spacecraft, should permit data acquisition well into 

the 1990's. Voyagers 1 and 2 are also engaged in 

The Interplunetary Medium. The Pioneer 10 and 

measuring the properties of the interplanetary medium 

in the outer solar system; both are now beyond the 

orbit of Uranus, providing complementary measurements to those of the Pioneers. 

While the primary scientific objective of these 

measurements are to determine how the interplanetary 

environment changes with increasing solar distance 

and how this environment ultimately merges with the 

interstellar medium, other scientific questions are being 

pursued as well. For example, precise tracking of 

Pioneer 10 and 11 by the Deep Space Network is 

being undertaken in the search for a possible tenth 

major planet and also in an attempt to detect gravity 

waves generated by Supernova 1987a. Neither of 

these searches has resulted in a positive detection. 

Gulileo. The Galileo to Jupiter mission launch date, 

mission trajectory, and upper stage were re-established 

in 1987. The Galileo spacecraft, consisting of an 

orbiter and probe, is now scheduled for launch on the 

Shuttle Discovery in October or November 1989. The 

year 1987 was spent primarily reassessing spacecraft 

environments and system performance requirements. 

A study of subsystem and component shelf life and 

aging was conducted to identify critical application of 

parts with questionable ability to meet requirements 

for the six-year mission. The new trajectory, which 

first takes the spacecraft inward toward the Sun, 

creates a thermal environment substantially hotter than 

the originally planned 1986 direct trajectory to Jupiter. 

The increased temperatures necessitated the use of 

sunshades for several scientific instruments, the highgain antenna, and the orbiter equipment bus. Most of 

the thermal designs have been completed and will be 

ready for the buildup of the orbiter beginning late in 

1987. The use of the Inertial Upper Stage instead of 

the more powerful Centaur booster required that an 

indirect route to Jupiter using gravity assists from both 

Venus and Earth be designed. By clever application of 

orbital mechanic principles, a mission using three 

gravity assists, one from Venus and two from Earth, 

was conceived. The trajectory has been termed 

19 
“VEEGA” (Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist) in keeping 

with the order of the assisting fly-bys. The VEEGA 

trajectory initially places the spacecraft in a direction 

away from Jupiter and toward the Sun. About 100 

days after launch, the spacecraft will encounter Venus, 

receiving the first of three gravity assists. The first 

Earth gravity assist (EGA1) occurs about 400 days after 

launch and the second (EGA2) about two years later in 

late 1992. EGA2 will place Galileo on a direct path to 

Jupiter, arriving between October 1995 and August 

1996. Enroute to Jupiter and its ultimate mission, 

Galileo will conduct scientific investigations of Venus 

and two asteroids, Gaspra and Ida. 

Mars Observer. During 1987, the Mars Observer 

Mission was rescheduled for launch in September 

1992. Important design reviews with the spacecraft 

contractor, RCA, and the upper-stage contractor, 

Orbital Sciences Corporation, were completed. Experiment implementation plans were developed by each of 

the eight instrument investigator teams responsible for 

conducting the geoscience and climatology science 

experiments. Important design reviews for the instruments also were conducted. 

Ulysses. Following extensive negotiations with the 

European Space Agency (ESA), the launch date for 

Ulysses was scheduled for October 1990, using the 

ShuttleAnertial Upper Stage (IUS) with an energy 

augmentation derived from a Payload Assist Module. 

The selected trajectory encounters Jupiter in February 

1992, and allows initiation of the primary science 

mission in August 1994. During 1987, US. science 

instruments were tested periodically in preparation for 

resumption of activities in March 1988 leading to 

instruments deliveries to ESA in 1989. 

mission to Venus continued toward its April 1989 

launch by the ShuttleAUS. The radar-equipped spacecraft will be inserted into a polar orbit around Venus in 

August 1990. In order to understand how Venus has 

evolved compared to other bodies of the inner solar 

system, it will map the cloud-shrouded surface and 

20 

MageUan. In 1987, development of the Magellan 

acquire information on the geology of the planet. 

During the 243-day mapping mission (one Venus 

year), high-resolution radar imagery of nearly the 

entire surface of the planet will be acquired at a 

resolution 10 times better than that obtained by the 

Soviet Venera 15 and 16 missions of less than 20 

percent of the planet. 

In 1987, Magellan subsystem developments were 

completed and spacecraft assembly and testing activities began. The interfaces between the radar instrument and the spacecraft were verified; the compatibility between the telecommunications system, radar, and 

spacecraft systems were demonstrated; and a modal 

survey was conducted of the entire spacecraft system. 

In 1988, development of the radar sensor will be 

completed, the radar installed on the spacecraft, and 

spacecraft environmental testing will begin. 

Voyager. Following numerous scientific discoveries resulting from the successful Uranus encounter in 

early 1986, Voyager 2 continued its epic journey 

through the solar system. Both Voyager 1 and 2 

spacecraft continued to function well and operate 

much beyond their lifetime expectations. Voyager 1 is 

leaving the plane of the ecliptic and continues to 

gather valuable scientific data about the solar system 

environment. 

Preparations were initiated during 1987 for Voyager 

2’s final planetary encounter with Neptune in August 

1989. The Neptune encounter presents even more 

technical challenges than previous encounters, due to 

its greater distance from the Sun and increased communication distances to Earth. Significant changes in 

the operational utilization of the Voyager hardware, 

necessitated by both these factors, were initiated 

during 1987. The changes will be accomplished on 

the spacecraft by reprogramming the computers to 

permit increased exposure times for the Voyager 

camera; changes are also being implemented in the 

operating modes of the spacecraft’s control system to 

improve the stability of the platform to cope with the 

increased exposure times. The large deep space 
receiving antennas are being modified to increase their 

size from 64 to 70 meters. By combining the output of 

the modified antennas with that of several smaller 

antennas, the increased communication distances can 

be tolerated without the loss of scientific data. 

Flight Mission Support. In 1987, substantial 

replanning and work were accomplished at the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory to provide planetary flight 

projects with the support necessary to meet revised 

launch schedules. New modern computing assets 

were acquired in the shared computing center. Rapid 

progress was made in the development of the new 

multimission Space Flight Operations Center (SFOC), a 

new generation, real-time, distributed, mission operations support data system. In this regard, all Magellan 

requirements were identified and incorporated into the 

SFOC baseline plan. The Magellan’s High-Rate 

Telemetry Processor was replanned and reduced in 

cost; all baseline and Magellan scheduled deliverables 

were provided on time and within cost. 

Space Physics 

Office of Space Science and Applications were reorganized in September 1987. A new Space Physics 

Division was created with responsibility for some of 

the programs previously administered by the Earth 

Science and Applications Division and the Astrophysics 

Division. The Division includes research programs in 

Ionospheric Physics, Magnetospheric Physics, Solar 

Physics, and Cosmic and Heliospheric Physics, and 

thus represents a broad yet cohesive scientific community. The NASA suborbital research program involving 

rockets and balloons is also included in this new 

division. 

The Space Physics Division supports investigations 

of the origin, evolution, and interactions of particulate 

matter and electromagnetic fields in a wide variety of 

space plasmas. Its studies focus on the upper atmospheres, ionospheres, and magnetospheres of the Earth 

and other planets; the Sun as a star and as a source of 

Space Physics research programs sponsored by the 

solar system energy, plasma, and energetic particles; 

and the acceleration, transport, and interactions of 

energetic particles and plasmas throughout the solar 

system and the galaxy. Observations, theory, modeling, simulations, kibOrdtOry studies, interactive data 

analysis, instrument development, and active experiments are all important aspects of the program. 

In 1987, the implementation of a major international 

program in Solar and Space Physics began with 

participation by NASA, the Japanese Institute of Space 

and Astronautical Sciences (ISAS), and the European 

Space Agency (ESA). The U.S. contribution to this 

effort is referred to as NASA’s International Solar 

Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) Program. A systematic 

deployment of a group of satellites is planned for the 

early-to-mid 1990’s by these agencies to provide the 

measurements and to test models for the study of the 

interior of the Sun; the origin of the solar wind; the 

cause-and-effect relations of the flow of energy in the 

Earth’s key magnetospheric source and storage regions; and the microphysics of plasma interactions in 

the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

The Collaborative Solar Terrestrial Research 

(COSTR) program was a new initiative in 1987 to 

support NASA participation in ISTP. In particular, this 

initiative enables NASA to support ISAS in providing a 

GEOTAIL mission to monitor the Earth’s magnetic tail 

region. COSTR also supports collaborations with ESA 

on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) 

which will conduct solar seismology and coronal 

diagnostics at the Earth-Sun Lagrangian point. Additionally, ESA is planning a CLUSTER mission which is a 

group of four satellites providing three-dimensional 

measurements of magnetospheric microphysics 

processes. 

NASA is also planning to provide a WIND mission 

to monitor the solar wind input, and a POLAR mission 

to monitor the ionospheric plasma source region. 

These two missions, in conjunction with the NASA,‘ 

Department of Defense (DOD) Combined Release and 

21 

Global Geospace Science Program (ISTP/GGS). 
Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES) in the equatorial 

storage region of the magnetosphere, form the Global 

Geospace Science (GGS) ensemble proposed as a new 

initiative in the 1988 NASA budget. 

NASA plans to launch WIND, POLAR, and GEOTAIL 

on expendable launch vehicles, and SOHO on the 

Space Shuttle; CLUSTER will be launched by ESA on 

an Ariane V development flight. Provision of instruments and tracking support will be shared by NASA, 

ISAS and ESA. In 1987, NASA and ESA began the 

process of jointly selecting payloads for the SOHO and 

CLUSTER missions. 

Operational Explorers. Originally launched in 

1980, the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) remains 

about 75 percent operational. In 1987, SMM continued 

to provide valuable observations of the solar irradiance 

and other physical phenomena taking place on the 

Sun. It also continued to provide measurements of 

ozone concentration in the atmosphere of the Earth. 

Such measurements are made in ultraviolet light at 

spacecraft sunrise and sunset. These unique observations make it possible to map ozone concentration 

between latitudes of 50”, north and south of the 

equator, at altitudes of 50 to 75 km. These data will 

play a very significant role in unravelling the mystery 

of the “Ozone Hole” in Antarctica. In addition, as the 

current cycle of solar activity marches toward a 

maximum in 1991, SMM continues to obtain an unparalleled series of observations of the solar corona and 

sunspot activity. Such a long sequence of observations 

has never been possible from space and is certain to 

become a major resource used to test future models of 

the sunspot activity cycle. Also, a selection of new 

SMM Guest Investigators was announced, the fourth in 

this series. To date, more than 150 scientists from over 

a dozen countries have participated as Guest Investigators in the analyses of SMM data. 

experimental package for flight on its SOLAR-A 

mission to study solar flares during the solar maximum 

period in the early 1990’s. An Announcement of 

22 

In 1985, Japan invited NASA to provide a U.S. 

Satellite image of Antarctic Ozone Hole. 

Opportunity issued in 1986 led to the selection of a 

low-energy, x-ray telescope investigation to be conducted by the Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory. 

The package will be built in cooperation with Japanese 

solar scientists. The instrument design is nearly 

complete, and almost all details on its accommodation 

to the Japanese-built spacecraft have been decided. 

This mission will be launched in the fall of 1991 by 

Japan and operations will be directed from there by a 

joint Japanese/U.S. science team. 

Perhaps the most cost-effective spacecraft ever 

launched by NASA is the 14-year-old Interplanetary 

Monitoring Platform (IMP-8) satellite, the workhorse of 

Explorers. It continues to function well as the only 

existing monitor of solar wind interactions with the 

Earth’s magnetosphere and provides a crucial baseline 

for missions to other planets. Imaging of the ring 

current region of the Earth’s magnetosphere using 

energetic neutral atoms was first accomplished using 

IMP-8 data, thus providing a “picture” of the Van Allen 

belts. 
International Sun-Earth Explorers (ISEE-1 and 2) 

reentered the Earth’s atmosphere on September 26, 

1987 as planned, after successfully operating for 10 

years. ISEE-1 and 2 were very productive in terms of 

the large number of scientific papers published. Both 

spacecraft participated in a multisatellite campaign 

which provided simultaneous measurements of the 

dynamics of the Earth’s magnetosphere. This campaign was called the Polar Regions and Outer Magnetospheric International Study. 

The International Cometary Explorer (ICE) (the 

retargeted International Sun-Earth Explorer-3, launched 

in 1978) is still operational. From the large amount of 

data it generates, over 100 scientific papers a year are 

published. These papers cover the full range of space 

plasma phenomena, from studies of collisionless 

shocks and boundary layers to analyses of waveparticle interactions and currents along auroral field 

lines. The ICE spacecraft continues to provide unique 

information on the state of the interplanetary medium, 

and it complements the interplanetary medium data 

provided by the Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft (see 

Solar System Exploration). Throughout 1987, numerous scientific results on cometary interactions were 

generated through analysis of the first spacecraft 

encounter with a comet when ICE directly passed 

through the cometary tail of Giacobini-Zinner in 

September 1985. These results have proved to be an 

important complement to data sets obtained by the 

multinational Halley armada in 1986. 

The Dynamics Explorer-1 (DE-1) spacecraft continues to provide unique, high-quality data on the 

interactions between the magnetosphere, ionosphere, 

and upper atmosphere, as well as on other phenomena. Operations were especially devised to support a 

variety of collaborative campaigns. Global auroral 

imaging of the southern polar cap was performed 

simultaneously with northern polar imaging by the 

Swedish Viking satellite. The spacecraft played a key 

role in the extensive Wave Induced Particle Precipitation balloon and rocket campaign from Wallops 

Island, Virginia, which also involved a ground-based 

transmitter in Antarctica. Other special operations 

were performed with a ground-based radar network. 

Routine data acquisition extends data bases for studies 

of the solar cycle variation of the ionosphere, which is 

a major source of plasma for the magnetosphere. The 

DE-1 satellite also continues to obtain extensive images 

of south polar ozone density and measurements of 

cosmic background ultraviolet radiation. 

ctivities were highlighted by a number of 

developments. First, there was the continuing controversy over the interpretation of atmospheric holes 

(dark spots in the atmosphere in W light), which were 

suggested to be caused by the influx of snowy comets. 

Second, the ionosphere is now alleged to be a fully 

adequate source of plasma for the magnetosphere, 

although a solar cycle dependence is under study. 

Third, detailed analysis reveals strong interplanetary 

control over upper atmosphere neutral winds through 

momentum coupling with ions convecting in the 

geoelectric field, for which comprehensive empirical 

models based on the interplanetary magnetic field 

direction have been developed. Through the use of 

simultaneous data sets from DE-1 and DE-2 spacecraft 

at two altitudes along auroral field lines, extensive 

analysis was conducted on auroral e1ectrodynamicsthe relations between electric fields, field-aligned 

currents, and auroral particle acceleration. 

The Active Magnetospheric Tracer Explorer 

(AMPTE) program operates two spacecraft: the Charge 

Composition Explorer (CCE), in a predominantly 

magnetospheric orbit, and the Ion Release Module 

(IRM) whose orbit extends out into the solar wind. 

Charge composition measurements of carbon and 

oxygen made in 1987 demonstrated that the ionosphere and the solar wind are comparable in importance as sources of plasma for the outer magnetosphere. Moreover, measurements of the Earth’s ring 

current by CCE show correlations of its current intensity with magnetic storm activity. Magnetic field 

measurements from CCE reveal low-frequency fluctua23 
tions which can be understood as global wave resonances of the magnetosphere. Data on the highly 

contract began on August 15, 1987, with full transfer 

from UCAR to PSL on October 1, 1987. 

charged states of ions obtained by CCE just outside the 

magnetosphere yielded measurements of the temperature of the solar corona. CCE data also provided the 

first clear identification of singly charged helium ions 

picked up from the interstellar medium. 

inexpensive means to perform space-borne experiments. The main advantage of using sounding rockets 

is that the experiments can be conceived, built, and 

flown in a one- to two-year timeframe. Thus, the 

sounding rocket program offers a unique opportunity 

for universities to train graduate students for advanced 

experimental research. When Supernova 1987a was 

reported, the sounding rocket program was able to 

respond quickly, enabling NASA to carry out meaningful measurements of a new phenomenon in a timely 

manner. The NASA sounding rocket program at the 

present time supports about 35 to 40 launches a year. 

Depending on weight and other requirements of the 

experiments, these launches include small rockets of 

the Nike class to large ones of the Aries class. 

balloon flights including 29 science flights for astrophysics, space physics, upper atmosphere research, 

and 12 test flights, six of which carried “piggyback” 

science payloads. The science flights included two 

long-duration flights with launches from Australia and 

recovery in South America; four flights in a quickresponse campaign in Australia to study the Supernova 

1987a; and four flights to investigate energetic particles 

during the Solar-Minimum campaign to Canada. 

In 1987, the Physical Science Laboratory (PSL), New 

Mexico State University, was competitively selected to 

operate the National Scientific Balloon Facility in 

Palestine, Texas. This facility was previously operated 

by the University Center for Atmospheric Research 

(UCAR) in Boulder, Colorado. The 45-day phase-in 

period for the three-year (plus two years hard options) 

Sounding Rockets. Sounding rockets offer an 

Balloons. During 1987, there was a total of 41 

Earth Science and Applications 

Upper Atmosphere. During 1987, NASA completed a major assessment of the state of knowledge 

regarding atmospheric trends, focusing on possible 

changes in the abundance and distribution of ozone, 

but including examination of other parameters and 

species such as temperature, source gases, and minor 

constituents. This effort was also conducted under the 

auspices of the World Meteorological Organization. 

NASA continued implementation of the Network for 

the Detection of Stratospheric Change, which utilizes 

ground-based, remote sensing instruments in an 

attempt to provide for the earliest possible identification of small (low percent) changes in the composition 

of the stratosphere. NASA is being assisted in this 

effort by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) and the Chemical Manufacturers Association. 

NASA, NOAA, National Science Foundation (NSF), 

and the Chemical Manufacturers Association sponsored 

two expeditions in 1987 to study the Antarctic Ozone 

Hole. A second ground-based expedition to McMurdo 

Station in Antarctica utilized ground and balloon 

instruments. A major aircraft expedition using the 

NASA ER-2 and DC-8 aircraft operating out of Punta 

Arenas, Chile, provided in situ and remote sensing 

observations of the ozone hole and its chemical 

composition. Preliminary results of the aircraft campaign have been released, with rigorous analysis to 

occur in early 1988. 

phere Research Satellite (UARS) program. The UARS 

mission will provide the first integrated global measurements of the chemistry, dynamics and energetics of 

the stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere. Remote sensing instruments on the satellite 

will perform measurements of energy input, chemical 

composition, and dynamics of the stratosphere and 

Development work continued on the Upper Atmos24 
mesosphere. UARS is a critical component of NASA's 

efforts to understand the upper atmosphere well 

enough to assess its susceptibility to chemical change. 

and the manufacturing process is underway. Nine of 

the ten scientific instruments to be flown aboard the 

spacecraft have completed Critical Design Review, and 

several are in final assembly, preparing for environmental tests. Seven remote analysis computers are 

connected to the UARS initial configuration for the 

central data handling system and are being used by 

UARS science investigators to develop mission software. Launch is scheduled for 1991. 

In 1987, NASA successfully completed a major 

tropospheric chemistry experiment in the Amazon rain 

forest of Brazil in cooperation with the Brazilian Space 

Agency. This mission, conducted during the wet 

season, complemented a 1985 mission conducted 

during the dry season. These two missions provided a 

large chemical/meteorological data base on the role of 

the rain forest as a source and sink of important 

atmospheric gases, and on the mechanism by which 

gas exchange between the forest's atmospheric boundary layer and the free troposphere occurs. When 

analyzed during 1988 and 1989, the results are expected to shed new light on the interaction of one of 

the Earths most important ecosystems with the atmosphere and on the contribution of that ecosystem to 

long-term global change. 

Operational Meteorological Satellites. NASA 

continues to support the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Operational Meteorological 

Satellite Program by negotiating the procurement and 

launch of these satellites. On February 26, 1987, the 

GOES-H weather satellite was successfully launched 

into a geostationary orbit. Upon arriving on-station at 

75" west, the satellite was re-designated GOES-7 and 

began providing primary weather coverage of the east 

coast of the United States. The successful launch of 

GOES-7 restored the Nation's nominal complement of 

two geostationary weather satellites. (Since the loss of 

The UARS observatory design is nearing completion 

GOES-5 in the summer of 1984, GOES-6 had been 

providing the only U.S. coverage from mid-country.) 

GOES-6 is now providing west COdSt coverage from 

135" west. GOES-7 is carrying an experimental search 

and rescue system to determine if near-instantaneous 

alert of rescue forces might be achieved. 

Morning and afternoon global weather coverage is 

currently provided by the polar-orbiting NOAA-9 and 

NOM-10 satellites. NOAA-9 has now exceeded its 

design life by approximately one year. NOM-H is 

currently being prepared for launch in early 1988 to 

replace NOM-9. NOM-H and the remaining polar 

satellites in the current series will be launched on 

Atlas-E expendable vehicles. NASA is currently 

negotiating for three additional polar-orbiting satellites. 

Climate Research. The Climate Research program 

has focused on the radiation budget of the Earth as a 

major force in determining the climate. During 1987, 

the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE), which 

includes a dedicated research satellite in a lowinclination orbit, and space research instruments 

aboard two polar-orbiting NOM operational meteorological satellites (NOAA-9 and NOM-lo), continue to 

collect radiation balance measurements. Analysis of 

the first several months of data indicates that the 

Earth's clouds have a net cooling effect on the Earth. 

This is an important finding in view of the continuing 

accumulation of the so-called greenhouse gases in the 

atmosphere. 

(ISCCP) established by the World Climate Research 

Programme in 1983, continues to acquire global 

observations of the cloud distribution statistics. The 

data are being acquired from an array of operational 

polar and geosynchronous orbiting meteorology 

satellites. These data are intended to collect a comprehensive long-term cloud census for use in research 

on the role of clouds in the Earth's energy balance and 

how cloudiness varies interseasonally and interannually. NASA plays a central role in the ISCCP through 

its support of the Global Processing Center, which 

The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project 

25 
serves as the focus of international climatology operations. 

The first ISCCP regional experiment was successfully 

conducted over Wisconsin in late 1986; its objective 

was to provide information on the role of cirrus clouds 

in the radiation budget. In 1987, the second ISCCP 

regional experiment was conducted off the coast of 

southern California to study marine stratocumulus 

clouds. These regional experiments successfully 

acquired the measurements needed to understand the 

relationships among cloud microphysics and macrophysics and the radiative transfer properties of the 

clouds. 

GlobabScale Atmospheric Processes. Research 

on remote sensing techniques, both active and passive, 

continues to develop satellite capabilities for observing 

the Earth’s atmosphere. Active techniques include 

both lasers and radars. Lasers are being developed to 

measure such parameters as aerosols, water vapor, 

temperature, and wind profiles. Several of these techniques were tested aboard NASA research aircraft 

during 1987; others (for temperature and wind) are 

undergoing continued development. A dual frequency 

radar and passive microwave radiometers were flown 

aboard an aircraft platform to measure precipitation in 

a program designed to develop a technique for 

eventual use in space. Under a bilateral agreement, 

this was a joint research effort with scientists from 

Japan’s Radio Research Laboratory. The ability to 

measure both wind and precipitation from space is 

essential to understanding the Earth’s hydrological 

cycle, a primary objective of Earth system science. 

Plans are being completed for a large-scale aircraft 

and ground-based measurement program to refine our 

knowledge of the distribution of aerosols in the lower 

atmosphere. These measurements will provide the 

criteria to design a spaceborne laser system, which will 

use Doppler shifts of the backscattered laser energy 

from aerosols moving with the wind, to observe those 

winds. 

Mesoscale Atmospheric Processes. During 1987, 

a joint NASMNOAA panel was established to study the 

feasibility of developing a spaceborne lightning sensor. 

This study has evolved from NASA’s research on an 

airborne version of the sensor, which has measured 

lightning from research aircraft flying high above active 

thunderstorms during daylight hours and at night. 

Ground-based lightning detectors have a limited range; 

even in a network they can only measure ground-toground strokes. The proposed instrument would be 

capable of detecting both cloud-to-cloud and cloud-toground lightning strokes from a geosynchronous 

satellite. It would locate lightning strokes that occur at 

about 10 km from the ground or higher, measuring the 

intensity and frequency. Research has shown a strong 

correlation between lightning intensity and storm 

intensity, and the information thus provided would 

yield new insights into the role of atmospheric electricity and cloud growth, storm development, intensity 

and precipitation processes, and the Earth’s global 

electrodynamic circuit. 

Oceanic Processes. NASA’s oceanography 

program is focused on obtaining and analyzing remotely sensed satellite data for studying ocean circulation, atmospheric forcing of the ocean surface, biological productivity, and sea ice. NASA expects a system 

of satellite sensors to be ready by the early 1990’s to 

support several global experiments. These large 

international experiments include studies of the 

tropical oceans; determining world ocean circulation; 

investigating the fluxes of carbon and associated 

biogenic elements in the ocean; and polar ocean 

research. Under the auspices of the World Climate 

Research Program, the results of these experiments will 

help to explain the role of the global oceans in the 

Earth’s climate. In focusing on these experiments, 

NASA is working closely with the National Science 

Foundation, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, the Navy, and a number of international partners. 

26 
To study the tropical ocean and world ocean 

circulation, NASA is pursuing two space flight activities. The NASA Scatterometer is an active microwave 

radar designed to measure near-surface ocean winds, 

the primary ocean forcing mechanism. TOPEW 

POSEIDON is a combination of NASA’s Ocean Topography Experiment and the French Space Agency’s 

POSEIDON Project. It is a satellite radar altimetry 

system which measures the sea surface height and 

allows scientists to deduce the ocean response to wind 

forcing and ocean circulation. 

The NASA Scatterometer is scheduled for launch 

aboard the Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System 

Satellite in mid-1992. Construction of the Scatterometer started with the six flight antennas already manufactured; and a science team completed a preliminary 

science plan for use of scatterometry wind observations. 

For TOPEWPOSEIDON, NASA will provide the 

satellite, an altimeter and several supporting sensors. 

The French Space Agency is also providing several 

sensors and will launch the satellite on an Ariane IV 

rocket in late 1991. The combined American and 

French-sponsored science teams met for the first time 

in November 1987 and began developing a science 

plan for the mission. 

Ocean color information can be used to determine 

the phytoplankton distribution in the ocean. As an 

initial measure of change and variability, NASA is also 

reprocessing the data collected by the Coastal Zone 

Color Scanner aboard the Nimbus-7 Satellite into global 

maps of phytoplankton distribution. 

To support Arctic research, NASA is establishing a 

processing and archive center which will give the 

scientific community access to global sea ice products 

derived from the Special Sensor Microwave Imaging 

Radiometer that was launched in June 1987. Looking 

to the future, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the 

University of Alaska are developing the Alaska Synthetic Aperture Radar Facility in Fairbanks. Synthetic 

aperture radar data will provide detailed observations 

of pack ice. Once constructed, scientists can receive, 

process, and archive synthetic aperture radar data from 

the European Space Agency’s First European Remote 

Sensing Satellite, the Japanese First Earth Remote 

Sensing Satellite and the Canadian Radarsat. 

the solid Earth, its global gravity and magnetic fields, 

the movement and deformation of its crust, and its 

rotational dynamics. This research contributes to our 

understanding of earthquakes, the evolution of the 

Earth, and the interaction between the solid Earth, the 

oceans, and the atmosphere. Over 30 countries 

participate in NASA’s geodynamics research, and there 

is inter-governmental cooperation between NSF, US. 

Geological Survey (USGS), NOM, and DOD. The 

Crustal Dynamics project involved 20 investigators 

from Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, the 

Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Mexico, 

the Netherlands, New Zealand, Peni, Spain, Sweden, 

Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Venezuela. In 

1987, joint projects and programs included measuring 

tectonic plate motion and Earth rotation, using fixed 

and mobile laser ranging systems, with Italy, France, 

Israel, and Mexico; using techniques of Very Long 

Baseline Interferometry, with Japan and Italy; lunar 

and satellite laser ranging operations, with Australia; 

data exchanges, with China; and a study of earthquake 

hazards in the Caribbean Basin, with several nations. 

consists of four interrelated elements: studies of 

terrestrial ecosystems, the hydrologic cycle, geology, 

and remote sensing science. The first three represent 

the space-based components of classical science 

disciplines. The last element is the study of the 

physics and biology of the land surface as it relates to 

its interaction with electromagnetic radiation. The 

major focus is to conduct research in the Earth sciences that concentrates on developing methodologies, 

rather than on instruments and techniques for scientific 

or applied use. 

Geodynarnics. Geodynamics involves the study of 

Land Processes. The Land Processes program 

27 
Extensive use is made of data from operating 

satellite sensors, such as the Landsat Multispectral 

Scanner System (MSS) and Thematic Mapper (TM), the 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) 

on NOAA polar-orbiting satellites, and sensors aboard 

the French SPOT Satellite. In 1987, through a cooperative agreement with the French Centre Nationale 

d’Etudes Spatiales, a limited number of SPOT images 

were made available to NASA investigators at a reduced cost. Shuttle flights, such as the Shuttle Imaging 

Radar (SIR) series, also are important data sources. In 

addition, Land Processes program investigators make 

extensive use of airborne sensors that are developed as 

prototypes for satellite sensors. These include the 

Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (AIS), the Airborne 

Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS), 

the Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS), and 

the L-band Pushbroom Microwave Radiometer. New 

L- and C-band Synthetic Aperture Radars (SARI are 

under construction to replace the previously used Land C-band SAR, which were destroyed with the NASA 

CV-990 airborne laboratory during an accident in 1985. 

A major new research effort within the Land Processes program supports the initial elements of the 

International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project 

(ISLSCP); specifically, the First ISLSCP Field Experiment 

(FIFE). The goal of FIFE is to develop and validate 

algorithms that convert satellite-observed radiances to 

climatological variables at a variety of spatial scales. In 

1987, FIFE was conducted on the Konza Prairie near 

Manhattan, Kansas primarily in four intensive field 

campaigns during which ground-based and airborne 

measurements were made simultaneously with the 

acquisition of satellite data over the site. Analysis and 

synthesis of the data will proceed through 1989. 

Studies of global ecosystem productivity using 

AVHRR data continued in 1987 and an internally 

consistent, global vegetation index data set spanning 

the years 1979 through 1987 is being prepared. These 

data will be used in future years to document, for the 

first time, global patterns of interannual variations in 

phenology and productivity. 

A significant portion of atmospheric precipitation 

results from evapotranspiration. Recent work on 

developing an algorithm for estimating surface wetness 

from Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer 

(SMMR) and AVHRR data includes analyzing of brightness (temperature) over the US. southern Great Plains 

from 1979 to 1983 and developing an empirical 

equation to relate surface wetness and the normalized 

difference vegetation index from AVHRR data. Analysis of global data from 1979 to 1985 demonstrates the 

feasibility of quantifying vegetation dynamics by 

correlation with the normalized difference vegetation 

index, rainfall, and seasonal variation of atmospheric 

carbon dioxide. 

NASA’s Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (AIS) have 

been used to estimate forest canopy lignin concentrations and forest ecosystem nitrogen mineralization. 

Laboratory results on techniques for prediction of 

lignin concentrations in plant materials were extended 

to the field successfully. Future research will test the 

robustness of this statistical technique and attempt to 

understand the biophysical basis for the relationship. 

tem were investigated using the Landsat MSS record 

from 1973 to 1983 to generate stochastic descriptions 

of the key life cycle states of community landscape 

elements. Such descriptions can provide input and 

verification for models of community development, 

landscape dynamics, and ecosystem stability. The 10- 

year observations of this boreal forest region in 

northern Minnesota indicated that there are considerable successional changes at the landscape element 

level in an ecosystem that has been relatively stable 

over several centuries. Managed areas within the 

region were much more dynamic and heterogeneous 

than the wilderness areas. Large volumes of volcanogenic sulfur dioxide can be detected through analysis 

of data from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer 

High spectral resolution reflectance data acquired by 

The community dynamics of a boreal forest ecosys28 
(TOMS) aboard the Nimbus 7 spacecraft. Analyzing 

TOMS data and monitoring volcanic activity continued. 

In addition, work was initiated to develop algorithms 

to make TOMS more sensitive to sulfur so that volcanic 

eruptions of less sulfuric content can also be detected. 

Also, in collaboration with USGS geologists, analysis of 

AIS and the Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer 

(TIMS) data obtained from Hawaiian volcanoes 

continued. 

Construction of the Airborne Visible and Infrared 

Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) was completed in early 

1987, and flown during the summer and fall. This 

sensor can cover the entire wavelength region from 0.4 

to 2.5 micrometers with a 10-nanometer sampling 

interval; its swath width is 11 kilometers. Preliminary 

AVIRIS images show the data to be of high quality. 

The first results of the performance and data evaluations should be available in mid-1988. 

use on the DC-8 aircraft acquired by NASA after the 

loss of the CV990 aircraft remained on schedule. In 

the last months of 1987, integration of the completed 

sensors onto the DC-8 began. 

NASA’s Research Announcement for SIR-C, issued 

during the summer of 1987, elicited over 400 Letters of 

Intent to propose from 27 countries. SIR-C represents 

an enhancement in capability beyond that available in 

previous SIR flights. It will be capable of acquiring Cband and L-band radar images of the Earth’s surface at 

selectable incidence angles ranging from 15 to 60 

degrees simultaneously at four polarizations. NASA, 

the Bundesministerium fur Forschung and Technologie 

(BMFT, the West German Federal Ministry for Research 

and Technology), and the Consiglio Nationale delle 

Ricerche (CNR, the Italian National Research Council) 

are currently planning to fly an X-band system (X-SARI 

in conjunction with the SIR-C mission. 

Interdisciplinaty Research. NASA continued its 

Interdisciplinary Research program in Earth science to 

investigate and understand long-term physical, chemical, and biological changes in the Earth’s environment. 

Reconstruction of the L- and C-band SAR sensors for 

Based on their importance to science, areas that have 

been selected for new investigation include research to 

understand the origins and consequences of increases 

in atmospheric concentrations of methane, to understand the extent to which changes are taking place in 

climatologically important properties of land surfaces, 

and to develop a better understanding of the magnitude and variability of oceanic carbon fluxes on a 

basin-to-global scale. Under existing programs, 

complementary investigations are being conducted in 

the areas of atmospheric dynamics and radiation, 

oceanic processes, global biology, tropospheric 

chemistry, climate and land processes. 

Life Sciences 

The Life Sciences program is involved in all aspects 

of NASA’s activities in space exploration. The program 

has two major goals, derived from NASA’s charter: to 

promote health and productivity in human space flight 

and to study biological processes and life in the 

universe. The Life Sciences program extends from 

basic research to applied clinical practice. Major areas 

of research include Space Medicine, Gravitational 

Biology, Global Biology (Biospherics), Exobiology, and 

Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems. The longrange benefits include the gradual expansion of 

knowledge of the origin, evolution, and distribution of 

life and life processes in the universe, and development of measures that will allow human exploration of 

space without substantial penalties to health. 

research, clinical studies, and flight programs, NASA is 

investigating the nature and mechanisms of adaptation, 

deconditioning, and inherent risks resulting from 

exposure to space flight. In turn, this knowledge helps 

scientists to develop protective measures and safety 

procedures needed to ensure the health and productivity of crews during long-term missions. The program 

will develop protective measures for repeated exposure to space. 

Space Medicine. Through basic and applied 
The space environment affects the human body in 

several ways: the heart becomes deconditioned, 

muscles weaken, bones lose strength, various neurosensory changes occur, and radiation exposure is 

substantially higher than on Earth. Within the 

biomedical research program there are efforts aimed at 

each of these critical areas. 

In the current Shuttle era, program emphasis is on 

cardiovascular and neurosensory issues. The cardiovascular research program investigates how the 

circulatory system adjusts to weightlessness and 

readapts to gravity after spaceflight. Postflight adaptation is particularly important because of the tendency 

towards fainting upon return to the Earth’s gravity 

field. Basic and applied studies on the neurovestibular 

system are directed at understanding the causes of 

space motion sickness which affects about 50 percent 

of the people who fly in space, and ways to prevent or 

treat symptoms. 

As NASA moves into the era of the Space Station, 

other biomedical areas will assume greater importance. 

While changes in bones and muscles are minimal 

during 7-day flights of the Shuttle, the projected 180- 

day tour of duty on the Space Station will result in 

significant changes. Development of effective countermeasures to maintain health will require understanding 

the basic physiological mechanisms responsible for 

spaceflight deconditioning. For long-duration flights, 

radiation exposure may be the ultimate limiting factor. 

Current research in this area includes risk assessment, 

dosimetry, shielding studies, and development of drugs 

that may protect the body from the harmful effects of 

space radiation. Other areas where requirements for 

spacecraft environmental health are also being developed include air quality, water purity, and exposure 

limits to various chemical agents that will be present in 

the Space Station. 

Substantial planning has begun for the future Space 

Station era. The two main program areas emphasized 

are countermeasures to maintain health and performance during long-term exposure to weightlessness, and 

30 

basic scientific studies in space physiology and medicine. In addition, research is directed toward increasing the crew tour of duty from four to six months and 

thereby reducing the number of Space Shuttle flights 

required to support the Space Station. 

A Health Maintenance Facility (HMF) is being 

developed for the Space Station that will incorporate 

state-of-the-art technology and inflight medical care. It 

will also allow adequate exercise and health monitoring for space crews. Tests of physical exercise protocols for the HMF are underway. In the area of human 

factors and man-machine interface, a computer modeling system is under development that is based on 

anthropometric measurements made in space flight 

and on the ground. This system will accelerate the 

design of workstations, assess work conditions, and 

determine appropriate work loads for space crews. 

tional Biology program are to understand the effects of 

gravity and weightlessness on the biological processes 

of plants and animals, and to use the space environment to advance knowledge in the biological sciences. 

The program focuses on cell biology, gravity perception, biological development, and biological adaptation. Both flight- and ground-based research are 

needed to determine the biological significance of 

gravity. 

developing working models of functioning gravitysensing neural (information) networks to understand 

neurosensory processing in microgravity. 

cal neural network connectivity in the design of 

decision-making computers. Understanding mechanisms that control bone and muscle formation and 

loss, and delineating regulatory mechanisms of physiological control systems that are influenced by gravity 

continue to be important parts of the program. 

Ground-based research on gravitropism has clarified 

some of the mechanisms that control differential 

growth and plant orientation. This research conGravitational Biology. The goals of the GravitaThe focus of ground-based animal research is on 

Ultimately, scientists should be able to use biologi- 
tributes directly to the Controlled Ecological Life 

Support System (CELSS) program. Additional space 

research is needed to confirm and complement current 

developmental and metabolic studies. Studies of a 

reusable vehicle with which this research could be 

accomplished began in 1987. 

Exobiology. The Exobiology program goal is to 

understand the origin, evolution, and distribution of 

life in the universe. Attainment of this goal is sought 

by concentrating on specific research objectives that 

trace the pathways taken by the biogenic elements, 

leading from the origin of the universe through the 

major epochs in the evolution of living systems and 

their precursors. The epochs are the cosmic evolution 

of biogenic compounds, prebiotic evolution, early 

evolution of life, and the evolution of advanced life. 

Research and analysis conducted within the program 

focus on the specific objectives, and provide the 

framework for compelling questions that require 

spaceflight missions to answer. To pursue its goal, the 

Exobiology program relies on three aspects of these 

missions: enhanced observational capabilities, as 

represented by the Hubble Space Telescope and 

follow-on Great Observatories, and by enhanced 

radioastronomy capabilities; comparative planetary 

studies, as represented by solar system exploration 

missions, such as the Mars Observer and the proposed 

Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby Mission; and 

emerging capabilities for experimental exobiology that 

may be accommodated on the Space Station and future 

Spacelab flights. 

Recent discoveries have extended the known range 

of biologically related molecules found in the interstellar medium, and support the evidence that the materials essential to life are inextricably linked to the 

processes that result in the formation of planetary 

systems around stars. Such a link expands the likelihood that life could be found elsewhere, and provides a new understanding of the conditions required 

for the origin and evolution of life on Earth. Additional studies have provided an awareness of the 

conditions on the early Earth as life evolved, and of 

the geological and biological processes that led to 

evolution of the present biosphere. 

Recent technology development related to the 

Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) has 

combined sensitive receivers with fast, efficient computer circuits and programs. The specially designed 

Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) chip performs signal 

processing tasks several times faster than its nearest 

competitor. This will allow a search to be undertaken 

that can exceed all previous searches combined by a 

factor of 10 billion. Studies also have been undertaken 

to determine the spinoff potential of SETI technology 

and several promising applications have been identified in diagnostic medicine, computer and engineering 

development, geology, and radio astronomy. 

Biospherics. The goal of the Biospherics program 

is to understand how contemporary biological and 

planetary processes interact. These processes now 

include a significant input from human activity, and 

combine to affect the long-term habitability of the 

Earth. Efforts in the program are concentrated in 

research projects that involve wetlands in the eastern 

United States, temperate forests in the western United 

States, tropical forests in the Amazon Basin in South 

America, and biogeochemical modeling of the interactions of ecosystems on a global scale. Another area of 

growing interest is the application of remote sensing 

techniques, in conjunction with field research and 

mathematical modeling studies, to combat vectorborne diseases, like malaria, that may affect underdeveloped nations. Recent results using remote 

sensing techniques have been encouraging, and may 

prove to be of use in the amelioration of global health 

problems. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems 

(CELSS). The CELSS is proposed as a system that will 

recycle the food, air, and water needed to support 

long-term missions with humans in space. Bioregenerative systems have the potential to provide long-term 

human life support needs. They can provide food by 

31 
photosynthesis of plant products in a controlled 

environment, thereby allowing continuous production 

of fresh edibles; they can provide breathable air 

through photosynthetic release of oxygen and fixation 

of carbon dioxide; and they can provide clean water 

because higher plants take up nutrient solution 

through their roots, and transpire through their leaves 

nearly pure water which can then be condensed for 

drinking. In all likelihood, all of this can be accomplished with significant economic and safety benefits 

over currently envisioned physical-chemical systems, 

which will require food resupply and waste disposal. 

A CELSS also has other advantages in terms of overall 

human health and mission objectives, including 

psychological benefits from aesthetics and resupply 

independence. As noted by the National Commission 

on Space, a CELSS will allow space settlements to “live 

off the land” by converting available materials into lifesupport consumables. Recent study results are consistent with this vision, showing world-record crop 

productivity that minimizes the volume and weight 

penalties of such a system, and demonstrating that 

natural light available in low-Earth orbit may reduce 

the energy needs of a CELSS. 

Life Sciences support the conduct of experiments 

critical to fulfilling medical responsibilities for space 

crews and for obtaining fundamental knowledge about 

life in the universe. These experiments have been 

conducted on the Shuttle, and will be conducted on 

the Space Station, spacecraft exploring the solar 

system, and expendable launch vehicles. In addition, 

Life Sciences research is being conducted on groundbased projects. 

One of the highlights during the year was the 

biomedical data received from 26 experiments conducted on COSMOS 1987 in a highly successful 

collaboration between NASA and the Soviet Union. 

COSMOS 1987 was launched September 29 and banded 

October 12, 1987. The biomaterials returned from this 

mission are currently being analyzed in the United 

32 

Flight Programs. The Flight programs activities in 

States by the principal investigators. The relationship 

between US. and Soviet space life scientists has 

continued for 17 years from the first joint collaboration 

on COSMOS 782, and the United States plans to 

participate in the 1989 COSMOS biosatellite flight. 

The existence of a permanent research facility in 

Earth orbit will allow significant advances in understanding the relationship of gravity and life. It also will 

allow collection of the first intact interplanetary and 

interstellar particle fragments; and will permit high 

fidelity theoretical studies to be performed that are 

impossible to achieve on Earth. The reference set of 

science objectives, experiments, and hardware requirements have been developed and design work on longlead items, such as a variable gravity research centrifuge, is underway. A mockup was developed and 

subsystem tests were initiated on the Space Station 

Health Maintenance Facility, which will provide 

preventative medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic 

capabilities for space crews. 

small autonomous but important life sciences investigations on expendable spacecraft, thus maintaining the 

vitality of the space life sciences community and 

relieving some of the burden on manned space 

experimentation. 

Microgravity Science and Applications 

The mission of the Microgravity Science and Applications program is to foster the development of nearEarth space as a national resource. This will be 

accomplished by providing the infrastructure to 

facilitate research and development activities by the 

academic community and industry. 

The goal remains to promote high-quality science 

and applications research which uses the microgravity 

environment with reduced buoyancy forces, 

hydrostatic pressure, sedimentation, thermal convection flows, and surface contamination. This environment will allow the fundamental science that governs 

processes on Earth and in the universe to advance; the 

Studies also were initiated for the future conduct of 
increased understanding of the role of gravity in 

various industrial processes used on Earth; and the 

production of limited quantities of certain exotic or 

high-value materials with enhanced properties for 

specialized applications. 

Over 100 principal investigators and five Centers of 

Excellence pursue microgravity research in the following areas: 

Fundamental Science-This includes the behavior 

of fluids and the study of transport phenomena in 

microgravity, and experiments that use enhanced 

measurement precision in microgravity to analyze 

physical properties and to challenge contemporary 

theories of relativity and condensed matter physics. 

Materials Scienc-This includes the processing of 

electronic and photonic materials, metals, alloys, and 

composites; and glasses and ceramics, and polymers. 

The primary objective is to obtain a better understanding of the role of gravity-driven convection in the 

processing of such materials to achieve better control 

strategies on Earth. Also, new processing technologies 

are being developed that take full advantage of the 

microgravity environment. Production of limited 

quantities of exotic new materials with superior 

properties should be possible that can serve as bench 

marks for certain strategic applications. Eventually, 

such efforts will lead to commercially viable 

enterprises. 

Biotechnology-The focus of the microgravity 

program in biotechnology is the growth of protein 

crystals and other process-oriented experiments. 

Superior ordering of the protein crystalline lattice can 

be achieved in microgravity and the molecular structure of complex proteins can be derived from x-ray 

diffraction data obtained from these crystals. This 

could have enormous implications for understanding 

the biological function of important proteins at the 

molecular level. In addition to this fundamental 

knowledge, such information provides the basis for 

rational drug design, the development of new vaccines, and protein engineering. Also, researchers are 

continuing to explore the possible advantages of cell 

culturing, cell separation, and cell fusion in microgravity. 

The delay in the flight program due to the Challenger accident reduced momentum in the microgravity science program, but there were some benefits. 

There was an emphasis on replacing several pieces of 

outdated research hardware with redesigned, programmable systems with greatly expanded capabilities; 

specifically, the Advanced Automated Directional 

Solidification Furnace, Protein Crystal Growth, and the 

Electromagnetic Levitator apparatus. During the same 

period, over 200 journal articles were published and 

nine committees were convened to analyze the key 

elements of the microgravity science program. The 

most notable committee was that headed by the Nobel 

Laureate, Dr. Robert Schrieffer, which prioritized the 

flight opportunities for the highest quality science 

programs. 

The interruption in the flight schedule increased the 

utilization of the ground-based microgravity facilities at 

several NASA centers. The drop tower at the Marshall 

Space Flight Center had nearly a fourfold increase in 

drop testing over the previous year, and the drop tube 

at the Lewis Research Center may go to a second shift 

to accommodate researchers. The increased use of 

aircraft testing contributed to significant hardware 

improvements in the protein crystal growth and phase 

partitioning experiments. Sub-orbital, low-gravity 

testing also allowed a clearer definition of experiment 

parameters for both solid-surface and droplet combustion experiments. 

During 1987, a four-step planning process began. 

First, scientists from each of six Discipline Working 

Groups (DWG) (Biotechnology, Combustion, Electronic Materials, Fluid Dynamics and Transport Phenomena, Glass and Ceramics, and Metals and Alloys) 

specified the areas of science and technology in their 

disciplines which could benefit from study in microgravity. Each DWG also assigned priorities to the 

areas in its discipline. Second, the Microgravity 

33 
Science and Applications Science Panel considered 

ground-based experiments to conduct. The third step, 

to define, prioritize, and develop hardware necessary 

to accomplish the experiments, was begun in 1987. In 

the fourth step, priorities for placement of the hardware and experiments on Shuttle and Space Station 

will be made based on requirements for volume, 

power consumed and dissipated, weight, crew time, 

and other pertinent factors. 

The centerpiece of this endeavor is the Space 

Station which will serve as a National Microgravity 

Laboratory. For the first time, scientists will be able to 

conduct experiments in an interactive mode and feed 

the results of one set of experiments into the next set 

in a timely manner. Also, for the first time, there will 

be adequate power to support materials science 

experiments involving high temperature and the 

growth of large-diameter crystals. 

Improvements in both hardware and the design of 

microgravity experiments will yield a high return in the 

amount and the quality of future research in space. 

Six generic Space Station facilities have been 

identified: Advance Protein Crystal Growth Facility; 

Modular Containerless Processing Facility; Space 

Station Furnace Facility; Biotechnology Facility; Modular Combustion Facility; and Fluid Physics/Dynamics 

Facility. These facilities will be highly modular and 

designed to share host systems. Nine Advanced 

Technology Development (ATD) areas have been 

identified with the objective of enhancing the scientific 

quality and integrity of flight experiments. They 

include noncontact temperature measurements; 

interface measurements; laser light scattering; combustion/fluid diagnostics; high resolution/high rate video; 

high temperature materials technology; high temperature furnace technology; vibration isolations; and 

biosensors. All NASA centers and the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory participate in these activities by leading and 

supporting the development of one or more of the 

Space Station generic facilities and ATDs. After review 

by a NASA task force, planning was initiated for a 

34 

series of Spacelab flights to regain the US. competitive 

advantage in microgravity science and to evaluate 

Space Station hardware concepts. In addition, the plan 

is flexible enough to make use of any commercially 

developed space facility, that may become available. 

ness of the Microgravity Science and Applications 

program will establish US. leadership in microgravity 

science in the 1990’s and beyond. 

Communications and Information Systems 

NASA’s programs in satellite communications and 

information systems are committed to the advancement 

of the state of the art in commercial satellite communications and the implementation of information systems 

for the efficient performance of scientific research in 

today’s data-intensive environment. Key elements of 

the communications program are the Advanced 

Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) program, 

a collaborative endeavor with an industry consortium 

to deploy a satellite that will provide mobile communications services, and studies leading to design improvements of the operational Search and Rescue 

system flown on the NOAA polar-orbiting satellite 

system. The information systems program is responsible for NASA’s long-term data archives, institutional 

computer operations in support of ongoing research 

programs, and advanced planning and architecture 

definition for scientific data systems of the future. 

(ACTS). In 1987, the ACTS project moved closer 

toward its goal of a spacecraft launch from the Space 

Shuttle in the early 1990’s. The design, implementation and testing of the communication engineering 

models (transponders and antennas) are essentially 

complete. These systems are the “heart” of the spacecraft and the key technical challenge. The current 

ACTS technology items, including the spacebornebased processor, steerable antenna and the highpowered fast hopping spot beam antenna system, will 

The quality, complexity, relevance, and competitiveAdvanced Communications Technology Satellite 
make ACTS as significant in the 1990’s as the original 

SYNCOM was in the 1960’~. These advancements will 

contribute to U.S. prominence in the world telecommunications marketplace of the future. 

Mobile Satellite. The joint mobile satellite program 

with U.S. industry and other Government agencies will 

provide two-way, satellite-assisted communication with 

cars, trucks, trains, boats, and aircraft within the next 

four or five years. Such a system, offering nationwide 

voice and data communications, is especially important 

for mobile users in rural and remote areas of the 

United States. Recently, a significant milestone was 

reached with the allocation of international frequencies 

for this application. Most importantly, a single consortium has emerged to own and operate a mobile 

satellite service in the United States. Licensing approval by the FCC is expected within several months. 

of power, spectrum, and orbit-efficient technologies 

designed to greatly increase system capacity and 

ensure the growth of future mobile satellite systems. 

In direct response to the President’s policy on the 

commercial use of space, the system will create new 

hardware markets, business and service industries in 

the United States, and counter growing foreign competition, such as the Japanese launch of an experimental 

mobile satellite in August 1987, and planned European 

and Australian systems. 

Search and Rescue. The COSPAS/SARSAT system 

(COSPAS, translated literally from Russian meaning 

Space System ’for Search of Distressed Vessels, and 

SARSAT, the acronym for Search and Rescue SatelliteAided Tracking, the US. contribution to the system) 

completed its fifth year of operation in 1987. Over 950 

lives have been saved as a result of the use of this 

system. Development of US. capability to compete in 

the manufacture of 406 MHz beacons has been enhanced by the development of equipment 

specifications. 

making by the regulatory agencies for increasing 

NASA has completed the development of a number 

NASA has provided technical advice to support rulecarriage of the beacons by new classes of ships and 

aircraft. Cooperation with foreign partners is continuing and has resulted in the installation of terminal 

equipment in several nations. Technical effort continues to reduce the false alarm rate of the older 121.5 

MHz system. 

Advanced Planning. In close coordination with its 

advisory groups, NASA is developing plans to address 

future space communications needs, and the increasing 

demand for communication bandwidths. The agency 

has begun defining the technologies that will build on 

ACTS, support the future data distribution requirements 

of Space Station, and the science community, and 

contribute to the continued competitiveness of the 

satellite communications industry. Technologies under 

study for possible development and application 

include optical communications for high-resolution 

transmission in space sensing, robotics and planetary 

missions; communication links to support lunar and 

planetary exploration bases; and large, space-based 

antennas for Earth sensing and communication applications. The latter could be tested and calibrated at 

the Space Station in a near zero-gravity environment 

and subsequently transported to their final positions in 

space. 

ATS-3. In 1987, the Advanced Technology Satellite 

(ATS-3) celebrated its 20th anniversary and continues 

to support the National Science Foundation, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Department 

of Defense, Department of the Interior, Drug Enforcement Administration, several universities, state and 

local governments, and a number of domestic and 

international disaster relief organizations. Through 

satellite voice and data links in science and communications application experiments, support is provided to 

North and South America, most of the Atlantic Ocean, 

and a large part of the eastern Pacific, including 

Hawaii and Antarctica. 

35 
Information Systems 

Science and Applications flight projects and science 

programs by operating large-scale computational 

resources used for data analysis; working with discipline programs to establish data centers for managing 

and distributing data; and developing computer 

networks and exploiting advanced technologies to 

access and process massive amounts of data acquired 

from successful space missions. 

Several major data processing systems used by 

researchers to make large-scale computations and to 

test complex scientific models are located at the 

Goddard Space Flight Center. In addition, the program 

is responsible for the National Space Science Data 

Center (NSSDC), which archives data from science 

missions, and coordinates management of NASA data 

at distributed data centers. The Science Internet 

program at the Ames Research Center develops 

computer networks and explores new technologies to 

improve access to computers, data bases, and 

collaborators. 

acquired data at the NSSDC was completed, and 

development of compatible online catalogs for all 

science data centers began. International electronic 

access to NASA’s distributed discipline data centers 

was established; this capability was fully exploited 

during NASA’s Supernova 1987a campaigns by researchers worldwide. 

new capabilities to access and manage data for the 

astrophysics, planetary, and land processes disciplines 

was also developed. The successful demonstration of 

networks, optical disks, workstations, and other 

technologies integrated for one science discipline 

facilitates their adaptation by other disciplines and 

flight missions. 

The Information Systems program supports Space 

In 1987, an electronic master directory for all NASAThroughout the data systems technology program, 

Fligltt Systems 

Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA) 

reflects significant progress toward utilization of the 

Space Station. To this end, the focus is on both the 

Space Station and Spacelab. The Spacelab will support 

the Space Station through systematic and methodical 

development of experiments, science, and operational 

procedures associated with flight systems. 

Since the Space Shuttle is scheduled to resume flight 

in August 1988, renewed efforts have begun to prepare 

high-priority scientific missions for manifest opportunities in 1988 and 1989. Due to a more limited number 

of flight opportunities, missions have been modified to 

maximize the scientific return. In addition, mandatory 

new testing and analysis are underway to meet the 

new standards of safety, reliability, and quality. 

ready for a 1986 flight, is presently scheduled for a 

1989 launch. ASTRO’s three independent ultraviolet 

telescopes that operate on the Instrument Pointing 

System will conduct independent but complementary 

measurements of ultraviolet spectra from a variety of 

astronomical sources, including stars and galaxies. 

Materials Science Laboratory missions are being 

prepared for flight starting in 1989. These missions are 

intermediate class payloads intended to develop new 

capabilities and facilities in the area of microgravity 

sciences. The Spacelab Life Science Module Mission 

has been reconfigured and is available for flight in 

1990, and the Atmospheric Laboratory for Application 

and Science is being prepared for a flight opportunity 

in early 1991. 

major user of the resources offered by the Space 

Station program. OSSA expects that the Space Station 

will be a research laboratory in space for microgravity 

experiments in the pressurized modules, payloads on 

the core station, and Earth-observing experiments on 

the polar orbiting platform. Planning for the science 

utilization of the Space Station was intensified during 

Spacelub FZight Program. Reorganization of the 

The astronomical payload (ASTRO), which was 

Space Station Activities. OSSA plans to be a 

36 
1987. An outgrowth of the Science Operations Task 

Team that was started in 1986 was the Space Station 

Science Operations Management Working Group, 

which completed a study defining alternate approaches 

to the management of science operations for the Space 

Station. OSSA is proceeding with the detailed evaluation of management alternatives leading to an approach which will maximize the scientific utility of the 

Space Station. 

During 1987, OSSA progressed into the preliminary 

definition of a Science and Applications Information 

System (SAIS), which will allow long-term evolution of 

OSSA data networks and involve the user community 

in systems development. A key element of the science 

operations concept, which is embedded in the SAIS, is 

“te1escience”-the capability to conduct experiments in 

space from the researcher’s own laboratory. The OSSA 

Telescience Testbed Pilot Program began in 1987 with 

an initial complement of 14 universities. The first 

phase will test the applicability of emerging technologies and methodologies to the implementation of 

telescience, validate system requirements, and investigate implementation options. 

As part of the increased focus on improving OSSA’s 

ability to use the Space Station early in its operational 

phase, a plan was developed to augment definition 

work on candidate payloads on the core station. 

Experiment definition funding was set aside for 

definition and accommodation assessments of high 

priority payloads that show particular promise for flight 

on the Space Station, and for the study of technologies 

that will increase the efficiency and economy with 

which OSSA can use the facility. A committee representing the space and Earth sciences community was 

convened to review and implement this plan. 

A coordinating subcommittee of OSSA science 

advisory committees is being formed as a successor to 

the Task Force on the Scientific Uses of ‘the Space 

Station. Its purpose will be to provide advice and 

recommendations on OSSA’s plans for use of the Space 

Station. 

Space Transportation 

Transportation Services 

centered on a concentrated effort to develop a combined Shuttle and Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV) 

manifest. This mixed fleet manifest resulted from an 

assessment of NASA’s launch requirements and capabilities in the wake of the Challenger accident and the 

subsequent reevaluation of the Shuttle program. The 

manifest incorporated major elements that include the 

President’s policy on the commercialization of space, 

which provides that NASA will no longer launch 

commercial satellites except for those that are Shuttleunique or have foreign policy implications; revised 

Department of Defense requirements; and new definitions of secondary payloads. The definition of secondary payloads was broadened to include larger payloads up to approximately 8,000 pounds. Secondaries 

now include large materials processing and technology 

development payloads and early design-related Space 

Station experiments. 

launch and landing Operations 

Throughout 1987, the focus of Shuttle processing 

activities at the Kennedy Space Center was on reevaluating, improving, and recertifying procedures, associated facilities, and ground support equipment. Permanent weather protection modifications were completed 

on launch Pad B, and similar modifications to launch 

Pad A are scheduled for completion next year. Several 

additional modifications to launch facilities were 

identified as mandatory for completion prior to the 

next launch. They include redesign of the External 

Tank vent umbilical system, upgrade of the emergency 

egress system, and upgrade of the Payload Changeout 

Room. The Orbiter Modification and Refurbishment 

Facility and Thermal Protection System Facility were 

completed on schedule in 1987. 

The Shuttle Processing Contractor and the Base 

Operations Contractor are conducting extensive 

operational training. Also, support is being provided 

During 1987, most activity in Transportation Services 

37 
to conduct vehicle testing and develop improved 

procedures and processes. 

Processing the Shuttle Orbiter Discovery for the 

flight of STS-26 began in September in the Orbiter 

Processing Facility. Design and construction efforts 

commenced during 1987 for Space Shuttle support 

facilities at Ben Guerir Airfield, Morocco and the 

Yundum International Airport in Gambia. Runway 

modifications were initiated at the White Sands Space 

Harbor, New Mexico to satisfy required contingency 

landing capabilities. 

Flight Operations 

As related to the Space Transportation System, flight 

operations encompass all resources and functions 

necessary to plan, train, and conduct a mission. They 

include ground facilities, crew training, and mission 

support personnel. 

Operations personnel participated in large-scale 

reviews of Shuttle systems, mission rules, failure mode 

and effects analyses, and launch commit criteria. 

Training and certification of flight controllers and crew 

personnel continued. A long mission simulation (3 

days), and an average of 8 hours per week of general 

simulations, have allowed proficiency to be maintained 

for the return to flight. Also, selection was made of 15 

new astronaut candidates to support future missions of 

the Space Shuttle program. 

Several replacements and enhancements of operational ground support facilities were started or completed. The Mission Operations Computers in the 

Mission Control Center at Johnson Space Center were 

replaced and tested. The Shuttle Mission Trading 

Facility upgrade program will include the Fixed Base, 

Motion Base, and Guidance, Navigation, and Control 

Simulators. 

contractor personnel were able to complete a backlog 

of software discrepancy reports and document critical 

processes. Also, STSOC contract renegotiations were 

Under the STS Operations Contract (STSOC), 

completed that will allow a closer alignment of the 

operational tasks and environmental needs of Shuttle 

operations. 

Orbiter 

During 1987, major efforts continued to focus on 

returning the Orbiter to flight status. Safety changes 

identified in the System Design Reviews and the 

Critical Items List Reviews are being incorporated into 

the Orbiter. Crew escape and landing system changes 

recommended by the Presidential Commission on the 

Space Shuttle Challenger Accident are also being 

incorporated. Other safety-related areas under review 

include the critical items list, launch commit criteria, 

hazard analyses, design requirements and design 

certification. 

A major structural loads analysis, which includes 

updated wind tunnel and flight data, is nearing completion. Changes required as a result of this analysis 

will be incorporated into the Orbiter. 

Previous initiatives to improve the general purpose 

computer, inertial measuring unit, auxiliary power unit, 

and brakes continued. The improved fuel cell was 

completed and will be flown on the first return-toflight vehicle. The production of the replacement 

Orbiter (OV-105) was initiated in August 1987 when a 

contract was signed with Rockwell International. The 

foundation for this vehicle will be the structural spares 

that have been under construction for the past four 

years and represent about one-quarter of a completed 

Orbiter. With the use of these structural spares, the 

new Orbiter will be delivered in approximately 45 

months. The assembly and testing of the vehicle is 

taking place at Palmdale, California where all of the 

previous vehicles were built. OV-105 will incorporate 

all of the latest redesigns for return to flight. 

External Tank 

During the year, four external tanks were delivered. 

The External Tank recertification process is well under 

way and no problems are expected. 

38 
Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) 

All areas of the SRB’s were assessed for minimum 

impact on the return-to-flight schedule. Primary design 

changes were to the Solid Rocket Motor (SRM) field 

joints, nozzle-to-case joints, case insulation and seals. 

The established SRM redesign team evaluated design 

alternatives which would minimize the redesign time 

but ensure adequate margins of safety. Analyses and 

tests of the redesign baseline were conducted. Several 

tests of case and nozzle-to-case joints with intentionally 

flawed insulation and O-rings were completed. Also, 

two of the four static motor test firings required prior 

to reflight were successful. A second horizontal static 

test stand that will be used in simulating environmental 

stresses, loads, and temperatures experienced during 

launches was constructed. The first static test using 

this facility will be conducted in April 1988. 

The filament wound case (FWC) development 

program was completed, but FWC production was 

postponed. A minimum of two years will be required 

for requalification and production of flight sets. 

Subsequent to the Challenger accident, the five 

major solid propulsion contractors were funded to 

study innovative changes to the existing SRM joint 

design and to design new concepts for improved SRM 

performance. The results of these studies were 

reported to Congress in January, as required by Public 

Law 99-349. In response to direction in the NASA 

Authorization Act, an SRM Acquisition Strategy and 

Plan, which indicated that NASA proposed to initiate 

Phase B studies for an Advanced Solid Rocket Motor, 

was submitted to Congress in March. The five solid 

propulsion contractors were awarded contracts in 

August for nine-month preliminary design studies of 

both a monolithic and segmented Advanced Solid 

Rocket Motor. 

Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) 

A program was initiated to address key problems 

%reas of the SSME that were identified following 

Challenger’s accident. This consisted of 23 mandatory 

changes required prior to the first return-to-flight 

mission. The test rate to accomplish all of 

the required certification tests was increased from 8 to 

12 per month. The engine certification test program 

achieved a major milestone when engine 2105 reached 

30,000 seconds of testing. The third test stand (B-1) 

was completed at the National Space Technology 

Laboratories and should be activated early in 1988. 

The Technology Test Bed program is underway at 

the Marshall Space Flight Center. It provides an 

independent means to evaluate technology programs 

and technical advances arising from the development 

program, and to test the alternate pumps. Testing 

should start mid-1988. The alternate high pressure 

pump program has been underway for over a year. 

Component testing is scheduled to start in early 1989. 

Also, a SSME Health Monitoring Diagnostics program 

was initiated to provide greater reliability, safety 

margin, and lower operational costs. 

Upper Stages 

vehicles for three additional Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite missions, and for the Galileo, Ulysses, and 

Magellan planetary missions. In addition, work 

continued on the modified Payload Assist Module 

(PAM), which will be used with an IUS for the Ulysses 

mission. 

Production continued on two Transfer Orbit Stage 

(TOS) vehicles for the Mars Observer planetary mission 

and the Advanced Communications Technology 

Satellite mission. The upper stage is being built by 

Orbitdl Sciences Corporation. As exemplified by the 

TOS and PAM vehicles, commercially developed upper 

stages are playing a more significant role in the 

Nation’s space activities. 

The Solid Propulsion Integrity program (formerly 

Solid Rocket Motor Integrity program) continued to 

improve understanding of solid rocket motor designs 

and manufacturing processes that affect reliability. 

This program is providing a data base against which 

Production continued on Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) 

39 
designs of solid rockets can be substantiated. The 

Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster organizations have 

used this data base to verify some of their redesigns. 

Termination of the STS/Centdur upper stage contracts continued. The design of the STS/Centaur G 

prime vehicle is being used by the Department of 

Defense as one of the upper stages for the Titan IV 

launch vehicle. 

Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle 

Design and development of the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle (OMV) continued. The Program Requirements Review was held in late summer 1987; work is 

progressing towards the Preliminary Design Review in 

July 1988; and the Critical Design Review is scheduled 

for September 1989. The OMV is expected to be available for its first mission in June 1993. 

Tethered Satellite System 

The Tethered Satellite System is a cooperative 

development between NASA and Italy to provide a 

capability for conducting experiments in the upper 

atmosphere and ionosphere. It will be capable of 

deploying and retrieving a tethered satellite up to 100 

kilometers below or above the Space Shuttle which 

will serve as the orbiting base. The first mission will 

be an outward deployed electro-dynamic mission with 

a 20-kilometer conductive tether. 

During 1987, the Tethered Satellite System was in a 

phased-down mode consistent with a two-year delay 

in the first mission and compatible with the Italian development effort. The manufacture and qualification 

of the 20-kilometer conductive tether was completed 

and the flight unit was delivered. Work on other 

major subsystems continued with qualifications and 

deliveries continued with qualifications and deliveries 

for 1988 and 1989. The first mission is scheduled for 

January 1991. 

Spacelab 

hardware for safe return to flight. This activity identiAction was taken in 1987 to recertify the Spacelab 

fied the critical categorization of the Spacelab components, and documented the recertification of critical 

hardware and associated processing activities. 

Marshall Space Flight Center completed development of the second hitchhiker. This hitchhiker is a 

Shuttle Payload of Opportunity carrier that fits into the 

Shuttle payload bay. The Spacelab Enhanced Pallet 

development progressed through a successful critical 

design review. The enhanced pallet system will be 

used for the Tethered Satellite System and the Space 

Technology Experiment platform. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles (€W) 

In 1987, NASA launched four spacecraft missions 

using expendable launch vehicles. Three of these 

missions were successful: a Scout launch of a Navy 

Transit satellite in September 1987; a Delta launch of 

GOES-H for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration in February 1987, and a Delta launch of 

PALAPA B-2, a communications satellite for the 

Indonesian Government in March 1987. In March 

1987, an Atladcentaur launch attempt of FLTASATCOM 6, a Navy Communications satellite, resulted in a 

failure when lightning in the vicinity of the vehicle 

caused the engines to malfunction. The vehicle was 

destroyed by the range safety officer. 

As a result of the Challenger accident, NASA conducted a series of space transportation requirements 

and capability studies that concluded that a Mixed 

Fleet, consisting of the Space Shuttle and expendable 

launch vehicles, is necessary to help ensure continued 

US. operations and access to space. A two-phased 

plan to implement the Mixed Fleet program is under 

way. In the first phase, launch vehicles for five, high 

priority missions requiring launch before 1992 will be 

acquired non-competitively, either directly from 

commercial operators or through Department of 

Defense contracts. In the second phase, for missions 

after 1992, NASA will acquire expendable launch 

vehicle services in support of approved missions on a 

competitive basis from private sector operators whenever the opportunity exists. 

40 
Space Flight/Space Station Integration 

During 1987, a new organization was created within 

the Office of Space Flight to facilitate the integration of 

the Space Station program, and its unique requirements, into Space Transportation support systems. It 

coordinates the exchange of information between the 

two programs and serves as a forum for presenting 

and resolving issues related to technical and programmatic interfaces. In 1987, a major transportation study 

was conducted with the Space Station program. The 

study examined transportation capabilities, including 

expendable launch vehicles, proposed heavy lift 

launch vehicles, Space Shuttle enhancements, extra 

vehicular activity, and on-orbit crew time. It identified 

areas that will help reduce Shuttle flight rate requirements and increase the support margins for Space 

Station. An increase in Shuttle down weight capability 

identified by the study will have benefits across the 

entire Shuttle manifest. 

Continuing Space Flighthpace Station integration 

activities include reviewing and implementing Space 

Station operations concepts, preparing a congressional 

report on cost-effective transportation for the Space I 

Station program, and initiating specific technical and 

programmatic areas to enhance support of the Space 

Station. 

Advanced Planning 

In a joint effort, NASA and DOD continued the 

Space Transportation Architecture Studies (STAS) to 

define future space transportation requirements. 

Guided by recommendations of STAS, NASA and DOD 

coordinated studies to define concepts for unmanned 

heavy lift launch vehicles that will satisfy both nearand long-term mission requirements. The Air Forceled Advanced Launch System studies concentrate on a 

heavy lift launch system which incorporates advanced 

technologies to achieve longer term objectives (1998 

and beyond) for significantly reduced transportation 

costs. The NASA-led Shuttle-C (Cargo) studies concentrate on a capability compatible with the existing 

Shuttle fleet that can deliver a minimum of 100,000 Ibs. 

of useable cargo to low-Earth orbit. 

For manned flight, NASA continued efforts for nearterm Shuttle performance enhancement, initiated 

studies for Shuttle evolution, and continued studies of 

a next-generation Shuttle I1 vehicle. The Advanced 

Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) program, currently in the 

definition phase, offers a potential increase of payload 

mass to orbit from 12,000 Ibs. to 20,000 Ibs for the 

Space Shuttle. New technologies are being explored 

for the ASRM to enhance quality and improve performance. A new study on Liquid Rocket Boosters 

(LRB) examines the feasibility of replacing the Solid 

Rocket Motors with liquid engines. Potentially, the 

LRB’s offer advantages in performance and thrust. 

performance, studies are underway to evaluate its 

evolution, while achieving cost and efficiency objectives. Changes to current systems in the areas of 

operations and avionics have potential for follow-on 

orbiters while other options, ranging from two to 

single stage-to-orbit configurations, are being examined for a post year 2000 next-generation Shuttle I1 

vehicle. 

In support of potential lunar and Mars missions, 

studies focused on large, on-orbit cargo storage 

techniques and space transfer vehicles that could be 

required at the turn of the century and beyond. 

Satellite Servicing 

In 1987, NASA continued to focus its Satellite 

Servicing program on the development of systems, 

tools, and procedures that will use Shuttle capabilities 

and be compatible with the Space Station and the 

OMV. The program addressed requirements for 

refueling, repairing, retrieving, and retrofitting associated with Shuttle operations and remote servicing, 

using the OMV or a dedicated service device. 

The definition of tankers, couplings, and techniques 

to support refueling satellites on-orbit is well underway 

and will be applicable to both Shuttle-related manned 

Concurrent with efforts to enhance the Space Shuttle 

41 
EVA and remote OMV resupply requirements. Tools 

and special fixtures for EVA applications are also under 

development, including a remote blind mate and EVA 

scoop proof connectors, an umbilical carrier mechanism, improved EVA suit glove, and a voice control 

system and force torque sensor for unmanned 

telerobotic applications. 

Satellite retrieval capability studies are focused on 

soft docking using laser sensor technology, a potential 

OMV front end kit with the capability to retrieve 

tumbling satellites, and a light-weight satellite holding 

and positioning device. Procedures and techniques for 

retrofitting or upgrading equipment on polar platforms 

are also under study. 

A study and laboratory program to define and 

evaIuate several highly promising applications of 

tethers in space continued. The focus of these efforts 

has been on defining and implementing flight experiments and demonstrations. Applications being investigated include power generation, orbital altitude 

changes without the use of propellants, artificial gravity 

and tethered space platforms for science and application uses. 

Advanced Operations 

A new program initiative addresses advanced 

operations effectiveness as key to improving safety and 

efficiency and reducing life-cycle costs for space 

transportation and orbital systems. New and innovative ground, flight, and on-orbit operations techniques 

are being assessed for use with existing and future 

space systems. 

mous systems applied to key operational functions, 

such as thermal protection system measurement, 

weather forecasting, paperless management tracking 

systems, and on-orbit rendezvous and docking operations. Current plans emphasize the application of 

expert systems for labor-intensive operations such as 

flight and launch planning. Robotic applications will 

reduce hazardous operations and improve safety. 

In 1987, efforts concentrated on expert and autonoAdvanced software engineering tools, new instrumentation techniques, and other key technologies also will 

be the subject of operations-oriented advanced development efforts. 

Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and 

Quality Assurance 

As part of a NASA-wide effort to improve the 

communication of safety problems to upper management, the Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability 

and Quality Assurance established the NASA Safety 

Reporting System (NSRS). The NSRS is a confidential, 

voluntary, and independent reporting system through 

which NASA employees and contractors working on 

the National Space Transportation System may directly 

and anonymously inform the NASA Headquarters 

Safety Division of their concerns about the safety of 

the Shuttle program. To assure that the confidentiality 

of individuals using the NSRS is maintained, NASA has 

contracted with an independent agent, the Battelle 

Memorial Institute of Columbus, Ohio, to administer 

the program. Individuals who have knowledge of a 

risk to the NSTS may document this on a NSRS Reporting Form which is postage-paid and pre-addressed to 

Battelle in Columbus. 

The NSRS is not intended to replace any existing 

methods of communicating safety problems to management and is not intended to bypass supervisors. 

Instead, it is a supplementary reporting system which 

allows individuals to contact the upper levels of NASA 

management with their concerns when the standard 

reporting methods have failed to provide a timely or 

satisfactory resolution. Offering anonymity to the 

reporter removes the obstacle of fear of reprisal often 

associated with making supervisors aware of problems 

or hazards. 

A Technical Advisory Group (TAG), comprised of 

representatives from the Space Transportation System 

(STS) Centers, the Office of Space Flight, and chaired 

by the Manager of the STS Safety Program, has been 

formed to investigate the hazards or concerns reported 

42 
to the NSRS. Each TAG member at the STS Centers 

has formed an action team to assess the NSRS concerns 

assigned to the Center and develop a plan for corrective action. The plan and accompanying schedule for 

implementation must be approved by the Director of 

the Safety Division at NASA Headquarters before the 

matter is considered resolved. The Director also 

reserves the option to request an independent evaluation of the proposed hazard resolution. 

During 1987, Battelle received reports addressing a 

variety of concerns related to safety procedures and to 

the design and maintenance of the Shuttle. To date, 

only two of all the reports received dealt with issues 

outside the scope of STS safety. One of them is being 

studied as a legitimate safety concern in spite of its 

“out-of-scope” designation. Currently, the NSRS is 

handling only STS-related safety issues. However, the 

system will be expanded in the future to include safety 

issues in all NASA programs and projects. 

In October 1987, the first NASA Excellence Award 

for Quality and Productivity was presented to IBM 

Federal Systems Division in Houston, Texas and Martin 

Marietta Manned Space Systems in New Orleans, 

Louisiana. The two companies were selected from 

among seven finalists. The purpose of the Award is to 

recognize the highest standards of performance among 

NASA contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers in the 

aerospace industry, to transfer their superior ideas to 

others, and to create public awareness of the importance of quality and productivity to the United States. 

Langley Research Center has a new computational 

model of the physical structure of the Shuttle Solid 

Rocket Motor (SRM) to select the best NDE technique 

for evaluating bondline defects between the steel case, 

the insulation, and the fuel. The physical model 

disclosed that frequency windows exist through which 

the bondlines can be inspected with ultrasonics. The 

model was verified with experimental tests on SRM 

samples with defects, and an instrument is being built 

for testing at Morton Thiokol on one of the test motors. 

The Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Laboratory at 

In addition, ground was broken in 1987 for the NDE 

Center which will house a major research team to 

advance the NDE sciences and technologies needed 

for aerospace. Also, a contract was let for the constriction of a novel X-Ray tomography system that will 

permit the first observation of microdetail (50 microns 

resolution, 2 micron detectability) in solids while the 

solid is undergoing loading and fatigue. This system 

will permit the observation of Failure mechanism in 

three dimensions inside materials, providing a NDE 

science base for understanding such mechanisms. 

Commercial Use of Space 

The Office of Commercial Programs (OCP) was 

established by NASA to encourage private sector 

investment in commercial space activities. Fostering 

industry involvement in space is vital to the Nation’s 

economic development and competitiveness in the 

world market. OCPs progress toward achieving its 

objectives is exemplified in its accomplishments for 

1987. 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space 

(CCDS) are nonprofit consortia of universities, industry, 

and government working closely to conduct spacebased high technology research with commercial 

potential. OCP established and funded 7 additional 

Centers in 1987, bringing the total number to 16. Over 

100 organizations are currently affiliated with these 

Centers. 

supported by the CCDS Program was the high-temperature superconductivity breakthrough, with the 

highly publicized fahription of material superconducting above the temperature of liquid nitrogen. 

For three quarters of a century, scientists have sought 

to produce materials which would remain superconducting above liquid nitrogen. This increase in 

temperature could make possible commercial applications of resistance-free electricity, long contemplated 

but impractical in light of the cooling requirement. 

The range of potential applications is too broad to 

A recent and major contribution by two researchers 

43 
catalog, but there is general agreement that the ability 

to transport electrical current with no resistance on a 

practical basis will engender profound technological 

and sociological changes throughout the world. 

A NASA Shuttle Manifest through FY 1992 has been 

developed that projects tentative space flight activities, 

including more than 30 payloads associated with OCP. 

Specifically, the first flight of renewed Shuttle operations will carry a payload, developed by the 3M 

Corporation of St. Paul, Minnesota, to study the 

properties of highly ordered organic materials produced in orbit. This flight also will carry equipment to 

grow protein crystals of a size and quality to facilitate 

detailed analysis of their characteristics, with significant 

implications for the future manufacture and use of 

pharmaceuticals. The protein crystal work emanates 

from the CCDS/Center for Macromolecular Crystallography, located at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama. 

Corporation signed the first U.S. Government agreement transferring operation of a Government-developed expendable launch vehicle (ELV) to the private 

sector. The transfer is in line with a Government 

policy supporting efforts by U.S. companies to develop 

commercial launch capabilities competitive with those 

of Europe, Japan, China, and the Soviet Union. The 

agreement transfers to GD authority to use NASAcontrolled facilities and capabilities for commercial 

manufacture and launch of the Atlas/Centaur vehicle. 

GD announced plans to start construction of 18 

commercial Atlas G/Centaurs in 1987, and to introduce 

the vehicle to flight service in 1989. 

The Technology Utilization (TU) Program has 

evolved into a broad array of transfer mechanisms 

designed to encourage and facilitate the use of aeronautics and space technology in the public and private 

sectors of the economy. 

ogy touch our lives. Of particular note are two 

In March 1987, NASA and General Dynamics (GD) 

Currently, over 30,000 spinoffs from NASA technolspinoffs resulting from application engineering projects. A Programmable Implantable Medication System 

was implanted in 18 diabetics, to date, eliminating the 

need for intravenous insulin. An Automatic Implantable Defibrillator, being implanted at a rate of 

approximately 20 a month, sends an automatic electric 

pulse during a heart attack, thus saving lives. 

The NASA Industrial Applications Centers (IAC) are 

a major component of the TU Program. The IAC 

network consists of 10 Centers throughout the United 

States which stimulate corporate interest in NASA 

technology. The university-based IACs cultivate strong 

ties with industry, identify industrial client problems 

and technological interests, and assist their clients 

through the exchange of technological information. 

Recently, the IACs expanded their outreach activities 

through a new initiative called the Industrial Applications Affiliates Program. A number of the Centers have 

developed cooperative working relationships with 

State-sponsored business assistance institutions, 

making NASA’s valuable technologies available to a 

wider range of U.S. industry. To date, 30 State institutions have been established, and 12 more are in 

process. This cooperative effort is being accomplished 

with very little cost to NASA or to the State-sponsored 

affiliates. NASA expects to broaden these cooperative 

linkages with States where business assistance organizations exist. 

In March 1987, NASA entered into an interagency 

agreement with the Federal Laboratory Consortium 

(FLC) to provide linkages between more than 400 

Federal laboratories and NASA’s nationwide transfer 

network. Access to unique technological resources 

and capabilities of the Federal laboratories will be 

facilitated by this agreement. Such Federal resources 

may provide useful answers to the needs of industry as 

well as State and local governments. This arrangement 

provides the FLC, formally established with the passage of Public Law 99-502, with an established technology transfer network serving the requirements of 

industry on a nationwide basis. 

44 
Another major program element designed to transfer 

NASA technology is through publications, the principal 

one being the NASA Tech Briefs journals. This journal, 

which is published 10 times each year, announces as 

many as 60 to 70 new NASA technologies an issue. 

Since NASA privatized NASA Tech Briefs journals 2 

years ago, circulation among engineers and scientists 

in U.S. industry has doubled to over 155,000. This 

clearly indicates the important role that this publication 

plays in making new advances in science and engineering available for industrial and commercial use. 

An important responsibility of OCP is the administration of the agency’s Small Business Innovation 

Research (SBIR) Program. The basic objective of the 

SBIR Program is to achieve greater participation of 

small, innovative businesses in Federal R&D activities 

with resultant benefits to the Government, the small 

businesses involved, and to the economy as a whole. 

As specified by law, NASA’s SBIR Program funding this 

year was 1.25 percent of the agency R&D budget. 

The 1987 SBIR Program Solicitation invited proposals from qualified high-technology business in any of 

122 technical subtopic areas. A total of 1,825 proposals was received (in contrast to the 1,628 received in 

1986), and, from these, 206 were selected for award of 

Phase I contracts. 

Phase I SBIR contracts are intended to explore the 

feasibility of research innovations. Their duration is 6 

months and they are funded as firm fixed-price 

contracts for up to $50,000 each. Phase I1 SBIR 

contracts continue the development of the promising 

Phase I projects, with durations of up to 2 years and 

funding up to $500,000 each. 

During 1987, contracts were let for Phase I1 continuations of research initiated in 84 of the Phase I projects 

completed in 1786. By the end of 1987, an additional 

60 Phase 11 projects were selected to continue the most 

promising Phase I activities completed in 1987. It is 

anticipated that shortly after the end of the year, an 

additional 25 proposals from that same group also will 

be selected for Phase I1 awards. 

encompassed every area of research and technology in 

which NASA is engaged. Interest in the program is 

increasing, and the number of Phase I proposals 

submitted in areas of high technical interest continues 

to grow. Examples of high-interest areas are telerobotics, advanced materials and structures, and instrumentation for both space and aeronautical applications. 

Among the many Phase I proposals submitted this 

year, 61 were related to materials processing in 

microgravity and in commercial applications in space. 

Seven of these were included in the group of proposals selected for contract awards. 

In 1987, most of the Phase I1 projects emanating 

from research initiated in the first year of the program 

were completed. Several project results are slated for 

immediate NASA applications, including an advanced 

fire detection system for large facilities, an improved 

spectro-radiometer instrument for oceanographic 

measurements, and several advanced structures and 

materials-processing techniques. Other research 

products, such as analytical methods, design concepts, 

instrumentation, and data processing techniques, are 

viewed as important contributions to both aeronautics 

and space technology, adding to the overall state of 

knowledge in these fields and increasing the agency’s 

ability to conduct its R&D activities. 

In 1987, NASA began a critical assessment of the 

SBIR Program. As required by the legislation reauthorizing the program last year, the initial assessment 

concentrates on the quality of SBIR research projects, 

to date, and the impact of the program on overall R&D 

activity. NASA’s assessment will be included in a 

report prepared by the General Accounting Office 

about the SBIR Program which will be submitted to 

Congress at the end of 1988. 

As in previous years, the 1987 SBIR Program 

45 
Space Station 

During 1987, NASA made considerable progress 

toward developing the permanently manned Space 

Station mandated by I’resident Reagan in his 1984 State 

of the IJnion address. In January, NASA through 

contracted study efforts completed a 22-month comprehensive preliminary design study. During the 

spring, following a major cost review, the baseline 

configuration underwent significant changes. After 

extensive analysis, a revised baseline configuration was 

endorsed by a special design review group within 

NASA and by the National Research Council. By 

December, major support contracts were in place, and 

the agency hac1 selected the principal contractors for 

hardware development. Negotiations with the Space 

Station’s international partners, Europe, Canada, and 

Japan, establishing cooperative arrangements for 

Station development and operation, neared completion. At the end of 1987, NASA had established a 

strong foundation for the program, and was ready to 

proceed with Space Station detailed design and 

development. 

Station will be used as a research laboratory in space 

and could serve as a stepping stone in support of the 

long-term goal of expanding human presence and 

activity into the solar system. The Station will serve as 

an observatory and a microgravity laboratory. As it 

evolves, it may become a servicing center, transportation node, assembly facility for spacecraft. manufacturing facility, storage depot, and staging base for potential future exploration. 

Basic goals were set for the Space Station at the 

outset of the program, anti have remained unchanged. 

They are as follows: 

To help assure leadership in space during the 

To stimulate advanced technology; 

To promote international cooperation; 

To enhance capability for space science and 

Program Description and Goals. The Space 

1990’s and beyond; 

applications; 

46 

Artist’s conception of the Space Station configuration. 

To develop the commercial potential of space; 

To contribute to American pride and prestige; and 

To stimulate interest in science and engineering 

Configuration Description. The Space Station 

configuration was established in the summer of 1987, 

after Considerable analysis which took into account 

both scientific, technological, and commercial user 

requirements. After a substantial increase in the cost 

of the program, NASA and the Administration decided 

to take a phased approach toward Space Station development. The revised Baseline Configuration will 

include four pressurized modules accommodating a 

crew of eight. The habitation module and one of the 

laboratory modules will be developed by NASA. Japan 

and the European Space Agency will each be responsible for developing a laboratory. These modules will 

be attached to a 120.3 yard (110 meters) boom. The 

Station will be powered by four photovoltaic arrays, 

supplying an average of 75 kilowatts of power. Other 

features of the Station will be a Mobile Servicing 

education. 
Artist’s depiction of space shuttle rendezvous with Space 

Station. 

System, supplied by Canada, accommodations on the 

boom for attached scientific payloads, a flight 

telerobotic servicer, two unmanned free-flying polar 

platforms (one provided by European partners), and 

servicing for European man-tended free-flyer. 

The Space Station configuration is being designed to 

accommodate future changes. The system will include 

“hooks” and “scars.” Hooks are accommodations to 

facilitate the addition or update of computer software 

after Space Station operations begin; and scars are 

physical provisions in the baseline hardware that 

exceed initial requirements or that allow future growth. 

A future phase might utilize the dual keel design of an 

enhanced configuration. This enhanced configuration 

could include the addition of more truss to increase 

attached payload accommodations, an additional 50 

kilowatts of power produced by two solar dynamic 

generators, a servicing bay, and a co-orbiting platform. 

The path of future evolution, however, has not yet 

been determined. It will be based on future national 

goals, mission requirements, and budgetary resources. 

ProgramStatus. The Space Station program made 

considerable technical and managerial progress in 

1987. Important events occurred in contract activities, 

program cost reviews, program organization and 

management, and congressional oversight. 

In January, NASA through contracted studies 

successfully concluded Phase B of the Space Station 

program, a 22-month preliminary design study. The 

Space Station program is divided into four work 

packages, each managed by one of NASA’s field 

centers. NASA announced selection of the prime 

contractors for Phase C/D-advanced design and 

hardware development-in December. The Boeing 

Company will develop Work Package 1, Mcnonnell 

Douglas will develop Work Package 2, General Electric 

will develop Work Package 3, and Rocketdyne will 

develop the elements in Work Package 4. In fulfillment of a congressional requirement to pursue the 

development of automation and robotics technology, 

NASA released the Phase B Request for Proposals for 

the Flight Telerobotic Servicer (FTS) in May. Grumman Aerospace and Martin Marietta were selected to 

conduct FTS definition studies. The ITS is part of 

Work Package 4. 

ment of support services for Space Station systems 

engineering and integration (SE&I). The Technical and 

Management Information System (TMIS) contract, 

awarded to Boeing Computer Services in April, is 

providing a compatible, integrated computer system 

for engineering and management users. A Software 

Support Environment (SSE) contract was awarded to 

Lockheed in Jdy. Lockheed will develop a common 

foundation for all program software development, 

integration, and maintenance. Finally, NASA awarded 

the Program Support Contract (PSC) to Grumman 

Aerospace in July. Grumman is providing a variety of 

support in SE&I, utilization and operations, information 

systems, program control, safety, reliability and quality 

assurance (SR&QA), and coordination of international 

activities. 

Other contract activity in 1987 focused on procure47 
Space Station costs were reviewed several times 

during the year. In January, a top-to-bottom review of 

development costs was completed by NASA. Significant increases in program cost in the spring led to a 

phased approach to Space Station development. In 

addition, NASA conducted cost studies to support the 

National Research Council’s review of the Space 

Station. Finally, in accordance with a requirement in 

NASA’s Authorization Act for FY 1988, the agency 

began preparation of a total cost plan spanning three 

years. Entitled the Capital Development Plan, it will be 

prepared annually through 1996. The plan will include 

the estimated cost of all direct research and development, space flight, control and data communications, 

construction of facilities, and resource and program 

management. This plan will complement the Space 

Station Development Plan submitted to Congress in 

November 1987. 

of many of General Samuel Phillips’ recommendations 

for stronger Space Station program management. In 

the spring, the Program Office was relocated to the 

Washington, D.C. area from Johnson Space Center, 

moving to its permanent facility in Reston, Virginia in 

September. A new management structure is now in 

place, providing a stronger, centralized approach to 

overall control of the program. Overall policy decisions are made at Level I, the Office of Space Station at 

NASA Headquarters. Level 11, the Program Office, is in 

charge of systems integration and program management. Level 111, the four NASA field centers assigned 

work packages, will be responsible for the actual 

hardware development of the Space Station. 

Operations and Utilization Planning. Operations and utilization are two areas which require 

extensive advance planning if the Space Station is to 

realize its potential and if costs are to be controlled. 

Therefore, the Space Station program has placed strong 

emphasis on the design of a system of operation that 

provides affordability over time. Such planning is key 

to the development of a cost-effective Space Station, 

48 

Other important events included the implementation 

Possible configurations for Space Station laboratory and 

habitation modules. 

just as incorporation of user requirements in the design 

of the Space Station is key to its usefulness. 

Four important accomplishments that occurred this 

year in operations planning were the development of 

an operations concept by a NASA Space Station 

Operations Task Force; implementation of an operations plan; further study of operations cost management; and a preliminary study on science operations 

management. 

The Space Station Operations Task Force, established in 1986, examined space operations and support 

systems, ground operations and support, user development and integration, and management integration, 

completing its formal report in April. Other operations 

events included the submission to Congress of reports 

on science operations and operations cost management. The latter report summarized the definition of 

an approach to operations management, identified key 

factors driving operations costs, and developed a 

management process to control operations costs. It 

also examined the potential uses of automation and 

robotics technology to control operations costs. 

The study on science operations management, 
Proposed U.S. Laboratory Module on Space Station. 

completed in August, examined alternative approaches 

to the management of Space Station scientific operations. The science operations considered included 

science planning and payload selection, payload 

development and integration, science tactical and 

increment planning, and science operations and data 

management. The study concluded with a number of 

recommendations concerning science operations 

management and identified nece 

activities. 

made. A preliminary draft of a Space Station Users 

Handbook was completed that will be a guide to the 

Space Station for commercial and Government users; 

and a number of pricing policy studies were initiated 

that will lead to an economic basis for the allocation of 

resources in the Station. Following new inputs from 

potential users, revisions were made to the Mission 

Requirements Data Base. In addition, efforts were 

initiated to develop a Space Station operations management concept for users; and international utilization 

panels, established by the Phase B Memoranda of 

Understanding, were activated to discuss issues 

In the area of utilization, significant progress was 

confronting international users of the Space Station. 

Commercial Utilization and Development. 

Commercial participation in the Space Station program 

was a particularly visible issue in 1987. The encouragement of commercial activity in space is a stated 

national goal. Commercial activities include participation in the development and use of the Station, and 

NASA is searching for ways to foster both kinds of 

commercial involvement in the program. Such involvement will do much to promote the development 

of commercial activities in space. 

NASA and interested industry members have 

engaged in several activities to establish the role of 

industry in Space Station development and utilization. 

In late December 1986, guidelines were finalized to 

encourage U.S. commercial participation in Space 

Station development and operation. These guidelines 

welcomed commercial initiatives, discussed issues such 

as proprietary rights, and delineated the responsibilities 

of both NASA and Space Station commercial users and 

developers. 

In November, NASA sponsored a Space Station 

workshop on commercial missions and user requirements. The workshop provided NASA with a commercial perspective on how to make the Space Station a 

Vdhabk tool for industry. Progress was made toward 

identifying potential commercial research, development, services and other opportunities; providing 

updated information for the Mission Requirements 

Data Base to ensure that commercial interests are 

properly represented; and identifying other issues of 

commercial concern. 

Finally, NASA’s Office of Space Station, and Space 

Industries, Inc. (SII) held discussions in 1987 on 

cooperation during Phase C/D. SI1 is a U.S. company 

defining and developing with private funds a mantended Industrial Space Facility and an associated 

docking system designed to be compatible with Space 

Station hardware. 

Evolution Planning. Accomplishments this year 

include the establishment of an Evolution Management 

49 
Council and a NASA-wide evolution working group 

established at the Langley Research Center. The 

working group is responsible for recommending policy 

and technology planning approaches, for preparing 

and maintaining a Space Station evolution plan, and 

for monitoring the status and implementation of hooks 

and scars in the Space Station design. NASA also 

began planning for advanced technology development-technology that will improve the productivity 

and efficiency of the Space Station. 

A number of evolutionary paths also were identified. The dual keel enhanced capabilities configuration is considered the primary reference evolution 

option, but other options are being examined. These 

include the four leadership initiatives considered by 

the Ride Commission-Humans to Mars, Outpost on 

the Moon, exploration of the Solar System, and Mission 

to Planet Earth. 

International Cooperation. Negotiations with 

NASA’s international partners neared conclusion at the 

end of 1987. In December, informal agreement was 

reached with Canada on its development of the Space 

Station’s Mobile Servicing System. Negotiations with 

the European Space Agency on its development of a 

laboratory module and a polar orbiting platform 

remained open at the end of the year. Agreement with 

Japan, which will be developing a laboratory module 

and two logistics carriers, was close to completion. 

National Research Council Assessment. Following an Administration request in the spring, the 

National Research Council (NRC) conducted a sixmonth study of the Space Station program. The NRC 

was asked to assess the program’s costs; review the 

mission priorities and user requirements affecting the 

Station configuration; identify and assess alternatives to 

the configuration chosen by NASA; examine the 

arrangements projected for international participation; 

and report on any other matters that would contribute 

to the development of the Space Station. 

Artist’s rendition of the US. polar platform. 

Recognizing that the Space Station is a formidable 

challenge that will require a national commitment, the 

NRC issued several findings and recommendations. 

The Council also endorsed the revised baseline 

configuration, deeming it the most practical first step in 

Space Station development. In addition, it stressed 

that the Nation’s long-term goals in space should be 

clarified before committing to an enhanced configuration. In looking at alternatives to the configuration, it 

concluded that a man-tended facility would not be an 

adequate substitute for a permanently manned facility. 

It also emphasized the need for an extensive test bed 

and backup hardware provision for the program. The 

NRC expressed concern about the potential for Space 

Station cost growth arising from as yet unidentified 

difficulties. While NASA planners acknowledge the 

concern, they believe that the cost estimates include a 

reasonable amount for contingencies. NASA found the 

NRC overview to be very helpful. Current Space 

Station planning takes into consideration all of the 

NRC’s relevant findings and recommendations, 

50 
Site of Second TDRS Ground Terminal (STGT), White 

Sands, New Mexico. 

Space Operations 

In a reorganization designed to increase management emphasis on space operations, NASA established 

an Office of Space Operations in January 1987. This 

office is responsible for developing a plan to manage 

NASA’s increasingly complex space operations, with 

initial priority given to man-tended and man-related 

space operations. The functions of the Office of Space 

Tracking and Data Systems became an integral part of 

the Office of Space Operations. 

A Space Operations Task Force, established in 

March 1987, developed options for a plan of operations within NASA that could be implemented after 

Shuttle recovery. The Task Force findings are under 

study by NASA management. 

During 1987 the Space Tracking and Data Systems 

program continued to provide vital tracking, command, 

telemetry, communications, data relay, and data 

processing support to meet NASA’s flight program 

requirements. 

Space Network 

The transition which began with the first Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) from a ground-based 

tracking network to a space-based tracking capability 

for low-Earth orbital missions continued in 1987. Final 

assembly, test, and launch preparations were conducted during the year for the two additional TDRS 

spacecraft that will be launched when Shuttle operations resume in 1988. The present ground-based 

tracking network has been retained to support lowEarth orbital missions until the TDRS system becomes 

operational. The TDRS system will be operational 

when three fully functioning spacecraft are in geosynchronous orbit, and the spacecraft and the ground 

systems have completed their separate and integrated 

acceptance tests. 

During 1987, the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

in space continued to support the Landsat, Solar 

Mesospheric Explorer, and Earth Radiation Budget 

Satellite missions. This aging spacecraft has experienced major system failures and anomalies since its 

launch in April 1983. However, without further 

degradation, it can continue to provide mission 

support. Should the satellite fail, contingency plans 

have been developed to provide limited support 

through the Ground Network. 

TDRS Replacement Spacecraft Program to replace the 

satellite lost in the 1986 Challenger accident was 

initiated in 1987. A ground-breaking ceremony to 

initiate the construction of the Second TDRS Ground 

Terminal (STGT) was held in New Mexico in August. 

Operational readiness of this Facility is planned for 

1992. 

Ground Networks 

To ensure continuity of service in the early 1990’s, a 

The three ground-based tracking and data networks, 

the Space flight Tracking and Data Network, the Deep 

Space Network, and the Aeronautics, Balloon, and 

Sounding Rocket programs continued to support 

NASA’s in-flight missions. 

51 
The Deep Space Network is preparing for its next 

major challenge when the Voyager spacecraft encounters the planet Neptune in 1989. During 1987, major 

modifications were underway at all Deep Space 

Network facilities in preparation for this encounter and 

future missions. The 64-meter antennas at each of the 

Deep Space Network sites are being increased to 70 

meters, with work completed at two of the three sites. 

During the encounter with Neptune, signals will be 

combined with those from antennas at non-NASA 

facilities. 

Also underway in the Deep Space Network were 

modifications to support the Galileo, Magellan, and 

other planetary missions scheduled for the 1989-1991 

timeframe. 

Communications and Data Systems 

Data Systems Program form the vital link between data 

acquisition stations and users and include communications, mission control, and data-capture and processing. During 1987, the data systems and communications programs continued to support low-Earth 

orbiting spacecraft for both scientific and applications 

missions. 

Under the Numerical Aerodynamic Simulator 

program, the Program Support Communications 

Network successfully supported the interconnection of 

NASA’s supercomputers for use by the aerospace 

industry. 

The basic elements of the Communications and 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

The goal of the NASA aeronautics program is to 

conduct effective and productive aeronautics research 

and technology development which contribute materially to the enduring preeminence of U.S. civil and 

military aviation. In 1987, NASA’s aeronautical research and technology efforts continued to expand 

US. capabilities in civil and military aviation, contributing significantly to U.S. world aviation leadership and 

national security. These efforts covered the spectrum 

from fundamental disciplinary research to flight testing. 

52 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS). 

The US. aviation industry is unique because of its 

contribution to the balance of trade, its role in national 

security, and as a symbol of American technological 

strength and national pride. Since the late 1940’s, the 

United States has been the world leader in the development and application of aviation technology. This 

world leadership is the result of a solid national 

technology base and rapid progress in aeronautics 

research. Today, however, U.S. technology is being 

challenged by friendly foreign competitors-the 

European Fighter Aircraft; Rafale; and A320 Airbus-as 

well as adversaries-the Soviet Su-27 and MiC-29 

aircraft. 

In 1985, the White House Office of Science and 

Technology Policy (OSTP) published a report entitled 

“National Aeronautics R&D Goals: Technology for 

America’s Future” which outlined opportunities for 

significant advances in aeronautics that could reshape 

civil and military aviation by the turn of the century. 

In February 1987, the OSTP published a sequel entitled 
Research Facility (DFRF) at Edwards AFB, California; 

Langley Research Center (LaKC) in Hampton, Virginia; 

and Lewis Research Center (LeKC) in Cleveland, Ohio. 

These Centers comprise the most comprehensive and 

unique set of aeronautical research and test facilities in 

the world and remain an essential resource for aeronautics research and development in the United States. 

There has been an increasing concern about the 

condition of the older major NASA wind tunnels and 

their ability to meet a growing demand. During 1987, 

an extensive, independent study was conducted to 

assess the condition of these facilities and the project 

demand. The conclusion was that NASA must revitalize these critical wind tunnels. As a result, NASA is 

developing a multi-year program to address this need. 

disciplinary research and vehicle-specific research. 

Disciplinary research may be generically applied to all 

classes of vehicles, whereas vehicle-specific research is 

focused primarily on technology which has the potenNASA’s research program includes both fundamental 

Deep Space Network station, Madrid, Spain, using 70 

meter antennas. 

“National Aeronautical K&D Goals: Agenda for 

Achievement” which presented a cohesive strategy and 

an eight-point action plan to achieve the national goals 

and retain U.S. leadership in the world aviation 

marketplace. Building on its historically innovative 

and productive research and technology capabilities, 

NASA has redirected its aeronautics program to focus 

on the technologies mentioned in the first report. In 

addition, it has followed the action plan outlined in the 

second report by conducting research on emerging 

technologies which offer the potential for order-ofmagnitude advances in aircraft capabilities. Major 

objectives include providing technology results well in 

advance of specific application needs and conducting 

long-term, independent research. 

Within NASA, the Office of Aeronautics and Space 

Technology (OAST) conducts the overall aeronautics 

research and technology program. The research is 

conducted at three facilities: Ames Research Center 

(ARC) at Moffett Field and the Ames-Dryden Flight 

tial for increasing the capabilities of specific classes of 

vehicles-subsonic transports, rotorcraft, high-performance military aircraft, supersonic cruise aircraft, or 

hypersonic vehicles. The NASA program has long 

provided a foundation in the traditional aeronautical 

disciplines, but NASA also is making significant 

progress in the application of new disciplines such as 

artificial intelligence and advanced computational 

simulation. In addition to the research and technology 

(K&T) base efforts, NASA has placed additional emphasis on the following specific areas: transatmospheric 

K&T, numerical aerodynamic simulation (NASI, low 

noisehibration rotorcraft, composite materials and 

structures, high angle-of-attack and supermaneuverability research, aircraft automation, computational 

fluid dynamics (CFD) code verification, advanced 

short-takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft 

studies, supersonic fan research, high-speed transport 

studies, small engine technology, and advanced hightemperature engine materials. 

53 
Disciplinary Research and Technologv 

seek to improve the understanding of basic physical 

phenomena and provide the technological lyase for 

new concepts and ideas necessary for future advances. 

Research activities are in aerodynamics, propulsion, 

materials and structures, information sciences and 

human factors, and flight systems. 

Aerodynamics. With the increasing availability of 

supercomputers, the discipline of computational fluid 

dynamics is now providing powerful analytical, 

simulation, and predictive tools to address the basic 

physics of aerodynamic flow fields. New CFD tools 

are being used to advance the understanding of the 

complex flow environment of advanced aircraft 

configurations and to permit aerodynamic optimization 

of new aircraft designs and propulsion systems. 

During 1987, NASA-developed CFD techniques were 

applied to the design of the America’s Cup yacht “Stars 

and Stripes.” In addition to the use of NASA’s CFD 

codes for hull/keel design, the winning “Stars and 

Stripes” used two other NASA-developed drag reducing 

concepts, “riblets,” to reduce skin friction drag and 

swept wingtips (on the keel’s winglets) to reduce 

induced drag. 

Ames Research Center to perform the first numerical 

simulation of vortex bursting over a double-delta wing 

configuration, as well as the first computation of threedimensional (3-D) unsteady viscous flow within a 

single stage of an engine. At Langley and Ames 

Research Centers, CFD codes were applied to the 

simulation of hypersonic vehicle aerodynamics for 

generic configurations and for the evaluation of 

designs for the National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) 

program. Substantial progress was made in developing and testing new solution algorithms for the efficient computation of complex viscous flows. These 

new algorithms were tested on a variety of applications, including airfoil stall and hysteresis, engine 

exhaust jets interacting with ground crossflows, and 

54 

NASA’s disciplinary aeronautical research activities 

During 1987, new CFD techniques were applied at 

America’s Cup winning yacht “Stars and Stripes” and 

NASA computational fluid dynamics illustration of hull/keel 

design. 

separated flows over wings. As these new algorithms 

are further developed and validated, they will be 

applied to realistic vehicle configurations to analyze 

new design concepts and aircraft performance. 

In light of the important long-term payoffs, NASA 

and Stanford University jointly created the Center for 

Turbulence Research (CTR) in 1987 to capitalize on the 

recent advances in supercomputers, instrumentation, 

and theoretical concepts. This Center provides a 

synergistic environment for coordinated computational, 

experimental and theoretical research on the onset, 

structure, mechanisms and modeling of turbulence. 

Visiting participants include outstanding senior and 

junior researchers from universities, government 

laboratories and industry. Through T1 (1.54 megabits 

per second) data communication links between 

Stanford and NASA Ames Research Center, CTR 

participants have access to the Ames CDC 205, Cray XMI-’/&, Cray-2, and prototype NAS computers. Additional support of full turbulent simulations includes 

funding (jointly with DARPA) and software develop- 
Computational fluid dynamics illustration of six-bladed 

rotor in a hover. 

ment for the prototype Princeton Navier-Stokes 

computer. Delivery of the first prototype is expected 

in early 1988. 

In a related activity, the Computer Networking 

Subsystem, a high-speed mainframe computer network, which was implemented in 1986 and designed 

to exchange large bulk files between large mainframe 

computer facilities located at the NASA Research 

Centers, was used extensively to support NASP CFD 

development and application. The ability to validate 

the new CFD computer codes was advanced through 

the application of advanced nonintrusive laser-based 

instrumentation in focused validation wind tunnel 

experiments. In addition, flight tests, such as the 

successful F-14 laminar flow glove experiment, were 

conducted under actual conditions to provide validation data that is not obtainable in ground-based 

experiments. 

historically have provided a major share of aircraft 

system performance improvements and allowed 

Propulsion. Advances in propulsion technology 

development of new generations of flight vehicles. 

NASA’s current propulsion research is focused on 

understanding the physical phenomena occurring at 

the disciplinary, component, and subsystem levels that 

will lead to future high-payoff improvements in 

propulsion system capability, efficiency, reliability and 

duYdbility. The development, experimental validation, 

and application of internal computational fluid mechanics analysis codes continue to be increasingly 

important tools in achieving these improvements. 

In 1987, an advanced 3-D viscous turbomachinery 

code was completed at the Lewis Research Center and 

applied in the aerodynamic design and analysis of a 

supersonic throughflow fan stage. The predicted 

ability to achieve such a stage would provide a major 

breakthrough in high-speed flight by allowing the 

elimination of inlet length, weight and drag penalties 

now imposed by current turbomachinery’s subsonic 

throughflow limitation. Advanced computational 

analysis also is playing a major role in general aviation 

engine research. During 1987, a single-rotor, stratified 

charge rotary engine demonstrated significant improvements in both fuel consumption and power density. 

Additional benefits are projected by enhancing the 

burn rate through improved internal flow field and 

combustion process computational analyses. Similarly 

focused research on small gas turbine engines continued. In 1987, the major accomplishment was the 

operations startup of three new component research 

facilities to expand the experimental validation data 

base. 

In the area of improved reliability, an engine control 

sensor failure detection, isolation, and accommodation 

system demonstrated successfully analytical redundancy. During full-scale testing in 1987, the system 

showed that the engine could be operated safely with 

a faulty and/or inoperative sensor signal through 

comparison with, and replacement by, analytically 

derived values. Additional accomplishments in the 

sensor and control area include the development of a 

prototype fiber-optic-based sensor, which promises 

55 
reduced electromagnetic interference sensitivity, laser 

anemometry and high-temperature electronics for 

nonintrusive flow field measurements to support the 

experimental validation of analysis codes. 

Materials and Structures. Composite materials 

are finding increased use in current and future airframe 

designs because they are lighter and stiffer than 

conventional metallic aircraft structural materials. A 

new thermoplastic composite material developed by 

NASA’s Langley Research Center, LaRC-TPI, is being 

evaluated currently by the aircraft industry for design 

of high-temperature composite structures. Low-cost 

fabrication by thermoforming of this material offers the 

potential for improved aircraft performance. Future 

plans include a major new initiative in advanced 

composite materials and structures technology for 

aircraft systems. 

NASA is a leader in the development of analytical 

methods for transonic aeroelastic analysis of advanced 

aircraft configurations, including the phenomena of 

divergence and flutter. These analysis codes are used 

by the aircraft industry to predict unsteady airloads and 

flutter phenomena which are critical to the successful 

design of advanced aircraft. In 1987, a new analytical 

approach to predict the unsteady aeroelastic response 

of complete aircraft configuration was developed by 

the Langley Research Center. This new analysis code, 

termed Computational Aeroelasticity Program-Transonic Small Disturbance (CAP-TSD), is capable of 

treating complete aircraft geometries with multiple 

lifting surfaces. The CAP-TSD method is very efficient 

when compared with previously used analysis and has 

received broad interest from the aircraft industry. A 

complete F-16c aircraft modeled using the new CAPTSD code correlated closely with experimental wind 

tunnel data and demonstrated the program’s complete 

aircraft modeling capability. Future plans include 

performing additional analysis on various aircraft 

configurations to demonstrate the advantages of this 

new analytical method. 

NASA F-14 research aircraft testing natural laminar flow 

(NLF) glove. 

NASA has made significant progress in determining 

the fabrication feasibility of silicon carbide reinforced 

titanium aluminide composites. These materials arc 

being considered for hypersonic vehicle applications, 

such as the NASP, because of their high strength/ 

density at elevated temperatures. One of the drdwbacks of titanium aluminides, however, is their brittle 

nature. In 1987, Lewis Research Center found that 

additions of niobium improved the ductility and 

allowed forming processes to be carried out. These 

composites were fabricated utilizing a powder-cloth 

technique. Progress also was made on the development of other aluminides such as iron aluminide 

and niobium aluminide. During the past year the 

potential hydrogen compatibility problem of the 

titanium aluminides under the projected service 

conditions was identified by Ames Research Center. 

Further efforts to determine the effects of hydrogen on 

material performance are underway. 

Information Sciences and Human Factors. 

NASA is conducting research in cooperation with the 

56 
FAA to provide a means for increasing the efficiency of 

the Air Traffic Control (ATC) system in the United 

States. During 1987, a time-based terminal area flow 

control concept was evaluated in the Ames Research 

Center ATC simulation system. This concept is designed to allow new techniques for fully utilizing 

runway capacity and improving fleet operational 

efficiency while enhancing operational safety within 

the National Airspace System. Flight evaluation of this 

concept is planned for the Denver terminal area in 

Research in human Factors and automation is 

exploring the potential for artificial intelligence (AI) 

computer systems and improved methods of control to 

enable humans and automated machines to work 

together more successfully. A primary example of 

progress in the area of man-machine integration is the 

work underway at the Ames Research Center examining error tolerant cockpit systems. This exploratory 

program is focused on the development of methodology leading to safer transport cockpit system designs. 

In 1987, field studies were conducted to examine crew 

operations in highly automated cockpits. 

FZight Systems. Improving flight safety through 

research into the operating environment is viewed by 

NASA as vital and is being addressed with research 

related to natural phenomena and to operational flight 

systems. Storm hazards research concentrates on 

lightning and rain effects while NASA’s Aircraft Icing 

Program is focused on the problems caused by aircraft 

icing. Heavy rain can change airfoil effectiveness and 

the airflow, and cause a loss of airplane performance, 

possibly severe enough to reduce safety margins. 

Tests conducted last year in the Langley Research 

Center’s 14- by 22-foot wind tunnel, using a wing 

section model, revealed that the maximum lift was 

reduced by 20 percent during periods of very heavy 

simulated rainfall. In 1987, the installation of a water 

spray system was initiated over a span of track at the 

Aircraft Landing Dynamics Facility in order to conduct 

tests on a section of a full-scale wing. The wing 

1988- 1989. 

I 

I 

t. 

section will be mounted on a moving carriage which 

will be propelled along the track and through the 

simulated heavy rain of the spray system. Performance 

degradation of the wing’s lift and drag will be determined. 

NASA icing research develops analytical and experimental methods to determine the changes in aircraft 

performance and handling qualities due to ice accumulation on aerodynamic surfaces. Little or no quantitative icing data has previously existed that is useful for 

the complex engineering analyses which are required 

to determine these icing effects. In 1987, initial 

evaluation of computer simulation codes for iced airfoil 

performance were completed and the results were 

found to compare closely with experimental data from 

wind tunnel and flight tests. Calibration efforts for the 

Icing Research Tunnel were begun following the 

complete rehabilitation of the tunnel, a facility that is 

unique in the free world. 

Progress was made this year in utilizing both the 

power of new aerodynamic computational methods 

and parameter identification techniques to model low 

altitude wind shear characteristics. This atmospheric 

phenomenon, characterized by large, rapid changes in 

wind magnitude and direction over small changes in 

altitude, is a potential hazard to all aircraft, especially 

during takeoff and landing. During 1987, these wind 

shear computer models were used to develop and 

evaluate a wind shear hazard warning index to provide 

aircrews advance warning of hazardous wind shear 

conditions. Also during 1987, studies of two candidate 

airborne sensor concepts were initiated. These 

concepts are airborne doppler radar and airborne light 

detection and ranging (LIDAR). Flight evaluation of 

one or both concepts will be conducted over the next 

several years. 

57 
Systems Research and Technology 

manufacturers, the airlines, the Department of Defense 

(DOD), and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

to advance the technology for subsonic transport 

aircraft. This close relationship is essential to the 

timely introduction of new technology that assures the 

United States preeminence in this important world 

market. The long-range goal of subsonic transport 

research is to establish the technology readiness that 

will permit future aircraft designs with twice the fuel 

efficiency of today’s best transport aircraft while 

substantially increasing their productivity and 

affordability . 

evaluation activities were continued by NASA and 

industry as part of the Advanced Turboprop Program 

(ATP). A large-scale (9-foot diameter) propfan was 

installed and flight tested on a Gulfstream I1 twinjet. 

Speeds up to Mach numbers of 0.85 and altitudes of 

5,000 to 40,000 feet were flown as power loading on 

the propfan was varied. All blade stresses were 

consistently below unlimited life levels and noise 

levels agreed closely with model test data and analytical predictions. Preparation for low-altitude community noise testing at NASA Wallops Flight Facility was 

also initiated during 1987. 

Significant progress was achieved in the joint NASA/ 

General Electric Unducted Fan (UDF) program. This 

ungeared concept incorporates two unducted, counterrotating fans with eight highly swept blades on each 

fan. This configuration has promise because it reduces 

the wake swirl common to single rotation designs and 

further increases the propulsive efficiency. The UDF 

system successfully completed flight testing on a 

modified Boeing 727 in February 1987. Flight condition ranges up to Mach numbers of 0.84 and altitudes 

of 35,000 feet were attained. Blade stresses were well 

within limits and acoustic data agreed closely with 

predictions. General Electric, in conjunction with 

McDonnell-Douglas, also began conducting flight tests 

58 

Transports. NASA works closely with aircraft 

In 1987, large-scale propfan propulsion system flight 

MD-SO aircraft flight testing the NASA/General Electric 

Unducted Fan (UDF) engine. 

on a modified McDonnell-Douglas MD-80 aircraft. 

During subsonic flight, approximately one-half of 

the aircraft’s total drag is caused by skin friction which 

is strongly a function of whether the airflow over the 

aircraft’s surface is laminar (smooth) or turbulent. It 

has long been known that laminar flow reduces skin 

friction. NASA is investigating three concepts for 

maintaining laminar flow over aircraft surfaces: passive natural laminar flow (NLF) which is achieved with 

careful airfoil design and is applicable to small airplanes; active laminar flow control (LFC) which is 

achieved by suction through tiny slots or perforations 

in the surface and is applicable to transport aircraft; 

and hybrid laminar flow (HLF) which uses both active 

and passive techniques and also is applicable to 

transports. 

Previously conducted wind tunnel and flight tests of 

a full-sized proof-of-concept NLF wing on a Cessna 

210 aircraft demonstrated that the new airfoil achieved 

natural laminar flow over 70 percent of the upper and 

lower surfaces over a broad range of operating condi- 
Artist’s concept of a High-speed Civil Transport. 

tions. A contoured NLF “glove” was installed on the 

wing of a Boeing 757 aircraft in the region of intense 

acoustic radiation from the turbofan engine and flight 

tested. It demonstrated that laminar flow could be 

maintained in close proximity to engine noise and on 

the moderately swept wings of commercial transports. 

An important milestone in active laminar flow control 

technology was achieved when flight evaluations on a 

Jet Star verified the effectiveness and practicality of two 

different system concepts for maintaining laminar flow 

over the leading edge of the wing while operating 

under representative commercial airline operations. In 

1987, a NLF glove was flight tested on a variablesweep wing F-14 aircraft and provided fundamental 

data on the stability of laminar flow at various sweep 

angles. Also in 1987, a contract was awarded to the 

Boeing Company to conduct the next phase of laminar 

flow research which will concentrate on hybrid laminar 

flow control (HLFC), a combination of the best features 

of both active and natural laminar flow. HLFC is 

expected to achieve a substantial reduction in aircraft 

Upgraded National FullScale Aerodynamics Complex, 

featuring the inlet to the new BO-by-120-foot test section. 

drag. Under this NASA/DOD/Boeing jointly funded 

program, a gloved HLFC wing section will be flight 

tested on a Boeing 757 beginning in 1988. 

Achieving the promise of economic, high-speed air 

transportation has eluded the technical community for 

some time. However, the market for an economically 

viable and environmentally compatible long-range, 

high-speed civil transport appears to be substantial. 

NASA, in close cooperation with industry, is currently 

conducting High-speed Civil Transport studies to 

assess the market and economic factors and to define 

the most promising vehicle and propulsion system 

concepts for future long-range, high-speed (Mach 2.0 

to hypersonic) civil transports necessary to guide U.S. 

technology development efforts. ’ 

RotorcruB. The Nation’s continued leadership in 

military and civil rotary wing technology depends on a 

strong and broad-based research program. In cooperation with other Government agencies and industry, 

NASA conducts rotorcraft research that addresses the 

fundamental areas of aerodynamics, structural dynam59 
High-speed rotor on Boeing Model 360 helicopter. 

ics, acoustics, guidance, stability and control, propulsion and drive systems, and human factors to exploit 

the full potential of this unique vehicle class. In 1987, 

there were a number of significant accomplishments in 

the key areas of noise reduction, improved rotor 

performance, and high-speed performance. 

acceptance and to reduce detectability. A new helicopter total system noise prediction code, called 

ROTONET, has been developed and a second generation code was made available to industry in 1987. 

Additional aeroacoustic experiments were conducted 

in a large German-Dutch wind tunnel which measured 

rotor blade pressures, airloads, and acoustics systematically in a controlled environment for the first time. 

The results of this test are being included in 

ROTONET. In addition, a comprehensive main rotor/ 

tail rotor interaction test was conducted that will 

enable the development of a semi-empirical noise 

methodology for ROTONET. 

Reducing rotorcraft noise is essential for community 

NASA F-15 research aircraft flight testing the Highly 

Integrated Digital Electronic Control (HIDEC) system. 

Also in the area of noise reduction, a wind tunnel 

test was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of active 

control to reduce blade-vortex interaction noise. 

Computation prediction methods were used to select 

the specific test conditions which demonstrated an 80- 

percent (3 to 4 db) reduction in this impulsive noise 

source. 

At Ames Research Center, the upgraded 40- by 80- 

foot wind tunnel of the National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex (NFAC) became operational in May and a 

new 80- by 120-foot tunnel was dedicated on December 11, 1987. The major upgrade was the installation 

of four 130,000 horsepower motors to drive the 

common fans. Speeds up to 345 mph (up from 230 

mph previously) are now attainable in the 40- by 80- 

foot tunnel and up to 115 mph in the new 80- by 120- 

foot tunnel, which has a test section three times larger 

in cross-section area. Both test sections also have 

been acoustically treated to minimize noise levels. The 

first major test conducted in the 40- by 80-foot tunnel 

was a large-scale model V-22 tiltrotor wing/nacelle/ 

60 
NASA f/Ad8 High Angle-of-Attack Research Aircraft 

during flight test. Angles-of-attack up to 70 degrees are 

anticipated. 

rotor, conducted at the request of the Navy, and will 

be followed by a series of high-priority tests including 

a model for the Army’s LHX (Light Helicopter Family) 

program. 

Also in support of the LHX program, Phase I flight 

testing of a highly instrumented UH-60 was completed 

and reported to industry. This test was significant 

since it obtained detailed blade loads data of a rotor in 

high-speed maneuvering flight for the first time. 

The first flight of the NASA/Boeing/Army advanced 

High-speed Rotor on the new Boeing Model 360 

helicopter occurred in June 1987. NASA and the Army 

are cooperating with Boeing Helicopter for special 

instrumentation to gather research data for analysis and 

correlation on the advanced rotor. Flight at more than 

200 knots is expected in 1988, and a new helicopter 

speed record is possible. 

Lewis Research Center provided key support to a 

major new Army program in advanced rotorcraft 

transmissions. This effort will provide the technology 

base to reduce helicopter drive train weight by 25 

X-29 Forward Swept Wing aircraft during follow-on agility 

and maneuverability testing. 

percent, reduce the source of noise of the transmission 

by 10 db, and increase the mean time between removal to 5,000 hours. 

issued that detailed the promise of civil tiltrotor 

applications and outlined an integrated technology 

plan. The study reported that a $3 to $4 billion a year 

market existed, primarily for city-pair commuter service 

that would save trip time and relieve airport congestion. 

research vehicle was cleared to begin flight testing in 

September 1987. The X-Wing rotor is a four-bladed, 

extremely stiff rotor system that utilizes circulation 

control aerodynamics for lift and control. In hover and 

low-speed flight, the rotor system rotates as a conventional helicopter rotor, but in high-speed forward 

flight, the rotor is stopped in a fixed X-Wing configuration. This joint NASA/DARPA/Sikorsky program 

continues the effort to advance the state of technology 

in high-speed rotorcraft flight. First flight of the RSW 

61 

A comprehensive tilt rotor technology report was 

The Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA)/X-Wing 
%Wing vehicle with the rotor hub, but without the 

rotor itself, was made at the Ames-Dryden Flight 

Research Facility in December 1987. 

High Performance Aircrafi. NASA’s high performance aircraft research provides long-range, highrisk technologies applicable to future military aircraft 

and is planned and conducted in close coordination 

with the IIOD. Much of this research, however, is 

equally applicable to civil aviation. 

Flight tests have been completed in an F-15 at 

Dryden on the Highly Integrated Digital Electronic 

Control (HIDEC) system, the first system to integrate 

an aircraft’s propulsion and flight control systems. It 

featured an Adaptive Engine Control System (ADECS) 

which increased the engine’s efficiency by reducing 

the operating stall margin when conditions permitted. 

The initial results were reported to industry via a 

symposium held at Dryden in March, and the final 

results will be reported in 1988. Flight testing with two 

modified engines demonstrated performance improvements of up to 25 percent in certain portions of the 

flight envelope. 

In 1987, both ground and flight research activities 

were accomplished to assess high angle-of-attack flight 

technologies for high performance aircraft. A modified 

and highly instrumented F/A-18 High Angle-of-attack 

Research Vehicle (HARV) was flown on its first research flight in April. The objective of the first phase 

is to obtain and assess the aerodynamic characteristics 

of vortex flows at high aircraft angles-of-attack and 

correlate them with the results of computations, wind 

tunnel experiments, and simulations. The vortex flow 

around the aircraft forebody and wing leading edge 

extension was visualized on-surface by colored dye 

and off-surface by natural moisture and smoke. 

Angles-of-attack up to 40 degrees have been explored 

to date, and it appears that angles-of-attack in excess 

of 70 degrees are possible. The results of these flight 

tests will be applicable to the designs of future high 

performance aircraft. In July, a contract was awarded 

to install thrust vectoring devices on the HARV in order 

62 

AFTl/F-lll Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW) aircraft in 

flight. The wing has a variable camber that can be 

changed during flight. 

to further explore the high alpha and supermaneuverability flight regimes in the next phase of flight testing. 

The final design is expected to be completed by April 

1988. 

Advances in propulsion system thrust-to-weight 

ratios, propulsive lift control, and the understanding of 

low-speed aerodynamics combine to open new 

opportunities for significant advances in vertical/short 

takeoff and landing (V/STOL) aircraft technology, as 

well as for new short takeoff and vertical landing 

(STOVL) aircraft concepts. In 1987, the United States 

and the United Kingdom continued the joint research 

program begun the previous year to reduce the 

technological risk associated with development of 

advanced STOVL aircraft. In an ongoing joint effort 

with Canada, Arnes Research Center will begin testing 

a large-scale STOVL model in the new NFAC in 1988. 

The model is of a transonic fighter aircraft configuration, designated the “E-7,’’ which utilizes vectored 

thrust and thrust augmentation systems for low-speed 

operations. As part of this program, a full-scale ejector 
Artist’s concept of the National Aerospace Plane. 

was tested in 1987 at the Lewis Research Center’s new 

Powered Lift Facility, and the thrust augmentation ratio 

was determined to be greater than predicted for the 

system. 

The first envelope expansion phase of X-29 Forward 

Swept Wing research aircraft flight testing was successfully completed in 1987. The flight envelope was 

expanded to a Mach number of 1.4 at 40,000 feet and 

the aircraft drag polar was determined to be better 

than predicted. The results demonstrated the successful integration of several advanced technologies 

including a composite, thin, supercritical, variable 

camber, aeroelastically tailored forward-swept wing; 

close-coupled canard; straked flaps; relaxed static 

margin (up to 35-percent negative); and an advanced 

fly-by-wire digital control system. A folhw-on NASA/ 

Air Force flight research program has been initiated 

using the first X-29 aircraft. The areas of research 

include agility and maneuverability, high angle-ofattack stability and control, low-speed control, and 

transonic aerodynamic efficiency. A second X-29 is 

being modified and instrumented to conduct a high 

angle-of-attack research program and investigate other 

areas of interest. The first flight of the second aircraft 

is expected in 1988. 

The Advanced Fighter Technology Integration 

(AFTI)/F-llI Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW) is a 

testbed aircraft with a wing modified so that its camber 

can be changed in flight. The manual mode phase of 

the program was completed in June 1987 (26 flights/58 

hours total). The flight envelope was cleared to a 

Mach number of 1.3, and the performance results were 

better than predicted for the smooth, variable-camber 

wing. Drag reductions of 8 percent at the design 

point, and up to 20 percent at off-design points, were 

realized during flight testing. After the aircraft was 

modified, the automatic variable-camber portion of the 

flight test program began in September and is scheduled to be completed in July 1988. 

Hypersonics. One of the key technology thrusts 

of the aeronautics program being pursued by NASA is 

the technology foundation for hypersonic vehicles. 

The program focuses on vehicle configuration studies, 

propulsion, and materials and structures. Recent NASA 

accomplishments in these areas, combined with earlier 

progress in hypersonic research, have contributed to 

the state of readiness for the NASP program being 

funded jointly by the DOD and NASA. The NASP 

program may result in a hypersonic flight research 

vehicle (X-30) which would be used to validate and 

demonstrate the successful merging of aeronautics and 

space technologies into a flightworthy vehicle. NASA 

maintains a strong research and technology base effort 

within its aeronautics program in support of the NASP 

and for future advances in hypersonic flight vehicles. 

hypersonic propulsion wind tunnels demonstrated that 

measured thrust levels agreed with theoretical predictions for airframe integrated supersonic combustion 

ramjet (scramjet) engines. Significant progress on 

variable geometry scramjet configurations was 

achieved with the successful testing of the variable 

During 1987, continued testing in the Langley 

63 
geometry inlet configuration at a Mach number of 4.0 

and with the accomplishment of a Navier-Stokes flow 

analysis for the transition area of the engine combustion section. These 1987 accomplishments are significant steps toward achieving a hypersonic propulsion 

system that can be operated over broad ranges of 

speeds and altitudes. 

ogy fuel injection side strut for the scramjet engine was 

fabricated using a complex brazing process. Two 

shortened versions of a full-size, flight-weight article 

were assembled successfully. This effort demonstrated 

the feasibility of this design approach and preparations 

are now underway to test the strut assembly with 

burning fuel in Langley test facilities. Accomplishments in hypersonic structures also included progress 

with the fabrication of load-carrying, honeycomb 

panels of high-temperature superalloys. A panel array 

of superalloy honeycomb material was successfully 

tested at extremely hot temperatures under hypersonic 

flow conditions. 

ity, now in operation, provided vital support to the 

technology development program by enabling the 

calculation of pressure contours on a baseline NASP 

configuration. The capability to provide an analytical 

solution for the NASP configuration at high Mach 

numbers allows analysis and prediction of vehicle 

aerodynamic loadings and aerothermodynamic interactions at Mach numbers beyond the capability of 

existing ground test facilities. 

National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) Program 

In related structures research, an advanced technolNASA’s numerical aerodynamic simulation capabilIn February 1986, President Reagan announced the 

National Aero-Space Plane program to Congress and 

the Nation during his State of the Union Address, 

directing NASA and DOD to proceed with plans for the 

program. The goal of the joint DOD/NASA program is 

to develop and demonstrate hypersonic and 

transatmospheric technology for a new class of aeroVariable geometry scramjet during testing in hypersonic 

wind tunnel. 

space vehicles powered by airbreathing, rather than 

rocket, propulsion, 

The NASA OAST centers are heavily involved in the 

extremely complex technical challenges of the NASP 

program. In 1987, the program completed the conceptual design phase and is now into the preliminary 

design and component development phase. The 

competition has been reduced to three airframe and 

two engine contractors. This phase will lead to a 

decision in early 1990 on whether or not to build and 

test the X-30 research vehicle. This program presents 

challenges in all technologies in which OAST engineers and scientists have expertise. The success of the 

program depends heavily on their technical guidance. 

One of the technical areas in which NASA is making 

major contributions is the application of computational 

fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis methods. Since the X-30 

will fly in a hypersonic regime which cannot be 

adequately simulated in ground facilities, CFD will 

have to be used to extrapolate beyond these facility 

limits and describe the aerotherniodynamic environ64 
Wind tunnel testing to determine the feasibility of 

separating the space shuttle orbiter from the boost stack 

during Solid Rocket Motor burn. 

ment in which the vehicle must operate. In order to 

accomplish this formidable task, CFD codes must be 

developed to the point of providing three-dimensional 

(3-111, real gas, viscous flow capability with finite rate 

chemistry where needed. The needs of NASP, and the 

funding support provided by it, have propelled CFD 

development forward significantly during 1987. Threedimensional CFD codes, developed by NASA, are now 

being applied by Government and contractors for 

vehicle aerodynamics and internal propulsion flows. 

Real gas effects and finite rate chemistry are now king 

added to these capabilities. Codes for combustors and 

nozzles are being developed and methods for reducing 

costly computer time are being implemented. Experimental tests are being planned for validation of these 

codes and some progress already has been made. 

During 1988, significant progress is expected to be 

made in these areas. 

boundary layer transition. There is a critical need for 

analytical means of predicting the length and stability 

Another area in which major work was initiated is in 

of laminar flow and the onset of transition to turbulent 

flow in the boundary layer at hypersonic speeds. The 

validation of the analysis with very specific experimental tests is also critical. Both have been addressed in a 

NASP-sponsored program at Langley. Early results 

indicate that analysis methods which are successful at 

transonic speeds also may be successful at hypersonic 

speeds. 

thermal loads in areas of complex shock interactions. 

Both analytical and experimental results have now 

been published and are being used in the design of 

Considerable progress has been made defining local 

the X-30. 

Space Research and Technology 

The goal of the Space Research and Technology 

(R&T) program is to establish a recognized leadership 

role for space research and technology by providing 

capabilities and talent for all national space sectors as 

well as civil mission opportunities. This goal requires 

a national commitment to research in the scientific and 

engineering disciplines required for future national 

programs for the exploration and exploitation of space. 

Advancements in the technology base are essential for 

the conceptualization and design of advanced space 

vehicles that provide low-cost access to space, permanent human presence in space, advanced study of the 

Earth, and potential future manned space missions. 

Discipline and systems technologies included in the 

program are propulsion, space energy conversion, 

aerothermodynamics, materials and structures, controls 

and guidance, automation and robotics, human factors, 

computer science, sensors, data systems, and communications. All NASA centers are involved in the Space 

Research and Technology program, along with significant participation by industry and universities. 

The technology program also serves the long-term 

needs of civil, commercial, and military uses of space. 

An important part of this support is space-based 

experimentation to conduct research and to validate 

technology in that unique environment. The goal is to 

65 
provide NASA and the aerospace engineering community with on-orbit laboratory capability, primarily using 

the Shuttle and later the Space Station when it becomes operational. 

Propulsion. This area of research continues to 

develop the technology base for all types of chemical 

and electrical propulsion systems. The chemical 

propulsion technology program focuses on key lifeextension and performance issues associated with 

Earth-to-orbit (ETO) and space-based orbit transfer 

vehicle (OW) propulsion systems. Significant progress 

is being made to develop advanced component 

designs for future ET0 propulsion systems. To enable 

longer life cryogenic bearings, a thermal environment 

model has been developed and validated by data 

obtained in a bearing test rig. A new powder metallurgy technique for fabricating bearings has been 

developed and will be used to make new hall bearings 

for evaluation in the bearing test rig. Advanced singlecrystal hollow turbine blades have been evaluated in a 

burner test rig and show promise of extending blade 

life up to 30 times that expected with currently used 

directionally solidified materials. A method of detecting engine anomalies by viewing the exhaust plume 

with a spectrometer has been developed and has been 

used to detect degrading bearing materials in the 

plume. With further development, the instrument will 

be reliable enough for active engine shutdown in real 

time. This and other diagnostic sensors have been 

developed for installation on a Space Shuttle main 

engine testbed, which is scheduled for initial operation 

in June 1988, to verify the performance of advanced 

technology components in a system-level environment. 

For OTV propulsion, testing was begun on an 

advanced liquid oxygen/hydrogen testbed engine 

designed to explore technologies for a reusable, spacebased vehicle. This vehicle will require small, highperformance, variable thrust engines that can be stored 

and fueled in space. Test results comparing two 

engine options indicate that the necessary high operating pressures are achievable with the simpler option. 

66 

Equipment used at the Lewis Research Center to make 

indium phosphide (InP) solar cells that will have good 

performance and resistance to natural space radiation. 

High-pressure operation ensures high-engine performance over a wide throttle range, with smaller engine 

size for a given thnist level. The simpler engine cycle 

promotes longer service life and easier in-space maintenance and reduces the number of diagnostic sensors 

needed for engine health monitoring. This is essential 

for automated between-flight inspection and checkout 

and for fault-tolerant engine operations. 

In electric propulsion, advances were made from 

research on magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrusters. 

Electric propulsion will provide significant advantages 

for planetary missions, as well as for satellite altitude 

control and orbit changing. Compared to chemical 

systems, the MPD thruster proposed for advanced 

propulsion systems has the potential to provide a 

twofold to fourfold reduction in propellant mass. An 

MPD thruster was tested that would have many 

advantages as a space propulsion system. It is both 

simple in concept and compact in size. Basically, it 

consists of a central cathode rod within a cylindrical 
The Space Power Demonstrator Engine, developed to 

demonstrate the technology required to convert the heat 

output of a space nuclear reactor into electrical energy. 

Testing of the magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster at 

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 

anode. Thousands of amperes are passed between the 

two, ionizing and accelerating a propellant gas. 

During partial-power tests to date, erosion of the 

components has been negligible, indicating progress in 

solving this critical technical problem. 

Space Energy Conversion. This area of research 

develops the technology base for high-performance, 

long-life power systems for space applications. Progress in improving the performance of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells and arrays continued. Indium 

Phosphide (InP) solar cells, a type that combines good 

performance and efficiency with improved tolerance to 

natural radiation, have been fabricated. Using a 

cheniical vapor deposition process reactor, a carefully 

controlled layer of InP has been formed on a cell, 

leading to higher efficiency. Cell energy output has 

been raised from 13 percent to 18.8 percent, and 

recent efforts indicate that 20 percent is achievable. In 

geosynchronous orbit, conventional silicon solar cells 

can lose up to 25 percent of their output during a 7- 

year life; and in the low-Earth orbit radiation belts, the 

loss can be as high as 80 percent. Measurements to 

date have shown InP cell efficiency to be essentially 

unaffected by natural radiation. This means future 

solar arrays can be smaller and lighter by eliminating 

the need for systems oversizing to accommodate 

efficiency losses due to radiation damage. 

systems that can provide hundreds of kilowatts of 

power for 7 to 10 years. Dynamic conversion systems 

in conjunction with the joint DOD/DOE/NASA Space 

Nuclear Reactor Power System (SP-100) Program are 

being developed to meet this need. The Space Power 

Demonstrator Engine (SPDE) was fabricated to demonstrate technology necessary to proceed into the final 

design of space-qualified free-piston Stirling engines. 

The SPDE Power module was tested over a wide 

temperature range achieving a 25-kilowatt power level 

at 22-percent efficiency. Alternator bench tests and 

analyses indicate that by substitution of nonmagnetic 

I-’otential future manned outposts will require power 

67 
material into the alternator the 25-percent efficiency 

goal will be achieved. The SPDE will be used to test, 

develop, and validate design codes and components 

for the next generation Stirling engine. 

Progress was made in another approach for highefficiency conversion of thermal energy to electricity. 

The alkali metal thermoelectric conversion system can 

generate electricity from a radioisotope or reactor heat 

source with essentially no moving parts. A new 

electrode material was discovered and demonstrated 

which shows promise of meeting the initial goal of 15- 

percent system efficiency. 

Aerothermodynamics. This area of research 

advances understanding of the flow phenomena of 

aerospace vehicles, both for the development of 

advanced vehicles and to predict and understand the 

performance of existing vehicles in unusual flight 

regimes. The development of advanced aerospace 

vehicle systems requires well-chosen, ground-based 

experiments and use of the most advanced computational codes. 

To improve the safety of the Space Shuttle, the 

feasibility of separating the Shuttle orbiter from the 

booster stack during Solid Rocket Booster burn was 

studied. Wind tunnel tests were conducted from Mach 

0.6 to 4.5 to establish the data base required to perform separation simulation studies. This aerodynamic 

data was used in computer simulations which calculated precise separation trajectories and determined 

angle-of-attack/wing loading limits and potential 

plume impingement problems. The studies show that 

it is aerodynamically feasible to separate the orbiter 

from the lower stack from Mach 0.9 to Solid Rocket 

Booster separation at Mach 4.0. 

The ability to return vehicles from high-Earth orbit, 

geostationary orbits, and the Moon, would be greatly 

enhanced by using the Earth’s atmosphere as an 

aerobrake instead of using rockets. This would reduce 

fuel and mass requirements and could allow servicing 

missions to geostationary satellites. The ability to 

design and use aerobraking technology depends on 

68 

Special test fixture developed at the Langley Research 

Center to qualify O-ring materials for the space shuttle 

Solid Rocket Motors. 

An expanded view of a titanium multiwall tile for cryotank 

(liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tank) construction that 

will provide strength and insulation at substantially 

reduced weight. 
Deployable, 20-meter mast that will be used to develop 

dynamic analysis and ground test methods to suppress the 

vibrations of large, flexible structures in space. 

the ability to model the aerodynamic heating and flow 

using computational fluid dynamics. In order to 

develop this capability, an Aeroassist Flight Experiment 

(AFE) is planned to be launched and retrieved from 

the Space Shuttle. Mach 20 flow tests of the AFE 

forebody have been completed in a NASA hypersonic 

helium wind tunnel. Aerodynamic performance 

characteristics (force and moment data) have been 

defined for this vehicle concept as a function of angleof-attack. Flow visualization techniques clearly 

indicate shock shape and shock standoff distances 

which are critical in determining the aerodynamic 

loads and aeroheating data base and for calibrating 

with computational fluid dynamics codes. 

Materials and Structures. This area of research 

will improve the safety of existing vehicles, as well as 

advance the technology for future spacecraft, large 

area space structures, and advanced space transportation systems. 

To improve the safety of the Space Shuttle and to 

support NASA’s recovery from the Challenger tragedy, 

OAST was actively involved in the redesign of the 

Space Shuttle solid rocket motor field joint under the 

materials and structures program. A significant part of 

this effort was directed toward developing a test 

procedure for qualifying candidate O-ring materials. A 

test method has been established as the standard for 

O-ring materials. Three tests are involved in the 

procedure: a resiliency test; a vibrational damage 

resistance test; and a test simulating in-situ conditions, 

including temperature, gas pressure and controlled gap 

closure. Special fixtures were developed for these 

tests. 

To improve the performance of vehicles which 

require cryogenic fuels, current research is focused on 

design fabrication of evacuated multilayer concepts for 

lightweight cryotank insulation. The goal is to reduce 

structural weight from 1.5 Ibs per square foot to 0.3 Ibs 

per square foot over the temperature ranging from 

900°F on the exterior to -423°F on the interior. A 

multiwall thermal protection system has been fabri69 
cated from titanium foil formed into a dimpled pattern 

and bonded to titanium separation sheets. The entire 

multilayer assembly has been enclosed with a titanium 

cover sheet with scarfed edges. Plates measuring 12- 

inches by 12-inches have been fabricated and tested to 

evaluate their potential for advanced thermal protection applications. 

In the area of large structures and control, a mast 

having 18 bays, 162 structural members and 111 

folding joints has been developed and tested. It 

weighs about 70 kilograms and measures about 1.2 

meters on each side. This mast will serve to develop 

dynamic analyses, ground test methods and control 

methods to suppress motion for future large space 

structures. Initial predictions of bending modes have 

correlated well with test data. Very detailed analyses of 

the joints have been conducted to predict their contribution to overall stiffness. Vibration damping measurements indicate a somewhat smaller contribution 

from the joints than expected. 

Controls and Guidance. This area of research is 

focused on control of large, flexible space systems; 

large antennas; and large, segmented astrophysics 

telescopes. Developments in this area are focused on 

demonstrating advanced control concepts on generic 

large space structure hardware; developing innovative 

sensor and actuator concepts suitable for large space 

systems; and developing modeling, simulation, and 

control software. The integration of controls and 

structures disciplines is the key for the successful 

implementation of future large, lightweight flexible 

spacecraft. 

configuration has tested disturbance motion suppression using advanced sensors, actuators and control 

algorithms. This experiment has demonstrated successfully the implementation of a distributed control 

algorithm to provide the precise figure control that 

must be maintained between the reflector surface and 

the communication antenna feed that would be located 

An experiment on a large, lightweight offset antenna 

Space truss assembly using teleoperated manipulators, 

duplicating the assembly performed by two astronauts in 

1985. 

at the top of the boom. Algorithms of this type will be 

extremely valuable for a large number of spacecraft 

including the Space Station, large instrument platforms, 

large Earth and deep space radiometers, and spacebased radars. 

Automation and Robotics. This area of research 

is developing the technology base for telerobotic and 

robotic systems. These systems will reduce costs; 

improve performance of future missions; and provide 

safer, more efficient methods of accomplishing mission 

objectives. The program is developing and demonstrating technology applicable to the Space Station, the 

70 
Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle, orbital transfer vehicles, 

mobile remote manipulator systems, geostationary 

satellite systems, and planetary rovers. It also will 

address the automation needs of ancillary systems such 

as prelaunch and mission operations and related 

ground systems. 

develop and demonstrate technology to evolve teleoperation through supervisory control of in-orbit 

robots, and systems autonomy, which will develop 

technology to reduce the need for ground control 

crews and to automate onboard subsystems through 

the use of artificial intelligence and expert systems. 

Both the telerobotics and systems autonomy parts of 

the program are involved in a series of demonstrations 

to validate evolving technological capabilities. They 

also share a core technology research program that is 

divided into the areas of sensing and perception, 

planning and reasoning, control execution, operator 

interface, and system architecture and integration. 

During the Access I experiment on STS Flight 61B, 

two astronauts assembled a truss structure in the bay 

of the spacecraft. To demonstrate the current capability for space assembly, the Access experiment was 

repeated in a ground-based laboratory using a teleoperated manipulator. In the ground-based demonstration the manipulator system was substituted for one 

of the astronauts, while a person assumed the role of 

the other astronaut. The demonstration proved that 

current manipulators have sufficient dexterity to assist 

the flight assembly of Space Station structures. 

Vision-based tracking of spinning and tumbling 

satellites will allow free-flying telerobots to grapple 

and dock as the first step in maintenance, repair, or 

assembly operations. In recent tests, a satellite 

mockup was suspended from a counterweight and a 

universal joint, allowing smooth simulation of zero-g 

dynamics. A five-camera array viewed the satellite, and 

an image processing system extracted features from the 

images, such as edges and corners. These features 

The program’s two foci are telerobotics, which will 

were matched to a computer model of the satellite, 

which allowed the computer to determine the position 

and orientation of the satellite. This tracking data was 

used to guide the manipulator and effectors to the 

grapple fixtures. At the instant of physical contact, 

control of the arms was switched from vision-based 

position control to hybrid position-force control, with 

the wrist force-torque sensors providing the information needed to gently decelerate the satellite within the 

force capabilities of the arms. 

Space Human Factors. This area of research 

focuses on improving the productivity, efficiency, and 

safety between humans and machines during space 

missions. The Space Station represents a challenge for 

this research area, providing significant opportunities 

to verify human performance models in long-term 

weightless conditions. Complex man-machine operations involving highly automated onboard systems, 

telerobotic systems, and extravehicular activity (EVA) 

are the key areas for space human factors research. 

EVA will be an intricate part of Space Station 

operations. The type of space suit used for EVA will 

significantly affect human capabilities and productivity. 

Quantitative data on these effects are needed to design 

suits and to plan for EVA. Building on recent progress 

made in the design and operational evaluation of an 

advanced high pressure (eight pounds per square 

inch) hard space suit, several studies have been 

conducted to evaluate astronaut performance using this 

type of suit. Data on the reach envelopes of people in 

shirt sleeves and in pressurized suits have been 

collected for several different size men and women. 

Further, it was found that a subject had a greater reach 

envelope in the prototype hard suit than in the current 

soft suit. Strength studies have shown that a pressurized glove cuts the hand grip strength of an astronaut 

to about 47 percent of the bare hand grip strength. 

Data are being collected during the brief periods of 

zero-gravity induced by parabolic aircraft flights to 

validate relationships between suit types and astronaut 

71 
maneuvers and this data is being compared to data 

obtained on the ground in neutral buoyancy facilities. 

If the capabilities of EVA astronauts can be predicted 

from simulated zero-gravity data, realistic tasks and 

timeliness can be planned more easily. 

intended to enable and enhance the development and 

use of advanced data processing systems both in space 

and for related ground operations. A reconfigurable, 

fault-tolerant architecture is being developed for a 

space-borne symbolic processor. This includes 

addressing the issues of software development 

environment versus run-time environment, dynamic 

data base maintainability, and an operating system for 

efficient use of the multiprocessor architecture. 

Sensors. This area of research is directed toward 

developing new materials, devices, components, and 

systems that will enable active and passive detection 

and imaging of electromagnetic radiation for future 

space missions. A major goal of the active sensing 

research program is to develop an all solid-state 

tunable laser transmitter in the near-infrared. Such a 

system would fulfill many of the scientific needs of 

Earth-observing missions. A system tunable in the 

near-infrared could be used to observe the atmosphere 

water vapor bands from which pressure and temperature profiles could be derived. Work has concentrated 

this year on the demonstration and understanding of 

the titanium-doped sapphire for laser amplification. 

The submillimeter spectral region includes the 

spectral lines of large numbers of atomic and molecular species of importance to astrophysics, planetary 

science, and Earth atmosphere research. Currently, 

detector technology in this region is underdeveloped. 

The most promising candidate detectors are what are 

called “heterodyne” receivers based on superconductor-insulator-superconductor (SIS) mixers. 

Small area SIS devices have been fabricated and tested 

by measuring their current-voltage characteristics. The 

nonlinear nature of these devices is the key feature 

Computer Science. This area of research is 

72 

Automatic grappling of a spinning and tumbling satellite 

using robot vision and robot forcetorque sensing. 

necessary for their use as mixer elements in heterodyne receivers. Future plans include fabrication of 

smaller area devices while retaining the properties 

necessary for operation at submillimeter wave frequencies. SIS devices, as well as many other sensing 

devices, need to be cooled to very low temperatures in 

order to operate. Orifice pulse tube refrigerators are a 

new type of cooler that have important advantages 

over existing coolers in terms of potential reliability. 

The only moving part is a room temperature compressor which has a low pressure ratio. The orifice in this 

type of cooler is relatively large, in the warm part of 

the system, and is not subject to blockage by contamination. A single-stage cooler has been built in collaho- 
ration with the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder. 

Colorado, and has been used to explore the characteristics of this type of cooler. Results show that the 

efficiency of the orifice pulse tube is very competitive. 

Space Data Systems. This area of research 

advances the processing, storage, and use of spacederived information. Work is continuing on a space 

flight optical disk recorder. The objective is to enable 

a high-capacity (greater than one terabit), high-rate 

(greater than 300 megabits per second) data storage 

system for future NASA spaceflight data systems such 

as Earth-observing missions and Space Station. Commercially available erasable optical disk systems 

demonstrate the feasibility of the technology, but these 

systems fall far short of meeting the needs of future 

missions in both capacity and data rate. The need for 

a high-performance mass memory system is recognized 

by many Government agencies and a technology 

demonstration is being conducted under a multiagency 

contract effort. In 1987, an expandable optical disk 

recorder concept was developed. The concept is 

extremely flexible and compatible with a wide range 

of space flight requirements. 

Communications. This area of research seeks to 

develop microwave and optical communications 

devices. Future communications satellites are likely to 

use gallium arsenide (GaAs) monolithic microwave 

integrated circuit (MMIC) technology in most, if not all, 

communications payload subsystems. Multiplescanning-beam antenna systems are expected to use 

GaAs MMIC’s to increase functional capability, to 

reduce volume, weight, and cost, and to greatly 

improve system reliability. Matrix switch technology 

based on GaAs MMIC’s also is being developed for 

these reasons. MMIC technology offers substantial 

advantages in power consumption and weight over 

silicon technologies for high-throughput processor 

systems. For the more distant future, pseudomorphic 

indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) and other advanced 

materials offer the possibility of MMIC communication 

subsystems at shorter wavelengths. The use of ultrafast (1 pic0 second) laser pulses for electro-optical 

testing of MMIC modules has the potential of providing 

a completely no-touch, noninvasive, nondestructive 

test capability. Such testing techniques avoid problems 

of mounting and wire-bonding and eliminate the 

wasteful handling of nonfunctional chips. The method 

is adaptable to fully automated, high-volume testing 

with the potential for significantly reducing MMIC 

costs. 

Laser systems are attractive for free-space satellite 

communications systems because they are small, all 

solid-state, and are capable of carrying data rates in 

excess of 200 Mbits per second. NASA is developing 

laser systems which transmit data between satellites by 

directly modulating the output powers of semiconductor lasers with injected current. Although powers in 

excess of 100 milliwatt (mW) are required to carry 

NASA data rates, the best commercially available 

semiconductor lasers are limited to powers less than 40 

mW. NASA has undertaken the development of highpower, diffraction-limited lasers in order to improve 

laser performance. Recent work on the laser structure 

has improved its electrical efficiency and other performance parameters. The development of arrays of 

these lasers should allow the transmitter subsystems to 

be reduced in size and weight. 

In-Space Experiments. Due to the Challenger 

tragedy and other launch vehicle failures, no in-space 

experiments were conducted under the Space Research 

and Technology program in 1987. During this gap in 

activity, studies were undertaken to understand and 

define potential in-space technology experiments, both 

internal to NASA (inreach) and from university and 

industry proposals (outreach). These inreach and 

outreach experiments will be developed and flown in 

future years. 

aerospace community (industry, universities, and 

DOD) to have access to space for the verification and 

The Outreach Program was initiated to enable the 

73 
A 20 gigahertz monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) built in a single crystal of gallium arsenide. The circuit 

includes five phase shifting circuits, a phase shift amplifier, and a power amplifier. 

validation of unique technologies required to maintain 

U.S. leadership in space. Thirty-six proposals were 

selected for definition of space flight experiments and 

five proposals were selected for the development 

(design, fabrication, and testing) of experiments to be 

flown on the Space Shuttle. Many of the definition 

proposals may provide technology development 

experiments for validation on Space Station. 

74 

The Inreach Program was initiated to provide space 

flight validation of technologies defined and developed 

within the R&T base programs at the NASA field 

centers. Seven proposals were selected for the definition of flight experiments and one proposal was 

selected for the development of flight experiment 

hardware. Operating plans were assessed for each of 

these experiments and definition and development 

efforts are underway. 
Department of Defense 

The loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January 

28, 1986, resulted in an unprecedented setback for the 

U.S. space program. All of the existing heavy-lift 

launch capability was lost, leaving only eight Titan 34D 

medium-payload vehicles to fulfill the Nation’s launch 

requirements. This situation was further complicated 

by the Failure of the first two Titan 34D launches in 

1986, leading to the development of a new space 

launch strategy that could put US. launch requirements back on schedule and reduce the Nation’s 

dependency on a single launch system. 

NASA, the Department of Transportation (DOT), and 

the commercial as well as scientific communities 

developed a Space Launch Recovery Plan that was 

intended to balance the use of the Shuttle and expendable launch vehicles (ELV’s). Shuttle launches were 

planned to exploit the flexibility of having a man-inthe-loop, while ELV’s were allocated for more routine 

as well as very high risk missions. 

While the recovery plan has made progress toward 

satisfying national military, scientific, and commercial 

launch requirements, it got off to a slow start in 1986, 

resulting in the formation of a new strategy for 1987. 

The Challenger accident not only caused a 30-month 

delay in Shuttle use, but raised additional safety 

concerns which slowed flight rates, created performance losses, and necessitated payload repackaging 

with attendant design delays. To overcome these 

shortcomings, the new strategy proposes to use the 

Shuttle only when nece ry, reinstate the ELV production base, build facility infrastructure, and pursue 

critical technology issues. It is aimed at improving 

launch reliability, capability, and capacity at reduced 

costs. This is being accomplished through the procurement of more boosters (Titan IV’s and Delta 11’s) to 

improve production costs and launch rates with a 

sustained production into the outyears. The new 

During 1987, the Department of Defense (DOD), 

strategy created a 13-percent increase in spending in 

1987, and doubles the funding over the 8-year period 

of the recovery. 

Although the Space Launch Recovery Plan endeavors to meet national requirements for access to space 

and capability for launch, this will not be accomplished solely through the acquisition of additional 

vehicles. A plan for a fleet of evolutionary new 

vehicles to meet future needs with reduced costs per 

payload-pound must be developed. This plan must 

allow for a long-range technology program, the results 

of which can be used to develop new launch vehicles 

and upgrade existing systems where appropriate. The 

recently completed DOD/NASA Space Transportation 

Architecture Study (STAS) provides the first assessment 

of far-term national space launch requirements. The 

key findings of this study were as follows: 

Existing Shuttle and current ELV operating costs 

are significantly higher than more modern system 

designs. 

inadequate for future space transportation 

systems. 

Future systems must be driven by operational 

requirements. 

Architecture preferred includes both manned and 

unmanned vehicles, with reuseable systems for 

maximum reduction in launch costs. 

A new space launch capability and a long-term 

coordinated space program will be required to 

retain world leadership in space. The United 

States may be past the point of “retaining” world 

leadership in several aspects of space systems 

and technology. 

Current funding, scientific base, and facilities are 

The study supports an aggressive space launch recovery plan that continues far into the future in order to 

meet the growing needs of US. military, scientific, and 

commercial communities in space. 

75 
SDace Activities replacement as current satellites reach their end of life 

Military Satellite Communications 

MILSATCOM. Military communications satellite 

capabilities are provided by several satellite systems, 

each tailored to the specific set of requirements that 

the system is meant to fulfill. The Fleet Satellite 

Communications (FLTSATCOM) system consists of 

Government-owned FLTSATCOM satellites, augmented 

by dedicated, leased, contractor-owned satellites 

(LEASAT). Using small, mobile terminals, it provides 

low-capacity, worldwide command and control in the 

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band to a large community of customers. Also in the UHF band, the Air Force 

Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) system provides specialized command and control capabilities 

required by U.S. nuclear forces that use communications packages placed on the FLTSATCOM satellites 

and other host satellites. In the Super High Frequency 

(SHF) band, the Defense Satellite communications 

System (DSCS) provides the backbone of high-capacity, command, multi-channel communication service 

for control and intelligence purposes to a diverse 

group of strategic, tactical, and non-DOD customers. 

In 1987, planning the future deployment of the 

Milstar satellite communications system continued. 

This system will employ the Extremely High Frequency 

(EHF) band to provide highly survivable and essential 

communications for critical users. Work also progressed on defining an upgraded capability for the 

DSCS system. Using portions of the EHF technology 

developed under Milstar, the upgrade will greatly 

increase the communications capacity and survivability 

for these users. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System. The 

satellite constellation consists of five FLTSAT satellites 

and three leased satellites (LEASATS) in synchronous 

equatorial orbits providing worldwide coverage 

between 70" north latitude and 70" south latitude. 

On (UFO) was issued in 1987 to ensure availability of 

The Request for Proposal (KFP) for the UHF Followpoints in the early 1990's. This will he the first military 

system considering use of purely commercial expendable launch systems. 

Launch vehicle difficulties, adversely affecting U.S. 

progress in space, hit the FLTSAT program especially 

hard in 1987. FLTSAT 6 had to tie destroyed shortly 

after liftoff due to a lightning strike, and a critical part 

of the Atlas-Centaur rocket earmarked for the FLTSAT 

8 launch was inadvertently destroyed in a ground 

accident at the Kennedy launch site. The launch of the 

last satellite in the current FLTSAT series is not scheduled until 1989. 

Air Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM)/Single Channel Transponder (SCT). The 

AFSATCOM is a satellite communications capability 

that provides reliable global communications hetween 

and among the National Command Authorities and the 

nuclear capable forces. The primary missions supported are the dissemination of emergency information 

and force-directing messages to deployed forces. The 

system terminal segment consists of fixed and transportable ground terminals and airborne terminals, and 

a transponder control system. The Single Channel 

Transponder Injection System is a new improvement 

which is providing highly survivable communications. 

Single Channel Transponders on DSCS 111 satellites are 

located over the East Pacific, the East Atlantic, and 

West Atlantic. 

Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS). The primary mission of the DSCS is to 

provide worldwide coverage between 75" north and 

75" south latitude. It is employed within the Ikfense 

Communications System (DCS) primarily to provide 

long-haul service between the continental United 

States and overseas locations. The DSCS is divided 

into three major segments: space, control, and ground. 

The operational space segment currently consists of 

two DSCS I1 and three DSCS 111 satellites with two 

DSCS 11's as reserves. It was expanded to this fiveoperational satellite constellation in May 1987 with the 

76 
activation of a DSCS I11 in the West Atlantic. Two 

active satellites are needed to support requirements in 

the Atlantic basin. The DSCS 111 models provide 

increased performance in a jammed environment and 

protection against the electromagnetic pulse effects of 

a nuclear detonation. Delays in the transition to a 

complete DSCS I11 constellation continue due to the 

lack of launch capabilities. The DSCS 11 models are 

currently providing service beyond their projected 

lives, and are degrading slowly. 

The control segment provides for near real-time 

monitoring and control to ensure optimum use of 

resources, thereby maximizing user support. This 

control segment was expanded in 1987 with activation 

of the fifth DSCS Operations Center (DSCSOC) at Ft. 

Meade, Maryland. Also, the initial deliveries of IXCS 

Frequency Division Multiple Access Control System 

(DFCS) equipment were accepted from the contractor 

in 1987. This equipment, installed at each DSCSOC, 

will provide control of the Frequency Division Multiple 

Access networks in each satellite area. A DFCS followon evaluation is scheduled for 1988. Finally, a contract 

was awarded in 1987 to produce a system to control 

the Spread Spectrum Multiple Access anti-jam networks. 

The ground segment consists of a family of large, 

medium, and small Earth terminals and associated 

communications equipment that support both strategic 

and tactical user communities. In 1987, 10 new AN/ 

GSC-52, fixed terminals were activated. With these 

activations, the total terminal population using the 

DSCS exceeds 500. In addition, actions were initiated 

to define the next generation Earth terminal to support 

the expanded requirements of the 1990’s, and to plan 

for replacing or upgrading the aging terminals currently within the networks. 

Frequency/Ultra High Frequency (EHF/UHF) satellite 

communications system that will provide survivable, 

enduring, jam-resistant, and secure Voice/ddtd communications for the President, the Joint Chiefs-of-Staff, and 

Milstar. Milstar is a multi-channel, Extremely High 

the Commanders-in-Chief of the Unified and Specified 

commands. It will be used for the worldwide command and control of U.S. strategic and tactical forces in 

all levels of conflict. Milstar satellites, which contain 

special survivability features, will be launched into 

high-and low-inclination orbits to provide full Earth 

coverage. Full-scale development of the space and 

mission control segments continued in 1987, when 

Critical Design Reviews were conducted. Detailed 

planning for payloads and their integration into the 

satellite bus received major emphasis. Nuclear hardened Milstar terminals will be provided to command 

facilities, to surveillance outposts, and to strategic and 

tactical forces during the 1990’s. When completed, 

Milstar will provide the United States with its most 

survivable wartime communications capability. The 

Air Force is the lead service for the procurement of 

Milstar satellites, the dispersed mission control network, and most of its own terminals. The Army and 

Navy also have terminal development and procurement programs. The terminal programs of all three 

Services are coordinated through the Navy’s Joint 

Terminal Program Office, which has the responsibility 

to ensure interoperability and common specifications 

among the three designs. 

Satellite Laser Communications. The Satellite 

Laser Communications (SLC) system is a joint technology demonstration effort between the Navy and the 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 

to provide the capability to communicate from space 

with a submerged submarine using a laser beam as the 

transmitting medium. To date, the basic capability has 

been proven by sending messages to a submarine from 

an aircraft using green laser light. An operational 

system will use blue laser light, which provides greater 

transmission efficiency. An aircraft-to-submarine test 

using blue laser, scheduled for the spring 1988, will 

complete the joint technology demonstration. 

77 
Navigation and Geodesy 

Global Positioning System (GPS). No additional 

GPS satellites were launched during 1987. The last 

developmental GPS satellite, Navstar 11, was launched 

in October 1985. Currently, seven GPS developmental 

satellites are operating; five are performing well. The 

remaining two, operating substantially beyond their 

design lifetimes, are showing the effects of age and are 

performing marginally. In late 1987, DOD passed a 

cumulative 50 years of successful GPS on-orbit operations. Procurement of operational satellites was in its 

sixth year under a multiyear, 28 spacecraft contract. 

The first operational launch is scheduled for 1988, with 

full operational capability planned for late 1990 or 

early 1991. These dates reflect an approximate 2-year 

delay due to the lack of Space Shuttle launches. The 

launch capability provided by the new Air Force Delta 

I1 launch vehicle will allow full GPS Operationdl 

capability to be achieved. 

equipment continued in 1987, after being approved by 

the Defense Department in 1986. LRIP will continue 

through 1989, pending verification of correction of 

reliability and maintainability problems encountered 

during 1985 field testing. Platform integration activities 

by all Services have started. Two second-source 

contracts were awarded in late 1987. These contracts 

are for building several sets for inspection and testing. 

Once the sets are validated, the contractors will 

compete with the incumbent for full-rate production 

sets. In late 1989, DOD plans another review of user 

equipment performance before approving Full-rate 

production. The Control Segment, which is responsible for daily management of the on-orbit satellites, 

continues to perform well. Preparations to support the 

launch of the first operational satellite are on schedule. 

Full operational capability of the control station is 

planned to be concurrent with full GPS capability. 

Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) of GPS user 

Meteorology and Oceanography 

Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System (N-ROSS). 

At the request of the Secretary of the Navy, the N-ROSS 

program was restarted in April 1987. The plan was to 

complete documentation requirements and present the 

program to the Defense Acquisition Board and the 

Defense Resources Board in the fall of 1987. However, due to severe budgetary constraints, the N-ROSS 

program was canceled once again. Alternative approaches are being considered, with the primary 

emphasis placed on seeking opportunities to fly NROSS sensors, especially the NASA-funded scatterometer and the Special Sensor Microwave Imager, on other 

space platforms. 

(DMSP). DMSP is the DOD’s most important source 

of weather data. In June 1987, DMSP’s satellite, F-8, 

was launched with a new sensor, the Special Sensor 

Microwave/Imager (SSM/I). Upon completion of 

calibration and validation of the sensor and associated 

software algorithms in late 1988, the SSM/I will provide 

DOD, for the first time, twicedaily global views of 

rainfall rate, sea ice, ocean wind speed, and atmospheric water vapor content measurements. SSM/I 

sensors are planned to be on board all DMSP satellites 

starting 1990. A feasibility study was initiated in 1987 

to investigate flying the NASA-developed scatterometer 

on board a DMSP 5D-3 spacecraft in the mid-1990’s. 

Another feasibility study of importance to naval units 

involved the conceptual design of a low-data-rate, realtime direct readout capability. Such a capability would 

allow fleet units with simple, omni-directional antennas 

to receive low-resolution DMSP data. Finally, the 

Remote Atmospheric and Ionospheric Detection 

System (RAIDS), which is envisioned to enhance 

measurement of naturally occurring airglow emissions 

from the upper atmosphere and ionosphere, was 

begun in 1987. 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

78 
Surveillance and Warning 

of attack on the United States by ballistic missile or 

threats by air-breathing vehicles. Early-warning 

satellites, complemented by ground-based radars and 

sensors, warn of potential intercontinental missile and 

submarine-launched ballistic missile attacks. In May 

and June 1987, two phased array warning system 

(PAVE PAWS) radars, located at Eldorado AFB, Texas, 

and Robins AFB, Georgia, respectively, reached their 

initial operational capability (100. They joined the 

operational PAVE PAWS sites at Cape Cod AFS, 

Massachusetts, and Beale AFB, California, which had 

reached IOC in 1980. 

Surveillance and warning functions for continental 

air defense are currently provided by the Distant Early 

Warning radar line (DEW Line), and by a system of 

radar sites and Sector/Regional Operations Control 

Centers in the United States and Canada, called the 

Joint Surveillance System. Near-term upgrades to these 

systems include the planned joint Federal Aviation 

AdministratiodAir Force Radar Replacement Program 

to modernize the Joint Surveillance System radar. The 

North Warning System (NWS) program will modernize 

the DEW Line radar systems. 

The Over-The-Horizon Backscatter (OTH-B) radar 

systems, already under development, will extend 

warning times around the United States. The east 

coast OTH-B radar achieved limited operational status 

in December 1987. In 1987, the Air Defense Initiative 

program began to define and develop advanced 

technologies to detect, identify, track and engage 

future air-breathing threats to North America, particularly those incorporating advanced penetration 

technologies. 

Strategic Defense Initiative 

tive (SDI), a series of technology developments and 

experiments have underscored the potential for using 

Surveillance and warning systems provide warning 

Since the inception of the Strategic Defense Initiaadvanced technology to construct an effective strategic 

defense. During 1987, the SDI program successfully 

demonstrated the ability to intercept targets within the 

atmosphere and in space. In mid-September, Secretary 

of Defense Caspar Weinberger approved the Defense 

Acquisition Board’s recommendation that certain SDI 

technologies enter the demonstration and validation 

phase of the defense acquisition process. The purpose 

of this phase is to evaluate-through data analysis, 

experimentation, and simulation-the feasibility of the 

critical elements of a potential Strategic Defense 

System (SDS). Listed below are the six technologies 

and concepts approved by Secretary Weinberger. 

Battle Management/Command, Control, and Communication (BMC3). This element will monitor and 

control the activities of the other elements of a Strategic Defense System. Information from all elements will 

be relayed to the battle managers and processed; target 

assignments will then be communicated to space- and 

ground-based weapons. This complex communications system must assess rapidly the characteristics of 

ballistic missile attack and provide timely, reliable 

information to the SDS commander, who will direct the 

battle. Once a defense response has been determined, 

the BM/C3 system must execute the response, assess 

its effectiveness, and revise its action if necessary. The 

BM/C3 must be able to withstand enemy jamming and 

the effects of nuclear radiation. 

9 Boost Surveillance and Tracking System (BSTS). 

BSTS will detect and track attacking ICBM’s and 

SLBM’s during their boost-or powered-phase of 

flight. Once the BSTS senses a launch and tracks the 

attacking missiles, the information will be relayed to 

the BM/C3 system and other SDS elements. If an 

attacking MIRVed missile can be destroyed early in its 

79 
boost phase, the shortest phase of its flight, the 

number of nuclear warheads destroyed will be 

maximized. 

Space-based Interceptor System (SBI). The SBI will 

consist of a number of space platforms housing 

multiple rocket-propelled interceptors. Upon receiving 

the appropriate command, these nonnuclear interceptors will seek out and destroy the attacking missiles 

during the boost and post-boost phases, and also the 

Reentry Vehicles (RV’s) in the mid-course phase of 

their flight. They will destroy their targets by direct 

collision at extremely high speeds. 

Space-based Surveillance and Trucking System 

(SSTS). The SSTS will detect and track RV-dispensing 

post-boost vehicles and the RV’s themselves in the 

post-boost and mid-course phases of flight. The 

system will use a series of satellites to acquire and 

track objects and discriminate between reentry vehicles, decoys, and space debris. This tracking and 

discrimination information will be relayed to the BM/ 

C3 system and other SDS elements. The BM/C3 

system will then assign targets to the SBI to intercept 

the incoming warheads. 

Ground-based Surveillance and Tracking System 

(GSTS). The GSTS, also known as the Probe, has three 

basic functions: search/acquisition, track, and discrimination. Launched into space upon warning of an 

ICBM launch, the GSTS would track attacking RV’s in 

the missile’s mid-course and early terminal trajectory 

phases; this information will be used to assign both 

ground- and space-based interceptors to destroy the 

RV’s. GSTS will possess the capability to discriminate 

between RV’s, decoys and space debris. 

7;be Exoatmospheric Reenty Vehicle Interceptor 

Subsystem (ERIS). The ERIS is a ground-launched, 

nonnuclear missile interceptor system that will destroy 

attacking warheads during the mid-course phase of 

their flight. Space and ground surveillance systems 

must first discern between warheads, decoys, and 

space debris. This information will be relayed to the 

BM/C3 systems, which will process it and communicate target assignments to interceptors, such as the 

ERIS. The small ERIS vehicle will destroy the attacking 

warhead by colliding with it at an extremely high 

speed. 

These six technologies will represent the first phase 

of a multi-phased strategic defense system. The 

phased deployment approach takes four key factors 

into consideration: time, technology, defensive 

missions, and responsive threats. With this approach, 

some efforts and technologies will mature faster than 

others. Deployment of a defense, regardless of the 

first deployment date of its elements, must take place 

over time. As other technologies mature and are 

deployed, they also will provide additional capability 

to perform new and more demanding missions, 

including overcoming potential Soviet attempts to 

evade, deceive, or defeat U.S. defensive systems. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Fixed- Wing Programs 

Bomber Development (B-1B). In June 1985, the 

first B-1I3 was delivered to the Strategic Air Command. 

By the summer of 1988, all 100 B-1B’s will have been 

delivered to the Air Force with operational basing at 

Dyess Air Force Base, Texas; Ellsworth Air Force Base, 

South Dakota; Grand Forks Air Force Base, North 

Dakota; and McConnell Air Force Base, Kansas. The 

B-lB has been on alert as part of the Strategic Air 

Command’s defense force since October 1, 1986. 

Testing of the B-lB continues at Dyess AFB and 

Edwards AFB, California. 

been ongoing on the Advanced Technology Bomber 

(known as the B-2) with Northrop as the prime 

contractor, and Boeing, LTV, and General Electric 

B-2 Advanced Technology Bomber. Work has 

80 
Aircraft Engine Group as subcontractor to Northrop. 

The B-2 employs low-observable, or stealth, technology, and is based on a flying wing concept which 

exhibits high aerodynamic efficiency giving high 

payload, long-range capability. 

Work in 1987 will lead to a follow-on contract 

award to Northrop in 1988, and a first flight scheduled 

for the fall of 1988. The current schedule is leading to 

an IOC (Initial Operational Capability) in the early 

1990’s with the first operational base at Whiteman AFB, 

Missouri. The B-2 depot facility will be at the Air 

Logistics Center, Tinker AFB, Oklahoma. 

Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF). The ATF 

program is developing the next generation Air Force 

fighter to counter the Soviet threat projected for the 

late 1990’s and beyond. As a follow-on to the F-15, 

the ATF is being designed to penetrate high-threat 

enemy airspace and support the air-land battle forces 

with “first-look, first-kill” capability against a 

technologically advanced, numerically superior enemy. 

The ATF’s improved capabilities will be made possible 

by significant technological advances in the areas of 

signature reduction, aerodynamic design, flight controls, materials, propulsion, sensors, and integrated 

avionics. It will reach an initial operational capability 

in the mid-1990’s. 

In April 1986, the ATF program was restructured to 

include flying prototypes and ground-based avionics 

prototypes in the Demonstration/Validation (Dedval) 

phase of the program. The restructured program 

implements Packard Commission recommendations, 

emphasizes fly-before-buy and competitive contracting, 

and provides the means to reduce technical and cost 

risks before proceeding with full-scale development in 

1991. 

In October 1986, the ATF program completed a 

Joint Requirements Management Board Milestone I and 

received Office of Secretary of Defense approval to 

award the Dem/Val contracts. Contracts were awarded 

to Lockheed and Northrop, and flight demonstrations 

of their prototype aircraft, designated YF-22A and YF23A respectively, will begin in 1990. General Electric 

and Pratt and Whitney are providing the prototype 

engines for the AFT aircraft. 

of full-scale development in December 1987. Preliminary design reviews and more than 5,000 hours of 

wind tunnel tests of scale models have been completed. Recent wind tunnel tests have discovered a 

“deep stall” characteristic in which the aircraft can be 

inadvertently flown into an unrecoverable condition 

using manual (hydro-mechanical) flight controls. To 

resolve this problem, a decision has been made to 

redesign the flight control system to a “fly-by-wire” 

system incorporating quadruply redundant electronic 

flight controls. More than 45 percent of the engineering drawings for manufacture of the C-17 airframe 

components have been completed. The engines for 

the C-17 are modern, efficient, commercially developed, turbofan designs that will be equipped with 

unique thrust reversers specifically developed for the 

aircraft. The maximum thrust rating for the engines, 

originally 37,000 pounds, has been increased to 40,700 

pounds to provide increased takeoff performance. 

After a December 1987 review of the proposal, the 

Defense Acquisition Board approved procurement of 

the first two production aircraft that will be used 

initially in the test program. By December 1987, more 

than 70 subcontracts for the C-17 aircraft were 

awarded. 

Remotely Pibted Vehicle. The Navy and Air 

Force are jointly developing a medium-range, unmanned reconnaissance vehicle. The Navy is developing the unmanned vehicle, and the Air Force is developing an electro-optical sensor suite to be carried by 

Air Force and Navy manned and unmanned tactical 

reconnaissance vehicles. In 1987, two contractors will 

be selected to participate in a competitive fly-off of 

their unmanned vehicles that will occur during 1988. 

C-17. The C-17 aircraft completed its second year 

81 
Helicopter Programs 

AH-64H (Apache) Advanced Attack Helicopter. 

In December 1987, the 308th AH-64 Apache helicopter 

was delivered to the Army. The FY 1988 procurement 

is for 77 more aircraft and constitutes the seventh 

production lot for the aircraft. With this procurement, 

the Army will have contracted for 603 Apaches. 

CH-47 Modernization. In April 1985, a 5-year 

multiyear procurement (MYP) contract was awarded to 

modernize 240 CH-47A-, B-, and C- model cargo 

helicopters to the D-model configuration. The CH-47D 

provides substantial improvements in reliability, 

availability, maintainability, flight safety and survivability. By December 1987, as the program moved 

through the third year of the 5-year MYP, 190 CH-47D 

aircraft had been delivered to the Army. A proposed 

second MYP contract from 1990 to 1992 would complete a procurement objective of 472 CH-47D’s, which 

is the total of all CH-47A/B/C aircraft available for 

modernization. 

861 UH-60A’s had been accepted by the Army. These 

aircraft were distributed to priority units in the United 

States, Europe, Japan, Korea, Panama, the Army 

National Guard, the Army Reserve, and to the Training 

and Doctrine Command. 

Light Helicopter Family (LHX). In 1985, the 

Army initiated a technology development program 

called the Advanced Rotorcraft Technology Integration 

(ARTI) to reduce the technical risk of LHX development. The ARTI program, and other programs like it, 

have provided sufficient advances in technologies such 

as forward-looking infrared (FLIR), very high-speed 

integrated circuit (VHSIC), target recognition, and 

composite construction to enable the LHX program to 

start development with an acceptable level of risk. 

Risk-reduction efforts have continued to this date, in 

anticipation of a 1988 start of the LHX demonstration 

and validation phase. It is expected that the initial 

demonstration work will be conducted in the area of 

the mission equipment package, applicable to the LHX, 

82 

UH-60A Blackhawk. By December 1987, a total of 

as well as to other aircraft. In a parallel effort, the 

Army has awarded contracts to two industry teams for 

the development of the 1200-shaft horsepower T-800 

engine. The T-800 is an advanced technology 

turboshaft engine characterized by high-power-toweight ratio and low-specific fuel consumption. 

Advanced Technology Demonstrators 

designed to provide the Marine Corps, Navy, and Air 

Force with a multimission Vertical/Short Takeoff and 

Landing (V/STOL) capability for the 1990’s and beyond. It will satisfy operational requirements such as 

Marine Corps assault vertical lift, Navy combat search 

and rescue, and Air Force special operations. In April 

1983, the Preliminary Design Phase began; in 1986, a 

decision leading to full-scale development was made. 

Powered model, aero-elasticity, and large-scale rotor 

performance tests were completed. Results of these 

tests will lead to detail design of the Ground Test 

Vehicle. 

Aeronautics Technology 

precision approach landing system of the future. It 

will replace the existing instrument landing system 

(ILS) and precision approach radar by the year 2000. 

Both fixed and mobile MLS ground equipment will be 

acquired, as well as MLS avionics for DOD aircraft. The 

Federal Aviation Administration has overall responsibility for the national MLS program, and the Air Force 

was designated the lead Service for the DOD. In 1987, 

the Air Force continued with programs to acquire 

modified commercial MLS avionics and mobile MLS 

capabilities. The modified commercial MLS avionics 

will be used in cargo, tanker, trainer, and support 

aircraft. The mobile MLS will replace existing mobile 

precision approach radars. The modified commercial 

avionics contract was awarded in October 1987. The 

mobile MLS Request for Proposal was released in 1987, 

and contract award is planned for March/April 1988. 

The FAA Fixed Based MLS Request for Proposal will be 

V-22 Osprey VomerlyJvx). The Osprey is 

Microwave Landing System (MLS). MLS is the 
released in 1988, and will include equipment for the 

DOD. Contract award is planned for 1989. An MLS 

avionics architecture study, completed in 1986, considered MLS avionics alternatives that could accommodate 

the environmental and space constraints that exist in 

high-performance aircraft. As a result of this study, the 

Air Force awarded contracts in 1987 to conduct a 

concept definition effort for a high reliability (20,000 

hour mean-time-between-failure) MLSALS receiver. 

Full-scale development is planned for fiscal year 1989. 

The ILS capability will be retained until the transition 

to MLS is completed in the year 2000. 

(AFTZ). In 1986, the AFTI/F-16 completed its last full 

year of testing at Edwards Air Force Base. Its automated maneuvering attack system provides highly 

accurate maneuvering against ground targets from very 

low altitudes and improved air-to-air effectiveness. 

Technologies in the AFT1 program will be used to 

improve the performance of future aircraft, such as the 

Advanced Tactical Fighter. 

X-29 Advanced Technology Lkmonstrator. The 

forward-swept-wing X-29 aircraft has completed its 

second year of flight testing. This innovative program 

demonstrates advanced high-risk, high-payoff technologies for future consideration. Exploitation of these 

technologies will improve future fighter aircraft performance and will reduce the time, risk, and cost of 

future development. It is a joint DARPMNASMAir 

Force program that expands significantly the existing 

data bases for advanced composite research, aerodynamic and structural analytic design methods, design 

techniques of digital flight control systems, systems 

integration, and test and evaluation capabilities. The 

flight testing is being conducted by a joint Governmenthdustry team at NASA's Dryden Flight Research 

Facility at Edwards Air Force Base, California. 

During 1986, the X-29A completed more than 85 

test flights to expand fully its flight envelope to a 

maximum altitude of 40,000 feet and a maximum Mach 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration 

number of 1.45. Considerable testing was conducted 

at high dynamic pressures, a combination of lowaltitude, high-speed, and high-G load factors that 

stressed the capability of the aircraft structure, flight 

control system, and aerodynamic stability. Test results 

indicate that vehicle drag levels are significantly lower 

than predicted, and that vehicle stability throughout 

the flight envelope is better than analysis had predicted. A follow-on program has been defined and 

approved to flight test the second X-29 aircraft at high 

angle of attack. 

program, including DARPA, Air Force, Navy, Strategic 

Defense Initiative Organization, and NASA, is developing advanced technologies for a new generation of 

aerospace vehicles. After a horizontal takeoff, these 

liquid-hydrogen-fueled, air-breathing, ramjet/scramjetpowered vehicles will be capable of operating at 

hypersonic speeds (Mach 6 to 12) in the atmosphere or 

in space as a single-stage-to-orbit launch vehicle. 

Between 1986 and 1989, the main goal of the 

technology development phase (Phase 11) is to demonstrate the technologies required for single-stage-toorbit. New technologies needed to usher in this new 

generation of air-breathing aerospace vehicles will be 

developed, such as advanced propulsion engines, 

advanced low-drag airframe configurations, advanced 

high-temperature materials, actively cooled structures, 

lightweight cryogenic tankage, and high-speed computer analysis of non-linear fluid dynamics. These 

technologies being developed offer the potential of a 

future space launch vehicle having substantially 

reduced cost-per-pound delivered to orbit, and a future 

hypersonic cruise aircraft having 2-hour flight time (or 

less) from the United States to any point on the globe. 

construction, and flight test of an experimental aircraft, 

is currently scheduled to begin in 1991. First flight of 

this experimental vehicle, designated the X-30, is 

planned for 1996. The goal of Phase I11 is to accomplish sufficient flight demonstration to provide a 

National Aerospace Plane (NASP). This joint 

The next phase (Phase III), the detail design, 

83 
verified technological basis for future operational 

vehicles. 

The many spinoffs from NASP technologies will 

enhance U.S. leadership in aeronautics and in the 

commercial use of space during the early decades of 

the next century. Reduced space launch costs and 

dramatically reduced transit times on long-haul airline 

routes will result in significant economic benefits. 

tested on the NASMArmy Rotor Systems Research 

Aircraft (RSRA). Successful testing of the X-Wing/RSRA 

will provide the basis for a whole new generation of 

air vehicles that combine the best features of both 

helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft. In the helicopter 

mode, the X-Wing rotates like conventional helicopter 

blades. While airborne, the blades stop rotating and 

the aircraft flies in a fixed-wing mode. In order to 

accomplish this feat, four emerging technologies will 

be refined and integrated: digital flight controls that 

can maneuver an airframe with both helicopter and 

fixed-wing features; composite materials that are both 

lightweight and extremely rigid; air that circulates 

around the rotor blades to increase lift; and propulsion 

techniques that provide both shaft horse power and 

thrust from a single engine. 

Test and Experimental Research Capabilities. 

Don and NASA have conducted several studies and 

reviews of the Nation’s experimental capabilities and 

facilities. A concern about adequacy continues to 

grow relative to these assets that are so vital to continued growth in technology and systems development in 

aeronautical and space systems. The Defense Acquisition Board’s Test and Evaluation Committee (TEC) is 

taking action toward planning and budgeting for a 

national investment program to ensure that investments are adequate to preclude a major long-term 

shortfall of capabilities to achieve national objectives in 

aeronautics and space. The TEC will integrate, at the 

Office of the Secretary of Defense level, service 

requirements and plans to provide a better national 

investment approach with NASA. The specifics of 

84 

X-Wing. The X-Wing Rotor System will be flight 

approach and investment objectives are expected to 

mature in 1988. The primary areas of concern clearly 

center on highly integrated electronic systems for 

advanced weapons, hypersonic research, and space 

systems. 

Advanced Technology. The purpose of this program 

is to increase operational effectiveness of rotorcraft, 

reduce life-cycle costs, and improve systems integration and flight simulation capabilities. The program 

includes research in the areas of aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, reliability, maintainability, safety and 

survivability, subsystems, mission support, flight 

simulation, and man-machine integration. In 1987, 

work on the development of a Crew Station Research 

and Development Facility was completed, with all 

hardware and software fully integrated. As the Free 

World’s most versatile rotorcraft research and development simulator, this facility is now operational with 

research under-way. It will provide a means of 

evaluating advanced cockpit concepts and designs for 

future rotorcraft systems and man-machine-mission 

capabilities. Additionally, it will provide the tools for 

supporting the selection of future Army rotorcraft 

procurements, resulting in more cost-effective fielded 

systems. The development and operation of the 

facility was a joint Army/NASA effort, and it is housed 

at the NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, 

California. 

Rotorcraft flying close to trees and terrain require 

almost continuous pilot attention to be directed outside 

the cockpit, as well as constant “hands-on-the-controls.” This, in addition to the growing complexity of 

state-of-the-art systems/cockpit equipment, results in a 

very high pilot workload. A JOH-58 helicopter was 

modified to incorporate the electronics required to 

evaluate pilot performance using voice commands to 

initiate the pilot inputs to the system, versus the same 

inputs done manually. Comparisons between voice 

commands and manual inputs were made during both 

day and night flights. Results indicate that under 

Army Aeronautical Technology Research and 
conditions of high workload, voice input is the medium of choice. Voice technology has a great potential 

for reducing workload to a manageable level, and for 

improving mission effectiveness and flight safety for 

aircraft pilots and their passengers. 

Quick, accurate diagnosis of system failure is the 

answer to many of the Army’s aircraft readiness goals. 

A program of aircraft system fault isolation using 

artificial intelligence technology has provided Army 

aviation the means to reduce maintenance costs by 

avoiding time-consuming trouble-shooting. A diagnostic system has been developed for aircraft flight 

controls, auxiliary power units, fuel systems and 

selected avionics for the AH-64 Apache and UH-60 

Blackhawk helicopters. The system correctly diagnosed 12 system faults during tests at Fort Rucker, 

Alabama, and Fort Hood, Texas. A similar system was 

developed to monitor the flight controls of a CH-47D 

Chinook helicopter tested at Fort Eustis, Virginia, and 

Fort Campbell, Kentucky. A field demonstration applying the technique to the TOW missile system of the 

AH-1S Cobra was conducted at Fort Lewis, Washington, and correctly diagnosed almost all potential 

system problems. Reductions in maintenance manhours, aircraft downtime, component false removals, 

and maintenance test flight requirements have been 

shown. 

A technique was developed to repair battle-damaged aircraft fuel cells that minimizes both aircraft 

downtime and manpower resources. The major 

breakthrough was the development of a new chemical 

compound that reduces epoxy cure time and is easy to 

apply. A fuel cell repair kit was developed and fielded 

that reduces repair time from the current 8 to 30 hours 

to less than 2 hours. 

In 1987, a 4-year program to develop and demonstrate a 5,000-horsepower Modern Technology Demonstration Engine was completed. This engine represents 

the latest turbine engine technology and provides a 

lightweight engine with lower fuel consumption than 

other turbine engines in its class. The program has 

met or exceeded all design goals, which include more 

than 6-horsepower-per-pound of engine and 20 

percent lower fuel consumption, leading to greater 

range and payload capability. The engine design life is 

5,000 hours, which will greatly extend service life 

compared to current engines. The demonstrated 

mean-time-to-repair of less than 1 hour will reduce 

aircraft downtime. 

An investigation to evaluate the feasibility of using 

an advanced compound cycle engine (a combination 

of gas turbine and diesel technology) for future Army 

aircraft applications has been completed. Results 

indicate potential engine efficiency values as high as 

45 percent over the current engine technology without 

resorting to extremely high-temperature design technology. Resulting aircraft range or payload capability 

could improve by more than 50 percent. 

Working with the NASA computational based 

Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation Facility, Army 

researchers have developed computational fluid 

dynamic computer codes that model the air flow near 

and over helicopter rotor blades. This analytical 

approach reduces the high risk, time and cost of 

required to test and evaluate new concepts for helicopter rotors. 

@DOCS). The task of the Advanced Digital Optical 

Control System is to advance technology to provide a 

battlefield-compatible flight control system for new 

Army aircraft. The ADOCS will allow survivability of 

the control system in the natural and man-made 

electromagnetic environment of the future battlefield. 

The ADOCS also will provide improved capability, 

reliability, maintainability, and reduced ballistic vulnerability. Mission-tailored handling qualities combined with improved soldier-machine interfaces will 

significantly improve rotorcraft mission performance. 

A ground test of the ADOCS, using a UH-60 flight 

demonstrator, was completed and flight tests were 

initiated. The development of an Optohydraulic 

nd check” experimental model testing usually 

Advanced Digital Optical Control System 

85 
Servovalve was completed and work on a number of 

additional improved optical components was initiated. 

These components will be designed to upgrade and 

replace large, heavy, inefficient prototype components 

in the original flight demonstrator. The testing of the 

ADOCS Flight Demonstrator configuration was completed in 1986. Development of Advanced Optical 

Components will continue in 1987, along with a TriService program to develop approaches to Atmospheric Electrical Hazard Protection for the Digital 

Optical Control System. 

ACAP was formulated to demonstrate the benefits of 

applying composite materials to a primary helicopter 

airframe structure. The program goals of achieving a 

17-percent reduction in airframe cost and a 22-percent 

reduction in airframe weight were met or exceeded by 

the two helicopter manufacturers conducting this 

Advanced Composite Aircrafl Program (ACAP). 

demonstration. In 1986, Sikorsky and Bell completed 

their ACAP flight test programs. In 1987, the program 

then proceeded to the initiation of the militarization 

phase in which avionicsAightning compatibility issues 

will be addressed; landing gear and crashworthy 

characteristics will be demonstrated; and acoustics, and 

maintainability improvements will be developed to 

ensure battlefield sustainability of composite materials 

used as a primary airframe structure. Due to the 

inherent high stiffness of composite materials, acoustic 

energy (noise) may be more readily transmitted than it 

is in metal structures. Acoustic isolation modifications 

for the ACAP aircraft will be fabricated and installed in 

the flight test vehicle; tests of the avionics, electromagetic interference, and lightning characteristics of 

the airframe will be completed; and a concept for 

enhancing maintainability will be developed. 

86 
Department of Commerce 

Agencies of the Department of Commerce involved in 

the Nation’s aeronautics and space programs during 

1987 were the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA), National Bureau of Standards 

(NBS), and National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). 

tion (NOAA) conducts research, gathers, stores, and 

analyzes data about the oceans, atmosphere, space, 

and Sun, and applies this knowledge to limit the 

potential impact of severe weather conditions, manage 

the Earth’s natural resources, and plan and conduct 

many other activities of national and international 

importance. NOAA satellite data and products are 

received around the globe, and are utilized by industries such as shipping, aeronautics, agriculture, and the 

military. The National Environmental Satellite, Data, 

and Information Service (NESDIS) manages satellite 

activities under NOAA. 

sible for establishing and maintaining national standards of measurement, and provides Government, 

industry, and academia with the measurement services 

and fundamental physical, chemical, and engineering 

data to serve national goals. NBS supports space 

systems, atmospheric and space research, and aeronautical programs. 

The National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration (NTIA), the principal communications 

adviser to the President, develops and coordinates 

Executive branch policy in telecommunications and 

information. NTIA also is responsible for managing 

the radio spectrum assigned for Federal use and 

provides technical assistance to other Federal agencies. 

An important NTIA role is to help develop and coordinate U.S. policy in space communications. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministraThe National Bureau of Standards (NBS) is responSpace Systems 

Satellite Operations 

The satellites operated by NOAA include both 

geostationary and polar-orbiting spacecraft. The 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 

(GOES) orbit the Earth in synchrony with the rotation 

of the Earth so that each appears to be fixed in space 

directly above one place. This gives each spacecraft a 

continuous, 24-hour view of one entire hemisphere of 

the planet. Each of the two polar-orbiting satellites, 

interchangeably called TIROS and NOAA, move in 

circular, sun-synchronous orbits from pole to pole. 

Since the orbital rotation rate of each polar-orbiting 

satellite around the Earth is adjusted to be half the 

rotation rate of the Earth around its own axis, each 

spacecraft views successive overlapping swaths of the 

Earth’s surface. This orbital geometry allows each 

satellite to view each place on the planet twice every 

day (once during the morning and once during the 

evening). 

statute miles (35,800 km) above the equator. Since the 

orbital path tracks directly above a single point on the 

Earth’s surface, it is capable of imaging the entire 

hemisphere once every half hour and can view smaller 

areas as often as once every 1 j minutes. The complement of instruments on this spacecraft include a Visible 

and Infrared Spin-scan Radiometer Atmospheric 

Sounder (VAS) which provides %hour images of the 

Earth’s temperatures, cloud cover and atmospheric 

water vapor. Additionally, each GOES carries a Space 

Environment Monitor (SEM) that measures the conditions of the Earth’s magnetic field and the energetic 

particle flux in space near the Earth; and the Data 

Collection System (DCS) that receives and retransmits 

GOES spacecraft are in orbit approximately 22,300 

87 
data collected by remote data collection platforms. 

Unlike polar-orbiting spacecraft, the GOES has no 

platform-locating capability. The GOES also has the 

capability to broadcast processed environmental data, 

such as imagery, charts, and alphanumeric messages 

through a product distribution system called Weather 

Facsimile (WEFAX). 

The normal operational configuration for the GOES 

system includes one spacecraft placed at 75" west 

longitude and one at 135" west. From these locations 

they can observe the eastern and western parts of the 

United States and their adjacent ocean areas. Other 

partially operational GOES satellites, used for data 

relay communications, DCS and a dedicated central 

WEFAX broadcast, are positioned elsewhere. 

Polar-Orbiting Satellites. NOAA 9 and NOAA 10 

satellites provided the polar-orbiting service during the 

year. They are in orbit 450 miles (853 km) above the 

Earth's surface. With the on-board data recorders, the 

satellites provide total global imaging coverage. The 

complement of instruments on the polar-orbiting 

spacecraft include an Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer (AVHRR) which provides global visible and 

infrared imagery; a Space Environment Monitor (SEM) 

to measure near-earth charged particle spectra; a 

TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) system, 

consisting of a Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU), a 

High-Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (HIRS) and 

a Stratospheric Sounding Unit (SSU) which combine to 

provide atmospheric temperature profiles from the 

surface of the Earth to the upper stratosphere; a Search 

and Rescue (SAR) package to locate emergency 

transmitters anywhere in the world, an Earth Radiation 

Budget Experiment (ERBE), and an ARGOS Data 

Collection System to track and report data from remote 

data collection platforms, such as drifting buoys, freefloating balloons and remote weather stations. 

The normal operational configuration for the 

TIROS/NOAA system includes two 3-axis stabilized 

spacecraft in near-polar orbit (inclined 98.7") with an 

orbital precession of 0.986" per day (in the same 

88 

direction and rate as the Earth's average daily rotation 

about the Sun). 

GOES-H, the last of the current series of GOES spacecraft, was successfully launched. After an initial checkout period, the satellite became operational in March 

1987, as GOES-7 on station at 75" west longitude. 

GOES-6 was then re-positioned from its 108" west 

location to its new operational station of 135" west. 

The year 1987 also marked the inauguration of a new 

data rate and transmission format (Mode AAA). This 

new format takes full advantage of the capabilities of 

the VAS instrument and provides operational dwell 

soundings and multispectral images. 

GOES-Next. During 1987, the Ford Aerospace and 

Communications Corporation continued the design and 

development of the next generation GOES spacecraft, 

GOES I-M, and associated ground equipment. Launch 

of the first in the new series of spacecraft is expected 

in mid 1990. 

to the Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 

1984, the Earth ObseIVdtion Satellite Company 

(EOSAT) operated the Landsat 4 and 5 remote sensing 

satellite systems for NOAA in 1987. In October of 

1987, the U.S. Congress approved a revised Landsat 

program commercialization plan releasing additional 

funds for continued development of follow-on Landsat 

6 space and ground systems. In addition, the Department of Commerce will direct a study to plan the 

development of an advanced commercial system 

beyond Landsat 6. New Landsat sensing instruments 

are under development for Landsat 6 that will advance 

the position of the United States in the international 

market for remote sensing satellite data. 

They include the Enhanced Thematic Mapperfeaturing a 15-meter resolution panchromatic txnd, 

and other spectral bands, including thermal infraredand a Compact Wide-Field Sensor that will provide low 

resolution, wide area coverage suitable for land and 

ocean studies. 

Geostationary Satellites. In February 1987, 

LANDSAT Commercialized Operations. Pursuant 
Satellite Data Services 

During 1987, NOAA provided several satellite data 

services made possible by the observing and communicating capabilities of TIROS/NOAA and GOES 

spacecraft. 

GOES Data Collection System (DCS). In 1987, 

the DCS had a significant increase in the number of 

environmental data collection platforms able to use the 

system. This increase caused the ground system 

computers to become saturated. Through some 

innovative software development, NESDIS was able to 

increase system capacity by 25 percent. This increase 

will allow NESDIS to add users at a carefully managed 

rate until the new system is installed in mid-1989. 

During 1987, a new system was specified which will 

allow significant growth and enable users to expand or 

add programs to the DCS. 

Government and commercial users to acquire highquality meteorological satellite data on a near-real-time 

basis continued to expand with approximately 25 new 

users added in 1987. There are currently close to 200 

GOES-Tap primary connections. The users of this 

program are the National Weather Service, the Air 

Force, the Navy, the FAA, airline companies, television 

stations, universities, and private companies. GOESTap satellite data consists primarily of sectorized visible 

and infrared GOES imagery. GMS, METEOSAT, and 

NOAA satellite data are also distributed. 

continued to broadcast processed satellite imagery, 

meteorological analyses and prognoses via three GOES 

spacecraft to the national and international community. 

In 1987, there were 204 known active WEFAX sites, 

122 in the United States and 82 outside the United 

GOES-Tap. GOES-Tap, a program enabling other 

WEFAX The Weather Facsimile system (WEFAX) 

States. 

NOAA/Navy Joint Ice Center dlrc). Executing the 

plans of the 1986 Letter of Agreement between the 

Navy and NOAA to improve the data processing 

capabilities at the NOAA/Navy Joint Ice Center UIC) in 

Suitland, Maryland, a renovation of the methods by 

which the JIC processes satellite data was begun. A 

major software development project was undertaken 

by NESDIS to preprocess the raw satellite image data 

for use by the Digital Ice Forecast Analysis System 

(DIFAS). 

The NOAA facility in Boulder, Colorado, began 

adapting its regional atmospherically oriented image 

processing system into one to meet the needs of the 

JIC. The image processing and computing hardware 

was procured through the National Ocean Service. 

GOES-VISSR Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) Data. 

In September, NESDIS began operational processing of 

(NWS). The system was developed at the Cooperative 

Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies at the 

University of Wisconsin and delivered to the World 

Weather Building. In addition to providing highfrequency profiles of atmospheric temperature and 

humidity (every 90 minutes), the system can also 

derive wind estimates, automatically, from timesequenced images of visible and infrared radiation 

viewed by the satellite. These winds, in particular, 

have been shown to improve simple model hurricane 

track forecasting by the National Hurricane Center. 

Forecast model impact studies using the VAS data are 

currently being pursued by the NWS and the European 

Center for Midrange Weather Forecasting. 

Soundings. The year 1987 marks the eighth year of 

operational atmospheric soundings production from 

NOAA’s polar-orbiting satellite system. The NOM-10 

satellite was successfully implemented for soundings in 

February 1987, replacing the NOM-6 satellite which 

no longer had a functioning High Resolution Infrared 

Sounder. The enhanced soundings (17 km resolution) 

implemented in April 1986 are of great interest to 

meteorological experimenters and researchers. Numerous requests for these data were honored during 1987. 

A completely new sounding system was implemented 

in June 1987 using data from the Speckdl Sensor 

Microwave/Temperature on board the Defense MeteVAS data t<) supp<~ft the Nationdl Weather Service 

Atmospheric Temperature and Moisture 

89 
orological Satellite Program polar satellites. These new 

soundings supplement the morning polar satellite 

sounding coverage with all-weather microwave 

measurements. This new product is the first product 

to be operationally produced under the Shared Processing agreement between NOAA, the Navy, and the 

Air Force. 

Sea Surface Temperature. Observations of sea 

surface temperature at 8 kilometer resolution were 

produced from NOM-9 infrared data during 1987 and 

transmitted to the National Meteorological Center of 

the National Weather Service, the Navy Fleet Numerical 

Oceanography Center, and the World Meteorological 

Organization for use in oceanographic and meteorological models and products. 

The National Oceanographic Data Center and the 

Scripps Institute of Oceanography combined their 

resources to form a Joint Environmental Data Analysis 

Center for surface and subsurface temperatures. 

Among the products being produced monthly are 

graphic displays of sea surface temperature anomalies 

and dynamic heights for the mid-latitude Pacific 

Ocean. 

In November 1986, an enhanced SST observation 

archive was implemented in support of the Tropical 

Ocean and Global Atmosphere project of the World 

Climate Research Program. This archive will permit 

the efficient reprocessing of satellite sea surface 

temperatures if improved algorithms are developed. 

New products being tested this year include a global 

sea surface temperature analysis at a 50-km resolution, 

and a global aerosol optical thickness product at a 100- 

km resolution. The latter product will be used to 

correct sea surface temperature measured in the 

presence of stratospheric aerosols from large volcanic 

eruptions. Support was provided to NASA and the 

Navy in the migration of the operational production of 

global satellite sea surface temperature observations 

under the Shared Processing agreement. 

Ozone. Operational total, level, and layer ozone 

observations continue to be generated from the Solar 

70 

Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer (SBUV/2) on the 

NOAA-9 (afternoon) polar-orbiting satellite. These 

products are provided to NASA Goddard Space Flight 

Center, NOAA Environmental Research Labs, and the 

Atmospheric Environmental Service of Canada. Preparations are being made for reprocessing all of the 

SBUB/2 data acquired since March 1985. This reprocessing, using the latest ozone algorithm and calibration 

techniques, will provide the “best” ozone data set 

currently possible. This improved data set will be used 

along with other ozone data sources to determine 

trends in world ozone amounts. 

Three types of special support were provided for 

the flight operations of the NASA Antarctic Ozone Field 

Experiment. Infrared data from the High Resolution 

Infrared Sounder (HIRS/2) on NOAA-10 were supplied 

in near-real time to the European Centre for MediumRange Weather Forecasts and used to generate Southern Hemisphere maps of total ozone during the polar 

night; Microwave Sounder Unit and HIRS/2 data from 

NOAA-10 were sent to NASA Goddard Space Flight 

Center to provide temperature sounding support to 

Antarctic meteorological forecasts; and SBW/2 ozone 

observations were provided to NOAA’s Climate 

Analysis Centers for generation of daytime ozone 

analyses over Antarctica. These data allowed NASA to 

locate the “Ozone Hole” which forms over Antarctica 

during the polar night in August and guide instrumented aircraft flights to sample atmospheric constituents in the Ozone Hole. These samples should allow 

researchers to determine the mechanism leading to the 

dramatic decrease in ozone over Antarctica in late 

winter. 

(IFFA) continued producing satellite estimates of 

precipitation in near-real time. This operation began 

in 1983 in support of the National Flash Flood Program. IFFA consists of an interactive computer processing system which allows the meteorologist to 

display, enhance, and animate digital satellite imagery. 

The meteorologist then generates graphical (conIFFA. In 1987, the Interactive Flash Flood Analyzer 
toured) estimates of precipitation for specific areas 

(counties). These estimates are communicated to the 

affected NWS Forecast Office using AFOS. 

Winds. The cloud motion winds operation continued during 1987, generating wind vectors at several 

levels for inclusion into the NWS National Forecast 

Models. These data are also transmitted to worldwide 

users on the WMO GTS system. Development of 

automatic wind tracking routines continued at the 

University of Wisconsin with encouraging results. An 

operational demonstration on the VDUC was successful in late 1987, and the integration of winds capability 

on the VDUC was accomplished. 

NOM Ocean Products Center. Near-real-time 

altimetric data were received at the NOAA Ocean 

Products Center from the Navy’s GEOSAT. Algorithms 

were developed to generate wave height averages for 

the one-second altimetric data. Methods were developed and tested to assimilate these observations into 

numerical ocean wave models. 

search Laboratory of NOAA’s National Environmental 

Satellite, Data, and Information Service continued to 

compile a data set of calibrated visible and infrared 

radiances from U.S. geostationary and polar-orbiting 

meteorological satellites. These data are part of a 

global set collected by an international array of satellites from which the cloud amount, height, optical 

thickness and cloud-top temperature are inferred on a 

scale 250 km by 250 km globally. Copies of the first 

cloud product tape for July, 1983, were distributed 

worldwide to over 50 scientists for their comments and 

early study. These data will be extremely useful in 

analyzing the effects of “cloud forcing” on the Earth’s 

radiation budget, in understanding the role of clouds 

in the hydrodynamical cycle, and in parameterizing 

clouds in climate models. 

Direct Readout Program. The Direct Readout 

Program provides over 4,000 stations in more than 120 

countries with technical guidance and informational 

support to enable them to copy and use data from 

Satellite Cloud Climatology. The Satellite ReTIROS and GOES environmental satellites. To date the 

support provided by this program pertaining to station 

planning, data reception and analysis has facilitated an 

international investment in receiving stations that 

exceeds $500 million. This technology transfer effort 

has greatly contributed to the public health and 

welfare both nationally and internationally, by making 

local access to Automatic Picture Transmission, Direct 

Sounder Broadcast, High Resolution Picture Transmission, Visible and Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer, and 

Weather Facsimile services possible. A new brochure 

has recently been reproduced by NOMNESDIS 

describing these services and applications by Government, commercial, academic and amateur users. 

NOAA/NESDIS’ Special Programs Office manages 

the Direct Readout Program. This Office is the focal 

point for providing technical guidance to, and informational exchange among, the direct readout user 

community. It also collects information for feedback 

to NOAA satellite operators and spacecraft design 

engineers. 

Training. During 1987, NOAA’s satellite training 

commitment continued to grow. A major effort was 

expended to ensure coordinated interagency satellite 

training with laboratory exercises, audio and video 

cassettes, script-slide programs, and interactive video 

disk systems. The Satellite Applications Laboratory of 

NESDIS conducted two training courses for U.S. Navy 

officers. In addition training was provided to National 

Weather Service and Air Force forecasters, Navy 

reservists, television weathercasters and others. In 

1987, almost 850 persons received satellite applications 

training from 36 NOAA workshops. 

The joint NWS and NESDIS training program on 

satellite imagery interpretation continued. Following 

the creation of a handbook on imagery interpretation 

and collection of a series of videotapes depicting 

various aspects of imagery analysis, NWS and NESDIS 

prepared a correspondence course tied to these 

training materials. The course will be distributed 

throughout NWS (and probably the Air Force and 

91 
Navy) during 1988. 

was completed during 1987. Additional programs and 

laboratory exercises on tropical cyclones, downbursts, 

local wind regimes, ocean cyclogenesis, and satellite 

applications for assessing numerical model initial 

analysis were began. Working with the National 

Weather Association, NESDIS ensured widespread 

availability of Forecasting Handbook #6 entitled 

“Satellite Imagery Interpretation for Forecasters” to 

universities, television weathercasters, and other 

satellite data users. 

A script-slide program on polar orbiter interpretation 

albedo. NSF has funded the continuation of the project 

for FY 1988. Six additional years will be analyzed. The 

combined 10 years of melt data will be available as a 

data set. 

Cryospheric Data Management System (CDMS). 

The National Snow and Ice Data Center completed the 

development stage of the CDMS in preparation for 

receipt of the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) 

passive microwave data from the DMSP satellite. The 

CDMS is a computer-based data management and online data delivery system for primarily scientific users. 

Passive microwave data are specially useful for detection 

and mapping of sea ice type and concentration on a 

year-round basis. No other satellite sensor system is 

able to accomplish this task on a routine operational 

basis. It is expected that the brightness temperature data 

and gridded polar products will be available to the user 

community by February 1988. 

POES Users. The North American NOM Polar 

Orbiter Users Group (NANPOUG) was founded by 

NGDC in 1986 to help users assist each other in sophisticated applications and the development of new uses for 

POES. Now exceeding 130 members, the group held a 

well-received first meeting in Boulder in JUIY 1987. This 

meeting included a tutorial on POES design, operations, 

and applications. One surprise was that over half the 

participants emphasized land applications of a system 

nominally thought of as a meteorological satellite. I-’OES 

users are invited to join the Users Group by writing the 

Secretariat at NOAA’s National Geophysical Data Center, 

in Boulder, Colorado. 

POES Stereo Data for Land Applications. One 

new use for POES is the application of AVHRR stereo 

imagery for regional analysis of the Earth’s physiographic setting for environmental applications. These 

applications are being investigated by NOAMNESDIS’ 

National Geophysical Data Center. The stereo imagery 

recently caused a stir at a United Nations meeting on 

sand dune movements, as it helped illustrate the environment of dune movement. The stereo imagery also 

National Geophysical Data Center 

cal Data Center (NGDC) archives, publishes, and 

analyzes various geophysical data bases that include 

space, environment and cryospheric data recorded by 

NOAA satellites and some NASA, DOD and other 

country satellites. Satellite data archives expanded 

during 1987 include those from the GOES Space 

Environment Monitor, GEOSAT, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) electron and ion 

detector, the DMSP nighttime auroral imager, and 

DMSP visible and infrared images up to four times 

daily at resolutions of 2.7 km and 5.4 km global (0.6 

km for the USA, Central America, the Western Arctic, 

Europe, and Far East) since 1973. 

Arctic Snow Melt Mapping Project. The National 

Snow and Ice Data Center, in conjunction with Columbka University’s Lamont-Doherty Geophysical Observatory, has mapped brightness changes associated with 

the progression of summer snow melt on the Arctic 

pack from 0.6 kin and 2.7 km DMSP visible-band 

images for the years 1977, 1979, 1984 and 1985. 

Manual analysis of brightness and texture patterns are 

used to construct 3-day melt charts consecutively from 

May through August of each year. The charts are 

digitized and values converted to approximate albedoes, resulting in the first basin-wide data base of 

temporal and spatial changes in the ice surface and its 

Geophysical Data Bases. The National Geophysi92 
permits the production of digital elevation data for 

very large (eventually global) areas to assist environmental modeling. 

NOAA’s National Geophysical Data Center provided 

remote sensing technical assistance to the Minerals, 

Petroleum and Groundwater Assessment Program of 

the Egyptian Government, and effort sponsored by the 

U.S. Agency for International Development. NGDC is 

helping set the specifications for implementing a data 

processing system designed for image processing and 

geographic information systems. This system will help 

Egypt to assess its environment, as well as to provide 

information to guide investment in Egypt’s natural 

resources. 

Assistance to the Food and Agricultural 

Organization of the United Nations. NOAA’s 

National Geophysical Data Center provided technical 

assistance to the UN-FA0 during 1987. FA0 is 

organizing a program to document a methodology for 

cartography, stabilization, and afforestation of sand 

dunes. NGDC is providing assistance in remote 

sensing and cartography, as well as in getting the 

desired work done within a very limited budget. 

Oceanographic Data Center and National Geophysical 

Data Center have become the repositories for the 

public domain version of data from the Navy’s 

GEOSAT satellite altimeter. These Centers are helping 

the public utilize these important data for oceanographic, solid Earth and cryosphere applications. 

Solar Geophysical Data. Often geophysical data 

are collected by satellites at great expense to serve an 

immediate, primary operational need for monitoring 

and alerts. However, these data provide an important 

long-term resource when processed into archival 

formats and retained for later scientific analysis. Data 

describing soh activity that affects Earth are published 

in “Solar-Geophysical Data” (SGD) reports. In July 

1987, NGDC/ World Data Center A for Solar-Terrestrial 

Physics published in the 400-page report UAG-96 

Assistance to the Egyptian Government. 

Satellite Altimetry. NOAA’s National 

“Solar-Geophysical Activity Reports for STIP Interval 

XV (12-21 February 1984 Ground Level Event) and 

STIP Interval XVI (20 April - 4 May 1984) Forbush 

Decrease.” It combined ground-based and satellite 

data reports from 68 worldwide sources to describe 

two intense periods of energetic solar particle deposition in near-Earth space that interfered with satellite 

operations, hf-radio telecommunications, and other 

technological systems. 

GOES Data. Each month NGDC receives magnetic 

tapes containing GOES space environment monitoring 

data, including solar X-rays, energetic particles, and 

magnetic field variations from geostationary altitude. 

Plots of each data set on 35 mm microfilm provide a 

convenient and inexpensive medium for scientists to 

use in reviewing these large data sets. Energetic 

particle measurements from lower-altitude polar orbits 

are received from NOAA/TIROS and DMSP satellites. 

The Air Force Air Weather Service sends film images in 

visible and infrared wavelengths that show polar 

region aurora, the extent of snow and ice coverage 

and other features of interest for retrospective studies. 

Satellite Anomalies. The detailed data base of 

satellite anomalies maintained at NGDC doubled in 

number of listed events during 1987 and the Spacecraft 

Anomaly Manager (SAM) software used to access the 

data was developed into an internationally accepted 

format used to exchange this type of information 

between the NGDC, Japan, Australia, Canada, England, 

India, and the European Space Agency and NASA. 

NOMS Space Environment Services Center implemented a Space Weather warning service and collects 

quick-time reports of satellite anomalies in the SAM 

format and forwards these monthly to NGDC. The 

Space Environment Support Services of the Air Force 

in Omaha, Nebraska uses a modified SAM system to 

maintain a classified data base of anomalies of DOD 

satellites. 

In 1987, NGDC staff provided invited briefings of 

Solar-Terrestrial activity as a cause of satellite anomdlies at the Reno meeting of the AIAA, a Workshop on 

93 
Spacecraft Charging in Paris, a NATO Advanced 

Studies Institute, and in seminars at NOAA and NASA 

Headquarters. Results from the anomaly data base and 

SAM include changed operating procedures for currently orbiting satellites, tighter specifications for 

environmental hardening for future spacecraft, and the 

realization that improved environmental observations 

are needed to fill gaps in the current data collection 

during all levels of solar activity. 

The Satellite Data Services Division (SDSD) of the 

National Climatic Data Center manages data collected 

by environmental satellites and the products that 

NOAA prepares from the data. The environmental 

satellite data base includes complete digital data from 

the present generation of NOAA’s operational polarorbiting and geostationary satellites, selected sensors 

aboard NASA’s Seasat and Nimbus 7 satellites, and 

DMSP satellites, as well as limited amounts of digital 

data from earlier NOAA and NASA satellites. The 

volume of digital data consists of 110,000 digital tapes 

and an additional 19,000 videocassettes of geostationary satellite data. The data base includes 10 

million film images from 369 satellites, dating back to 

the first TIROS satellite launched in 1960. Each month 

in 1987, 1,000 computer tapes, 150 videocassettes, and 

7,000 images were added. 

Polar Orbiter Ekctronic Catalog Service. In 

1987, SDSD implemented an Electronic Catalog 

Services system, which gives users on-line access to its 

digital holdings of Polar Orbiter data from 1987 to the 

present. At present, the system is being used by eight 

test users, including two foreign users. Next year the 

system will be opened to all interested users. 

The SDSD participated in the International Satellite 

Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), continuing its role 

as the Sector Processing Center for Global AVHRR 

data, and as the ISCCP Central Archive. In 1987, over 

5,000 data sets were processed for the project, and 200 

data tapes from various project processing centers 

were logged into the Central Archive. 

Weekly Global Vegetation Index. The weekly 

Global Vegetation Index, which depicts the extent and 

“greenness” of vegetation on a global scale, was 

produced again in 1987. The product, which is 

computed from Global AVHRR data, is mapped to 

Plate Carree, polar stereographic, and mercator projections. The time series of this product is continuous 

from April 1982 to the present. The product will be 

produced and archived in 1988. 

NOAA-9 AVHRR aerosol algorithm detected smoke 

from slash burning in Central America, smoke from 

forest fires in China, Saharan dust in the tropical 

Atlantic Ocean, monsoon-borne dust over the Arabian 

Sea, smoke from the September 1987 California and 

Oregon forest fires, and air pollution off the East Coast 

of the United States. These weekly composite analyses 

of aerosol optical thickness are derived from reflected 

solar radiation measured by the AVHRR. Surface 

meteorological observations of sky conditions and 

winds support the satellite determination of dust, 

smoke, or haze in these regions. 

1980-85 set of GOES data for selected sites in the State 

of Kansas provides an interesting study of the relation 

of surface heating to climatological precipitation. 

Average surface heating is high during the winter 

season, but declines to a lower value during the 

summer. The decline is probably caused by increased 

evapotranspiration associated with active vegetation 

and the warm season precipitation maximum that 

occurs in Kansas. There is also a climatic factor in the 

surface heating. The amount of 30-day average 

heating is largest for the most arid site and decreases 

according to increasing annual precipitation. 

Monitoring Global Climate. The capabilities of 

the NOAA polar orbiters to monitor long-term global 

climate change is demonstrated by the El Nino phenomenon. Color coded sea surface temperature maps 

for the El Nino years of 1982 and 1986 clearly show 

Experimental Aerosol Chart. Continued use of a 

Surface Heating and Precipitatioon. A 6-year 

94 
the disappearance of the cold tongues of water along 

the equator that are present during non-El Nino years 

(e.g., 1983). 

The satellite-derived time series, 1982 to 1985, for a 

particular spot in this region sharply delineates the 

difference in the annual temperature cycle during El 

Nino and non-El Nino years. During the El Nino years 

of 1982 and 1986, the annual warming trend starts at 

midyear. During non-El Nino years, the annual 

warming begins at the end of the year. 

Upper atmosphere ozone amounts form Dobson/ 

Umkehr measurements show decreases in ozone over 

the past decade. Satellite measurements(N1MBUS 7, 

SBW) also show decreases at 42 km since 1777. 

Comparison of instruments, TOVS and NIMBUS 7, 

SBW, with Dobson over a 7-year period show good 

agreement until mid-1984. Ozone amount trends from 

the satellite data sets also show differences from the 

Dobson data. 

A major expedition was mounted in 1987 to better 

observe the Antarctic ozone “hole” phenomenon. 

NOAA/NESDIS is supplying satellite data from TOVS 

and SBW observations on a near-real-time basis for 

additional observations scheduling. The October 

ozone “hole” can be depicted by observation for a 

single day from the NOM-9 SBW/2 instrument. A 

color image can be generated which shows the 

different amounts of total ozone over the region. 

Search and Rescue 

In 1987, the international satellite search and rescue 

service provided by Canada, France, the United States, 

and the Soviet Union was responsible for the rescue of 

265 people, for a total, since the service began in 1982, 

of over 1,000 people. During 1987, a final draft of an 

intergovernmental agreement to extend this valuable 

service beyond the 1990’s was completed. 

Although the current service has proven to be 

extremely successful, some emergency alerts are being 

missed due to an insufficient number of ground 

stations to receive and process distress messages. For 

example, service in and around Hawaii, Puerto Rico, 

and the U.S. Virgin Islands is marginal since these 

areas are at the extreme limits of the currently installed 

ground stations. In addition, there is no service at all 

in and around Guam. 

When using the present service, survivors may have 

to wait several hours before a satellite passes their 

position. To augment this global polar orbiting 

satellite search and rescue service, an experiment using 

a NOM geostationary satellite is in progress. Preliminary test results during 1987 indicated that the use of 

properly instrumented geostationary spacecraft can 

provide instantaneous alerting of people in distress in 

most areas within the satellite’s field of view. 

Since a geostationary spacecraft’s field of view 

would not cover the polar regions or provide full Earth 

coverage, it would not replace the current polarorbiting service. It would only improve it. Preparations for an operational test and evaluation of this 

combined service began in 1787. 

International Activities 

CGMS. In September, the United States hosted the 

sixteenth meeting of the Coordination on Geostationary Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) group. Participants included the European Space Agency, the 

European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, Japan, and the World Meteorological Organization. CGMS discussions this year included 

coordination of plans for launch of future satellites, use 

of international data collection frequencies, and 

contingency planning where one satellite replaces 

another. It was learned that the USSR has dekdyed 

launch of its geostationary meteorological satellite until 

1970. 

ERS-I. Negotiation of the MOU with the European 

Space Agency for exchanging ERS-1 ocean satellite 

data has resumed. The ERS-1 ocean satellite is 

planned for launch in early 1990. 

IPOMS. The International Polar-Orbiting Meteorological Satellite (IPOMS) group made progress during 

95 
its November 1986 meeting in Tokyo. Originally 

organized under the Economic Summit, IPOMS has 

brought Summit Members and other nations together 

to contribute to the next generation of polar-orbiting 

meteorological satellites. Currently, the United States 

operates both polar-orbiters. In the next decade, 

through the efforts of this group, one will be provided 

by international contribution. 

ARGOS. In 1986, the Centre National d’Etudes 

Spatiales (CNES) created a subsidiary organization 

responsible for all promotional and operational 

activities of the Argos environmental data collection 

and processing system. In April 1987, Service Argos, 

Inc., an Argos data processing center in the United 

States, became operational in the Washington, D.C. 

area. 

International Training. The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

(NESDIS) conducts in-house training and participates 

in training seminars and workshops to improve the 

quality and exchange of satellite data and to contribute 

to cooperative research activities. The in-house 

training is done in the context of formal agreements 

such as the United States and People’s Republic of 

China protocols on Atmospheric Science and Technology and Marine and Fishery Science Technology. 

Training topics during 1987 included applications of 

meteorological satellite data, research in marine 

geology and geophysics, oceanographic data management procedures, crop yield assessment, and Climate 

Computing Systems (CLICOM) and operation. Also 

during 1987, NESDIS developed plans for conducting 

international training courses/workshops by coordinating with relevant international organizations, such as 

the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). 

RADARSAT. In June 1987, the Canadian Governmefit approved the RADARSAT project, a 5-year, nonreserviceable mission, with a June 1994 launch date. 

The major instrument will be a Synthetic Aperture 

Radar (SARI related to ice operations and ice and land 

research. The United Kingdom will provide the 

96 

platform and an Advanced Along Track Scanning 

Radiometer. NASA will provide the launch. NOAA’s 

major responsibility is “to facilitate the national distribution of RADARSAT data.” In particular, NOAA is 

being asked to assist Candada in identifying an American private sector entity to market RADARSAT SAK 

data in the United States as part of an international 

consortium composed of Canadian, U.S. and U.K. 

partners. SAR and other data will he available to the 

U.S. Government for experimental and pre-operational 

purposes. Multilateral negotiations between the 

Canadian Space Agency, NASA, NOAA, and the British 

National Space Centre are expected to conclude with a 

signed Memorandum of Understanding by the end of 

1987. 

CEOS. In November 1986, the Committee on Earth 

Observation Satellites (CEOS) met in Frascati, Italy. 

CEOS members are Brazil, Canada, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, India, Italy, Japan, the European Space Agency, the United Kingdom, and the 

United States (NOAA/NASA). At this meeting the 

members endorsed the continuation of the two working groups in Data Management and Sensor Calibration 

and Validation. The Terms of Reference were expanded to include the Space Station era. The next 

meeting, hosted by Canada, is scheduled for Fall 1988. 

The CEOS Working Group on Data, chaired by 

NESDIS, met in March 1987 in Washington, D.C. This 

group continued the work of the two previous meetings, moving toward compatibility and complementarity in space-borne Earth observation data. Agreements 

and planning were conducted for coordinated action in 

user access, archives, storage media, and synthetic 

aperture radar formats. The next meeting to be hosted 

by the British is tentatively scheduled for February 

1988. 

on Earth Observations Using Space Station Elements 

(IFEOS) held its second meeting. Members included 

representatives from Australia, Brazil, Canada, the 

Federal Republic of Germany, France, India, Italy, 

IFEOS. In November 1987, the International Forum 
Japan, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United 

States and European Communities. The group has 

been instrumental in aggregating the interests of the 

international remote sensing community for both 

experimental and operational use of the Space Station. 

At its second meeting, the group reviewed national 

plans for use of the Space Station for Earth observations and was briefed on the status of development of 

the Space Station. 

China. NESDIS conferred with the Satellite Meteorology Center of the People’s Republic of China to 

discuss the details of a 3-year joint study to determine 

the impact of satellite soundings and cloud motion 

wind vectors on the numerical analyses and forecasts 

produced by the People’s Republic of China. NESDIS 

is supplying data tapes to China for use in their 

experiments. 

scientists were trained by NOAA in applications of 

remote sensing data obtained by environmental 

satellites that included estimating precipitation from 

satellite imagery, assessing climate, forecasting weather 

and crops, and managing satellite data. NESDIS 

continued to discuss with WMO needed training 

courses for foreign meteorologists and oceanographers. 

Aviation weather, tropical meteorology and oceanography applications were among the courses being 

considered. 

Cooperation with the People’s Republic of 

International Training. In 1987, visiting foreign 

Research 

Turbulence. A study of infrared and 6.7 micron 

water vapor imagery from the GOES satellite has 

revealed a signature which is related to the occurrence 

of severe high-altitude mountain wave turbulence. In 

cases where cirrus clouds show a pronounced, narrow, 

stationary clearing or dark zone parallel to the downwind edge of large mountain ranges, the likelihood of 

turbulence is high. This signature may provide 

advance notice of this dangerous type of turbulence 

for commercial and military jets. 

Precipitation. The operational convective satellite 

rainfall estimation technique has been modified to 

include three new factors: a rain burst Factor, a lowlevel inflow factor, and a speed of storm factor. The 

ingredients of 3-1 2 hour heavy convective precipitation 

forecast index has been developed. The ingredients 

include an instability burst factor (the local change of 

stability with respect to time), moisture, storm 

propagation or regeneration and upward vertical 

motion. An evaluation of the index and the three new 

factors is planned for the spring and summer of 1988. 

A methodology for using the VAS Data Utilization 

Center in the analysis and forecast of heavy precipitation has been developed. An objective automatic 

precipitation estimation technique is being developed 

as a first-guess estimate for every thunderstorm occurring anywhere in the United States. The automated estimates will help meteorologists “zero in” on potential 

flash flood-producing thunderstorms. During the past 

year, encouraging progress has been made with the 

applications of passive microwave rainfall monitoring 

techniques to events both within and outside the 

United States. The findings are of direct relevance to a 

number of NOAA programs. 

Planning continues for experiments that NTIA will 

conduct utilizing the Advanced Communications 

Technology Satellite (ACTS) under development by 

NASA. NTIA experiments will center on communication systems performance with measurements being 

undertaken to evaluate network and switching performance. These will be accomplished utilizing NTIAdeveloped, user-oriented performance parameters and 

measures recommended in American National Standards (ANSI X3.102 and X3.141. NTIA also will be 

evaluating beam pointing and timing accuracy issues 

directly related to the equipment capabilities. Results 

of these and related experiments are expected to 

provide valuable insights as to the performance of 

advanced satellite communication systems to meet US. 

objectives. 

97 
World Administrative Radio Conference. World 

Administrative Radio Conferences (WARCs) are conducted under the aegis of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) of the 

Department of Commerce actively participating in 

thein. In its role as organizing agency and focal point 

for executive branch preparations for future ITU 

WARCs, the NTIA-led preparation for the 1987 Mobile 

WARC and the 1988 ORB (2) WARC, both of which are 

of major importance to U.S. space interests. 

At the Mobile WARC, with strong NTIA participation 

as part of the US. delegation, an important frequency 

allocation was won for the Radiodetermination Satellite 

Service (RDSS). The RDSS will use satellites to provide 

users with specific information on their location for 

management, inventory and safety. Additionally, some 

radio spectrum was allocated to the Land Mobile 

Satellite Service (Land MSS) with provision for aeronautical and maritime mobile satellite operations. This 

essentially generic MSS is new to the ITU Radio 

Regulations and allows more economical satellite 

systems to be implemented. The WARC on the Use of 

the Geostationary Satellite Orbit and the Planning of 

Space Services Utilizing It, known as the ORB (2) 

WARC, is expected to develop planning methods, and 

improve and simplify regulatory procedures for gaining 

access to the geostationary orbit for all countries. As a 

key participant in the development of US. positions, 

proposals and strategy, NTIA is working to ensure the 

protection of present and future U.S. satellite systems. 

Tropical Cyclone Research. A comprehensive 

project to improve our understanding of hurricanes 

and typhoons using extensive satellite and aircraft data 

sets is underway at the Regional and Mesoscale 

Meteorology Branch of NOAMNESDIS at Colorado 

State University. Three-hourly digital satellite data 

from the Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS), 

located at 140” east longitude, are being processed 

with respect to nearly 100 tropical cyclones in the West 

Pacific. One of the drawbacks of past tropical studies 

based on satellite observations has been the lack of 

“ground truth” data to verify the satellite diagnosis. Air 

Force research is being used for this purpose. The 

aircraft data provide wind and pressure observations 

which measure the tropical cyclone’s intensity and 

wind pattern. The intensity and extent of the deep 

convective clouds, which provide the energy to drive 

the tropical storm circulation, are calculated using the 

infrared data from GMS. Results suggest important 

new findings concerning tropical storm development 

and diurnal variation of rainfall. Improvement in 

satellite estimates of intensity and size of the tropical 

cyclone circulation are anticipated after additional 

analyses. 

Fisheries Satellite Oceanic Remote Sensing. 

Satellite oceanic remote sensing is beginning to play an 

important role in fishery research and management by 

providing synoptic oceanic measurements for evaluating environmental effects on abundance and availability of fish populations. Variations in ocean conditions 

play key roles in causing fluctuations in stocks of 

fishes and in their vulnerability to harvesting. Information on the changing ocean, rather than on average 

ocean conditions, is necessary to understand and 

eventually predict the effects of the ocean environment 

on fish stocks. This knowledge is required to provide 

the best possible advice for making fishery management decisions and for developing efficient harvesting 

strategies for fishery resources. 

The recent developments in satellite remote sensing 

techniques for fisheries applications have concentrated 

on measurements of sea surface temperature, ocean 

color, and ocean transport derived from satellitemeasured wind stress. Synoptic coverage of ocean 

temperature, color, and information is applicable to 

fisheries problems. However, knowledge of key 

oceanographic conditions and processes affecting the 

recruitment, distribution, abundance, and harvest of 

fishery resources may often be gained using these 

data. 

98 
Recent satellite research at the Southeast Fisheries 

Center of the National Marine Fisheries has focused on 

using satellite data to aid in locating adult and juvenile 

forms of commercially important fish species in the 

Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Some of these species 

include bluefin tuna, yellowfin tuna, butterfish, king 

mackerel, menhaden, and shrimp. A pilot study was 

conducted in the Gulf of Mexico using thermal data 

acquired from NOAA satellites to assist fishermen in 

locating commercial concentrations of butterfish. The 

data were processed at the satellite data processing 

facility that was recently established at the Mississippi 

Laboratories of the Southeast Fisheries Center. 

Fisheries scientists from the Southwest Fisheries 

Center and the University of Oregon are currently 

evaluating the feasibility of using satellite measurements of ocean temperature and color to determine the 

best time to release salmon smolts from Columbia 

River salmon hatcheries. The objective is to time the 

release of smolts during ocean environmental conditions which would be favorable for their survival and, 

thereby, improve their chances for subsequent recruitment into the salmon fisheries. Southwest Fisheries 

Center scientists are also completing a case study using 

SEASAT Scatterometer wind stress measurements to 

define locations of oceanic convergence and divergence which are believed to be important in determining the availability of albacore tuna to the U.S. fishery 

off the coast of North America. 

Remote Sensing System (NEARSS), an association of 

government, academic and private non-profit institutions, has guided the development of a communication 

network between users of remote sensing data and 

datahformation sources. The NEARSS continues to 

provide a forum for the exchange of information and a 

support base for meeting regional satellite data and 

information needs. 

Detection of Gravitational Waves. Scientists at NBS 

are continuing to explore and assess the practicality of 

using lasers to detect gravitational waves in space with 

At the Northeast Fisheries Center the Northeast Area 

periods of about 0.1 seconds or longer. The detection 

of such waves (pulses) would provide an entirely new 

way of studying events in the Universe involving very 

large masses. These events include collisions of massive black holes, which are thought to exist at the 

centers of many galaxies and probably provide the 

energy source for quasars. 

Earth’s Atmospheric Chemistry. Through a 

cooperative agreement with NASA, NBS scientists are 

engaged in experimental studies of the chemical 

dynamics of gas phase processes (reaction rates and 

mechanisms) selected for their importance in atmospheric chemistry. Results of these NBS studies are 

useful in modeling of various atmospheric phenomena 

including the effects of natural and atmospheric emissions on the stratospheric ozone layer, the atmospheric 

radiation budget (greenhouse effect), and tropospheric 

acid precipitation. Although homogeneous atmospheric 

chemistry involves the interactions of dozens of free 

radical and stable species, its study has been facilitated 

by its subdivision into reaction cycles whose elementary 

steps can be elucidated through laboratory study. 

The principal focus of NBS activity during 1987 was 

chemical kinetics of the hydroperoxy free radical, H02. 

The experiments focused on the reaction of H02 

radicals and their combination with CH302. This 

reaction is important in the atmospheric oxidation of 

methane and other hydrocarbons as well as in low 

temperature combustion systems. In other NBS studies, 

flash photolysis-kinetic spectroscopy is being used to 

study the kinetics and chemistry of the vinylidene 

unsaturated biradical (H2CC). The photolysis of hydrocarbons control the atmospheres of the outer planets. 

Understanding the chemistry of the vinylidene radical 

will help in modeling outer planet atmospheres. 

Far Infrared Absorption Spectra. In a program 

sponsored by NASA in collaboration with several 

universities, NBS is investigating experimentally and 

theoretically, far infrared absorption spectra that are 

produced by collisions of the nonpolar molecules found 

99 
in the atmospheres of the outer planets. Such results 

are needed to interpret the thermal emission from 

these atmospheres and to determine, for example, 

temperature profiles and the concentrations of such 

gases as H2, He, CH4, and N2. 

The principal focus during 1987 was the study of 

the gaseous mixtures H2 and He and H2 and CH4. 

Accurate laboratory spectra of H2-CH4 and those for 

H2-He and H2-H2 were obtained earlier. These 

spectra were analyzed to determine the various 

mechanisms responsibile for the absorption, in order 

to represent the spectra by simple analytical models. 

In this way, laboratory measurements taken at only 

several temperatures and concentrations could be 

readily extrapolated to the various temperatures and 

concentrations required in applications to studies of 

planetary atmospheres. 

Systems. Geophysical responses to solar activity are 

dominated by enhanced electromagnetic and particle 

fluxes associated with solar flares. The highly energetic radiation can cause irregular, impulsive ionospheric disturbances that affect the intensity, frequency 

and phase of radio signals. Thus, an ability to understand and predict flare events is crucial for maintaining 

and improving our communication systems. 

In collaboration with NASA and National Solar 

Observatory scientists, NBS scientists are focusing their 

efforts on the structure and evolution of flares in the 

solar transition region (104 < Te < 105), because this 

region is much less well understood than in either the 

lower chromosphere or the corona. It is in this region 

that the intense EUV resonance lines of neutral and 

ionized helium have a crucial role not only in determining the physical conditions during many phases of 

the flare, but also as a diagnostic tool for studying 

these conditions. 

Measuring Surface Magnetic Fields on Cool 

Stars. NBS scientists are pursuing a major program to 

measure surface magnetic fields on stars cooler than 

the Sun. They have already succeeded in making 

100 

Solar Activity Affecting Communication 

magnetic field measurements on stars much cooler 

than was heretofore possible. They have also developed an analysis technique to take into account for the 

first time the saturation of optically thick absorption 

lines. These measurements confirm the hypothesis 

that magnetic fields are at the heart of solar-like 

phenomena by showing that stars with the most 

energetic phenomena, for example, flares and 

enormous starspots, also have the strongest measured 

field strengths and spatial coverage. Three additional 

conclusions may be drawn from these measurements 

and the field parameters in somewhat warmer Stars. 

First, the field strength is determined by hydrodynamic 

processes in the photosphere and not by dynamo field 

creation processes in the stellar interior. Second, stars 

with energetic or widespread magnetic-related phenomena have fields that cover nearly the whole star, 

indicating a high rate of field production in the stellar 

interior. Third, the fraction of the stellar surface 

covered by magnetic fields depends on the stellar 

rotation, as would be expected if fields were amplified 

by the dynamo process. These findings should aid in 

understanding stellar activity, such as flares, spots, and 

hot coronae on some stars. 

An NBS scientist is a major participant on several 

key science working groups doing the detailed planning for astronomical missions as well as planning for 

future space observatories to obtain ultraviolet and Xray astrophysical data. For example, the NBS scientist 

is a co-investigator on the Space Telescope Imaging 

Spectrograph (STIS), now being designed to replace 

the HRS 5 years after launch. This instrument will 

have high-spatial imaging capability as well as highspectral resolution over the extended spectral range 

110-1100 nm. 

Artificial Satellite Orbit Analysis. The nonuniformity of the Earth's gravitational field imparts 

stability properties to certain sets of satellite orbits that 

can be exploited by mission planners. Orbits inclined 

at 63.435" called the critical inclination, comprise one 

such set. Solutions to the equations of motion for 
satellites at this inclination possess a first order stationary point; that is, based on a first order analysis, the 

orbital ellipse of satellites placed at this inclination will 

maintain their initial orientation and shape in space. 

Satellite missions involving navigation, data collection, 

and Earth resource analysis place stringent requirements on a satellite’s orbit and lead to a need for 

stationkeeping maneuvers to correct for drift of the 

satellite’s orbit not predicted by the first order analysis. 

Stationkeeping maneuvers need to be minimized to 

extend the lifetime of a satellite with limited fuel 

capacity. Many proposed satellite missions place such 

strict specifications on the orbits that designers cannot 

depend on first order orbital analysis to adequately 

describe the long-term stability of the orbit. Until now, 

the body of knowledge about the stability of the 

second order equations for this problem has been 

quite incomplete. Previous research efforts have 

attempted to characterize the phase space of the 

critically inclined satellite problem as that of a simple 

pendulum. Work of Deprit at NBS shows that this 

problem is much more complex. The phase space for 

the satellite problem depends on several components 

of the angular momentum in such a way that at certain 

parametric values, bifurcations in the phase space 

occur. For some values there are four stationary points 

in the phase space, but for others there are no stationary points and the semi-major axis of the orbital ellipse 

will circulate continuously. An important aspect of this 

research is the discovery of a set of coordinates that 

allow the phase space to be mapped onto a sphere. 

Using these coordinates the analysis of the critical 

inclination problem has, for the first time, been 

extended to include a neighborhood of the circular 

orbits. 

This research activity is based upon the use of 

advanced automated mathematical analysis techniques 

on specialized symbolic computers. Current effort is 

directed towards improved analytic and graphical 

techniques for the analysis of complex nonlinear 

dynamics problems. 

Diamonds in the Sky. Diamonds have been discovered in interstellar dust in meteorites. NBS scientists 

have shown that meteoritic samples contain extremely 

fine-grained diamond crystals. Other scientists have 

used mass spectrometry on the same material to show 

that it contained isotopically anomalous krypton, 

xenon, and nitrogen, which suggests that the sample 

origin is probably outside of this solar system. Highresolution imaging and electron diffraction with the 

transmission electron microscope were used to identify 

the diamond grains, which had dimensions less than 

0.005 m, found in the meteorites Allende, Murchison, 

and Indarch. The researchers believe that the diamonds are most likely formed as a metastable phase 

from a hot gas at low pressure, shown recently in 

laboratory experiments. One possible scenario is that 

the diamonds were implanted with the isotopically 

anomalous gases from a supernova. 

tions of the diamonds agree with observations currently being made on the new supernova occurring in 

the Large Magellanic Cloud. This would compare or 

contrast two radically different optical techniques: the 

telescopic analysis of a supernova 170,000 light years 

away and the laboratory electron microscopic analysis 

measured at approximately 1,000,000X magnification. 

Measuring Microwave Emission From Stars. 

Scientists from NBS and Goddard Space Flight Center 

have several projects underway to study microwave 

emission for stars. They have now completed a survey 

of microwave emission from 39 of the closest stars that 

are more luminous and cooler than the Sun. This 

survey at 5 and 15 GHz was made using the National 

Radio Astronomy Observatory’s Very Large Array 

(VLA). The purpose was to measure mass loss rates 

for a class of stars (giants and supergiants of spectral 

types G, K, and early M) for which there was little data 

heretofore. Microwave emission from these stars is 

thermal bremsstrahlung from the ionized component of 

the circumstellar gas leaving the star. The scientists 

have now extended the program to study mass loss 

Work is now in progress to see if the size distribu101 
from the coolest M giant stars, many of which are Si0 

maser emitters. In addition, an extensive survey of 

microwave emission from close binary stars and from 

binary systems containing white dwarf companions 

and strongly enhanced heavy metal abundances has 

been completed. 

Models for the Outer Atmosphere Layers of 

Stars. NBS scientists and a colleague from Oxford 

University have completed work on a set of detailed 

models for the outer atmosphere of solar type stars. 

These models describe the amount of emitting material 

in the chromosphere, transition region and corona. 

The models were constructed to match ultraviolet 

emission line fluxes observed by the International 

Ultraviolet Explorer satellite and X-ray fluxes observed 

by the Einstein X-Ray Observatory. 

continuing project to determine accurate values for the 

atmospheric parameters of hot stars, NBS scientists are 

carrying out a detailed analysis of the line spectra of 16 

hot stars they observed at Kitt Peak National Observatory to high photometric precision (S/N of order 300). 

The analysis is based on non-LTE stellar models that 

account for radiation scattered back into the star by its 

stellar wind, an effect already shown to be important 

for hot luminous stars. This so-called “wind blanketing” causes the value of the effective temperature 

inferred from stellar spectra to be significantly lower 

than would be found if the effect were ignored. Seven 

stars have now been analyzed, and work on the 

remaining nine is now well underway. The results for 

Zeta Puppis appear to settle a longstanding uncertainty 

of about 40 percent. Also, the method of determining 

temperatures of hot stars from measurement energy 

distributions has been shown to be utterly unreliable; 

many temperatures in the literature could be in error 

by 25 percent or more. 

effective temperature and surface gravity, and can be 

extended to yield the chemical composition. A 

program has been set up, in collaboration with a 

102 

Atmospheric Parameters of Hot Stars. In a 

An analysis of this kind gives accurate values of the 

group from the Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of the University of Munich, to determine as 

accurately as possible the stellar parameters of 20 to 30 

stars in our galaxy and in each of the Magellanic 

Clouds. In view of the widely different elemental 

abundances of these three galaxies, these data will 

provide the first observational tests of stellar evolution 

theory that can discriminate among alternative theories 

of mass loss and convective overshooting. The 

scientists have shown that by using the terminal 

velocity of a star’s stellar wind, which can be measured 

from line profiles, in addition to the effective temperature and surface gravity, it is possible to infer the 

absolute luminosity, and hence the distance to the star. 

The method uses purely spectroscopic data and 

contains no calibration or empirical correlations. It can 

be tested definitively in the next few years when 

distances to some “nearby” hot stars will be measured 

accurately by satellite observations using trigonometrical methods. Meanwhile, scientists are testing the 

method by analyzing spectra of stars for which distances are known independently. 

Other Uses of Satellites 

Geodynamical Measurement Methods. The 

accuracy of a number of geophysical and astronomical 

studies based on microwave distance measurements is 

limited mainly by the uncertainty in the correction for 

water vapor in the atmosphere. NBS scientists are 

developing a microwave-optical system to improve the 

accuracy in the correction to the microwave distance 

measurements due to the atmospheric water vapor. 

This system will enable scientists to measure the 

integrated water vapor content between a transmitter 

on the ground and a receiving package in an aircraft. 

Since optical distance measurements are much less 

sensitive to water vapor, the difference between the 

measured optical and microwave distances can be 

used to determine the correction. The basic transmitter 

and receiver for the system have been constructed and 

tested in the laboratory. Construction refinements to 
the system are continuing. NASA and other researchers are expected to use the NBS instrument to test the 

accuracy of water vapor radiometers and radiosonde 

data. 

New Format for First Space-Made Product. 

The NBS Office of Standard Reference Materials made 

available the first product manufactured in space in 

1986. Billions of tiny polystyrene spheres made 

aboard a NASA space Shuttle flight were offered as an 

NBS standard reference material (SRM 1960). This SRM 

is being used to improve microscopic measurements 

made throughout the economy in electronics, medicine, and other high-technology areas. This year, NBS 

has made available SRM 1965, Microsphere Slide, a 

new format for the original SRM 1960, 10-m polystyrene spheres. In this new SRM, a few thousand 

microspheres are deposited on a glass microscope 

slide and permanently sealed in an air chamber 

produced by a cover glass and a support glass with 

aperture. In one grouping, the spheres are in an 

unordered arrangement, resembling strings of beads. 

This grouping is primarily for exercises in micrometeorology that include measuring microsphere diameter 

and shape, as well as other experiments in optical 

measurements. The other grouping of microspheres is 

an ordered two-dimensional hexagonal array, like a 

single layer of marbles packed together. Because all 

the microspheres on the slide are of almost equal size, 

the array can be used by those who work with microscopes as a two-dimensional microlength standard to 

replace calibrated stage micrometers. These are 

precision scales that are placed under the object lens 

of optical microscopes to calibrate the instruments and 

are used as rulers to measure small objects. The 

hexagonal structure also can be used for array sizing, 

for diffraction experiments in crystallography, and for 

calibrating microscope image distortion and magnification. One of the reasons SRM 1965 was prepared with 

these sphere arrangements is to provide an educational 

tool for teachers and students interested in microscopy. 

Approximately 200 units of SRM 1965 have been 

purchased during this year. 

Eflects of Gravitational Fields on Properties of 

Interfaces. NBS is conducting a systematic theoretical 

and experimental investigation of liquid-liquid, liquidsolid, and liquid-vapor interfaces. The studies include 

investigation of the phenomenon of wetting as well as 

the effects of gravitational fields on wetting, wetting 

transitions, and interfacial tension. Of particular 

interest is the effect of various parameters such as 

gravity on the thickness of wetting layers and their 

ability to intrude between layers of other liquid layers. 

Interfacial properties are very important to the understanding and predictability of many technological 

processes ranging from enhanced oil recovery to 

biotechnology. NBS experiments have shown that 

current theories are inadequate in explaining the 

measured results, including the fact that wetting 

persists over large temperature ranges. Measurements 

in microgravity are needed to provide data for systems 

which will allow the development of adequate theories 

for explaining the results of current normal gravity 

results in the NBS experiments. These theories will 

then, in turn, provide for the development of predictive models for a large range of industrial and aerospace applications. 

Low Gravity Alloy Processing. The coarsening of 

solid alloy particles in liquid-solid mixtures was 

investigated by both theory and experiment to evaluate 

the advantages of space flight experiments for accurately measuring this effect. Virtually all two-phase 

mixtures coarsen, such that the average sizes of the 

dispersed phase regions increase while their numbers 

decrease. This coarsening is responsible for the aging 

process that is critical in determining the properties of 

precipitation-hardened alloys. Detailed ground-based 

measurements of coarsening in liquid-solid Pb-Sn 

mixtures have been completed. Similar experiments in 

low gravity which will allow suppression of perturbing 

effects from sedimentation and buoyancy driven fluid 

flow are planned. 

103 
Properties of Electronic Materials. Theoretical 

studies of the fluid flow, solute segregation, and 

interface morphology which occur during directional 

solidification are performed to develop information 

needed in planning and designing space flight experiments on solidification processes in low gravity 

environments. These space flight experiments will be 

designed to determine cellular wavelengths as a 

function of growth conditions. Interface stability 

during solidification is important in controlling properties of electronic materials. The effect of an electric 

current on morphological stability of a planar interface 

has been investigated in a binary alloy. Electromigration of solute and perturbation of the electric field by 

the perturbed crystal-melt interface modify the conditions for morphological stability. 

NBS is developing and utilizing techniques which are 

capable of highly accurate measurements of thermal, 

optical, and electrical properties of technically important materials at high temperatures using very high 

heating rates in the range of 104 - 108 Ws. The 

current techniques perform measurements at millisecond and microsecond intervals as samples are rapidly 

heated through the melting temperature. It is highly 

desirable to obtain experimental data through the 

melting temperature and into the liquid region; however, gravity causes the liquid sample column to 

collapse before results can be obtained. NBS has 

developed a millisecond apparatus for use in microgravity; in fact, some results have been obtained from 

KC-135 aircraft in simulated zero-gravity flights. Plans 

are underway for NBS to develop apparatus which can 

be flown on spacecraft and which can yield accurate 

data for liquid metals at temperatures up to 10,000 K. 

To date, results have been obtained on conducting 

materials such as niobium, graphite, and other refractories. NBS is developing similar techniques to perform 

measurements on nonconductors. 

High-Temperature Tbermophysical Properties. 

Network Protocols. The National Bureau of Standards is working with COMSAT in a joint research 

project to test and evaluate the performance of computer network protocols over satellite networks. 

Results of this collaborative research are helping to 

advance the development of network products that 

implement Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 

standards. Being developed by national and international standards groups, the OS1 standards will enable 

different manufacturers’ products to be interconnected 

through networks using a variety of communications 

methods. However, because of the complexity of the 

standards and the different interpretations that implementors may have for the specifications, tests are 

needed to assure correct implementation of standards 

and efficient operation of networks when different 

communications methods are used and different 

applications are processed. 

An NBS/COMSAT research team has been developing test methods for and measuring the performance of 

network systems when data is transmitted by satellite. 

The experiments started with one data communications 

protocol (the transport protocol) in the OS1 family of 

standards. As a result of the investigations, modifications of the protocol standard were developed to 

enable data to be transmitted more efficiently. More 

recent experiments have added more protocols to the 

group being tested. This work, along with experimental work with other organizations, is directed toward 

verifying a simulation model developed by NBS for a 

complete set of protocols for computer-to-computer 

communications. The model is also being evaluated by 

the European Space Agency. 

Microgravity. It is not possible to experimentally 

study dynamic critical phenomena and measure the 

transport properties of fluids close to the critical point 

under conditions of normal gravity. Gravity-induced 

fluctuations mask the fluid behavior and properties so 

Transport Property Measurements in 

104 
that definitive results are not possible. NBS has 

developed a torsionally oscillating viscometer to 

measure the viscosity of fluids at very low frequencies 

and shear rates. Extensive baseline measurements are 

underway and will be used, in conjunction with 

microgravity results, to better predict behavior and 

properties very close to the critical point. Results have 

been obtained on a series of pure fluids, fluid mixtures, microemulsions, and liquid metals. A prototype 

version of the viscometer will be developed by NBS 

which can be used on spacecraft under conditions of 

microgravity. 

105 
Department of Energy 

For many years, the U.S. Department of Energy 

(DOE) and its predecessor agencies, the Atomic Energy 

Commission (AEC) and the Energy Research and 

Development Administration (ERDA), have supported 

the design, development, production, and delivery of 

nuclear power sources for highly specialized space and 

terrestrial applications. Since the beginning of the 

program in 1956, the various nuclear electric power 

systems, originally known as Systems for Nuclear 

Auxiliary Power (SNAP), delivered by DOE to the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

and to the Department of Defense (DOD), have 

provided safe and highly reliable electrical power that 

contributed to the success of some of the most ambitious and spectacular astronautical events undertaken 

by the United States. 

Space Nuclear Power Systems 

Space nuclear power systems are of two basic types, 

reactors and isotopic. The SNAP-1OA reactor was 

tested in space in 1965, and many Radioisotope 

Thermoelectric Generators (RTG’s) have been used 

since 1961. In 1987, responsibility for the development of these space nuclear power systems within the 

Department of Energy was placed in the new Office of 

Space and Defense Power Systems, under the Assistant 

Secretary for Nuclear Energy. Considerable progress 

was made in 1987 in designing and developing the 

next generation of these uniquely enabling power 

units for the challenging space missions of the future. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators 

tric Generator (RTG) program is to provide flightqualified RTG’s and maintain a technology base 

necessary to meet present and future NASA and 

military requirements. The RTG is a static isotopic 

power system with no moving parts that uses a 

radioisotope heat source coupled thermally to a 

converter segment. Thermoelectric elements in this 

converter segment convert heat, generated by decay of 

the radioisotope fuel, to electricity using a basic 

The purpose of the space Radioisotope Thermoelecmaterial property known as the Seebeck effect. Due to 

its high power output and long-term power production 

(87.6-year half-life), plutonium 238 has been the fuel 

used to power all U.S. space RTG’s launched to date. 

The United States has successfully used 34 RTG’s on 

19 space systems, such as navigation and communication satellites launched by DOD and scientific spacecraft launched by NASA, to provide electric power for 

Earth orbital, lunar, and deep space systems. RTG’s 

have proved to be rugged, dependable power supplies, regardless of the operating environment. Unique 

characteristics of these radioisotope power units, such 

as acceptably low-level radiation and no moving parts, 

contribute significantly toward meeting stringent space 

system requirements. All RTG’s, from the SNAP-3A to 

the Multi-Hundred Watt (MHW) unit, exceeded their 

design requirements by providing greater power than 

required or for lasting longer than the planned lifetimes. This was dramatically shown by the Voyager 2 

flyby of Uranus in January 1986; MHW-RTG’s have 

operated for 5 years beyond the originally specified 

lifetime. The same Voyager spacecraft is now heading 

toward Neptune with a flyby scheduled for 1989. All 

indications are that the RTG’s will continue to provide 

adequate power for the Neptune flyby and beyond. 

The state of the art in RTG technology is the 

General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) RTG. Two of 

these units will power NASA’s Galileo mission to 

Jupiter, scheduled for launch in 1989, and one GPHSRTG will be launched in 1990 to power NASA’s Ulysses 

mission to observe the Sun out of the plane of the 

solar system. Each unit has a mass of 55.5 kilograms 

and produces 4,410 thermal watts which is converted 

to at least 285 watts of electricity at the beginning of 

the mission. Silicon-germanium thermocouples are 

used to convert heat to electricity. 

During 1987, DOE continued to support studies of 

RTG design, heat source materials, and thermoelectric 

materials. Some of this work will support designs for 

the future NASA Mariner Mark I1 class of spacecraft. 

Principal activities in 1987 were in support of the 

107 
NASA Galileo and Ulysses missions. The four GPHSRTG’s assembled and tested for those missions by 

DOE, through its contractors and laboratories, were 

returned from Kennedy Space Center to Mound Plant, 

Ohio, following the Challenger accident. These RTG’s 

continue to be monitored and serviced as required to 

ensure their integrity in the interim period until the 

new NASA launch dates. Revision of the Final Safety 

Analysis Reports (FSAR), which contain risk analyses of 

postulated accidents, continued for both the Galileo 

and Ulysses missions. Additional safety tests and 

analyses were conducted to consider changes in the 

NASA mission profiles and launch vehicles. The new 

FSAR’s for the GPHS-RTG’s and Light-Weight Radioisotope Heater Units (LWRHU) are expected to be 

completed in late 1988, approximately one year prior 

to the launch date of Galileo. 

Life testing of the GPHS qualification RTG unit 

continued successfully for a period of over 25,000 

hours; life testing of the engineering unit was discontinued at approximately 23,000 hours to conduct posttest analysis and to use components in further safety 

testing of the GPHS-RTG. The qualification unit was 

built as a test generator to qualify the GPHS-RTG 

design for mission-related environments. The engineering unit was constructed before the qualification 

unit as a nonnuclear test article to check the engineering design. Life testing has provided valuable data in 

support of the long-term performance and reliability 

predictions of the flight RTG’s, and the power output 

matches the engineering predictions very well. The 

qualification life test is expected to continue through 

FY 1990. 

In 1987, additional development of advanced 

technology RTG’s for future space missions continued. 

The modular radioisotope thermoelectric generator 

program (MOD-RTG) focused on the design, development, manufacture, and test of an electrically heated 

engineering test unit. It will demonstrate two new 

advanced components, a lightweight insulation system 

and a new compact thermoelectric conversion device, 

the multicouple. Current efforts are directed toward 

qualification of the multicouple at the component 

level. The MOD-RTG design will provide a significant 

advance in RTG specific power (watts/kilograms) and 

improved efficiency for use in NASA’s Mariner Mark I1 

and DOD missions during the next decade. Details of 

the current and improved RTG’s are provided in 

Table 1. 

Dynamic Isotope Power System 

No single nuclear power source can span the wide 

range of power requirements for the variety of space 

applications now contemplated. The best progression 

of space nuclear power systems from lowest power to 

higher power has been exhaustively studied and is 

currently judged to be isotope-static, isotope-dynamic, 

reactor-static, and reactor-dynamic. Current DOE 

space nuclear power system programs are using and 

developing each of these combinations of heat-source 

and energy-conversion methods. To bridge the gap 

between isotope-static and reactor systems, DOE and 

DOD have been developing the Dynamic Isotope 

Power System (DIPS), targeted for the range of 1-10 

kWr, which can be certified for first flight in the mid1990’s. 

These units, for example at 6 kW,, would contain 

up to 53 kg of plutonium 238 each, and have a mass 

of up to 800 kg and a volume of about 0.8 cubic 

meters. A prime contractor was selected in 1987, and 

a choice of the closed Brayton cycle as the energy 

conversion system was made in early 1988. The final 

design is now under way. The heat source is the well 

characterized and developed GPHS. Materials being 

considered for dynamic systems already meet 10-year 

life requirements. If even greater efficiency is sought 

through higher temperature, more material development and testing will be needed. For the Brayton 

cycle, studies of bearings and possibly of special 

turbine materials will be necessary. Heat rejection will 

be by means of heat pipes to a flat radiator, although a 

108 
Table 1: RTG Performance Data 

Power Output System Energy Density T.E. 

Type RTG kWt BOM( kWe) EOM(kWe) Mass( kg)&Vol(m3) (kg/kWe) Effic(%) 

GPHS-RTG 4500 300 285 56 0.19 187 6.5 

MOD-RTG 3600 300 285 39 0.14 130 8.0 

NOTE: RTG = Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

BOM = Beginning of Mission 

EOM = End of Mission, assumes 7 years. 

T.E. = Thermoelectric power conversion 

kWe = Kilowatts electric 

kW, = Kilowatts thermal 

cylindrical radiator remains an option which would 

provide more hardness to the spacecraft. There 

appear to be no significant technological problems 

which would prevent the development and demonstration of the high reliability (98 percent) components 

essential for the DIPS. 

SP-100 Space Reactor Program 

The SP-100 Program was initiated in 1983 as a 

cooperative effort among the Department of Energy, 

the Department of Defense, and NASA. The purpose 

of the program is to develop and demonstrate technology for space reactor power systems that will enhance 

a wide variety of emerging civilian and military missions whose requirements cannot be met by current 

space power sources. 

The first phase of the program focused on assessing 

and advancing technology for space nuclear reactors in 

the power range of tens of kilowatts to 1,000 kWe 

(lMW,) and was completed in 1985. A liquid-metalcooled, fast-neutron reactor, using a thermoelectric 

power-conversion concept, was selected for further 

engineering development and ground demonstration 

testing during the second phase of the program. Also 

in 1985, the decommissioned Plutonium Recycle Test 

Reactor containment facility on the Hanford Reservation in Washington was selected as the preferred test 

site for the reactor ground tests. In 1986, conceptual 

designs for the required test site modifications were 

undertaken. Also, in 1986, a competitive selection was 

made for a contractor to design a reference flight 

system and to validate this design by building and 

ground testing various subsystems and components 

both separately and in integrated tests. Concurrent 

with these 1985 and 1986 activities, supporting technologies, such as fuel, materials, thermoelectrics and 

heat pipes, were developed and tested at DOE and 

NASA laboratories and centers. 

In 1987, phase I1 of the SP-100 Program proceeded 

vigorously. The project management team was led by 

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and supported by the 

Los Alamos National Laboratory. General Electric was 

109 
the lead contractor for the system contract and the 

thermoelectric cell technology development. Los 

Alamos was assigned the fuels development tasks. 

Westinghouse Hanford Corporation conducted the fuel 

pin testing and evaluation and continued to work on 

the reactor test site. Materials testing and evaluation 

were conducted at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 

and support test facility work will be done at the 

Energy Technology Engineering Center in Los Angeles. 

Substantial progress was made in 1987 by the system 

contractor, on the Hanford ground test site, and in a 

variety of technology development areas. 

The system contractor team led by General Electric 

established a reference design configuration, that 

included innovative mass reduction and safety design 

features. The thermoelectric multicouples form the 

basic building block of the Thermoelectric Converter 

Assemblies. There also has been substantial definition 

of requirements for the Nuclear Assembly Test (NAT) 

facilities and equipment, establishment of clearly 

defined interfaces with the test site, and continuing 

development of data bases in important technical 

performance areas such as fuel, bonded fuel cladding, 

heat pipes, refractory materials, and thermoelectric 

materials, insulators, and compliant pads. 

is the planning and conduct of the nuclear assembly 

performance test. This will involve a ground demonstration test of a prototypical space reactor, shield, and 

primary heat transport loop in a temperature controlled 

vacuum chamber to simulate the space environment to 

the maximum degree practicable. 

General Electric will conduct the system-level 

Integrated Assembly Test of the space power system 

using an electric heat source to simulate an operational 

reactor. A major goal of this test is to demonstrate that 

the solid lithium within the power system heat transport piping can be thawed in a consistent, predictable, 

and reliable manner. This nonnuclear integrated 

assembly test also will demonstrate performance of the 

A very important aspect of the ground testing effort 

thermoelectric power conversion subsystem, thermal 

integration of the entire power system, and mechanical 

and electrical integration of the whole system except 

the nuclear reactor. This test will simulate thermal and 

vacuum aspects of the space environment to the 

maximum degree practical. Environmental and safety 

compliance is of major importance to this testing effort. 

An Environmental Assessment was prepared in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act. 

Technology development continued to be a high 

priority in 1987, in order to meet the challenging 

technical requirements of the SP-100 Program schedule. The focus was on long lead items and that 

technology which is key to the program. Progress was 

made in all areas during the year, resulting in the 

following significant accomplishments: 

Mockup of the initial reactor core for zero power 

criticality tests at the Argonne National Laboratory-West 

Zero Power Plutonium Reactor criticality facility in 

Idaho. This facility approximates the reactor core by 

the loading of fuel and material coupons in a honeycomb structure mounted on a split table. When the 

two halves of the core on the split table are brought 

together, measurements of the core’s ability to sustain 

or avoid a chain reaction in normal operational or 

accident situations are made. Completion of these 

initial tests provided excellent benchmarks for validating nuclear design computer codes, which are used to 

analyze normal and water-immersion conditions. 

Characterization testing of the mechanical properties 

of in-reactor and out-of-reactor refractory alloys. This 

data base is essential to the design process, particularly 

for the reactor core and for validating the reactor 

operating lifetime. 

Improved performance of thermoelectric materials 

was confirmed and further development effort was 

undenvay. A contract was initiated to pursue an 

alternative concept to accommodate thermal stress in 

110 
the thermoelectric panels. This alternate approach is 

considered a backup to the reference GE concept. 

Two nuclear fuel irradiation tests were conducted in 

DOE’S Experimental Breeder Reactor I1 (EBR-11). 

Maximum burnup achieved to date was approximately 

5 atom percent, which represents more than half of the 

7-year full power lifetime planned for SP-100. Previously, irradiated fuel pins were reinserted in the 

reactor to achieve burnups of up to 9 atom percent, 

which is well beyond the design burnup of SP-100. 

Examination of the latest set of fuel pins tested in EBRI1 indicated problems with free-standing liners. However, since the reference design has changed to 

bonded rhenium liners, this result has no effect on the 

current SP-100 reactor design. 

Hyperstoichiometric uranium nitride fuel pellets 

with the required specifications were successfully 

fabricated and analyzed at the Los Alamos National 

Laboratory. 

The processes and equipment necessary to produce 

the fuel for the ground reactor test were almost in 

place, and pre-production quality assurance reviews 

were conducted. 

By the end of 1987, the SP-100 Space Reactor 

Program was well underway and already yielding 

exciting results. Continuing at this pace, the goal of 

producing a flight-ready system to meet NASA requirements by the mid-1990’s is definitely within reach. 

Concurrently, DOE will apply much of the technology 

developed under this program to the next higher space 

power reactor also in development, the Multimegawatt 

reactor. 

Multimegawatt Space Reactor Program 

In 1985, the Multimegawatt (MMW) Space Nuclear 

Power Program was established as a joint DOD-DOE 

program. The primary goal of this program is to 

identify at least one space nuclear power system 

concept by 1992 that meets the high performance, 

multimegawatt power requirements of advanced 

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) applications, and to 

resolve all feasibility issues by that time. There also is 

great potential for follow-on civil applications for 

nuclear MMW power systems. Examples are nuclear 

electric propulsion to cut interplanetary transport times 

Substantially, power for manned bases on the Moon or 

on Mars, and power for the many large-scale industrial 

processing schemes in space that are being contemplated. 

The necessity for developing MMW space nuclear 

power systems is driven by both civilian and defense 

applications and needs, but the predominant factors 

are the stringent requirements imposed by space-based 

defense weapons and power users. Depending on the 

specific MMW application, power requirements range 

from a few MWe to hundreds of MWe for continuous 

or burst power applications. Multimegawatt space 

reactor systems could offer several desirable features, 

such as low weight, compactness, long life, power 

growth and potential for continuous use, direct power 

conversion with few or no moving parts, benign or no 

effluents, high reliability, and inherent radiation 

hardness and survivability. 

The MMW Space Reactor Program is a multiplephase program. After some preliminary concept and 

requirement studies, Phase I will evaluate and conceptually design a specified number of candidate concepts 

and identify key technology 

Phase 11 will include analyzing, designing, and configuring in detail the best concepts from Phase I, and 

resolving all corresponding technology feasibility 

issues. In Phase 111, a ground-engineering system will 

be built and tested, with the flight demonstration work 

being conducted during Phase IV. 

definition of the MMW reactor systems concepts and 

requirements. The results were incorporated into a 

ues for each concept. 

In March 1987, DOE completed work on the 

111 
Phase I Request For Proposal (RFP) for MMW space 

reactor power supplies. On July 1, 1987, an RFP was 

issued to solicit the best concepts from industry. On 

September 30, 1987, numerous MMW proposals were 

received, the evaluation and selection process began, 

and final contract awards to six of the best concepts 

were made in early 1988. During Phase I, the selected 

contractors will pursue preliminary system concept 

evaluations, analyses, tradeoff studies, identification of 

technology feasibility issues, conceptual design configurations, and Phase I1 development plans. 

At the end of Phase I, in early 1989, two or three 

system concepts will be selected from the Phase I 

candidates to implement their approved Phase I1 

development plans. Other Phase 11 activities for the 

selected concepts will be the completion of a preliminary safety assessment, resolution of feasibility items 

identified in Phase I, detailed system concept evaluations, analyses and tradeoff studies, detailed design 

configuration and specific component selections, and a 

Phase 111 development plan and ground-engineering 

system test configuration. During both Phases I and 11, 

a parallel technology development program, which 

focuses on and directly supports the selected concepts, 

will be pursued by the national laboratories. Upon the 

completion of Phase I1 in 1992, at least one concept 

which meets the MMW program goals will be identified for possible selection by the Strategic Defense 

Initiative Program to proceed with Phase I11 and 

possibly Phase IV development and testing. Phases I11 

and IV are expected to be completed during the midto-late 1990’s and early 2000’s, respectively. 

In 1987, there were several important MMW technology accomplishments. Contracts were issued to 

fabricate both depleted and enriched Uranium-Carbide 

Zirconium-Carbide-coated fuel particles and corresponding particle bed fuel elements for use in tests in 

gas-cooled, electrically or fission-heated environments 

scheduled for mid-1988. Processes for fabricating 

MMW cermet fuels were developed and demonstrated 

using both surrogate and Uranium Nitride fuel par112 

ticles. Testing was conducted, with encouraging 

results, on fabrication, welding, compatibility, creep 

rate, and irradiation of high-temperature refractory 

alloys. The capability to reverse the fuel cycle process 

and convert steam into hydrogen and oxygen was 

demonstrated for the monolithic solid oxide fuel cells. 

Also, several contracts and Program Research and 

Development Announcements (PRDA’s) were issued to 

explore and develop advanced MMW concepts and 

technologies. 

By the end of 1987, the MMW Space Reactor 

Program was progressing steadily toward providing 

high power for civil and defense space missions of the 

21st Century. 

Thermionic Fuel Element Verification Program 

The Thermionic Fuel Element (TFE) Verification 

Program began in 1986 as an outgrowth of the SP-100 

program and is currently sponsored under the 

Multimegawatt Space Power Program. Thermionic 

technology offers higher conversion efficiency and 

growth potential than thermoelectric converters, but it 

presently has lifetime limitations. Therefore, to meet 

far-term, high-power needs, the TFE program was established as an aggressive hardware testing program to 

solve these technology issues and to verify the 

technology. 

The TFE program is an extension of work conducted during the 1960’s and early 1970’s which was 

sponsored by the AEC (currently DOE) and NASA. 

Using the technology developed during that period, 

work was in progress to further define and improve 

upon the basic building blocks of the thermionic 

system. The primary goal of the TFE program is to 

demonstrate a 7-year lifetime for TFE components 

operating in a 2 to 5 MWe in-core thermionic space 

reactor. The TFE program will resolve feasibility and 

readiness issues associated with components integral 

to the TFE design. It will accomplish this through an 

iterative approach using accelerated irradiation testing 

and analytical modeling to verify the technology. 
During 1987, work in the following areas was 

pursued: fabrication and testing of the converter; incore testing at the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF) of 

sheath insulators and cesium reservoirs; and fabrication 

of intercell insulations, end restraints, seal insulators, 

cesium reservoirs, and sheath insulators. The latter 

items will be tested in the FFTF. Late in 1987, ongoing 

in-core testing of fueled emitters was conducted in the 

Experimental Breeder Reactor I1 (EBR-II), and in-core 

testing of fueled emitters continued on three test 

capsules in General Atomic’s TRIGA reactor. One of 

the TRIGA capsules was removed for post-irradiation 

examination. Design, computer modeling, fabrication, 

and fabrication techniques are ongoing to support the 

test program. This will provide sufficient information 

from which a final and fully prototypic pair of TFE’s 

can be designed and tested in a fast spectrum reactor. 

The program will provide a well-characterized set of 

performance parameters for the design of a power 

system. 

The TFE program is well focused and is aimed at 

providing design solutions and verifying the results to 

prolong operating lifetime. The final results of the 

program will be a high performance technology that 

may meet space power needs in the late 1990’s and 

beyond. 

Nuclear Test Detection 

The DOE continues to meet its responsibilities in 

support of national requirements to verify compliance 

with the Limited Test Ban Treaty and the Nonproliferation Treaty by producing nuclear detonation detection 

systems deployed as secondary payloads aboard DOD 

satellites. These systems, consisting of optical and 

direct radiation sensors, are the primary means for 

monitoring nuclear testing in the atmosphere and are 

the only systems capable of detecting nuclear detonations in space. 

The DOE laboratories, which produce these detection systems, maintain continuous programs for 

improving the related technology. The goal of these 

programs is better energy resolution, faster sensor 

response times, wide spectra coverage, compression of 

data processing, greater survivability, and the development of new applications and sensors. In 1987, the 

emphasis was placed on improving radiation hardening for spaceborne detector systems. Considerable 

research also is devoted to the study of satellite operating environments in order to enhance event discrimnation and prevent false alarms. Many such developmental experiments are flown aboard NASA satellites, 

and are conducted in cooperation with the space 

programs of other countries. 

113 
Black-and-white reproduction of NOAA-AVHRR image 

mosaic of the United States that was produced by 

mosaicking 15 separate A VHRR false-color images. 
Department of the Interior 

As caretaker for more than 2 million square kilometers of public lands, the U.S. Department of the Interior 

is responsible for managing, conserving, and developing natural resources on this element of the national 

domain. The Department frequently relies on data 

acquired by remote sensing devices for inventorying, 

managing, and monitoring these vast, often inaccessible lands. Research in the analysis and application of 

remotely sensed data is also an important component 

of the Department’s activity. Bureaus of the Department participating in remote sensing studies during 

1987 included the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Bureau of Mines 

(BOM), Bureau of Reclamation (BOR), Minerals 

Management Service (MMS), National Park Service 

(NPS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and 

Processing 

Satellite Data 

Landsat. The USGS continued to use the EROS 

Data Center (EDC) as the principal facility for archiving, processing, and distributing Landsat data under 

agreement with and funding from the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), in support of 

the Earth Observation Satellite (EOSAT) Company, the 

commercial Landsat operator. During 1987, EDC 

received, processed, and archived approximately 

44,000 Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and 

Thematic Mapper (TM) scenes. Currently, over 

834,000 scenes of Landsat data are archived and 

geographically referenced in the Main Image File. This 

computerized cataloging system also references over 

1,500,000 scenes that were received and archived at 

foreign Landsat stations. In 1987, over 20,000 film and 

digital products with a sales value of over $7.6 million 

were produced and distributed to users around the 

world. To assist Federal agencies in obtaining Landsat 

satellite products and services, USGS has established a 

basic ordering agreement with EOSAT. Landsat 

purchases under this agreement in 1987 were $4.5 

million, or more than half of total Landsat sales. 

Between 1972 and the commercialization of the 

Landsat program on September 27, 1985, many Federal 

agencies purchased Landsat data that can be used, 

without restriction, by any Federal Government 

agency. Landsat data purchased after the date of 

commercialization are subject to restrictions on their 

use and cannot be freely shared among Federal users. 

Because considerable cost savings can be realized by 

Federal agencies through data sharing, the USGS has 

compiled a catalog providing information on Landsat 

digital data purchased by Federal agencies before 

commercialization. Any Landsat data purchased prior 

to September 27, 1985, may be listed in the catalog 

and may be shared. To date, the BLM, BOR, BOM, 

USGS, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have contributed information on over 

6,000 scenes. 

Systeme Probatoire dObservation de la Terre. 

On April 20, 1987, the USGS and the SPOT Image 

Corporation signed a procurement contract to facilitate 

the purchase of French Systeme Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) satellite products and services 

on behalf of Federal agencies. This contract will 

eliminate the need for individual agency contracts for 

data purchase with SPOT Image Corporation. In 

addition, the USGS has obtained access to the SPOT 

Image worldwide satellite catalog through a direct dialup capability from the EDC to Toulouse, France. 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. In 

1987, the USGS completed development of an operational system at EDC to receive, process, archive, and 

distribute Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR) data from NOAA polar-orbiting satellites for 

land science applications in Department of the Interior 

and other Federal research projects. The AVHRR Data 

Acquisition and Processing System (ADAPS) is used to 

receive AVHRR data of the entire conterminous United 

States; screen the data for image quality and cloud 

cover; and produce radiometrically corrected and 

115 
geographically registered data on computer tape, 

floppy disk, or film within 48 hours after acquisition. 

The ADAPS can acquire daily coverage of the 

conterminous United States (between 6 to 10 scenes 

daily) from the NOM-9 and NOM-10 satellites. All 

data are kept for 90 days, at which time approximately 

20 to 25 percent of the best data are selected for the 

long-term archive. An AVHRR microfiche reference 

system has been developed to aid in the selection and 

ordering of scenes in the permanent archive. 

During 1987, over 1,400 AVHRR scenes of the 

United States were acquired, of which approximately 

20 percent have been selected for the permanent 

archive. EDC generated over 750 AVHRR products for 

users during 1987, including 30 to 35 products a week 

to support NASA’s First International Satellite Land 

Surface Climatology Project Field Experiment. The 

workload for 1988 will increase to 12 to 14 products a 

day (3,000 to 3,500 products for the year) in response 

to agreements that were recently negotiated with the 

Central Intelligence Agency, the Agency for International Development (AID), and the National Weather 

Service. 

Aerial Photographs 

The National High Altitude Photography (NHAP) 

Program began in 1980 to acquire 1:80,000-scale blackand-white and 1:58,000-scale color-infrared aerial 

photographs of the conterminous United States. 

Through 1987, photographs covering over 7,800,000 

square kilometers, or about 98 percent of the conterminous United States, have been acquired under NHAP 

and are available to the public from both the USGS 

and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Federal agencies cooperating in the NHAP Program 

have reassessed their needs and redesigned the NHAP 

Program to meet current requirements for higher 

resolution, larger scale photographs. As a result, the 

National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) was 

begun in 1987 to provide complete coverage for the 48 

conterminous United States on a 5-year cycle. NAPP is 

a cooperative program guided by a multiagency 

steering committee and administered by the USGS on 

behalf of the State and Federal cooperators. Colorinfrared aerial photographs will be acquired at a scale 

of 1:40,000, centered on quarter sections of standard 

USGS 7.5-minute quadrangles. By the end of 1987, 

coverage was nearly complete for Indiana, northern 

Utah, southern Idaho, and central California. 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar Data 

The USGS Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) 

program began in 1980. Since that time, coverage for 

more than 20 percent of the United States has been 

acquired and made available to the public. The USGS 

selects approximately 30 sites for SLAR coverage each 

year based on a technical review of proposals submitted by State geological surveys, Federal scientists and 

managers, the academic community, and the private 

sector. Because SLAR is an active sensor (illuminating 

the surface features with microwave energy), the 

mission design parameters such as look direction, 

depression angle, and range are chosen to produce 

images that are optimized for the studies proposed for 

each site. 

The USGS has supported more than 100 research 

studies addressing the use of SLAR data for geologic, 

hydrologic, engineering, and cartographic applications. 

Some examples of the research and application studies 

supported by the USGS showing the scope of this 

program include using SLAR data for fold and fault 

frequency analysis to help develop a model of the 

Appalachian Mountains addressing seismic risk and 

natural gas production; using SLAR data to aid in 

evaluating the hydrologic characteristics of proposed 

high-level nuclear waste repositories; preparing SLAR 

image maps of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska; and 

using SLAR to aid in permafrost and glacier studies. 

116 
U.S. Geological Survey SideLooking Airborne Radar (SUR) image of Puerto Rico. SUR data of Puerto Rico are being 

used for geologic mapping, regional aquifer system analysis, and sedimentation and landslide susceptibility assessment. 

Remote Sensing Applications 

Renewable Resources 

cooperatively with Federal and State resource management agencies to produce land cover and terrain maps 

throughout Alaska. During 1987, USGS and USFWS 

personnel analyzed digital Landsat MSS data and 

terrain data to produce land cover and terrain maps for 

comprehensive management planning in the 28,000 

square kilometer Innoko and Selawik National Wildlife 

Refuges in Alaska. Land cover mapping was also 

completed for the Izembek Lagoon in the Izembek 

National Wildlife Refuge. The emphasis in the Izembek Lagoon was on mapping eel-grass beds, which are 

critical staging areas for black brant waterfowl before 

During the past 7 years, the USGS has worked 

their seasonal migration into and out of Alaska. 

The USGS and the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) 

cooperated to classify land cover for 120,000 square 

kilometers in southeastern Alaska during 1987. Land 

cover classifications were completed and estimates of 

land cover types and timber production are being 

integrated into a four-phase sampling scheme to 

provide statistical data for the National Resource 

Inventory in Alaska. 

With the completion of these USFWS and USFS 

projects in 1987, USGS and cooperating government 

agencies have now completed land cover and terrain 

maps using Landsat and digital terrain data for almost 1 

million square kilometers of Alaska, or over 60 percent 

of the State. 

117 
The BLM uses a variety of remote sensing tools to 

assist in gathering data and monitoring activities on 

public lands. Aerial photographs, including NHAP, 

NAPP, and BLM-acquired aerial photographs, continue 

to be heavily utilized in operational activities involving 

rangeland, forest land, and wildlife management. A 

new application of aerial photographs involves the use 

of low-altitude photographs to evaluate and monitor 

critical riparian vegetation conditions. During 1987, 

BLM acquired coverage of over 640 linear kilometers 

of streams for riparian analysis. BLM also utilizes 

digital NOM-AVHRR satellite data operationally to 

map fire fuel types in 10 western States. These data 

are merged with digital terrain data and provide a 

major component of BLM’s Initial Attack Management 

System. 

During 1987, the BIA conducted operational and 

experimental projects using both Landsat and SPOT 

satellite data and aerial photographs. These projects 

include both visual interpretation and digital analysis to 

determine information content, interpretation efficiencies, and accuracies for natural resource management 

applications. Projects are in progress on the following 

reservations: San Carlos Agency, Arizona-a land 

cover and land use map of the reservation for use in 

range survey; Warm Springs Agency, Oregonevaluation of Landsat TM images for land cover 

mapping; Crow Agency, Montana-farmland mapping 

using Landsat TM images; Pine Ridge Agency, South 

Dakota-identification and mapping of prairie-dog 

towns and prairie-dog activity using aerial photographs, and rangeland assessments using Landsat TM 

data and aerial photographs. All thematic interpretations are converted to appropriate digital formats and 

incorporated into BIA geographic information systems. 

The BOR uses a variety of remotely sensed data for 

environmental inventory and assessment of major 

water development projects. An intensive environmental inventory involving 4,700 square kilometers of 

land that may be affected by the Garrison Diversion 

Unit of the Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Project of North 

118 

Current status of land cover classification in Alaska using 

digital analysis of Landsat satellite data. 

Dakota was completed in 1987. Information was 

extracted from large-scale color-infrared aerial photographs and entered into a digital data base, which is 

currently being used in a field-office geographic 

information system for statistical analysis and display. 

A study of the Grand Canyon was completed using 

large-scale aerial photographs from four dates spanning a 20-year period. Selected river reaches along the 

Colorado River were inventoried for riparian vegetation 

to detect changes in the development of native and 

exotic plants since the construction of Glen Canyon 

Dam. 

BOR scientists are mapping backwater habitat on 

the Green River below Flaming Gorge Dam in Utah 

and Colorado from large-scale aerial photographs that 

were acquired on five dates coincident with several 

river-flow scenarios since construction of the Dam. 

This work is designed to result in recommendations for 

water flow rates that maximize backwater habitat, 

which is a critical variable needed to preserve the 

Colorado River squawfish, an endangered species. 
Head of Surveys of the Senegal Crop Protection Service 

using vegetation greenness maps derived from satellite 

data to direct personnel for field surveys of grasshopper 

infestations. 

The BOR Calamus (Nebraska) Dam Post-Construction Analysis Study was also completed during 1987. A 

data base of natural resources information was developed from interpretation of aerial photographs taken 

before the Dam was built, and project boundaries were 

overlaid to determine construction impacts. 

The BOR has used digital Landsat MSS data to 

monitor the effects of the Central Arizona Project on 

the area’s native vegetation. Data acquired before and 

after construction of the Granite Reef and Salt-Gila 

aqueducts were processed to quantify the amount of 

natural vegetation change due to alteration of surface 

hydrology by the aqueducts. 

Evaluation Program for SPOT) to evaluate the utility of 

digital SPOT data for monitoring irrigated lands. 

Results indicate that the spatial resolution and spectral 

characteristics of these data are well suited to this 

application. 

The USFWS places a high priority on wetlands 

mapping and the gathering of wetlands trends informaThe BOR is participating in PEPS (Preliminary 

tion in support of the North American Waterfowl 

Management Plan which was signed by both the US. 

Department of the Interior and Canada. To accomplish these mapping objectives, the USFWS continues 

to acquire and use high-altitude aerial photographs to 

conduct the National Wetlands Inventory. Due to the 

variability in land use and habitat cover types in 

wetlands, and the degree of accuracy required for 

detailed resource mapping, the National Wetlands 

Inventory has used high-altitude aerial photographs 

exclusively, while keeping abreast of developments in 

the acquisition and application of satellite images. 

The USGS has been assisting in the U.S. AIDsponsored grasshopper control programs in the Sahel 

region of Africa. During 1987, a pilot study was 

conducted to develop, test, and evaluate procedures 

for real-time mapping and monitoring of grasshopper 

habitat using remote sensing and geographic information system technologies. AVHRR images were 

collected daily for several months, geographically 

referenced, and used to produce thematic maps 

displaying 16day vegetation conditions and changes in 

conditions in Senegal, The Gambia, Mauritania, Chad, 

and Niger. The maps are sent by air-express to Africa 

for use by grasshopper control teams to identify 

potential infestation areas and to plan reconnaissance 

and spraying missions for grasshopper control. 

Hydrology 

was initiated by the BOR in 1983 as part of the Garrison Diversion Project. It has continued each year 

using remote sensing and geographic information 

systems technologies to map submerged vegetation in 

the refuges and to quantify the natural peak-water-flow 

conditions before the Garrison Project is complete and 

the return water flows are redirected into the James 

River Basin. 

BOR scientists have developed empirical models 

that predict several parameters of fresh-water lakes and 

other water bodies from Landsat TM data. These 

The National Wildlife Refuge Monitoring Program 

119 
models are being applied to a series of TM images of 

Lake Mead between Arizona and Nevada to determine 

the spatial and temporal variation of temperature, 

turbidity, and chlorophyll-a concentration. In conjunction with the Center of Hydrographic Studies of the 

Spanish Ministry of Public Works, the BOR is conducting complementary studies of reservoirs in Spain using 

TM data. 

The BOR has cooperated with Arizona State University to process 84 Landsat images of Pyramid Lake, 

Nevada, acquired between 1972 and 1986 to document 

the occurrence of blue-green algae blooms. The 

purpose of the work was to better understand the 

potential impacts of a proposed wastewater treatment 

facility for the city of Reno, Nevada. 

Oceanography 

Under the Alaska Region Studies Program, the MMS 

funds a remote sensing project that acquires, analyzes, 

and archives satellite images and other remotely 

sensed data of the U.S. Arctic Region. During 1987, 

MMS scientists continued to correlate ice-motion 

events, such as ice-ridge building and polynya formation (permanent or semipermanent open-water areas 

within an ice-covered sea), with meteorological 

conditions in the Chukchi Sea and Hope Basin areas. 

Studies focused on the characteristics and dynamics of 

lead systems (open-water or thin ice channels within 

ice-covered areas) in the Chukchi Sea during the 

spring migration of bowhead whales and other marine 

mammals. MMS scientists continue to study polynyas in 

the Chukchi Sea and Hope Basin areas to determine 

their importance to regional biota and their role in the 

generation of sea ice. 

Geology 

Mineral Resource Development Activities. BLM 

is using both SPOT and Landsat TM data to assess and 

monitor mineral development activities on public 

lands. During 1987, applications that were identified 

included mapping of activities related to oil and gas 

development; mapping of areas where minerals 

materials extraction is occurring; and monitoring of 

compliance with surface management regulations 

associated with mining claims. 

The USGS is using Landsat TM data on a routine 

basis in its programs for Conterminous U.S. Mineral 

Assessments of lox 2" quadrangles, in BLM Wilderness 

Studies, and BIA Mineral Assessment Studies of 

Reservations. Cooperative experiments with agencies 

of the Spanish government have demonstrated that TM 

data can be used to identify halos of contact-metamorphosed rocks caused by both presently exposed and 

buried igneous plutons. Some of the exposed plutons 

have contained tungsten and tin deposits; similar 

minerals may occur within the shallowly buried 

plutons, which previously had not been recognized. 

Additional research and applications have been 

made with aircraft sensor platforms that cover the 

visible and reflective infrared part of the spectrum. A 

non-imaging 512-channel Airborne Spectroradiometer 

was used to identify and map rocks containing rare 

earth deposits. Also, data from 64- and 128-channel 

Airborne Imaging Spectrometers were utilized to 

identify and map hydrothermally altered rocks that 

potentially could contain precious and base metals. 

Airborne data from a Thermal Infrared Multispectral 

Scanner aided in the identification of jasperoids, a form 

of hydrothermal quartz, which are associated with 

carbonate-hosted disseminated gold deposits found in 

the western United States. These technological 

advances could be applied to other areas of the world 

that have similar rock occurrences. 

In the laboratory, efforts are underway to spectrally 

characterize the visible and reflective-infrared, as well 

as the emitted-infrared characteristics of rock-forming 

minerals. Spectra of these wekharacterized minerals 

form a comprehensive digital data base and reference 

source for the spectral behavior of minerals on a 

worldwide basis. Data in these spectral libraries will 

be of direct application to ongoing NASA and USGS 

120 
studies that utilize the Airborne Imaging Spectrometers. 

Minehelopment andsafety Monitoring. In 1787, 

the BOM was in the process of concluding remote 

sensing investigations of predicting coal mine ground 

hazards at a western U.S. study site in Utah, and began 

new investigations at the eastern U.S. study site in 

Alabama. These investigations will lead to development of a methodology to define potential ground 

hazards to mining activities in underground coal mines 

and to define how remotely sensed data can be 

applied to this methodology. At the western test site, 

positive correlations of about 80 percent have been 

achieved when comparing zones of potential geologic 

hazard predicted from remotely sensed data with 

actual ground-control problem areas that were encountered during underground mining operations. 

Landsat MSS and TM data have been the primary 

remotely sensed data used in these investigations. 

However, SLAR data, Skylab and Space Shuttle LargeFormat Camera photographs, SPOT satellite images, 

and aerial photographs are also being evaluated for 

their utility in the ground-hazard prediction process. 

Preliminary results indicate that Skylab and Large 

Format Camera photographs are of limited use because 

of restricted areal and temporal coverage. SLAR 

images have proven to be quite useful in defining the 

geologic structure in areas such as Alabama that have 

relatively subtle topography. Ancillary data are also 

being used to better interpret the surface expression of 

certain Subsurface geologic structures, and to make 

more accurate determinations of potential ground 

hazards in minus. Digital topographic data are used in 

conjunction with Landsat data as an input to computer 

programs that calculate vertical pressure at the mine 

level for structural stability analysis. 

program has been initiated by NASA in conjunction 

with USGS and map users to study Mars using highresolution Viking images. Areas of high scientific 

interest will be mapped on photomosaic bases at 

Planetary Studies. A new geologic mapping 

1:500,000 scale. The resulting geologic maps will 

show in detail the structure, stratigraphy, and 

morphologic aspects of the Martian surface. These 

maps will be invaluable in planning future missions 

and determining possible landing sites for sample 

ons. An example of significant advances 

made by this type of mapping is the 1:500,000-scale 

geologic map of the Central Valles Marineris, which 

shows previously unrecognized volcanic structures. 

The volcanic units appear very fresh; some have 

frontal lobes that bury landslides, and others are 

composed of dark material that apparently erupted 

explosively along faults. Because these units are very 

young, their presence suggests that Mars has been 

geologically active in relatively recent times. 

Jupiter’s volcanically active moon, Io, has been the 

subject of much interest. Studies of Voyager spacecraft 

data and Earth-based infrared observations of Io’s hot 

spots are continuing. A correlation between lowalbedo calderas and thermal em 

and used to identify potential hot spots in areas not 

directly observed by infrared detectors. From this 

work, Io’s global heat flow was estimated to be about 

1.8 watts per square meter, more than 20 times greater 

than the average heat flow of the Earth. 

Prelaunch planning for the US. Magellan mission to 

Venus in 1770 is partly based on the analysis of highresolution radar images of Venus acquired by the 

Soviet Venera 15 and 16 spacecraft. USGS scientists 

are using these images to provide mission planners 

with the most up-to-date, detailed geologic information 

of Venus. Mapping already completed indicates that 

volcanic and tectonic processes dominate the Venusian 

landscape. In the absence of datable samples, the age 

of these surfaces has been estimated by comparing the 

density of observed impact craters on Venus with the 

calculated impact density (based on actual density of 

astronomically observed Venus-crossing asteroids and 

comets) and with the known density of impact craters 

on Earth. The average age of Venus’ surface appears 

ion was described 

121 
to be no more than a few hundred million years, 

indicating a level of tectonic activity similar to that of 

Earth. 

preliminary work of naming newly discovered extraterrestrial features, although the International Astronomical Union is the final arbiter of planetary nomenclature. 

When a body is first imaged by a sensor, the most 

conspicuous features are given names. In the last 14 

years, 24 descriptive terms have been chosen and 

nearly 4,000 features have been named on the 23 

extraterrestrial solid bodies imaged by space missions. 

Satellite Image Mapping. During 1987, the USGS 

USGS personnel are involved in much of the 

cartography 

continued its image mapping research by applying 

techniques originally developed for Landsat MSS and 

TM data to data from other satellite sensors. For 

example, restoration (deconvolution) software can 

now be applied to both NOAA AVHRR data and SPOT 

data. Techniques have been developed for combining 

image data sets possessing different spatial and spectral characteristics. The majority of this work has 

centered on combining 30-meter resolution multispectral Landsat TM data and 10-meter resolution singlechannel SPOT panchromatic data. This process creates 

an image that has the spectral quality of the TM 

multispectral data and the 10-meter spatial resolution 

of the SPOT data. Techniques were developed in 1987 

for digital generation of latitude/longitude grid and 

annotation information that can be registered and 

embedded into a digital image for reference. 

The USGS continued its satellite image mapping 

program in 1987. Landsat MSS image maps (1:250,000 

scale) were printed for the Goldfield, Needles, and 

Tonopah, Nevada; Anchorage, Alaska; and Roanoke, 

Virginia, quadrangles. Landsat TM image maps 

(1:100,000 scale) were printed for the Cactus Flat and 

Pahute Mesa, Nevada, and Kansas City and Olathe, 

Missouri/Kansas, quadrangles. 

A special image product of the Phoenix, Arizona 

area was produced to show Landsat MSS and TM data, 

SPOT panchromatic and multispectral data, and 

Landsat TM and SPOT panchromatic data merged and 

displayed at various scales. This lithographed product 

also shows portions of an orthophotoquad and a 

standard topographic quadrangle for comparison with 

SPOT panchromatic data. 

Geologic Mapping. In early 1987, the USGS 

published an experimental 1: 100,000-scale, color 

“Geologic Map of Cape Cod and the Islands, Massachusetts,” in which four Landsat 3 return beam vidicon 

(RBV) images were mosaicked to form an image base 

for the geologic map. Landsat image-mosaicking 

technology developed by the USGS can now be used 

to prepare cartographically accurate image base maps 

at scales of 1:100,000 or smaller for any part of the 

land and shallow-sea areas of our planet covered by 

Landsat 3 RBV or Landsat 4 and 5 thematic mapper 

(TM) images. 

Digital Orthophotoquads. The USGS presently 

uses a variety of orthophoto instruments to produce 

orthophotographs in quadrangle format. While these 

techniques produce orthophotoquads of high quality, 

they remain in photographic form, which limits their 

applications. The USGS can now produce digital 

orthophotoquads from raster-scanned aerial photographs and digital elevation model data. Research is 

underway to combine these digital rectification techniques with digital mosaicking and image enhancement techniques to develop a digital orthophotoquad 

production system. To date, two digital orthophotoquads have been produced for a two-scene mosaic 

of NHAP photographs covering the Fontana, California, 

1:24,000 quadrangle. 

Global Positioning System Following applications testing in 1986, the Global Positioning System 

(GPS) was used for production work in 1987. Although the full satellite constellation will not be fully 

operational for several years and system coverage is 

122 
limited, it has already proven to be cost effective for 

many of the USGS mapping survey requirements. 

Three new receivers were purchased during the year 

for use in the National Mapping Program. A new 

generation of GPS receivers for scientific applications 

emerged with the implementation of new software that 

enabled simultaneous determination of ground station 

coordinates and orbital parameters. Relative accuracies 

of 0.5 parts per million have been achieved with this 

software. New developments in GPS-based dynamic 

positioning systems were closely monitored with a 

view to procuring a system for airborne geophysical 

surveys. The GPS was used to complement conventional techniques in monitoring the San Andreas fault 

in California, and a major volcano deformation survey 

was completed in Hawaii. USGS also cooperated with 

NOAA and NASA on several GPS experiments designed to ineasure crustal motion across the United 

States. 

International Activities 

Antarctic Activities 

nel at the South Pole Station, Antarctica to collect 

satellite data to support geodetic programs and 

glaciological studies such as ice sheet movement at the 

The USGS continues to maintain year-round personSouth Pole. During 1987, the USGS cooperated with 

the Norwegian Polar Research Institute to analyze 

Landsat TM images of an area in Queen Maud Land, 

Antarctica for surface temperature mapping. Landsat 

TM thermal band images permit the mapping of 

brightness temperatures with a spatial resolution of 120 

meters. The resulting temperature map with contour 

intervals of 2OC was compared with ground measurements obtained concurrently with the TM image 

acquisitions. Results show that surface temperature 

decreases with increasing elevation on the ice plateau. 

With a modification in the nominal calibration coefficients, also consistent with nonpolar observations, the 

TM-derived temperatures are in good agreement with 

the surface observations. 

continued work on the preparation of a Satellite Image 

Atlas of Glaciers, a long-term project involving more 

than 55 U.S. and foreign scientists from 30 countries to 

document the areal extent of glacier ice on Earth from 

Landsat 1-3 multispectral scanner (MSS) images and 

ancillary data. Eleven volumes will be published 

under USGS Professional Paper 1386 (A-K). Chapter B, 

Antarctica, is being prepared in cooperation with the 

British Antarctic Survey and the Ministry of Works and 

Development (New Zealand). 

Global Monitoring of Gdaciers. The USGS 

123 
Department of Agriculture 

In 1987, the principal aeronautics and space activities 

of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) were 

those related to remote sensing. For many decades, 

aerial photographs have been a key source of information about land use, agriculture, rangeland, and 

forestry. Extensive research is now in progress to 

determine the utility of data from satellites and other 

space platforms as a source of information for USDA 

programs and policy decisions. The establishment of 

the Remote Sensing Research Laboratory in the Department’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS), aided by 

continuing remote sensing applications research at ARS 

field centers, constitute a major step toward realizing 

the full potential of Earth observations from space. 

ARS Remote Sensing Research Laboratory were completed. Located at the Beltsville Agricultural Research 

Center near Washington, D.C., the Laboratory serves as 

the hub of a national network of scientists and users 

concerned with the application of remote sensing 

techniques to solve high priority national agricultural 

problems. The Laboratory works closely with staff 

personnel of USDA agencies, the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration (NASA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and 

universities and private institutions to develop specific 

procedures and technology to solve agricultural 

problems. 

The remote sensing research conducted by the 

Laboratory and at associated ARS field centers is both 

basic and applied and uses aeronautical and aerospace 

data systems. Plans for research include combining 

digital remotely sensed data with other digital data 

through data base and modeling systems to enhance 

the value of the information received. A feature of the 

research is the development of methods for combining 

data from sensors carried by different satellites. 

Combining data from different Earth-viewing 

satellites has necessitated an extensive effort to caliIn 1987, staffing and installation of equipment at the 

Interior view of ARS Remote Sensing Research Laboratory 

where digital data for crop monitoring and resource 

management are displayed and analyzed. 

hrate the visible and near-infrared channels of the 

sensors. For example, quantitative use of satellite data 

and comparison of numerical values from year to year, 

and from satellite to satellite, cannot be accomplished 

with precision unless differences in data values are 

recognized. A portion of this work is being conducted 

cooperatively with NOM. Some of the testing for this 

activity has been completed to relate data received 

from NOAA’s Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), carried on polar-orbiting environmental satellites. The calibration effort also includes 

conducting research on data from the thematic mapper 

and multispectral scanner sensors carried aboard 

Landsats 4 and 5. Other cooperative research with 

NOM includes using data from Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) to assess soil 

moisture in the U.S. Great Plains. 

125 
View of remote sensing equipment in light aircraft. View of the multispectral video system being tested at the 

ARS Center in Weslaco, Texas. 

In 1987, research was completed that assesses the 

utility of data from the French SPOT satellite for the 

National Resources Inventory program of the Soil 

Conservation Service. In this activity, the Laboratory 

was assisted by cooperating ARS scientists at Durant 

and Chickasha, Oklahoma. The SPOT satellite data 

were treated through an image processing system and 

interpreted for potential detection of land use changes. 

Independent verification of changes supports evidence 

that the higher resolution data are a potential substitute 

for “standard” photographic products. 

During 1987, ARS remote sensing researchers at 

Weslaco, Texas continued developmental work on 

applications of infrared photography, and made 

considerable progress in evaluating color-infrared 

video imagery. In one example, a study was conducted to evaluate the potential of color-infrared video 

imagery for the remote sensing of rangelands. Colorinfrared video imagery and color-infrared photography 

of three different rangeland scenes were obtained 

simultaneously. The color response of the video 

images of the rangeland scenes were similar to those 

of the color-infrared photographic images. These 

results show that color-infrared video imagery has 

considerable application as a tool for rangeland 

assessment. Moreover, because access to many 

rangeland areas is often difficult, the ability to view 

video imagery immediately can be cost-effective. 

126 
Federal Communications 

Commission 

Communications Satellites 

International Commercial Communications 

Satellites 

munications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) global 

communications system consisted of 15 satellites in 

orbit: 1 INTELSAT IV, 3 INTELSAT IV-A’s, 8 INTELSAT 

V’s and 3 INTELSAT V-A’s. Due to the unavailability of 

launch vehicles, no international INTELSAT satellites 

were launched. During the year, one IV and one IV-A 

were ejected into higher orbits. At the end of 1987, 

INTELSAT maintained 13 satellites in geosynchronous 

orbit: 1 IV-A, 4 V’s, and 2 V-A’s in the Atlantic Ocean 

Region; 2 V’s and 1 V-A in the Indian Ocean Region; 

and 1 IV-A and 2 V’s in the Pacific Ocean Region. The 

IV-A satellites have exceeded estimated maneuver life. 

In 1987, the Commission approved the construction 

and operation of 19 new Earth station facilities to 

access the INTELSAT system in the Atlantic and Pacific 

Ocean Regions for the provision of INTELSAT business 

service and television transmission, and 5 for multipurpose service stations. 

In 1985, the Commission released its policy statement in CC Docket No. 84-1299 establishing the 

regulatory policies that will be used to consider 

applications for satellite systems providing international 

communication services independent of INTELSAT. 

The Commission found that separate international 

systems proposed by the Executive Branch would 

provide substantial benefits to international telecommunications users without causing significant economic harm to INTELSAT. Finding that their applications met its legal, technical, and initial financial 

qualifications and public interest considerations, the 

Commission granted conditional authority to establish 

separate satellite systems to Orion Satellite Corporation, International Satellite, Inc., RCA American Communications, Inc., Pan American Satellite Corporation 

(PanAmSat), and Cygnus Satellite Corporation. In 

1986, the Commission granted conditional authorizaAt the beginning of 1987, the International Telecomtion to two additional applicants, McCaw Space 

Technologies, Inc., and Columbia Communications 

Corporation, 

Only PanAmSat has reached agreement with a 

foreign correspondent and initiated the INTELSAT 

consultation process. In April 1987, PanAmSat’s use of 

five 4/6-GHz transponders for service between the 

United States and Peru was successfully consulted with 

INTELSAT. On September 30, 1987, the Commission 

issued a final construction permit and launch authority 

for its “Simon Bolivar” satellite scheduled to be 

launched in January 1988. Currently before the 

Commission is a proposal by PanAmSat to use six 11/ 

14-GHz transponders on its “Simon Bolivar” satellite 

for service to Europe. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

In 1987, no new domestic satellites were authorized 

for construction and launch. At year’s end, 27 domestic satellites were in orbit at locations between 69” and 

143” west longitude on the orbital arc. Of these 27 

satellites, 16 operate in the 4/6-GHz band, 8 operate in 

the 12/14-GHz band, and 3 operate in both bands. In 

September 1987, 20 applications for new or replacement satellites were filed as part of the next domestic 

satellite processing group. 

tion and launch of 20 additional domestic fixed 

satellites to provide communications services through 

the end of the century. Some of these satellites were 

scheduled for launch in 1987. However, due to the 

launch crisis, only one new domestic satellite is 

expected to be placed in orbit in 1987. 

The Commission’s Advisory Committee on 2’ 

Spacing was established in 1985 to elicit suggestions 

by industry representatives on the most efficient and 

economical methods to accommodate satellite operations under reduced spacing conditions. The Committee issued its recommendations in 1986. With respect 

to Earth stations, the Committee recommended mandatory manufacturer product qualification testing and 

In 1985, the Commission authorized the construc127 
mandatory on-sight verification tests by operators of all 

Earth station systems, including transportables. The 

Committee also recommended that the Commission 

revise Section 25.209 of the Rules and Regulations 

concerning antenna performance standards to be more 

definitive regarding side-lobe requirements. 

On the subject of space stations, the Committee 

recommended the adoption of certain technical 

parameters for C and Ku-band satellites, including 

opposite polarization for adjacent satellites and ground 

control of polarization switches. The Committee also 

proposed the creation of a satellite spacing coordination data book to be used by the Commission, satellite 

users and operators to aid in the implementation of 2’ 

spacing. The data book would contain data on 

interference, satellite characteristics, key transmission 

parameters and satellite system operation/coordination 

procedures. 

In the area of coordination, the Committee recommended standard video masks for computation of 

video interference between adjacent satellites; mandatory uplink identification signals for all video transmission; and adoption of power flux density limits for CBand Earth stations and antennas less than nine meters 

in diameter. 

The Commission released a Notice of Proposed 

Rulemaking in February 1987 that incorporated many 

of Committee’s recommendations and made several 

additional proposals. Comments were filed by a wide 

range of entities in June and July 1987. 

Maritime Satellite Service 

National and international efforts to establish a 

future global maritime distress and safety system are 

continuing. The International Maritime Organization 

(IMO) is developing the system which will use Standard A and Standard C ship-Earth stations through 

INMARSAT as well as satellite emergency position 

indicating radio beacons (satellite EPIRB’s) to provide 

initial distress alerting information from ships to rescue 

coordination centers. While present plans include 

satellite EPIRB’s through polar orbiting SARSAT, a 

NOAA Weather Service satellite for search and rescue 

satellite data tracking, and the Russian equivalent, 

called COSPAS, the IMO Maritime Safety Committee is 

also considering use of L-Band EPIRB’s through 

INMARSAT (geostationary orbit). In addition, trials of 

distress and safety services started in the summer of 

1987 on the US. GOES satellites and will continue 

through 1788. The global maritime and safety systems 

are expected to be phased in between 1971 and 1997. 

Currently, INMARSAT is leasing two in-orbit satellites from the European Space Agency, a spare 

MARECS A in the Pacific Ocean Region (POR) and an 

operational MARECS B-2 in the Atlantic Ocean Region 

(AOR); four in-orbit INTELSAT piggy-back Maritime 

Communications Subsystem (MCS) satellite packages, 

the spare MCS B (F-6) in the AOR, the operational MCS 

A (F-8) in the POR, and the operational MCS A (F-5) 

and spare MCS C (F-4) in the Indian Ocean Region 

(IOR); and three MARISAT backup spare satellites 

leased from Comsat General, the MARISAT F-1 in the 

AOR, the MARISAT F-3 in the POR, and the MARISAT 

F-2 in the IOR which are also for special purpose use. 

Second-generation satellites, the first of which is 

expected to become operational in 1989, are being 

built under INMARSAT specifications, and will have a 

capacity about triple that of the present leased satellites. INMARSAT serves over 6,500 vessels through its 

53 member-country organization. Twenty coast stations in thirteen countries are in operation, with two 

more expected in 1988 or before. 

In 1986, the Commission issued three decisions 

bearing on the INMARSAT’s second-generation satellites. First, the FCC authorized COMSAT to participate 

in INMARSAT’s program to procure three secondgeneration satellites to serve the Atlantic Ocean Region 

beginning in 1988. Then COMSAT was authorized to 

participate in an INMARSAT contract with Arianespace 

for an additional launch of its second-generation 

maritime satellite communications system. COMSAT’s 

request for this additional launch was based on the 

128 
uncertainty of the planned June 1788 Shuttle launch. 

Finally, COMSAT was authorized to participate in an 

INMARSAT program to lease capacity of the MARISAT 

system to provide additional backup facilities and to 

provide currently authorized INMARSAT services via 

INMARSAT satellites. This authority was deemed 

necessary due to the serious deficiency in performance 

of two of INMARSAT’s first-generation satellites and 

other service irregularities. In 1987, INMARSAT was 

also authorized to contract for a Delta launch which is 

scheduled for late 1787. 

Aeronautical Satellite Service 

In October 1985, the Assembly of Parties of the 

International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) adopted amendments to the INMARSAT convention and operating agreement which will allow it to 

offer aeronautical services. The amendments will take 

effect 120 days after two-thirds of member countries 

representing two-thirds of the total INMARSAT investment shares have filed notices of acceptance. INMARSAT’S first three second-generation spacecraft are being 

constructed with three megahertz of bidirectional 

bandwidth in the Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service 

(R) band. Through its Subcommittee on Future Air 

Navigation Systems, the International Civil Aviation 

Organization has been discussing standards for aeronautical satellites and other issues involving the use of 

satellites in a coordinated program for civil aviation. 

The aviation community is actively developing, 

through the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee, 

an aeronautical satellite system which will provide 

voice and data services. Under contracts awarded at 

the end of 1986, INMARSAT is developing aircraft 

antennas and avionics needed for this service. Aeronautical Radio, Inc. is still pursuing an international 

aeronautical system by interconnecting its terrestrial 

VHF network with satellite facilities for oceanic 

coverage. In addition, land mobile satellite applicants 

are proposing to provide aeronautical service on their 

systems. 

Direct Broadcast Satellite Service 

granted permits in 1983 to construct Direct Broadcast 

Satellites, three are actively progressing in the construction of their authorized satellites. These three 

permittees will utilize 200 to 230-watt traveling wave 

tube amplifiers (TWTA’s) in conjunction with various 

half-CONUS or full-CONUS beam configurations to 

provide service across the continental United States. 

Modifications granted in September 1985 allow two of 

these companies to increase transponder capacity from 

six channels to eight channels per satellite. Projected 

conipletion of satellite construction varies for each 

company from mid-1987 through 1988. These permittees are required to have their satellite systems in 

operation by the last quarter of 1988. 

Additionally, of the six “second-round” applicants 

granted conditional permits in late 1984 and early 

1785, one has demonstrated “due diligence” in construction of its satellite system and has been awarded 

channels, orbital position, and launch authority. In 

contrast to the three “first-round” companies, this 

system will utilize two 16-channel satellites equipped 

with 100-watt TWTA’s to provide DBS service. Advances in antenna and receiver technology are cited in 

support of mid-power transponder selection. Commencement of DBS operations for this company is 

scheduled for mid-1987. 

Of the conditional construction permits for new 

satellite systems granted in September of 1985, none 

were able to demonstrate “due diligence” in satellite 

construction within the required timeframe. Accordingly, these permits have been cancelled. 

Of the three companies awarded conditional 

construction permits for new satellite systems in 

September of 1786, one has demonstrated “due 

diligence” and has requested channel and orbital 

position assignments. The system will utilize two 16- 

channel satellites equipped with 125-watt TWTA’s to 

provide DBS service. The projected estimate for 

commencement of operation of this system is 1991. 

Of the eight “first-round” DBS companies previously 

129 
One new DBS system application was filed in May 

of 1987. Another applicant has requested that its 

previously granted application be returned to pending 

status. Consequently, both applications currently 

remain pending. 

In a related matter, on November 25, 1986, the 

Commission issued a ruling in which it expanded on 

its earlier statements regarding the acceptable uses of 

the Direct Broadcast Satellite service allocation. Nonconforming uses of DBS transponders which do not 

detract from the goal of introducing DBS service, and 

which may help advance it, will be permitted provided 

that certain restrictions are met. 

New Satellite Services 

New technology is developing to provide additional 

uses for satellite-delivered communications. Increased 

capacity in the 11/12/14-GHz band allows the development of services using much smaller antennas than 

feasible in the 4/6-GHz band. This has prompted 

several applications for large private networks of small 

Earth stations to provide communications services 

between various business locations. These applications request streamlined licensing procedures which 

will enable such networks to be constructed more 

expeditiously and economically. In April 1986, the 

Commission issued a declaratory ruling which adopted 

streamlined processing procedures to apply to pending 

and future applications. Several small Earth station 

antenna networks were authorized in 1987. 

continued to develop. In 1986, the Commission 

authorized four companies to construct and launch 

satellites to provide this service which allows subscribers to determine latitude, longitude, and altitude, and 

to exchange brief coded messages using inexpensive, 

hand-held transceivers. Although two of the authorized companies turned in their licenses in 1987, one, 

Geostar Corporation, has begun to provide this service 

by placing packages on domestic fixed-satellites. 

In addition, the radio determination satellite system 

Geostar has also begun construction of its own dedicated satellite. 

In 1986, the Commission allocated 27 MHz of 

spectrum in the L-Band and established licensing 

policies for a mobile satellite service. This service is 

expected to provide telephone service to rural areas, 

long-range vehicle dispatch and location service, 

emergency communications service, service to industries operating in remote locations and aeronautical 

communications service. The Commission concluded 

that only one system could be licensed for the firstgeneration system, and that joint ownership of this 

system would best permit a variety of mobile satellite 

services to be made available to the public in an 

expeditious manner. The Commission directed all 

qualified applicants to negotiate a joint venture contract and propose a mobile satellite system. The eight 

qualified applicants have reached a general agreement 

regarding the key principles of the joint venture and 

are expected to submit a definitive contract and system 

proposal in early 1988. 

International Conference Activities 

During 1987, the Commission was involved in 

several activities and preparatory meetings geared 

toward the second session of the Space World Administrative Radio conference (Space WARC/ORB-88) 

scheduled for August 29 through October 5, 1988. The 

objective of the Space WARC conference is to guarantee to all countries equitable access to the geostationary satellite orbit and to the frequency bands allocated 

to space services. The Commission’s Industry Advisory 

Committee has continued to make major contributions 

to the preparations for the second session’s agenda 

which includes allotment planning; a multi-lateral planning process; other simplified procedures for access to 

the orbit; and broadcasting satellite issues. 

The Commission’s staff has been working with 

NASA and other Government agencies to define 

priorities and positions for the second session and to 

develop and support appropriate computer capabilities 
to aid in the allotment planning effort. In particular, 

the Commission is working with NASA in testing its 

recently developed computer program called NASARC 

for determining orbital arc allotments. The Commission is also developing capabilities to use the Japanese-developed program called ORBIT-3 to assign 

orbital positions. The feasibility of linking the results 

of these two programs is also being studied. 

From September 14 through October 16, 1987, the 

Commission’s staff attended the Mobile World Administrative Radio Conference (Mobile WARC). The 

purpose of this meeting was to examine and revise the 

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Radio 

Regulations that pertain to mobile services. The major 

results concerning space were the allocation of spectrum for Mobile Satellite Service and Radio Determination Service. The conference also provided for the 

implementation of Global Maritime Distress and Safety 

Systems. 
FAA’s Boeing 727 test aircraft and its Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) equipment in the forward cabin. 

Atop the racks is a display of TCAS 111 for an airborne technician to monitor. The spot iii the center is the 727 aircraft. 

An intruder is about three miles away at one o’clock. On the rack below is an engineering model of the TCAS 111 computer. 

132 
Transportation 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), a modal 

component of the US. Department of Transportation, 

is responsible for regulating air safety, ensuring the 

safe and efficient utilization of the national airspace 

system, and fostering the development of civil aviation. 

To support these responsibilities, FAA engages in a 

wide range of research and development activities. 

These activities can be grouped into two convenient 

categories: those concerned with enhancing safety and 

those designed to increase the efficiency of air navigation and air traffic control. 

Aviation Safety 

TraiWc Alert and Collision Avoidance System 

ment a concept called Traffic Alert and Collision 

Avoidance System (TCAS). The concept was based on 

previous efforts in the Beacon Collision Avoidance 

System (BCAS) program, and on air-to-air communications techniques using the new Mode S radar beacon 

transponder. The objective of the TCAS approach has 

been to provide a range of aircraft collision avoidance 

equipment alternatives that could provide some degree 

of collision protection for the full spectrum of airspace 

users. The TCAS equipment would operate without 

dependence on ground equipment and would be 

active systems, utilizing air-to-air interrogations. The 

family of TCAS equipment contains TCAS I, a system 

that generates traffic advisories only; TCAS 11, which 

generates traffic advisories and resolution advisories in 

the vertical plane; and TCAS 111, which generates traffic 

advisories and resolution advisories in both the 

horizontal and vertical planes. 

TCAS Z. Active TCAS I is an air-to-air interrogation 

device that alerts the pilot to the presence of a nearby 

transponder-equipped aircraft that may pose a collision 

threat and advises the pilot of the approximate clock 

position of the intruder aircraft. Although active TCAS 

I does not provide resolution advisories, a significant 

amount of available data demonstrates that pilots who 

are alerted to the presence and clock position of a 

Since June 1981, the FAA has proceeded to implenearby airplane will locate the intruder more rapidly, 

even in conditions of poor visibility. By providing 

traffic advisories, TCAS I supports the see-and-avoid 

concept of aircraft separation assurance. 

Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA), a 

government-industry working group was formed to 

develop Minimum Operational Performance Standards 

(MOPS) for an active TCAS I. The MOPS complete by 

this group was adopted by RTCA on March 20, 1987. 

A draft Technical Standard Order (TSO) that would 

permit the active TCAS I to be manufactured under the 

TSO approval system was issued in September 1987. 

To support the development of the MOPS, Lincoln 

Laboratory fabricated a TCAS I engineering unit for 

flight testing on both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. The bearing accuracy obtained was more than 

adequate to support proximity warning operations. 

Additional helicopter tests have been conducted at the 

FAA Technical Center, at Atlantic City, New Jersey. 

published on August 26, 1987, to require TCAS I 

installation within 5 years after the effective date of the 

rule in air carrier aircraft operating under Parts 135 and 

91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations with 10 to 19 

passenger seats. The installation of TCAS I does not 

require the Mode S transponder. 

cially to date, FAA believes that development of 

equipment that can meet the MOPS is well within the 

state of the art for manufacturers and that adequate 

quantities can be available within the required time 

period. 

TCAS IZ. Engineering development of TCAS I1 has 

been completed and the program is now in its certification-implementation phase. The RTCA approved 

Minimum Operational Performance Standards for the 

system in September 1983, and the FAA issued a 

Technical Standard Order in October 1987. The 

principal area of the TCAS I1 efforts in 1987 has been 

the certification and installation of TCAS I1 units in 

In accordance with recommendations of the Radio 

A Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) was 

Although no TCAS I system has been built commer133 
airline aircraft for the purpose of operational evaluation. On March 19, 1987, the FAA began the inservice evaluation of a prototype TCAS I1 installed in a 

Piedmont Airline B-727 aircraft. The objective of this 

program is to observe and record system performance 

and flight crew integration in a real-world environment. 

Installation Program (LIP), the objective of which is to 

permit evaluation of production quality TCAS I1 by a 

number of airlines under normal scheduled operations. 

In support of this objective, cost-sharing contracts were 

awarded in 1984 to the Air Transport Division of Allied 

Bendix and to Sperry Dalmo Victor, Inc., to design and 

Fabricate TCAS I1 units, as well as to evaluate them on 

air carrier aircraft for a period of 6 to 10 months. 

Bendix will provide units to United Airlines for installation in a B-737 and DC-8. Sperry Dalmo Victor will 

provide units to Northwest Airlines for installation in 

two MD-80’s and to Piedmont Airlines for installation 

in two B-727 aircraft. Certification of these TCAS 

installations and the beginning of the flight evaluation 

is expected in early 1988. 

The NPRM of August 26, 1987, proposes that 

installation of TCAS I1 be required in all turbinepowered aircraft operating under Parts 121, 129, and 

135 of the Federal Aviation Regulations with 30 or 

more passenger seats. 

sizable number of flight tests of an experimental 

system installed in an FAA B-727 aircraft were made in 

the vicinity of the agency’s Technical Center. These 

flights and supporting computer simulations will be 

used to assess the performance of the second generation TCAS I11 logic. A second TCAS 111 engineering 

unit was installed in the FAA Technical Center’s 

Convair 580. In the next series of tests, this equipment 

will provide the means to test the function that coordinates the TCAS resolution advisories provided to pilots 

as they approach each other on a potential collision 

course. 

134 

A major TCAS I1 implementation effort is the Limited 

TUSZZZ. In 1987, under the TCAS 111 Program, a 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) I1 

Display. The pilot of this TCAS llequipped aircraft has 

traffic dead ahead 600 feet below him and another aircraft 

coming his way 400 feet above. He will receive an 

advisory to climb or descend if the TCAS computer 

calculates that a collision hazard exists. 

The data obtained in the fight tests will provide 

RTCA the engineering basis for the specification of 

TCAS 111 characteristics in a MOPS. The first draft 

MOPS for the system is anticipated in the spring of 

1988. The design of the TCAS I1 units is expected to 

permit subsequent upgrading to TCAS I11 units at 

minimum cost. Although there is no requirement at 

this time for mandatory installation of TCAS 111, FAA is 

committed to support its implementation in airline 

aircraft. A decision was made in September 1987 to 

conduct a Limited Installation Program (LIP) for TCAS 

I11 similar to that described above for TCAS 11. 

Aircraft Crash worthiness 

During 1986, the FAA issued Notices of Proposed 

Rulemaking (NPRM) addressing the dynamic evaluation of seat and restraint systems for all categories of 

civil aircraft. These proposed rules were based on the 

results of a comprehensive research program which 

employed a multifaceted systems approach in address- 
ing the interfaces between the occupant, seat-restraint 

devices, and the airframe. 

In 1987, the focus of research and development, 

which had been centered around metal structures, 

shifted to structures fabricated of advanced composite 

materials such as graphite-epoxy, glass-epoxy, and 

kevlar-epoxy. The increasing usage of these advanced 

high strength-to-weight ratio materials has posed a 

new challenge with respect to occupant survivability 

and the certification of aircraft. Indeed, the transition 

to aluminum alloy construction was a relatively simple 

one compared to the introduction of composites. 

Aluminum did not present the wide-ranging complexities of mechanical properties or the varieties of possible fiber matrix combinations and geometrics available with composites. Efforts were undertaken to 

generate data to address the effects that advanced 

structural materials would have on occupant Survivability and aircraft structural airworthiness as defined by 

current regulations and advisory circulars. 

In early 1987, the FAA instrumented a B-707 fuselage section at its Technical Center and conducted a 

number of static pull tests to determine the nominal 

strength of a narrow-body transport category airplane 

floor, seat track, and floor-fuselage interface. The 

results of these pull tests were factored into two 

longitudinal dynamic impact tests that were performed 

on another B-707 fuselage section at the Transportation 

Research Center of Ohio. These impact test results 

were used to determine transport fuselage/floor/seat 

transmissible effects; verify the analytical modeling 

program; and expand the existing data base for metal 

and composite structures. 

Concurrent with these tests, the FAA developed a 

handbook (DOT/FAA/CT-87/9) for its personnel and 

other interested groups which provides basic information on the principles, fundamentals, and technical 

procedures relating to the manufacture and repair of 

fiber-reinforced composites used in aviation application. Also, Volume I1 of a two-volume textbook 

entitled Fiber Composite Analysis and Design was 

published. This volume addresses the analysis and 

design of fiber-reinforced composites ranging from 

their material properties through their structural 

applications. The textbook was developed primarily 

assist certification and aircraft design engineers. 

In order to avoid duplication of research on advanced composite materials, the FAA entered into 

three interagency agreements. Under these agreements, the FAA will engage in joint efforts with the 

to 

Navy, to evaluate existing composite static strength and 

fatigue life data to develop an acceptable methodology 

for certificate testing of composite structures; with the 

Army, to investigate the crash impact characteristics of 

composite structures; and with the Air Force, to 

characterize the modes and develop the investigative 

techniques to identify the various types and sources of 

composite structural failures due to in-service and/or 

impact-related events. 

Aviation Weather 

Wind Shear. Among aviation’s most serious 

weather concerns is wind shear, a sudden change in 

wind speed and direction. Wind shear may be produced by thunderstorms and even cloud formations 

that appear to be harmless. Convective activity 

associated with thunderstorm conditions can generate 

both gust fronts, which do not represent a serious 

threat to aircraft, and small, intense downdrafts, which 

are potentially more dangerous. These downdrafts, 

called microbursts, descend rapidly to the ground and 

spread out in all directions. They are often no more 

than one or two miles in diameter and have an average life of seven minutes. An airplane flying through a 

microburst first encounters a headwind, then a tailwind. The latter causes a reduction in airspeed and 

may result in a substantial loss of lift. In some cases, 

aircraft performance will not be sufficient to fly 

through microburst conditions. In addressing the wind 

shear question, the FAA is pursuing a variety of 

detection, warning, and flight guidance programs in 

conjunction with other Federal agencies. 
The FAA has continued to improve the 6-sensor 

Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS), the 

ground-based wind shear detection system that is 

currently in operational use. The system provides 

wind shear alerts to air traffic controllers, who in turn 

issue advisories to departing and arriving aircraft. 

LLWAS uses computer processing to compare wind 

speed and direction from sensors located at the airport. 

It generates alerts whenever the center-field wind data 

differs, by a preestablished threshold, from data 

obtained from a wind sensor located around the 

perimeter of the airport. The current processing 

algorithms (computer procedures) are not sufficient to 

identify, positively, microburst conditions occurring 

within the boundary of the airport. In addition, the 

current siting of some of the sensors is affected by 

buildings and other objects which distort the wind 

flow in the vicinity of the sensors and may, in some 

cases, generate an unnecessary alert. 

The FAA formed a team in 1986 to assess the siting 

of all LLWAS sensors at all airports in the United States. 

Information collected by the team also was used to 

identify nuisance alarms caused by events that are too 

brief or localized to be meteorologically significant. In 

addition, wind experts from Colorado State University 

and the National Center for Atmospheric Research 

(NCAR) developed new and more comprehensive 

siting criteria. By mid-1987, new algorithms were 

developed and tested to reduced the impact of false 

alarms and to enhance the microburst-detection 

capability. The algorithms will be incorporated into 

the LLWAS’s during 1988. In addition, necessary 

resiting of the LLWAS sensors will be completed by 

August 1988. 

an expanded network LLWAS with up to 16 sensor 

sites. The algorithms and the additional sensor sites 

give the new system an even greater capability in 

detecting hazardous microbursts. They also permit the 

reporting of results in terms of runway coordinates, a 

form more useful to the pilot. The FAA conducted an 

136 

New algorithms were also devised during 1986 for 

FAA’s terminal Doppler weather radar test bed, operated 

by MIT’s Lincoln Labs, is located in Buckley, Colorado. 

evaluation of the new algorithms and a new tower cab 

display at Denver’s Stapleton Airport in September 

1987, and an evaluation report is scheduled for completion in January 1988. Commissioning of this 

expanded LLWAS is expected by mid-1990. 

Development of Doppler weather radar is an 

important approach to the problem of wind shear. 

This type of radar is capable of “seeing” inside storms 

to measure both rainfall intensity and the speed of 

winds moving toward or away from the antenna site. 

During 1987, the FAA carried out Doppler weather 

radar tests at Denver, Colorado, continuing a test series 

conducted in Tennessee and Alabama during the 

previous two years. The test facility included an Sband Doppler weather radar, fabricated hy Lincoln 

Laboratory for the FAA. The University of North 

Dakota provided a C-band Doppler weather radar and 

a Cessna Citation aircraft instrumented for turbulence 

detection. In addition, 30 ground weather sensors 

were used. 

In the 1987 tests, the facility was used to collect 

basic meteorological data, refine algorithms for 

weather detection, evaluate air traffic control operational issues, and continue Doppler weather radar 

functional and technical refinements. In 1988, the 

equipment will be used to conduct an operational 

evaluation. This will include evaluation of candidate 

displays for controller use and candidate presentation 

of information relative to hazardous weather in the 
terminal area. The potential impact of the operational 

scenarios on air traffic control operations also will be 

evaluated. 

In the field of airborne detection systems, the FAA 

and NASA continued to cooperate under a memorandum of agreement providing for joint development of 

the system requirements for “forward-looking” wind 

shear sensors, using such techniques as Doppler radar, 

lidar, and infared. These sensors would work by 

“looking ahead” to detect wind shear before the 

aircraft enters the hazardous area. The FAA and NASA 

plan to provide approximately $24,800,000 under the 

agreement, which started in October 1986 and will last 

through September 1991. The two agencies are 

working closely with the aviation industry to ensure 

that the results of technology assessments and analysis 

capabilities are useful to the industry’s design, development, and certification program. The emphasis of 

this program over the first year was the development 

of a definition of the hazard posed to aircraft, and an 

understanding of the phenomena below 1,500 feet. 

During 1987, technology assessments were conducted 

for the forwardhoking sensor concepts, and initial 

work commenced on understanding the human factors 

issues associated with this equipment. 

The industry has focused its attention on reactive 

wind shear sensors for aircraft systems that compare 

the inertial data of aircraft with air mass data. When a 

shear is encountered, an alert is sounded and the flight 

crews are provided with information on how to exit 

the shear. The FAA and NASA are working closely 

with the manufacturers of these reactive devices to 

ensure that they will work in harmony with the 

forward-looking sensors under development. 

been encouraged by a National Research Council 

report urging an educational campaign directed at all 

classes of pilots, and by recognition that wind shear 

training programs vary from airline to airline. In 

November 1985, the FAA awarded a $1.8 million 

contract to the Boeing Commercial Airplane Company 

In recent years, action on wind shear training has 

to develop a wind shear training program. Boeing was 

supported with subcontracts to the Douglas Aircraft 

Company, Lockheed, United Airlines, and Aviation 

Weather Associates. The objective of the program was 

to provide operators with the tools to train pilots to 

avoid wind shear and to use standard techniques to 

escape from inadvertent encounters. 

The producls of this program were delivered on 

February 26, 1987, and included a wind shear pilot 

guide, an example wind shear training program, 

substantiating data, and a management overview. 

These materials were sent to all U.S. air carriers, 

commuter airlines, and scheduled air taxi operators, as 

well as to FAA inspectors and regional offices. Some 

copies were also sent to aviation interest groups for 

further distribution to their constituencies, and others 

were distributed internationally. Copies of the training 

aid can now be obtained through the National Archives and Research Administration’s National Audiovisual Center. Reviews and updates of this material are 

planned on an annual basis to ensure that information 

is always responsive to the aviation industry. 

Automated Weather Observing System. The 

majority of airports within the National Airspace 

System (NAS) do not have a local weather reporting 

capability. For example, operations for commercial 

operators under instrument flight rules are restricted at 

over 1,300 airports because of the unavailability of 

weather observaticns. The Automated Weather 

Observing System (AWOS) offers a means of improving this situation. Through the use of automated 

sensors, AWOS will make surface weather observations 

of aviation-critical weather data. It will process these 

data and disseminate the resulting information to a 

variety of users. 

contains sensors to measure wind speed and direction, 

ambient and dewpoint temperature, and altimeter 

setting. This version also computes density altitude. 

An AWOS II contains the AWOS I sensors plus a 

visibility sensor, and an AWOS I11 adds a cloud height 

AWOS is available in three versions. An AWOS I 

137 
sensor to an AWOS 11. Most important, all versions are 

required to have the capability to broadcast a minuteby-minute update of the current weather to the pilot 

by radio, using a computer-generated voice. AWOS 

may also have a capability that enables such users as 

pilots engaged in preflight preparations to call the 

AWOS by telephone to obtain the current weather 

observation. In addition, the observation may be 

transmitted to the data bank within the national 

weather network. 

and other local airport authorities may apply to the 

FAA for partial funding of AWOS, using dollar resources from the Airway Trust Fund. In 1986, the FAA 

completed the specification document that establishes 

the following criteria necessary to provide confidence 

in the quality of AWOS meteorological data: data and 

documentation submitted by the manufacturer must 

establish that the equipment provides the quality of 

information required by the aviation community; 

verification that the equipment is correctly installed 

and operating properly, and that the owner has the 

resources to maintain the system; and periodic visits 

are required to the operating AWOS by the FAA or 

other technical representatives to verify that the system 

continues to operate correctly. During 1987, the FAA 

certified two companies as suppliers of AWOS systems. 

The FAA is preparing to procure 160 commercially 

available AWOS 111 type systems to meet its many 

safety requirements relating to instrument approach 

operations. These systems will be installed at various 

airports without towers to provide an early enhancement of safety and efficiency of flight operations by 

providing real-time weather data at facilities that 

currently do not have a local weather reporting 

capability. The FAA also is coordinating with the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration the 

procurement of additional and more sophisticated 

automated surface observing systems to meet the 

requirements at airports where FAA personnel currently make observations, and at additional nontow138 

Under the Airport Improvement Program (AIP), state 

ered airports with instrument approaches. 

Atmospheric Electrical Hazards. Currenttechnology aircraft that employ large amounts of 

composite (non-metallic) materials in their structure 

and utilize low-voltage digital avionic systems are far 

more susceptible to the adverse effects of lightning and 

static electricity than conventional aircraft of all metallic construction. The FAA continued to gather, develop, and disseminate new scientific information on 

lightning and the threat that it poses to modern aircraft, 

an effort undertaken with the Department of Defense, 

Department of Commerce, National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration, the aircraft industry, and independent research organizations. The FAA published 

several documents during 1987 to facilitate the design, 

certification, maintenance, and operation of aircraft 

and avionics in the lightning environment, including 

the following: 

a draft advisory circular and draft users manual to 

protect aircraft electrical/electronic systems against the 

induced effects of lightning; 

seven digital-system validation reports for inclusion 

in the digital-system validation handbook; 

a report on avionics system design for high energy 

fields; and 

two draft reports that address electrical properties of 

composite materials and simulation test techniques to 

validate protection designs. 

Icing. The formation of ice can threaten an aircraft 

through increased drag, loss of lift, and even loss of 

control, while the shedding of ice can lead to structural 

and engine damage. To ensure proper certification of 

aircraft and aircraft engines using new or modified ice 

protection designs, the FAA seeks to expand understanding of equipment limitations under various 

operating conditions. During 1987, the agency re- 
ported on two areas of concern: concepts and consideration for the application of engine inlet deicing 

equipment in which shed ice particles may be ingested 

by the engine; and engine icing certification testing 

criteria, when required testing conditions cannot be 

obtained readily due to Facility limitations. 

Aviation Security 

progress in the area of explosive detection. The 

development of two prototype thermal neutron 

activation (TNA) systems, which screen checked 

baggage and air cargo, was completed. The first TNA 

system, which utilizes a radioactive neutron source, 

began tests on checked baggage at San Francisco 

International Airport in June and has subsequently 

been tested at Los Angeles International Airport. The 

second TNA prototype, utilizing an electronic neutron 

source, was initially tested at San Francisco in August 

and subsequently at Los Angeles. Results have been 

excellent, with detection percentage in the ~O’S, a 

relatively low level of false alarms, and an average 

screening time of six seconds per item. The TNA 

system is the first “true” explosive detector to be 

operationally viable. X-ray data also was collected on 

the bags involved in these tests, and software is being 

developed and tested to combine data from the TNA 

and x-ray systems to further reduce false alarms. 

In vapor detection of explosives, the FAA has 

pursued development of a portal screener for passengers that uses the detection technique of chemiluminescence. The agency began laboratory tests of a 

breadboard portal in December 1987, and a prototype 

portal will be tested at an airport in the summer of 

1988. The FAA also has continued a feasibility study 

of a chemiluminescent system for screening carry-on 

baggage, and completed an evaluation of a mobile 

detector, developed for another agency, on its applicability for screening aircraft. 

In 1987, the FAA initiated several studies involving 

new technologies and concepts for explosive detecDuring 1987, the FAA continued to make significant 

tion. Most of these studies had their origin in two FAA 

solicitations for new approaches to explosive detection. Out of nearly 30 responses to the solicitations, 

four were considered sufficiently promising to merit 

awards for feasibility studies. In addition, several 

projects on new technologies initiated in prior years 

have been continued. The most important of these is 

the dual sensor approach which combines x-ray and 

TNA sensors and offers considerable promise of system 

performance surpassing TNA alone. 

The FAA continued to explore the possibility of 

improving the discrimination capabilities of current 

generation metal detectors as a means of improving 

airport concourse security. The agency also conducted 

studies of infrared, millimeter wave, and acoustic 

techniques for detecting both metallic and nonmetallic 

weapons. Finally, the FAA proceeded with its investigation of the enhancement of concourse x-ray systems 

for automated detection of explosives and weapons in 

carry-on and checked baggage. 

Medical Certification 

During 1987, the FAA continued its evaluation of 

therapeutic agents that could impair performance in 

civil aviation. In a cooperative testing program with 

the University of Oklahoma, test subjects who had 

elevated blood pressure were administered a “betablocker” type of antihypertension medication. The 

subjects were then exposed to a profile of stressers 

reflective of civilian piloting that included altitude 

simulation to 12,500 feet; acceleration simulation to 

two accelerations of gravity (2G); a low level of 

physical exercise; and a battery of performance tests. 

The ability to define the determinants of G tolerance, 

impending incapacitation, and disruption of general 

performance and thought associated with this commonly administered hypertensive should facilitate 

future medical certification decisions. The same 

protocol can be adapted to evaluate the effect of a 

broad range of cardiovascular medications on civilian 

piloting skills. 
In a separate but related area, the FAA reviewed the 

mental status examinations available to aviation 

medical examiners for use in screening candidates for 

civilian pilot medical certification who might have 

impaired mental function. Tests identified as potentially applicable for a quick screening approach in the 

medical office will be validated in 1988 by three 

contractors (Advanced Resource Development Corporation, Nova Technology, Inc., and the University of 

Illinois). The contractors will apply select batteries of 

tests to pilots and to subjects with known thought and 

performance deficits. 

Airport Pavement Research 

During 1987, the FAA completed development of 

new and updated criteria for increasing durability and 

reducing maintenance costs of airport pavement 

overlays through the use of recycled rubber in asphalt 

concrete pavements. Criteria to reduce premature 

cracking of new overlays by the crack-and-seat method 

of construction were completed. Through an interagency agreement with the Army Corps of Engineers, 

new criteria have been developed for the economical 

design of overlays for rigid pavements in need of 

rehabilitation; also, the effectiveness of criteria for the 

design of pavements for high traffic volume was 

assessed. Studies of the effects of pavement layer 

separation on performance, as well as criteria for the 

use of old concrete in providing new riding surfaces, 

were completed. 

The FAA continued efforts to investigative additives 

for strengthening subgrades and concrete pavements 

serving heavy aircraft, and to investigate the effectiveness of devices for evaluating the strength parameters 

of in-service pavements. Work continued in developing acceptance standards for construction items, and in 

the field validation of new standards for material 

selection and construction methods for the prevention 

of frost and thaw damage to pavements. Also in 1987, 

through an interagency agreement with the Navy, work 

continued on the identification of sealants that effectively protect airport pavements from undercutting 

caused by water and the growth of vegetation in joints 

and cracks. In addition, development of smoothness 

criteria for acceptable riding comfort continued in 

1987. 

Other Safety Developments 

General Aviation Fuels. In 1987, the FAA issued a 

report that identified a number of considerations on 

certifying general aviation aircraft fuel systems to use 

automotive gasoline. The agency’s Engine/Fuel Safety 

branch also tested different grades of gasohols (blends 

of automotive gasoline with ethanol or methanol), 

methanol, ethanol, and a derivative of methanol called 

methyl-tertiary-butyl ether. Except for the gasoline 

ingredient in gasohol, these fuels can be produced 

from coal or renewable sources such as grain and 

wood. Thus, they offer the potential for reducing the 

Nation’s dependency on foreign oil, and providing 

new answers to the general aviation community’s 

desire for an alternate fuel to aviation gasoline. Research will continue, however, because the test and 

evaluation program conducted by FAA engineers 

uncovered several potential problems that must be 

solved before such fuels can be used safely in place of 

aviation gasoline. These problems include vapor lock, 

water compatibility, material compatibility, severe 

detonation in high-performance engines, and a degree 

of fuel loss due to evaporation and venting. 

ever-present hazard to aircraft. Aircraft collisions with, 

and ingestion of, birds during the course of a year 

cause damage estimated as high as $40 million or 

more. As part of its continuing effort to assess the 

adequacy of the current certification standards for jet 

engine bird ingestion, the FAA engaged in two parallel, 

two-year studies that will expand on the data presented in its previous report, A Study of Bird Ingestions 

into Large High Bypass Ratio Turbine Aircraft Engines, 

DOT/FAA/CT-84/13. 

One of these studies, which entered the active 

research phase in 1987, concerned the bird ingestion 

Jet Engine Bird Hazard Program Birds are an 

140 
history of the €3-737 transport aircraft. Some models of 

this aircraft are powered by General Electric’s CFM56 

turbofan engines, with large inlet areas and a medium 

bypass ratio, while others still use the older Pratt and 

Whitney JYSD turbofans, with smaller inlet areas and a 

lower bypass ratio. The study will compare the bird 

ingestion experience of the two different engines on 

the same type of aircraft in the same bird ingestion 

environment. 

on the bird ingestion history of small turbofan and 

turboprop engines of the type used to power commuter and business jets. The engines are Garrett’s 

TFE731 turbofan and TPE331 turboprop, Avco’s 

ALF502 turbofan, and Pratt and Whitney’s JT15D 

turbofan. 

Rotocraft Safety and Operational Improvements. The FAA has undertaken a program to enhance the safety of transport helicopters by determining the causes of the rising number of uncontained 

turbine engine rotor failures in the civil helicopter fleet 

during recent years. Data on operational service 

engine failures in the US. fleet was accumulated and 

reviewed during 1987. Preliminary results indicated 

that at least two turboshaft engine models suffer from a 

significant uncontained rotor failure rate. The FAA will 

continue to review operational service data on all civil 

helicopter powerplants to determine the causes, 

characteristics, and effects of such failures. New 

containment technology, materials, and propulsion 

system designs to reduce this hazard will be evaluated. 

The results of the program will be used by the agency 

to evaluate the adequacy of its current certification 

standards for helicopter engine rotor failure protection. 

The FAA held a “Zero/Zero” Helicopter Certification 

Issues Forum to analyze the issues from the perspective of the agency, manufacturers, operators, and 

researchers. The basic premise behind this analysis is 

that rotocraft operations in conditions of “zero/zero” or 

extremely low visibility are feasible today from both 

technological and operation viewpoints. The quesThe other study, initiated in 1987, will compile data 

tions and issues that were identified and need to be 

resolved are the following: What certification requirements are needed to ensure safety? Can procedures be 

developed that capitalize on the performance and 

maneuvering capabilities unique to rotocraft? Will 

extremely low visibility operations be economically 

feasible? 

The report of the Issues Forum was prepared in 

three volumes that included an overview of the forum, 

presenting the consensus of 49 experts from Government, manufacturers, and the research community on 

50 certification issues of operational requirements, 

procedures, airworthiness, and engineering capabilities; the operator perspectives (system needs), technical solutions, and “zero/zero” concepts developed up 

to the present time; and an issue-by-issue deliberation 

of the experts who supported the working groups of 

the forum. 

completed an extensive series of tests involving 28 

foam firefighting agents currently available for use by 

aircraft rescue and firefighting services at national and 

international airports. These agents were classified 

into two performance level types, each comprising two 

groups of foam firefighting liquids, based upon their 

chemical composition. The technical information and 

classification procedures were requested by the 

International Civil Aviation Organization for submission 

to the International Standards Organization study 

group for use in developing a revised international 

classification standard for foam firefighting agents. 

After receiving the New Jersey Environmental 

Protection Agency’s approval of the fire test facility for 

conducting large-scale tests on firefighting agents, the 

FAA began evaluation of foam agents determined to be 

promising in small-scale laboratory tests. The FAA also 

initiated tests and evaluation of rescue and firefighting 

equipment and clothing, as well as development of 

efficient rescue and firefighting systems for heliports 

and general aviation airports. 

Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting. The FAA 

141 
At the request of the Aviation Section of the Ndtional Fire Protection Association International, FAA 

presented the classification methodology at the International Conference on Aviation Fire Protection held in 

September 1987 at Interlaken, Switzerland. 

Cabin Fire Safety. During 1987, FAA aircraft fire 

safety activities focused on the in-flight fire problem. 

Initial full-scale fire tests inside a wide body fuselage 

were conducted to examine the characteristics of fires 

originating in hidden or inaccessible aircraft areas. 

This and subsequent test data will be useful in assessing the adequacy of current in-flight fire detection and 

extinguishing techniques, and of materials’ fire resistance. In addition, the FAA evaluated the effectiveness 

of the current practice of employing the aircraft 

environmental control system (ECS) to ventilate smoke 

from an in-flight fire. Because it was found that the 

ECS has limited capability for smoke venting, FAA has 

begun to examine the feasibility of several enhanced 

methods of smoke removal. 

Low Impact Resistance Structures. In complying with Recommendations No. A-84-36 of the National 

Transportation Safety Board, the agency has been in 

the process of developing and installing Low Impact 

Resistance Structures (LIRS) in order to reduce the 

amount of damage sustained by a lightweight aircraft 

that might accidentally collide with air navigation 

equipment and support structures. During 1987, the 

fabrication of a 20-foot tower that offers low resistance 

to impact was completed and assembled at the fabrication shop prior to being shipped to the National 

Bureau of Standards for the start of a series of tests. 

Laboratory tests were completed on certain tower 

members and full size “breakaway mechanisms. ” 

Dynamic tests also were carried out on electrical 

conductors, and the break energy required was 

calculated. A report an the results of the conductor 

tests was completed. 

142 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

National Airspace System Plan 

Host Computer System Since 1981, the FAA has 

proceeded to implement the National Airspace Systems 

(NASI Plan, a technological blueprint for modernizing 

and increasing the capacity of the Nation’s system of 

air navigation and air traffic control. A major step in 

this implementation Qccurred on May 29, 1987, when 

the first of a new generatior; c)f air traffic control 

computer systems was commissioixd at the air route 

control center in Seattle, Washington. The Host 

Computer System uses the same basic instruction 

package as the IBM 9020 computers that it will replace 

at the 20 air route traffic control centers in the contiguous 48 states. The development of the new system 

began with a design competition in the summer of 

1983 between IBM and Sperry-Univac. In 1985, FAA 

selected the IBM design, the key element of which is 

the 3083-BXI computer. The FAA’s Technical Center 

subjected the new system to rigorous testing, including 

a 25-hour operational readiness test, before accepting 

it for delivery to Seattle. 

times the capacity of the older 9020. Tests conducted 

by IBM demonstrated that the host can handle the air 

traffic work load projected for 1995 using less than 40 

percent of its capacity. This allows for unforeseen 

traffic growth, and also permits the FAA to add new 

automation Functions and upgrade such existing 

capabilities as conflict alert and en route traffic 

metering. 

During 1987, the delivery of all 20 Host Computer 

Systems was completed, and 9 of them were commissioned. Plans call for commissioning host computers 

at the remaining 11 air route traffic control centers by 

June 1988. 

AdvancedAutomation System. The Advanced 

Automation System (AAS) includes new “sector suite” 

workstations for controllers, new computer software, 

and new processors. An AAS design competition 

between IBM and Hughes Aircraft has been underway 

The new host system is ten times faster and has four 
since August 1984. To select a winner to produce and 

implement AAS, the FAA issued a request for proposals 

in August 1987. This contract is expected to be 

awarded in July 1988. It includes new Automation En 

Route Air Traffic Control (AREA) software, which is 

being developed as part of the AAS. This first installment of AREA software will automate certain air traffic 

control functions. The AAS provides improved productivity, capacity, and reliability, as well as the 

needed flexibility for future improvements in air traffic 

control automation. 

conducted the preliminary design review of two 

competing prototypes of the Voice Switching and 

Controlling System (VSCS). The prototypes are being 

built by AT&T Technologies and the Harris Corporation under a 35-month competitive contract awarded in 

October 1986, and the winning contractor will produce 

and install 24 of the systems. VSCS will provide 

controllers at air route traffic control centers with 

computer-controlled voice switching for air-ground 

communications, and intercom and interphone communications within and between FAA facilities. Compared to the present electromechanical switching 

system, VSCS will be faster and more flexible, as well 

as more reliable and economical to maintain. 

New York TRACON 

Upgrading of the automated air traffic control 

system at the New York Terminal Radar Approach 

Control Facility (TRACON) continued under a contract 

awarded in March 1986 to the UNISYS Corporation. 

The upgrade is required to increase the capacity of the 

current system, which services three major airports and 

40 satellite airports in the New York metropolitan area. 

Stage I of this two-stage contract will include new, 

redesigned controller displays, solid state memory, and 

a local area network. The prototype Stage I equipment was delivered and installed in 1987, and initial 

integration testing was conducted at the FAA Technical 

Center. 

Voice Switching and Control System The FAA 

Successful implementation of Stage I at the New 

York TRACON in 1988 will provide tracking of 1,700 

aircraft within a 15,000-square-mile area. Stage I1 

completion, scheduled for February 1990, will increase 

the tracking capability to 2,800 aircraft. 

Airport Visual Aids and Lights 

During 1987, the FAA continued the effort to 

standardize instrument flight rule approach lighting 

systems for heliports. After evaluating systems in 

actual weather and in simulation flights, a promising 

prototype was installed at the FAA Technical Center. 

Evaluation of the prototype under visual flight rules 

was completed, and evaluation under instrument flight 

des was begun. 

visual aid system to indicate temporary runway closure. After several prototype systems were developed 

and tested, the most effective appeared to be an xshaped visual aid using pulsating lights. Results of the 

evaluation showed that the visual aid provided an 

intuitive indication of a closed runway in adequate 

time for a pilot to execute a safe, missed-approach 

maneuver. 

The FAA continued the development and evaluation 

of improved lighting systems for runways and taxiways 

in 1987. The lights will help maintain airport capacity 

by permitting aircraft operations in conditions of very 

low visibility. 

Airport Capacity 

Enhancement and Delay Reduction. The FAA continued these site-specific studies in order to reduce 

aircraft delays at major airports. Participants in the task 

force efforts included airport sponsors, the Air Transport Association, airlines, consultants, and representatives from FAA regions, centers, and towers. During 

1987, three of these studies were completed, and three 

new studies were initiated at Boston, Phoenix, and Salt 

Lake City. 

The Technical Center completed development of a 

Task Force Studies on Airport Capacity 

143 
Airspace and Airport Simulation Model. In 

1987, a nine-year research program sponsored by the 

FAA resulted in the development of the Airport/ 

Airspace Delay and Fuel Consumption Simulation 

Model (SIMMOD). An advanced computer model that 

simulates both airfield and airspace traffic operations, 

SIMMOD is a flexible, powerful, tool. It is capable of 

calculating the impacts of a wide variety of potential 

airport and airspace improvement options in terms of 

capacity, travel time, delay, and fuel consumption. 

SIMMOD is designed to “play out” operations within 

the computer to determine the real-world results that 

would be obtained if various operational, technological, or Facility alternatives were actually implemented. 

The first application of the simulation model was to 

verify and quantify the benefits of proposed routings 

and sectorization developed as part of the Expanded 

East Coast Plan for more efficient air traffic control. 

SIMMOD is expected to play an important part in 

future operational planning by the FAA and the 

aviation community. 

Precision Runway Monitor Program Phn. 

Because severe airport capacity problems are expect to 

worsen as traffic increases at an estimated 6 percent 

per year, it is becoming more and more urgent to 

exploit solutions that can be implemented in the next 

one to five years. 

For airports with the appropriate runway geometrics, a much-studied way to maintain airport capacity 

has been the use of both dependent and independent 

multiple approach streams to separate parallel runways 

under Instrument Flight Rule (IFR), as is done under 

Visual Flight Rules (VFR). In dependent operations, 

standard diagonal separations between aircraft in 

adjacent streams are maintained in addition to the 

usual in-trail separations. In independent operations, 

aircraft are allowed to operate without reference to 

those in the other stream as long as they remain in 

their Gwn stream and maintain in-trail separations. A 

precision runway monitor that would provide precise 

surveillance of landing aircraft under IFR would make 

144 

it possible to control such independent approaches, 

and also would allow the FAA to safely reduce the 

distance required between closely spaced parallel 

runways. This could reduce capacity problems at 

some selected airports, and also would open possibilities for new runway construction under land-limited 

conditions. 

To meet these objectives, the FAA has undertaken a 

comprehensive demonstration program, involving two 

different approaches, to find a suitable sensor for 

monitoring independent IFR approaches to parallel 

runways less than 4,300 feet apart. Both approaches 

are based upon the existing Air Traffic Control Radar 

Beacon System (ATCRBS). One approach is to modify 

the new Mode S version of this system, presently being 

procured for installation at all major airports, by adding 

another antenna. The other approach is to develop a 

high-update-rate sensor using off-the-shelf technology 

developed as part of the TCAS collision avoidance 

program described earlier in this report. The Mode S 

system uses mechanically rotated antennas, while the 

TCAS-based version uses fixed-phase array antennas 

and will have a higher update rate that may be needed 

at locations with runway spacings below 3,400 feet. 

Among existing airports with parallel runways, seven 

could benefit from the Mode S version and three 

require the high-update system. In the spring of 1988, 

a demonstration of the Mode S version will take place 

in Memphis, Tennessee, and in the fall of that year the 

TCAS-derived equipment will be demonstrated at 

Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina. 

and the Transportation Systems Center of the Department of Transportation continued their joint investigation of helicopter wake vortex characteristics. Fullscale flight tests of the CH-47D and UH-60 helicopters 

involved measuring the vortex intensity, persistence, 

movement, and decay of the aircraft wake as a function of time. The Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV) 

was utilized to collect the flight data. Vortex probing 

with T-34 and Decathlon aircraft was conducted to 

Helicopter Wake Vortex Study. In 1987, the FAA 
determine the potential hazard to an aircraft encountering the wake. The FAA will use the information 

collected in this program to explore the feasibility of 

reduced air traffic control separation standards in 

mixed terminal area operations. 

Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation 

The Department of Transportation (DOT) was 

designated the lead agency within the Federal Government for encouraging, facilitating and coordinating the 

development of commercial expendable launch vehicle 

(ELV) operations by private US. enterprises as a result 

of Executive Order 12465 and the Commercial Space 

Launch Act of 1984. To carry out these responsibilities, DOT’S Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

reviews Government policies affecting commercial 

launch activities, provides a single point within the 

US. Government for obtaining licenses for commercial 

ELV launches, and promotes and encourages commercial ELV operations by U.S. firms in domestic and 

foreign markets. 

The President’s commitment to encourage the 

development of a private sector space transportation 

industry has resulted in an emerging, internationally 

competitive American industry which has made 

inroads against the US. prime competitor, Arianespace. 

Currently, seven American launch firms are actively 

marketing their services: the three major aerospace 

manufacturers, Martin Marietta, McDonnell Douglas, 

and General Dynamics; and four smaller, entrepreneurial firms: Space Services, Inc., American Rocket 

Company, Conatec, Inc., and E’Prirne Aerospace 

Corporation. By April 1987, American firms had 

reservations for the launch of 22 commercial and 

foreign satellites. By September, these firms had 

signed final contracts to launch eight satellites, and by 

the end of the year, the number had increased to 12 

satellites. Major investments totaling approximately 

$400 million have been made in this emerging business by the commercial ELV companies, which may 

add as many as 8,000 new jobs to the current levels of 

employment already represented by launch services. 

Each satellite launch on a US. ELV adds between 

$40 million and $100 million to America’s gross 

national product (GNP). The Department of Defense, 

an important customer for the launch vehicle industry, 

increased its procurement of expendable launch 

vehicles in 1987. 

Martin Marietta, manufacturer of the Titan, the 

largest unmanned rocket in America’s launch stable, 

signed contracts for four launches: two for the International Telecommunications Satellites Organization 

(INTELSAT), one for a Japanese Communications 

Satellite (JCSAT), and a fourth for British Skynet. 

McDonnell Douglas, manufacturer of the Delta rocket 

and the Air Force’s Delta I1 (also known as the Medium Launch Vehicle or MLV), has three contracts to 

launch four commercial satellites: one for India’s 

INSAT, two for British Satellite Broadcasting, Inc., and 

one for the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). General Dynamics announced at 

the 1987 Paris Air Show its plan to invest almost $100 

million of its own funds to build 18 Atlas-Centaur 

rockets in anticipation of commercial orders. Since 

then, this company has been awarded contracts for 

four launches, including one for EUTELSAT (the 

European Telecommunications Satellite Organization) 

and three GOES weather satellites for the Department 

of Commerce. All told, these companies have signed 

contracts worth more than $500 million. 

The entrepreneurial “startup” companies that offer 

rockets for smaller payloads were also successful in 

signing customers. Space Services, Inc., had eight 

launch reservations; Conatec submitted a license 

application for a suborbital launch of materialsprocessing experiments on behalf of a European 

customer; and E’Prime announced plans to launch a 

university research payload on a small sounding rocket 

as a precursor to commercial launches. 

145 
National Space Policy 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

participated in several public policy forums which 

addressed a variety of critical space policy issues, 

including the development of range use agreements 

and the allocation of risk and insurance requirements. 

In addition, DOT encouraged Government agencies to 

rely on commercial launch services whenever possible 

to meet their need for transportation. 

A representative of the Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation served on the Air Force’s MLV source 

selection advisory board. McDonnell Douglas was 

selected in January 1987 to produce 7 Delta I1 rockets 

immediately, and the Air Force holds an option to 

procure 13 more. Office representatives also served 

on a board advising NASA and the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) about 

procuring launch services for three Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellites (the GOES series 

of weather satellites). General Dynamics was selected 

to produce Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles for the 

GOES. 

DOT also has played a major role in providing 

information and guidance to the US. Trade Representative on the policies and practices of U.S. launch 

companies. A notice was published in the Federal 

Register on February 26, 1986 to solicit data from 

industry aimed at a better understanding of commercial 

concern over international competition. American 

firms have been especially concerned about the nature 

of direct and indirect financial support by the European Space Agency (ESA) and ESA member states of 

Arianespace launches, particularly in the areas of range 

use, insurance, liability and accident investigations. 

This laid the groundwork for consultations held with 

ESA in July and October 1987 to gain a clearer understanding of the approaches that ESA and the United 

States are taking to affirm their commitments to their 

commercial launch industries. Future discussions 

between US. agencies are planned to decide whether 

it would be in the long-term interest of the United 

146 

States to continue talks with ESA at this time. 

The Office also represented the Department in 

international policy negotiations concerning the Space 

Station. An interagency delegation consisting of the 

Department of Commerce, Department of Defense, 

Department of State, Department of Transportation, 

and NASA is negotiating with ESA, Japan, and Canada 

on appropriate roles for each partner., The Office was 

successful in retaining language in the draft international agreement that will allow America’s commercial 

launch industry to compete for contracts to transport 

facilities, equipment, and supplies to the Space Station. 

In late 1987, the Department took an active role in 

an effort, led by the White House, to consolidate 

previous space policy directives into a single, comprehensive National Space Policy. This policy further 

reaffirmed and strengthened DOT’s role as the lead 

agency for resolving issues associated with the commercial launch industry. The Department also participated in a series of meetings, sponsored by the 

Economic Policy Council’s Commercial Space Working 

Group (CSWG), to develop recommendations, for the 

Council’s consideration, on commercial space firms’ 

concerns over Government impediments to commercialization. 

Use of Government Launch Facilities 

develop the terms and conditions that will govern 

commercial use of the Nation’s launch ranges. At the 

end of 1986, a landmark symposium on range use was 

held at Patrick Air Force Base in Florida. This symposium, cosponsored by DOT, NASA, and the Air Force, 

represented the first time that officials from Government agencies and industry met to discuss the procedures and requirements under which the Nation’s 

launch facilities would be made available to commercial users. 

DOT’s Commercial Space Transportation Advisory 

Committee (COMSTAC) prepared an exhaustive 

analysis of a draft range use agreement that identified 

In 1987, the Office worked with the Air Force to 
issues that needed to be addressed. These included 

billing procedures, launch scheduling priorities, and 

liability. In the first quarter of 1987, DOT initiated a 

review by the Commercial Space Working Group of 

those areas in the Air Force Model Range Use Agreement which DOT identified as potential barriers to 

commercial use of national launch ranges. As a result 

of the close cooperation between DOT, the Air Force, 

and NASA, many of the issues were successfully 

resolved and, in the early fall, both Martin Marietta and 

General Dynamics signed range use agreements with 

the Air Force. Space Services, Inc. already had a 

signed range use agreement with NASA regarding 

Wallops Island. 

Radio Advisory Committee, the Office urged NASA and 

DOD to make their tracking, telemetry and control 

frequencies avdihble on a transitional basis to commercial launch vehicles. This effort, which also 

involves the commercial launch industry, the National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration, 

and the FCC, will identify the radio frequencies that 

will be available to support commercial operations. 

During the latter half of 1987, in cooperation with 

the Air Force, the Office of Commercial Space Transportation developed an environmental assessment of 

the commercial space transportation programs at 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB). The Department 

of Transportation licenses commercial space launches 

from the National Ranges, one of which is VAFB. This 

programmatic assessment evaluated the impacts that 

existing launch vehicles, launch facilities and propellants would have upon the environment in and around 

VAFB when used in commercial operations. 

Commercial Launch Licensing Programs 

In August 1987, Martin Marietta received mission 

approval for two INTELSAT payloads. Launches are 

scheduled to take place from Cape Canaveral in 1989 

and 1990. Conatec, one of the smaller firms, applied 

for a launch license in July to launch two foreign 

In addition, working through the Interdepartmental 

payloads (microgravity research). American Rocket 

Company conducted motor tests of its Industrial 

Launch Vehicle (ILV) under an agreement with the Air 

Force’s Rocket Propulsion Laboratory in California; and 

E’Prime, under DOT sponsorship, worked with the Air 

Force to select a pad area at Cape Canaveral for its 

vehicles, the EPAC Star A and Star B. 

cial vehicles, the Department is also authorized to 

license commercial ranges. The State of Hawaii has 

indicated interest in commercial space initiatives, and 

in August completed a study which investigated the 

feasibility of building a commercial spaceport. Hawaii 

has initiated a follow-on study to identify the best site 

locations for such a facility. Texas, Florida, and 

Virginia have also expressed tentative interest in the 

possibility of locating commercial spaceports or launch 

ranges within their states. 

In an effort to react expeditiously to all licensing 

requests, the Office awarded two major research 

contracts in 1987 to develop data bases to strengthen 

capabilities of safety oversight and establish appropriate levels of insurance. One contract assists the Office 

in refining its license application review criteria, and in 

its examination of the level of public exposure to 

hazards that derive from commercial launch activities. 

The second contract examines the major safety issues 

inherent in commercial launch activities, and identifies 

potential safety standards that may be applicable to 

them. Final results of both studies are expected in 

1988. 

During 1987, the Office took decisive steps in policy 

forums, rulemaking, and planned contractual efforts to 

address and resolve issues facing the commercial 

launch industry. The number of commercial contracts 

signed this year-and the alacrity with which commercial firms secured them in an intensely competitive 

international environment-testifies to the Department’s progress in creating an environment that is 

conducive to the establishment of a vigorous, innovative U.S. launch services industry. 

In addition to authorizing the licensing of commer147 
Environmental Protection 

Agency 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

through its Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada (EMSL-LV), routinely conducts research and technical support using remote 

sensing as part of an overall environmental monitoring 

program. Large-scale aerial photography is collected 

and interpreted to support the provisions of the 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and 

the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA); medium-scale 

photography is collected and interpreted to support 

non-point pollution studies, wetlands protection, 

coastal zone studies, and forest ecosystem decline due 

to acid deposition; and high-altitude photography is 

interpreted for broad area studies in the coastal zone 

and to contribute land use/land cover information in 

risk assessment studies. Airborne and satellite 

multispectral scanner data are collected and interpreted 

to support water quality, non-point pollution, hazardous waste, and acid deposition investigations. Airborne laser systems are developed which contribute to 

air and water monitoring, and a geographic information system (GIS) is used to integrate multiple data sets 

in support of all EPA programs. 

Hazardous Waste 

Large-scale aerial photography is used to develop 

site characterization data during the remedial investigation/feasibility study (RI/FS) portion of remedial 

actions under CERCLA (the SUPERFUND). Aerial 

photographs are collected from a variety of archival 

sources which may date from the late 1920’s and 

continue to the present. A site history is developed by 

visually interpreting the historical photography, 

annotating changes at the site. This provides vital 

information on the location of drums, pits, and lagoons, as well as the level of activity at the site over 

time. Further photographic interpretations provide 

documen:ation of cleanup progress and are sometimes 

used to monitor post-cleanup status. The same 

photographs are also used to develop detailed topographic maps of each site, which are critical to the 

cleanup process. 

Aerial photography is also used to support site 

selection and monitoring at hazardous waste facilities 

operating under RCRA. During the site selection 

process, aerial photographs, airborne multispectral 

scanner data, and satellite imagery are interpreted to 

develop a detailed site characterization. The interpretations are then used with collateral data (such as soils, 

geology, and groundwater data) to determine applicability under the site selection criteria. Aerial photography is routinely used to monitor development, operation, and closure activities once a site has been approved for operation. 

during spills and accidents. Photographs are acquired 

through local contractors and are interpreted and sent 

to the field within 24 to 48 hours of an accident or 

spill. These photographs of existing conditions form a 

permanent record of the on-scene conditions and are 

used to develop control and remedial strategies. 

Water Quality 

Remote sensing systems are developed and used by 

EPA to support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. 

The Landsat satellite system and an airborne multispectral scanner are used in conjunction with water 

samples to map the extent of Chlorophyll a, Secchi 

depth, turbidity, dissolved organic carbon, and a 

variety of other water-quality parameters in both 

freshwater lakes and near-coastal marine environments. A Laser Fluorosensor system is being developed to augment the passive scanner systems, increasing the number of variables measured and the accuracy of measurement of current variables. 

Aerial photography and satellite data also support 

non-point pollution studies. Satellite imagery provides 

the broad view of land cover, while aerial photographs 

provide detailed interpretations of the distributions of 

feeder lots, poultry farms, and other activities requiring 

high spatial resolution. These data are input to 

Aerial photography also supports emergency actions 
models, such as Purdue University’s “Answers Model,” 

to determine nutrient loadings to aquatic ecosystems. 

Air Quality 

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) system to 

monitor particulates associated with major urban 

plumes and emissions sources and is developing (with 

NASA support) an airborne Ultraviolet DIfferential 

Absorption LIDAR (W DIAL) to simultaneously 

measure ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulates. These 

instruments provide range-resolved profiles under the 

aircraft which can be used to monitor pollutant 

transport in coastal areas and complex terrain where 

models function poorly and where air pollution 

transport problems are most severe. 

In conjunction with the National Park Service, EPA 

is also conducting remote measurements of visibility in 

Class I areas (National Parks and Wilderness Areas). 

Photographic and electro-optical sensors are deployed 

EPA is currently using an airborne two-frequency 

to monitor scenic vistas to determine atmospheric extinction coefficients. Variations in extinction coefficients are then related to variations in air pollutant 

levels. 

Data Integration 

not provide sufficient scientific explanation of the 

complex environmental phenomena which affect 

human and ecological health. A geographic information system (GI9 is being implemented in EPA to 

provide a tool for multimedia data integration and 

analysis. The GIS is used to overlay and combine data 

from remote sensing, existing spatial data bases, and 

tabular data from state, local, and EPA national data 

bases to provide analyses of complex environmental 

situations for programs such as wetlands and estuarine 

protection, water quality, acid deposition, global 

climate, and hazardous waste cleanup. 

Often, single-media monitoring and modeling do 

150 
National Science 

Foundation 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) remains the 

largest Federal supporter of academic research in the 

atmospheric sciences and ground-based astronomy. 

The advent of supercomputing power has made 

possible new advances in these disciplines. NSF 

support is provided partly in the form of grants to 

individuals and partly through contracts and cooperative agreements with universities and consortia operating observatories and other large facilities. 

The Foundation launched a new initiative, Global 

Geosciences, to study past, present, and future events 

in the Earth, ocean, and atmosphere on a worldwide 

scale. This major effort is closely coordinated wit‘h 

other U.S. Government agencies, and with agencies of 

other nations through the International Council of 

Scientific Unions. 

Astronomical Sciences 

On February 23, 1987, the brightest supernova 

observed since 1604 was seen in the Large Magellanic 

Cloud, which is located 160,000 light years from the 

Earth. The nearness of this exploding star means that 

astronomers will be able to study the evolution of its 

remnant in great detail. The supernova is being 

observed using U.S. facilities located at Cerro Tololo in 

Chile. Also, preparations were made to launch observing equipment in Antarctica using an 11.6 million cubic 

foot balloon to carry it into the stratosphere. 

Evidence was found that our own Milky Way galaxy 

is part of a supercluster complex that contains millions 

of galaxies and stretches one-tenth of the distance 

across the observable universe. The existence of 

inhomogeneities on this scale poses a severe challenge 

to present-day cosmological theories, which assume 

that matter is distributed uniformly across the universe. 

Astronomers observed a galaxy in its earliest stage 

of development. By analyzing the spectrum of this 

object, which was first located through its powerful 

radio emission, the astronomers deduced that it has 

not yet produced the bulk of its stellar population. 

Evidence was found of the presence of massive 

black holes at the center of two galaxies close to our 

own Milky Way, called M31 and M32. The scientists 

who made the observations theorized that these black 

holes are 10 to 100 million times the mass of the Sun. 

The black holes are favored to explain the energy 

source of quasars4bjects that emit enormous 

amounts of radiation across their entire spectrum. 

Scientists found evidence of clear regions in the 

dust clouds surrounding three nearby stars. The 

regions may have been “swept up” by planet-sized 

objects orbiting these stars. Our own solar system mdy 

be enclosed in such a dust cloud. This discovery has 

profound implications for the theory of planet 

formation. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

A breakthrough occurred with the recognition of a 

long-suspected relationship between sunspots and the 

weather. This resulted from the analysis of polar 

stratospheric temperatures, taking into account the 

quasi-biennial (27 months) oscillation of tropical 

stratospheric winds and the 11-year solar cycle. A 

consistent pattern of changes in atmospheric circulation, North Atlantic storm tracks, and the mildness or 

severity of winters in the eastern United States has 

become apparent. Following further research to 

understand the mechanism, it should be possible to 

improve significantly long-range seasonal forecasts. 

A large field experiment called the Genesis of 

Atlantic Lows Experiment (GALE) was centered on the 

Atlantic Coast of North Carolina. One of its goals is to 

investigate why rapid storm intensification occurs at 

this location. A recurring region of banded clouds and 

precipitation was identified and found to be almost 

stationary over the Gulf Stream. The existence of this 

phenomenon is attributed to large heat and moisture 

fluxes from the warm water of the Gulf Stream affecting the colder, overlying air. It is clear that the intensity of this persistent rainband, as revealed by radar 

151 
and measurements of lightning activity, indicates that 

rainbands could play an important role in the intensification of winter storms on the east coast. 

In August 1987, the second National Ozone Expedition (NOZE 11) was dispatched to study the depletion 

of stratospheric ozone over the Antarctic Continent. 

Support was provided by the NSF, NASA, NOAA, and 

the Chemical Manufacturers Association. Research 

results from the 1986 NOZE expedition provided a 

better understanding of ozone depletion over Antarctica. Results from NOZE I1 are expected to provide 

additional insights into the processes contributing to 

ozone depletion in the Antarctic stratosphere. 

152 
Before After 

Groun&based observations of the Large Magellanic Cloud before and after the explosion of Supernova 1987a. 

154 
Smit hsonian lnst itut ion 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to national 

space goals through basic research programs of the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in 

Cambridge, Massachusetts, and through public exhibits, lectures, and education programs of the National 

Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, DC. 

NASM’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (CEPS) 

also conducts basic research in planetary geology and 

terrestrial remote sensing. 

Space Sciences 

Hig7pEnergu Astrophysics 

Scientists at SA0 continued the reduction and 

analysis of x-ray data obtained by the HEAO-1 and 

HEAO-2 (Einstein) Satellites. A major effort in 1987 

was the preparation of an Einstein source catalog 

containing a list and contour diagrams of all images 

gathered by the spacecraft. This x-ray information 

is available through the Einstein Data Bank, and about 

130 scientists used that source in 1987. 

major extension in 1987, with more than 830 x-ray 

sources selected. About 550 of these sources are 

already identified and cataloged, providing detailed 

information on the x-ray properties of celestial sources, 

ranging from quasars to clusters of galaxies. 

The Einstein data also continue to produce intriguing results on a host of phenomena, including compact 

galactic binaries, low-mass neutron stars, and black 

hole candidates. Studies in which x-ray data from 

space observations are compared directly with data in 

other wavelengths provide a more comprehensive 

picture of many astrophysical processes. For example, 

x-rays constitute only a small part of a galaxy’s total 

luminosity, but these emissions seem closely tied to 

the galaxy’s stellar population and may provide a tool 

for examining galaxy evolution. 

Infrared Astronomy 

from data obtained by a helium-cooled, infrared 

The Einstein Medium Sensitivity Survey sustained a 

Refined maps of the infrared sky were produced 

telescope (IRT) successfully operated aboard the 

Spacelab 2 flight of the Shuttle in July 1985. Developmental work continued on a 2-m balloon-borne 

telescope and on a diffraction-limited, infrared array 

camera for the Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

(SIRTF). 

Ultraviolet Astronomy 

was used for extensive studies of Supernova (SN) 

1987A, which was discovered in February. By comparing ultraviolet spectral data from IUE with pre-explosion astrometric measurements of candidate stars, 

astronomers identified the progenitor of SN 1987A as a 

blue supergiant star known as Sanduleak-69 202. 

The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) Satellite 

Space Technology 

Several researchers at SAO, who will participate in 

the first tethered satellite mission in the early 1990’s, 

continued studying the dynamics of tethered satellite 

systems, as well as their potential for electromagnetic 

wave generation and possible application in Space 

Station science programs. 

Planetary Sciences 

A detailed survey of rock types from an Apollo 15 

lunar sample collection was conducted. Material from 

a geologically complex site on the lunar highlands 

produced two examples of Fe-enriched norite, a 

previously unrecognized variety of igneous rock. 

When isotopic analyses are complete, the new lithology could provide insight into the grand scheme by 

which the Moon’s primeval crust separated into layers 

bearing distinct chemical signatures. 

rectified Voyager photographs of geological formations 

on the surface of Ganymede. The maps reveal that, 

unlike Earth’s Moon, this large, icy satellite of Jupiter 

shows evidence of thermal expansion as well as 

meteorite bombardment. 

the origin of major structural landforms seen on the 

Another SA0 project involved mapping from 

Planetary research at NASM’s CEPS concentrated on 

155 
surface of Mars, and their implications for the geologic 

evolution of that planet. Mars’ southern hemisphere is 

marked by numerous impact craters providing a 

chronological record of events responsible for the 

dichotomy between its ancient terrain and the smooth 

northern plains. By using crater counts and models for 

the impact flux in the vicinity of Mars, several episodes 

of faulting and erosional events responsible for the 

modification of this boundary in the eastern hemisphere have been identified. 

features on the Columbia Plateau of Washington 

provided further insight into the mechanics of the 

formation of such landforms on both planets. Structural models deduced from remote sensing and field 

Comparative studies of ridges on Mars and similar 

studies of the Columbia ridges also helped establish 

more precisely the origin of apparently similar features 

on the basalt plains of Mars. 

Terrestrial Studies 

Field and remote sensing studies of Earth by CEPS 

staff concentrated on the arid regions of Sudan, Egypt, 

Mali, and Botswana. Similar dune forms are present in 

all regions, but with variations caused by vegetation 

cover or human influences. During 1987, field work in 

Botswana suggested that most of the spectra variations 

seen in the orbital data resulted from differing vegetation types on dune and interdune flats. Studies in 

Egypt and Sudan also revealed much higher rates of 

sand movement than expected. 

156 
Department of State 

The Department of State is responsible for evaluating 

and advancing US. foreign policy interests in the 

context of space activity. In this capacity, it considers 

space programs, policies and agreements, and advises 

the President on international space matters. It also 

represents the U.S. Government in international 

government-to-government negotiations, in international organizations involved in space, and in foreign 

countries. 

In 1987, the United States moved nearer to agreement with its partners on international participation in 

the multibillion dollar, permanently manned Space 

Station project. Working closely with other interested 

agencies, State Department and NASA officials met 

with European, Japanese, and Canadian representatives 

to negotiate agreements governing long-term cooperation on the detailed design, development, operation, 

and utilization of the Space Station. The Department 

of State strongly supports the Space Station as a 

concrete demonstration of U.S. leadership in space, a 

stimulus for exploring new areas of science and technology, and a model for cooperation with friends and 

allies on large-scale, high-technology endeavors. 

The Department actively participated in interagency 

working groups which considered such issues as U.S. 

commercial space policy, the U.S. private launch 

industry, international trade talks on space launch 

services, and resumption of the Shuttle program. As 

part of a major Government-wide effort, the State 

Department worked with other agencies on consolidating U.S. space policy into a single, consistent policy 

document. 

In April, Secretary of State Shultz signed a new 

space cooperation agreement between the United 

States and the Soviet Union. This agreement establishes 16 bilateral cooperative space science projects. 

Two joint working groups met in 1987 to begin 

implementation of the agreement. The United States 

also negotiated space cooperation agreements with 

Senegal, the Gambia and Australia. 

In addition to US. policy formulation and bilateral 

negotiations, the Department of State represents the 

US. Government in international organizations involved in space issues. Among these international 

bodies are the United Nations (UN) and COSPAS/ 

SARSAT. 

Activities Within the United Nations 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(COPUOS) 

The year 1987 was the 29th year of the 53-member 

COPUOS. During its earlier years, it was a productive 

channel for the exchange of scientific information and 

the forum for establishing the four UN conventions 

widely accepted as the basis of international space law. 

However, during the last few years, the United States 

has worked hard to prevent a deterioration in the 

Committee’s work by steering it away from extraneous 

political factors and issues which fall outside its 

purview. During 1987, some progress was made to 

revitalize COPUOS and restore scientific and technical 

utility to its work. 

Technical Subcommittee, the United States joined with 

other Western members to push for strengthening the 

technical content of the Subcommittee’s work. A 

chairman’s working paper introduced several proposals, which were accepted. 

The central issue at the March meeting of the Legal 

Subcommittee concerned the choice of a new agenda. 

With Western member support, the United States 

proposed measures to base future legal work on 

practical, noncontroversial questions and to increase 

the efficiency of the Legal Subcommittee’s work. The 

Soviet and East European members rejected this 

approach. 

a similar initiative to strengthen the Committee and 

increase its efficiency. This also met with Eastern 

resistance and inconclusive results. 

UN General Assembly 

At the February meeting of the Scientific and 

At the June COPUOS meeting, the West introduced 

On the recommendation of the Special Political 

157 
Committee, the 42nd session of the UN General 

Assembly adopted the omnibus resolution “International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space.” The resolution sets the agenda of COPUOS 

and its subcommittees for 1988. Extensive consultations were held regarding a new item for the Legal 

Subcommittee. While no agreement was reached, the 

General Assembly requested that questions be settled 

at the Subcommittee’s next session in 1988. Western 

countries reiterated their disappointment over the 

unwillingness by many members to consider making 

COPUOS more effective, and noted that their concerns 

were over proposals from the Eastern Bloc to replace 

COPUOS with a new world space organization. 

COSPAS/SARSAT 

During a meeting from November 2 through 6, 

representatives of the United States, Soviet Union, 

France and Canada completed an ad referendum text 

for a 15-year cooperative, operational agreement to 

continue the COSPAS/SARSAT program. Begun in 

1979, COSPAS/SARSAT is a satellite-based, global 

emergency distress and location system. It is designed 

to help agencies throughout the world quickly and 

accurately find small boats and aircraft in trouble. It 

uses French and Canadian equipment on US. meteorological satellites in conjuction with an interoperational 

Soviet system. 

International Telecommunications 

Telecommunications technology is developing at an 

increasingly rapid pace as the “information revolution” 

creates both new means and new needs for more 

sophisticated and capable communication networks. 

More than ever before, the United States must advocate 

and promote free markets in international telecommunications. 

International Telecommunications Satellit e 

Organization (INTELSAT) 

of INTELSAT (112 members) approved a proposal 

In April 1987, an Extraordinary Assembly of Parties 

allowing Pan American Satellite Corporation (PanAmSat) to provide satellite communication services 

between the United States and Peru, separate from 

INTELSAT services. This was the culmination of an 

extensive U.S. diplomatic initiative, and opens a new 

market for U.S. commercial participation. 

fnternational Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT) 

the 1985 amendments to the INMARSAT convention. 

These amendments will permit INMARSAT to offer 

satellite-based aircraft communication services. 

International Radio Conference 

was involved in two major events dealing with space 

radio services. The World Administrative Radio 

Conference (WARC) on Mobile Services was held in 

Geneva from September 14 through October 17. The 

United States sought and obtained frequency allocations for radio determination satellite services. Conceived by U.S. entrepreneurs, RDSS uses satellites to 

pinpoint locations of objects on land, at sea or in the 

air. The United States also sought global frequency 

allocation for mobile satellite service (MSS) for land 

communication and both ships and aircraft. While not 

fully achieving US. goals for MSS, significant progress 

was made to provide this new type of service. 

The Department of State continued preparations for 

the Second Session of the Space Services WARC to be 

held in 1988. The International Frequency Registration 

Board made progress in its planning exercises for fixed 

satellite service, primarily as a result of the U.S. 

contribution of computer software developed by 

NASA’s Lewis Research Center. In addition, the 

International Radio Consultative Committee finished a 

report in December which answered numerous 

technical questions that will be discussed at the Space 

Service WARC in 1988. 

The United States initiated the process of accepting 

In 1987, the International Telecommunication Union 

158 
Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency 

The United States Arms Control and Disarmament 

Agency (ACDA) was established in 1961 to advise the 

President on arms control policy. As potential uses of 

space become technologically more feasible, ACDA’s 

role in the development of policy for and support of 

arms control in outer space has expanded. 

The U.S. position on arms control in space was 

enunciated by President Reagan on July 4, 1982, when 

he said: 

ne United States will continue to study space 

arms control options. 7;be United States will 

consider veryiable and equitable arms control 

meusures that would ban or otherwise limit testing 

and deployment of specific weapons systems, 

should those measures be compatible with U.S. 

national security. 

That policy was reaffirmed by the President on March 

31, 1984, in a report to the Congress on Anti-Satellite 

(ASAT) Arms Control. 

Bilateral Discussions on Space Arms 

Control 

In 1987, at the Defense and Space Talks in Geneva, 

the United States discussed with the Soviet Union how 

to jointly manage a stable transition to a deterrence 

based increasingly on defense, rather than on the 

threat of retaliation by offensive nuclear weapons. In 

an effort to reach agreement, the United States proposed to the Soviets a mutual commitment through 

1994, to continue to adhere to the ABM Treaty and to 

refrain from deploying strategic defenses not permitted 

by the treaty. During that period both countries would 

strictly observe all ABM Treaty provisions, while 

continuing the research, development, and testing 

permitted by the treaty. 

Such a commitment would be contingent upon 

implementation of 50-percent reductions in U.S. and 

Soviet strategic offensive arms under specified conditions. In response to Soviet concerns, the United 

States also has proposed a set of confidence-building 

measures to enhance predictability, as both sides 

proceed with work on strategic defenses. 

Multilateral Discussions on Space Arms 

Control 

During 1987, ACDA continued to deal with multilateral space arms control issues, both in the United 

Nations General Assembly and in the Conference on 

Disarmament (CD) in Geneva. In February 1987, for 

the third consecutive year, the CD established an Ad 

Hoc Committee, with a non-negotiating mandate, to 

examine issues relevant to the prevention of an arms 

race in outer space. The agenda adhered to by the Ad 

Hoc Committee in 1987 included examination and 

identification of issues, required agreements, proposals, and future initiatives for the prevention of an arms 

race in outer space. The United States and its allies 

participated actively in the work of the Ad Hoc Committee, especially in reviewing the arms control aspects 

and implications of the current outer Space legal 

regime. 

The United States also pursued its arms control 

objectives for outer space during the disarmament 

debate in the UN General Assembly’s First Committee. 

In 1987, four resolutions on outer space arms control 

were considered by the First Committee. The United 

States supported a draft resolution presented by France 

on behalf of the Western countries, advocating a 

continuation of the CD’s non-negotiating mandate 

which was supportive of the bilateral US.-USSR space 

talks. However, the United States opposed all three 

draft resolutions tabled by the Soviet Union, China, 

and the neutral and non-aligned group, primarily 

because they called for ill-defined negotiations in the 

CD. The only outer space arms control resolution that 

was voted upon was the neutral and non-aligned draft, 

which the United States voted against. 

159 
Space Policy 

ACDA is an active participant in formulating US. 

space policy. It co-chairs the Interagency Group on 

Defense and Space, which is involved in arms control 

issues, and is a member of the interagency group that 

defines U.S. policy for the Strategic Defense Initiative. 

The agency provides administrative support, senior 

representatives, advisors, and legal experts for all U.S. 

arms control negotiations; and participates in the 

Senior Interagency Group on Space, which deals with 

a wide range of space issues, including development 

of the manned U.S. Space Station. Also, representatives from ACDA are part of other interagency groups 

involved in space activities, including the sale of 

space-related items. In addition, ACDA helps direct 

U.S. technical collection assets used to verify compliance with arms control agreements. These include 

space-based assets that are part of the national technical means of verification. 

160 
United States Information 

Agency 

The public diplomacy efforts of the United States 

Information Agency (USIA) reflect its strong commitment to the promotion of worldwide awareness of U.S. 

achievements in space research and development and 

the peaceful uses of space. USIA makes use of satellite 

television and radio broadcasts, news coverage, feature 

stories, overseas visits by astronauts and scientists, 

interviews, exhibits, video taped programs, and 

cultural center and library resources in 134 countries to 

convey to the foreign public U.S. advances in space 

technology and exploration. 

Voice of America 

The Voice of America’s weekly program on developments in science, technology and medicine, “New 

Horizons,” broadcasts bi-monthly reports on a variety 

of NASA activities. VOA programs, broadcast in 44 

languages, focused on major themes in the U.S. space 

program: the Galileo probe of Jupiter, Supernova 

Shelton, the Project Ulysses Sun probe, use of the 

Landsat satellite for remote sensing, the Search and 

Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking System (SARSAT), and 

US. space goals and directions for the 1990’s and 

beyond. 

Television Service 

The ever-expanding TV network, WORLDNET, 

which links Washington via satellite with U.S. embassies and other organizations overseas, often explores 

NASA activities. USIA’s TV news magazine, America 

Today, covers the gamut of NASA developments in 

short segments in its daily 60-minute program to 

Europe. The Satellite File weekly series of TV news 

clips, used by 140 broadcasters in 99 countries, included clips on several NASA-related issues and 

events. The monthly television series “Science World” 

also carried longer segments on plans for and eventual 

uses of the Space Station. 

WORLDNET programs featured Astronaut Franklin 

Chang-Diaz, Dr. Robert T. Watson of the Global 

Habitability Project, Mr. Andrew Stofan, Associate 

Administrator for Space Station, and Noel W. Hinners, 

Chairman of NASA’s Strategic Planning Council. 

Astronaut Chang-Diaz’s program was beamed to four 

Latin American countries; Dr. Watson’s three separate 

discussions on protection of the ozone layer included 

scores of participating journalists and scientists representing more than a dozen countries. A year-end 

WORLDNET segment with Mr. Stofan and Dr. Hinners 

detailed plans for America’s future in space. 

Televised electronic dialogues (telephone press 

conferences) also used the talents of several NASA 

personnel. Carlos Carrion, Voyager engineer, spoke 

with a group of journalists in Mexico; Philip Culbertson, NASA’s Associate Administrator for Poky and 

Planning, made important points for scientists and 

media leaders in Tel Aviv and Singapore; and Alan 

Ladwig, Director for Program Support and Special 

Projects in NASA’s Office of Exploration impressed 

Indian journalists with his forthright answers to questions regarding the future of the U.S. space program. 

Films and video tapes acquired from NASA continued to be enjoyed in USIA’s cultural centers and 

libraries throughout the world. In 1987, a new program about the Space Station and a presentation by the 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory on discoveries in the solar 

system were distributed to posts worldwide. Another 

popular program was the “Serendipity Machine” which 

explored the spinoffs from NASA’s space research. 

Many posts were able to place this program, or 

portions of it, on foreign networks. The ever-popular 

13-part series, “Life in the Universe”, was re-broadcast 

over WORLDNET, and continues to generate interest 

around the world. 

- 

Other USIA Activities 

Through a satellite data transmission system, USIA’s 

Press and Publications Service offered a steady stream 

of feature articles, editorials and commentaries on 

space-related developments to posts worldwide. 

These materials are placed in local media outlets and 

published in USIA magazines, pamphlets and newslet161 
ters. They also provide background information used 

in discussions with local opinion leaders and Government officials. 

tional cooperation on development of the Space 

Station; NASA rocket tests and the projected 1988 

Space Shuttle launch; US.-Soviet space cooperation; 

innovative uses of remote sensing technology; NASA 

launches of satellites for foreign countries; the debate 

on plans to build a Moon base; the Young Astronaut 

Program; and the preservation of the Earth’s ozone 

layer. 

Two particularly successful articles examined the 

prospects for space over the next 25 years, and 

reviewed “Who’s Who” in space during the first 25 

years of space travel and exploration. Photo packages 

on NASA’s ozone mapping spectrometer carried 

aboard the Nimbus-7 spacecraft, and the crew selected 

for the 26th Space Shuttle mission complemented the 

articles. 

In 1987, particular emphasis was given to internaAlso, USIA magazines covered NASA and space 

activities. American Illustrated (USIA’s monthly 

Russian language magazine distributed in the Soviet 

Union under a reciprocal exchange agreement), A1 

Mujul (a monthly roundup of news and features from 

the United States to the Arab world) and Spun (an 

English-language monthly distributed to more than 

75,000 intellectuals on the Indian subcontinent) carried 

articles on the subject of Moon rocks, Space Shuttle 

Atlantis, US. advances in remote sensing, milestones in 

Indo-US. space research cooperation, and the International Summer Students’ program, respectively. 

Under the American Participant program, USIA 

arranged meetings for U.S. astronauts and scientists 

with foreign government officials, scientists, scholars 

and journalists. In 1987, this program generated 

extensive media coverage when Astronauts John 

Young visited Australia, Marsha Ivins traveled to 

Papua, New Guinea, and Jerry Ross discussed the U.S. 

space program in Panama. 

162 
Amendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S . launch vehicles.) 

Cdlenddr Earth Orbit' Earth Escape. ' Calendar Earth Orbit' Ednh Escape" 

Yedf Year Success Failure Succcss Failure Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 ............................. 0 1 0 0 1972 ........................... 33 2 8 0 

1958 ............................. 5 8 0 4 1973 ........................... 23 2 3 0 

I959 ............................. 9 9 1 2 1974 ........................... 27 2 1 0 

1960 ........................... 16 12 1 2 4 4 0 

1961 ........................... 35 12 0 2 0 1 0 

12 4 1 1977 ........................... 27 2 2 0 

11 0 0 1978 ........................... 34 2 7 0 

8 4 0 1979 ........................... 18 0 0 0 

I965 ........................... 93 7 4 1 1980 ........................... 16 4 0 0 

1966 ........................... 94 12 7 I" 1981 ........................... 20 1 0 0 

1967 ........................... 78 4 10 0 1982 ........................... 21 0 0 0 

I968 ........................... 61 15 3 0 1983 ........................... 31 0 0 0 

1969 58 1 8 1 1984 ........................... 35 3 0 0 

1970 36 1 3 0 1985 ........................... 37 1 0 0 

1971 ........................... 45 2 8 1 1986 ........................... 11 4 0 0 

1987 ............................. 9 1 0 0 

TOTAL .................. 1. 12 1 143 79 15 

.'The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success . "Escape" flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth . 

"This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals . 

163 
APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(EnuInerdteS launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple Spacecraft.) 

People's European 

of China Anencv 

Calendar United u.S.S.K. France Italy Japan ~~~~[,li~ Australia United Space India 

Year StdtCS Kingdom 

2 ........................................................................................................................ 

1 ........ ............................................................................................................................................ 

3 ............................................................................................................................................ ..... 

1960 .......................... 16 3 ................................................................. ..................................................................... ..... 

6 ................................................................. ......................................... .................................... 

20 .............................................................................................................. .................................... 

30 ............................................................................................. ....................................................... 

48 .......... 1 .................................................................................................................................. 

1966 .......................... 73 44 ........... 1 ............................. ........................................................................................................ 

1967 .......................... 57 66 ........... 2 ..................... 1 ...... ......................................... 1 ....................... ....................... 

1968 ......................... 45 .................................................................................................................................................. 

I969 .......................... 40 70 ............................................................ ............................................................................. 

1970 .......................... 28 81 ........... 2 ................... 1.' .................. 1 ... ......................................... 

1971 .......................... 30 83 ........... 1 ................... 2" ................. 2 ........... 

1972 .......................... 30 74 .................................. 1 .................. 1 ........... .......................................................................... 

1973 .......................... 23 86.. .......................................................................................................................... 

1974 .......................... 22 

1959 .......................... 10 

1961 ......................... 29 

1962 .......................... 52 

1963 .......................... 38 ........................................................................................................................................ 

......................................... 

................ 2" .................. 1 ..................................................................................................... 

3 ................................................................................ 

............................ 2 ..................................................................................................... 

............................ 3 ..... ......................................................................... 

.................. 1 .................. 2 

99 ....................................................... 1. 2 .................................... ............................ 

1977 .......................... 24 

87.. .................................................... .2,, ... .................................................. 1 .... 

1980 ......................... 13 89.. .......................... .............. ..2. .................................................................................... 

...................................... 2 .................. 1 

101 ..................................................... 1 .................. 1 ................................................................................ 

1983 .......................... 22 98 .......................... ............. 3 .................. 1 ......................................................... 2 ................. 1 

1984 .......................... 22 ............. 3 .................. 3 ......................................................... 4 .................... 

1985 .......................... 17 ............. 2 .................. 1 ......................................................... 3 

........ 2 ......................................................... 2 .................... 

1987 ............................ 8 95 ....................................................... 3,. ........ 2 ......................................................... 2 

TOTAL ................... 867 2,017 10 8 34 19 1 1 16 3 

................ 3 .................. 1 ..... 

.................... 

....................................................... 2.. 

JIncludes foreign launches of US. spacecraft 

164 
AIW:NDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches-1987 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Remarks 

Feb. 12 

Defense 

15A 

Titan IIIB 

Feb. 26 

GOES 7 

22A 

Delta 179 

Mar. 20 

29A 

Delta 182 

Palapa R-2P 

May 15 

Defense 

43.4 

Atlas H 

June 20 

DMSP F-8 

53A 

Atlas E 

Sep. 16 

Defenae 

80A 

Scout 

Sep. 16 

80B 

Defense 

Oct. 26 

Defense 

90A 

Titan 34D 

Nov. 29 

Defense 

97A 

Titan 34D 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch satellite into planned geostationary 

position. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, 2.15 m in diameter and 4.46 m 

long from top of S-band omni antenna mast to bottom 

of apogee boost motor. Apogee boost motor ejected 

after synchronous orbit achieved. Weight at liftoff: 840 

kg. Weight at geostationary position: 456 kg. 

Objective: To successfully launch communications 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped, telescoping cylinder, with 

satellite. 

antennas deployed 22.1 ft. high, and 7 ft. in diameter. 

Liftoff weight: 7,515 Ibs. Weight in geosynchronous 

orbit: 1,437 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced 

technology. 

Objective: To launch meteorological 

Spacecraft: Same basic configuration as 

observation satellite into planned orbit 

DMSP F-6. Weight: 1421 kg. 

Objective: To place satellite into an orbit which will 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

enable the successful achievement of Navy objectives. 

Objective: To place satellite into successful orbit from 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

which Navy objectives can be met. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Not In orbit 

availabk. 

35 796 

35 783 environment monitoring satellites; 

Eighth in series of operational 

1436.3 launched by NASA for National 

Administration. Turned over to NOAA 

Mar. 25 after successful apogee motor 

fire Feb. 27. Spacecraft joins GOES 6 

(WEST) as GOES 7 (EAST) part of a 

two-satellite operational system. In 

orbit returning data. 

0.1 Oceanic and Atmospheric 

35 788 

35 788 communications satellites. Launched 

by NASA for Republic of Indonesia. 

Will replace Palapa €32 launched by 

orbiter Challenger in Feb. 1984 and 

malfunctioned. Palapa B-2P to join 

Palapa B1 orbited by shuttle in June 

1983. Part of two-satellite system 

providing service to more than 13,000 

islands. In orbit, operating 

satisfactorily. 

Fifth in series of Indonesian 

1436.2 

0.0 

Not available. In orbit 

857 

835 

101.9 Atmospheric Administration. In orbit, 

Third satellite in Block 5D-2 series. Data 

also used by National Oceanic and 

98.8 returning data. 

1175 

1017 

Launched by NASA for the DoD. One of 

two Transit satellites launched by 

107.2 Scout vehicle. In orbit. 

90.3 

1181 

1014 

107.2 orbit. 

90.3 

Second of two Transit satellites launched 

by NASA for DoD on same Scout. In 

Not available. Still in orbit 

Not availabk. Still in orbit 

165 
APPENDIX B-1 

U.SAaunched Applications Satellites, 1981-1987 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Feb. 21, 1981 

May 23, 1981 

Aug. 6, 1981 

Sept. 24, 1981 

Nov. 20, 1981 

Dec. 15, 1981 

Jan. 16, 1982 

Feb. 26, 1982 

Mar. 5, 1982 

Apr. 10, 1982 

June 9, 1982 

Aug. 26, 1982 

Sept. 28, 1982 

Oct. 27, 1982 

Oct. 30, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Nov. 12, 1982 

Apr. 4, 1983 

Apr. 11, 1983 

May 19, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

June 19, 1983 

June 28, 1983 

July 28, 1983 

Aug. 31, 1983 

Sept. 8, 1983 

Sep 22, 1983 

Fell. 3, 1984 

Feb. 6. 1984 

Mar 1, 1984 

June 9, 1984 

Aug 31, 1984 

Aug 31, 1984 

Sept 1, 1984 

Sept 21, 1984 

Nov 9, 1984 

Nov 10, 1984 

Nov 14, 1984 

Mar 22, 1985 

Apr 12, 1985 

Apr 13, 1985 

June 17, 1985 

June 18, 1985 

June 19, 1985 

June 30, 1985 

Aug 27, 1985 

Aug 27, 1985 

Aug 29, 1985 

Comstar D-4 

Intelsat V F-l 

Fltsatcom 5 

SBS 2 

RCA-Satcom 3-R 

Intelsat V F-3 

RCA-Satcom 4 

Westar 4 

Intelsat V F-4 

Insat 1A 

Westar 5 

Anik D-1 

Intelsat V F-5 

RCA-Satcom 5 

DSCS 11, DSCS I11 

SBS 3 

Anik C-3 

TDRS 1 

RCA-Satcom 6 

Intelsat V F-6 

Anik C-2 

Palapa B-1 

Galaxy 1 

Telstar 3A 

Insat 1-B 

RCA-Satcom 7 

Galaxy 2 

Westar-6 

Palapa-B2 

Uosat-2 

Intelsat V F-9 

SBS-4 

Syncom IV-2 

Telstar-3C 

Galaxy-3 

Anik-D2 

Syncom IV-1 

NATO IIID 

Intelsat VA F-10 

Telesat-I 

Syncom IV-3 

MORELOS-A 

Arabsat-1 B 

Telstar-3D 

Intelsat VA F-11 

AUSSAT-1 

ASC-I 

Syncom IV-4 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlab-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan III(34) 

D/IUS 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, IUS 

Delta 3924 

AdaS-CentdUr 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Delta 

3920/PAM-D 

Delta 

3920/PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Delta 3924 

Delta 

3920/PAM-I) 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Delta 3920 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3914 

AthS-Centdur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

AtldS-Centaur 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

3920/PAM-D 

Fourth in series for Comsat General Corp. 

Second in series for INTELSAT, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in DoD series. 

Second in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Fourth in series for RCA, replacement for RCA-Satcom. ' 

Third in series. To be positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in series for RCA. 

First in a series of second-generation for Western Union Co. 

Fourth in series; positioned over Pacific. 

First in series for India Department of Space. 

Second in series of second-generation for Western Union Co.; replaces 

Launched for Telesat Canada as replacement for in-orbit satellites. 

Fifth in series; positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Joined 4 operational satellites launched for RCA. 

Defense communications (dual launch), including first in series of 

Third in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Second in new series for Telesat Canada. 

First in series. System to provide continuous satellite communication. 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 1, launched for RCA. 

Sixth in series; positioned over Atlantic Ocean. 

Launched for Telesat Canada. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Westar 2. 

uprated satellites. 

Leased by NASA from Space Communications Co. (Spacecorn). 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co 

Indian domestic communications 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 2, launched for RCA. 

Second in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Western Union, PAM-D failed to fire properly, satellite 

Launched for Indonesia, booster motor failed, satellite retrieved and 

Secondary payload with Landsat-5, for amateur radio communications. 

Seventh in series, launch vehicle failure, satellite reentered Oct. 24. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems, Inc. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co 

Third in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc 

Launched for Telsat Canada 

retrieved by Shuttle, and returned to earth for refurbishment. 

returned to Earth by Shuttle. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

NATO defense-related communications satellite. 

First in series of six improved satellites. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Launched for Arab Satellite Communication Organization (ASCO). 

Launched for the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). 

Second in series of improved satellites launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Australia's National Satellite Company. 

Launched for American Satellite Company. 

Launched for US Navy. 

166 
Al~PEhDiX B-1-Contznued 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1981-1987 

I)dte Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Sep 29, 1985 

Nov 27, 1985 

Nov 27, 1985 

Noc 28, 1985 

Jan 12, 1986 

Dec 5, 1986 

Mar 20, 1987 

May 22, 1981 

June 23, 1981 

Dec. 21, 1982 

Mar. 28, 1983 

Apr. 28, 1983 

Nov. 18, 1983 

Dec 12, 1984 

Sep. 17, 1986 

Feh. 26, 1987 

June 20, 1987 

July 16, 1982 

Mar. 1, 1984 

Mar. 13, 1985 

May 15, 1981 

July 14, 1983 

Feb 5, 1984 

June 13, 1984 

Sept 8, 1984 

Oct 12, 1984 

Aug 3, 1985 

Aug 3, 1985 

Oct 9? 19885 

lntelsat VA F-12 

MORELOS-B 

AUSSAT-2 

KCA Satcom K-2 

RCA Satcom K-l 

Fltsatcom 7 

Palapa B-2P 

GOES 5 

DMSP F-6 

NOM-7 

NOMA 

GOES 6 

DMSP F-7 

NOM-9 

NOM-10 

GOES 7 

DMSP F-8 

Landsat-4 

Landsat-5 

GEOSAT 

Nova-1 

Navstar-8 

IRT 

Navstar-9 

Navstar-10 

Oscar 24 

Oscar 30 

Navstar-11 

Nova-3 

COMMUNICATIONS continued 

Atlas-Centaur Launched for INTELSAT. 

Space Shuttle Launched for Mexico. 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centa iir Launched for DoD. 

Delta 182 Indonesia domestic communications. 

Second satellite launched for Australia's National Satellite Company 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION" 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Delta 3914 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Delta 179 

Atlas E 

Fifth of polar-orbiting series for NOAA. 

Replxement for NOM-B. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Joined NOM 7 as part of 2-satellite operational system; launched for 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-West. 

Second in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOM, to replace NOM-7. 

Launched for NOM. 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-East. 

Third in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

NOM. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Fourth experimental earth resources satellite. First use of thematic mapper 

(TM). 

Ilelta 3920 Fifth experimental earth resources satellite. to replace ailing Landsat-4. 

GEODESY 

Atlas E MedSLire ocean surface height. 

Scout 

Atlas E 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Scout 

Scout 

Scout 

Atlas E 

NAVIGATION' 

First of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Balloon to test Shuttle rendezvous radar. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Second of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

.'Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch 

167 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1981-1987 

Date Name 

Aug. 3, 1981 

Oct. 6, 1981 

Oct. 6, 1981 

Jan. 26, 1983 

June 22, 1983 

May 26, 1983 

June 27, 1983 

Apr. 6, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aiig. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Oct. 5, 1984 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 20, 1985 

July 29, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 14, I986 

Dynamics 

SME 

Explorers 1, 2 

UOSAT 

IRAS 

EXOSAT 

SPAS 01 

(Oscar 9) 

HILAT (P83-1) 

Long Duration 

Exposure 

Facility 

(LDEF-1 ) 

Charge 

Composition 

Explorer 

(CCE) 

Module 

(IRM) 

United 

Kingdom 

Satellite 

(UKS) 

Budget 

Ion Release 

Earth Radiation 

Satellite (ERBS) 

Spartan-l 

Plasma 

NUSAT-I 

Diagnostic 

Package 

(PDF') 

GLOMR 

Polar Bear 

Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Thor-Delta 

(TAT) 

Thor-Delta 

(TAT) 

Thor-Delta 

(TAT) 

Delta 3910 

Delta 3914 

Space Shuttle 

Scout 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

scout 

DE 1 and 2 to measure magnetospheric-ionospheric energy coupling, electric 

Solar Mesosphere Explorer to measure changes in mesospheric ozone. 

Secondary payload with SME, for amateur radio and science experiments. 

Infrared sky survey. 

European Space Agency study of x-ray sources. 

Keusable free-flying platform deployed and retrieved during STS 7; 6 scientific 

currents and fields, plasmas. 

experiments from West Germany, 2 from ESA. NASA experiments tested 

spacecraft technology. 

for Doll. 

Propagation effects of disturbed plasma on radar and communication systems, 

Scientific experiments designed for retrieval from space by Shuttle. 

Measurement of Earth's magnetosphere, one of three satellites composing 

Active Magnetosphere Particle Tracer Explorers Mission (AMPTE). 

Second of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same vehicle. 

Third of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by Same vehicle 

First of three satellites in Earth Radiation Budget Experiment Research 

Program. NOM-9 and NOM-G carrying other instruments in Program. 

Northern Utah Satellite (air traffic control radar system calibrator). 

Reusable free-flying platform. 

Reusable experimental platform. 

Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite. 

Experiments to study radio interference caused by Aurora Borealis, for Don 

168 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.4aunched Space Probes, 1975-1987 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

Sept. 9, 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIE 

Centaur 

Jan. 15, 1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Aug. 20, 1977 VOydger 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Sep. 5, 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

May 20, 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur 

Aug. 8, 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6, 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data 

to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for 

signs of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20, 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data 

to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for 

signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of Sun, measuring 

solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload had same West 

German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, 

arrived Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed for 

outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through 

Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

169 
APPFNDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1987 

Launch Date Crew Flight Time Spacecraft (days: hrs:min) 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

Redstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

MercuryVoskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

May 24, 1962 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

Mar. 3, 1969 

May 18, 1969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Bormdn 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

JohnW.Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

0: 1.48 

0: 0:15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1.18 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10: 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4:53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1.51 

0: 10:41 

3: 0:21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2:23:17 

3 : 22 : 35 

1: 2:37 

10: 20: 9 

3 : 22 : 51 

6: 3: 1 

2 : 23 : 23 

3: 0:56 

10: 1: 1 

8: 0: 3 

Highlights 

First inanned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbiral; capsule sank after landing; 

First flight exceeding 24 11. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km Ixyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 kni from target. 

First LJ.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of 

First 3-tnan crew. 

astronaut safe. 

Vostok 5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual 

21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

min). 

maneuvers in orbit. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered 

(Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket) 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 

km). 

Longest extrdvehicuh activity to date 

(Aldrin, 5 hrs 37 min). 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First LJ.S. 3-man mission. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of moon; first manned 

departure from Earth's sphere of 

influence; highest speed attained in 

manned flight to date. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 

cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit 

operation of lunar module to landing and 

takeoff from lunar surface and rejoining 

with command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 14,300 

m from the lunar surface. 

170 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1987 

Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) Highlights 

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr 

8: 3: 9 First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock and 

soil samples to Earth, and manned 

deployment of experiments on lunar 

Surface. 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

Soyiiz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial observation. 

4 : 22 : 50 

10: 4: 36 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. KubdSov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Rean 

soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14, 1969 Second manned lunar landing. Explored 

surface of moon and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. 

Ship circled moon, with crew using LM as 

"lifeboat" until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 

June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6, 1971 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladitnir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James R. Irwin 

5 : 22 : 55 

17 : 16 : 59 

9: 0: 2 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 Third manned lunar landing. Mission 

demonstrated pinpoint landing capability 

and continued manned exploration. 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew 

recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew 

occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capusle recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo 

'J" series mission, which carried Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. Worden's inflight EVA of 38 

min 12 sec was performed during return 

trip. 

Roving Vehicle. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned 

May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged 

station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days 

soyuz 10 1 : 23 : 46 

soyuz 11 23 : 18 : 22 

Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 12: 7: 12 

Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972 John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Rean 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatohy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. 

Jack R. LollSmd 

Gennadiy v. SardfanoV 

Rukavishnikov 

11: 1: 51 

Apollo 17 Dec. 7. 1972 12: 13: 52 

Skylab 2 May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

28: 0 : 50 

Skylab 3 59: 11: 9 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1 : 16 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration 

mission; last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

experiments. 

occupied space station. 

Soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

7 : 20 : 55 

15: 17 : 30 

2: 0.12 

5 : 22 : 24 

171 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1987 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) Highlights 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheskav D. Zudov 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Gkazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1:28 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied 

station. 

recovered after abort. 

station. 

experiments of ASTP mission. 

experiments of ASTP mission. 

SOyUZ Stages failed to Separate; crew 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint 

Docked with Sal)vt 5 and occupied 

Earth resources study with multispectral 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

station. 

camera system. 

station. 

stat ion, 

Soyuz 27; crew duration 96 days IO hrs. 

soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 

min. 

Czech cosmonaut to orbit. 

Soyuz 31; crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 

48 rnin. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was 

first Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

soyuz 29; crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 

min. Jaehn was first German Democratic 

Republic cosmonaut tv orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 34; crew duration 175 days 36 

min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 

station. Ivanov was first Blllgdridn 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

for Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 

returned unmanned. 

Soyuz 37. Crew duration 184 days 20 hrs 

12 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 35. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 

46 min. Farkas was first Hungarian to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight 

of new-generation ferry. 

Docked with SdlyUt 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 36. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 

42 min. Pham was first Victnamese to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first 

Cuban to orbit. 

Docked wtih Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in 

Soviet program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

July 6, 1976 

Sept. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb. 7, 1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dec. 10, 1977 

Jan. IO, 1978 

48: 1: 32 

7 : 21 : 54 

2: 0: 6 

I7 : 17 : 23 

2: 0:46 

37: 10 : 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Mar. 2, 1978 

June 15, 1978 

7 : 22 : 17 

79: 15: 23 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

June 27, 1978 

Aug. 26, 1978 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

Soyuz 34 

soyuz 35 

Soyuz 36 

Feb. 25, 1979 Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

108 : 4: 24 

Apr. 10, 1979 1:23: 1 

June 6, 1979 (unmanned at launch) 73 : 18 : 17 

Apr. 9, 1980 Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubdsov 

Bertalan Farkas 

55: 1: 29 

May 26, 1980 65 : 20 : 54 

soyuz T-2 

soyuz 37 

June 5, 1980 

July 23, 1980 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

3 : 22 : 21 

79: 15 : 17 

soyuz 38 

SOPZ T-3 

Sept. 18, 1980 

Nov. 27, 1980 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

7 : 20 : 43 

12: 19: 8 

172 
AI~E~DIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1987 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs: min) Highlights 

Soyuz T-4 Mar. 12, 1981 

Soyuz 39 Mar. 22, 1981 

Vladimir V. Kovalcnok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Gurragcha 

74 : 18 : 38 

7 : 20 : 43 

2: 6:21 

7:20 :41 

2: 6:13 

Docked with Salyut 6 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first 

Mongolian cosmonaut to orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested 

spacecraft in orbit. First landing of 

airplanelike craft from orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first 

Romanian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first 

scientific payload (OSTA 1). Tested 

remote manipulator arm. Returned for 

reuse. 

scientific payload (OSS 1). Second test of 

remote manipulator arm. Flight extended 

1 day because of flooding at primary 

landing site; alternate landing site used. 

Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 

211 days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-7. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first 

French cosmonaut to orbit. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD 

payload, additional scientific payloads. 

Returned July 4. Completed orbital flight 

testing program. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second 

Soviet woman to orbit. Crew returned in 

Soyuz T-5. 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

operational flight; launched 2 

commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik C3); first flight with 4 crew members. EVA 

test cancelled when spacesuits 

malfunctioned. 

TDRS 1. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

Space Shuttle Apr. 12, 1981 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 May 14, 1981 

Space Shuttle Nov. 12, 1981 

Columbia 

(STS 2) 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

Space Shuttle Mar. 22, 1982 Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 8: 4:49 

Soyuz T-5 

Soyuz T-6 

May 13, 1982 

June 24, 1982 

Anatoliy Berczovoy 

Valentin Lebedcv 

Vkadimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

211: 9: 5 

7 : 21 : 51 

Space Shuttle 7: 1: 9 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

Soyuz T-7 

June 27, 1982 

Aug. 19, 1982 Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

7:21 :52 

Space Shuttle 5: 2.14 

Columbia 

(STS 5) 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 6) 

Soyuz T-8 

Apr. 4, 1983 Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

D~n~ld H. Peterson 

Story MUS~~AV~ 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

5: 0:24 

Apr. 20, 1983 2: 0:18 

6: 2 :24 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 

station. 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 7) 

June 18, 1983 Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 

commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and 

Palapa B-l), also launched and retrieved 

SPAS 01; first flight with 5 crew 

members, including first woman US. 

astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

one commercial satellite (Insat 1-B), first 

flight of US. black astronaut. 

Soyuz T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

June 28, 1983 

Aug. 30, 1983 

149: 9: 46 

6: 1: 9 

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

Spacelab 1, first flight of 6 crew 

members, one of whom was West 

German, first non-U5 astronaut to fly in 

U.S. space program. 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Nov. 28, 1983 10: 7 :47 

173 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1987 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:niin) Highlights 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41 B) 

SO~UZ T-10 

Soyuz T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-4 1 C) 

Soyuz T-12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-41D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-4 1 G) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1A) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51C) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-51B) 

Soyuz T-13 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Feb. 8, 1984 

Apr. 3, 1984 

Apr. 6, 1984 

July 17, 1984 

Aug. 30, 1984 

Sept. 5, 1984 

Nov. 8, 1984 

Jan. 24, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 5, 1985 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Robert L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

Oleg Atkov 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frances R. Scohee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. van Hoften 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Henry W. Hartsfield 6: 0:56 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Resnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally IC. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Garneau 

Frederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. Buchli 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M. Rhea Seddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. Garn 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thornton 

Lodewijk Vandenberg 

Taylor Wang 

Viktor Sdvinykh 

7 : 23 : 16 

62 : 22 : 43 

Yuriy Malyshev 181 : 21 : 48 

6 : 23 : 41 

11 : 19 : 14 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 112: 3: 12 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two 

communication satellites failed to achieve 

orhit. First use of Manned Maneuvering 

Unit (MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set 

space duration record of 237 days. Crew 

returned in Soyuz T-11. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz 

T-10. 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment 

of LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar 

Maximum Satellite retrieved, repaired, and 

redeployed. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woinan 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

U.S. non-astronaut. 

8: 5 :24 Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight 

of 7 crewinemhers, including first flight of 

two U.S. women and one Canadian. 

7 : 23 : 45 Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

retrieval and return of two disabled 

communications satellites (Westar 6, 

Palapa 132) to Earth. 

3: 1 :33 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

6 : 23 : 55 Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications 

satellites. First U.S. Senator in space. 

7: 0: 9 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo 

hay of shuttle. 

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to 

Earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 

Spacecraft, Sept 26, 1985. 

174 
AI’I’ENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1987 

Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) Highlights 

Space Shuttle June 17, 1985 

Discovery 

(STS-SlG) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-5 1 F ) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-511) 

Soyuz 1’-14 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-5lJ) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-6 1 A) 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-GIR) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-61 C) 

Soyuz T-15 

Soyuz TM-2 

JUIY 29, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Sept. 17, 1985 

Oct. 3, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Jan. 12, 1986 

Mar. 13, 1986 

Feb. 5, 1987 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 7: 1 : 39 Eighteenth STS flight. Three 

John 0. Creighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

Steven R. Nagel 

Patrick Rauclry 

Sultan bin Salinan bin 

Abdul-Aziz AI-Saud 

Charles G. Fullerton 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Rartoe 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van Hoften 

William F. Fisher 

John M. Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grechko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

communications satellites. One reusable 

payload, Spartan-1. First U.S. flight with 

French and Saudi Arabian crewmen. 

7 . 22 : 45 Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo 

Roy D. Bridges bay. 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Pailes 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Steven K. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford 

Ernst Messerschmid 

Reinhard Furrer 

Wubbo J. Ockels 

Rrewster H. Shaw 

Bryan D. O’Connor 

Sherwood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolfo Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steven A. Hawley 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenker 

Bill Nelson 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovyov 

Mary L. CleVe 

Yuriy Romanenko 

Aleksandr Laveykin 

7: 2 :18 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. Repaired 

Syncom IV-3. 

64: 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut-7 station. Viktor 

Savinykh, Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir 

Vasyutin returned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985, 

when Vasyutin became ill. 

mission. 

4: 1 :45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicted DoD 

7: 0 :45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated 

German Spacelab D-l in shuttle cargo 

bay. 

6 : 22 : 54 Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. First flight of 

Mexican astronaut. 

6: 2: 4 Twenty-fourth STS flight. Launched one 

communications satellite. First member of 

US. House of Representatives in space. 

125: 1 : 1 Docked with MIR space station on May 5/6 

transferred to Salyut 7 complex. On June 

25/26 transferred from Salyut 7 back to 

MIR. 

Romanenko established long distance stay 

in space record of 326 days. 

174: 3 : 26 Docked with MIR space station. 

175 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1987 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) Highlights 

Soyuz TM-3 July 22, 1987 Aleksandr Viktorenko 160: 7 : 16 Docked with MIR space station. Aleksandr 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Mohammed Faris 

Aleksandrov remained in MIR 160 days, 

returned with Yuriy Romanenko. 

Viktorenko and Faris returned in Soyuz 

TM-2, July 30 with Akksdndr Laveykin 

who experienced medicdl problems. 

Mohammed Faris first Syrian in space. 

Dec. 21, 1987 Vladimir Titov In progress. Docked with MIR space station. Crew of 

Musa MandrOV Yuriy Romdnenko, Akksdndr 

Anatoliy Levchenko Akksdndrov, and Anatoliy Levchenko 

returned Dec. 29 in Soyuz TM-3. At end 

of 1987 still docked with MIR. 

Soyuz TM-4 

176 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Vehicle 

Max. Payload (kg)" 

Thrust Max. Dia. Geosynch,. Circular First 185-Km (kilonewtons) Height Transfer Sun- Launch Stages Propellant' 

(m) Orbit Synch. 

Orbit 

Scout 

Iklra 2900 Series 

(Thor-Delta) 

Delta 3900 Series 

(Thor-Delta)" 

Atlas E 

1. Algol IIIA ............. 

2. Castor IIA ............ 

3. Antares IIIA ......... 

4. Altair IIIA ............. 

1. Thor plus ............. 

9 Tx 354-5 ........... 

2. Delta .................... 

3. TE 364-4 .............. 

1. Thor plus ............. 

9 Tx 526-2 ........... 

2. Delta .................... 

1. Atlas booster 8r 

sustainer .............. 

1. Atlas booster 8r 

sustainer .............. 

2. Centaur ................ 

Solid ....................... 

Solid ....................... 

Solid ....................... 

Solid ....................... 

LOX/RP-1 ............... Solid ....................... 

N,O,/Aerozine-50 ... 

Solid ....................... 

LOWRP-1 ............... 

Solid ....................... 

N,O,/Aerozine-50 ... 

LOX/RP-I 

LOX/RP-I ............... 

LOWLH, ............... 

431.1 1.14x22.9 

285.2 

83.1 

25.6 

147 each 

44.2 

65.8 

375 each 

44.2 

1,722.0 

1,913.0 

146.0 

912.0 2.44x35.4 

912.0 2.44x35.4 

3.05x28.1 

3.05x45.0 

255 .. 155" 1979(60) 

205" 

2,000 705 1,250d 1973(60) 

1,410" 

3,045 1,275 2,135d 1982(60) 

2,180" 

-- 1,5001 1972(67) 

6,100 2,360 -- 1984(72) 

2,090d ' 

Titan IIIB-Agcna 

Titan III(34)D/IUS 

Titan III(34)D/ 

Transtage 

185-Km Direct Sun-synch. 

Geo-synch. Transfer 

Orbit Orbit 

1. LR-87 .................... N,O,/Aerozine ........ 2,341.0 3.05x48.4 3,6OOd -- 3,060'' 1966 

2. LR-91 ............... N;O ,/Aerozine ........ 455.1 

3. Agena .................. II<FNA/UDMH ........ 71.2 

2. LR-87 .................... N,O,/Aerozine ........ 2,366.3 

3. LR-91 .................... N;O,/Aerozine ........ 449.3 

1st stage ........ Solid ....................... 275.8 

2nd stage ...... Solid ....................... 115.7 

4. Transtage ............. N,O ,/Aerozine ........ 69.8 

1. Two S'/r-seginent, 

3.05 m dia Solid ....................... 11,564.8 3.05x48.0 14,920 1,850' -- 1982 

Same as Titan III(34)D 

plus: 3.05x46.9 14,920 1,855" -- 1984h 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

Space Shuttle 

(reusable) 

1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) fire 

in parallel with 

SRBs ..................... LOWLH, ................ 

2. Two solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRBs) fire in 

parallel with SSMEs AL/NH,CLO,/ 

Mounted on 

external tank (ET) 

PBAN ............ 

29,500 

in full 

performance 

1,670 each 23.79~37.24 configuration 

wing long 

span 

11.790 each 3.71x45.45 

8.40x46.88 

1981 

,' Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen 

and a modified kerosene = LOWW,RJ; solid propellant combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer = Solid; 

inhibited red-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine = IRFNA/UDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH/N,H+ = 

N,O,/aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen = LOWLH,; 

aruminurn, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene acrolonitrile 

terpolymer = AL/NH ,CLO ,/PBAN. 

" Due east launch except as indicated. 

' The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a 

date in parentheses for the initial version. 

j' Polar launch. 

PAM = payload assist module. 

' With dual 'E 364-4. 

" Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to be 

scheduled as needed. 

Maximum performance based on 3920, 3920/PAM configurations. 

With 96" flight azimuth. 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the director of Space Transportation 

System Support Programs. 

177 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BIJIIGET SUMMARY-BIJIIGET ALTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

Fiscal Year 

1959 ............................ 

1960 ............................ 

1961 ............................ 

1962 ............................ 

1963 ............................ 

1964 ............................ 

1965 ............................ 

1966 ............................ 

1967 ............................ 

1969 ............................ 

1970 ............................ 

1971 ............................ 

1972 ............................ 

1973 ............................ 

1974 ............................ 

1975 ............................ 

1977 ............................ 

1978 ............................ 

1979 ............................ 

1980 ................ 

1981 ............................ 

1982 ............................ 

1983 ............................ 

1984 ............................ 

1985 ............................ 

1986 ............................ 

1987 ............................ 

1989 [est.] .................... 

. 

NASA 

Total 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1,824.9 

3,673.0 

5,099.7 

5,249.7 

5,174.9 

4,965.6 

4,587.3 

3,990.9 

3,745.8 

3,311.2 

3,306.6 

3,406.2 

3,036.9 

3,229.1 

3,550.3 

931.8 

3,817.8 

4,060.1 

4,595.5 

5,240.2 

5,518.4 

6,043.9" 

6,875.3' 

7,248.0 

7,572.6 

7,766.0 

10.507.0 

9,025.8 

11,488.0 

Space, 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1,796.8 

3,626.0 

5,016.3 

5,137.6 

5,064.5 

4,830.2 

4,430.0 

3,822.0 

3,547.0 

3,101.3 

3,071.0 

3,093.2 

2,758.5 

2,915.3 

3,225.4 

849.2 

3.440.2 

3,622.9 

4,030.4 

4,680.4 

4,992.4 

5,527.6 

6,327.9 

6,648.3 

6,924.9 

7,165.0 

9,809.0' 

8,302.4 

10,616.0 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1,298.2 

1,549.9 

1,599.3 

1,573.9 

1,688.8 

1,663.6 

1,921.8 

2,013.0 

1,678.4 

1,512.3 

1,407.0 

1,623.0 

1,766.0 

1,892.4 

1,983.3 

460.4 

2,411.9 

2,738.3 

3,035.6 

3,848.4 

4,827.7 

6,678.7 

9,018.9 

10,194.9 

12,767.9 

14,126.0 

16,286.8 

17,678.7 

19,100.0 

Con- Total Defense Energy merce Interior A~cxll- NSF DOT 

ture Space 

34.3 

43.3 

67.7 

147.8 

213.9 

210.0 

228.6 

186.8 

183.6 

145.1 

118.0 

102.8 

94.8 

55.2 

54.2 

41.7 

29.6 

23.3 

4.6 

21.7 

34.4 

58.6 

39.6 

40.5 

60.6 

38.9 

34.1 

34.0 

34.6 

47.6 

75.2 

91.0 

... 

... 

... 

50.7 

43.2 

2.8 

12.2 

26.5 

29.3 

28.1 

20.0 

8.0 

27.4 

31.3 

39.7 

60.2 

64.4 

71.5 

22.2 

90.8 

102.8 

98.4 

92.6 

87.0 

144.5 

177.8 

236.0 

422.9 

308.9 

277.9 

288.4 

358.6 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

0.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.9 

11.7 

12.3 

12.1 

4.6 

3.0 

2.0 

2.0 

7.6 

7.6 

7.6 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

0.7 

0.8 

0.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

0.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

15.2 

20.4 

19.4 

14.8 

22.9 

18.5 

20.0 

20.4 

... ... 

0.1 ... 

0.6 ... 

1.3 ... 

1.5 ... 

3.0 ... 

3.2 ... 

3.2 ... 

2.8 ... 

3.2 ... 

1.9 ... 

2.4 ... 

2.4 ... 

2.8 ... 

2.6 ... 

1.8 ... 

2.0 ... 

2.4 ... 

0.6 ... 

2.4 ... 

2.4 ... 

2.4 ... 

2.4 ... 

2.4 ... 

2.0 ... I ... ... 

... ... 

... ... 

... ... 

... 0.5 

... 0.8 

... 2.1 

784 7 

1. 065 8 

1. 808 2 

3 294 8 

5. 434 5 

6. 831 4 

6. 955 5 

6. 969 8 

6. 709 5 

6. 528 9 

5. 975 8 

5. 340 5 

4. 740 9 

4. 574 7 

4. 824 9 

4. 640 3 

4. 914 3 

5. 319 9 

1. 340 5 

5. 982 8 

6. 518 2 

7. 243 5 

8. 688 8 

9. 977 8 

12. 440 7 

15. 588 5 

17. 135 7 

20. 166 5 

21. 659 4 

26. 447 9 

26. 373 1 

30. 195 7 

dExcludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402) . "Includes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed . 'Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds . 

"NSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA . 'Includes $2.1 billion for replacement of shuttle orbiter Challenger 

SOURCE: Office of Management and I3udget . 

178 
U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority FY 1971-1987 

(may not add because of rounding) 

MILLIONS OF 

DOLLARS 

Ini 

31 .O "I._ 

30 0 

29.0 

2a.o 

27.0 

26.0 

25.0 

24.0 

23.0 

22.0 

21.0 

20.0 

19.0 

18.0 

17.0 

16.0 

15.0 

14.0 

13.0 

12.0 

11.0 

10.0 

9.0 

8.0 

7.0 

6.0 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1 .o 

AIR TRANSPORTATION 

31.0 

30.0 

29.0 

28.0 

27.0 

26.0 

25.0 

24.0 

23.0 

22.0 

21.0 

20.0 

19.0 

18.0 

17.0 

16.0 

15.0 

14.0 

13.0 

12.0 

11.0 

10.0 

9.0 

8.0 

7.0 

6.0 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.0 

0 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 

179 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Federal Space PrOgKimS 1987 1988 1989 1987 1988 1989 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

Federal agencies: 

NASAA .............................................................. 

Energy ......................... 

Commerce ........................................................ 

Interior ........................ 

NSF" ................................................................ 

Transportation ............................... 

TOTAL ............................................... 

................................................... 

......................................... 

9,809.0 

16,286.8 

47.6 

277.9 

7.6 

0.0 

18.5 

0.5 

26,447.9 

8,302.4 

17,678.7 

75.2 

288.4 

7.6 

0.0 

20.0 

0.8 

26,373.1 

10,616.0 

19,100.0 

91.0 

358.6 

7.6 

0.0 

20.4 

2.1 

30,195.7 

7,254.0 

14,264.3 

37.4 

261.9 

7.3 

0.0 

18.5 

0.5 

21,843.9 

8,450.5 9,998.2 

15,528.4 16,868.0 

67.5 87.0 

273.1 341.7 

7.3 7.3 

0.0 0.0 

20.0 20.4 

0.8 2.1 

24,347.6 27,324 7 

.'Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

"NSF funding for balloon research transferred to NASA 

APPENDIX E-3 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1987 1988 1989 1987 1988 1989 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

NASA" .............................................................. 698.0 723.4 872.0 622.0 678.8 830.2 

Department of Transportation' ..................... 946.3 1,261.5 1,755.0 1,062.2 1,172.7 1,239.1 

TOTAL .............................................................. 5,823.7 7,207.4 7,690.4 5,866.0 6,507.3 6,964.8 

Federal Aeronautics Programs 

Department of Defense" ................................ 4,179.4 5,222.5 5,063.4 4,181.8 4,655.8 4,895.5 

"Research and Development, Construction of 

Facilities, Research and Program Management 

hResearch, Development, Testing, and 

Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. 

'Federal Aviation Administration: Research, 

Engineering, and Development; Facilities, 

Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

180 
APPENDIX F 

Agreement 

Between the United States of America and 

the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 

Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration 

and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes 

The United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, hereinafter referred to as the Parties; 

Considering the role of the two States in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes; 

Desiring to make the results of the exploration and use of outer space avdihbk for the benefit of the peoples of the two States and of all 

peoples of the world; 

Taking into consideration the provisions of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer 

Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, and other multilateral agreements regarding the exploration and use of outer Space to 

which both States are Parties: 

Noting the General Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Union of Soviet 

Socialist Republics on Contacts, Exchanges, and Cooperation in Scientific, Technical, Educational, Cultural, and other fields, signed on 

November 21, 1985; 

Have agreed as follows: 

ARTICLE 1 

The Parties shall carry out cooperation in such fields of space science as solar system exploration, space astronomy and astrophysics, earth 

sciences, solar-terrestrial physics, and space biology and medicine. 

The initial agreed list of cooperative projects is attached as an Annex 

ARTICLE 2 

The Parties shall carry out cooperation by means of mutual exchanges of scientific information and delegations, meetings of scientists and 

specialists and in such other ways as may be mutually agreed, including exchange of scientific equipment where appropriate. The Parties, 

acting through their designated cooperating agencies, shall form joint working groups for the implementation of cooperation in each of the 

fields listed in Article 1. The recommendations of the joint working groups shall be subject to the approval of each Party in accordance with 

its appropriate national procedures prior to implementation. The designated cooperating agencies shall notify each other of the action taken 

by the Parties on the recommendations within three months of their adoption by the joint working groups. 

ARTICLE 3 

The joint working groups shall begin their work with the projects listed in the Annex to this Agreement. Revisions to the list of projects in 

the Annex, which may include the identification of other projects in which cooperation would be of mutual benefit, my be effected by 

written agreement between the Parties through a procedure to be determined by them. 

ARTICLE 4 

Cooperative activities under this Agreement, including exchanges of technical information, equipment and data, shall be conducted in 

accordance with international law as well as the international obligations, national laws, and regulations of each Party, and within the limits 

of available funds. 

ARTICLE 5 

This Agreement shall be without prejudice to the cooperation of either Party with other States and international organizations. 

ARTICLE 6 

The Parties shall encourage international cooperation in the study of legal questions of mutual interest which may arise in the exploration 

and use of outer space for peaceful purposes. 

181 
ARTICLE 7 

This Agreement will enter into force on the date of signature by the Parties and will remain in force for five years. It may be extended for 

further five-year periods by an exchange of notes between the Parties. Either Party may notify the other in writing of its intent to terminate 

this Agreement at any time effective six months after receipt of such notices by the other Party. 

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized by their respective Governments, have signed ihis Agreement 

DONE at Moscow, in duplicate, this 15th day of April, 1987, in the English and Russian languages, both texts being equally authentic. 

George P. Shultz Eduard Shevardnadze 

FOR THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: FOR THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS: 

[ANNEX] 

AGREED LIST OF COOPERATIVE PROJECTS 

1. Coordination of the Phobos, Vesta, and Mars Observer missions and the exchange of scientific data resulting from them 

2. Iitilization of the U.S. Deep Space Network for position tracking of the Phobos and Vesta landers and subsequent exchange of scientific 

data. 

3. Invitation, by mutual agreement, of co-investigators' and/or interdisciplinary scientists' participation in the Mars Observer and the Phobos 

and Vesta missions. 

4. Joint studies to identify the most promising landing sites on Mars. 

5. Exchange of scientific data on the exploration of the Venusian surface. 

6. Exchange of scientific data on cosmic dust, meteorites and lunar materials. 

7. Exchange of scientific data in the field of radio astronomy. 

8. Exchange of scientific data in the fields of cosmic gamma-ray, x-ray and sub-millimeter astronomy. 

9. Exchange of scientific data and coordination of programs and investigations relative to studies of gamma ray burst data. 

10. Coordination of observations from solar terrestrial physics missions and the subsequent exchange of appropriate scientific data 

11. Coordination of activities in the study of global changes of the natural environment. 

12. Cooperation in the Cosmos biosatellite program. 

13. Exchange of appropriate biomedical data from U.S. and U.S.S.R. manned space flights. 

14. Exchange of data arising from studies of Space flight-induced changes of metabolism, including the metabolism of calcium, from both 

space flight and ground experiments. 

15. Exploration of the fCdSibility of joint fundamental and applied biomedical experiments on the ground and in various types of spacecraft, 

including exobiology. 

16. Preparation and publication of a second amplified edition of the joint study "Fundamentals of Space Biology and Medicine." 

Information: To obtain general information about the 

contents of this report, contact Rebecca W. Miller, 

Code XH, NASA Headquarters, Washington, IIC 20546 

(202) 453-8300. 

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