Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President TRANSMITTED TO THE 

1970 

CONGRESS 

JANUARY 197 1 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

- 1970 

TRANSMITTED TO THE 

CONGRESS 

JANUARY 197 1 

Executive Office of the President 

National Aeronautics and Space Council 

Washington, D.C. 20502 
PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE OF TRANSMITTAL 

To the Congress of the United States. 

In this first year of the new decade, we have been working to establish a firm basis 

for a balanced national aeronautics and space program which is compatible with 

our national priorities, goals and resources and which insures continuing progress 

throughout the decade. 1970 has been a year of transition from past successes to 

new challenges. 

The activities of our space program during the year are consistent with the 

recommendations I made in March for a balanced space program. Our goals are 

continued exploration, scientific knowledge and practical applications. The technology 

acquired through our space programs has many practical applications on earth 

ranging from communications, meteorology and navigation to agriculture, education 

and transportation. 

Specific objectives guide our space endeavors. We should continue to explore the 

moon and increase the scientific return on the investment in the Apollo program. 

We should also continue to explore the planets of our solar system and the universe. 

We must strive to reduce the cost of space operations. We should try to expand our 

knowledge of man’s ability to perform productively in the hostile environment of 

space and to relate this knowledge to uses here on earth. We must apply space-related 

technology to the critical assessment of our environment and to the effective use of 

our resources. We should also promote international cooperation in our space program 

by pursuing joint space ventures, exchanging scientific and technical knowledge, and 

assisting in the practical application of this knowledge. We are greatly encouraged 

by European interest in joining us in cooperative post-Apollo planning. 

From our aeronautics activities have come substantial contributions to continued 

U.S. pre-eminence in civil aviation, major improvements in aeronautical services, 

and impressive developments in a sound SST program. This year has seen the 

initiation of new military aeronautics programs that will enhance our national security. 

We must consider other new means to insure that our national aeronautics program 

is given the opportunity and encouragement to contribute to our national well-being. 

I am pleased to transmit to Congress this report of our national aeronautics and 

space activities during 1970. I take this opportunity to express my admiration for 

the men and women whose devotion, courage and creativity have made our aeronautics 

and space progress a source of national pride. 

THE WHITE HOUSE, 

January 1971. 
Table 

I . Progress Toward U.S. Aeronautics and Space 

Goals in 1970 ............................ Introduction ................................ Continued Exploration of the Moon ........... Exploration of the Planets and the Universe .... Substantial Reduction in the Cost of Space 

Operations ............................... Extension of Man’s Capability To Live and 

Introduction ............................... Specific Activities ... 

Manned Space Fligh 

International Affairs ..................... 

Technology Utilization 

Relationships With 0th 

The NASA Safety Prog 

IV . Department of Defense 

Introduction ......... 

Aeronautics Activities . 

Relationship With Other Government Agencies . . 

Introduction ............................... 

Supporting Research and Technclogy .......... 

V . Atomic Energy Commission .... 

Space Electric Power .......... Space Radioisotope Power Systems . . Space Isotopic Fuel Development ... Space Reactor Power Systems ......... Nuclear Rocket Program ..................... 

in Space and the Atmosphere ............... VI . Department of State ......................... 

VI1 . Department of Tra 

Satellite-Based Detection of Nuclear Explosions 

Introduction ..... ................ ......................... 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation System ...... Human Factors in Aviation .................. 

......................... 

her Service ............. 

of Contents 

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National Marine Fisheries Service 

Environmental Research Laborat 

National Ocean Survey ................. National Environmental Satellite Service ... Environment Data Service ............... National Bureau of Standards ................ 

Introduction ............................... XIV . National Academy of Sciences, National Academy 

Introduction . . 

Aeronautics and Space Engi 

Division of Behavioral Sciences 

Division of Earth Sciences .................... 

Division of Physical Sciences . . Office of Scientific Personnel . Committee on SST Sonic Boo 

XV . The Smithsonian Institution .. Introduction ............... Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory ........ The Office of Environmental Sciences .......... National Museum of Natural History .......... Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ....... National Air and Space Museum ............. XVI . Federal Communications Commission .......... Introduction .......... Communication Satellit 

International Radio Co 

Radio Astronomy and Spac 

Aeronautical Services . . Maritime Mobile Service 

Amateur Radio Service ...................... 

Division of Engineering ...................... 

Broadcasting Policy Coordination ........ 

A.1 . A.2 . 

A.3 . A-4 . 

B . 

C . 

D.1 . D.2 . 

E . F-1 . 

F.2 . 

Appendixes 

U.S. Spacecraft Record ...................... World Record of Space Launchings Successful in 

Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ........... Successful U.S. Launches--1970 .............. Aeronautical Events of 1970 .................. U.S. Applications Satellites, 1958-70 .......... History of United States and Soviet Manned 

Space Flights ............................ U .. S. Space Launch Vehicles ................. U.S. Successful Launches to Earth Orbit or Beyond by Launch Vehicle, 1958-70 .......... Nuclear Power Systems for Space Application . . Space Activities of the U.S. Government. ...... U.S. Space Budget-New Obligational Authority 

(chart) .................................. Space Activities Budget ...................... Aeronautics Budget ......................... 

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V 
I Progress Toward U.S. Aeronautics 

and Space Goals in 1970 

Introduction 

The decade of the Sixties was an exciting period of 

growth and development of the nation’s aeronautics 

and space endeavors. The primary goal around which 

the space activities centered was to land a man on 

the moon and to return him safely to earth. The year 

1969 saw the fulfillment of man’s age-old dream to 

travel beyond the confines of his terrestrial home to 

another celestial body. This great achievement of technical skill and human determination marked the successful accomplishment of a national goal and added 

to the distinction of this first chapter of U.S. space 

history. The attainment of the primary goal of the 

Sixties signaled that the time was appropriate to examine the successes of the past and to propose a 

follow-on space program for the new decade and the 

future. An extensive effort was undertaken to evaluate 

the alternatives open to the nation in selecting future 

space programs which would be clearly defined and 

feasible, and simultaneously compatible with other 

national priorities. 

The result of the evaluation became the basis for 

a bold and energetic yet well balanced space program 

for the Seventies. In March of 1970, new goals and 

objectives for continuing the progress of space achievements were announced based on three general purposes: space exploration, scientific knowledge and 

practical applications. Six specific objectives were outlined: continued exploration of the moon; bold exploration of the planets and the universe; substantial 

reduction in the cost of space operations; extension of 

man’s capability to live and work in space; expansion 

of the practical applications of space technology and 

the encouragement of greater international cooperation in space. 

The year saw substantial progress in U.S. aeronautics 

activities which served to maintain the U.S. pre-eminence in the field. Advancements in the design of the 

supersonic transport and an aggressive research and 

development program highlighted this year of aeronautical progress. The year also saw considerable 

activity dedicated to the initiation of new military 

aeronautics programs that will enhance our national 

security. 

The scientific knowledge gained through space exploration opens a new door to greater scientific and 

intellectual comprehension of man himself, the planet 

on which he lives, the solar system, and the universe. 

With the information gleaned from each space venture, man increases his ability to devote his scientific 

and technical skills toward the benefit of life and improvement of its conditions throughout the entire 

world. 

Continued Exploration of the Moon 

Four Americans have explored the lunar surface, set 

out scientific equipment around their landing sites, 

made geologic observations of the surrounding area 

and collected 123 pounds of selected samples of rock 

and lunar material for further analysis on earth. Returned lunar rocks have been displayed throughout 

the world where they have attracted great interest 

and admiration for our country. The study and analysis 

of the material during 1970 has been the basis for estimating that the moon was formed about four and a 

half billion years ago, approximately the same time as 

the earth and meteorites. Scientists and investigators 

from 16 countries are continuing analyses to glean 

whatever facts the material has yet to yield. These 

achievements have greatly improved our knowledge 

of the moon and have given the world a new capability 

to understand the solar system and its origin. The remaining Apollo flights will yield progressively increased 

scientiflc returns as exploration radius and time on the 

moon are expanded. New experiments, new equipments, and, further analysis of the information and 

material received will continue to improve knowledge. 

Scientific equipment and instruments which were 

placed on the moon by astronauts continue to transmit 

new and valuable information about its structure, physical state, magnetic fields, solar winds, and atmosphere. The SNAP 27 nuclear power unit provides 

power for these experiments and it has operated continuously, dbove its mission requirements, since emplacement. By laser ranging on the reflector deployed 

by the Apollo 11 crew, the distance between the moon 

and the earth can be measured to an accuracy of less 

than one foot. These measurements are made several 

times a week, giving an accurate ephemeris of the 

moon, and helping to discern lunar motions and tidal 

effects. 

Two lunar flights, Apollo 13 and 14, were scheduled 

to be made in 1970. As the world knows, the attempt to 

put the third crew of Americans on the moon was cut 

short when an oxygen tank failure occurred on Apollo 

13. The courageous astronauts were returned safely to 

1 
earth with the help of skilliul ground controllers and 

aided by the dedicated support and prayers of people 

throughout the world. Subsequent analysis of the entire Apollo system and the modifications necessary to 

prevent recurrence of similar problems resulted in the 

decision to reschedule the launch of Apollo 14 for 

early 1971. 

More scientific equipment will be set out by the 

crew of Apollo 14 when they arrive on the moon. The 

Mobile Equipment Transporter, a two wheel rickshawlike device, has been developed to help the astronauts 

carry equipment and instruments in their lunar travel. 

Apollo 15, scheduled to be launched later in 1971, will 

be the first to carry a Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) to 

the moon. This vehicle is four wheeled and self-propelled; it will carry the two astronauts and their equipment, thereby providing a much greater range of 

exploration during their visit. Improvements planned 

in life support systems will permit greater stay times, 

and expanded use of the LRV will increase substantially the crew’s capability to deploy scientific instruments and devices, collect lunar materials, and make 

scientific observations. 

In September after much deliberation and consideration of all factors, the difficult decision was made 

to eliminate two of the future Apollo missions, and to 

apply the resources to other elements of the space 

program. Apollo 16 and 17 will be the final missions 

and are presently scheduled to be flown in 1972. 

Exploration of the Planets and the Universe 

The United States continued the pace of its scientific 

exploration of the planets and the universe and made 

plans for a bold program in the decade of the ’70’s 

dedicated to the greater understanding of the space 

environment. 

The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) 

-2, launched in 1968, continues to provide important 

data uniquely available from this spacecraft. A series 

of observations of an exploding star (a nova) in the 

constellation Serpeus was made which could not be 

seen from ground-based telescopes due to the filtering 

effect of the earth’s atmosphere. With the completion 

of the celestial telescope experiment aboard OAO-2, 

the beginning of the analysis of ultraviolet spectral 

data on some 25,000 stars was undertaken. A third 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatory was launched late 

in 1970 but failed to achieve orbit. The Orbiting Geophysical Observatories 3,4,5, and 6 (launched between 

1967 and 1969) made sky-surveys and provided much 

valuable data that could be correlated with data from 

other satellites, sounding rockets, and ground-based 

instruments. 

Through the Smithsonian Astronomical Observatory’s automatic photographic patrol, a bright fireball 

was optically tracked and three meteorite fragments 

2 

were recovered near Lost City, Oklahoma. This was 

the first time that recovered fragments could be correlated with a specific meteoroid coming from a known 

orbit. 

The discovery of the existence of a large number 

of interstellar molecules by radio astronomers in the 

past two years has led to the identification of more 

complex and unexpected molecules in space. Spectral 

measurements indicate that complex chemical reactions take place during the evolution of interstellar 

clouds into stars and planets. In fact, these molecules 

have been identified as some of the building blocks 

necessary to produce simple lifelike forms. More 

recently, analysis of a meteorite which landed in 

Australia provided the first positive identification of 

amino acids of extraterrestrial origin. This is probably 

the first conclusive proof of extraterrestrial chemical 

evolution, the chemical processes which precede the 

origin of life. 

The first of the Small Astronomy Satellite series 

(named Uhuru, the Swahili word for freedom) was 

launched in December by the Italians for the United 

States from the San Marco range to investigate several 

spectral regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The 

satellite, now in orbit, is designed to develop a catalog 

of celestial X-ray sources. It should transmit more 

data in a single day than was transmitted through the 

total observation time of the Xaray instruments on all 

earlier satellites and rockets. Satellites of the Explorer 

series as well as some of the international satellites 

continue to provide useful environmental information 

that will lead to a better understanding of the physical 

properties and mechanisms of interactions in space. 

Planning and development of other spacecraft intended for exploration of the planets continued 

throughout 1970. The Mariner class spacecraft which 

returned such outstanding photographs of Mars in 1964 

and again in 1969 were being improved for missions to 

Mars, Venus, and Mercury. Spacecraft design was 

completed for Pioneer spacecraft to go to Jupiter. 

Experiment definition, instrumknt concepts, and mission plans were advanced for the Viking spacecraft 

which will orbit and land on Mars. Planning continued for “Grand Tour” missions later in the decade 

to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and their 

satellites. A prime contractor was selected for the 

Helios spacecraft, a cooperative US-West Germany 

project which will fly close to the sun. 

Substantial Reduction in the Cost 

of Space Operations 

During 1970 the feasibility of reusable space shuttles 

as a means of reducing the cost of space operations 

was examined in greater detail. In-depth studies were 

initiated to define better not only the vehicle hardware 

but also payloads, system economics, and civilian and 
military mission traffic requirements for a Space Transportation System (STS) . Mission objectives are being 

considered by a NASA/DOD interagency STS Committee with observers from the National Aeronautics 

and Space Council staff. A major effort has been devoted to the development of international cooperation 

in our post Apollo program; several European countries are presently considering the nature and degree of 

participation (including financial), which they may 

wish to propose with the space shuttle program as a 

primary focus of effort. 

In another area for reducing costs in space program operations, DOD and NASA conducted a joint 

study of common support services at the Eastern Test 

Range and the Kennedy Space Center. The study led 

to recommendations for the consolidation of support 

services which is expected to save over one million 

dollars per year in the operation of these .two facilities. 

Extension of Man’s Capability To Live and Work 

in Space 

Much has been le,arned from the Mercury, Gemini and 

Apollo missions about man’s capability to live and perform productively in the environment of outer space. 

The next step in our manned space flight program will 

explore extended duration missions using Apollo hardware as an experimental space station. This pmgram, 

called Skylab, was known previously as the Orbital 

Workshop. 

During the past year program development has progressed quite well. The Skylab program objectives are: 

(1) to determine and evaluate man’s adaptation to 

the space environment and his readaptation to terrestrial conditions through a series of progressively longer 

missions; (2) to develop and evaluate techniques for 

utilizing man’s sensory, decision-making, discriminatory, and mechanical capabilities in space operations; 

(3) to develop techniques for increasing systems and 

subsystems life for long duration habitability and mission control; (4) to conduct science, technology, and 

applications experiments in which man’s contribution 

is expected to improve the quality and for yield of the 

results. Major experiments to be included are the large 

solar telescope and the multi-spectral earth resources 

survey equipment. Present planning calls for a late 

1972 launch of the Skylab followed the next day lby a 

launch of an Apollo Command and Service Module 

carrying three astronauts who will activate the station 

and use it as a laboratory for up to 28 days. The station 

will be revisited by two additional crews. Based on the 

experience of the first crew, it is planned to extend the 

time of stay for the second and third visits up to 56 

days each. 

On the basis of experience with Skylab, it will be 

possible to make sound decisions on how to proceed 

with longer duration space stations or platforms in the 

future. Initial conceptual studies and program definition activity are being continued in this area in order to 

establish alternative program options for future multipurpose space platforms. 

Practical Applications of Space Technology 

The most visible benefits deriving from activities in 

space are evident in the applications of space technology. These applications are manifested in areas such 

as communications, meteorology, navigation and traffic 

control, geodesy, surveying the earth‘s resources from 

space, and national defense. Such activities offer the 

greatest immediate prospect for helping man improve 

the quality of life on earth. 

Communications.-The country continued with an 

aggressive space oriented communications program to 

provide for both our civil and military requirements. 

An experiment was initiated using the Applications 

Technology Satellite (ATS) -1 for educational and 

public radio transmissions by Alaska. ATS-3 was used 

for educational telecasts between South Carolina and 

California. Signal acquisition and tracking tests for 

digital communications and ranging were performed 

by the L-band transponder of ATS-5. 

The first phase of the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) designed to provide long distance communications capability by satellite, presently 

uses 23 operational spacecraft and 29 earth terminals. 

The system continued to satisfy unique and vital military communications requirements. As an adjunct to 

satisfying these needs, the military satellite communications system also provided services in civilian areas. 

Procurement of the satellites for the second phase of 

DSCS is well underway and launch of the spacecraft 

into synchronous orbit to initiate the improved system 

is scheduled for mid-1971. The Phase I1 DSCS 

satellites will have significantly higher power and 

bandwidth capability permitting many additional 

communications channels. These satellites coupled 

with scheduled improved terminal performance will 

provide significant improvement in satellite communications reliability, capability and service. 

The research and development phase of the Tactical 

Satellite Communications Program (TACSAT) was 

completed in 1970. The objective of this phase was to 

investigate the use of space borne communications 

repeaters to satisfy selected communications needs of 

our mobile forces. Tests were performed using aircraft, 

jeeps, trucks, ships, and submarines and included the 

use of the Lincoln Experiment Satellite (LES) -6, the 

TACSAT-1 satellite and 65 mobile terminals. The 

data obtained is being analyzed to determine the 

design of future operational systems. 

3 
This year the United States launched three satellites 

for Intelsat, the partnership of telecommunications 

entities in 77 nations. One of these failed to achieve 

synchronous orbit. Five commercial communications 

satellites are in operation to provide worldwide coverage. Two are over the Atlantic, two over the Pacific, 

and one over the Indian Ocean. An advanced design 

satellite Intelsat IV having almost eight times the circuit capacity of the current-Intelsat I11 series is being 

readied for launch early in 1971. 

Meteorology.-The nation added significantly to its 

meteorology capability with the successful launch of 

the first Improved TIROS Operational Satellite 

(ITOS) -1 This became the prototype for the second 

generation of operational environmental satellites. The 

second of the ITOS satellites, designated NOAA-1, 

and the first operational satellite of the system was 

launched at the end of 1970. This addition to our 

operational capability further enhances the contributions that this country is in a position to make toward 

the understanding of meteorological phenomena and 

the improving of worldwide forecasting ability. Nimbus 

IV, another in a series of advanced research and development weather satellites was launched in April. 

ITOS supports the National Operational Meteorological Satellite System and is an improved type 

satellite which is to replace two types of TIROS 

operational satellites. Nimbus made the first satellite 

measurements of vertical temperature soundings in the 

lower stratosphere ; these measurements provide significant new data for long range weather forecasting. 

Nimbus also carries a SNAP 19 nuclear power generator. In addition, Nimbus has achieved extremely 

precise and stable spacecraft attitude control. The 

proof of this system’s performance is extremely important to the Earth’s Resources Technology Satellite 

which requires such stability for taking high resolution 

images. 

As a secondary payload with ITOS-1, the fifth of 

the Orbiting Satellites Carrying Amateur Radio 

(OSCAR) was launched. This spacecraft was designed and built by students at Melbourne University, 

Australia and was prepared and qualified for launch 

by a United States organization of amateur radio 

operators. 

The National Weather Service furnished support, 

under the World Meteorological Organization Voluntary Assistance Program, for the installation in 

foreign countries of ten ground stations. These are 

now receiving data directly from U.S. environmental 

satellites. 

Aeronautical and Maritime Services.-With the advent of larger transport aircraft and supersonic transports, and increases in traffic volume over land and 

sea areas, the need for better systems for communications, surveillance, navigation, and traffic control 

becomes increasingly significant. Safety, economy, and 

convenience are but some of the considerations that 

contribute to the need for improved systems. The 

Office of Telecommunications Policy has been working with others to develop policy guidance in this area 

of space applications. 

The Department of Transportation (DOT), the 

Department of Defense (DOD), and NASA are investigating means for providing navigation and traffic 

control assistance by use of space borne equipment. 

Using the ATS-1 and ATS-3 spacecraft, the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA) and the US. Coast 

Guard joined NASA in conducting experiments which 

demonstrated the feasibility of using satellites in geostationary orbit for aircraft-to-land communication 

and for position determination. 

DOT and NASA have collaborated in assessing 

satellite capabilities, through the ATS-5, for transoceanic aeronautical traffic control and communication. The satellite provided signals useful in ranging 

measurements at ultra-high frequencies. 

NASA and the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) conducted joint studies in which it 

was determined that a satellite system could meet the 

technical aviation needs of the late 70’s for communication and independent surveillance of aircraft in the 

Atlantic region. 

Geodesy.-The U.S. geodetic satellite program is 

designed to provide information, in cooperation with 

international agencies, that will lead to a more precise 

description of the earth’s size, shape and gravity field. 

An additional goal of the program is to improve the 

position accuracy of points on the earth’s surface. Final 

plans were made for the initiation of the International 

Satellite Geodesy Experiment ( ISAGEX) in anticipation of a formal start in 1971. This program is cooperatively supported by the United States, France, 

Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, USSR, 

West Germany, Italy, Japan, Australia, Switzerland, 

Latvian SSR, Mongolia, and others. The program is 

dependent on GEOS 11, which was launched and is 

being operated by the United States. 

A joint Army and Marine test program is underway 

to investigate the potential application of geodetic 

satellite systems to tactical positioning requirements of 

the Services. 

Data acquisition for the National Geodetic Satellite 

Program (NGSP) was completed in 1970. A total of 

43 stations in 23 countries participated in this program to provide a unified three-dimensional framework including the earth and connecting all major 

land masses of the world within an accuracy of 33 feet 

in all three positional components. 

A program was initiated this year to apply geodetic 

satellite technology and associated precision tracking 

4 
laser techniques to studies that should provide new 

data €or geoscientists to use in preparing models for 

predicting major earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, 

changes in major ocean circulation patterns, and long 

term changes in the earth's climate. 

Earth Resources Survey.-In 1970, the Earth Resources Survey program made significant progress, 

both technically and organizationally. The program 

is an experimental effort to investigate the usefulness 

of remote sensing of the earth from aircraft and spacecraft. Information gathered from these platforms holds 

great promise as an aid to productive and rational 

management of the earth's resources and enviroment. 

Because the benefits are potentially broad-agriculture, forestry, oceanography, cartography, urban planning, etc.-the program involves many agencies of the 

Federal Government and should also eventually serve 

state and local agencies, businesses, educational institutions as well as private citizens. The potential benefits 

of a viable earth resources survey program has also 

aroused substantial international interest. 

During this year, earth resources aircraft flew missions to survey test sites in the United States and to 

investigate the application of remote sensing techniques. These aircraft missions provided valuable data 

on storm damaged areas, corn blight, oil spills, and 

ecological problems and have resulted in a new understanding of how earth survey information can be used 

for environmental management and solutions to special 

problems. 

Earth resources surveys from space represent a 

companion and complementary activity to aircraft 

surveys. The year brought new applications of space 

photography taken in earlier Apollo and Gemini flights 

and progress in the art of analyzing and extracting 

useful information from remotely sensed data. An important milestone for the space portion of the program 

was the selection of the prime contractor for the Earth 

Resources Technology Satellites (ERTS) A and B and 

completion of their design. Progress was also made on 

an Earth Resources Experiments Package (EREP) to 

be flown on the Skylab space station. In addition to 

the technical aspects of the program, progress was also 

made in the development of understanding of the 

complex intergovernment organization which will 

bring the program's benefits to ultimate users. Interagency committees under the guidance of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Council began work on the 

definition of the data handling network, data standards and format, and management of a national 

program. 

Defense Support.-In addition to activities in the 

other discriplinary areas of space applications such as 

communications, navigation, and geodesy, a sixth pair 

of Vela nuclear detection satellites was successfully 

placed in orbit. These spacecraft provide an extended 

capability to view surface and low altitude detonations 

while, at the same time, maintaining a constant monitoring of deep space. 

International Cooperation 

It has been the policy of the United States to encourage 

greater cooperation in space activities among nations; 

to this end, several new bilateral agreements have been 

achieved. 

Included elsewhere in this chapter are the following 

specific cooperative efforts : 

-Lunar sample investigation by scientists working 

-Lunar sample public displays all over the world. 

-An astronomy satellite launched for the U.S. by 

the Italians at the San Marco Range. 

-Communication satellite launches by the U.S. for 

the international Intelsat system and plans for 

satellites for over-ocean international aviation and 

maritime services. 

on U.S. samples in 16 foreign countries. 

-Meteorological satellites which supply constant 

and regular weather service directly to many countries and also through the World Meteorological 

Organization. 

-Geodetic satellites which supply earth measurements in cooperation with international agencies. 

-Earth Resources Survey satellites planned for use 

when available to all interested countries. 

In other chapters of this report, all of the cooperative 

efforts of the past year have been described by each 

agency which participated. The programs which involve the United Nations Organizations and international agreements are covered in Chapter VI. Other 

bilateral and multi-lateral programs carried out under 

statutory responsibility are fully reported in the responsible agency's chapter. 

A significant new development in our cooperative 

efforts with the USSR took place in Moscow in October when US and USSR representatives discussed arrangements for compatible docking systems in future 

United States and Soviet manned spacecraft. Since 

then the USSR has suggested possible other new areas 

of US and Soviet space cooperation. These possibilities 

are being pursued. 

Following several discussions in Europe and in 

Washington, the European Space Conference is considering active participation in the post-Apollo program. Substantial contributions to such plans might 

be possible over the next ten years if a formal agreement is reached. 

5 
Plans are being developed for an International 

Workshop on Earth Resources Survey Systems to be 

held in May at the University of Michigan. It will be 

cosponsored by the Department of State and NASA 

with the help of other agencies. Invitations were extended to all UN Member States by the US delegation 

in December. 

Aeronautics 

Activities and accomplishments in aeronautics continued at a steady pace throughout the year. Excellent 

progress was achieved in the design and development 

of the Supersonic Transport (SST) . Contracts were 

awarded to the major subcontractors in mid-year and 

fabrication of the prototype hardware was immediately 

initiated. Intense Congressional interest in the SST 

centers around national priorities, economics and environmental questions. Additional research programs 

were initiated to provide a better basis for resolving 

the environmental issues before decisions on a production go-ahead are made. 

It is a national policy that commercial supersonic 

transports will be prohibited from supersonic flight 

over all land areas of the United States. On April 16, 

1970, the Federal Aviation Administration issued a 

Notice of Proposed Rule Making which will prohibit 

commercial supersonic flight over the United States 

and its territories at any speed that would produce a 

sonic boom that would reach the ground. 

The jet transport age fostered by the technology 

developed in the past by the Federal Government, 

opened a new phase of air transportation with the 

introduction of the first commercial airline operation 

of the 747 wide-body jet. Two new “airbus” aircraft, 

the DC-10 and the L-1011, were flown on their 

maiden flights, initiating the flight test certification 

programs. These airbus aircraft have large capacities 

like the jumbo jets, yet are designed especially for 

medium to long range flights. New quiet engines and 

smoke-free exhausts on all these new airliners demonstrated positive results of aviation’s attention to environmental issues. 

Aeronautics research and development supported by 

the Federal Government continues to add to the information base vital for military and civilian system 

advancements by an important national industry. The 

Whitcomb “super critical” wing, designed to provide 

more efficient flight up to the speed of sound, was 

flown in a full-scale configuration on a modified jet 

trainer aircraft. The X-24 “lifting body” research 

vehicle made its first flight early in the year and 

achieved supersonic flight in October. This vehicle 

along with the NASA M2-F3 and HL-10 is being 

used to study a “wingless” configuration for space 

shuttle applications. Much progress was made on the 

quiet engine programs oriented towards application 

to existing civil transports. A contract was let on a 

short take-off and landing (STOL) experimental 

vehicle as part of a cooperative U.S.-Canadian research effort. Hypersonic engine technology was advanced with successful wind tunnel testing at a speed 

of Mach 7.4 and at temperatures approaching 2000” 

F. Other major milestones were achieved in R&D during 1970 on all-weather landing systems, collision 

avoidance equipment, area navigation equipment, 

flight control system improvements, turbine engine development, nozzle inlet and engine-airframe integration, helicopter component design and testing, and 

other similarly important areas. 

Significant developments in military aircraft were 

also achieved in 1970. The Navy F-14 carrier based 

tactical fighter flew for the first time in December, less 

than two years after the award of the engineering 

development contract and ahead of the planned schedule. The Air Force F-15 air superiority fighter successfully completed its Preliminary Design Review in 

September. The B-1 Advanced Manned Bomber went 

into airframe and engine engineering development 

after a contract was awarded in June. The Air Force 

bomber is intended to replace the aging B-52 which 

so well fulfilled its strategic role since the mid-1950s. 

Engineering development of the carrier based S-3A 

antisubmarine warfare aircraft was highlighted by a 

full system mockup review in March. The US. 

Marines contracted with an English contractor for 

delivery of 12 A-8A Harrier V/STOL aircraft. This 

program was supported by NASA test of a P-1127 

research aircraft. The need for a new close-air support 

fighter was recognized in April when development was 

initiated on the new Air Force attack aircraft, the 

A-X. Proposals to build the A-X have been evaluated, 

and two contractors have been chasen to build prototype aircraft for a flyoff competition. The radar development for the Airborne Warning and Control 

System (AWACS) aircraft was completed and the 

aircraft program cantractor was chosen. A joint NavyAir Force development program resulted in operational 

deployment of the A-7 light attack aircraft. Navy 

A7E’s have already demonstrated their flexibility and 

capability in combat; the Air Force A7D has been delivered to the first operational squadron. Operational 

deployment of C-5A Heavy Logistic Transports was 

initiated and regular missions are now being flown to 

the Pacific and European theaters. 

With the passage of the Airways and Airports Development Act of 1970 in May, funds for airways and 

airport development were placed in a trust fund 

financed by air transport and general aviation user 

taxes. The initial radar traffic control system, ARTS 

111, was installed at Chicago’s O’Hare International 

Airport to provide automated assistance for high density traffic control. Plans are to have sixty-two airports 

similarly equipped during the next three years. In 

6 
addition, FAA has installed 15 computers at traffic 

control centers as an initial step in automating enroute 

traffic control. 

After airliner hijacking reached unprecedented 

heights during the year, the President initiated a fivepoint program to deal with the problem. Strong measures were implemented : included were the assignment 

of armed US. Government personnel to certain commercial passenger flights, the establishment of effective 

pre-boarding procedures and the installation of 

weapons detection equipment. Development of other 

devices to curb hijacking and sabotage has been 

initiated. 

The extent of Federal involvement in Civil Aeronautics Research and Development (CARD) has been 

studied vigorously in 1970 by a NASA-DOT group. 

The CARD Policy Study is designed to explore and 

define the significance of civil aviation to the nation, to 

forecast the research effort needed to maintain the 

United States as a leader in aviation, and to develop 

alternatives for government and industry financing of 

those efforts. The CARD study group is expected to 

complete their work in early 1971. 

Summary 

1970 saw a transition in the national space program 

which bridges the spectacular successes of the Sixties 

with the plans and expectations of the Seventies and 

beyond. Our space program is a continuing national 

asset devoted to improving life and knowledge for all 

people on earth. Aeronautics will continue its impact 

on our mobility and productivity as a nation, and must 

provide a base for the military security which is SO 

necessary to insure our freedom and democracy. 1970 

did indeed usher in a decade of promise wherein balanced aeronautics and space activities will stand at 

the forefront of progress and will continue to be a 

source of great national pride. 

I1 National Aeronautics 

and Space Council 

Introduction 

The National Aeronautics and Space Council was 

established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act 

of 1958 to advise and assist the President on matters 

pertaining to aeronautics and space activities conducted by the departments and agencies of the United 

States. That same Act also established the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

The Vice President of the United States is the 

Chairman of the Council; its members are the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary 

of Transportation, the Administrator of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission. The Secretary 

of Transportation was added to the Council on September 23, 1970, with the enactment of an amendment to 

the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. 

Formal meetings of the Council are held to review 

and assess policies, plans, programs, and accomplishments of aeronautics and space activities, and to decide 

issues or to make recommendations to the President. 

Council members frequently meet to consider important issues which do not require the involvement of 

the Chairman or all members. Much of the Council's 

business is conducted through the Council staff. 

. The Executive Secretary is a member of two National Security Council subcommittees which review 

and recommend programs and projects involving U.S. 

international space cooperation. Staff activity throughout the year has supported his contributions to these 

committees. 

Specific Activities 

During 1970, the Council was concerned with and 

involved in many important aeronautics and space 

activities. Among these were: 

Supersonic Transport (SST) .-The Council members 

and staff strongly supported the SST program because 

it can contribute materially to the maintenance of 

US. world leadership in civil aviation. The advanced 

technology being applied in the design and construction of this aircraft wiIl provide higher speed, greater 

capacity, and resulting higher productivity to compete 

effectively with the Anglo-French Concorde and Russian TU-144 aircraft which are flying today. The 

7 
cumnt SST program is to build and test two prototype 

aircraft. Data from the flight test program are essential 

for decisions regarding production. Properly instrumented flights of the prototype SST and other aircraft 

will also provide important data which can be used 

to help resolve the environmental issues. The Council 

staff has been actively reviewing the progress of government and industry sponsored programs to reduce 

jet aircraft noise and smoke. In particular, considerable activity has been focused on planning for comprehensive research programs to reduce sideline noise. 

Short Haul Air Transportation.-The Council approved a study by the staff to examine short haul air 

transportation to determine its potential role in the 

national transportation system. In aviation, short haul 

concerns flights of 500 miles or less. New short take-off 

and landing (STOL) aircraft promise more economical operations, less noise, and less congestion on and 

around airports. The Council staff has served as a 

focus working with federal agencies, airlines, and aerospace manufacturers and a continuing dialogue on 

STOL technology has been established. In addition, 

joint coordination meetings have been held among 

airlines, federal agencies, and the Council staff to 

address common requirements for STOL vehicles. 

Interagency cooperation on environmental issues is 

excellent and has led to additional research arid 

development on quieter jet engines. Coordination is 

also excellent in other vital aspects of the program, 

such as STOL ports and air traffic control. In addition, 

there are indications that new regional developments 

can be accomplished through an improved short haul 

air transportation system. 

Civil Aviation Research and Development (CARD) 

Policy Study.-The CARD Policy Study was undertaken jointly by NASA and DOT, as recommended by 

Senate Report 957, to determine the criteria for federal 

involvement in civil aviation research and development. The specific objectives of the CARD Policy 

Study are to identify significant policy issues, to recommend courses of action relative to these issues, to 

identify CARD areas of emphasis and the criteria for 

setting levels of effort in these areas, and to assess the 

benefits which will accrue to the nation from this research and development. 

Aeronautical and Marine Services Satellites.-The 

Council reviewed the policy implications of aeronautical and marine services satellites for civil, military, 

and international users. To assist, the Council staff 

undertook to identify the principal national and international organizations, both public and private, which 

have responsibilities for or an interest in surveillance, 

navigation position fixing, air traffic control, aeronautical and maritime communications, emergency 

8 

location and rescue operations, and similar functions 

which could be facilitated by aeronautical and marine 

services satellites. The most pressing near-term need 

which aeronautical services satellites can satisfy appears 

to be reliable communkations with aircraft operating 

in oceanic areas. The Council staff participated in an 

Executive Office working group chaired by the Office 

of Telecommunications Policy (OTP) to examine the 

communications segment of the aeronautical services 

satellite. 

Earth Resources Survey Program.-Another issue 

addressed by the Council was the national earth resources survey program which employs devices located 

on the earth’s surface, in aircraft, and in spacecraft 

to sense remotely and record data relating to earth 

resources and the condition of the environment. The 

Executive Secretary convened an ad hoc interagency 

group to identify relationships between the existing experimental Earth Resources Survey Program and a 

future operational program as well as the roles and 

responsibilities of government agencies in both phases. 

In addition, the group was requested to determine 

alternatives for interagency coordination and for management of the program. 

An in-depth examination of the program was 

made in management, data acquisition, data handling, 

and user requirements. The study was based on past 

and current activities both from an experimental and 

operational viewpoint, and was aimed at determining 

the direction and schedule for future activity. A preliminary summary report was furnished to the Oflice 

of Management and Budget to support the fiscal year 

1972 budget deliberations and the full report will be 

completed in early 1971. 

Communications Satellites.-Assistance was given in 

defining the government’s role in developing commercial domestic satellite systems, and also in establishing 

guidance on the use of satellites for broadcast purposes for the US. delegation to the United Nations 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses for Outer Space. 

Geodetic Data Policies.-Because of increased scientific interest, both national and international, in advanced theories of continental drift coupled with the 

high precision measurement made possible by the use 

of lasers and orbiting satellites, the Council called for 

a review of the US. policies on the release of geodetic 

data. New policies were established which will permit 

NASA to assume the U.S. leadership in an international cooperative program which is intended to make 

precise geodetic measurements under the auspices of 

COSPAR. 

Review and Approval Procedures for Use of Radioisotopes in Space.-A guide for the use of small radioisotope sources in space was approved by the Council 
members in July. It had been prepared by the Council 

staff with the guidance and assistance of the principal 

agencies involved. 

International Cooperation in the Post-Apollo Program.-The Council members and the staff have 

been active in the area of international cooperation to 

insure that the benefits of space are shared with all 

mankind. Cooperation in aeronautical, navigation, 

communications, and earth resources satellites conI11 

tinues both bilaterally and multilaterally with other nations. The space shuttle and space station are subjects 

of serious discussions with the European community; 

definitive proposals from Europe are anticipated. 

Based on these discussions, the European countries will 

decide whether or not to develop an independent large 

booster capability, or to rely on the purchase of US. 

boosters. If the latter course is followed, European 

funds will be available for use in post-Apollo cooperative ventures. 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

Introduction 

NASA's priority assignment for the 1960's-landing a 

man on the moon and returning him safely to earthwas successfully completed with the Apollo 11 mission. 

In 1970, only one launch took place in the Apollo program-Apollo 13. That mission was unsuccessful, and 

as a result, the scheduled Apollo 14 launch was postponed to January 1971, to allow time for spacecraft 

modifications that would assure the safety of the 

astronauts. 

Consistent with new national goals established for 

the 1970's, NASA reviewed its priorities and redirected 

its activities in line with budgetary constraints. Steps 

were taken to develop a sound aeronautics and space 

program compatible with national resources and in 

keeping with the objective of maintaining our position 

of technological leadership. 

In the Manned Space Flight area, in additian to 

Apollo, NASA was deeply engaged in work on the 

Skylab program, formerly known as Apollo Applications. Good progress was made in design, development, 

and testing for Skylab, and fabrication of flight hardware is underway. Space Shuttle and Space Station 

studies also moved ahead. For the shuttle, system 

characteristics were established and study contracts 

were let for both the vehicle and engine. For the space 

station, program definition studies were in the process 

of being completed. 

NASA unmanned space programs for scientific investigations and space applications were also active. 

During 1970, previously launched orbiting observatories continued to make scientific discoveries, observations, surveys, and coordinated investigations. 

OAO-3, which carried a large telescope and other 

instruments, was launched November 30, but failed 

to go into orbit. 

NASA also launched three Intelsat I11 commercial 

communications satellites for Comsat, and was preparing the first of the Intelsat IV series for launch. 

Applications Technology Satellites already in orbit 

were used experimentally for educational broadcasts, 

and for studies of the use of satellites for navigation 

and air traffic control. 

This year, the 10th anniversary of the meteorological 

satellite flight program, the agency launched Nimbus 4 

and Tiros-M, both highly sophisticated spacecraft. 

Tiros-M became operational as ITOS-1, the first of a 

new generation of Tiros spacecraft, and began support 

of the National Operational Meteorological Satellite 

System. In the earth resources survey program, aircraft were used in tests of remote sensing devices 

which are planned for use aboard spacecraft to obtain 

earth resources data from space. In addition, the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite spacecraft design was completed and some parts were being 

fabricated. 

The NASA advanced research and technology effort continued to investigate a very wide range of 

aeronautical and space problems. In one area of study, 

a theory was developed for predicting clear air turbulence under certain conditions; in another, progress 

was made in developing methods of improving control of general aviation aircraft; and in V/STOL 

research, the augmentor-wing concept looked promising as a means of developing jet transport aircraft 

with a good short-takeoff-and-landing capability. 

Other research activities collected data on the behavior of groups in confined habitats (Tektite), on 

the ability of the balance control mechanism of the 

9 
inner ear to adapt to sustained weightlessness; and 

on the feasibility of using optical techniques to give 

general aviation pilots warning of impending collisions. 

Manned Space Flight 

Awllo Program.-Two lunar landing missions were 

initially planned for 1970; however, after the unsuccessful Apollo 13 mission in April, the scheduled 

launch of Apollo 14 was changed from October 1970 

to January 1971 in order to incorporate changes in 

the spacecraft to eliminate the problems encountered 

by Apollo 13. 

In September, NASA reduced the number of remaining lunar missions from six to four. The elimination 

of two flights will permit their funding to be applied 

to future programs. This decision will give the space 

program some additional flexibility, providing Apollo 

hardware for possible use in future programs where 

manned operations or a heavy boost capability is required. It is now planned to complete the Apollo 

program in 1972. 

A@Uo 23.-The third intended lunar landing mission 

was successfully launched on schedule from Kennedy 

Space Center on April 11. Its major objective was to 

explore the Fra Mauro formation. 

Launch, earth orbital insertion, and translunar 

trajectory insertion (TLI) all were satisfactory. Separation of the command and service modules (CSM) , docking with the lunar module (LM) , and extraction 

of the LM from the third propulsion stage (S-IVB) , were also performed without difficulty. The S-IVB 

stage was then placed on a trajectory to impact the 

lunar surface near a seismometer left by the Apollo 12 

crew nearly 5 months earlier. The recorded seismic 

impulse is contributing to an improved understanding 

of the subsurface lunar composition. 

During the mission’s third day while the spacecraft 

was still enroute to the moon, a failure in the service 

module oxygen system caused it to lose the ability to 

supply oxygen to the command module and to generate CSM electrical power and water with the fuel 

cells. It was decided to cancel the lunar landing. The 

command module, while still capable of supparting the 

crew for a short period, no longer contained enough 

consumables for the long journey around the moon and 

back to earth. It was therefore decided to retain the 

LM and use it as a “lifeboat,” thereby conserving the 

command module and its limited consumables for reentry and splashdown. This required both flight and 

ground crews to modify the LM, intended only for 

two-man support, to a configuration that enabled it to 

support three men during more than 3 days of space 

flight. 

10 

Emergency systems were designed on earth and cmstructed by the astronauts from onboard materials; 

these systems supported them with no ill effects except 

discomfort caused by the cold and cramped quarten 

in the LM. These cold conditions were due to the 

necessity to power down equipment and heaters to 

conserve power. The astronauts returned to the command module shortly before reentry and jettisoned the 

LM. The command module then made nominal reentry and splashdown. Landing was within sight 

(about 4 miles) of the recovery ship U.S.S. Iwo Jimu, 

and the astronauts were aboard the carrier within 45 

minutes. 

The actions taken to bring the spacecraft home 

safely under extremely adverse conditions demonstrated the inherent flexibility designed into the Apollo 

systems and operations. The spacecraft systems provided many different optians from which a series of 

configurations were chosen to meet the varying requirements on the trip home. At the same time, the flight 

and ground crews demonstrated outstanding competence and the value of many hours of training in meeting a set of unusual circumstances. 

A review board appointed by the NASA Administrator conducted an exhaustive investigation of the Apollo 

13 mission. Its findings were cohclusive : the anomaly 

was determined beyond a reasonable doubt to have 

been caused by the ignition of Teflon-coated wires inside the oxygen tank resulting in internal pressure which 

caused the tank to rupture. These wires were inadvertently damaged during prelaunch checkout at Cape 

Kennedy, although no evidence of the damaged wires 

was detected during the testing before the launch. 

The recommendations of the Review Board are 

being carried out through changes in hardware and 

procedures for Apollo 14 and subsequent missions. A 

third oxygen tank will be installed in the service 

module. It will provide an ade,quate supply of oxygen 

for life support even if the other two oxygen tanks fail. 

Other modifications include removal af electric motors 

and fans from exposure to the high pressure oxygen 

atmosphere. Modifications have also been made to 

provide improved CSM return capability. These include adding a 400-ampere-hour battery for electrical 

pawer and additional stowage capability for potable 

water. 

Lunar Exjdorution.-The Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 

missions have made it possible to collect more data 

about our nearest neighbor in space than has been 

recorded since history began. The two missions returned a total of 123 pounds of lunar material. The 

scientific analysis of this material and of information 

obtained from experiments and observations is being 

carried out by experts in the United States and 16 

foreign cauntries. 
The data collected has been the basis for important 

conclusions about the moon. Lunar materials have been 

classified into four general categories : fine-grained and 

medium-grained igneous rocks, breccia (an accumulation of local material consolidated by temperature 

and pressure), and fines (small fragmented material, 

glass, and similar items). A very vigorous examination 

of near surface material has revealed no evidence of 

any viable organisms or fossil evidence of them on 

the moon. On remaining missions, deeper samples will 

be obtained for the same close examination. 

Most lunar rocks are similar to the earth's volcanic 

rocks. A prime characteristic in the classification of 

such rocks is the rilica content. An indication of the 

diversity of lunar rocks is the fact that rocks from 

the Apollo 12 site alone have a greater range of 

variation in silica content than is known for the rocks 

of the Hawaiian Islands. The average content of titanium, a refractory element in Apollo 12 rocks, is less 

than half that of Apollo 11 rocks. This element rarely 

exceeds 3 percent in terrestrial volcanic rocks but on 

the moon the range is primarily ,between 4 and 14 

percent. Even larger differences are anticipated from 

samples to be brought back from the lunar highlands. 

It is expected that titanium will become a key parameter in the classification of lunar rocks. The moon's 

composition is heterogeneous, even at individual landing sites. 

The present evidence indicates that the moon was 

formed around 4.5 billion years ago, approximately the 

same time as the earth and meteorites. The isotopic 

composition of lead in the samples is, however, distinct 

from that of the earth and meteorites indicating that 

three separate closed systems might have been formed. 

The moon must have been at least partially molten 

500 million years to 1,000 million years after it was 

formed. Although there is no way of determining the 

percentage of melting or whether the melting was 

caused by meteorite impact or internal heat, it had 

to be on a large scale to accomplish the degree of differentiation found in the rocks. One obvious conclusion drawn from the studies is that events on the moon 

occurred over a long period of time and the moon 

can serve as a Rosetta Stone in unraveling the early 

history of the earth. Since no direct evidence older 

than 3.5 billion years is avaikble for the earth, the 

possibility exists that the study of lunar rocks may 

yield information on the missing first billion years of 

history. 

Passive Seismometer Experiments (PSE) were emplaced to detect vibrations of the lunar surface to 

determine its internal structure, physical state, and tectonic activity. The lunar seismic signals are different 

from those on earth and very complex. The PSE 

records an average of one moonquake a day. Although 

the source of these events could be shallow internal 

moonquakes, they are thought to be caused by meteorite impacts. The Apollo 13 spent s-IVB stage was impacted on the lunar surface 85 miles from the Apollo 

12 site with an approximate force of 1 1.5 tons of TNT. 

The data from this well-calibrated signal indicate that 

the lunar material is fractured to depths of approximately 12 miles and shows no evidence of the major 

discontinuities which are a striking characteristic of 

the solid earth. More than 200 events of natural origin 

have been recorded by the seismometer during the 

first 8 months of operation. Fifty-eight of these events 

have been identified as moonquakes. 

The moonquakes have been divided into nine different categories, i.e., nine zones producing seismic 

activity within a 200-mile radius of the passive seismometer. At least 26 are shallow moonquakes occurring within 3 days of the time when the moon 

comes closest to the earth (perigee) during its monthly 

orbit cycle. The source of these events is considered 

to be in the vicinity of Fra Mauro, to be visited on 

the Apollo 14 mission, about 125 miles from the PSE. 

This last group stands out as the most positive evidence 

of internal lunar activity. Otherwise the moon's outer 

shell appears very stable and cold in comparison with 

the earth's seismic activity. 

A magnetometer was emplaced by the Apollo 12 

crew to measure the magnetic field of the moon. Analysis of the data from this device showed the presence 

of a small magnetic field that measures approximately 

38 gammas. The data indicates that this field is the 

result of a localized magnetic source near the Apollo 

12 landing site rather than a uniform dipole associated 

with the whole moon. The origin of this field is 

considered highly significant by scientists. 

It is also known, because of the remnant magnetism 

in some of the Apollo samples, that the moon's magnetic field was probably higher when the rocks solidified than it is now. Analyses of all the lunar magnetic 

data indicate that the moon may have a small central 

core of temperature near 800' to 1,000" C. This much 

heat in the lunar interior is still not sufficient to make 

the moon into a heat-engine resembling the earth, for 

no deep interior quakes have as yet been detected and 

there is no evidence of the kind of crustal movement 

and mountain building that is so important to earth's 

topography. 

The Solar Wind Spectrometer measures the direct 

impact of the solar wind undeviated in any way in its 

path from the sun to the moon. The suprathermal ion 

detector records ionized particles near the lunar surface particularly at lunar sunrise. Large signals were 

also recorded at time of the S-IVB impact and at lunar 

perigee. These ionized particles do not occur in sufficiently large numbers or at low enough velocities to 

be chemically identified. 

Efforts were made to measure the ambient lunar atmosphere with a Cold Cathode Gauge. Initial measurements made while the lunar module was still on the 

411-222 0-71-2 11 
surface were inconclusive. The instrument stopped 

transmitting science data 14 hours after deployment. 

Through ground tests with similar equipment the failure has been identified, and an improved instrument 

will measure the lunar atmosphere on future missions. 

The Solar Wind Composition Experiment expes a 

strip of aluminum foil to the lunar environment to 

determine the elemental and isotopic composition of 

gases in the solar wind. Variations in isotopic ratios 

were found between Apollo 11 and Apollo 12. When 

compared with results obtained from lunar sample 

analyses, variations in the solar wind composition may 

be observed dating from antiquity. 

The Laser Ranging Retroreflector (LR3) deployed 

at Tranquility Base by the Apollo 11 astronauts continues to perform as designed. It is serving as a target 

for point-to-point distance measurements from earth 

performed by recording the round trip travel time of 

short pulses of ruby laser radiation transmitted from 

a telescope, reflected from the LR3, and received approximately 2’/1 seconds later by the same telescope. 

Several measurements per week, with a precision of 

about 1 foot or less in the earth-moon distance, are 

being made on a routine basis by the McDonald 

Observatory staff. A continuing lunar ranging program 

has also been started by the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory. Additional Laser Ranging Retroreflecton will be deployed on the Apollo 14 and Apollo 

15 missions to provide a network of instruments which 

will allow scientists to determine the dynamics of the 

earth-moon system. Measurements to date have been 

incorporated into the best numerical ephemeris of the 

moan to produce improvements in knowledge of lunar 

motion. The LR3 is available to any scientific observatory throughout the world which wishes to reflect 

signals from it. 

The Apollo 12 astronauts visited the Survevor I11 

automated spacecraft during their secand EVA on 

November 19, 1969. They returned to earth portions 

of the spacecraft which had been on the lunar surface 

and exposed to solar and cosmic radiation for 31 

months. Engineers and scientists in the United States 

and Switzerland are evaluating the effects of space 

environment m the Surveyor parts. Most of the components, materials, optics, and other devices encountered had satisfactorily survived extremes of vacuum, 

radiation, and temperature well beyond design requirements. The detailed results can be used to reduce the 

uncertainties associated with the effects of operation 

and long storage in lunar and space environment, and 

to improve design and testing techniques for future 

missions. 

Forthcoming Launches.-Two Apollo lunar landing 

missions are scheduled for 1971 ; Apollo 14 in January 

and Apollo 15 in July. 

12 

The landing site for Apollo 14 will be Fra Mauro, 

the intended site for Apollo 13. The Apollo 14 crew 

will deploy an Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments 

Package (ALSEP) similar to the one placed at the 

Ocean of Storms site by Apollo 12, and the Apollo 14 

ALSEP will include several experiments which have 

been deployed on previous missions : the Passive 

Seismic Experiment, the Suprathermal Ion Detectar, 

and the Cold Cathode Ionization Gauge. Two new 

experiments will be added to the package. One is an 

Active Seismic Experiment (ASE) to generate and 

monitor artificially stimulated seismic waves in the 

3-250 Hz range in the lunar surface and near subsurface. It will also monitor natural events in the same 

frequency range. The other is a Low Ener,gy Solar 

Wind Experiment to ascertain proton and electron 

flux data for evaluation of solar wind and cosmic rays. 

Three other experiments will be independently deployed by the Apollo 14 astronauts on the lunar surface. A Laser Ranging Retroreflector (LR3) for precise earth-to-moon measurements will be the first leg 

of a planned LR3 network on the moon. A Solar Wind 

Composition Experiment to determine the isotopic 

composition of noble gases in the solar wind at the 

lunar surface will be retrieved at the end of EVA and 

returned to earth for analysis. And a portable magnetometer to measure the magnetic field of the moon at 

the Apollo 14 landing site will be deployed at the 

point of furthest traverse from the Lunar Module. 

The magnetometer will be transported aboard the 

Mobile Equipment Transporter (MET), a lightweight 

two-wheel vehicle resembling a ricksha to be used on 

Apollo 14 only. The MET will also carry cameras, 

hand tools, and sample bags for use by the astronauts. 

The Apollo 15 landing is planned at Hadley-Apennine, a site named for the meandering Hadley Rille 

and the nearby Apennine Mountains. It is hoped that 

the astronauts will be able to visit and collect samples 

both at the base of the mountains which rise over 

8,000 feet, and at the rille which resembles a dry riverbed. Apollo 15 will be the first mission to carry a 

Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) to increase the range 

of travel for the astronauts on the lunar surface. The 

battery powered LRV, which will weigh approximately 500 pounds, will carry the astronauts and up 

to 170 pounds of equipment and lunar samples. 

The last three Apollo missions, Apollo 15, 16 and 

17, will have significantly increased capabilities for 

lunar exploration. The EVA’S will be increased from 

two to three, providing 40 man hours per mission instead of 18; the landed scientific payload will be 

doubled f 500 to 1,000 pounds) ; the LRV and suit mobility improvements will provide increased range and 

efficiency of surface operations; and each mission will 

carry an experiment package in the Service Module for 

use in lunar orbit to supplement the experiments de- 
ployed on the lunar surface. The intent is to maximize 

the scientific returns from the remaining Apollo 

missions. 

Skylab Program.-The Skylab Program, formerly 

known as Apollo Applications, is designed to make 

important contributions to future manned space operations by contributing new knowledge in many fields 

-earth resources, environmental systems, oceanography, meteorology, solar and stellar astronomy, space 

physics, bioscience, space technology and engineering, 

zero “g’’ materials processing, measurements of the 

space environment, and the physiology of man in 

space. 

The program objectives are: to determine and evaluate man’s physiological responses and aptitudes in 

space under zero gravity conditions and his post mission adaptation to the terrestrial environment through 

a series of progressively longer missions ; to develop 

and evaluate efficient techniques for utilizing man in 

sensor operation, discrimination, data selection and 

evaluation, manual control, maintenance and repair, 

assembly and installation of hardware components, 

and mobility involved in various operations ; to develop 

techniques for increasing systems life, for long duration habitability and long duration mission control, and 

to investigate and develop techniques for in-flight test 

and qualification of advanced subsystems ; to conduct astronomy and other science, technology, and 

applications experiments in which man’s contribution 

is expected to improve the quality and/or yield of the 

results. 

All program activities made good progress in design, development, and ground testing. Critical design 

reviews were completed by the third quarter and 

manufacture of hardware was underway on all flight 

articles in parallel with the final design phase. 

A significant addition to the program was an Earth 

Resources Experiment Package (EREP) . Carefully 

selected sensors will permit the astronauts to perform 

geological, geographical, hydrological, agricultural, 

forestry, oceanographic, and meteorologic studies of 

selected ground targets. The data acquired will be 

coordinated with other information obtained from 

airborne flights and from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) to demonstrate the potential usefulness of this technology in mapping, 

monitoring, and understanding phenomena which 

affect the environment. 

NASA decided to utilize Launch Complex 39 at 

the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) for checkout and 

launching of Saturn IB as well as Saturn V launch 

vehicles to consolidate activities and economize on 

Skylab prelaunch test operations. The technical feasibility of launching Saturn IB’s from LC-39 had been 

established in earlier studies by KSC, but action had 

been deferred because of schedule conflicts with 

Apollo. After the Skylab workshop was reconfigured 

to the so-called “dry” version, not requiring a mobile 

service structure, and schedule conflicts were resolved, 

the change was implemented. The decision will result 

in significant cost savings and more efficient launch 

operations at KSC. 

Space Shuttle.-In keeping with space program objectives, NASA took steps to reduce the cost of future 

space operations and provide a capability for a balanced program of space activity by moving ahead 

with work on the Space Shuttle. 

Space Shuttle system characteristics were established 

early in the year, and definition study contracts of 11 

months duration were awarded in June. Each Shuttle 

is planned for 100 or more flights with payload transportation similar to commercial airline practice. The 

orbiting stage will contain a large compartment of 

about 10,000 cubic feet to accommodate a varying 

payload mix of satellites, passengers, and cargo. The 

Shuttle will be capable of being launched in any direction and on short notice-within 2 hours if necessary. With its low operating cost, flexibility, internal 

environment, and large payload capacity, applications 

such as placement or repositioning of satellites, satellite servicing, rescue operations, and space station support will be practical. Since the shirtsleeve environment within the Shuttle will be very much like that 

of an airplane, passengers will not require astronaut 

skills. The moderate acceleration loads will allow average people in good health to fly into space in comfort. 

Two sets of study contracts were awarded and work 

is in progress. One set consists of two studies for the 

Shuttle vehicle, and the other comprises three studies 

for the engine. The fully reusable two-stage vehicle 

approach is being examined in detail. Basic definition 

objectives are to define the Shuttle system and the 

engine requirements, accomplish preliminary design, 

and predict the scope, schedule, and cost cf the program. In addition, other contractual studies of alternate vehicle concepts are also being conducted to 

insure that all approaches are fully explored. 

In February, NASA and the Air Force signed an 

agreement establishing a Space Transportation System 

Committee which will ensure that objectives of both 

agencies in the field of space transportation will be 

fulfilled. 

Concurrently with the definition effort, NASA also 

initiated other studies and analyses in areas such as 

payloads, economics, and mission traffic requirements. 

These efforts will provide better understanding of 

what the Shuttle will mean to payload designers, what 

its realistic value is as an economic investment, and 

how the projected missions will fit into a national 

traffic pattern. 

Thermal protection systems were under study to 

determine the optimum high temperature structures 

13 
for the Shuttle configuration. Technical studies proceeded in areas such as aerodynamic configurations, 

high pressure rocket engines, and integrated electronics 

systems. 

NASA solicited international participation in the 

Shuttle effort in support of the President’s policy of 

space cooperation. European representatives as well 

as Japanese officials were briefed on Shuttle opportunities, and talks were conducted with the European 

Space Research Organization, the European Launcher 

Development Organization, and with officials from a 

number of foreign countries. 

Space Station.-NASA contractors were in the process 

of completing comprehensive program definition studies started in 1969 on two versions of a space station 

which could be launched on a Saturn-V-class vehicle. 

The designs are of a self-contained, general purpose 

laboratory whose facilities can be supplemented by 

attached or free-flying modules. The studies will provide operational, technical, and programmatic information on the station, its facilities, experiments, and 

modules for comparison with other station designs 

under consideration. 

Program definition contractors were instructed to 

investigate modular space station designs which could 

provide the same facility capability but in a shuttlecOmF atible configuration. This approach would reduce 

early funding requirements and appears to offer a 

higher degree of flexibility from both technical and 

prognm implementation aspects. Most of the modular 

designs being considered require a cluster of modules, 

each of which would be delivered by a shuttle, to 

be assembled in orbit before commencing operations. 

While the modular stations generally have less initial 

capability than monolithic station concepts, similar 

capabilities can be achieved by the addition of modules 

in orbit. Also, the ease with which modules can 

be replaced would enhance program flexibility 

significantly. 

In a parallel effort, equally applicable to either 

space station concept, potential station users were approached for help in determining facility characteristics, categorizing research activities, developing utilization management procedures, and generally making 

their requirements known at a very early design stage. 

Those approached included representatives of industry, 

government, and universities, both foreign and 

domestic. 

Advanced Manned Missions.-Advanced Manned 

Missions activities continued the detailed examination 

of the NASA integrated plan with the goal of affirming 

that the projects in the plan would best serve national 

goals. Contracts initiated in 1969, which were directed 

toward specific requirements of the Space Station and 

Space Shuttle programs, were completed in 1970, and 

14 

the results utilized to support the definition of those 

programs. Because the Space Station and Space Shuttle had progressed into the definition phase and therefore had independent status, the Advanced Manned 

Missions program focused its attention on integrated 

planning beyond these two programs. Conceptual studies were begun of the Space Tug, the Nuclear Shuttle, 

the Lunar Orbit Station, and the Lunar Base to provide NASA management with information about these 

projects and their role in the integrated planning concept. Additional studies considered safety and rescue 

aspects of the missions in the plan. 

Space Science and Applications 

Orbiting Observatories.-NASA’s Orbiting Observatories continued to make major scientific contributions 

and to demonstrate their versatility and prolonged 

operating lifetimes. The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory-2 (OAO-2), launched in December 1968, 

discovered a great hydrogen cloud surrounding the 

bright comets Tago-Sago-Kosaka and Bennett. The 

cloud proved to be many times larger than ground 

observers had theorized. OAO-2 also made a series 

of observations of a nova (exploding star) in the Constellation Serpeus, which could not be seen from 

ground-based telescopes. 

A third Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO3), carrying a 38-inch telescope and weighing 4,700 

pounds, was launched November 30, but failed to 

achieve orbit. It was designed to measure ultraviolet 

radiation from selected celestial objects, and to point 

with an accuracy of one-arc second. 

In 1970 the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory-5, 

orbited in March 1968, made a sky survey of Lymanalpha radiation and observed the hydrogen cloud 

around the Comet Bennett. OGO-6, launched in June 

1969, performed satisfactorily during the year, and 

achieved its mission objectives. Orbiting Solar Observatories-3, 4, -5, and -6 (launched between 1967 

and 1969) were also utilized for investigations coordinated with other satellites and with observations from 

sounding rockets and ground-based instruments. 

A bright fireball was optically tracked in January 

and three meteorite fragments from it were recovered 

near Lost City, Okla. This was the first time that 

recovered fragments could be correlated with a specific 

meteoroid coming from a known orbit. In March, 

scientists carried out an unprecedented study of a total 

solar eclipse, their abservations involving complementary satellite, ground-based, and rocket-borne experiments. 

Explorer and International Satellites.-NASA orbited 

its first Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS-A) in December. The SAS series of satellites (also designated 

Explorer) will investigate X-ray, gamma ray, ultra- 
violet, and infrared spectral regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. SAS-A was designed to develop a 

catalog of X-ray sources through systematic scanning 

of the celestial sphere, and in a single day it should 

transmit more data than through the total observation 

time of the X-ray instruments on all earlier satellites 

and rockets. This 320-pound spacecraft was launched 

into a 342-mile orbit by a Scout vehicle from the San 

Marco site operated by Italy off the coast of East 

Africa-the first American satellite to be launched 

outside the territorial limits of this country. 

Explorer satellites still providing useful information 

included the University of Iowa satellite (Injun 5 

launched in 1968) which detected trapped particles 

with masses greater than helium in the Van Allen radiation belts; Radio Explorer 1 (also orbited 1968) 

which continued to map the distribution of ionized 

hydrogen in the Milky Way; and Explorer 35 (IMP-E 

launched in 1967) which was mapping the mag-netic 

field and providing support for the ALSEP experiments on the moon. 

ISIS-l-largest of the international satellites and 

orbited in 1969-was continuing investigations of the 

upper ionosphere begun by Canadian-American spacecraft of the Alouette 1 and 2 series of 1962-65. Low 

energy particle detectors aboard the satellites have 

monitored a quite unexpected amount of low energy 

flux ranging from high to low latitudes. 

Sounding Rockets and Balloons.-Almost 100 sounding rockets were launched to heights between 100 and 

1,000 miles for studies in space physics and astronomy. 

Sixteen of these were launched from Wallops Island 

and three from the White Sands Missile Range during 

the solar eclipse; me of the 19 detected an unexpectedly high amount of neutral hydrogen streaming into 

the earth's upper atmosphere. Three launches were 

made from Woomera, Australia to obtain measurements from stars in the southern celestial sphere which 

cannot be seen from flights in the Northern Hemisphere. In addition, launches were made from Hawaii, 

Australia, Norway, Sweden, Brazil, Canada and India. 

About 60 high-altitude balloons were launched for 

outer space observatories at altitudes as high as 150,000 

feet, or above about 95 percent of the earth's atmosphere. One of these balloons carried Stratmope 2, a 

6,000-pound diffraction-limited, optical telescope 3 

feet in diameter, remotely controlled from the ground. 

Space Bioscience.-In research on the effects of 

altered gravity on living organisms, scientists at the 

University of California found that by increasing the 

force of gravity to three times that of the earth an 

extra amount of a "fat-regulating hormone" was forced 

from the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. This 

hormone mobilizes fat from storage depots in the 

body, making it available for the production of energy 

vital to life processes. It may also find applications in 

the search for a means of controlling obesity. 

In a research project at Emory University to study 

the possible benefits of depressing body functions during prolonged space flight, a technique-differentid 

hypothermia-was developed. The procedure consists 

of cooling most of a warm-blooded animal's body to 

a low temperature of 4" to 10" C. but keeping another 

part (a tumor) warmed to normal body temperature 

(37" ) . Hypothermic animals were able to tolerate very 

toxic or even lethal amounts of anti-cancer drugs with 

no ill effects. The reduced or depressed metabolic rate 

reduces the concentration of the drug in the cold tissues, focusing its effects on the malignant tissue or 

tumor only. The cooling process seemed to increase 

the metabolic rate of the warm tissues, making them 

more susceptible to the anti-cancer drug. 

In research to discover ways by which earth's organisms might adapt themselves to the hostile environments of the planets such as Mars, scientists at the 

State University of New York in Buffalo have synthesized a living cell able to reproduce. In their experiments small, single-celled amoebae were dismembered 

and components from a number of them were put back 

together again to achieve the artificial synthesis. 

Mariner Mars '71 .-The two-Mariner spacecraft to 

be launched in May 1971 and to reach Mars in 

November, were fabricated and assembled and proof 

tests completed. The flight spacecraft were progressing 

toward final testing. For mission operations, planning 

was completed, training begun, and computer programs neared completion. Fabrication of the two 

Atlas/Centaur launch vehicles was finished, and they 

were being tested. 

Mariner Venus-Mercury '73.-Another spacecraft of 

the Mariner class, to be launched sometime in October-November 1973, will pass Venus early in February 

1974, and arrive at Mercury in late March. It is 

designed to investigate the environment, atmosphere, 

and body and surface characteristics of Mercury, and 

to obtain environmental and atmospheric data about 

Venus. 

The Project Office at the Jet Propulsion L&boratory 

selected these experiments for the flight science payload: A charged particle telescope, dual magnetometers, a scanning electrostatic analyzer, and two TV 

cameras to provide wide- and narrow-angle pictures. 

Viking.-In February, the Viking mission was rescheduled from 1973 to 1975 because of funding 

limitations. Viking is the program to investigate 

Mars by means of two spacecraft which will orbit the 

planet and send instrumented landers to the surface. 

The orbiters will map the planet and relay data 

from the landers to earth. Emphasis will be placed on 

15 
collecting information relevant to the possibility of 

life on Mars. 

During the year substantial progress was made in 

this project. Teams of scientists defined the experiments, developed instrument concepts, and helped 

NASA plan the mission. Baseline designs were prepared for the orbiter and the lander, and most 

planning and control documents were completed. 

Subcontractors began development of critical instruments and subsystems, and significant tests of spacecraft subsystems and instruments were conducted under 

simulated flight conditions. Model landing tests, wind 

tunnel tests, and laboratory tests were also conducted. 

Pioneer.-Pioneer spacecraft F and G were in the 

planning and development stage. Spacecraft design 

was completed and engineering models of both spacecraft and scientific instruments were being assembled 

and tested. A radioisotope-thermal electric generator 

to supply electrical power for up to 5 years was designed for the AEC and is undergoing tests. 

Pioneers 6 through 9-launched between 1965 and 

196kontinued to provide data on the interplanetary 

medium, solar activity, and their influences on the 

earth's environment. 

He1ios.-The Federal Republic of Germany selected 

a prime contractor to build two instrumented spacecraft which will fly close to the sun between 1974 and 

and 1975. Scientific experiments for this cooperative NASA-West German project will transmit measurements on solar plasma, cosmic rays, magnetic fields, 

zodiacal light, and micrometeoroids as the spacecraft 

orbits the sun. A Titan-Centaur booster will be used 

for the launches. 

Advanced Studies and Technology.-The mission design for a Grand Tour to the outer planets was completed, and a functional approach of the spacecraft 

for the mission was established. Conceptual design of 

key elements of the spacecraft was also established, 

with emphasis placed on the feasibility of an onboard 

Self-test and Repair (STAR) computer. 

A conceptual design of a low-cost Delta-class spacecraft, able to serve as an orbiter or a delivery system 

for a multiple set of probes, was completed. This 

system is initially planned for use in exploring Venus. 

NASA continued its studies of other possible future 

planetary missions. 

Applications Technology Satellites.-Applications 

Technology Satellites (ATS) 1 and 3 (orbited in 1966 

and 1967) were still being used in experiments in 

March 1970. The Corporation for Public Broadcasting 

carried out educational telecasts between Columbia, 

S.C. and Los Angeles, Calif., via ATS-3, and initial 

tests were made of an experiment which will employ 

16 

the very high frequency transponder aboard ATS-1 

for educational and public radio transmissions studies 

by Alaska. 

In addition, signal acquisition and tracking tests for 

digital communications and ranging were performed 

by the Gband transponder of ATS-5. NASA selected 

a contractor for the ATS F and G spacecraft, and construction is scheduled to start in early 1971. 

Navigation and Trafic Control Satellites.-ATS-1 

and 3 demonstrated the feasibility of using satellites 

in geostationary orbit to fix the position of ships and 

aircraft in navigation and traffic control. The Federal 

Aviation Administration and the Coast Guard participated in the tests by providing the vehicles and by 

analyzing the data. 

Joint technical studies by NASA and the European 

Space Research Organization of satellites for communications and independent surveillance of aircraft 

in the Atlantic Ocean region determined that a satellite system could meet technical aviation needs of the 

late 1970's. 

Communication Satellites.-NASA launched three of 

the Intelsat I11 series conimercial communications 

satellites for the Communications Satellite Corporation 

('Cornsat) on a reimbursable basis in January, April, 

and July. The July (Intelsat I11 F-8) mission was 

unsuccessful as a result of a spacecraft failure. Five 

commercial communications satellites were in full 

operation in 1970-two in the Atlantic area, two in the 

Pacific area, and one over the Indian Ocean. A sixth 

satellite is available, on a contingency basis, for service 

in the Atlantic Ocean area. 

The first of the Intelsat IV series was being prepared 

for a scheduled launch early in 1971. It will provide 

nominally 6,000 two-way channels compared to the 

1,200 channels of Intelsat 111. A maximum of 9000 

two-way channels can be obtained by exclusively using 

regional rather than global beams. Intelsat IV will 

have a design life of 7 years as against 5 years for 

Intelsat 111. An Atlas/Centaur launch vehicle will be 

used for the Intelsat .IV program, and the launches 

will also be on a reimbursable basis. 

NASA provided facilities and consulting services 

on a reimbursable basis to Comsat and advised the 

FCC and the OTP on Intelsat launchings and domestic satellites. 

Geodetic Satellites.-GEOS-2, launched in January 

1968, sipported Air Force camera teams in geodetic 

observations ; U.S. and French radar calibrations ; 

Navy Tranet systems tests and calibration of the 

geoceiver doppler system; and the preliminary phase 

of the ISAGEX (International SAtellite Geodesy 

Experiment) program. ISAGEX-sponsored by the 

International Committee of Space Research under 
French project management-is supported by the U.S., 

France, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Czechoslavakia, 

U.S.S.R., West Germany, Italy, Japan, Australia, 

Switzerland, Latvia SSR, and Mongolia among others. 

The program will probably start in January 1971, and 

require that GEOS-2 be operated through most of 

that year. 

In addition, GEOS-2 supported an experiment to 

determine the feasibility of using ground-based laser 

tracking equipment for more precise measurements of 

the motion of the earth's pole and for reducing the 

time for making the measurements from 5 days to 

less than 1 day. 

Meteorological Satellites.-In support of the world 

weather program, the Nimbus spacecraft continued 

flight-testing sensors and techniques for quantitative 

measurements of global atmospheric structure and 

processes. Nimbus 3-after operating more than 17 

months-suffered a failure of its aft scanner, which 

eventually caused most of the sensor data to be unusable. Nimbus 4, launched in April, carried nine experiments for measuring temperature structure, cloud 

cover and composition, emitted and reflected radiation from the ultraviolet to the infrared, composition 

of the atmosphere, solar energy variation, and wind 

velocities. Nimbus 4 made the first satellite measurement of vertical temperature soundings in the lower 

stratosphere which provides significant new data for 

long range weather forecasting. In addition, Nimbus 

achieved extremely precise stable spacecraft attitude 

control. The proof of this system has significance to the 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite which requires 

such stability for high resolution image taking. Nimbus 

E and F, with more sophisticated sensors, were being 

developed for launches in 1972 and 1973. 

Tiros M-the operational prototype of the second 

generation of operational meteorological satelliteswas launched in January. Redesignated ITOS-1 upon 

achieving orbit, it began supporting the National Operational Meteorological Satellite System (NOMSS) 

as the primary operational satellite for the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . The spacecraft, funded and developed by NASA to 

meet NOAA's requirements, is the first of an improved 

type to replace the two kinds of Tiros operational 

satellites operated earlier in the NOMSS. 

ITOS-1 carries TV cameras to store global cloudcover data for remote readout; Automatic Picture 

Transmission cameras for local readout of cloud-cover 

data; and newly developed scanning radiometers for 

global cloud data for remote and local readout, both 

day and night. The sensors are duplicated for reliability 

and designed with mutually complementary circuitry 

to extend their life if individual components fail. Since 

it can provide night coverage for the first time, ITOS-1 

fully satisfies the primary objectives of NOMSS, that 

of obtaining global cloud-cover day and night. 

As a secondary payload with the ITOS-1, NASA 

launched the Australis-Oscar (AO-5) radio amateur 

satellite. The first amateur spacecraft launched by the 

agency, and the fifth of the OSCAR satellites (Orbiting 

Satellites Carrying Amateur Radio), it was designed 

and built by students at Melbourne University, Australia. The 39-pound spacecraft carried beacon transmitters and was prepared and qualified for launch by 

the Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation, a Washington, D.C., orgarization of amateur radio operators. 

The second satellite of the ITOS series (NOAA-1) 

was launched in December. Its sensors are identical to 

those of ITOS-1. 

ESSA4, after almost 2 years in orbit, continued 

to transmit local readout cloud-cover data and to support NOMSS by providing morning Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) coverage. ESSA-2, orbited 

in 1966, was converted to standby status in March 

and deactivated in October. ESSA-5 was deactivated 

in February; ESS.4-7 in March; and ESSA-9 passed 

the l-year-in-orbit mark in February. 

Meteorological Sounding Rockets.-NASA launched 

46 rockets of the Nike-Cajun class to obtain data on 

the structure and characteristics of the atmosphere at 

heights of between 20 and 60 miles. Techniques used 

for providing the vertical atmosphere profiles of wind, 

temperature, density, and ozone were acoustic grenades, Pitot-static tubes, light reflecting vapor trails, 

luminous vapor trails, optical ozonesondes, and chemiluminescent ozone sensors, New instruments flown for 

the first time included a 31 grenade-payload, a second 

generation ozonesonde, and a transponder falling 

sphere. A series of ozone measurements was made 

using rocketborne optical techniques coincident with 

measurements from the backscatter ultraviolet ozone 

measuring instrument on Nimbus 4. 

Wallops Station fired 204 boosted-Dart and Arcastype meteorological sounding rockets in support of 

range operations, the sounding rocket development 

program, and national and international cooperative 

sounding programs. These soundings provided research 

and development data in conjunction with those COoperatively launched from other U.S. locations, and 

from Argentina, Brazil, and Spain. An experiment 

using nine research rockets (grenade, Pitot-static tube, 

ozone, and falling sphere) and 11 Arcas and boostedDart rocketsondes was also conducted from this site 

before, during, and after the March 7 solar eclipse. 

New information was obtained about diurnal variations of ozone to an altitude of 40 miles, as was other 

meteorological data up to 75 miles altitude at the 

time of the eclipse. 

17 
The program of developing a cost-effective meteorological sounding rocket system continued-including 

a joint NASA-Army project to develop an efficient 

low cost meteorological rocket motor for routine probings up to 45 miles. 

Earth Resources Survey Program.-In support of the 

program to develop the technology for remote sensing 

of earth resources data from space, three aircraft of 

the Earth Resources Survey Program, an aircraft of 

the University of Michigan, and support aircraft of 

other agencies completed over 50 missions. 

Significant agricultural data were developed by aircraft flights as followups of the Apollo 9 multispectral 

photography experiment of 1969, and by surveys of 

blight made over the Corn Belt this year in cooperation with Purdue University. Surveys were also made 

of selected “census cities” to compare population and 

land use. A byproduct of this aircraft survey program 

was their use in various disaster surveys, such as hurricanes Camille and Celia and the Lubbock, Tex., 

tornado. International cooperation was marked by 

surveys following the Peruvian earthquake in August, 

and surveys of the Lake Ontario region in cooperation 

with the Canadian government. 

The aircraft also carried out various sensing experiments for user agencies, such as the Department of 

Agriculture, Interior, Navy, and NOAA. Spectral coverages in the visible, infrared, near infrared, and 

microwave frequencies were providing data for the 

development of resources management methods in a 

wide range of user disciplines, such as agriculture, 

oceanography, fisheries, hydrology, geography, geology, and forestry. 

During 1970 the prime contractor for the Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) was selected. 

Final design of the ERTS-A and -B spacecraft was 

completed, and certain components were in the fabrication stage. The first complete camera of the high 

resolution TV system underwent satisfactory tests, as 

did the mirror for the multispectral scanner. Several 

components of the wide band video tape recorder were 

also tested successfully. 

Launch of ERTS-A is scheduled for March 1972 

and ERTS-B a year later. An invitation was sent to 

all interested natural resources scientists here and 

abroad to participte in analyzing and interpreting the 

data from these two missions. 

Earth Physics and Physical Oceanography.-A program was begun this year to apply geodetic satellite 

technology and associated precision tracking methods 

to studies of the motion of the earth’s pole, variations 

in the rate of rotation of the earth, continental drift, 

and the general circulation of the world‘s oceans. These 

investigations should provide new data for geoscientists 

to use in preparing models for predicting major earth18 

quakes, volcanic eruptions, changes in major Ocean 

circulation patterns, and long term changes in earth’s 

climate. 

Significant progress was made in demonstrating the 

feasibility of using remote sensor techniques on aircraft and satellites to observe, monitor, or measure 

Ocean surface and shallow water bottom features, sea 

surface temperature, ocean color, sea state conditions, 

sea ice, and pollutants. For example, aircraft flew over 

the ocean carrying a number of optical, microwave, 

and infrared remote sensor instruments to collect information; and data obtained by infrared sensors on 

Nimbus 4 and ITOS-1 were used in preparing ocean 

surface temperature maps. 

Skylab Earth Resources Experiments Package 

(EREP) .-The Skylab earth resources experiment 

sensors will include six bore-sighted cameras, an infrared spectrometer, a multispectral scanner, a 13.9 GHz 

radiometer/scatterometer, and 1.4 GHz radiometer. 

Several of the photographic bands and multispectral 

scanner bands correspond to the bands selected for the 

ERTS return beam vidicon and scanner. This correspondence will permit correlation of Skylab photographic and scanner data with the ERTS data. 

The EREP sensors-along with associated tracking, 

control, and recording equipment-will be mounted in 

the Multiple Docking Adapter ’of Skylab and launched 

as part of the cluster. Skylab will be placed into a 50’ 

inclination circular orbit at an altitude of 270 miles. 

Investigators will be given the opportunity to propose 

special observations or studies using EREP data. 

Global Atmospheric Research Program.-NASA was 

also cooperating with other Government agencies and 

the scientific community in planning for U.S. participation in the Global Atmospheric Research Program 

(GARP) . The program was set up as the result of a 

growing recognition by meteorologists of the possibility 

of long range weather predictions, and is expected to 

rely heavily on space technology in acquiring meteorological data on a global scale. In support of GARP, 

NASA will concentrate on improving data acquisition 

methods and planning for a Data Acquisition Test 

and the first GARP Global Experiment. 

Launch Vehicle and Propulsion Programs.-The 

Scout launch vehicle successfuly launched the RAM 

C-C and OFO-A missions, a Defense Department 

navigation satellite, and the SAS-A spacecraft from 

the San Marco Range in Africa. 

At the Western Test Range, the Air Force launch 

team was replaced by a contractor team under a 

NASA Scout system management contract. The development of an improved Scout first stage-motor 

continued with two successful motor firings. 
Thor-Delta vehicles orbited the Intelsat I11 F-6, 

F-7, and F-8, ITOS-1, NATOSAT, SKYNET 2, and 

NOAA-1 satellites. The ITOS-1 launch was the first 

using more than three solid motors for thrust augmentation-six motors were used for the Thor booster. 

Also, the first Universal Boat Tail booster was delivered to NASA. It will be able to utilize three, six, 

or nine motors for thrust augmentation, as required 

by the mission. Other progress was made in adapting 

the Delta Inertial Guidance System. 

Agreements were signed with the European Space 

Research Organization for the launching of the HEOS 

A-2 and TD-1 satellites on a Delta vehicle. In addition, preliminary discussions were held with Telesat 

Canada and the Italian Government concerning other 

missions using the vehicle. 

Negotiations were completed with the Air Force 

for exclusive NASA use of Air Force Complex 41 at 

Cape Kennedy for launching the Titan-Centaur vehicle and for joint use of other Air Force support 

buildings and facilities associated with the assembly 

and checkout of the Titan boosters. Interface and 

launch complex details were defined and contract 

negotiations were initiated. 

Advanced Research and Technology 

High Strength Glass.-Research on glass resulted in 

the development of a stiff, high strength glass fiber 

86 percent stiffer and over 60 percent stronger than 

that currently available. Composite materials containing the new fibers are expected to exhibit significant 

weight savings in advanced aerospace vehicles. 

Zmproved Graphite.-A study of the behavior of 

graphite at high temperatures led to the invention of 

a boron-doped graphite having an electrical resistance 

nearly constant from room temperature to 5,000" F. 

Because the resistance of industrial graphite electrodes 

and resistors decreases as the temperature rises, such 

devices require costly controls to prevent burn out. The 

use of the boronated graphite should eliminate the 

need for special control devices and result in considerable savings. 

Ekctrically Charged Polymers.-A new class of 

electrically charged polymers, called ionenes, synthesized for aerospace uses may have application in biomedical engineering. Heparin, a blood anticoagulant, 

can be bonded to these charged polymers, and they 

thus might have potential in the development of nonclotting tubing for blood transport in artificial kidney 

machines and in heart-lung assist devices. The ionenes 

are also bactericidal and may be useful in surgical 

sutures and similar applications where the growth of 

bacteria must be prevented. 

High Temperature Polymers.-A new polyimide 

polymer with greatly improved high temperature 

mechanical properties was synthesized. It has a rigidity 

at room temperature twice that of commercially available polyimides, and even at 600" F. its stiffness exceeds that of the commercial materials at room temperature. Further research must be conducted to determine if these polyimides can be used in such aerospace 

applications as high temperature adhesives and foams. 

Zmproved Electron Microscopy.-In surface physics 

research, investigators at the Ames Research Center 

discovered a new method of improving the resolution 

of the electron microscope. Use of the new technique 

made it possible to resolve discrete planes of atoms in 

extremely thin gold films and to make quantitative 

determination of the orientation of the films. The new 

method should enhance NASA capabilities in thinfilm technology for electronic devices and in the control of surface behavior of materials for structural 

applications. 

Structures.-The NASA sponsored comprehensive 

computer program for structural analysis-NASTRAN-was released in November for public use. 

The program tapes and documentation are available 

from the Computer Software Management and Information Center (COSMIC). Since its delivery to 

NASA last year, NASTRAN has been thoroughly 

evaluated and its capabilities confirmed. 

Intensive research has shown that significant weight 

savings in spacecraft, space shuttle, and aircraft structures can be achieved with extensive applications of 

such composite materials as boron-aluminum, boronepoxy, graphite-epoxy, and others. Test results are confirming the enhanced strength and stiffness properties 

of such structures. Work continued to define the design 

limits for these materials when subjected to the extreme 

environments associated with space vehicle and aircraft applications. 

Space Shuttle Oscillation.-In studies of. critical dynamic problems areas for the space shuttle, important 

progress was made in understanding the unusual 

dynamic conditions associated with shuttle-type 

configurations. Research determined the potentially 

critical nature of wind-induced oscillations on the 

launch pad and bi-wing interference flutter at transonic 

speeds during boost. Techniques for minimizing these 

problems are under development. 

Fluid Dynamics.-Recent hypersonic research revealed what may be a fundamental aspect of high 

Mach number turbulent flow. Measurements made 

in a Mach 20 helium tunnel indicated that the pressure at the surface of a body may be twa or more times 

greater than the pressure at the outer edge of the 

19 
boundary layer. This finding puts in question a previously held assumption that pressure is nearly constant through the boundary layer. The increased 

pressure level experienced at the body surface could 

have an important effect on the loading of hypersonic 

vehicles and a strong influence on vehicle design. 

A theory was developed for the prediction of clear 

air turbulence under certain conditions. Local gradients in temperature and velocity are related to a parameter called the Richardson number. When the 

Richardson number decreases to a certain level, turbulence can be expected. The newly obtained theory 

relates changes in Richardson number to topographical 

features such as mountains. Several instances of pilotreported clear air turbulence have been successfully 

correlated with the theory. 

A simple model was developed for predicting 

nitrogen oxide formation in turbojet combustors. This 

pollutant is a major ingredient in the photochemical 

process that results in the formation of smog. Nitrogen 

oxide is present in all hydrocarbon-air cambustion 

processes and currently is much more significant for 

automobiles than for aircraft. However, the aircraft 

contribution is not negligible, and a model such as this 

one will contribute to the better understanding needed 

to reduce the nitrogen oxide emission to a minimum. 

General Aviation Aircraft.-In research on improved 

control and display for general aviation aircraft, the 

Ames Research Center studied the use of aerodynamic 

spoilers on powered light aircraft. A spoiler system, 

similar to that used on gliders, was installed on a 

typical four-place single-engine general aviation airplane. Preliminary results indicate marked improvements in the precision of flight path control and a 

reduction in touchdown paint dispersion. The range 

of variation in the ratio of lift to drag (L/D) available through the use of spoilers, in addition to providing an effective “speed brake” for terminal area 

maneuvering, permits a threefold increase in usable 

aproach angles. Further studies will be conducted on 

control techniques and the effectiveness of this system 

when used differentially as a lateral control device. 

V/STOL Aircraft.-Early in 1970, NASA decided 

to use a research aircraft,to verify promising analytical 

results obtained on the augmentor-wing concept. In 

this concept, originated by a Canadian corporation, 

engine exhaust air is ejected into a channel formed by 

the upper and lower portions of a specially-designed 

flap system. Large-scale wind tunnel model tests conducted for several years indicated that significant increases in lift are attainable, compared with other 

concepts studied making possible the design of jet transport aircraft with attractive short-take-off-and-landing 

(STOL) capability. A contractor was selected to 

modify the NASA C-8A transport research aircraft 

to incorporate an augmentor wing. NASA flight research with the modified aircraft is scheduled to begin 

in the spring of 1972. The vehicle will have the capability of landing and taking off at speeds of about 

75 m.p.h. and an associated capability of operating 

from fields of 1,500-foot length. 

Tests, initiated in 1969, were completed this year 

to determine the effects of aeroelasticity, Mach number, 

and scale on the performance of tilt rotors. The concept 

appears promising for several military and civil applications requiring a helicopter-like hover capability but 

higher cruise performance than that of a helicopter. 

In this joint program, use was made of the NASA 

40- by 80-foot low-speed tunnel, the US. Army 7- by 

lo-foot low-speed tunnel, and the French ONERA 

26-foot transonic tunnel. Both rigid and dynamicallyscaled rotor models were tested, and reports comparing 

the experimentally-determined results with predicated 

values are in preparation. 

To conduct studies of the many stability, control, 

and other problems associated with improvement of instrument flight at very low airspeeds, NASA continued 

its V/STOL terminal-area flight-research program, 

which uses fundamentally different VTOL aircraft 

concepts and advanced VTOL cockpit-display concepts. This year, NASA flight tests were completed on 

the Air Force XC-142 transport, which utilizes the 

tilt-wing, deflected-slipstream concept. The investigation identified major factors influencing the precision 

low-speed, instrument-approach task-as related to the 

tilt-wing concept specifically and to VTOL handlingquality and cockpit-display requirements in general. 

A similar, though more limited flight investigation was 

completed on the DO-3 1 transport which utilizes 

direct-lift jet engines to provide VTOL capability; 

the program was carried out by NASA pilots in the 

Federal Republic of Germany under an agreement 

with the builder of the aircraft. Related studies were 

continued using the NASA XV-5B fan-in-wing research aircraft; a variable stability helicopter having 

in-flight simulation capability; and ground-based 

simulators. A joint Navy-Air Force-NASA program 

was initiated to extend such studies through use of the 

Navy X-22 tilt ducted-fan variable stability research 

airplane. 

Subsonic Aircraft.-The supercritical wing concept 

intended to permit efficient near-sonic cruise was successfully tested on wind tunnel models representing 

advanced transport configurations. A wing was 

constructed for flight test on an F-8 airplane to provide initial validation of wind tunnel results. An 

alternate application, intended to permit structural 

weight savings on moderate speed subsonic aircraft by 

use of a thickened supercritical wing section, was tested 

successfully in flight. 

20 
Supersonic Aircraft.-NASA participated in the development of the Navy F-14 and the Air Force F-15 

aircraft by providing technical consultations and over 

5,200 hours of test time in various NASA wind tunnels. Design information was obtained in areas such 

as inlet system improvement, high-lift systems, nozzleairframe interactions, spin and recovery characteristics, 

stability, control, and performance. 

NASA-USAF YF-12 Flight Research Program.- 

Two YF-12 aircraft made 60 flights during 1970. 

The USAF aircraft carried out 40 flights at speeds up 

to the cruise mach number to obtain information pertinent to air defense studies. Before the mid-year 

grounding of the NASA aircraft for instrumentation 

overhaul and updating, 20 flights were completed and 

preliminary information was obtained on structural 

deformation, stability and control, and handling 

qualities criteria. The NASA phase of the program 

will continue to provide advanced design information 

for supersonic aircraft in such areas as aerothermoelastic effects on aircraft structures and on stability and 

control: inlet dynamics, airframe-propulsion systems 

interaction, and aerodynamic properties such as skin 

friction and heat transfer. 

Hypersonic Research Engine.-The Langley Research 

Center began testing the first of two Hypersonic 

Research Engine models designed, developed, and 

fabricated to explore air-breathing propulsion systems 

capable’of Mach 8 sustained flight. This model has 

a flight-weight, hydrogen regeneratively-cooled construction, and is being tested to demonstrate the 

integrity of a practical hypersonic structural design 

concept. The engine structure has been subjected to 

test conditions of 1,500 p.s.i.a. and 2,300’ F. Another 

model being assembled has similar internal flow lines 

and will be used to study engine operation with 

hydrogen fuel and su’bsonic combustion at Mach numbers ,below 6, and supersonic combustion above Mach 

6. Supersonic combustion is necessary at the higher 

Mach numbers to avoid excessively high internal temperatures and pressures. This aerothermodynamic 

model is water-cooled and is scheduled to be tested 

in mid-1971. 

Runway Slipperiness.-The Langley Research Center 

developed a technique to provide pilots with knowledge of the slipperiness of wet runways in a practical 

and accurate manner. The technique uses an automobile, modified so the operator can apply brakes to 

one set of diagonal wheels with bald treads, while 

the opposite diagonal wheels with conventional treads 

continue rolling for directional control during the tests. 

The operator performs a locked-wheel skid from 60 

m.p.h. The ratio of the distance it takes the car to 

stop on a wet pavement to the distance it takes to stop 

on a dry pavement measures the slipperiness. This 

ratio was found to be directly applicable to aircraft 

stopping ratios on the same pavement, thus giving 

the pilot and airport operators accurate knowledge 

of runway slipperiness and length required to stop 

under adverse conditions. 

V/STOL Avionics.-NASA and the FAA have undertaken a joint program to implement and flight test 

terminal area avionics equipment and procedures 

which will allow efficient operation of V/STOL aircraft at crowded hub airports. The Ames Research 

Center is responsible for the airborne equipment and 

flight tests; Langley Research Center and FAA’s 

National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center 

(NAFEC) will cooperate on system simulation of 

ATC situations ; DOT’S Transportation Systems Center will develop area navigation technology for Ames’ 

use; and FAA will furnish microwave instrument landing systems and other ATC components for the flight 

tests. Results will guide design of V/STOL airport 

runways, traffic patterns at hub airports, navigation 

aids, and V/STOL navigation, guidance and flight 

control equipment. Equipment development is underway and flight tests are scheduled to commence in 

1972. 

Aircraft Noise.-Nacelle modifications intended to reduce fan compressor noise from a four-engine jet aircraft were fabricated and flight tested. Subjective 

reaction to the flyover noise following the nacelle 

modifications was assessed by asking a group to judge 

the acceptability of the sound of modified and unmodified aircraft as reproduced in an anechoic chamber, using the method of constant stimulus differences 

to assess pairs of stimuli. Each pair consisted of one 

recording from each aircraft, and sounds recorded 

outdoors and indoors were included. Operational conditions in the tests represented takeoff, reduced climb 

gradient, and landing approach thrusts at heights 

ranging from 500 to 2,500 feet. The installation of the 

modified nacelles produced improvements for all 

heights and thrusts investigated ; improvements from 

1 1 to 14 decibels of effective-perceived-noise level 

(EPNdB) for the landing-approach thrust condition; 

and a finding that the EPNdB noise-rating scale adequately assessed the improvement in acceptability. 

Behavioral Research.-Tektite 11, a marine sciences, 

biomedical, and behavioral studies project jointly conducted by the Navy, NASA, and the Department of 

the Interior, was carried out in an underwater habitat 

near the U.S. Virgin Islands. Teams of scientists, including one team of five females and one team of mixed 

nationals, lived and carried out research projects in 

this stressful environment for periods as long as 60 

days. Their activities and responses to their confined 

21 
habitat and close living conditions, typical of those 

likely to be obtained in future space stations, provided 

information on crew behavior and habitability as well 

as data on microbiology and hematology. NASA is 

presently analyzing the data. 

Life Support Systems Testing.-A four-man 90-day 

closed-door test of a space vehicle cabin simulator 

was conducted for the Langley Research Center. This 

was the longest test in the United States utilizing a 

regenerative life support system. A space station type 

of system provided purified water and oxygen reclaimed from the crew’s body wastes. The chamber 

was operated at 10 p.s.i.a. total pressure, with a partial 

pressure of oxygen equal to that at sea level. Potable 

water was reclaimed from urine and perspiration by 

a vacuum distillation-vapor filtration subsystem which 

used a radioisotope heat source. Separate equipment, 

containing filters, activated charcoal, and ion-exchange 

resins, recovered and purified the water used by the 

crew for washing. Oxygen was recovered from the 

carbon dioxide exhaled by the crew by the atmosphere 

purification and control subsystem, consisting of thermal control, carbon dioxide removal, and toxin control units, and by the atmosphere supply and pressurization subsystem containing a Sabatier reactor, water 

electrolysis unit and atmosphere supply control unit. 

The 90-day run and earlier shorter runs indicated 

that successful long missions using regenerative life 

support systems will require the capability for onboard 

maintenance and repair. This will necessitate improved 

design for maintainability, ready access to operational 

and performance data, and appropriate crew training. 

Orbiting Frog Otolith Ex@eriment.-A 7-day space 

flight experiment using two bullfrogs as subjects provided information on the adaptability of the vestibule 

in the inner ear (which controls balance) to sustained 

weightlessness as well as its response to acceleration. 

The experiment was launched on a single Scout vehicle 

on November 9 from NASA Wallops Station, Wallops 

Island, Va. Excellent data were obtained on the electrical impulses from the otolith sensors and on the 

frogs’ heart rates. Microelectrodes implanted in the 

vestibular nerves of the two bullfrogs furnished the 

first direct measures of the otolith sensor response 

during alternating periods of weightlessness and partial 

gravity. 

Preliminary analysis of the data obtained suggests 

that adaptation occurred and that it extended to the 

sensor organ itself. If this preliminary finding is confirmed, it may mean that man can function in weightlessness for long periods without being incapacitated 

by vestibular influences on his balance, vision, digestive function, circulation, heart rate, and muscular 

coordination. 

Lifting-Body Flight Research Program.-In the joint 

NASA-Air Force Lifting-Body Program, the NASA 

M2-F3 and HL-10, and the Air Force X-24A liftingbody research vehicles were flown 22 times during 

1970, for a total of 77 flights to date. With its scheduled flight program essentially completed, the HGlO 

made its most recent flights to evaluate powered approaches and landing. Both the X-24A and the M2-F3 

were gradually flown at higher speeds and altitudes 

to study the problems and handling qualities associated 

with these vehicles. The pilots indicated that the 

handling qualities for the HL-10 were as good as, 

or better than, most current fighter aircraft. 

Space Shuttle.-Approximately 10,000 hours of wind 

tunnel testing at Ames and Langley Research Centers 

were used in an aerothermodynamic study of space 

shuttle concepts. 

Planetary Program.-The 5-year program of flight 

and wind tunnel testing to develop large parachutes 

capable of landing unmanned spacecraft on Mars was 

successfully concluded this year. In the flight test program, dummy payloads with various type parachutes 

up to 84 feet in diameter were propelled to test altitudes considerably over 100,000 feet. Following 18 test 

flights, the so-called disc-gap-band parachute was 

selected as the most suitable for the very low density 

and pressure conditions believed to exist near the surface of Mars. The unmanned Viking Mars lander 

scheduled for launch in 1975 will use a disc-gap-band 

parachute to help land a payload on Mars. 

Significant improvements in the ability to predict 

spacecraft temperature during planetary entry resulted 

from the availability of a computing program to determine heating rates. As a consequence, the extremely 

high heating rates previously calculated for entry into 

the atmosphere of Jupiter have been reduced and will 

affect the future design of probes for a Jupiter 

exploration. 

Planetary Approach Guidance.-From results of the 

Planetary Approach Guidance experiment which was 

on the Mariner VI spacecraft, it appears that this new 

technique is as good as presently used navigation systems at Mars distances and probably better at outer 

planetary distances. Earth-based navigation systems get 

progressively worse as the distance from earth increases 

while the planetary approach technique improves in 

accuracy as the target planet is approached. In this 

technique, a calibrated imaging tube on the spacecraft 

looks at the planet being approached and determines 

the spacecraft position by star sights on the limb of the 

planet itself or on its moons. The closer the spacecraft 

approaches, the more accurate the sightings become 

because all measurements are based on the position of 

the planet itself rather than radio signals from earth. 

22 
Planetary approach guidance is particularly important 

when gravity assisted flybys are used to change direction as is proposed for the longer outer planetary missions. In such cases, the distance from the planet at 

flyby is extremely critical in obtaining the proper 

trajectory to the next planet, and it is possible that 

only the planetary approach guidance technique can 

achieve the required accuracy. 

Landing Radar.-Langley Research Center developed 

and flight tested an improved landing radar which is 

suitable for use by V/STOL aircraft or by planetary 

landers. The improvements were achieved by using a 

new modulation technique consisting of on-off continuous waves at higher altitudes and frequency modulation with carefully controlled modulation sidebands 

at lower altitudes. The control of these sidebands gives 

the radar especially good capability for measuring 

range and range rate at the lower altitudes including 

touchdown. 

Magnetic Bearings.-Goddard Space Flight Center 

developed a magnetic bearing which eliminates essentially all the mechanical friction in an electric motor. 

The bearing with its electronic controls floats the 

rotating shaft within the bearing without mechanical 

or liquid support and thus permits the design of much 

more accurate control systems, aircraft instruments, 

and navigation devices. 

Deep Space Unfurlable Antennas.-The Jet Propulsion Laboratory demonstrated the feasibility of constructing large, dish-type, deepspace communication 

antennas which can be folded for launch stowage. The 

antenna reflecting surface is a conic section of single 

curvature that makes it possible to maintain surface 

distartions within tolerable limits without extensive 

bracing. Use of the single curved surface was made 

possible by design of a special Gregorian-type subreflector which corrects beam distortion induced by the 

flat main reflecting surface. Further development of 

this technique will make it possible to desi@ stowable 

antennas 50 feet or more in diameter to provide the 

communications capacity required for outer planet 

exploration missions. 

Communications Channel Coding.-Research at 

Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and Ames 

Research Center has produced telemetry coding 

techniques which significantly improve both informatian transmission rate and error reduction for space 

communication channels. Error correcting codes commonly operate by adding strategically located redundant bits to the data stream. Decoding of these 

redundant bits allows the correct identification of a 

limited number of data bits which may have been 

masked by channel noise. Since the added bits are 

themselves subject to noise induced error, current coding techniques require a compromise between the 

number of data bits and the number of redundant bits 

transmitted. GSFC developed a mathematical coding 

technique which avoids this compromise and ap 

proaches the theoretical maximum error correcting 

capability by suppressing all data bits and transmitting only properly coded error correcting bits from 

which the data bit stream is reconstructed. Error correcting codes are particularly applicable to such 

missions as Pioneer, Mariner, and outer planet exploration, as well as to earth survey or space station missions. 

The complexity of hardware and computer aperations required to implement error correcting codes has 

limited the rate at which information in coded form 

may be transmitted. The ARC research, which complements the GSFC effort, led to the development of a 

laboratory prototype coding device which provides a 

15-fold increase in channel information rate. 

High Volume Data Processing.-Research at GSFC 

in optical methods for data processing continued in an 

effort to apply lasers and coherent optics to the problem of handling and analysis of extremely large 

volumes of experimental data from spacecraft. A major 

impediment to their early employment has been the 

lack of an effective device for real time conversion of 

electrical signals to an optical form which can be 

handled by lenses. GSFC demonstrated that such a 

device is feasible and a test unit is being built. 

Microprocessor Spacecraft Computer.-In research at 

GSFC, microcircuit techniques were developed which 

qe applicable to the design of ultra low power, high 

performance, miniaturized spacecraft computing systems for both routine and complex data processing 

aboard aerospace vehicles. The microprocessor computers will relieve the burden on ground data 

processing facilities and increase performance in applications ranging from small scientific satellities to highly 

complex earth resources and space station missions. 

Work by NASA and DOD on microcircuits has 

reduced circuit fabrication costs of complementary 

metal oxide semiconductor devices to the point where 

these devices are competitive in the commercial market 

for application in commercial and industrial systems. 

Pilot Warning Indicator.-Flight tests were conducted 

to determine the feasibility of using optical techniques 

for providing general aviation pilots with early warning of impending mid-air collisions. All the equipment 

tested used a flashing xenon lamp on one aircraft to 

provide the warning signal which was then detected by 

an optical sensor on a second aircraft. Xenon lights are 

already installed on many aircraft for enhanced visibility and would require very little development to 

make them operational. The detectors would require 

23 
further research to make them suitable for aircraft 

use. Two different sets of equipment were tested. Each 

detected other aircraft at ranges of 2-3 miles and 

warned the pilot of the approximate direction in which 

to look for further evaluation of the collision risk. Each 

device had an unacceptably high false alarm rate 

caused principally by the direct or reflected energy 

from the sun. Filter techniques may reduce this rate 

to an acceptable level, and other problems which were 

encountered, such as radiated electrical interference, 

can be easily solved. Both units are being redesigned 

and further flight tests will be conducted. 

Optical Communication.-GSFC developed the equipment for and conducted the first experiment to meassure the effect of the atmosphere on laser beams 

projected vertically to a near-stationary measuring 

platform. The measurements were made by 3 detector 

package carried to an altitude of about 18 miles by a 

large balloon. Two lasers on the ground operating at 

wavelengths of 10.6 and 0.5 microns were continuously 

pointed at the balloon package where the intensity of 

the beam was measured as a function of height, position in the beam, and weather conditions. Additional 

flights will be conducted in the summer of 1971 when 

weather conditions again permit balloon flights to add 

statistical credence to the first results and to conduct 

tests under a wider variety of weather conditions. 

E1ectrophysics.-In research at Massachusetts Institute 

of Technology, ionized gas cells were placed in the 

path of a laser beam to control the wavelength of the 

laser. By varying the voltage applied across the cell, 

a point is reached where some of the excited gas molecules produce strong absorption characteristics over a 

very narrow bandwidth and at the laser frequency. 

If the laser radiation tends to deviate from its nominal 

frequency, it is pulled by this absorption line. called 

the "Lamb Dip," back to its original value. By this 

process the frequency of the laser oscillator can be precisely controlled, making it suitable for use as a frequency standard or for spectographic analysis. 

Digital Blast Gage.-A maintenance-free, standby 

digital blast gage that is totally self-contained and 

capable of operating from -40" to +150" F. was 

developed by Marshall Space Flight Center to detect 

and record the magnitude of shock and blast fronts in 

the vicinity of test stands and launch pads. Explosion 

history is sensed, timed, digitized, and recorded on 

magnetic tape. Overpressures ranging from 0.1 to 1000 

p.s.i. are detected by means of a quartz pressure transducer which initiates the recording of the impact and 

its storage in a memory bank. The system has the 

capability of initiating safety countermeasures. 

Integrated Circuit Inspection Criteria.-NASA 

worked closely with the DOD to develop a standard 

24 

for microcircuit inspection criteria. The criteria include 

drawings and photographs delineating defects and establishing reject criteria. The jointly developed military standard is now an accepted standard which 

microcircuit manufacturers are required to use on all 

DOD and NASA procurements of high reliability integrated circuits. 

Nondestructive Weld Inspection.-A system developed 

by Ames Research Center for making and testing 

welded interconnections monitors such critical variables as temperature, pressure, and voltage waveform 

and maintains these variables within prescribed limits 

during the fabrication process. If any two of the 

three variables exceeds the prescr?bed limits, the 

device is rejected. Evaluation of the system on the 

production lines of two microcircuit manufacturers, 

including varying the process parameters to produce 

both good and bad welds, indicated that the system 

could successfully detect all bad welds. 

Electronically Tuned Optical Filter.-A liquidcrystal-dye system was discovered in which the orientation of the molecular structure can be altered by 

applying an electric field, producing changes in the 

optical density of the material and consequently 

changing the color of light transmitted through the 

medium. The technique is being used to develop a 

series of filters which can produce a wide variety of 

colors. They may be used as color filters for aerial 

photography calling for films of various sensitivities 

and for information displays in which color can increase the efficiency with which information can be 

stored and/or read out by an observer. 

Electrochemical Power.-Extended tests on rechargeable nickel cadmium cells and batteries showed that 

long cycle life can be attained by keeping the temperatures between 30' and 50" F. and by avoiding 

excessive overcharging. New battery-making procedures were developed and cell specifications written 

to assure greater uniformity and reliability of nickelcadmium batteries. A ,novel inorganic separator appears to be of value for extending the usefulness of 

silver-zinc cells in space. Wet stand life was extended 

from a few weeks to well over 1 year, and active life 

of several hundred cycles was attained by putting 

each electrode in its own bag made of this separator 

material. 

Solar Power.-A lightweight, 30 watts-per-pound solar 

array was ready for the technology stage. Lithiumdoped cells with the same efficiency as conventional 

cells became available ; preliminary data indicated 

about three times the radiation resistance under electron bombardment compared with normal cells. Exploratory work showed the feasibility of simultaneous 
multiple-cell connections and of the sandwiching of 

modules between Teflon covers. If these procedures 

prove to be practical, they will lower manufacturing 

costs and make safe and convenient storage of modules 

possible. The prciblems of high voltage solar arrays 

were being studied. 

Electric Power Processing and Distribution.-Inhouse and contracted studies were concurrently examining the electric power processing and distribution 

needs of the space station, the space shuttle, and advanced aircraft in order to establish as high a degree 

of commonality among these vehicles as is practical. 

Maximum commonality will make it possible to conserve R. & D. resources, reduce logistics costs, and may 

improve performance significantly by concentrating 

R. & D. efforts on common problems. 

Research and development activities related to advanced power systems for outer planet spacecraft demonstrated weight and volume reductions of 50-70 

percent and reduction of piece parts and discrete interconnections by about 75 percent. The improvement 

was obtained through adaptation of hybrid thick film 

electronic circuit techniques on an alumina substrate, 

a combination with the essential characteristics of both 

high electrical insulation and high thermal conductivity. 

Electric PropuLFion.-The research aimed at providing the technological base required to realize the advantages of electric propulsion continued to progress. 

Interest in these devices is based on the fact that electric thrusters have the highest performance of all practical rocket engines known and may be able to sharply 

reduce the system mass and cost of high energy space 

missions. 

The SERT I1 orbital test sought to demonstrate 

4,383 hours operation in space of a l-kilowatt mercury 

bombardment ion engine. Premature failure caused 

by erosion limited the test, and only 3,782 hours were 

accumulated on one engine and 2,011 hours on a second. Initial ground tests verified the design changes 

necessary to eliminate the erosion. The ground system 

technology program intended to demonstrate all the 

propulsion functions required on a solar-array-powered 

electrically propelled mission continued to progress toward an integrated system test planned for 1971. Data 

from the ground program and the SERT I1 flight 

results served as the basis for significant planning on 

a solar electric multimission space vehicle, considered 

the next logical step in the introduction of electric 

propulsion into mission use. 

Thermoelectric Conversion.-The two SNAP-19 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators ( RTG's) 

aboard the Nimbus-3 satellite continued to deliver 

useful power to the spacecraft. The SNAP-27 RTG 

placed on the moon by the Apollo 12 crew also continued to supply power and heat to the Apollo Lunar 

Surface Experiments Package. 

Work on prototype fueled RTG's for the Pioneer F 

Jupiter mission proceeded on schedule, and RTG 

development work for the Viking Mars Lander mission was underway. An advanced RTG for long duration outer planet missions was undergoing design and 

technology development. 

Chemical Propulsion.-In the space shuttle propulsion 

area, main engine technology efforts were directed toward improving turbomachinery and developing the 

ability to calculate accurately combined chamber 

and nozzle performance. Turbomachinery work concentrated on propellant conditioning requirements at 

the pump inlet, amelioration of the effects of twophase flow, feed system stability and dynamic interactions, and improved impeller fabrication. Cornbustion chamber work was investigating devices to observe 

local variations in mixture ratio in situ, combustion 

oscillation damping devices, improved injector configurations, and analytical procedures to define internal combustion and flow processes. 

In the shuttle auxiliary propulsion technology area, 

studies were concerned with defining optimum systems 

and generating a technology base for the components 

of the systems. Experimental and analytical efforts 

were in progress to define thruster capabilities by exploring several alternate schemes for ignition, chamber 

cooling, injection of propellants, valves, and other 

items. 

In work on spacecraft and upper stage propulsion, 

a hydrazine monopropellant attitude control system for 

long life outer planet spacecraft was designed. The 

design is based on thrusters of 50 to 100 millipound 

thrust, and initial tests of these thrusters indicated 

good performance for such very small devices. 

The FLOX-Methane propellant combination is intended for large planetary orbiters and landers where 

higher thrust requirements suggest the need for pumpfed engine designs. A program to demonstrate the 

operational capability of a FLOX-Methane spacecraft 

propulsion system progressed towards testing a complete system in a simulated space environment. All 

parts for the propellant storage, pressurization, and 

feed subsystems were ordered, and a contract for the 

design, fabrication, test, and delivery of two 5,000- 

pound thrust pump-fed engines was awarded. 

The technology program for the OF,-Diborane 

propellant combination moved toward the demonstration of integrated system performance capability 

and operational readiness. Propellant storage, pressurization, and feed subsystem designs for a representative 

spacecraft propulsion system were frozen, and some 

parts were ordered. Several thrust chamber cooling 

techniques were being evaluated at the nominal 1,000- 

25 
pound thrust level and at a subscale 200-pound thrust 

level. They included regenerative cooling, cooling by 

means of the heat pipe concept, ablative cooling using 

carbon phenolic materials, and boundary-layer-assisted 

radiation cooling. 

A solid rocket motor containing 2,800 pounds of high 

energy propellant was successfully ignited, burned for 

34 seconds, then extinguished by injection of a small 

quantity of water. Only 13 pounds of water were 

required to drop the 9,000 pounds of thrust to essentially zero in 1 second. This is especially impressive 

since the propellant was a particularly “hot” composition, developing 10 percent more thrust per pound 

than those propellants currently in use. Later versions 

of this motor will be designed to allow reignition for a 

second burn, then a second quench. This stop-start 

motor is essentially two stages in one, giving the mission 

planner the ability to determine the duration of each 

pulse. 

Solid rocket motors developing relatively low thrust 

for long durations were tested. They were designed 

to slow spacecraft gradually as they approach a planet, 

allowing a planetary orbit to be obtained. All 11 tests 

in this program were successful. In one test-the first 

that included a very large nozzle cone-a motor weighing 800 pounds (90 percent propellant by weight) was 

fired under simulated vacuum conditions. The burning 

time was over 2 minutes, roughly three times that normally attained in this motor shape. In three tests of a 

similar but smaller motor, “all carbon” nozzles performed successfully. The nozzles are made by a new 

process of wrapping carbon cloth and sequentially impregnating and charring the binder, and they operate 

at white heat without degradation. Since they can be 

very thin, there is considerable weight savings. 

In sounding rocket research, the first dual thrust 

level, advanced state-of-the-art motor was fired, and 

performance was as predicted. This 2,700-pound unit 

is a full size prototype of a motor that could meet 

future NASA requirements in solar physics and 

astronomy experiments and is a potential replacement 

for the aging Aerobee systems. The design included 

low cost construction, a new and very flexible propellant binder, and a one-piece molded nozzle. 

In chemical propulsion technolqgy, an igniter for 

gaseous hydrogen-gaseous oxygen thrusters based on 

heating of the gas by resonant phenomena was tested. 

Reliable ignition was obtained in 0.030 to 0.040 seconds after the flow was initiated. The advantage of this 

system is that it can be integrated with the propellant 

valves, and it requires no separate electrical system as 

does a spark igniter. 

The regime of low density flows in small altitude 

control engines was investigated analytically and experimentally. Results from both the mathematical analyses and the sophisticated laboratory tests verified that 

for an optimum engine design, the low density flow 

conditions (random loose molecular flow) must be accounted for. These results have also been of value in 

wind tunnel design. 

Advances were made in the basic understanding of 

the nature of solid propellant polymer binders as part 

of an effort to develop the ability to make propellants 

with specific physical properties and predictable behavior. A binder which is essentially a pure compound 

was manufactured. It was used in propellant mixes, 

and the physical properties compared against various 

theories to check their validity. 

New methods of measuring the exact burning rate 

of a solid propellant at any instant were found to be 

feasible. The new techniques involved microwave and 

ultrasonic devices which look through the motor case 

and propellant to the burning surface. Data collected 

by using these techniques will ultimately be used to 

select the best burning theories and to make possible 

more precise design of motors. 

Nuclear Rocket Program.-The major objective oi 

the joint NASA-AEC nuclear rocket program is to 

develop a 75,000-pound-thrust engine, NERVA, for 

space flight missions. Long range plans call for an 

engine which can be employed in a reusable nuclear 

stage as well as in a single-use application. The nuclear 

rocket program also includes a variety of supporting 

and advanced research and technology projects designed to extend the capability of solid-core nuclear 

rockets, to conduct research on advanced forms of 

nuclear propulsion, and to provide the base of information for the development of a nuclear stage. 

Progress in NERVA Development.-The emphasis in 

NERVA development during 1970 was on the definition and preliminary design of the NERVA flight 

engine. Engine system and nonreactor development 

activities included the analysis of systems engineering 

results, the preparation of engine system and critical 

component specifications, and engine design. The systems engineering analyses sought to verify that the 

performance and reliability criteria established for 

the NERVA engine could be met through the materials and component design selections which evolved 

from the systems engineering NERVA trade studies. 

The analyses culminated in the preparation of engine 

system and component specifications for proceeding 

with the engine detailed design and the fabrication of 

hardware for development and qualification tests. In 

October, the preliminary design review of the engine 

was initiated to examine all engine design documentation, effect the review for adequacy to meet design 

compatability requirements and correct design deficiencies, and to officially approve the baseline engine configuration for proceeding with the next phase 

of engine development. These activities are expected 

ta continue into the second quarter of 1971. 

26 
In addition to the NERVA design activities, important progress was achieved in other program areas. 

Procurement was initiated for certain engine critical 

components parts such as the turbopump and various 

valve parts. A turbopump bearing test program was 

started to examine the performance of high-speed, 

cryogenically-cooled bearing components under varying load conditions. Tests of materials for various 

high-stress cryogenic applications were continued in 

support of critical component detailed design activities. Work also was begun to procure, modify, and 

checkout the host of laboratory jigs, fixtures, and test 

equipment that will be required to test and evaluate 

engine components. 

Facilities.-Preliminary planning and analyses aimed 

at the definition of Engine Test Stand No. 1 facility 

requirements for testing the NERVA engine were 

completed, and the preliminary design was initiated 

on the test stand modifications necessary to meet 

these requirements. Attention was focused on the hothydrogen exhaust and altitude simulation system, 

propellant storage system, and instrumentation and 

control system. Modification of the stand is scheduled 

to be completed by the latter half of 1974. A preliminary Engineering Report of Engine/Stage Test 

Stand No. 2 was completed, and performance and 

design requirements to support the test objectives 

for NERVA engine and stage development were 

established. 

Nuclear Flight Stage Definition Studies.-The 

nuclear-powered stage definition studies were continued with primary emphasis on reusable stages. 

Potential uses treated in the studies included manned 

or unmanned transportation between earth orbit, 

lunar orbit, and geosynchronous orbit in a fully reusable mode, and the propulsion of payloads into deep 

space, employing the vehicle in either a reusable or 

expendable mode, depending on the mission objectives 

and vehicle size. The results of preliminary studies 

on stage concepts and program definition were published in May, and the study contracts were extended 

to May 1971 in order to attain a more complete 

assessment at the concept definition level of several 

types of reusable nuclear stages. 

The two basic stage concepts under investigation 

were large single-tank configurations that could be 

launched by the Saturn V Intermediate-21 or by the 

space shuttle booster with an orbit insertion stage, and 

a multitank configuration in which the stage modules 

could be launched in the cargo bay of the space shuttle 

orbiter. Studies centered on operational requirements 

and systems definition, and the establishment of the 

manufacturing and facilities requirements necessary 

to define a total development program. Cost and costsensitivity factors were generated simultaneously with 

concept definition and will be used later in the studies 

to find ways in which both development and operational costs can be reduced without sacrifices in performance or reliability. 

Preliminary study results indicated that both concepts were reasonably comparable in performance and 

cost effective for both logistic support of lunar exploration and high energy deep space missions. The preferred concept will not be selected until the size and 

configuration of the space shuttle have been determined and the direction of the future long range space 

program is more fully resolved. 

Vehicle Technology.-This program provides technology to meet the requirements for the nuclear stage. 

Several technology programs started previously in support of the 33-foot diameter nuclear stage were completed during the year. One involved a small hydrogen 

reliquefier designed to reliquefy about 1 to 1% lb./hr. 

out of a total of 3 lb./hr. of hydrogen vent gas. All components operated satisfactorily except for the piston 

seals; they are being redesigned. An experimental investigation was completed on the properties of colloidal 

hydrocarbon suspensions, and hydrocarbon gelling 

agents in liquid hydrogen. Of several hydrocarbons 

investigated, cyclopropane proved the most promising, 

in concentrations of about f/2 percent by weight. 

Ethane proved to be the most effective gelling agent 

in liquid hydrogen, in minimum concentrations of 10 

weight percent. These data will be useful for tailoring 

propellant properties to eliminate slush problems, to 

improve storage characteristics, and to allow effective 

use d slush hydrogen. 

Advanced Nuclear Concepts.-Research was conducted on systems which offer high performance 

and/or significantly improved operating characteristics 

such as improved life, higher thrust-to-weight ratios, 

higher specific impulse, and reduced handling requirements. The cavity reactor (gas-core reactor) appears 

to offer the potential for the highest perfarmance, but 

its development will require solving several formidable 

problems. The dust-bed reactor, on the other hand, 

appears to offer the potential for increased life, engine 

thrust-to-weight ratios of 10 or greater, and reduced 

operational problems. Research on the feasibility of 

such a system stresses three problems: the amount of 

power that can be expected without blowing the fuel 

particles out of the system; the amount of fuel required 

ta make the reactor critical; and the highest temperature at which the system can be operated. 

The research on gaseous-core reactors concentrated 

on propellant heating, the development of high-heatflux radiant energy source, radiation damage, and fluid 

mechanics. Progress was made in all these areas. 

411-222 0-71-3 27 
Space Nuclear System O@e.-In October, NASA 

and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) agreed 

to consolidate related NASA and AEC nuclear space 

power and power conversion technology activities under a single joint NASA-AEC office, the Nuclear 

Systems Office, by expanding the joint NASA-AEC 

Space Nuclear Propulsion Office. 

Tracking and Data Acquisition 

The NASA tracking and data acquisition networks 

supported over 50 ongoing space missions and some 

20 new flight projects launched by NASA in 1970. 

During the year, the networks established a new 

distance record for two-way deep space communications-250 million miles-and rendered outstanding 

support to the crippled Apollo 13 spacecraft. In addition, construction progressed on schedule for the 

2 10-foot-diameter antennas being built in Spain and 

Australia. 

Manned Space Flight Network.-The operations of 

the Manned Space Flight Network were highlighted 

by the safe return of Apollo 13. During that mission, 

the network demonstrated that it is, in fact, the astronauts’ lifeline to the earth. 

From the initial warning by the crew-“Houston, 

we’ve got a problem here”-until splashdown some 

3% days later, the network continuously received and 

transmitted data between the astronauts and the Mission Control Center (MCC) in Houston, Tex. The 

continuous stream of data carried by the network during this emergency period enabled ground personnel to 

evaluate the spacecraft systems and the condition of 

the astronauts and to simulate on the ground the 

problems experienced by Apollo 13. Ground-based 

scientific and engineering personnel were then able to 

explore alternate modes of operations for the astronauts and to send the necessary commands to the 

spacecraft via the network. The apparatus designed to 

purify the air in the lunar module was one example 

of such a ground-determined solution to an in-flight 

difficulty. 

To assure maximum protection for spacecraft communications during Apollo 13’s return to earth, NASA 

asked the Department of State to solicit international 

cooperation in avoiding radio operation in irequencies 

which might interfere with reception of the spacecraft 

transmissions. 

The response was immediate and unanimously 

favorable, with many governments ordering suspension 

of all frequencies utilized by the spacecraft until after 

splashdown and recovery. 

In addition to providing real-time voice communications between the astronauts and the MCC, the network continuously received and recorded telemetry 

from Apollo 13. Much of what occurred up to the time 

of the explosion went unseen and unheard but not 

unrecorded. Invaluable clues to the origin of the explosion, which were found through analyses of the telemetry data, gave the Apollo 13 Review Board the 

basis for its detailed investigations, and aided significantly in pinpointing the events that led to the 

explosion. 

The network also supported seven unmanned spacecraft launched by NASA and 21 missions conducted 

by the Department of Defense. In addition, the network’s tracking ship, the USNS Vanguurd, was used 

in an Ocean surface mapping expedition. The purpose 

of the expedition was to obtain accurate measurements 

of a huge depression in the Ocean surface directlv over 

the Atlantic’s deepest spot-the 5-mile-deep Puerto 

Rico Trench. The Vunguard, together with the Department of Defense stations at Grand Bahama and 

Anti<gua, provided C-band radar tracking of the GEOS 

satellite to obtain triangulation data. 

As the year ended, the network was undergoing 

mission simulation tests desiqned to insure network 

integrity and work reliability for the launch of 

Apollo 14. 

Deep S#me Network.-This network supported the 

the Mariners 6 and 7 spacecraft in the extended mission phase and the Apollo 13 mission. The network 

also continued to support the on-going Pioneer 6, 7, 

8, and 9 missions. The network tracked Mariners 6 

and 7 as they passed behind the sun at a distance of 

some 250 million miles from earth. The passage provided an opportunity to test Einstein’s General Theory 

of Relativity and established a new distance record for 

two-way communications. 

In the test of Einstein’s Theory, radio signals were 

transmitted to the spacecraft along a path close to 

the sun. The effect of solar gravitation on the signals 

was determined by comparing the elapsed time for the 

signal to reach the spacecraft and return to earth 

along this path with the time required for a signal 

to be sent to the spacecraft and returned along a path 

outside the influence of the sun. Calculations based 

on the Einstein Theory indicate the time should be 200- 

millionths of a second slower due to the influence of 

the gravitational field of the sun. The data acquired 

thus far indicate verification of the Einstein Theory. 

However, to fully determine the effect of the solar 

gravity, extremely precise calculations derived from 

longer term tracking of the spacecraft are required. 

To obtain these data support will continue into 1971 

to ensure that the orbits of the two Mariners have 

been precisely determined. 

The network also provided vital support of the 

Apollo 13 mission, primarily through the 210-footdiameter antenna at Goldstone, Calif. Original mission 

plans called for the 210-foot antenna to support only 

28 
the close-in lunar phase of the mission. (This antenna 

allows about a sixfold increase in performance over 

the standard 85-foot antennas of the Manned Space 

Flight Network.) After the explosion aboard Apollo 

13, the 210-foot antenna supported the mission until 

splashdown. Its added capability permitted voice communications with the astronauts in spite of the reduced 

spacecraft power during the emergency. 

The four ongoing Pioneer spacecraft continued to 

furnish important solar particle data. Early in the year, 

Pioneers 6 and 7 were aligned in a manner which allowed the network to receive, for the first time, data 

simultaneously from two planetary spacecraft. The 

beamwidth of the 210-foot antenna which made this 

possible also made possible the collection of unprecedented scientific information on propagation of the 

higher energy particles from the sun. 

The network also participated in several radio astronomy experiments. One was the successful demonstration of radar techniques at planetary distances in 

the X-band frequencies. The Goldstone 210-foot antenna worked jointly with the Lincoln Laboratory’s 

120-foot Haystack antenna (near Boston, Mass.) to 

conduct the experiment, using as radar targets the 

planets Mercury and Venus and the moons of Jupiter. 

The Haystack antenna transmitted radio frequency 

energy to the planets, and the Goldstone antenna received the returned signals. The results of the X-band 

performance may have applications in mission planning and spacecraft design of future planetary 

programs. 

Construction work continued throughout the year 

on a second 210-foot antenna at Tidbinbilla, near 

Canberra, Australia, and in June, ground was broken 

about 40 miles west of Madrid, Spain, for construction 

of the network’s third 210-foot antenna. Both antennas 

are essentially duplicates of the Goldstone antenna and 

are expected to become operational in 1973. Spaced 

at approximately equal distances around the earth, the 

three-antenna subnetwork will have the capability for 

continuous tracking of spacecraft billions of miles into 

space. 

Satellite Network.-This network continued supporting an average daily workload of over 40 satellites, 

which in terms of total missions supported is the heaviest workload of all the NASA tracking and data acquisition facilities. In addition to supporting the 

majority of NASA’s scientific and applications satellites, the network services a wide variety of space projects conducted by other Government agencies and 

foreign countries through cooperative international 

programs. 

Among the major flight projects launched during 

the year and supported by the network are Tiros-M, 

SERT-2, Nimbus-4, and SAS-A. 1 

The Tiros-M mission, now designated ITOS-1, was 

launched January 23, and represents the first in a series 

of second-generation operational meteorological satellites launched by NASA for the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . The network 

was responsible for all support activities of the spacecraft until it was completely checked out and ready for 

operational use. After some 5 months of extensive 

checkout, ITOS-1 was officially turned over to NOAA. 

The Space Electric Rocket Test (SERT-2) had as 

its prime mission objective the evaluation of an ion 

engine in a space environment. Due to the presence of 

the active element onboard the spacecraft, the early 

postlaunch period of SERT-2 was extremely critical. 

To ensure maximum coverage for this period, supplemental support was obtained from the Department 

of Defense and the Manned Space Flight Network. 

The supplemental tracking facilities aided greatly in 

the rapid determination of the satellite’s orbit and attitude. Once the spacecraft was verified to be gravitygradient captured, the ion engines and other related 

experiments were activated. Both engines were operated and provided important new data on ion thruster 

performance in the space environment. 

The Nimbus4 mission was launched April 8. Its 

prime data acquisition stations are those at Rosman, 

N.C., and Fairbanks, Alaska. The network is participating in the Interrogation, Recording, and Location 

System experiment aboard the spacecraft. Weather 

balloons, launched from Christchurch, New Zealand, 

and Ascension Island, are interrogated by Nimbus4 

and transmit magnetic, meteorological, and oceanographic data for recording aboard the spacecraft. The 

data are later transmitted to the ground stations and 

relayed to the project control center at GSFC. From 

these data, balloon locations are calculated and the 

precise conditions existing at these points are determined. This information is furnished to the principal 

scientific investigators, including NOAA, the Smithsonian Institution, and the National Science 

Foundation. 

International cooperative projects supported during 

the year included the first successful Japanese satellite, 

OHSUMI, and the DIAL-WIKA satellite, a joint 

development of France and Germany. Tn another type 

of international cooperation, arrangements were completed for mutual satellite tracking support by the 

French Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) 

and NASA. Each agency will provide net work support in tracking, data acquisition, and command activities when their respective workloads permit. The 

arrangement applies to support by the French stations in Canary Islands, Upper Volta, Congo, South 

Africa, French Guiana, and France. The NASA stations involved are in Australia, Madagascar, South 

Africa, Ecuador, Chile, England, and the United 

States. 

29 
SAS-A was successfully launched on December 12, 

1970, from the San Marco platform, a modified oil 

rig in the Indian Ocean off Kenya. It was launched 

by Italian personnel, the first American satellite to be 

launched by scientists from another country. The Network is collecting data on X-ray sources in space from 

SAS-A. 

. 

International Affairs 

NASA continued to develop international cooperative 

projects and to arrange for foreign support in the 

exploration of space. At the same time, the agency 

has undertaken a major effort to assurr substantial 

participation by other nations in post-Apollo programs, 

with the United States sharing the cost5 as well as 

the benefits of future space activities. As part of this 

effort, principal potential overseas participants were 

briefed on NASA plans and provided with reports 

and other documents. 

The European Space Conference (ESC) studied 

possibilities for substantive involvement with NASA, 

principally through groups such as the European 

Launcher Development Organization (ELDO) and 

the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) . Both organizations now have full-time liaison personnel in Washington and have sent teams to visit 

NASA centers and contractor facilities. Special committees and panels were set up within ESC, ELDO, 

and ESRO manaTement for preparatory studies by 

European industry. ESC voted several million dollars 

to support these studies, assigned observers to work 

with NASA in the area of supporting technology 

for the shuttle and space station, and formed working 

groups with the agency to coordinate European and 

American studies of space transportation systems and 

space stations. 

In September, ESC ministers indicated that major 

participation in the US. space transportation system 

program would strain Europe’s resources and probably 

mean an end to the Europa I11 launcher program. 

They were assured that the United States would make 

reimbursable launch services available for European 

payloads for peaceful purposes in exchange for their 

substantial participation in our program. Such participation was understood to mean at least 10 percent 

of the developmental costs of the space transportation 

system, or about $1 billion. 

In a November ESC meeting, the results of the 

previous meeting were reviewed and a special committee was organized to formulate questions for further discussion with the United States. Also, Canada 

and Japan established special committees to assist their 

Governments in determining whether they should take 

part in the post-Apollo program. 

In line with a 1969 Presidential pledge to share the 

benefits of earth resources survey techniques, the 

United States invited the Secretary General of the 

U.N., Member States, and Specialized Agencies to send 

representatives to an International Workshop on Earth 

Resources Survey Systems at the University of Michigan, May 3-14, 1971. Other activities included briefings for representatives of the United Nations Outer 

Space Committee and Secretariat and liaison with the 

Office of the U.N. Space Applications Expert. 

Discussions were underway with Brazil, Canada, and 

Mexico on agreements to extend cooperation in the 

earth resources area. In addition, over 70 experimenters from 28 countries responded to a worldwide request 

for letters of intent to submit proposals to analyze data 

acquired by Earth Resources Technology Satellites. 

Joint working group meetings were held in India 

and the United States on the Satellite Instructional 

Television Experiment planned for the ATS-F spacecraft. Work in the United States on the satellite and in 

India on the ground segment moved forward. The 

objective is to begin the l-year experiment in early 

1974. 

NASA and the Agency for International Development began an 18-month experimental project with 

Korea in the applications of aerospace technology to 

Korean economic problems. The project, which involves visits by specialists of both countries, calls for 

the Korean Institute of Science and Technology to 

examine the technology utilization system and identify 

aerospace-generated technology potentially applicable 

to Korean industrial needs and then to adjust these 

techniques to Korean needs. 

An agreement was made under which NASA and 

the Canadian Department of Industry, Trade, and 

Commerce are to study the “augmentor wing” concept 

and its possible application to STOL aircraft. An 

agreement was also concluded with the United Kingdom Ministry of Aviation Supply to test fly NASA’s 

XH-51 rigid rotor helicopter in the U.K. and to share 

the resultant data. 

NASA and the Netherlands Astronomy Satellite 

Propram Authority agreed in June to the cooperative 

development and launching in 1974 of a small astronomical satellite (ANS) , which will carry two Dutch 

and one US. experiment to investigate stellar W 

and X-ray radiations. International cooperation in 

astronomy was also extended by an agreement with 

the Science Research Council in Great Britain to 

launch a British X-ray satellite (UK-5) in 1973. It 

will be the fifth in the Ariel series which began with 

Ariel I, the first international cooperative satellite. 

The Italians launched NASA’s Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS-A) from the San Marco platform, and 

agreement was concluded in June establishing the principles under which NASA will launch, on a reimbursable basis, the Italian satellite SIR10 which will study 

wave propagation and electmn flows in the magnetosphere. Preliminary discussions between Indian and 

30 
NASA scientists took place in September on 13 experiments proposed by Indian scientists for inclusion in a 

cooperative scientific satellite, designated RS-2, to be 

launched on a NASA-supplied Scout vehicle. 

An experiment to study stellar UV emissions for 

Skylab A was accepted from the French National 

Laboratory for Space Astronomy. An instrument developed by the French National Laboratory for Stellar 

and Planetary Physics will investigate the fine structure of the solar chromosphere from the OSO-1 

spacecraft, scheduled for launching in 1972, and Britain’s Jodrell Bank Observatory will assist in the planning activities of the radio science team for Project 

Viking, the Mars probe planned for 1975. 

New sounding rocket agreements were signed with 

Australia, India, Spain, and Sweden, and negotiations 

with the French were nearing completion for cooperative upper-atmosphere sounding rocket launchings at 

Kourou, French Guiana. Under previous agreements, 

launchings took place in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, 

India, Norway, Pakistan, Spain, and Sweden. 

Lunar material, returned by the Apollo 11 and 12 

missions, is under study by 54 foreign principal investigators in 16 countries. They will present the results of 

their analyses at the Second Lunar Science Conference 

in January 1971. 

Continuing efforts to expand U.S.-U.S.S.R. cooperation beyond the limited projects provided for in the 

Bilateral Space Agreement of 1962 led to preliminary 

technical discussions in October between representatives of NASA and the Soviet Academy of Sciences 

on possible compatible space docking arrangements. 

An agreement was reached on procedure and a schedule set for joint efforts to design compatible rendezvous 

and docking arrangements. Each nation will provide 

the other with supplementary technical information 

and a draft of technical requirements for those systems 

which it is judged should be made compatible. In 

March-April 1971, three joint working groups will 

meet to refine the requirements and attempt to develop 

a single set of requirements for compatibility. The two 

countries will then independently work out preliminary system designs, following which NASA and the 

Soviet Academy will jointly consider appropriate 

implementing actior?. 

The EC-4 camera observations of the PAGEOS balloon satellite, under the National Geodetic Satellite 

Program were concluded. The observations were made 

under arrangements with 23 countries for the temporary stationing of Coast and Geodetic Survey and 

Army Map Service camera teams at 42 sites. The 

foreign sites provided the geographic distribution 

essential to the success of the observation program, 

whose objective is to increase man’s knowledge of the 

size and shape of the earth. 

Agreements for NASA tracking stations in Australia 

and the Malagasy Republic were extended, assuring 

continued support from these key locations. As a consequence of changed requirements, the manned flight 

tracking stations at Guaymas, Mexico, and Antigua 

and the scientific satellite station in Newfoundland 

were discontinued. The ATS transportable ground 

station, at Cooby Creek, Australia, was withdrawn and 

was being modified to support future ATS satellites. 

The transportable Apollo support facility at Grand 

Bahama Island was placed in caretaker status. An 

agreement was concluded between the United States 

and Canada concerning accommodation of U.S. 

sounding rocket and other scientific activities at Canada’s Churchill Research Range. Since July the 

range was funded, operated, and maintained entirely 

as a Canadian venture following expiration of a 1965 

agreement providing for joint United States-Canada 

funding. 

Cooperation in the utilization of the tracking station 

capabilities of NASA and the space agencies of other 

countries increased. An agreement between NASA and 

the French space agency was completed in June for 

mutual tracking and data acquisition support from 

one agency’s facilities to the others. Under the terms 

of this agreement and in accord with arrangements 

with agencies of the United Kingdom and Italy, NASA 

expects to receive support as necessary from tracking 

facilities of those agencies for the Small Astronomy 

Satellite. NASA facilities provided tracking assistance to support the successful Japanese satellite 

(OHSUMI) in February and also provided telementry 

support to the German scientific satellite DIAL 

launched on a French DIAMANT-B vehicle from 

French Guiana in March. 

Many offers of assistance in astronaut recovery were 

extended from nations around the world during Apollo 

13. During the critical reentry period, the Parkes 210- 

foot-diameter antenna in Australia was voluntarily 

placed at NASA’s service. 

Mexica again hosted an astronaut training exercise 

in its Pinnacate area where the surface is similar to 

that of the moon. 

Industry Affairs 

Activities reported in this section are varied but industrially related. In each area, NASA efforts have 

been directed toward improvements in economy and 

efficiency of operations. 

Znventions and Contributions.-The Inventions and 

Cantributions Board completed action and made 

recommendations on 105 petitions for patent waiver 

received from NASA contractors during the year. The 

Board recommended the granting of monetary awards 

totaling approximately $85,000 for inventions and 

ather scientific and technical contributions made by 

31 
NASA and NASA contractor employees. In September 

the Board held an oral hearing on the application 

for a monetary award for a scientific contribution submitted by a member of the general public. A comprehensive report summarizing the activities of NASA 

contractors granted patent waivers showed a 50-percent increase over 1969 in the number of inventions 

fully commercialized by NASA contractors or their 

licensees. 

Research Grants.-The “Research Grant Handbook,” 

incorporating all of NASA’s regulations in this field, 

was published in January. With the distribution of the 

handbook, a new procedure was instituted to simplify 

and expedite the research grant process. Now the authority to award and administer grants is being delegated to each NASA field installation. 

Procurement Processing.-In a step designed to 

streamline decision making, NASA established a 

Master Buy Plan procedure and a Simplified Procurement Plan procedure and began using them on a trial 

basis. The Master Buy Plan procedure is designed to 

enable management to focus its attention on a representative selection of high dollar value and sensitive 

procurement actions without compromising headquarters’ visibility or control over essential management 

functions. It is also intended to reduce the number of 

procurements requiring headquarters review and approval, permit better planning of workload and better 

use of personnel resources, shorten the procurement review and approval cycle, and increase the delegation of 

pracurement responsibility and authority to each field 

installation. The Simplified Procureinent Plan procedure will reduce the number of offices reviewing procurement pllans, simplify and reduce the contents of 

plans, and reduce the review time in the acquisition 

cycle. 

Unanticipated Research and Development Clause.- 

NASA developed a new contract clause to provide for 

prompt administrative resolution of problems caused 

by a substantial amount of unexpected R & D work 

under fixed-price contracts for non-R & D projects 

considered at contracting time to be reasonably within 

the state of the art. The clause is expected to help 

prevent delays, extra costs, and other adverse program 

impacts. 

Labor Relations.-The number of man-days lost due 

to strikes on all NASA contracts in 1970 decreased 

from 4,427 in 1969 to 3,627 in 1970. Man-days lost due 

to strikes at Kennedy Space Center in 1970 were reduced from 337 in 1969 to 90 in 1970. Over half the 

man-days lost were attributable to strikes during 

negotiations of labor agreements. The remaining mandays lost were the result of unresolved grievances over 

32 

the presence of nonunion contractors and working 

rules. They were of short duration and involved a minimum of lost time. Strikes by construction craft unions 

in 1970 accounted for 2,767 of the 3,627 man-days lost 

on all contracts. The Labor Relations Office worked 

with Center management to eliminate or minimize the 

impact of labor problems on NASA programs, and as 

a result, labor problems did not interfere with program 

schedules. 

Reliability and Quality Assurance.-NASA developed 

a microelectronics reliability program which, through 

the cooperation of the Department of Defense, is 

reflected in a military specification and accompanying 

standards for the acquisition of high reliability microcircuits. NASA cooperated with the Education and 

Training Institute of the American Society for Quality 

Control by participating in five seminars to further 

industry and Government understanding of NASA 

reliability and quality assurance programs. 

Technology Utilization 

The NASA Technology Utilization Program has as a 

primary goal the expeditious transfer of technology 

from NASA’s varied R & D programs to all sectors 

of the economy. To do this, the Technology Utilization Program seeks to identify and evaluate new technology and to actively assist in its transfer to other 

sectors. 

New Technology Publications-NASA continued its 

efforts to identify new technology resulting from ongoing R & D activities, selecting and reporting nearly 

4,000 items this year. To facilitate the new technology 

identification process, prospective searching was emphasized. Over 700 “Tech Briefs” were published in 

1970, and over 12,000 requests for backup material on 

the “Tech Briefs” and more than 7,000 requests for 

general information were received. Upward of 8,000 

organizations routinely request “Tech Briefs”. Technology utilization reports and surveys published during 

the year covered such topics as hydrogen leak detection, materials in fire safety, teleoperator systems, and 

new high-strength metal alloys. 

Regional Dissemination.-The Centers continued to 

provide scientific and technical information services 

based on the NASA technical data system to industrial, 

academic, and Government users. Technical data bases 

in such areas as chemistry, engineering, electronics, 

plastics, and metallurgy were expanded. 

The Computer Software Management and Information Center (COSMIC) program was aided by the 

Regional Dissemination Centers, as was the distribution of earth photography from space flights. The Cen- 
ters also cooperated with the Small Business Administration, the Department of Commerce, and several 

State and local goverhmental units. 

Technology and Biomedical Applications Teams.- 

A fourth Technology Applications Team was formed 

at a multidisciplinary research and consulting firm. 

This team is concentrating on transferring aerospace 

technology to urban planning and construction. 

A fourth Biomedical Applications Team was created 

at the Stanford University Medical School in California. This and the other three teams continued to concentrate on seeking solutions to problems in clinical 

and medical research. 

COSMIC.-The COSMIC continued to disseminate 

computer software from its expanding inventory of 

documented programs. The initial input of software 

developed under Department of Defense sponsorship 

was made this year. Announcement of software in the 

“Computer Pogram Abstracts”-a quarterly journal 

available through the Government Printing Office-- 

and distribution through Regional Dissemination Centers contributed to the steadily increasing level of user 

interest and involvement. 

Relationship with Other Government Agencies 

Responsibility for coordinating NASA relationships 

with other Federal agencies engaged in aerospace activities is assigned to the Office of Department of Defense and Interagency Affairs. 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board, the principal formal organization for coordinating national space and aeronautics activities between 

NASA and DOD, considered the following subjects 

during the year: actions necessary to acquire new aeronautical facilities ; on-going research in electronic components; development of data relay satellites; long 

term research leading to advanced aeronautical systems; areas where advance coordination and pooling 

of effort between NASA and DOD may be essential; 

current approaches used in funding the operation of 

R. & D. test facilities; air traffic control satellite issues; 

space transportation system status; and State Department views of international aeronautics and space 

cooperation. 

The Office of DOD and Interagency Affairs continued to coordinate NASA research, design, development, test, and evaluation support of major DOD 

aeronautical systems, including the B-1, F-14, and 

F-15 aircraft. 

The military services continued to collaborate with 

NASA in assigning military personnel to NASA for 

2- to 3-year tours. In addition, arrangements were 

made with the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) 

for a USAF Research Associate Program at Ames Research Center (ARC). The program provides for 3- 

year assignments of up to three Air Force officers who 

will work in research areas agreeable to ARC! and 

AFSC. NASA also made an agreement with the Department of the Army for increasing the number of 

Army personnel assigned to NASA aeronautical centers for joint participation in aeronautical technology 

work. 

Additional agreements concluded between NASA 

and other Federal agencies covered such activities as 

the NASA-Air Force Committee to coordinate the 

space transportation system; the use of the NASA Mississippi test facility for the Coast Guard National Data 

Buoy Program and the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Marine Resources Assessment and Harvesting Program; Air Force support for the NASA YF-12 aircraft 

and Applications Technology Satellite Programs; AEC 

support to the Pioneer program; Navy tracking and 

transportation support ; NASA-DOD operation of the 

White Sands Test Facility; Navy extension of the F-8C 

aircraft loan; GSA operation of the NASA Central 

Motion Picture Film Depository; and NASA support 

of FAA’s information systems. 

NASA and DOD continued joint studies on ways 

and means of achieving economies in manpower and 

other resources in common endeavors. As a result, the 

two agencies consolidated additional activities at the 

Kennedy Space Center and the Air Force Eastern 

Test Range. Action to consolidate NASA and Air 

Force tracking stations in Hawaii was deferred. 

This office continued to coordinate special reviews 

by the Astronautics and Space Engineering Board and 

the National Academy of Sciences of NASA’s Space 

Transportation System Development and Life Sciences 

Programs, respectively. It also assumed chairmanship 

of the White Sands Task Force group which identified 

additional uses of NASA’s White Sands Test Facility, 

thus allowing the facility to be maintained at a moderate level of effort rather than reduced to a caretaker statusin 1971. 

Communications activities included NASA support 

of the Department of Commerce investigation of communications satellites for Alaska. This looks toward expansion of a NASA study on broadcast satellites 

conducted under the auspices of the Office of Telecommunications Policy; studies of the problems of 

aeronautical satellites in conjunction with the FAA, 

Department of Transportation, Office of Telecommunications Management, and National Aeronautics 

and Space Council. NASA also continued liaison with 

the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 

in connection with the possible use of communications 

satellites in education. 

Also coordinated was NASA assistance to the US. 

Bureau of Standards in studies to determine the impact 

on the Nation of the increasing use of the metric 

33 
system. As a result of this activity, NASA adopted a 

policy making the metric system the primary method 

of expressing measurements for the agency. 

The NASA Safety Program 

NASA continued to formalize and strengthen its system for the identification and control of hazards in 

space systems, aircraft operations, and facilities. New 

concepts in risk management and system safety were 

implemented and are being evaluated for effectiveness. 

A reorganization combining all elements of safety 

under one office increased the capability and effectiveness of the program. 

Safety Management Approach.-A standardized 

safety contract clause was instituted as a firm requirement for all major contracts. This action makes contract safety requirements an agency position in contrast 

with the previous method of letting each Center set 

forth safety requirements in each contract awarded 

by the Center. 

A scheduled safety review and evaluation of each 

major field installation was completed during the year. 

The results and recommendations for corrective action 

were sent to the appropriate field installation or headquarters office for resolution. The overall evaluation 

and review indicated a continuing improvement in 

safety practices at each installation and increased 

awareness of accident prevention through safety analysis and recognition of risk management techniques. 

The reviews have provided management with an appraisal of the safety efforts and highlighted areas for 

improvement and corrective action. 

System Safety.-The System Safety approach, which 

includes identification and analysis of hazards, is 

stressed equally in manned and unmanned programs. 

Safety office personnel are colocated in all of the headquarters manned flight program offices, and a close 

working relationship is maintained with the unmanned 

programs. A training course in system safety technology 

was held at George Washington University and will be 

offered again in early 1971. 

Zndustrial Safety.-NASA continued its reviews of 

each field installation in industrial accident prevention. 

Special emphasis was given to procurement plans to 

assure inclusion of the proper safety and fire protection 

requirements in plans and contracts, and to assure 

incorporation of proper safety and fire protection into 

the design and modification of NASA buildings and 

facilities. The Office of Facilities obtained funding for 

many safety and fire protection projects to correct 

existing deficiencies. The Safety Office cooperated in 

this effort by developing justification guidelines and 

priorities. 

34 

Fire protection seminars were held at two field centers to give supervisory and engineering personnel a 

better understanding of fire safety and its applications 

on NASA field installations. Four films on NASA fire 

safety program elements were provided to all field 

installations for orientation and training. 

In a cooperative effort by the Manned Space Flight 

Tracking Network and the Goddard Space Flight 

Center’s Health and Safety Engineering Office, a 5- 

week safety training course for instructors was held at 

GSFC’s Network Training and Test Facility. Twenty 

contractor representatives, including at least one representative from each of the 15 MSFN stations, received 

broad safety training, and after return to their stations 

will train all other station personnel. All new employees 

for stations will be given this training at GSFC before 

assignment to tracking stations. The applicability of 

this program to the other tracking network is being 

investigated. 

Aviation Safety.-Aviation Safety was expanded with 

the reorganization of the Safety Office, and the creation and filling of the position of Assistant Director for 

Aviation. The NASA Aviation Safety and Standardization Committee submitted a draft NASA Aircraft 

Operations Manual. 

An aviation safety survey was made of each installation with aviation capabilities. Its purpose was to review and assess the effectiveness of aviation safety and 

accident prevention programs throughout NASA and 

to assist in developing NASA-wide standards for aviation operations. Safety programs have been improved, 

and NASA has had an aircraft flight accident-free year. 

Reports of the survey were sent to each installation, 

and a summary of observations and recommendations 

for all NASA segments was in preparation. 

General Activities.-The 1970 NASA Safety and Risk 

Management Conference, held at Lewis Research 

Center in September, emphasized aviation and flight 

safety. Seventy NASA personnel in all safety disciplines 

and from all centers participated in a 2-day exchange 

af experiences, ideas, and new procedures in accident 

control, hazard identification, and risk management. 

NASA sponsored a 2-day conference on “Materials 

for Improved Fire Safety” at Houston. A combined 

Government-industry review of NASA‘s technolcgy 

developments that provide improved fire safety was 

presented for the 500 non-NASA people who attended. 

As a result of the conference, NASA has been asked to 

assist the International Association of Fire Fighters to 

design a universal fire suit and to assist both a major 

airline and the USAF in installing a noncombustible 

interior on one of their aircraft. 

Action was taken to expand the Awareness Program 

to activities at all NASA Centers and their contractm 
to reduce human errors. The “Awareness” newsletter 

format was changed to reflect the agency’s continuing 

concern with both safety and the morale of the Space 

Team. An Advisory Panel, comprised of agency and 

industry motivation representatives, began to identify 

mutual problems and take cooperative remedial actions. A program designed to call attention to the 

importance of Apollo 14 to the future of the Space 

Team was initiated and will be carried through to 

completion of the mission. Special posters were prepared for the Flight Crew Medical Director and for 

the “ZERO IN on Federal Safety” campaign due to 

begin January 1971. A number of Federal agencies 

have requested NASA permission to use these “ZERO 

IN’ posters and arrangements have been made with 

the Department of Labor for printing and distribution 

throughout the Government. 

A joint NASA-USAF Space Safety Escape, Rescue, 

and Recovery planning group was formed with the 

Assistant Director for Programs and Research Safety 

as a co-chairman with the representative of the USAF 

Space and Missile Systems Office. 

The NASA Safety Office also participated in discussions concerning international rescue capabilities. 

IV Department of Defense 

Introduction 

The Department of Defense concluded 1970 with a 

growing list of achievements in space and aeronautics. 

During the year, the space efforts of the DOD encompassed communications, nuclear detection, navigation, 

geophysics, solar radiation monitoring, and efforts in 

numerous areas of space technology. Testing of terminal equipment and the development of operational 

procedures, doctrine, and multiple access techniques 

advanced satellite communications capabilities. The 

sixth pair of Vela nuclear detection satellites were 

successfully launched from Cape Kennedy by a Titan 

IIIC space booster on April 8. These spacecraft provide an extended capability to view surface and low 

altitude detonations while still maintaining a constant 

monitoring of deep space. Continued operational use 

was made of the Transit navigation satellite system. 

An improved satellite (SOLRAD) for monitoring electromagnetic and particle emissions from the sun was 

prepared for launch. Data from a SOLRAD satellite in 

orbit since 1968 was monitored throughout 1970 and 

passed to other users in support of military communications operations and research, scientific research 

efforts, and the Apollo program. 

During 1970, significant progress was made toward 

fulfilling the country’s need for modern military 

aircraft. Engineering development of the advanced 

carrier-based fighter (F-14) produced a test version 

which has made its first flight. The new engine for an 

improved tactical antisubmarine warfare aircraft 

(S-3A) was readied for in-flight evaluation. Fabrication of evaluation models of key av“lonics systems began, 

and early in 1970 a highly successful mockup review 

of the aircraft was held. Continued development of 

carrier-based aircraft with sophisticated electronic 

warfare capabilities (EA-GB) and with the capability 

of an improved airborne early warning system (E-2C) 

is leading to an improved readiness of the fleet to 

operate in any warfare environment. Many hours of 

operational flight experience during 1970 by Marine 

Corps pilots utilizing British Harrier (AV-8A) closesupport aircraft has laid the essential groundwork for 

systematically adding this aircraft and the V/STOL 

concept of operations to our fleet capability during the 

upcoming year. The Air Force’s F-15 successfully 

completed its aircraft preliminary design review in 

September and is proceeding on schedule. The F-15 

will be a twin-engine fighter optimized for air superiority. Contracts were awarded in June for development 

of a new Air Force bomber, the B-1. This aircraft will 

take advantage of the many advances that have been 

made in airframe and engine technology during the 

past few years. The Air Force completed a feasibility 

demonstration of the radar techniques to be employed 

on the AWACS aircraft. That aircraft will provide 

command and control for interceptor forces as well as 

sustaining air operations such as counterair interdiction, close air support, rescue, airlift, etc. Recent flight 

tests of the Army’s Cheyenne helicopter have shown 

none of the technical problems that plagued earlier 

development efforts. In firing tests all Cheyenne weapons subsystems have demonstrated excellent accuracy. 

35 
Space Activities 

DOD Communications Satellite Program.-The DOD 

communications satellite program is currently divided 

into two broad categories, long distance and tactical. 

The long distance systems are characterized by communications involving a controlled network and are an 

integral part of the Defense Communications System. 

Tactical satellite communications networks provide 

multiple access service to many small terminal users 

such as airplanes, ships, and mobile land vehicles operating in a relatively undisciplined communications 

environment. 

Defense Satellite Communications System.-The long 

distance satellite communications capability is provided by the Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS) . The mission of the DSCS is to provide secure 

communications in support of critical command, control, intelligence, warning, presidential, and other 

special user requirements. 

Phase I of the program, the Initial Defense Satellite 

Communications System, has continued to perform 

satisfactorily during the past year. The Phase I DSCS 

now consists of 23 operational satellites and 29 earth 

terminals. Phase I DSCS satellites have a low power 

capability and limited bandwidth and operate in near 

synchronous orbits. They are designed for automatic 

turnoff during the time frame 1972-74. 

Operational use of the Phase I DSCS continues to 

satisfy unique and vital communications requirements 

in accordance with the DSCS mission. One of these 

requirements being provided by the Phase I DSCS is 

the transmission of high resolution photographs. 

Acquisition of Phase I1 of the DSCS, an improvement of the initial system, has proceeded satisfactorily 

during the past year. This effort was started in early 

1969 with the award of a contract for procurement of 

six high-power geostationary satellites equipped with 

both earth coverage and steerable narrow beam 

antennas. The initial launch of two satellites, on a 

Titan IIIC space booster, is scheduled for mid-1971. 

The Phase I1 satellites will have significantly higher 

power and bandwidth capability permitting the provision of many additional channels of communications. 

Further improvement in satellite communications 

service will result from positioning Phase I1 satellites 

in synchronous equatorial orbit. The Phase I terminals 

will be modified to capitalize on the greatly increased 

capability of the Phase I1 satellites. Improved terminal 

performance and the full-time availability of a synchronous satellite will provide significant improvement 

in satellite communications service. 

New Phase I1 ground and shipboard terminals including more efficient modulation equipment are now 

being developed by the Army and the Navy respectively. The new terminals will be much more reliable 

and have large communications capacity. 

The numbers of Phase I1 satellites and new terminals to be initially deployed are now being studied. 

Other Government agencies and certain allied governments will also be provided service through the Phase 

I1 satellites using their own earth terminals. 

Tactical Satellite Communication Program.-The 

initial phase of this experimental program was to investigate the use of spaceborne communication 

repeaters to satisfy selected communication needs of 

our mobile forces. The effort involved the Lincoln 

Experimental Satellite No. 6 (LES-6), the TACSAT 

I satellite, and 65 terminals installed in aircraft, jeeps, 

trucks, ships, and submarines. Operational testing will 

continue. The data obtained during the test program 

is being analyzed to determine the design of future op 

erational systems. The orbital performance of LES-6 

and TACSAT I has been satisfactory. LES-6 is located 

over the mid-Atlantic in a geostationary orbit. 

TACSAT I is being moved to a new position. At these 

locations, communication links with the CONUS and 

overseas locations are being established. 

Znternational Cooperation.-The United States has 

negotiated agreements with the United Kingdom and 

NATO whereby we will develop, procure, and launch 

advanced communications satellites for their use. Two 

satellites each were procured on a reimbursement basis 

for the United Kingdom and NATO. The spacecraft 

are nearly identical except that the NATO version has 

a squinted antenna to focus more outnut nowcr in the 

NATO area of interest while the United Kingdom 

satellites have full earth coverage antennas to provide 

service from the United Kingdom as far away as Singapore. Both satellite svstems are useable with the DSCS 

and, if required, the United States, United Kingdom, 

and NATO could supplement each other’s individual 

capability. 

The first United Kingdom SKYNET satellite was 

launched late in 1969. Tests have been conducted since 

that time aimed at the operational implementation of 

the fill1 SKYNET space and ground system. The second SKYNET satellite was launched in August 1970, 

but failed to achieve orbit. A new Memorandum of 

Understanding coverinq the implementation of the 

next generation SKYNET I1 system was signed by the 

United States and the United Kingdom in April 1970. 

Under this Memorandum of Understandinq the 

follow-on satellites will be produced by the United 

Kingdom with the assistance of the United States. The 

satellites will be launched bv the United States, with 

the first launch expected in 1972. 

The first NATO communications satellite was successfully launched by the United States in March 1970. 

The NATO ground system is being produced and the 

36 
initial system operation is expected early in 1971. The 

second NATO satellite is due to be launched early 

in 1971. Planning is proceeding within NATO on a 

follow-on satellite communication program which will 

be required by 1975. 

The DOD continued its participation in the North 

Atlantic Treaty Organization’s cooperative tactical 

satellite communications test program, using the synchronous LES-6 satellite and a network of small, tactical terminals built and operated by the program participants Belgium, ,Canada, the Federal Republic of 

Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, the United 

Kingdom, the United States, and the Technical 

Centre, Supreme Headquarters, Allied Powers Europe. 

Spaceborne Nuclear Detection (Vela) .-Two new 

Vela satellites were launched by means of a Titan IIIC 

launch vehicle into circular orbits at approximately 18 

earth radii in April of 1970. The new Vela satellites 

were the sixth pair in a series that began in 1963 and 

included launches in 1964, 1965, 1967, and 1969. 

The Vela satellite program is a joint responsibility 

of the Department of Defense and the Atomic Energy 

Commission and is managed by the Advanced Research 

Projects Agency (ARPA) . The purpose of the program 

is to demonstrate the feasibility of using satellite-borne 

sensors to detect nuclear explosions in the atmosphere 

and in space. 

Vela satellites also carry sensors that monitor the 

radiation background at their altitudes. Data on the 

radiation background is used by Department of Defense and civilian meteorologists in preparing space 

radiation forecasts; NASA has used the data during 

Apollo flights. 

Titan 111 Space Booster.-The Titan I11 family of 

launch vehicles continues to be used extensively for 

DOD payloads. A common buy of the Titan I11 B, C, 

and D configuration vehicles, made this year, included 

for the first time three vehicles for NASA use in 

launching their future application and scientific satellites. To date 48 Titan I11 launches have been made, 

25 vehicles are now in production and 22 additional 

vehicles have been approved for follow-on production. 

Geodetic Satellites.-DOD completed the observational phase of the DOD Geodetic Satellite Program 

during 1970. Data reduction and the integration of the 

results obtained from the four systems used in the program, i.e. the Bc-4 Camera, the PC-1,000 Camera 

system, and the SECOR and Doppler systems, are 

planned for completion by June 1972. The goal of the 

DOD Geodetic Satellite Program is to define more precisely the earth’s size, shape, and gravity field, in addition to providing geodetic positions for points on the 

earth’s surface. DOD has phased out the BC-4 Camera 

system, the PC-1,000 Camera system, and the SECOR 

electronic system. The Doppler system, using the Navy 

navigational satellites as well as geodetic doppler satellites, has been selected as the single system for continued DOD efforts in the geodetic satellite area. Geodetic satellite activities will be directed toward meeting 

special requirements for worldwide geodetic positioning and for additional defining and verifying of the 

results obtained to date. In 1970, the Air Force continued the South American geodetic net densification 

program in support of mapping and charting efforts in 

South America. The Army Corps of Engineers completed the remainder of the SECOR equatorial network in 1970. The observational data is now being reduced and analyzed. The PAGEOS program utilizing 

the BC-4 Camera system was also completed in 1970 

and data reduction and analysis is now underway. DOD 

efforts in the geodetic satellite area will be directed to 

specific positioning requirements using the commercial 

type geodetic receiver doppler system (Geoceivers) 

now available and in use. A joint Army and Marine 

test program using Navy developed doppler backpack 

ground equipment was initiated during 1970 to continue the investigation of the potential application of 

satellite systems to tactical positioning requirements of 

the services. During 1970 the Navy Doppler Tracking 

Network (TRANET) tracked the Transit satellites 

from 13 permanent stations and 8 mobile vans to improve the earth’s gravity model and center of mass 

coordinates. The satellite geodesy program has now 

determined the harmonic coefficients of the gravity 

model to the equivalent of the 14th degree and order 

and selected higher terms. In addition, the positions 

of nine global sites were determined this past year. 

Navigation Satellite Activity.-The Navy navigation 

satellite system (Transit), which became fully operational in 1968, continued its operation during the year 

in support of the fleet. In addition, studies and limited 

experiments have been conducted to help define the 

next generation of defense navigation satellite system. 

Initial results indicate that a precision, three-dimension 

spaceborne position-fixing and navigation system 

should be feasible. Application analysis and cost effectiveness studies will continue before a decision is made 

on the next generation navigation satellite system. 

Space Ground Support 

DOD National Range and Tracking Facilities.-Department of Defense space activities are principally 

supported by the Air Force Eastern Test Range, the 

Space and Missile Test Center (which includes the Air 

Force Western Test Range), the Air Force Satellite 

Control Facility, the Navy Pacific Missile Range, and 

the Army White Sands Missile Range. Each is avail37 
able to any Government user who may require its 

support. 

Eastern Test Range.-During the past year the Eastern Test Range (ETR) continued its resizing to a posture for support of the primary DOD mission workload. As a result of this action the ETR is expected to 

evolve into a modest, but modern and efficient ballistic 

missile and space launch support facility capable of expansion if necessary. Support to other agencies such as 

NASA continues, but all additive costs to the ETR 

(those costs over the costs of supporting the primary 

DOD mission workload) in providing this support are 

reimbursable. 

A joint DOD and NASA study concerning consolidation of common support services at the ETR and the 

NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSC) was also conducted during the year. As a result, actions are currently underway at the ETR and KSC to con;olidate 

eight support services by fiscal year 1972. Five services 

will be consolidated under KSC and three under the 

ETR. After implementation, this consolidation is expected to save the Government over $1 million per year 

in the operation of these two facilities. 

Western Test Range.-In April 1970 the Air Force 

organized the Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC) . SAMTEC operates the Western Test Range 

and the -Aerospace Test Wing launch organizations at 

both Patrick AFB, Fla., and Vandenberg AFB, Calif. 

During 1970 several changes were made to SAMTEC’s range capability. The range instrumentation 

ship fleet has continued to be reduced with the transfer of the one remaining Apollo ship, the USNS 

Vanguard, to full NASA control. The range has developed a new instrumented site in the Pacific for 

terminal support. During 1970, the Broad Ocean Scoring System (BOSS) installed on the range ship USNS 

Watertown was used for the first time. Under the redistribution of resources made available because of the 

cancellation of the Manned Orbiting Laboratory Program (MOL) the range acquired the MOL computerized aerospace ground equipment. This system used to 

display vehicle telemetry data during prelaunch and 

launch phases, is being phased into operation and will 

replace similar leased equipment. 

Satellite Control Facility.-During 1970 satellite support activities showed no marked change from previous years. There were no major facility constructions 

at any of the stations. The Space Ground Link Subsystem and Univac 1230 computer installation was 

made at the Indian Ocean station, Seychelles Islands, 

thus completing the upgrading of all network stations. 

A major procurement action was initiated for three 46- 

foot antennas to replace the 14-foot antennas at the 

New Hampshire Station, Hawaii Tracking Station and 

38 

Vandenberg Tracking Station. Study and analysis continues in order to improve the reliability and responsiveness of the overall systems. 

Aeronautics Activities 

C-5 Heavy Logistics Transport Aircraft.-The C-5A 

is the product of a successful development and procurement program that has extended over several years. 

It will provide for the first time a capability to deploy 

100 percent of the Army’s outsize combat equipment 

by air. Because of its large payload capacity and unique 

flotation characteristic, the C-5A is capable of rapidly 

airlifting large quantities of equipment and combat 

personnel to meet worldwide contingencies. 

The research, development, test, and evaluation 

phase of the C-5A program is nearing completion. 

Major static structural testing should be completed 

in May 1971 and flight demonstrations of 100 percent 

structural integrity will follow. Aircraft participating 

in the flight test program have accumulated over 5,132 

hours of flying time as of October 31, 1970. Contractor 

and Air Force flight testing is scheduled for completion by the end of calendar year 1971 and using command operational suitability testing is already well 

underway. 

Results of the flight test program indicate that the 

C-5A will meet or exceed all operational requirements. 

It has flown at a maximum gross takeoff weight of 

almost 400 tons-a world record, 17 tons in excess of its 

designed maximum takeoff weight. In addition, the 

C-5A has achieved a maximum speed of 0.89 Mach, a 

maximum altitude of 40,200 feet, a flight duration of 

21 hours and has landed in less than 1,300 feet. 

The first of six C-5A’s was delivered to the MAC 

Transition Training Unit at Altus AFB on December 17, 1969. A total of 10 additional aircraft, 

delivered to operational units at Charleston AFB and 

Travis AFB are now flying regularly scheduled channel traffic missions to the Pacific and European theaters. Deliveries to operational units are scheduled to 

continue at a two-per-month rate and the last of the 

total planned procurement of 81 C-5A’s will be delivered in February 1973. 

The total cost of the C-5A program is currently 

estimated at $4.6 billion, including the cost of research 

and development, support equipment, and initial 

spares. 

F/FB-222 Aircraft.-The F/FB-111 aircraft program is composed of various models which include 

four tactical versions, F-11 lA, F-11 lD, F-11 lE, and 

F-1 1 1F ; one bomber, the FB-111; and one model 

designed for use by the Australian Air Force, the 

F-1 11C. 
All F-1 1 1A’s have been delivered. Production 

delivery of F-1 1 I E and FB-111 aircraft will be completed during 1971. Contractor and Air Force test 

efforts at Fort Worth, Tex., Eglin AFB, Fla. and Edwards AFB, Calif., are continuing in those areas which 

normally proceed throughout the production delivery 

phase. The bulk of this continuing work is in the areas 

of weapons clearances, static, and fatigue testing and 

performance parameters for altitude and airspeed. 

Since the development and testing of the airframe 

and the airplane’s general subsystems are essentially 

complete, development of advanced US. models of 

the F-I11 has concentrated largely on the avionics system. The F-11 1D model which incorporates the expensive and more advanced Mark I1 avionics package 

is in production with delivery of the first aircraft scheduled for mid-1971. A less expensive and less advanced 

avionics system is being designed into the F-1 1 1F. This 

mission design series will not have the Mark I1 attack 

radar and integrated displays but will retain the Mark 

I1 inertial navigation set and digital computer system. 

In addition, the F-1 1 1F aircraft will have an improved 

propulsion system, utilizing new higher thrust TF-30- 

P-1 00 engines. 

An F-111 accident in December 1969 resulted in 

the establishment of an extensive inspection program 

and a cold proof test of the airframe. This effort is 

proceeding as planned and a great deal of progress 

has been made. Considerable experience has been 

gained in the nondestructive inspection of critical parts 

and the cold proof test of the aircraft. Although some 

parts have been found to be in need of rework because 

of welding flaws and surface discontinuities due to tool 

marks, grinder burns, and corrosion pitting, no forging 

defects similar to the one which caused the December 

1969 accident have been found. The first aircraft to 

complete the inspection program was returned to the 

using command in July 1970. Program completion is 

scheduled in July 197 1. 

The Tactical Air Command has resumed extensive 

combat crew training and operational mission qualification at Nellis AFB, Nev. The first deployment of 

F-1 1 1E aircraft to USAFE occurred in September 

1970. Delivery of FB-111 aircraft to SAC at Carswell 

AFB, Tex., for use in the Combat Crew Training Wing 

was also resumed. 

The first F-ll1C was accepted in September 1968. 

Subsequent acceptances were delayed because of 

modification work but are now anticipated after the 

modifications are satisfactorily completed. 

F-14 Carrier-Based Tactical Fighter.-Engineering 

development of the F-14, a new advanced carrierbased tactical fighter, was initiated on February 3, 

1969. The F-14A will utilize the TF30-P412 engine 

and the AWG-9 missile control system which will control Phoenix, Sparrow, and Sidewinder missiles and 

20 mm. guns. The F-14A will have an improved 

area air defense capability and will be superior to the 

F4 in other fighter roles. It will also have a significant air-to-ground capability. The development is on 

schedule. First flight of the F-14A occurred on December 21, 1970. 

Engineering development of an advanced technology engine, sponsored jointly by the Navy and Air 

Force, was initiated early in 1970. This program will 

provide a very high thrust-to-weight ratio engine for 

the F-14B. The F-14B with its significantly improved 

performance will be capable of countering the predicted threats in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. 

F-15 Advanced Tactical Fighter.-The F-15 is a 

new twin-engine single place Air Force fighter, optimized for air superiority and designed to replace the 

F-4E as the Air Force’s first line fighter in the mid1970s. Air superiority design features emphasized in 

the F-15 include outstanding turn, climb, and acceleration characteristics and outstanding pilot visibility. 

The airframe development contract was awarded on 

December 31, 1969, after a 1-year contract definition 

competition among vying contractors. In March 1970 

a contract was awarded for development of engines 

for both the F-15 and the Navy F-14B fighters. A 

contract for the F-15 radar was also awarded in Sep 

tember. The F-15 program is proceeding on schedule 

and successfully completed the first major review milestone in September 1970 which was the aircraft preliminary design review. 

A-7 Attack Aircraft.-The joint Air Force-Navy development program has resulted in the operational 

deployment of the versatile A-7 light attack aircraft. 

Navy A7E’s were employed in combat just 18 months 

after the first flight of the aircraft. Its performance in 

combat amply demonstrated the flexibility and capability that were design requirements. The Air Force 

A7D is being delivered to the Tactical Air Command, 

having completed the basic contractor and Air Force 

test programs with marked success. Pilot training is 

being conducted at Luke Air Force Base, and the first 

operational squadron at Myrtle Beach Air Force Base 

will soon reach a combat-ready status. 

B-I Bomber.-Engineering development of the basic 

B-1 airframe and engine was begun after contract 

award on June 5, 1970. The first development test is 

presently scheduled for late calendar year 1974. This 

date is subject to change if the planned funding profile 

is changed. 

No production decision has been made. The present 

pace of the development program, however, is such as 

to permit achieving an initial operational capability in 

the late 1970’s, if so desired. 

39 
Detailed design of the airframe and engine is now 

underway and has produced some configuration 

changes, particularly in the empennage and wing root 

areas. Cost versus performance tradeoffs have resulted 

in some modifications in the initial design concept 

without sacrifice of any significant performance 

characteristics. 

The major improvements provided by the B-1 as 

compared to the characteristics of the B-52 are: 

greater low-level penetration speed; greater range vs. 

payload; reduced radar cross section and infrared signature; and an ability to operate from relatively short 

runways thereby permitting greater dispersal capability. 

Carrier-Based Anti-Submarine Warfare Aircraft 

(SdA).-The engineering development of the S-3A 

continued throughout 1970. The full system mockup 

review was held on schedule in March 1970. The 

TF-34 high bypass engine which is being designed 

specifically for the S-3A completed 4,000 hours of 

running time on the ground and is now ready in flight 

tests mounted on an engine test bed aircraft. Through 

the use of advanced ASW sensors and a digital computer, the S-3A will be able to provide significant 

improvement over the 5-2 capability in searching large 

areas of the ocean, detecting modern nuclear submarines and in localizing and destroying submarines. 

Avionics subsystems including MAD, radar, and an 

infrared classification device progressed according to 

the planned development schedule with the fabrication of models for evaluation. The S3A, with a four 

man crew, will operate in the 400-knot speed range at 

altitudes over 30,000 feet en route to operating areas 

and still be able to operate economically at the lower 

altitudes required during certain phases of antisubmarine operations. 

E-2C Development.-The E-2C aircraft will provide 

carrier based airborne early warning (AEW) for air 

defense of the fleet and command and control of Navy 

aircraft in air-to-air combat, air-to-surface strikes, 

search and rescue operations, and general air traffic 

control. 

Continued development and procurement of the 

E-2C, which is the latest of the E-2 family of AEW 

systems, will result in increased operational reliability 

and availability, improved radar performance (including an additional operational capability over and near 

land), and will alleviate quantitative AEW aircraft 

shortages. 

EA-GB Development.-The EA-GB aircraft system 

development will be a tactical airborne electronic 

jammer aircraft which will provide support for carrier 

and advanced base strike aircraft. The EA-6B system 

will use the basic A4 airframe, modified for a fourman crew, with new powerful jamming devices. The 

40 

development is proceeding on schedule. Operational 

type testing conducted in 1970 has been very successful. 

A-X Aircraft.-The Air Force is initiating development of the A-X, a new close air support aircraft 

optimized for effective support of friendly ground 

forces. The conceptual A-X, a single-place twin-engine 

aircraft providing STOL characteristics and excellent 

maneuverability, emphasizes long loiter, large payloads, and ease of maintenance. A Development Concept Paper was approved by the Deputy Secretary of 

Defense in April 1970 and request for proposals released to industry in May 1970. Six proposals, submitted 

in August 1970, have been evaluated and two contractors have been selected to build two prototype aircraft each for a competitive flyoff phase leading to the 

selection of the final contractor for full development 

and production. 

Airborne Warning and Control System (A WACS) .- 

In 1967 the Air Force completed the Overland Radar 

Technology program which demonstrated feasibility of 

the proposed radar techniques for AWACS. The Aip 

Force completed a long lead radar component program 

in 1970 and recently selected a contractor for the 

AWACS program. 

The AWACS wilI provide an airborne air surveillance capability and command, control, and communication functions in a military version of a subsonic commercial jet. The distinguishing technical 

feature of this weapon system will be the capability 

of its radar to detect and track aircraft operating at 

high or low altitudes over both land and water. The 

AWACS will provide command and control for interceptors and will control tactical air operations such 

as counter-air, interdiction, close air support, rescue, 

airlift, etc. The flexibility of the AWAC System will 

permit its employment at any level of military action 

ranging from show-of-force through general war, with 

capability to serve as an Airborne Command Post, 

Tactical Air Control Center, Airborne Direct Air Support Center, and Airborne Control and Reporting 

Center. 

Helicopter Research.-Armv has continued research 

to improve rotor craft capabilities. Progress has been 

made in providing rotor wing technology for future 

engineering development and in providing technology 

for specific helicopter concepts. A better understanding of the fundamental boundary layer flow over rotor 

blades has contributed to obtaining improved performance and control of helicopters. Advances have been 

made in basic air foil shapes that have provided new 

insight into the aerodynamics of rotor blades; the 

results permit improved payload performance. Contributions have also made to the understanding of the 

rotor dynamics and control of hingeless rotor systems. 
On specific concepts, progress has been made in a compound helicopter research program. Various configurations were flight tested including teetering, servo-flap 

hingeless and flapping main rotors in conjunction with 

lifting wings and auxiliary power sources. Maximum 

speeds of 185 to 236 knots were demonstrated. Vibrational levels lower than those of conventional helicopters operating at the same air speeds were noted, 

The results showed that increased air speed and payload capabilities are possible with insignificant 

increases in vibration levels. 

The Advance Research Projects Agency’s Quiet 

Helicopter Program, which is under the technical 

direction of the Army, continues to make very satisfactory progress. The first phase of the program was 

completed early in 1970 and all technical objectives 

were either attained or exceeded. 

The second and final phase of the Quiet Helicopter 

Program is in progress and is scheduled for completion 

early in 1971. It is expected that the noise level of the 

test vehicle, the OH4 helicopter, will be reduced to 

less than 10 percent of its original level. 

Heavy Lift Helicopter (HLH).-The Army is initiating a development program of full size critical helicopter components using competing concepts to 

establish a technology and cost base for future HLH 

aircraft. Typical components which might be selected 

for development include large rotors, propulsion and 

transmission drive systems, flight control systems, and 

load handling devices. The HLH is envisioned as a 

1 10,000-pound gross weight tactical and logistics helicopter with a sea level payload capability of 22% tons 

based on shipboard and standard C-5A pallet size 

loads. It would be able to transport virtually all of the 

Army and Marine tactical ground equipment. Recent 

test results using the largest available competing concepts in helicopters and standard military sea and 

ground vehicles confirmed the feasibility of using helicopters to unload large shipboard loads under adverse 

sea state during both day and night at a high productivity rate. 

A Development Concept Paper was approved by the 

Deputy Secretary of Defense in September 1970 and 

requests for quotations were issued on November 14, 

1970. 

AH-56A Cheyenne.-The Cheyenne helicopter development program is nearing completion of the contractor phase of testing. Aimed at the Army’s requirement for an advanced attack helicopter to seek out 

and destroy enemy armor by day, night or in adverse 

weather, the Cheyenne now offers great promise of fulfilling those objectives. In recent firing tests all 

Cheyenne weapons subsystems have demonstrated excellent accuracy. In flight tests its improved rotor control system has shown none of the technical problems 

which plagued earlier development efforts. The night 

vision system, while not yet flight tested, has demonstrated very sharp picture quality. Within the coming 

year the Army expects to be able to make a Cheyenne 

production recommendation based on successful 

demonstrated performance and cost-effectiveness. 

A V-8A Harrier.-The Harrier is a single-seat, single 

fan jet transonic aircraft, manufactured in the United 

Kingdom. It is the operational version of the P-1127 

Kestrel which was funded, developed, and evaluated 

by the United States, United Kingdom, and Federal 

Republic of Germany. The Royal Air Force has equipped two operating squadrons with the Harrier, and 

the US. Marine Corps and US. Air Force are actively 

participating in the British operational employment 

to take full advantage of their experience. During 1970 

flight experience with Harrier passed the 7,000 hour 

mark. The US. Marine ,Corps will receive 12 AV-8A 

Harrier V/STOL aircraft commencing in 1971, for 

use in the close air support role. During 1970 detailed 

plans were formulated for a Navy-Marine Corps large 

scale investigation into the concept of V/STOL operations, and this investigation will commence in September 1971 utilizing the Harrier. 

CX-84.-The Canadian Government was originally 

planning to fabricate and flight test three CX-84, tiltwing aircraft. Flight testing was to be followed by military operational suitability testing. A shortage of 

program funds has forced the Canadians to reduce the 

program scope and they now plan to test and evaluate 

only one aircraft. This aircraft has been under contractor testing since its maiden flight in February 1970. 

Contractor testing will be completed in October 1971, 

and the Government operational suitability trials that 

follow will be completed in March 1972. The Army is 

monitoring the program. 

Supporting Research and Technology 

Continental United Stcites Over-the-Horizon Radar 

System (CONUS OTH).-During 1970, the Air Force 

initiated program contract definition activities aimed 

at defining a CONUS OTH backscatter radar system 

for future development and deployment. This planned 

system will provide surveillance, detection, and early 

warning of a manned bomber attack against the 

CONUS: The radar system promises a significant increase in range and low altitude coverage in comparison to our present line-of-sight radar systems. 

Advanced Liquid Rocket Technology.-In 1970, Air 

Force development of liquid rocket engine technology 

continued with emphasis upon demonstration of component performance critical to development of an 

41 
engine for reusable space launch vehicle application. 

Specific task objectives of this project were continuously coordinated with NASA through the joint Advanced Chemical Rocket Engine (ACRE) working 

group to assure proper phasing of technology development. In August 1970, the Air Force project was 

concluded successfully, and the technology phased into 

the NASA space shuttle engine development program. 

This accomplishment by the Air Force has been a keystone in the implementation of the 1969 Space Task 

Group proposals to initiate development of a national 

reusable space transportation system, and provides confidence that the propulsion objectives for development 

of a reusable space launch vehicle can be met. 

Upper Atmosphere Investigation.-The US. Army 

Ballistic Research Laboratory has been analyzing the 

data obtained during rocket firings conducted during 

1969. From firings made in Alaska, electron density 

profiles have been obtained for those parts of the 

rocket flights where the ray paths did not pass through 

the barium clouds. From the cooperative polar-cap 

absorption data, electron density profiles have been 

constructed for the frequency pair 36 and 144 MHz, 

preliminary electron currents have been determined 

from the Langmuir probe observations, and preliminary absorption and absorption rate values have been 

obtained for the frequency pair 9 and 18 MHz. These 

results will contribute to the understanding of events 

occurring when radars look toward the polar horizon 

or when communications pass to or from the polar 

regions such that the signal passes through that part 

of the atmosphere where the aurora and polar cap 

absorption occurs. 

Space Object Zdenti@ation.-During 1970, ARPA 

continued to measure physical characteristics of objects in earth orbit. These measurements include radiation signatures in both the visible and infrared regions 

of the spectrum. This program is carried out at the 

ARPA Maui Optical Station, on Mount Haleakala in 

Maui. 

Solar Radiation Monitoring Satellite Program 

(SOLRAD).-The Navy’s SOLRAD program is an 

excellent example of a space science effort which has 

provided high operational utility. SOLRAD IX, 

launched in 1968, is continuing solar radiation monitoring to broaden knowledge of the physics of the sun 

and the mechanism of emission of solar particle, ultraviolet and X-ray radiation. This knowledge, in turn, 

will lead to development of techniques for predicting 

solar-induced disturbances affecting some electronic 

and space systems operations. During 1970 preparation 

continued to orbit SOLRAD X in January 1971, to 

further develop equipment and techniques for space 

42 

environment monitoring while providing data for research, development, and operating efforts. During 

1970 SOLRAD provided solar activity information in 

direct support of Apollo activities. 

Telemetered data received at the Navy research 

laboratory acquisition facility is relayed to the SOLRAD Data Operations Center at NRL. Real-time 

analog and stored digital telemetry data are converted 

to flux values. Daily pass-by-pass and flare profile messages are transmitted via the USAF operated Solar 

Observing and Forecasting Network for use by the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Space Disturbance Forecast Center at Boulder, Colo., 

and the USAF Solar Forecast Center at the NORAD 

Cheyenne Mountain Complex, Colo. Predictions of 

periods of solar activity, which are likely to cause 

ionospheric disturbances, are transmitted to the Naval 

Communications Command for use in the formulation 

of Navy alerts to all communicators. 

Advanced Satellite Secondary Propulsion Systems.- 

In 1970 the Air Force initiated development of an 

electric colloid thruster which will operate in the high 

micropound and low millipound thrust range to perform satellite attitude control and station keeping functions. The colloid thruster will have a specific impulse 

which is at least four times higher than current stateof-the-art thrusters, and will be designed to operate in 

the pulse and steady state modes. Design and fabrication of colloid thruster critical components are 

underway for integrated test and evaluation. Subsequent development phases provide for the fabrication 

of a prototype thruster, life testing, and space flight to 

demonstrate performance and compatibility of this 

advanced concept thruster in a satellite system. 

Sfiacecraft Technology and Advanced Reentry Tests 

(START).-The Air Force’s current efforts in developing technology for maneuverable reentry spacecraft 

consists of the PILOT ( PIloted LOW-speed Tests) program and the Space Transportation System (STS) 

studies. PILOT was instituted to provide aerodynamic 

and stability and control data from Mach 2.0 to horizontal landing. It is a follow-on to the PRIME program which provided flight data from reentry 

conditions to approximately Mach 2. A total of 18 

flights of the X-24A PILOT vehicle from 40,000 to 

47,000 feet launch altitudes have been completed successfully. Eight were powered flights with the XLR-11 

rocket engine and a supersanic speed of 1.15 Mach 

was achieved on October 14, 1970. Flow separation 

and stability characteristics of *the X-24A vehicle at 

supersonic speed and during low-speed maneuvering 

are being investigated. A total of 30 X-24A flights are 

scheduled to be completed by the end of fiscal year 

1971. The STS studies were undertaken by the Air 

Force to evaluate the capability of various system con- 
cepts, primarily developed under NASA Phase B 

studies, to meet Air Force mission requirements (payload, cross range, etc.) . Follow-on studies and technology work in this area will depend on the results 

of the curent space shuttle effort. 

Space Experiments Support Program.-The Air 

Force Space Experiments Support Program (SESP) 

provides spaceflights for proof tests of advanced technology applicable to new military space systems and 

for DOD research and development experiments. In 

1970, an Amy spacecraft to test a tactical positioning 

system rode into orbit as a secondary payload on the 

NASA launch of a weather satellite. Contracts were 

let for three launches for 1971 to orbit eight technological payloads and seven scientific experiments expected to provide demonstrations and data that will 

contribute to new or improved DOD systems. 

Advanced Space Power Supply Technology.-Mission analyses show that next generation military satellite systems will need larger, longer life power supplies 

to attain mission performance and reliability requirements. To meet these requirements development efforts are underway to increase the power level and 

lifetime capabilities of spacecraft solar arrays and rechargeable battery systems. In 1970, development of a 

flexible, rollup type solar cell array has continued with 

emphasis on fabrication of a qualification model for 

ground test. In parallel with this test, fabrication of a 

flight model is proceeding on schedule for demonstration of this high performance array on a Space Experiments Support Program flight vehicle in late 1971. Successful demonstration of this technology will enable 

a 50-percent reduction in weight and volume over current solar cell array power systems in the 500 watts 

to 20 kilowatt power range. 

Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator 

(ATEGG).-The ATEGG program is an Air Force 

advanced development program in which advanced 

state-of-the-art turbine engine components are assembled into demonstrator engines and tested. It is based 

on the fact that individual component operation in an 

isolated rig test environment is not completely representative of that component’s operation when integrated into a high-performance engine and used in 

widely varying operational conditions. 

The latest component technology and engine design 

philosophy for future weapon systems are demonstrated 

in these turbine engine demonstrators to provide an 

advanced realistic performance base from which to 

plan future weapon systems. 

Over the past year, four participating engine contractors have demonstrated advances in thrust-toweight ratio, overall efficiencies, smaller combustors 

and higher operating temperatures and pressure ratios. 

By including four participants, the Air Force achieves 

a secondary objective which is to maintain a broad, 

competitive industrial base from which to procure advanced engines for future weapon systems. 

Advanced Propulsion Subsystem Integration 

(ASPI).-The ASP1 program is an Air Force advanced development program for developing criteria, 

capability and techniques for integrating airframe and 

propulsion systems. 

The goal of this program is to minimize engineairframe interface problems. Starting with the forebody 

engine inlet and inlet interaction, all of the components 

through the engine and airframe back through the 

exhaust nozzle are analyzed. 

The program has made significant contributions to 

the F-15 and B-1 system developments. As an example, 

one test effort in this program provided valuable data 

on airframe-inlet integration and inlet-engine interaction to each engine and airframe contractor involved 

in F-15 work. Efforts are also being conducted to improve the capability to correlate data between wind 

tunnel model testing and actual flight testing. Flight 

prediction techniques will be conducted during the 

same time period as the B-1 aircraft and engine development programs. This will provide a valuable tool 

in systems development and provide a data source for 

insuring the early resolution of integration problems. 

This program also includes engine component development to adapt the advanced turbine engine gas 

generator cores to specific system requirements. Components in this program include a high tip-speed fan, 

composite material application to turbine engines, 

and a controlled output turbine for future turbine 

engines. 

Turbine Engine Development.-The Army has conducted an advanced development program consisting 

of two 1,500 shaft horsepower demonstrator gas turbine 

engines to update helicopter propulsion system technology. Preliminary goals are 40 percent lower weight, 

25 percent less fuel consumption, and significantly 

improved maintainability and reliability as compared 

to present day production engines. 

The testing program to date has shown considerable 

promise of attaining these goals. Engineering development is planned to begin in fiscal year 1972. 

Survivable Flight Control System Development Program (SFCS) .-The SFCS advanced development 

progam was initiated by the Air Force Flight Dynamics 

Laboratory (AFFDL) in July 1969 with the award of a 

contract to an industrial contractor. The objective of 

this program is to develop technology to increase 

the tactical survivability of future aircraft through 

reduction in vulnerability of present complex hydro43 
mechanical flight control systems. This program will 

demonstrate by flight tests the principles of component 

separation, redundancy, and hardening as they are 

applied to the aircraft primary flight control system 

through use of an all-electronic control system and integrated hydraulic servo-actuator package techniques. 

This system will decrease vulnerability of the control 

linkages from the pilot’s control stick to the surface 

actuators, and the integrated servo-actuator package 

will decrease vulnerability of the power source to the 

control actuators. The integration of both normal and 

backup operation into a single unit permits keeping 

the weight to a minimum while increasing survivability 

and reliability. 

The first of a series of flight tests was made in April 

1970 and demonstrated the integrated actuator package portion of the system which provides for emergency 

control for a “get-home-and-land” capability in the 

event normal hydraulic power to the stabilator is lost 

or rendered inoperative from battle damage. 

In the flight tests the actuator exceeded performance 

expectations appreciably beyond the required emergency flight envelope. Flights have included speeds up 

to Mach 1.6 and 5g windup maneuvers. 

Demonstration of this unit represents a significant 

step in the development of the complete fly-byelectrical-wire control system. Contracts for the complete control system have been awarded, and laboratory 

testing of the system is scheduled for November of 

1971 with flight tests to begin early in 1972. 

Seek Storm.-Project Seek Storm was established to 

provide an improved Air Force severe weather (hurricane, typhoon, extra tropical storm) reconnaissance 

capability. The project is designed to develop an improved weather radar which will provide military and 

civilian forecasters more precise intensity and location 

information on which to base storm path and strength 

predictions. The Air Force currently has two aircraft 

with experimental radar on board for hurricane reconnaissance. After sufficient data has been collected on 

radar characteristics, physical structure of storms, aircraft structural limitations, and potential antenna 

designs, the final development design of a new radar 

will begin in fiscal year 1972. 

Medical Projects.-The Naval Aerospace Medical Institute at Pensacola, Fla., continued to conduct spacerelated medical tasks which includes : preflight aspects 

of long duration weightless flights with primates; hazards of proton radiation; techniques of in-flight electrocardiography; and effects of gravitational forces, 

inertial forces, and extended weightlessness upon man 

with particular emphasis on his vestibular system. 

The School of Aerospace Medicine, San Antonio, 

Tex., has been studying the problems of the closed environment in terms of habitable atmospheres (carbon 

44 

dioxide levels and partial pressures of oxygen) and in 

terms of the acute and chronic toxicological effects of 

trace contaminants. 

Fluidics.-Application of fluidic technology to aeronautics was continued in several areas. Successful flight 

tests of a three-axis stability augmentation system 

(SAS) were accomplished on a UH-1 helicopter. An 

improved model of the fluidic turbine inlet temperature 

sensor was successfully tested in a T55 gas turbine engine. An application of fluidic devices to jet flaps on 

low-speed aircraft is being investigated at the Ames 

Research Center. In addition, the Army’s Harry Diamond Laboratories is assigned a NASA effort to develop a fluidic shock wave control sensor. The device 

will sense and control the position of the shock wave in 

supersonic inlets on high-speed aircraft. 

Relationship With Other Government Agencies 

The Department of Defense continued close coordination and cooperation with other Government activities. 

There are presently six military officers assigned to the 

National Aeronautics and Space Council in the Executive Office of the President (three,Air Force, two Navy, 

and one Army) and 208 military personnel assigned to 

NASA4 ( 131 Air Force, 24 Navy, 50 Army, and three 

Marine Corps). Described below are examples of types 

of cooperation and coordination. 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

(AACB).-The AACB continues as the principal 

formal coordinating mechanism between DOD and 

NASA in the space and aeronautics areas. While a 

number of problems were considered by the Board, 

emphasis was placed on the Space Transportation System activity and on future large aeronautical facilities. 

The Board examined broadly the progress on the 

NASA Space Shuttle, the projected DOD use for the 

Shuttle, including considerations of possible impact 

on Shuttle design, and the interrelationship between 

the current launch vehicle families, their growth versions and the Space Shuttle launch program. In the 

area of large aeronautical facilities to meet future national needs, the Board determined that the large engine test facility and the large scale V/STOL wind 

tunnel were of highest priority and supported a limited 

effort to firm up facility designs. The Board will review 

the results of such study efforts prior to any decision to 

acquire such facilities. 

Lunar and Planetary Activities.-The Corps of Engineers continued to assist NASA with large scale lunar 

topographic maps of scientific sites, photomaps, and 

landmark graphics for use in the Apollo program. Con- 
struction of a 1 : 2,000 scale relief model for Astronaut 

training for Apollo 13 was completed, and was used in 

the training simulator at the Manned Spacecraft 

Center in Houston, Texas. An investigation of the potential of automated photogrammetric equipment to 

reduce Lunar Orbiter photography more effectively 

and accurately than by present methods was completed. 

The Corps of Engineers continues to provide professional counsel and other technical assistance in support 

of extraterrestrial reseach. 

Construction Support.-The US. Army Corps of Engineers continued to provide construction support of 

NASA at a reduced level during 1970. The work was 

accomplished on a reimbursable basis primarly at the 

Kennedy Space Center at a cost of $15 million. Cumulatively since 1961, the support provided totals $1.2 

billion. 

Aerospace Feeding Systems.-A sixth flexible-packaged, thermally processed, eat-with-a-spoon productmeat balls and tomato sauce-was developed by the 

US. Army Natick Laboratories and used aboard 

Apollo 13. Five such items were developed earlier and 

used on previous Apollo flights. Flexibly packaged 

peanut butter and jelly, originally developed for a 

combat meal, were also used on Apollo 13. Storage 

tests for retention of nutritional quality and periodic 

evaluations for texture and flavor are in progress on a 

variety of dehydrated foods used aboard the different 

space flights. Exploratory studies during the past year 

have indicated the feasibility of heating prepackaged 

foods by microwave energy and simulated space flight 

conditions. 

Apol1o.-During 1970 the Army, Navy, and Air Force 

continued to provide fundamental support to NASA 

which is essential for manned space flight activities. 

These support services included: recovery ships, aircraft, and personnel ; assistance with communications; 

SOLRAD solar activity data; and other supplementary 

forces. 

r 1 

V Atomic Energy Commission 

Introduction 

Effort continued during 1970 on the development of 

nuclear power systems for future space applicationsboth for propulsion and for on-board electrical power. 

Highlight events include the following: 

Nuclear Space Power.-The SNAP-19 and SNAP-27 

radioisotope generators (RTG's) launched in 1969 

both passed 1 year of continuous operation. 

Disassembly of a flight type zirconium hydride 

reactor (S8DR) was completed after 7,000 hours of 

continuous testing. 

Nuclear Rockets.-NERVA development activities 

concentrated on the definition and preliminary design 

of the flight rated NERVA engine. 

A candidate fuel element for NERVA successfully 

completed 10 hours of electrical corrosion testing including 60 thermal cycles. 

The Pewee-2 experimental reactor was fabricated 

and delivered for testing in early 1971. 

Space Electric Power 

Space Radioisotope Power Systems 

SNAP-19 and SNAP-27.-Both the SNAP-27 and 

SNAP-19 systems which were launched during 1969 

achieved 1 year of continuous operation during 1970. 

The SNAP-27 deployed on the moon in November 

1969 has performed extremely well during its first year 

of operation and has been producing about 73 watts 

(higher than the mission requirement) since deployment on the moon. The stable operation of the 

SNAP-27 has enabled the ALSEP experiments to operate continuously during both the lunar day and lunar 

night and will allow for continued operation as long as 

the experiments themselves are functional. Important 

scientific data is being generated which will aid in 

understanding the structure, evolution, and history of 

the moon. An additional SNAP-27 unit was launched 

in 1970 aboard the Apollo 13 spacecraft but it returned 

to earth as a consequence of the subsequent aborting 

of that mission. Two units are scheduled for launch 

in 1971 with the Apollo 14 and 15 flights. An addi45 
tiohal SNAP-27 has been ordered by NASA and it 

will be delivered in 1971. The SNAP-19 which provides supplementary power for the Nimbus spacecraft 

experiments is also performing well, though it has 

experienced some performance degradation because it 

is not a hermetically sealed unit. 

Transit Generator.-Fabrication and testing of the 

5-year life Transit generator for the Navy’s advanced 

navigational satellite continued. The first complete 

electrically heated unit was fabricated and tested and 

will be delivered to the Navy for spacecraft integration efforts early in 1971. Fabrication of a nuclear 

fuel ground test unit was near completion-with testing scheduled to begin early in 1971. The Transit generator is the prime power source and will supply 30 

watts of power to the Navy’s advanced Transit navigational satellite. 

Pioneer Generator.-The design of the modified 

SNAP-19 generator for application with NASA’s 

Pioneer Jupiter probe missions was completed during 

1970. Five electrically heated prototype generators 

were delivered to NASA and fabrication of four plutonium-238 fueled prototype generators for NASA 

spacecraft integration efforts was also near completion. These generators are scheduled for shipment 

early in 1971. Pioneer launches are scheduled in 1972 

and 1973. Use of nuclear power on this mission reduces total power system weight and eliminates uncertainties concerning operation at extended distances 

from the sun which would be inherent with solar 

array systems. The reduced weight allows for including additional experiment packages which increases 

the total value of the mission. 

Viking.-Early in 1970 the Viking program launch 

dates were deferred from 1973 to 1975. Consequently 

the Viking effort during this year was directed primarily towards spacecraft integration and study efforts using the SNAP-19 system. 

Multi-Hundred Watt Generator Module.-Effort 

continued on developmept of a Multi-Hundred Watt 

(MHW) generator module which will form a basic 

building block for isotopic space power systems in the 

100 to 1,000 electrical watt range. Specialized DOD 

satellites and NASA missions to the outer planets will 

require nuclear power systems and the projected power 

level requirements for these missions can be satisfied 

with the MHW system. Preliminary design studies were 

completed and fabrication of test components was 

initiated. The first converter should go on test in mid1971. A fueled module demonstration is currently 

scheduled for the 1973-74 time period. 

46 

Isotope Brayton System.-NASA has given considerable emphasis to development of a plutonium-238 

fueled radioisotope Brayton system for application in 

the electrical power range of a few kilowatts. The AEC 

has been pursuing the development of the fueled isotope capsule for application with this system. A nuclear 

safety feasibility study was conducted by the AEC 

with participation by both AEC and NASA laboratories. 

Space Isotopic Fuel Development 

Plutonium-238.-Plutonium-238 is currently the heat 

producing isotope being used or planned in all major 

space applications. Efforts continued towards development of improved cermet fuel forms and a plutonium 

molybdenum cermet fuel form was selected for use 

in the Pioneer, Transit, and Viking programs. 

Curium-244.-A heat source loaded with Curium-244 

successfully completed 1 year of test operation at the 

AEC’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Curium-244 

will be produced as a natural byproduct of the commercial reactors and has the potential of significantly 

reducing radioisotope fuel costs. 

Space Reactor Power Systems 

Zirconium-Hydride Reactor.-Disassembly of the 

second generation high power, high temperature 

uranium-zirconium hydride reactor ( S8DR) was completed. Testing of the S8DR was begun in late 1968 

and the reactor was shut down in late 1969 after about 

7,000 hours of operation. Data collected during operation indicated that cracking of a number of fuel element claddings had occurred. Information obtained 

from the disassembly and detailed examination of this 

reactor is being incorporated into a planned core test 

which is to verify the adequacy of this reactor concept 

for long term (several years) operation. This test is 

currently scheduled to begin in 1973. 

The zirconium-hydride reactor can be used with 

any of several conversion systems and the AEC is pursuing development of one of these : a compact thermoelectric conversion system. During 1970, thennal distortion of the thermoelectric converted module during 

operation was eliminated through the use of a refractory metal inner liner. The reactor-thermoelectric 

system will provide a power system of high reliability 

and simplicity from a few kilowatts up to around 35 

kilowatts of electricity. 

Thermionic Reactor.-A prime contractor was selected 

to continue the development of a thermionic fuel element and to construct an experimental reactor planned 

for operation in the mid-to-late 1970’s. This reactor 
will be based on use of fuel elements which convert 

heat to electricity within the reactor core and which 

must be capable of long endurance operation at extremely high temperatures. Program emphasis is currently directed toward demonstration of a full length 

thermionic fuel element. In-pile partial length fuel 

elements achieved 5,000 hours of operation during 1970 

and out-of-pile electrically heated diodes achieved 

25,000 hours of operation. 

Nuclear Rocket Program 

The nuclear rocket program is a joint endeavor of the 

AEC and NASA aimed at providing a significant increase in propulsion capability for future space activities. The major program objective is to develop a 

75,000-pound-thrust engine, called NERVA (Nuclear 

Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application) for space 

flight missions. The program includes a variety of 

advanced and supporting research and technology activities in which the aims are to extend the technology 

needed to improve nuclear rocket performance and to 

investigate advanced propulsion concepts. 

NERVA Engine Development.-During 1970, the 

NERVA engine system development activities were 

concentrated on the completion of engine system engineering% analyses, the preparation of engine system 

specifications, and the conduct of detailed engine 

design. The work on the engine system and its related 

non-nuclear components ( turbopumps, valves, nozzle) 

is described in the NASA section of this report. Activities related to development of the engine nuclear subsystem (the reactor) are described here. 

Nuclear Subsystem Development.-Reactor systems 

engineering activities conducted during the past year 

were directed toward the selection, test, and evaluation of candidate materials and the evaluation of alternate component designs for incorporation in the referenced reactor design. Selection of the reference reactor 

design was accomplished through the examination of 

technology reactor systems tested earlier in the nuclear 

rocket program. From the analyses of these systems and 

their test data and the results from the systems engineering studies, system and component specifications 

were prepared and detailed reactor design was initiated. 

The activities denoted above describe the iterative 

process which was applied to all reactor hardware to 

insure that the best design approaches and engineering 

procedures were being utilized to define the design of 

the NERVA flight reactor subsystem. These activities 

are now rapidly converging on a major milestone : the 

NERVA reactor preliminary design review (PDR) . The purpose of this review will be to formally examine 

every aspect of the work that has been performed and 

to verify that the basic reactor design meets the performance and reliability requirements established for 

the NERVA engine system. Acceptance of the PDR 

results will be followed by the completion of the detailed design of reactor components and the fabrication of reactor hardware for development and qualification testing. 

During the year, substantial progress was made on 

reactor fuel element research and development, the 

goals of which are to achieve a 10-hour operating duration and a recycling capability of up to 60 thermal 

cycles. As the nuclear fuel is the most critical part of 

the reactor subsystem, a rigorous fuel development 

program was pursued in several areas. The fuel element 

work is concentrated on two matrix materials: beadloaded graphite and a graphite plus carbide composite. The former incorporates innovations in design 

and production processes reflecting the experience 

gained from laboratory evaluation and ground testing 

in prior reactors. The composite comprises a dispersion of the mixed carbide in a graphite matrix, which 

in laboratory studies to date has shown considerable 

promise for extended corrosion endurance under the 

cyclic operation required for the NERVA reactor. 

These composite fuel elements successfully completed 

10 hours of electrical corrosion testing, including 60 

thermal cycles. Fuel elements of both types were 

fabricated and a series of laboratory tests were conducted. Both types were fabricated for incorporation 

into a small experimental reactor called Pewee-2. The 

Pewee-2 reactor was assembled and shipped to the 

Nuclear Rocket Development Station for testing h 

early 197 1. Performance data from this reactor will be 

used in making the selection of the optimum fuel element for the NERVA flight reactor series. 

Advanced Research and Technology.-The program 

effort in advanced research and technology is directed 

toward improvement of the performance of nuclear 

rockets by increasing the operating time and operating 

temperature for solid-core reactors, and by investigation of advanced propulsion concepts. The major activities are the research, development, and laboratory 

evaluation of improved fuel elements and other special reactor materials, reactor fabrication and testing 

to evaluate both elements and reactor design features, and research and experimental effort in advanced fission and fusion propulsion concepts. This 

work is concentrated at the Agency’s Los Alamos 

Scientific Laboratory in New Mexico. 

In addition to the fuel element work described 

earlier, work also continued on the development of 

evaluation techniques for the composite and carbide 

fuel elements. The design of a nuclear furnace to be 

used for fuel element development and evaluation was 

completed, and fabrication of the parts for the first 

nuclear furnace test was initiated. Fabrication of the 

47 
hardware for the modification of Test Cell “C” to test 

the furnace was also initiated. The furnace provides a 

fuel-element test bed to explore and simulate the necessary operating conditions of time, temperature, and 

cycles that the fuel experiences in a reactor but which 

are difficult to simulate in the existing electrically 

heated corrosion test furnace. The first nuclear furnace 

(Nuclear Furnace 1) test is scheduled for 1971. 

Efforts also continued during the year to improve 

reactors and core designs to optimize the use of solid 

solution carbides. 

In the area of advanced propulsion, fundamental 

research was conducted on plasma arc and other advanced concepts. In plasma arc research, substantial 

progress was made in experimentally producing a specific impulse of approximately two to three times that 

achieved in solid core rockets. 

Satellite-Based Detection of Nuclear Explosions in 

Space and the Atmosphere 

The AEC-instrumented Vela satellite program continued in 1970 with the sixth and final launch in six 

attempts. The sixth launch of twin spacecraft, Vela 

VB, was conducted by the Department of Defense 

on April 8, 1970, from Cape Kennedy, Fla., and utilized 

a Titan IIIC booster. The detector instrumentation 

on the 1970 satellites are performing well. The satellites are in near-circular orbits of approximately 65,000 

nautical miles, comparable to the previously launched 

spacecraft. The complement of detectors on board includes those designed to record signals emanating from 

an atmospheric nuclear explosion and the X-rays, 

gamma rays, and neutrons generated by a high altitude 

or space nuclear explosion. The spacecraft on Launch I 

(1963), Launch I1 (1964), and Launch I11 (1965) 

were spin-stablized while those on Launch IV ( 1967), 

Launch V (1969), and Launch VB are attitude-controlled to point continuously toward the earth which 

substantially increases the capability of the downwardlooking detector systems. 

In addition to performing their primary functions 

as “watchdogs” for possible nuclear testing in the 

atmosphere and in space, the Vela satellites have provided invaluable data to scientists on the nature of 

solar X-rays, the solar wind, and other astrological 

phenomena. The satellites have also assisted in the 

manned spaceflight program. 

VI Department of State 

Introduction 

The Department of State continued its efforts during 

1970 to further the achievement of the objectives of 

the National Aeronautics and Space Act, particularly 

in terms of cooperation with other nations and groups 

of nations in the peaceful application of the results of 

aeronautical and space activities. Encouragement of 

greater international cooperation in space was an 

integral part of US. foreign policy and the conduct 

of our international relations during 1970. 

Among the principal international developments in 

space affairs during 1970 were several new bilateral 

aeronautical and space cooperation agreements, discussions with foreign officials on participation in the 

post-Apollo program, expansion of possibilities for 

greater cooperation in space with the Soviet Union, 

further growth of international interest and cooperation in communication satellite systems, and increased 

interest in earth resources survey satellite programs. 

Actiuities Within the United Nations.-The United 

Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space and its Legal Subcommittee focused major 

efforts in 1970 on attempts to complete a draft convention on liability for damage caused by objects 

launched into outer space. The United States played 

an active role in these efforts as well as in the work of 

the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the 

Working Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites. 

The Scientific and Technical Subcommittee meeting 

in April was marked by a cooperative approach to the 

promotion of the practical applications of space technology. Among proposals endorsed by the Subcommittee was a United States proposal that the new United 

Nations Expert on Space Applications assist in the 

creation of panels, including representatives from 

developing countries, to observe closely and report to 

the Outer Space Committee on such space application 

programs as the United States Earth Resources Survey program. 

48 
Meeting in May, the Working Group on Direct 

Broadcast Satellites considered further the social, cultural, legal, and other implications of satellite broadcasting. While agreeing on the promise of satellite 

broadcasting to contribute to economic, social, and 

cultural development in a context of international 

cooperation, the Working Group registered disagreement on the question of whether legal principles are 

needed to govern satellite broadcasting. The United 

States argued that adequate legal principles already 

exist in the Outer Space Treaty and other instruments. 

In formal meetings and informal consultations during 1970, the Legal Subcommittee and the parent 

Outer Space Committee continued to seek agreement 

on provisions needed to complete the draft liability 

treaty. Agreement on the preamble and 13 articles was 

reached, but key questions on the settlement of 

disputed claims and the applicable law remained 

unresolved. 

In January, at the invitation of the United States 

Ambassador to the United Nations, members of the 

Outer Space Committee and United Nations Secretariat officials visited NASA’s Manned Spacecraft 

Center in Houston to hear briefings on NASA’s Earth 

Resources Survey program and to view related facilities and equipment. 

New Bilateral Agreements.-In March NASA signed 

an agreement with the Italian Space Commission 

(CNR) covering general arrangements for launching 

and associated services to be furnished by NASA to 

the Italian Space Commission for reimbursable 

launchings of Italian satellites on a case-by-case basis. 

In May NASA and the Astronomical Netherlands 

Satellite (ANS) Program Authority concluded an 

agreement covering a cooperative project in which 

NASA will launch in 1974 or 1975 an astronomical 

satellite developed and constructed in The Netherlands 

which will explore stellar ultraviolet and X-ray radiations from a sun-synchronous orbit. 

In November NASA and the British Science Research Council concluded an agreement for the launching of a fifth British scientific satellite by NASA in 

1973 to study cosmic X-ray sources. 

In December an existing agreement with Brazil for 

cooperative efforts on earth resources surveying experiments was being extended for an additional 2 years. 

This project, together with a similar cooperative effort 

with Mexico, has contributed valuable information to 

NASA’s Earth Resources Survey program. 

As the year closed, a new agreement was concluded 

with the Canadian Department of Industry, Trade, 

and Commerce for support of NASA sounding rockets 

and other scientific activities at the Churchill Research 

Range. 

U.S.-Soviet Cooperation.-During 1970 the Department of State continued to support efforts to increase 

space cooperation with the Soviet Union. The most 

significant new development in 1970 was a meeting in 

Moscow in October in which Soviet and United States 

representatives discussed arrangements for compatible 

docking systems in future Soviet and NASA manned 

spacecraft. Agreement was reached on a series of further meetings and exchanges of technical information 

which could lead to compatible docking systems in 

future Soviet and NASA manned spaceflight programs. 

Cooperative activities with the Soviet Union continued in the exchange of meteorological satellite data 

and aerospace biomedical information, and additional 

areas of possible cooperation are being explored. 

Apollo Program Support.-During 1970 the Department of State and its overseas posts provided support 

for the Apollo 13 mission by arranging for basing of 

recovery forces at foreign installations and by coordinating offers of foreign assistance during the emergency 

return from the moon of the Apollo 13 astronauts. 

Cooperation on use of certain radio frequencies during 

the final phase of the Apollo 13 recovery operation was 

also sought and obtained from most nations in the 

world. 

Post-Apol1o.-Foreign interest in participation in 

NASA’s post-Apollo program increased significantly 

during 1970. In September, the Chairman of the European Space Conference met with the Under Secretary 

for Political Affairs and other interested U.S. officials 

to discuss the political and economic aspects of possible 

European participation. The Department also supported NASA in obtaining European government assurances on protection of post-Apollo technical data 

that may be released by NASA. 

Communications Satellites.-As stipulated in the 

Agreements of 1964 which created the International 

Telecommunications Satellite Consortium ( Intelsat) , the United States convened a conference in February 

1969 to begin consideration of “definitive arrangements” for the global commercial communications system. The negotiations were continued by a Preparatory 

Committee which submitted its report to a resumed 

Plenipotentiary Conference in February 1970. The resumed Conference established an Intersessional Working Group to negotiate a single set of recommended 

texts of definitive arrangements. The United States 

served as host government for the Intersessional Working Group, which held three meetings (May, September, and November) in Washington and is expected to 

issue its report to a reconvened conference in 1971. 

Intelsat added seven members in 1970, increasing 

its membership to 77 countries. Three Intelsat I11 

satellites were launched in 1970, two of which were 

49 
successfully placed in orbit and have been serving the 

Atlantic Region. This has increased significantly the 

volume and variety of global telecommunication services that have been made available to all continents of 

the world. The next series of satellites, Intelsat IV, the 

first of which is scheduled for launch in 1971, will further increase the capacity of the global system. 

The total number of full-time circuits using Intelsat 

satellites at the end of 1970 represents an increase of 

about 34 percent over those in use at the end of 1969. 

Television transmission hours, all temporary service, 

increased in 1970 about 26 percent over 1969. Because 

many transmissions were to multiple earth stations simultaneously, the number of receive hours indicates 

a larger increase of about 32 percent over 1969. 

Worldwide usage of the Intelsat system will be stimulated even more by a decision of the Interim Communications Satellite Committee, the governing body 

of Intelsat, to reduce by 25 percent the charge for 

full-time leasing of an Intelsat circuit, effective January 1, 1971. 

During 1970 a significant effort was put forth to 

develop United States proposals for consideration at 

the World Administrative Radio Conference for Space 

Telecommunications, which is being convened by the 

International Telecommunication Union, a specialized 

agency of the United Nations, in Geneva in June 197 1. 

The Conference is expected to make far-reaching decisions on technical and regulatory aspects of space 

telecommunications and is expected to allocate, for 

the first time, frequency bands for the broadcasting 

satellite service. 

Earth Resources Survey Satellite Program.-During 

1970 the United States continued to distribute to 

foreign governments and agencies information on 

United States activities concerning earth resources surveying. Planning was undertaken for an International 

Workshop on Earth Resources Survey Systems which 

the Department of State is cosponsoring with NASA 

and other Government agencies. Invitations ,to attend 

the Workshop, which is to be held in May 1971 at the 

University of Michigan, were extended in December to 

all United Nations Member States, a number of other 

nations and several international organizations. 

Aeronautical Service Satellites.--The United States 

continued to work with ICAO during 1970 in considering requirements and characteristics for an Aeronautical Service Satellite system that would provide air 

traffic control services. Requirements for surveillance 

and navigation services are also being considered. The 

Department of State also participated with other 

United States Government agencies during 1970 in 

the formulation of policies and studies of the requirements and technical characteristics of such a satellite 

system. 

Meteorological Satellites.-The United States continued to participate in planning activities of the World 

Meteorological Organization for the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) to be undertaken in 

the mid-1970’s. The satellite portion of GARP involves 

four meteorological satellites to be operated in conjunction with land- and sea-based facilities and balloonborne instruments. Two of the satellites are to be 

launched by NASA and one by France. Japan is considering a commitment to launch the fourth satellite. 

National Geodetic Satellite Program.-The National 

Geodetic Satellite Program (NGSP) was concluded in 

1970 with 28 countries having been involved in its 

activities. The Department of State assisted the National Ocean Survey of the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration in making arrangements 

for movement of NGSP equipment and personnel and 

additional geodetic satellite survey activities in several 

foreign countries. 

Sounding Rocket Activities.-The United States continued during 1970 an extensive program of sounding 

rocket launches from the United States and several 

foreign locations. New agreements covering arrangements for sounding rocket launches were signed during 

1970 with the governments of Australia, India, Spain, 

Sweden, and France. 

Tracking Networks.-In June an agreement with 

France was concluded to provide the general framework for mutual tracking support of satellite activities 

by France and NASA. During 1970 agreements with 

Australia and Malagasy for the operation of NASA 

tracking stations in those countries were extended. The 

Department of State also assisted NASA in making 

arrangements for ceasing operation of its tracking station at Guaymas, Mexico, and for the movement of 

equipment and personnel to the United States. The 

NASA tracking network also supported launches of the 

French-German DIAL satellite and the Japanese satellite OHSUMI in 1970. 

Technology Transfer.-During 1970 the Department 

of State’s Office of Munitions Control continued discussions with other U.S. Government agencies aimed 

at reducing the number of space-related items governed by export controls in the International Traffic in 

Arms Regulations. The Office of Munitions Control 

processed in 1970 an increased number of license 

requests for export of space-related hardware and technology to foreign space programs. Included were technical assistance and equipment for the Japanese 

Launch Vehicle and Satellite Development Program, 

the NASA-German HELIOS satellite, the Italian 

SIR10 satellite, the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite 

Program, the United Kingdom Defense Communica50 
tion Satellite, and technical cooperation between 

several foreign industries and US. industry on study 

contracts in the NASA post-Apollo Space Transportation System program. 

Cooperation with the Department of Defense.-The 

Department of State worked closely with the Department of Defense throughout 1970 on those space 

related activities of the DOD which were international 

in character or operationally involved other nations. 

The NATO Satellite Communications System and the 

cooperative program with the United Kingdom for 

the development of the SKYNET space communications system were twa of the major programs carried 

out during the year. The first NATO communication 

satellite was launched from Cape Kennedy on March 

20. Two earth terminals, one in Germany and the other 

in Italy are expected to be completed early in 1971. 

The terminal in Norfolk, Va. is scheduled for completion in June 1971. A second SKYNET satellite was 

launched in August but malfunctioned after reaching 

initial orbit. An agreement covering the second phase 

of the SKYNET satellite communication program was 

signed by the United States and the United Kingdom 

in April. A United States-United Kingdom combine is 

now under contract to design and construct the second generation SKYNET satellite. 

Aeronautics.-In December an agreement was concluded with the Canadian Department of Industry, 

Trade, and Commerce covering arrangements for a 

joint project to design, develop, and test a new aircraft wing flap concept known as the Wing Augmentor 

System. The concept involves a wing trailing edge flap 

system based on jet nozzle thrust augumentation. Successful development of this system will significantly 

reduce landing and takeoff distance for jet aircraft, 

particularly large commercial transport aircraft. 

The United States continued to work in ICAO to 

solve environmental problems arising from aircraft 

noise in the vicinity of airports and sonic boom in 

connection with the commer-ial introduction of supersonic aircraft. The first meeting of the ICAO Committee on Aircraft Noise, held in the fall of 1970, 

decided to recommend that new ICAO noise certification standards should be made applicable to airplanes 

of the 747-type for which a certificate of airworthiness 

is first issued on or after March 1, 1972. The Committee also established a working group to study the 

technical and costlbenefit aspects of noise certification 

modification requirements for existing subsonic turbojet aircraft. 

The ICAO Sonic Boom Panel held its second meeting in October 1970. This panel has the task of 

developing proposals which will meet the objectives 

of a resolution of the ICAO Assembly. The resolution 

reaffirms the importance of not creating an unacceptable situation for the public through sonic boom of 

commercial supersonic transport aircraft (SST’s) , invites nations to furnish information concerning the 

operating characteristics of their SST’s and the results 

of research into the effects of sonic boom as soon as 

available, instructs the ICAO Council to review ICAO 

documents to ensure they take account of the public 

problems of SST’s and sonic boom, and invites manufacturing nations to furnish ICAO with proposals on 

the manner in which any specifications it might establish could be met. 

Air terrorism and hijacking took on new and more 

severe forms in 1970 which posed serious threats to the 

safety of air transport. The Department of State 

pressed for additional adherence to the Tokyo Convention on prompt return of aircraft and passengers 

and for the completion of two new Conventions which 

would require States to extradite or prosecute hijackers and those intending to damage aircraft or 

vital aviation facilities. The proposed Convention on 

hijackers is the subject of a conference which began 

in The Hague in December. A fourth Convention was 

proposed by the United States in October to provide 

for possible sanctions against States not promptly returning aircraft and passengers or failing to take 

appropriate action in the case of hijackers who acted 

for international blackmail purposes. This last Convention is being considered by the ICAO Legal 

Committee. 

51 
Introduction 

The Secretary of Transportation and his Department 

are charged with the preservation of the role of the 

United States as a leader in air transportation through, 

among other means, the application of pertinent research and development performed by DOT and other 

Government agencies and departments, as well as by 

industry. 

Within the Department, the Assistant Secretary for 

Systems Development and Technology has the function of leading the research and development efforts 

of all DOT elements in addition to conducting a 

research program under his own direction. A Research 

and Development Management Council was established this year to facilitate the coordination efforts 

between the organizational elements of DOT. Its role 

is to assure that the intermodal aspects of any research 

project are fully considered, that no unnecessary duplication exists, and that effective utilization is made of 

the Transportation Systems Center and other departmental research and development facilities. 

Through such mechanisms, and by bringing the 

Secretary’s broader perspective to bear on the Department’s research and development budgets, significant improvements are underway in the management of all of DOT’S research and development effort, 

including aeronautical R. & D. 

The Department’s Transportation Systems Center 

in Cambridge, Mass., was transferred to it from NASA 

on July 1, 1970. The new organization was reoriented, 

and has already begun to contribute to the Department’s work, particularly in electronic techniques for 

controlling traffic, both in the air and on the surface. 

This transfer of function and research personnel was 

a significant step in the improvement of the research 

and development relationships between DOT and 

NASA because its work contributes heavily to the 

programs of both. 

The Civil Aviation Research and Development 

(CARD) policy study is a significant example of 

DOT-NASA collaboration; it is designed to explore 

and define the significance of civil aviation to the 

Nation, to forecast the research effort that will be 

needed to enable the United States to maintain its 

position of leadership in aviation, and to develop alter52 

natives for Government and industry financing of such 

development. 

The two agencies also collaborate in applying satellite capabilities in traffic control-both transoceanic 

aeronautical control and marine traffic control. Advanced satellite technology will be used to support 

deployment of an initial experimental/preoperational 

satellite system for operational evaluation of voice and 

data communications and for experimentation in independent traffic surveillance. A separate, but related, 

study has attempted to analyze the benefits of space 

techniques for data relay from a large system of ocean 

buoys. 

Recommendations made early this year by the DOT 

Air Traffic Control Advisory Committee underlie plans 

for air traffic system improvements being implemented 

by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) . The 

Fourth Generation Air Traffic Capacity Study, a new 

long-range forecasting effort, was designed to identify 

technological advances needed to develop a control 

system that will allow efficient operation of air traffic 

and still be relatively insensitive to changing levels of 

demand on the system, while constantly improving 

safety. 

A further extensive study seeks to quantify maritimespace radio communications requirements by synthesizing international merchant vessel population and 

oceanic distribution through 1980, projecting that 

population’s message volume, and determining the 

radio frequency bandwidth that message traffic will 

need. 

The US. Coast Guard Office of Research and Development has under development a self-contained 

system for the emergency unloading of stricken oil 

tankers. In the event of grounding, collision, or similar 

incident, the system allows the tanker to be unloaded 

or lightened sufficiently so that it may be refloated. 

This Air-Deliverable Anti-Pollution Transfer System 

(ADAPTS) will be capable of unloading 20,000 tons 

of liquid cargo within 24 hours of a reported ship pollution incident. The system which is packaged for 

air delivery includes transfer pumps, diesel engine 

pump prime movers, 500-ton rubber temporary storage containers and transfer hose. 

The system is designed to perform in 40-m.p.h. winds 

and 12-foot seas with all components capable of being 

air delivered at the spill site within 4 hours of notifi- 
cation of an accident. The system is capable of deployment and initial operation without the use of surface craft and without support from the damaged ship. 

The first test of the entire system was conducted in 

February 1970. To date a total of four full system 

tests have been conducted, all under relatively calm 

conditions. Future tests of the system up to design environmental conditions are scheduled. 

Aviation Safety Research and Development 

En Route Operations.-The Department conducted 

significant research and development efforts during 

1970 concerned with improving aviation safety in en 

route operations through the following typical 

programs : 

(a) Aircraft wake turbulence.-A problem requiring a quick answer was addressed in February 1970: 

Whether the separation standard requiring following 

aircraft to stay at least 10 miles behind either of the 

two types of jumbo jets then in operation (747 and 

C-5A) should be retained or could be relaxed. The 

existing standard was based on theoretical calculations 

and early data. The conclusion-after FAA, the 747 

manufacturer, NASA, and the U.S. Air Force had 

carried out a cooperative program that examined effects of wingtip vortexes generated not only by the 

jumbo jets but also by other types of jet aircraft-was 

that the longitudinal spacing behind the jumbo jets 

for following aircraft could safely be reduced to 5 

miles, a spacing applying also to the wake of various 

other large jet aircraft. Further tests being conducted 

in this area will refine these results and determine 

more precise criteria of this kind for general aviation 

aircraft. Long-range work to characterize aircraft wake 

turbulence for any aircraft as a function of time and 

atmospheric variables is being continued in cooperation with the NASA vortex research program and 

others. Preliminary conclusions from these programs 

indicate that the extent of wingtip-generated vortex 

hazards can be reduced in various operational areas by: 

Air traffic control separation; flight procedures; improved vortex sensing, data processing, and pilot display; and improvements in airport taxiway and runway 

layout. 

(b) Other air turbulence.-The FAA and the National Meteorological Center are cooperating in the 

work of forecasting clear air turbulence by combining 

probability analysis techniques developed for FAA with 

the Center’s new model for forecasting winds and 

temperatures. The “unusual events recording systems,” 

installed on three civil jet transports in previous years 

to obtain data on pilot and aircraft response to encounters with severe turbulence, recorded over 1,000 

hours of inflight data without encountering any unusual event, which suggests that current flight procedures might be acceptable. The data obtained from 

this project will also be useful in other FAA programs. 

(c) Flight characteristics criteria.-Two projects 

were completed and a third advanced during the year 

in this area, which serves aviation safety by developing 

and defining aircraft stability and control characteristics and ‘the handling qualities of all forms of manned 

civil aircraft. This work, conducted in close coordination with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Department of Defense, embraces 

both existing and new designs of aircraft, and is carried 

out by sponsoring analytical and experimental efforts 

with ground-based and inflight simulators for the wide 

range of civil aircraft and configurations involved. The 

program’s objectives are to determine optimum characteristics of aircraft for use in system design and to 

promote the development of promising new aircraft 

control concepts. Achievements during 1970 applied 

to : 

-Improving flight characteristics airworthiness 

requirements for certifying small general aviation 

aircraft.-The first phase of this project was carried out in 1967 under FAA sponsorship; the 

second-as part of a broader investigation jointly 

administered by NASA, the Naval Air Systems 

Command, and FAA-was conducted in 1968; 

and the final phase was completed in 1970 with 

the compilation of new stability and control data 

for designers and regulatory authorities. 

-Establishing flight characteristics criteria for 

possible use in revising type certification standards 

for high performance business jets.-This twophase project is jointly sponsored by the Air Force 

Flight Dynamics Laboratory and FAA. The first 

phase presented criteria for optimum lateraldirectional handling qualities for cruising flight 

and minimum acceptable characteristics for setting airworthiness certification standards. The 

second phase determined lateral control requirements of executive jets and related military transport airplanes during landing approach in turbulence and crosswinds, as influenced by inertia, 

lateral directional coupling, and control-system 

characteristics. 

-Investigating flight characteristics criteria for 

STOL (short takeoff and landing) transports.- 

This project uses a moving-base simulator to investigate flight characteristics of deflected jet and 

deflected slipstream STOL transports, and extends 

through three phases. The first phase, completed 

by an FAA contractor in 1970, was begun in July 

1969 and carried out in close cooperation and coordination with the NASA Ames Research Center 

using the Ames moving-base simulator facilities. 

53 
The second phase will cover directional control 

and turn coordination criteria; the third, longitudinal dynamics and approach flight path 

control. 

(d) Aircraft piracy and sabotage.-An antihijacking system was successfully field tested in 1969 and 

placed in limited airline use by the end of that year. 

This system consists of a weapon-detecting devise used 

in conjunction with a hijacker behavioral profile based 

on study of the personal characteristics of known hijackers. Greatly expanded use of the system occurred 

in July at New Orleans’ Moisant International Airport, 

which became the first airport subjecting all passengers 

to screening by this system prior to boarding their 

planes. The main impetus to wider use of the system 

came from the unprecedented international hijacking 

events of September. A device called a Chemosensor 

has been developed as a possible solution to the aircraft 

sabotage problem. Its intended function is to detect the 

presence of a bomb anywhere within an aircraft. While 

evaluation of the Chemosensor revealed much merit, 

it requires further development to meet acceptable 

operational performance requirements. 

(e) Midair collision hazard.-FAA participated in 

flight testing of a promising collision-avoidance system 

developed in previous years by a private contractor for 

the Air Transport Association. Earliest possible operational use of the system was considered to be at least 

2 years away. The FAA also further tested, through 

simulation techniques, the effects of interaction between the collision-avoidance system and the air traffic 

control system. Since a collision-avoidance system is 

highly sophisticated technologically and expensive, it 

will be used mainly by airline and corporate aircraft. 

Several pilot-warning instrument system concepts, 

much simpler and less expensive, are undergoing 

R. & D. for general aviation aircraft by FAA, NASA, 

and industry. 

(f) Other developments.-Other R. & D. efforts 

concerned with making aircraft safer in flight were 

concerned with the following: 

-Stall-warning system.-Technical and operational criteria for improved stall-warning systems 

were determined in a two-phase effort. In the first 

phase, the most effective pilot-alerting method was 

found to be a control-wheel shaker, the second 

most effective an intermittent horn: the least effective a steady horn. The second phase tested a 

standard installation of a stall-warning system certificated in accordance with the Federal Aviation 

Regulations and an improved system using a lift 

transducer that detects the rate of change of the 

angle of attack. 

-Stability augmentation.-Under an interagency 

agreement, the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics 

54 

Laboratory completed flight testing of its automatic pilot-assisting equipment in a light, singleengine aircraft. The purpose was to assess the 

equipment’s effectiveness in reducing accidents 

caused by pilot loss of control in bad weather. 

-Improvement of static-pressure systems-Altimeter and airspeed systems reliability was tested 

and recommendations made to improve staticpressure systems of aircraft so that instruments 

would be more reliable while the aircraft are 

performing flight maneuvers or flying in bad 

weather. 

-1nflight fire protection.-Criteria were distributed for installing and using equipment that 

records the concentration of fire-extinguishing 

agents in an aircraft’s fire-extinguis‘hing system. 

This equipment is the most reliable and feasible 

method of determining the effectiveness and performance of aircraft fire-extinguishing systems. 

-General aviation exhaust system safety.-Accelerated procedures were developed for testing 

the airworthiness of general aviation aircraft exhaust systems. These procedures will preclude or 

significantly reduce the probability of carbon 

monoxide hazards resulting from high-temperature oxidizing or environment-caused corrosion 

of the exhaust system. 

-Anti-icing wing-coating materials.-Although 

materials flight tested in 1970 were selected from 

materials tested previously in the icing research 

tunnel at NASA’s Lewis Research Center, none 

was found to have effective anti-icing or de-icing 

properties. 

Airport and Vicinity.-Significant efforts in this area 

were concerned with the following : 

(a) Firefighting.-Basic data, usable for extrapolating fire-protection requirements for both smaller and 

larger aircraft, were obtained from full-scale fire tests 

performed at the Department’s National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center, Atlantic City, N. J., with 

two obsolete US. Air Force B-47 Stratojet bombers. 

The data show requirements for type and number of 

firefighting vehicles, their strategic location around the 

aircraft, and type, quantity, and discharge rates of 

extinguishing agents. 

( b) Runway friction.-Investigations of grooved 

runways yielded data on runway friction, environmental changes, and such effects on the using aircraft 

as vibrations induced in the airframe, wheel spin-up 

rates, and tire-chevron cutting. Investigations continue 

concerning seasonal environmental changes, wheel 

spin-up, and tire-chevron cutting. 
Postcrash Safety.-Significant progress was made in 

the following areas: 

(u) Gelled fuels.-Use of gelled fuels in aircraft 

has the potential for significantly reducing the hazard 

of fire following an aircraft crash. Chemical and physical research to improve gelled-fuel flow characteristics 

while maintaining their superior fire safety characteristics was performed after tests in a commercial jet 

transport fuel system had shown the most promising 

fuels developed from previous extensive research were 

too viscous. Two gelled fuels, however, were shown in 

short duration jet engine tests to be usable in modern 

jet engines without significant loss in engine efficiency. 

A study estimated that, over a 10-year period, industrywide use of gelled fuel would raise air!ine operating 

costs by 4 percent. 

(b) Crash-resistant fuel system.-This system, utilizing strong bladder cells and a crash-operated valve 

system with interconnecting lanyards, was tested in 

actual impacts against pole-type obstacles at speeds 

up to 80 miles per hour. In all cases, the bladder tanks 

remained intact and the valves operated properly. 

Progress was achieved toward establishing criteria for 

carrying fuel in leading edges of aircraft wings, and 

evaluations of elastomer liners to improve crashworthiness of integral wing tanks were performed. 

(c) Fire test of titanium SST fuselage.-The predicted greater ability of a titanium skin to protect 

against external fires was verified by a full-scale 

fuselage fire test, which also showed that obtaining 

full benefit from titanium’s inherent fire resistance requires the use of high-temperature sealing materials. 

(d) Aircraft cabin interior materials.-Several 

space program fire-resistant materials developed by 

NASA were evaluated at NAFEC for possible use in 

aircraft cabins. In the same area, the Department and 

the National Bureau of Standards established the accuracy of the latter’s smoke test chamber and supported 

its recommendation to the American Society for Testing and Materials for use in a standard test method. 

This method will be specified in future FAA smoke-rule 

requirements for aircraft cabin interior materials. 

(e) Aircraft cabin crash resistance.-The nature of 

structural failures in aircraft fuselages and in the seatand cargo-restraining systems is being evaluated by 

comparing data from a full-scale crash test of a fourengine piston-powered airliner with design criteria, current airworthiness standards in the Federal Aviation 

regulations, and recently developed dynamic seat test 

criteria. 

(f ) Explosively created emergency exists.-The 

feasibility of opening emergency exits in the fuselage 

of a crashed airplane by linear-shaped explosives (two 

liquids separately inert but explosive when mixed) 

was demonstrated in scrap fuselage structure but, 

according to test indications, such a system must be 

incorporated in the aircraft design. The U.S. Army’s 

Picatinny and Frankford Arsenals cooperated with 

FAA in accomplishing this project. 

(g) Air-bag restraint system-The feasibility of 

using inflatable air bags to minimize impact effects on 

occupants of general aviation aircraft in crashes was 

determined, but adaptation of automotive air bags 

presently under development to current general aviation aircraft will require major modifications. 

(A) Jumbo jet emergency evacuation simulator.- 

An emergency evacuation simulator capable of accommodating airline passengers in numbers representing 

a significant portion of jumbo jet capacity was being 

operated during the year by the Civil Aeromedical 

Institute at the Department’s Aeronautical Center in 

Oklahoma City. The adjustable pitch, roll, and elevation of the simulator enable safety personnel to assess 

the effectiveness of escape equipment, ditching 

equipment, and escape procedures. 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation System 

FAA progressed during 1970 in its long-range plan to 

introduce automation in both terminal and en route 

traffic control. In addition, the Agency continued to 

develop area navigation routes to supplement conventional air routes for aircraft flying under instrument 

flight rules by developing area navigation routes, and 

to explore the potential uses of satellite technology in 

air navigation and communication. 

Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS) II.- 

This system is an experimental automation program for low- to medium-activity terminal areas. One 

candidate system is modular, can employ either 

numerics or alpha-numerics, and is programable. It can 

also use components of ARTS I11 (see below), thus 

simplifying logistics, maintenance, and training. Another candidate system, known as the ANJTPX-42, is 

the result of a joint FAA-USAF development program, and is being procured for low-density civil and 

military terminal areas. 

FAA completed the first field test of a programable 

ARTS 11, at Knoxville, Tenn., a low- to mediumdensity terminal area, following feasibility tests of the 

system at NAFEC before its installation at Knoxville. 

The 6-month field evaluation encompassed three separate test phases: (1) A numerics-only phase; (2) an 

alpha-numerics phase; and (3) a two-display configuration phase. The judgment at the end of the evaluation was that the system had performed effectively and 

had improved the handling of traffic in the Knoxville1 

area. At year’s end, ARTS I1 was operating full time 

as Knoxville’s primary ATC facility. Work will continue in 1971 to explore .beacon problems in greater 

depth and exploit the system’s programable capabilities. 

55 
ARTS ZZZ.-By the end of 1970, the first ARTS 111, 

FAA’s automated system for high-density terminal 

areas, had been delivered to Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport for operational use. FAA expects to 

deliver eight additional ARTS 111’s to high-density 

airports by the middle of 197 1 ; FAA also expects ARTS 

I11 systems to be operational at 62 high-density airports 

in 1973. 

In other ARTS I11 developments during calendar 

year 1970: FAA awarded a $500,000 contract for improving the tracking, air traffic control coverage, and 

computing capabilities of the system, and made an 

initial award on a contract to develop and implement 

an ARTS I11 computer progam for metering and 

spacing air traffic. 

NAS En Route Stage A.-FAA continued to install 

NAS En Route Stage A computers at air route traffic 

control centers ( ARTCC’s) for flight-data processing, 

the first step in automating en route air traffic control. 

At the end of the calendar year, such computers had 

been delivered to 15 centers. Five more centers are 

scheduled to receive this equipment. In addition, computer updating equipment for updating flight plans 

had been delivered to eight centers during 1970; three 

ARTCC’s-Washington, Indianapolis, and Chicagohad put this equipment into operation by year’s end. 

Contracts awarded during the reporting period for 

NAS En Route Stage A equipment covered : Test consoles to house test equipment for computer display 

channels and computer updating equipment, two key 

elements of NAS En Route Stage A (March) ; design 

and development assistance, evaluation, and analysis 

(July) ; computers and computer components (June ) ; 

a partial display channel processor (September) ; and 

modifying and expanding the en route operational air 

traffic control computer programs (November). 

Aeronautical Satellites.-FAA continued to explore 

the potential usefulness of artificial satellites in aviation. This rapidly unfolding technology appears to be 

readily applicable to overwater surveillance and 

communication. 

The increasing number and speed of air carrier aircraft flying international, overwater and polar routes 

has created problems in communication and surveillance. Because of fading, static, and other interference 

caused by natural phenomena, aircraft now flying such 

routes often lose radio contact with distant ground 

stations. Since this lack of reliable point-to-point communication makes air traffic surveillance over such 

aircraft impossible, flight separation requirements far 

exceeding those in use over land have been adopted 

for the safety of ocean-crossing aircraft. Air traffic 

capacity on these routes has thus been limited. 

An aeronautical satellite system for transoceanic 

use could solve, or at least greatly ameliorate, these 

problems. 

During 1970, FAA received proposals for launching 

a hybrid VHF/UHF satellite system for aeronautical 

use. One contractor proposed to conduct pre-operational tests with both frequencies and use the better 

testing one for the system’s operational life. Another 

approach was to utilize the VHF portion of the system 

as an operational voice and data communication link, 

and the UHF portion for testing only. 

Other ATC and Air Navigation Deve1ofiments.- 

Among these were included the following : 

(u) All-weather landing system.-This is a longrange undertaking involving the integration of a 

ground-based guidance system, an airborne system, and 

a lighting system. In 1970, NAFEC completed the 

evaluation of a ground-based guidance system-the 

STAN 37/38 ILS (instrument landing system) -borrowed from the United Kingdom. The purpose of the 

evaluation was to identify areas requiring further 

development. At year’s end, the British-manufactured 

ILS was going through an airborne operational evaluation, scheduled for completion in August 1971. 

NAFEC had also completed flight testing of an airborne system capable of meeting category I11 weather 

minimums-that is weather conditions too poor for 

the pilot to: (1) Establish visual contact with the 

ground or runway before landing and (2) see along 

the runway beyond 1,200 feet. 

(b) Area navigation.-FAA continued to pursue its 

long-range goal of developing area navigation routes 

for both en route and terminal IFR (instrument 

flight rules) traffic on a nationwide scale. Area 

navigation, by utilizing the full potential of VHF omnidirectional radio range/distance-measuring equipment (VOR/DME) navigation facilities, frees pilots 

from the need of flying a track to or from these facilities ; this permits the establishment of new routes 

without installing ground-based navaids along each 

flight path. In June FAA established the first series of 

area navigation instrument approach procedures in the 

United States at six terminal areas-Longview, Tex., 

Kirksville, Mo., and Fullerton, Palm Springs, Lancaster, and Torrance, Calif. The new procedures permit pilots of aircraft equipped with area navigation 

equipment to make straight-in instrument approaches 

to runways without the use of runway-oriented electronic approach aids. This eliminates the need for 

pilots to conduct time-consuming procedure turns and 

circling maneuvers required by conventional IFR 

approaches. FAA also continued to test area navigation equipment. In March, NAFEC completed an 

evaluation of a private corporation’s vector analog 

computer with the publication of a report describing 

56 
the equipment’s signal-processing techniques. In May 

the airborne computer was certificated for use on a 

general aviation aircraft operated by the private corporation. In December, NAFEC completed an evaluation of an Avion roller map pictorial display. 

Human Factors in Aviation 

Pilots.-A study completed in 1970 in the area of 

airman standards, involving private and commercial 

pilots with flight experience ranging from 6 months 

to 9 years, showed a definite correlation between 

elapsed time from date of certification and loss of instrument proficiency. 

Various pilot problems of a human-engineering type 

received attention in 1970. Examples are improvement 

of visual guidance by lights and paint patterns, effectiveness of cockpit instrument displays, collisionavoidance problems, visual illusions, and aircraft noise. 

Air Trafic Controllers.-A study emphasizing human 

factors of equipment design, aiming to keep equipment-induced error to a minimum and to insure that 

controllers will be able to use with ease the new automated equipment being procured for towers and centers, will be made with a specialized radar display to 

be developed under a contract awarded in May 1970. 

“Before and after” studies were underway during 

the year to determine quantitatively the effect on the 

controller’s workload of introducing automation into 

the operational facilities. 

An initial study of the accuracy of controllers in 

judging aircraft separation as represented on current 

analog radar displays showed nearly all estimates fell 

within 1.5 miles of the separation displayed. However, 

since the controllers were not burdened by the complete air traffic control job when making their estimates, these results were obtained under “best case’’ 

conditions; hence, further evidence will be required 

before serious consideration can be given to reducing 

the 3-mile separation standard for the terminal area. 

Aviation and the Environment 

FAA took a number of actions during 1970 addressed 

to maintaining or improving the quality of the environment. Among them were: 

(a) Announcement, in October, of a program designed to reduce noise while increasing safety in the 

vicinity of airports serving jet aircraft.-Under the 

program, terminal air traffic controllers will delay the 

final landing descent of turbojets until these aircraft 

are relatively close to their destination airport; they 

will also instruct jet pilots taking off to climb out as 

rapidly as aircraft’s performance capability and passenger comfort permit. Arriving jets will generally be 

kept at 10,000 feet or higher until they are approximately 30 miles from the airport. They will then be 

kept at least 5,000 feet above the ground until they 

reach the final descent area. Keeping the jets and hence 

their noise high enhances safety by minimizing the mix 

of jet and small general aviation traffic near the airport. The program is scheduled to be implemented at 

119 terminal radar control facilities by February 1971 ; 

at 246 nonradar airports with towers by July 1971; at 

airports without radar or towers that serve scheduled 

air carrier turbojet flights by November 1971; at all 

remaining airports that serve turbojets by February 

1972. 

(b) Issuance of an advance notice of proposed rulemaking soliciting comments from the aviation community and the public at large on retrofitting existing jet 

aircraft with engine-noise-suppression devices, in NOvember.-Recent research and development have demonstrated that devices capable of significantly reducing 

jet engine noise are within the state of the art. Still to 

be demonstrated, however, is the extent to which these 

devices may adversely affect aircraft airworthiness and 

whether they are economically feasible. This advance 

notice complements a December 1969 rule establishing 

allowable engine-noise levels for two classes of aircraft 

for which an application for a type certificate was 

made after January 1, 1967. 

(c) Continuation of a project at the Civil Aeromedical Institute to determine the level of sonic booms 

tolerable to human sleep patterns by having instrumented subjects sleep in two specially installed sonic 

boom simulation rooms. 

(d) Negotiation of an agreement with 31 airlines 

on the retrofit of JT8D engines with smoke-reducing 

combustors, in January.-These devices reduce the 

level of visible pollutants emitted by jet engines, but 

according to recent measurements do not help the 

problem of invisible pollutants. Under the retrofit plan, 

which was agreed to voluntarily by the airlines, combustors will be installed on some 9,000 engines on 737’s, 

727’s, and DC-S’s by late 1972. A public demonstration of the new combustor was conducted at Washington National Airport in September by a major air 

carrier with a combustor-equipped 727. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare participated 

in negotiating the agreement. 

(e) Awarding of a contract for the establishment 

of design criteria for the control and reduction of oxides 

of nitrogen (invisible pollutants) emitted by jet aircraft engines.-The study seeks to develop ways to 

reduce oxides of nitrogen without producing an increase in carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, 

and other jet engine emissions. 

57 
The Supersonic Transport 

This has been another year of intense congressional 

interest in the supersonic transport program. House 

and Senate committees, in hearings on the fiscal year 

197 1 budget request for $290 million, considered in 

depth concerns expressed about noise, sonic booms, and 

other environmental impacts. The budget request was 

under consideration by a Conference Committee of 

the Congress in its session on the last day of the year. 

In April 1970 the FAA issued a notice of proposed 

rulemaking formalizing the decision of the President 

that no supersonic transport may fly over U.S. territory 

at a speed that would cause a sonic boom to reach the 

ground. 

Although present information indicates that projected SST operations will not cause significant climatic 

changes, the Department, in conjunction with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

NASA and other agencies, has described a Government 

environmental research program. It includes study of 

noise reduction. This research will provide data expected to increase confidence that large-scale SST 

operations will not significantly affect the environment. 

Two interdisciplinary committees, the Environmental 

Advisory Committee and the Noise Advisory Committee, have been established. These are teams of 

scientists and experts with a variety of backgrounds and 

experience. They will monitor research programs where 

there is either uncertainty or lack of information. 

After approval of the fiscal year 1970 budget on 

December 29, 1969, contractor manpower built up 

from an average of 3,400 in January 1970 to approximately 5,500 by the year’s end. Work on both the 

airframe and engine proceeded on schedule throughout the year. The class I1 mockup structure was completed on schedule in June. The contractor awarded 

contracts to its major subcontractor teams in midyear, 

and they initiated fabrication of the prototype parts 

immediately thereafter. Having demonstrated the 

engine’s world record thrust of approximately 69,000 

pounds under static sea level conditions, the manufacturer continued testing the engines to increase their 

durability and reliability. 

The contractors are working according to a schedule 

planned to achieve first flight in November 1972 and 

airplane certification by 1978. 

VI11 Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency 

Introduction 

Outer Space Treaty.-The first two objectives of the 

US. space program, 

-Continue to explore the moon ; 

-Move ahead with bold exploration of the 

are moving forward on the legal highway provided by 

the Outer Space Treaty, which has now been subscribed to by 58 governments. It is reassuring that prior 

legal and intellectual concern insures that these new 

regions of exploration are closed to the arms race, and 

that these further space explorations can proceed 

within a peaceful, internationally controlled environment. ACDA is concerned, along with other agencies, 

in the necessary follow-on actions to insure that a 

proper liability convention is also brought into effect. 

Success in banning weapons of mass destruction 

from outer space has shown that closing new environments to the arms race is an effective way of achieving 

international agreement on arms control. This success 

planets and the universe; 

pointed the way for a similar effort to ban such weapons from the seabed. The Conference of the Committee 

on Disarmament presented a draft treaty in this area 

to the U.N. General Assembly in September 1970, 

and that body passed a resolution supporting the treaty 

in December. 

Space Cooperation.-The development of international cooperation in space activities can improve 

the political climate for a number of collateral goals, 

including arms control. The positive experiences of 

cooperative space program planning demonstrate ways 

in which countries can deal constructively with each 

other on technical problems. The experience of space 

cooperation and the manner in which it develops may 

also be a useful indicator as to the prospects for 

expanded cooperation in arms control, especially in the 

strategic area. 

ACDA has continued its efforts to insure that space 

technology or equipment transferred by U.S. agencies 

58 
or industries to other nations will be used solely for 

peaceful purposes. This procedure implements the U.S. 

policy of nonproliferation of missile and weapons 

technology. 

Aerial and Space Systems in Support of Arms Control.-ACDA maintains an active interest in the improvement of technological and organizational capabilities for verifying arms control agreements. The 

space programs of other agencies are monitored for 

technological developments that can be adapted to 

IX 

arms control verification. Space-borne platforms with 

nonintrusive sensors, as well as data links and data 

processing systems, are of particular interest. Since 

confidence in future treaty arrangements will depend 

on how well the agreed provisions can be verified, 

ACDA devotes considerable effort to these activities. 

In addition, communication satellites can facilitate 

rapid exchange of information between governments 

during crisis situations. Such systems have enhanced 

reliability because they are not dependent on cooperation of other countries for passage of land lines. 

Department of the Interior 

I I 

Introduction 

The US. Department of the Interior has long utilized 

aircraft in the performance of its missions for exploration, development, and management of the Nation’s 

natural and cultural resources. Aircraft of several 

bureaus of the Department, contractor-owned aircraft, 

and other Federal agency-owned aircraft of all types 

are used operationally and experimentally. Experiments 

are conducted to test and develop improved capabilities that the aircraft themselves afford in support of 

Department programs and to test new ways in which 

use of airborne surveying and analytical instruments 

from cameras to radioactivity counters can improve 

the efficiency and effectiveness of departmental 

performance. 

The Department has played an important role, also, 

throughout the past decade in support of the Nation’s 

space exploration and lunar landing programs, and in 

support of the development of peaceful applications 

of space technology. Such support has included research of applications of satellites as unique platforms 

from which to make observations for research and 

monitoring of earth’s environments and of remote 

sensing instruments to make the observations. Operational support has been provided to the NASA in 

lunar mapping, analysis of lunar materials, the development of lunar sampling programs and equipment, in 

the development of equipment and processes for life 

support systems in spacecraft, and in the calibration of 

equipment for the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) . 

Aeronautics 

During 1970, the Department employed fixed-wing 

aircraft and helicopters-its own, those of other agencies, and of private contractors-in support of both 

operations and research activities. 

Operations.-Operational uses of aircraft and helicopters among bureaus of the Department have been 

as follows: 

The Bonneville Power Administration.-For aerial 

patrol of power lines, transport of men, tools, and 

equipment to emergency spots to achieve rapid resumption of vital power service, and ferry of men to remote 

microwave stations. 

The Bureau of Reclamation.-For reconnaissance 

of reclamation study areas and engineering sites, the 

acquisition of aerial photography for the planning of 

engineering works and alinements. Development of 

repair kits is under way at present, including lightweight aluminum towers, conductors, and accessories 

for the emergency repair of damaged 230- and 345- 

kilovolt power lines. These kits will be transported and 

erected by employment of helicopters. The Bureau 

also employed aircraft in the conduct of cloud seeding 

in its Atmospheric Water Resources Management Program and in support of the operations of the Bonneville 

Power Administration at Hungry Horse Basin, Idaho. 

The Bureau of Mines.-To support mineral resource 

surveys in remote areas for the National Wilderness 

program. 

The National Park Service.-For aerial photography 

and aerial visual observation in planning road aline411-222 0-71-5 59 
ments, site development, and engineering. It also used 

aircraft to obtain data for master plan development, 

vegetation mapping, fire patrol, archeological studies, 

and for survey of large mammal populations-moose, 

elk, bison, grizzly bear, and caribou-in large park 

areas such as Yellowstone, Glacier, Mount McKinley, 

and Katmai. 

The Federal Water Quality Administration.-For 

detecting oil pollution, thermal loading and evaluating 

waste outfall characteristics in ocean waters. 

The Geological Survey.-To obtain aerial photography for the national topographic mapping progrzms. 

In 1970, standard mapping photography was acquired 

for 227,000 square miles of the United States and 

high altitude aerial photography of more than 50,000 

square miles was acquired, including 30,000 square 

miles in the Brooks Range and North Slope areas of 

Alaska. Aircraft were used also in the management 

of Federal Outer Continental Shelf mineral resources, 

to transport petroleum engineers and technicians to 

oil and gas drilling and producing operations, to perform inspection of such operations and search for the 

presence and sources of oil spills. 

Research.-Research uses of aircraft involve their employment logistically in the movement of men and 

materials as discussed above, and as platforms for 

remote sensors-cameras, multiband scanning photometers, thermal infrared scanning radiometers, and 

radar mappers-to determine their applicability to the 

resources research and management functions of the 

several bureaus and offices of the Department of the 

Interior. 

The Bonneville Power Administration is cooperating with the Bureau of Reclamation and the US. Corps 

of Engineers employing aircraft in conduct of a successful experiment in cloud seeding in the Hungry Horse 

Basin, Idaho. 

The National Park Service is cooperating with 

Geological Survey, NASA, and other Federal, State, 

and municipal groups in remote sensing studies of 

Biscayne Bay and the Everglades National Park, Fla., 

the Hawaii Volcano, and the Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks. These studies are aimed at 

developing new methods for assessing both natural 

conditions of environments and the effects on them of 

natural hazards and the works of man. 

The Geological Survey is cooperating with the NASA 

in conducting research of uses of special types and conditions of remote sensor data for conventional mapping 

and for new map products for topographic, geographic, 

geologic, and water resources surveys. It has instituted 

a program with New York State to use an airborne 

thermal infrared scanning radiometer to monitor the 

thermal effects on inland and estuary waters of urbanization and the ensuing natural and artificial discharge 

and circulation patterns. Studies in connection with the 

60 

Biscayne Bay and Everglades projects and with research 

in the Tampa sinkhole areas, in cooperation with the 

University of Michigan, have shown the feasibility of 

computer processing of airborne radiometer data for 

recognition and mapping of surface and shallow submarine biotic communities, and of an incipient sinkhole condition. High altitude aircraft data have been 

employed to prepare land use maps and data bases of 

selected 1970 Census cities, and both aircraft and 

Gemini and Apollo photography have been used to 

support analyses of the economic potential of an 

economically depressed area in southern Mississippi. 

Sidelooking airborne radar was employed to support 

geological research and mapping of the island of 

Hawaii, of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, 

and much of New York. Color and color infrared high 

altitude aerial photography are being used to study 

surface circulation patterns in San Francisco Bay, 

complex near-shore currents along the coast of Puerto 

Rico, sedimentation patterns along the south Texas 

coast and, with the Air Force Cambridge Research 

Laboratory, the sedimentary history of the Monomoy 

Point area of Massachusetts. Color, color infrared; and 

thermal infrared aerial data are providing bases for 

new studies of sedimentation and the effects of discharge of artificially heated water on the northern 

coast of Washington. 

The Bureau of Mines, with the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey, used NASA supplied 

radar data to develop a new understanding of regional structure and local oil producing area relationships in the Burning Springs, Va., area. Airborne 

thermal mapping surveys were conducted over burning 

culm banks in Pennsylvania and over areas. of underground fire in the Eastern United States; they were 

also conducted in Colorado and Wyoming to determine 

usefulness of the systems in combating these very wasteful and hazardous conditions. 

The Office of Water Resources Research supported 

research at the University of Rhode Island on aerial 

photography for remote sensing of pollution in Narragansett Ray; at the University of Montana on aerial 

photography and thermal infrared mapping to detect 

conditions of surface soil moisture before and after 

irrigation; at Cornel1 University on the use of aerial 

photography for prediction of water discharge for 

small watersheds; at the University of Wisconsin on the 

use of remote sensors for delineating flood plains in 

areas of deficient hydrologic data; and, at the University of Hawaii on the use of aeromagnetics and multiband photography for aid in the study of ground water 

resources.' 

The Federal Water Quality Administration funded 

research projects through grants and contracts at several universities and firms to develop remote sensing 

techniques for detecting and measuring agricultural 

pollution, pipeline leaks, and the discharge of pulp 
and paper mill effluents. An extensive evaluation is also 

under way on present aerial sensing techniques and 

their applicability to the detection and measurement 

of water characteristics. 

Space 

Research.-The Department of the Interior, through 

its Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) program, is cooperating with NASA, the Department of 

Defense, other Federal, State, and local governments, 

and educational and private research groups to develop 

useful applications of space and aeronautical remote 

sensing systems for resources exploration, analysis, and 

management. Research needs, projects, priorities, and 

support are defined and coordinated through working 

groups comprised of representatives of all Interior Bureaus and Offices. Working groups in Mineral and 

Land Resources, Water Resources, Human Resources 

and Activities, Marine Resources, and Mapping Requirements assure attention to all Department of the 

Interior areas of responsibility, balance among programs, and avoidance of duplicatory effort in a burgeoning and farflung field of activity. 

Major efforts are going toward preparation to use 

data from ERTS-A scheduled for 1972 launching. 

Planning is underway for an EROS Data Center near 

Sioux Falls, S. Dak. The data center will have four 

major functions: (1) to process, disseminate, and store 

data from the ERTS satellites for the broad user community; (2) to extract generally useful resource information from the ERTS data and disseminate it for 

users; (3) to provide some facilities for user training 

and assistance in data use; and (4) to develop methods 

and produce resources maps and statistics from satellite and aerial data for basic research and planning and 

regularly updated information on changing conditions 

of environment for management. 

In addition, the EROS program will conduct a large 

number of experiments with ERTS data to determine 

its usefulness in helping to fulfill the resource missions 

of the Department of the Interior. 

The Bureau of Reclamation, the Geological Survey, 

and the Bonneville Power Administration are initiating a research program in the Stanford Research Institute to develop applications of satellite data to the 

systematic observation of snowfall, rainfall, and 

drought, their effects upon natural and artificial water 

catchment and distribution systems and the environment as a whole. 

The Bureau of Mines is studying Gemini and Apollo 

photography to determine the applicability of space 

systems to analysis and prediction of regional effects of 

large scale mining operations, and surface effects of 

undeground fires. 

The National Park Service is using Apollo 9 multiband photography of the barrier islands of the United 

States to aid in determination of management objectives there. It also uses Apollo 9 photography to enhance knowledge of the geology and topography of the 

Tucson-Phoenix area prior to the location of new 

roads and the realinement of old roads in the Saguarro 

National Monument. Gemini and Apollo photographs 

are used for in-service training programs for environment awareness. 

The Geological Survey produced experimental 

photomaps of the l’ucson, arizona Quadrangle incorporating Apollo 9 photographs and the latest information obtainable by conventional mapping methods. It 

also supported the design of a computer program at 

the Ohio State University to locate photo coordinates 

on unrectified space photographs to make them immediately useful as working maps. Research is being conducted and facilities provided for enhancement of 

photographic data to enable correlation, combination, 

and selective separation for analysis of special information relative to depths of water and snow, types and 

condition of vegetation, works of man, and changes of 

these through time. Using Apollo 9 photographs, a 

photomosaic of the Southwest United States was developed for analysis of soil, rock, and vegetation relationships. From this, evidence was derived of recent 

arroyo formation and accelerated erosion in the desert 

as results of overgrazing and increasing aridity. One 

volcano in the Cascade Range was instrumented 

with temperature sensing devices and data are received from them eight times per week by relay through 

the Nimbus 4 satellite. A cooperative program is being 

developed with the Delaware River Basin Commission 

to design and implement a space data link through 

ERTS-A to provide simultaneous surface sensor and 

space observation data on the quality and movement 

of water. A Chesapeake Ray research project has been 

initiated involving Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia 

governmental agencies and universities and the U.S. 

Geological Survey geography, hydrology, geology, and 

cartography applications programs. Its goal is to develop a systematic and coordinated approach to rhe 

analysis and solution of regional environmental problems involving water resources, vegetation, the works 

of man, and the interactions among them. Supporting 

research at American University has indicated a very 

promising capability for relating marsh and estuarine 

vegetation to water conditions. In cooperation with 

the Geological Survey of Alabama, Apollo 9 photography was used to map hitherto undetermined shear 

zones, thereby demonstrating a value of space data for 

providing knowledge of great value to the study of 

water resources and the planning of dams and reservoirs. Supporting photometric research has shown a 

relationship between anomalous soil mineralization 

and vegetation conditions in a selected copper61 
molybdenum area in Maine, and radiometric research 

in a selected field area has distinguished limestone from 

dolomite. Research of passive microwave radiometer 

systems is being supported to determine their potential for measuring moisture content of snow fields to 

enable more accurate forecasting and more effective 

management of regional water resources. Programs 

were initiated using Gemini, Apollo, and high altitude 

aircraft multiband photography to develop methods of 

mapping land use and of monitoring and mapping environmental change. These methods will be incorporated into ERTS experiment and applications programs in 1972. Using Apollo and Gemini photographs, 

a map was prepared at 1 : 1,000,000 showing 11 categories of land use in the Southwestern United States. 

Research is being sponsored to develop the use of 

satellite and high altitude aircraft remote sensor data 

for archeological research and for analysis of the impact of urban development on local climates. 

The Alaska Power Administration is examining the 

potential value of communications satellites for internal and external communications and for educational as well as standard television. 

Operations.-The Geological Survey, in direct support 

of NASA, continued the analysis and mapping of the 

moon using Lunar Orbiter IV and Apollo 12 photographs. The potential values of radar for mapping 

lunar surface materials and of a lunar rover mounted 

magnetometer for analysis of rock types were demonstrated. Samples of the moon were analyzed and evidence was developed suggesting that the earth and the 

moon were formed about the same time, providing new 

support for a theory that the moon developed independently and had not spun-off from earth. The 

principal differences between lunar and earth materials compared to date appear to be in relative percentages of auxiliary minerals and in the effects of 

physical impact on rocks in the lunar environment. 

Support is being given to NASA in the calicbration of 

return beam vidicon tubes being produced for 

ERTS-A. Through contract at the University of Illinois, studies are being made to determine the geometry of return beam vidicons and the systems and 

procedures to be employed to attain best possible geometry and fidelity in the data obtained by them. Administrative, review, and teaching support are being 

provided to the International Workshop on Remote 

Sensing to be presented at the University of Michigan 

May 3-14, 1971 under the sponsorship of NASA, the 

Departments of Agriculture, Interior and State, AID, 

and the Naval Oceanographic Office. 

The Bureau of Mines conducted research on drilling, 

explosive, rock fracture, and materials handling 

processes in simulated lunar environment and performed analyses of mineral values of lunar rock 

samples. 

The Office of Saline Water, jointly with NASA, 

funded research of the reverse osmosis process and of 

porous glass membranes for recovery of potable water 

from urine and wash water in closed systems. The 

development of a novel, lightweight, flexible, braided 

fiberglass support for the reverse osmosis process was 

an important result and will be the subject of continuing research. 

Znternational Cooperative Activities.-The Geological 

Survey and NASA are cooperating with Canada in 

connection with the International Field Year for the 

Great Lakes in the study of the applicability of air 

and spaceborne remote sensing systems for monitoring 

pollution and the natural and artificial processes of 

the Great Lakes. A study of geothermal conditions east 

of Lake Chapala, Mexico was conducted with NASA 

and Mexico. With the cooperation of the U.S.S.R., 

proton magnetometer measurements from Cosmos-49 

were analyzed for application to the study of regional 

crustal conditions. Airborne and spaceborne remote 

sensor studies of Iceland’s volcanic and geothermal 

fields were continued with the Air Force Cambridge 

Research Laboratory and Iceland’s National Resource 

Council and National Energy Authority. In connection 

with these, a field study of the 1970 eruption of Hekla 

Volcano was made. In cooperation with the U.S. Department of State and the Government of Saudi 

Arabia, airborne magnetic, photographic, and radiometric surveys were made in support of geologic mapping to define the mineral resources base of Saudi 

Arabia. Similar work was conducted in cooperation 

with the Administration for International Development (AID) and the governments of Liberia and Indonesia. As a result of this work, several areas for oil exploration have been defined in Liberia. In Indonesia all 

resources are being studied, but special interest has been 

developed in potential geothermal power sources in 

central Java. Geological Survey support is being given 

to Brazil, Venezuela, Guyana, and other Latin American nations in the planning of projects to use airborne 

and spaceborne systems for resources analysis in both 

research and operations. Research of factors and effects 

of crater formation in natural crater areas and by artificial propagation was conducted cooperatively with 

the Department of Defense, the Geological Survey of 

Canada, and the Bureau of Mineral Resources of 

Australia. These studies are aimed at a better understanding of the geology of the moon. 

The Bureau of Reclamation, with the cooperation 

of the Advanced Research Projects Agency, has begun 

research of remote sensor system applications to analyses of soil, drainage, water occurrence, and vegetation for reclamation planning in the United States 

AID-supported Pa Mong Project cooperative with the 

governments of Thailand and Laos. 

62 
X Department 

Introduction 

The US. Department of Agriculture (USDA) continued its efforts in 1970 to develop applications of 

remote sensing and to improve its capability to collect 

and analyze the growing variety of earth resources data 

and information via remote sensing techniques. Its 

sensor-signature research extended from laboratories 

and field observations to aircraft and spacecraft platforms. Its objectives are to: (1) determine and evaluate the feasibilities and potentials for the improvement 

of agricultural, forestry, and range programs which 

depend upon the rapid accumulation, analysis, and 

application of information on crops, forests and wildlands, soils, and water conditions; (2) to assess the 

synoptic changes in man’s nonurban environment ; 

and (3) to identify in particular those applications 

where the benefits achieved would have a major impact on the national agricultural economy. The National Academy of Sciences has estimated that the 

losses incurred in agriculture in the United States due 

to insects, disease, and fire alone exceed $13 billion 

annually. A system of remote sensors that would be 

capable of early detection of these plant stress factors 

can have an immediate impact on control programs as 

well as the national economy. In order to provide 

optimum long-term benefits, the Department of Agriculture has initiated appropriate remote sensing research and development programs in the attempt to 

improve the ability and capability to obtain and analyze greater amounts of data of improved quality on 

a near realtime basis. It is believed that remote sensing 

techniques can add significant dimensions in the acquisition of both United States and world agricultural 

and wildland resources information. As one specific 

example, Forest Service Fire Research developed a 

new airborne thermal infrared system for both detection and mapping of forest fires. Operational tests in 

an 8,000 square mile forest area show that the system 

has outstanding efficiency. On a single night patrol 

flight, 59 new forest fires were rapidly detected following a dry lightning storm. In addition, during this 

critical fire season scores of spreading forest fires were 

mapped under conditions of dense smoke that prevented usual reconnaissance. 

of Agriculture 

Cooperative Activities in Aerospace Programs 

In recognizing the immediate need for a technically 

feasible and economically sound earth resources remote 

sensing program that can effectively utilize aerospace 

technology to collect near realtime data, the Department of Agriculture engaged in a number of Federal 

interagency activities. 

In cooperation with NASA, USDA through its 

Agricultural Research Service and Forest Service continued its remote sensing research investigations 

pertinent to agricultural, forestry, and range problems. 

A large part of the research is being devoted to a better understanding of the interaction of radiant energy 

with plant tissues and soils. USDA continued to develop US. regional multidisciplinary experimental test 

sites for the future NASA high flight earth resources 

survey aircraft that would simulate the Earth Resources 

Technology Satellite (ERTS) overflights scheduled for 

orbit in 1972. In order to provide an adequate and 

effective data flow from ERTS to USDA, the Department also continued studies with NASA to assist in the 

development of a data network concept, including 

data acquisition, processing, reproduction, dissemination, analysis, evaluation, cataloging, storage, retrieval, 

and feedback. 

Assistance was also provided NASA by USDA in 

the development of an International Workshop Program on remote sensing of earth resources scheduled 

for May 1971. USDA is expected to contribute 10 to 

12 lecture topics. 

USDA was a member of an interagency task group 

in a definitive policy study toward the establishment 

of a national earth resources survey program aimed 

at the full utilization of ground, aircraft, and satellite 

remote sensing data. 

USDA was a member of a joint task force in which 

a study was made to determine the most effective and 

expeditious manner in which to monitor and evaluate 

national natural disasters and catastrophies via aerospace and other systems. 

In order to determine the feasibility and potentiality 

of utilizing aerospace remote sensing technology for less 

developed countries USDA participated in an Agency 

for International Development symposium. 

The interest of many countries has been aroused by 

USDA’s remote sensing research activities. During 

1970 visitors from Argentina, Australia, Belgium, 

63 
Brazil, Canada, England, France, Germany, India, 

Israel, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, and South Africa 

came to the Department to be briefed. Briefings were 

also given to some 50 foreign agricultural counselors 

based at their Washington, D.C. embassies. 

Remote Sensing Program 

The Department, during 1970, recognized its need to 

continue its efforts to develop the capability to collect, 

analyze, and utilize the near realtime synoptic and 

sequential data to be obtained from remote sensing 

experimental satellites, in preparation for future operational satellite systems. It established an Earth Resources Survey Committee to aid in the coordination 

of effort and the formulation of guidelines for the Department’s effective participation in a national earth 

resources program. It further assessed its in-house capabilities to handle the anticipated large quantities 

of data which will be acquired from the experimental 

Earth Resources Technology Satellites A and B, Skylab, 

and high flight aircraft systems proposed by NASA. 

Concomitantly, USDA further identified its data and 

information needs to effect the greater usage of aircraft 

and satellite systems of the future. It continued in the 

attempt to acquire and properly equip a multi-instrumented remote sensing research aircraft in order to 

more effectively acquire, analyze, evaluate, and utilize 

data obtained on crops, forests, ranges, and on soils 

and water conditions in a more accurate, rapid, and 

timely manner. Possession of its own airborne remote 

sensing research platform will lessen considerably the 

Department’s dependence upon others for the acquisition of data. Several approaches to the problem are 

being considered. An expanded effort was also made to 

apprise not only its agencies but also its 53 affiliated 

Federal and State experiment stations and 17 State 

schools of forestry, agribusinesses, and the agricultural 

community at large of the feasibility and the potential 

benefits to be derived from a remote sensing earth 

resources survey program. USDA, in cooperation with 

NASA and the National Academy of Sciences,.published a 424-page treatise entitled “Remote SensmgWith Special Reference to Agriculture and Forestry.” 

The purpose, in part, was to bridge the communications gap that exists among agricultural and forestry 

scientists, physical scientists, and data processing 

specialists. It also provides background information on 

the potential uses of remote sensing in agriculture and 

wildland resources and a technical appraisal of stateof-the-art sensors and discrimination techniques. 

XI Department of Commerce I 

Introduction 

The Department of Commerce has four major organizational units engaged in activities that contribute 

to the national aeronautics and space program. These 

are the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau of Standards, the Maritime Administration, and the Office of Telecommunications. Other units of ,the Department contribute 

indirectly. The US. Patent Office, for example, issues 

patents on inventions with space applications, and the 

National Technical Information Service collects and 

distributes scientific and technical information produced under the aeronautics and space program. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was created within the US. Depart64 

ment of Commerce on October 3, 1970, pursuant to 

Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970. The 

NOAA is composed of organizational entities from 

the Department of Commerce, the Department of the 

Interior, the Department of Transportation, the National Science Foundation, and the Department of Defense. The Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) of the Department of Commerce was 

abolished and its major units were incorporated into 

the NOAA. Current NOAA organizational elements 

and the organizations from which they were derived 

are shown below: 

NOAA organizational 

elements From 

National Weather Sew- ESSA Weather Bureau. 

National Marine Fisheries Bureau of Commercial Fisheries 

and the Marine Sport Fish Research Program, both from Department of the Interior. 

ice. 

Service. 
NOAA organiaational 

element8 

Environmental Research 

National Ocean Survey 

Laboratories. 

National Environmental 

Environmental Data ServSatellite Service. 

ice. 

Office af Sea Grant 

Data Buoy Project Office 

National Oceanographic 

Instrumentation CenFrom 

ESSA Research Laboratories. 

ESSA Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the US. Lake Survey 

from the US. Army Corps of 

Engineers. 

ESSA National Environmental 

Satellite Center. 

ESSA Environmental Data Service, and the National Oceanographic Data Service from the 

US. Navy. 

National Sea Grant Program of 

the National Science Foundation. 

National Data Buoy Project of 

the Coast Guard, Department 

of Transportation. 

Same name, U.S. Navy. 

ter. 

nology. Interior. 

The NOAA mission is to explore, map, and chart 

the global oceans, their basins, their geophysical forces 

and fields, and their biological and mineral resources. 

New physical and biological knowledge will be translated into systems to assess the sea’s potential yield, 

and into techniques which the Nation and its industries 

can employ to manage; use, and conserve these animal 

and mineral resources. NOAA will monitor and predict the- quickly changing elements of the physical 

environment in real time. The atmosphere, oceans, 

sun and the solid earth will be under constant surveillance. Predictions will be made of weather, tides, solar 

flares, and changes in gravity and geomagnetism. 

Warnings will be given on impending environmental 

hazards to ease the burden caused by hurricanes and 

floods, tornadoes, tidal waves, and other natural disaster conditions. NOAA also will monitor and predict 

the gradual and inexorable changes of climate, seismicity, marine-life distributions, earth tides, continental position, and the planet’s internal circulations, 

and will note and examine the effects of civilization 

and industry on the environment and life. To accomplish these objectives, NOAA will draw upon the 

knowledge, talent, and experience of its personnel, 

and its wide range of facilities, and will strengthen 

the mutually important links between government, 

universities, and industry. NOAA and its institutional 

partners will develop technology and systems for more 

effective assessment of resources, utilization of environmental data, environmental monitoring and prediction, and possibly for environmental modification and 

control. Thus, the growing family of satellites, sensors, 

ships, data buoys, computers, and simulators, will be 

used to extend man’s capability for observing his 

environment and to provide the technology for 

Marine Minerals Tech- Same name, Department of the 

essential environmental services. In these ways NOAA 

will seek to improve the safety and the quality of life, 

and man’s comprehension, use, and preservation of his 

home, the planet Earth. 

Highlights of 1970.-On January 23, 1970, an Improved Tiros Operational Satellite, I-TOS 1, was 

successfully launched by NASA. This satellite is the 

operational prototype of the second generation of 

polar-orbiting operational environmental satellites. 

I-TOS 1 meets major National Operational Meteorological Satellite System (NOMSS) objectives in that 

it has the capability to obtain nighttime observations, 

temperature measurements of cloud tops and the 

earth’s surface, and is equipped with a solar proton 

monitor. 

ESSA-2, the first Automatic Picture Tansmission 

(APT) spacecraft of the Tiros Operational Satellite 

system was retired after almost 5 years of continuous 

service. This spacecraft was launched February 28, 

1966, and was deactivated October 16, 1970, after 

1,691 days in orbit. 

The improved Satellite Infrared Spectrometer 

(SIRS-B) on Nimbus 4, launched April 8, 1970, 

obtains measurements of atmospheric water vapor 

content and vertical temperature profiles. SIRS-B also 

provides a more dense network of observations than 

did the earlier SIRS-A carried on Nimbus 3. 

NOAA-1, designated I-TOS A prior to launch, was 

placed in orbit on December 11. This is the first 

operational satellite of the ITOS system. 

Intensive, realtime operational experiments to use 

Applications Technology Satellite ( ATS) pictures were 

conducted by the National Environmental Satellite 

Service, the National Severe Weather Warning Center, Kansas City, and the National Hurricane Center, 

Miami. The purpose was to test the utility of nearcontinuous cloud cover observations for severe weather 

warnings, and for hurricane surveillance, advisory, and 

warning operations. 

NOAA and NASA initiated procurement for the 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

(GOES) system. NASA will produce the operational 

prototype spacecraft in its Synchronous Meteorological 

Satellite (SMS) project. 

Solar proton data, obtained in near real-time from 

the I-TOS 1 satellite, were used to support the Apollo 

13 mission in the critical hours prior to reentry. 

The National Marine Fisheries Service started investigations on the uses of aerospace sensors for charting the oceanic environment of marine life, and for 

locating and tracking fish stocks. 

NOAA National Weather Service has furnished support, under the World Meteorological Organization 

Voluntary Assistance Program, for the installation in 

foreign countries of 10 ground stations for receiving 

data directly from U.S. environmental satellites. 

65 
National Weather Service 

The National Weather Service (NWS) is involved 

in the aeronautics and space program in two ways. 

NWS furnishes weather support to the space program 

through its Space Operations Support Division and 

to civil and military aviation through its forecasting 

services and research programs. The NWS also is 

involved in determining the usefulness of space technology for its data gathering and dissemination systems, and the usefulness of space-acquired data for 

weather analysis and forecasting. During 1970 the 

National Weather Service has expanded its operational 

use of space technology using satellite-acquired data 

in its routine analysis and forecasting procedures, and 

satellite telemetry systems to relay information expeditiously. The NWS also provides meteorological guidance and support for space test facilities and 

operations. 

Collection and Relay of Data by Satellites.-The 

Applications Technology Satellite ATS-1 has been 

used experimentally for the past 2 years to collect 

river stage and rainfall measurements from untended 

automatic stations and to relay these data to a central 

point for analysis. This successful experiment will become operational with the planned 1972 launch of 

the prototype GOES. These data will be used routinely 

in the preparation of flood forecasts, and for research 

into many water resources problems. The telemetry 

system will aso be used to broadcast timely warnings 

of flood conditions. As the system develops, other 

hydrological sensor equipment will be added to the 

GOES data collection and relay system. 

The ATS-3 satellite transponder is in use in a continuing operational experiment, testing an inexpensive 

shipboard data transmitter as part of the design of 

system for rapid collection of weather data from ships 

at sea. 

Snow Mapping by Satellite.-Studies performed under contract for the National Environmental Satellite 

Service (NESS) and NWS have materially aided in 

providing a better understanding of the benefits and 

limitations of visual photographic mapping by satellite 

of snow-covered areas. Timely data on the areal extent 

and water equivalent of snowfields are required by hydrologists in the preparation of river and water supply 

forecasts for the nation. NWS River Forecast Centers 

are receiving satellite products for application to these 

operational problems. 

Remote Sensing of the Water Equivalent of Snow.- 

Techniques are being tested for remote measurement 

of the water equivalent of snow cover from sensors 

aboard aircraft. Sensing techniques are based on the 

changes in attenuation of natural earth-emitted gamma 

radiation due to variations in the water equivalent of 

snow. The results of the first year of research are 

promising for future application of the method to 

operational river forecasting. 

Cloud pictures collected routinely from the ATS 

satellites by NOAA's Wallops Station command and 

Data Acquisition Station are processed for retransmission by the ATS transponders to local Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) ground stations at Honolulu 

and San Francisco where they are used in the daily 

operations of the forecast offices. 

Special receivers for ATS pictures were established 

at the National Severe Storm Forecast Center 

(NSSFC) at Kansas City and the National Hurricane 

Center (NHC) in Miami. The installations are complete, with high quality photographic recorders, special 

receiving equipment, and a complete photographic 

laboratory. In addition to photographic prints, 16-mm. 

movie loops are produced, by which the evolution and 

motion of the storms can be observed and studied. 

This represents a breakthrough for the field forecasters. 

It enabled the NHC to program reconnaissance flights 

more efficiently and the NSSFC to evaluate the radar 

weather data more effectively. 

Digitized Cloud Mosaics.-Digitized mosaics of satellite cloud pictures are transmitted routinely from the 

National Meteorological Center to NWS forecast offices throughout the United States. The mosaics, now 

prepared and transmitted once a day, will be replaced 

with mosaics prepared and transmitted on an orbitto-orbit basis (approximately once every 2 hours) . 

Automatic Picture Transmission.-Early in 1968 the 

National Weather Service began the transmission of 

raw APT signals in an existing central facsimile network. The APT data acquired at Wallops Station, Va., 

San Francisco, Calif., and Kunia, Hawaii, are transmitted to stations on the network within minutes after 

receipt from the satellite. Transmission of infrared 

nighttime imagery was added in November 1970. This 

operational network has been expanded to include a 

large number of Air Force and Navy installations in 

the conterminous United States. The number of APT 

stations needed for Government weather stations has 

decreased materially as a result of this network 

operation. 

Under the voluntary assistance program the 

Weather Service has provided technical assistance and 

advice for installation of complete APT systems in 10 

underdeveloped countries. More installations are 

planned. 

Nimbus 4 Satellite Znfrared Spectrometer.-The 

SIRS-B spectrometer, an improved version of the 

SIRS-A used on Nimbus 3, is furnishing global vertical 

temperature and moisture profiles daily. These data 

66 
are used as experimental operational input to the 

numerical (computer) weather analysis programs, and 

are being evaluated for their accuracy. Availability of 

these data globally in realtime conceivably could lead 

not only to improvement in the computer forecasts 

but also to economic savings from reprogramming of 

the current ground-based upper-air observation 

network. 

Meteorological Support to Space Operations and 

Test Facilities.-Through its Space Operations Support Division, NWS furnished the primary meteorological guidance for several NASA activities. NWS 

provided staff and local forecasting support for the 

Kennedy Space Center and the Manned Spacecraft 

Center, and forecasts of weather and sea conditions for 

the Apollo 13 flight. 

After the Apollo 13 in-flight explosion, forecasts were 

required for many possible emergency landing areas 

in the Southern Hemisphere and finally for the actual 

landing some 500 miles south of the Samoan Islands. 

Weather satellites again provided a principal source 

of data on which these remote area forecasts were 

based. A new global prognosis chart prepared by the 

National Meteorological Center also was useful for 

the predictions in the Southern Hemisphere tropics. 

At the NASA Mississippi Test Facility, the NWS 

team made weather observations and forecasts for the 

ground testing of the final nine Apollo-Saturn rocket 

engines scheduled at the facility. 

At the NASA Wallops Stations, NWS provided 

weather support for the varied activities of that facility. In support of the scientific program conducted 

during the total solar eclipse on March 7, 1970, 24 

rocket probes were fired, 13 in a 15-minute period. A 

vast number of surface and upper air weather observations were recorded before, during, and after the 

eclipse, in support of the rocket firings. 

Utilization of Aircraft.-Meteorologist-pilots of the 

quality control staffs at NWS headquarters fly light, 

single or twin-engine aircraft (either rented or privately owned) in connection with quality control duties. These flights permit in-flight monitoring and 

evaluation of NWS-furnished aviation weather services; they also are used as a means of travel for station visits and on-station services evaluations. 

In addition, aviation forecasters take familiarization 

trips as passengers in airline and other aircraft to become better acquainted with their areas of forecast 

responsibility and the use made of NWS products. 

Services to Aviation.-Specialized weather information is provided to pilots, controllers, and aircraft operators to promote efficiency in aviation activities. This 

information is in the form of observations, forecasts, 

warnings, and pilot briefings. 

Observations are made at 908 locations; many by 

other Government agencies, airlines, and airport personnel. Terminal forecasts are made for 425 airports, 

generally every 6 hours. Area forecasts and in-flight 

advisories are also provided. Forecasts for international 

aviation covering most of the Northern Hemisphere 

and part of the Southern Hemisphere are also provided in facsimile and digital forms, the latter being 

used extensively in computer flight planning by the 

airlines. 

Pilot weather briefings are available through 248 

National Weather Service offices, plus 334 FAA offices and 159 unmanned FAA facilities. About 2 million briefings are provided annually by the National 

Weather Service and about 13 million by the FAA. 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) plays 

a major role in the development and utilization of national fisheries resources. The NMFS mission is to discover, describe, develop, and conserve the living 

resources of the oceans, particularly those that affect 

the economy and food supplies of the United States. 

To this end the NMFS conducts biological and ecological research on fish and marine organisms, analyzes 

the economics of fishery operations and marketing, 

develops methods for improving catches, and conducts 

a voluntary grading and inspection program of fishery 

catches. The NMFS and the U.S. Coast Guard conduct joint enforcement and surveillance operations in 

territorial waters of the United States and on the high 

seas. Twenty-nine vessels, 30 laboratories, and 50 offices across the Nation are used to carry out the NMFS 

mission. 

Aerospace Program for Remote Sensing.-Since the 

ocean environment determines the activity and movement of fishes and other marine life, it is necessary to 

study this environment in as much detail as possible. In 

the past such measurements were, of necessity, limited 

to those that could be acquired by ships and shore stations. Remote sensors, developed concurrently with 

aerospace technology, have great potential as means 

for acquiring detailed, timely measurements over large 

areas of the ocean. The NMFS signed an agreement 

with NASA on August 21, 1970, that initiated a program to assess the value of remote sensing to their 

mission. This is the National Marine Fisheries Aerospace Remote Sensing Program at NASA's Mississippi 

Test Facility. Sensors mounted on aircraft will be tested 

to determine their utility for measuring patterns of 

ocean surface temperature and for locating fish stocks. 

Instruments to be tested include low-light-level image 

intensifiers, lasers, aerial cameras, and spectrometers. 

As tests proceed, existing instruments may be modified 

67 
and new instruments may be developed. In addition, 

observations of oceanic patterns over large areas will 

be studied by using measurements obtained from 

spacecraft sensors. The NASA is cooperating with and 

advising the NMFS in the development of instrumentation and sensor systems to gather data from 

spacecraft during the proposed Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) and Skylab programs. The 

NMFS has also started studies of the surface temperature patterns of the oceans using infrared data obtained by NOAA‘s Environmental Survey Satellites. 

These studies are part of a general program being 

developed by NMFS to relate space-acquired oceanic 

data to the NMFS mission requirement for assessing 

and monitoring living marine resources. The NMFS 

requirements for ocean surface data closely matches 

the requirements of the NWS and of the National 

Ocean Survey in that the data required in common 

are ocean surface temperatures, sea state (wave conditions) , winds, sea currents, storm locations, salinity, 

and other phenomena. 

Environmental Research Laboratories 

The Environmental Research Laboratories (ERL) , with headquarters in Boulder, Colo., conduct the 

fundamental investigations needed to improve man’s 

understanding of the physical environment. Ten laboratories conduct research in the various scientific disciplines required in support of NOAA missions. 

Ofice of the Director.-Two geophysical studies were 

conducted in support of systems design for geostationary satellites for aeronautical communications. One was 

to determine the effects of ionospheric irregularities in 

polar regions on S-band (1,700 MegaHertz) radio 

signals passing through the ionosphere. Transmissions 

received at Gilmore Creek, Alaska, from ESSA 8 and 

I-TOS 1 at both 1,700 MHz and 137 MHz were used 

to detect these effects (known as scintillations) . Comparisons showed that scintillations at the higher 

frequency are considerably smaller than those at 

the lower frequencies usually used for satellite 

communications. 

The second study was to determine what effects 

polar region solar proton events have on satellite signals. Although such events, known as polar cap absorption (PCA), are rare, they can absorb radio signals 

transmitted through the ionosphere. Such absorption 

can be considerable and can last many hours. Calculations of the effects of PCA on 137 MHz transmissions 

at the elevation angles to be used with geostationary 

satellites established the probable amount of such absorption and its geographical extent. Analysis of PCA 

events over the past 15 years also established the 

68 

probability of occurrence of various amounts of such 

absorption. 

A cooperative program to study the interaction of 

mountain waves and clear air turbulence was undertaken by NOAA units, the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) , the US. Air Force, and the 

Canadian Research Establishment. Aircraft used in the 

investigation included two USAF and one NOAA RB57, NCAR’s Saberliner and Buffalo, and the NOAA 

high-altitude glider. Measurements of turbulence and 

wind conditions in mountain waves were made at 25 

levels, ranging from 13,000 to 65,000 feet, to obtain 

vertical profiles of these phenomena. Severe turbulence 

was encountered primarily at 60,000 feet, and wind 

direction reversals occurred in two cases. The new understanding of clear air turbulence gained from these 

investigations will be particularly useful to those flying 

high altitude and supersonic aircraft. 

Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory 

(Boulder) .-In a program to study inadvertent 

weather modification caused by jet contrail “clouds,” 

infrared radiometers carried aboard a NASA 990 aircraft were used to obtain thermal measurements. 

Immediately beneath the contrails, a decrease of about 

7 percent in net incoming radiation was observed at the 

earth‘s surface. However, these effects were found to 

decrease rapidly as one moved 50 miles on either side 

of the jet corridor. A recent pilot program was conducted with a stratospheric jet aircraft carrying a 

down-looking spectrometer to measure atmospheric effects of infrared radiant emission from vapor trails. 

This experiment, conducted at 65,000 feet, showed 

essentially no effect at altitude and no effect at the 

earth’s surface. These measurements are expected to 

be important in evaluating the effect of increasing jet 

aircraft traffic on local and worldwide climate. 

Possibilities for eliminating the hazard to manned 

spacecraft launches caused by lightning discharges are 

being studied. One approach is to predict the possibility of natural electrical discharges, using measurements of electric field conditions in the launch area just 

prior to launch. The other approach is to discharge 

potential lightning by artificial means just prior to 

launch of a vehicle; this should greatly reduce the possibility of hazardous discharges during launch. Small 

rockets were launched into thunderclouds to test this 

idea. The rockets did trigger discharges, and aircraft 

measurements obtained in the cloud shortly after the 

rocket firings indicated a significant reduction in electrical field strengths. 

Air Resources Laboratory (Washington, D.C.) .-The 

laboratory and the FAA conducted studies on the 

effects of the sonic boom produced by supersonic aircraft. A study was done at Pendleton, Oreg., on the 

effect of sonic boom on the space-time variability of 
atmospheric parameters. A significant small-scale space 

variability in overpressure was detected. 

A quantitative study was conducted on the geometry 

and intensity of wing tip vortices produced by heavy 

aircraft such as the 747 and C-5A flying at low altitudes. These measurements, gathered by sophisticated 

meteorological instruments mounted on low-flying aircraft, were used by the FAA for establishing regulations to guarantee safe distances between aircraft in 

flight. 

ERL Research Flight Facility (Miami, Flu.) .-The 

facility provided and operated aircraft in support of 

weather modification experiments, hurricane surveillance, and experiments requiring collection of data. 

During the solar eclipse of March 7 RFF aircraft 

seeded stratiform clouds with dry ice in the vicinity of 

Langley AFB. The seeding was done to dissipate the 

cloud so the NASA facility could photograph the 

eclipse. 

During the period April 15-May 31, RFF participated, with other research groups, in an experiment 

over south Florida using pyrotechnics to seed cumulus 

cloud with silver iodide. The objectives of the experiment were to repeat the single-cloud seeding experiment of May 1968 to obtain a statistically significant 

cloud sample (30 clouds) and to use massive silver 

iodide pyrotechnic seedings of individual cumulus 

clouds. The latter part of the experiment was to permit 

recognition and documentation of any changes in mesoscale structure and precipitation resulting from seeding. 

Extensive reconnaissance and research was conducted on cyclogenesis on the Atlantic coast of the 

northeastern United States during the fall and winter 

of 1969. The main objective was to provide real-time 

data to the operational forecaster in an attempt to 

improve forecasts of coastal storms. 

Aeronomy Laboratory (Boulder) .-This laboratory 

studies the physical and chemical processes of the 

ionosphere, upper atmosphere, and exosphere of the 

earth and other planets. 

One accomplishment of 1970 was the first completely successful rocket flight of an atamic-oxygen 

sensor for the upper atmosphere. Atomic oxygen is an 

important constituent of the atmosphere at altitudes 

above the stratopause; prior to the development of this 

new rocket-borne sensor, measurements of its concentration have not been obtainable. The new measurements will permit a definitive choice of a theory of the 

production and loss of atomic oxygen, thus promoting 

our understanding of the interaction between the upper 

and lower atmosphere. 

A cantinuing extensive program of laboratory 

measurements of atmospheric ion-molecule reaction 

rates has resulted in major advances in understanding 

the importance of water vapor in the lower ionosphere 

and the role of carbon dioxide in the ionospheres of 

Mars and Venus. 

Experimental studies in upper-atmosphere plasma 

physics are continuing. Under investigation is the structure of radio-frequency fields within the nonuniform 

plasma sheaths that surround spacecraft reentering 

the atmosphere. 

Earth Sciences Laboratory (Boulder) .-ESL conducts research in geomagnetism, seismology, geodesy, 

and related technologies. 

Hydromagnetic wave emissions at 0.33 Hz were 

observed at the Dodge satellite as it drifted across the 

geomagnetic field line connecting Byrd (Antartica) 

and Great Whale River (Canada). These data are 

being used in studies of rapid variations in the geomagnetic field, and to test current theories on the origin 

of such emissions. The use of satellite observations will 

be increased as a result of the successful detection 

described above. 

Space Disturbances Laboratory (Boulder) .-This 

laboratory conducts research on solar-terrestrial physics, and develops techniques for accurate forecasting 

of solar disturbances, and their effects on the earth 

environment. SDL is the national and international 

focal point for current information on the solar-terrestrial environment; SDL disseminates this information and current forecasts to a wide variety of users. 

Studies of solar physics are conducted to gain understanding of solar energy release mechanisms with the 

aim of improving forecasts of the times and locations of 

solar flares that can produce geophysical disturbances. 

Recent findings include : 

-Analyses of high resolution magnetograms show 

that the magnetic field of the solar surface can 

be resolved into small elements with strengths of 

about 20 gauss. 

-Periodic brightenings on the solar disc of hydrogen alpha mottles, with a period of about 5 

minutes and phase coherence over regions 

30,000 KM broad have ljeen identified with 

solar acoustic-gravity wave. 

-It has been found that energetic ultraviolet 

(EUV) radiation and hard X-ray bursts from 

solar flares are correlated. The energy of electrons required to produce hard X-rays appears 

sufficiently strong to account for the EUV, 

through ionization and subsequent radiative 

recombination in the lower chromosphere. 

-The intensity variations of white light emission 

in some large flares were found to be well correlated with a strong flux of EUV at 10 to 1030 

Angstroms, and that the flux increase in white 

light is approximately equal to that in the EUV 

69 
range. This correlation is of interest since the 

occurrence of white-light flares seems to be 

directly connected with collisions between two 

sunspot groups. 

Studies continue on the interactions between the 

magnetosphere and the solar wind, the transfer of 

energy from the solar wind into the earth’s magnetosphere, and the behavior and transport of this energy 

within the magnetosphere ionosphere and upper atmosphere. Satellite measurements appear to confirm 

current theories on magnetosphere shock wave 

formation. 

Experimental ground-based observation of interplanetary scintillations at 11.4-meter wavelengths 

yielded daily information from September 1969 

through April 1970. This information on the velocity 

and small scale structure of the solar wind complements 

the suprathermal observations obtained by particle detectors aboard scientific satellites. These measurement 

techniques can be used to detect and fix the location 

of an interplanetary magnetic field sector boundary 

between the sun and the earth; such information could 

be used to predict when the boundary will sweep past 

the earth. If such observations ‘became available routinely, they would be of great use in forecasting magnetic and ionospheric activity. 

The SDL cooperated with a Canadian research 

group at York University in flying photometric sensors 

on two Black Brant I11 rockets. The start of an infrared 

aurora was measured by this instrumentation, yielding 

valuable information on the energy characteristics of 

a unique excited state of the oxygen molecule. This 

newly observed phenomenon suggests the: existence of 

a source, other than particle precipitation, for infrared 

emissions. Auroral studies using rocket sensors are being 

planned with the University of Bergen and four 

launches are planned. 

Data from the solar proton monitor aboard the 

I-TOS 1 were available for operational use during the 

Apollo 13 mission. Real-time data from this instrument 

are becoming available for routine use in space environment monitoring and forecasting. Solar proton 

and magnetic data, now available continuously from 

the ATS-1 and Pioneer satellites are particularly useful to the Space Disturbances Forecast Center for early 

detection and real-time analysis of solar proton events. 

SDL assumed operation of the solar proton alert 

network (SPAN), under a contract with NASA. The 

SPAN network consists of four ground-based solar observation stations spaced to permit continuous observation of the sun with radio and optical telescopes. Data 

from this network are used to detect solar proton 

events. With the inclusion of this activity, the SDL 

has become a world data center for ground-observed 

solar data. 

A new spectrohelioscope built and installed at SDL 

in 1970 permits routine observations of sunspot and 

plage magnetic polarities. This instrument has made 

possible the collection of a data base adequate for 

routine sunspot forecasting. It is now possible to predict the location of about 80 percent of all flares. 

SDL is involved in determining specifications for a 

beacon to be flown on NASA’s ATS F for use in studies 

of the magnetosphere and ionospheric electron densities. Signals from the beacon will be received by scientific groups in other nations; SDL is coordinating international scientific activities on the use of the signals. 

SDL participates, under NASA contract, in the International Satellite for Ionospheric Studies (ISIS) 

program. The satellite data acquisition station at 

Boulder receives data from ISIS 1, and Alouette 1 

and 2, and reduces the data to ionograms for dissemination to participating scientific groups. 

Other ongoing programs of SDL include analysis 

of data from the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 

(IMP) and Orbiting Geophysical Observatory 

(OGO) satellites, and support to NASA for the Apollo 

Telescope Mount program. 

National Ocean Survey 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS) continues to make 

steady progress in support of the aeronautical and 

space programs of the United States. The basic programs of the NOS in this area include the operational 

use of satellites for geodesy and precise navigation, 

research to determine the feasibility for using satellite 

techniques to perform assigned tasks, and operational 

aerial photography for charting. In addition, NOS 

provides seismic and geomagnetic support to space 

facilities and activities. 

Aeronautical Charts.-Aeronautical charts published 

by NOS play a key role in the management and use 

of the national airspace. They are a means for implementing regulations and air traffic control procedures 

to make possible safe and efficient aerial navigation. 

In 1970 considerable progress was made by NOS in 

converting all domestic aeronautical charts to specifications approved by the Inter-Agency Air Cartographic 

Committee. The specifications are designed to assure 

a single, uniform air cartographic product for use by 

both military and civil aviation. 

Geometric Satellite Triangulation.-Data acquisition 

for the worldwide satellite triangulation network was 

completed during mid-November 1970. This program 

designed to establish a world data system connecting 

all of the continental data systems is based on the 

strictly geometric technique of photographing sunreflective satellites against the star background. It be70 
gan with the launch of PAGEOS in June 1966 as an 

integral part of the National Geodetic Satellite Program (NGSP) , and will serve as the primary geometric 

framework for other phases of the program. 

Forty-five stations in 23 countries have been established through the joint efforts of NASA, the U.S. 

Departments of Commerce and Defense, and the 23 

host countries. This national program, under the technical direction of NOS will provide a unified threedimensional framework encircling the earth and 

connecting all major land masses of the world within 

the extremely close tolerances in all three positional 

components. 

NASA has overall management responsibility for 

the NGSP; they designed and launched the PAGEOS 

satellite and furnised orbital elements for computation 

of observation predictions. The Topographic Command (TOPOCOM) of the US. Army Corps of Engineers, has the primary responsibility for logistics. 

They furnished four field observation teams and equipment. NOS has the technical responsibility for data 

acquisition, reduction, analysis, and intial publication 

of results. NOS provided for personnel training and 

furnished operation manuals and up to 10 field observation teams at a time. 

International cooperation has been generous and 

substantial, indicating the interest in and the recognized need for an accurate, three-dimensional worldwide geodetic control network. The following nations 

participated by permitting the establishment of from 

one to seven camera stations within the country or its 

territories : Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chad, Chile, 

Denmark, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Federal Republic of 

Germany, Iran, Italy, Japan, Mascarene Islands, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Portugal, 

Senegal, South Africa, Surinam, Thailand, the United 

Kingdom, and the United States. 

During the program, the Federal Republic of Germany furnished two camera teams and two observation systems. The United Kingdom supplied a field 

team. The Republic of South Africa, Australia, and 

Mexico furnished observation teams during operations 

in their countries. In addition, Australia provided complete logistic support for two stations at their Antarctic 

bases. 

To scale the satellite triangulation properly, at least 

four base lines spaced around the world were essential 

to meet NGSP accuracy requirements. In the U.S. 

work continued on the measurement of a precise 

geodimeter traverse network with connections to two 

of the worldwide network stations and to several of the 

supplemental network stations. Geodetic organizations 

in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Federal Republic of 

Germany, Austria, Italy, Australia, Nigeria, and 

France cooperated by measuring the required scale 

lines. 

The PAGEOS and Echo I1 satellites were utilized 

as observational targets for all data acquisition. Of the 

almost 10,000 simultaneous photographic observations 

scheduled during the program, almost 1,500 were successful, resulting in about 3,000 useful plates. Photogrammetric processing during 1970 included 192 new 

plates measured, 427 old plates remeasured to conform to new criteria, and 256 plates processed through 

anaylsis and computation. To date in the program, a 

total of 1,550 plates has been measured and processed 

through analysis and computation. New computer programed data reduction and analysis methods have 

been introduced to provide a final accuracy of at least 

one part per million in terms of earth dimensions. 

The measuring and processing of photographic plates 

will continue as planned, with completion of data processing scheduled to occur during 1972. 

Many developments and improvements in methods 

and equipment were adopted during the period 1967 

to 1970. Precise transfer of epoch time was accomplished at first by use of portable crystal clocks and 

later replaced by portable cesium clocks. Transponders 

aboard geostationary satellites of the ATS type were 

utilized for time transfer to remote islands in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. A time reset capability using 

polar-orbiting doppler satellites was developed and successfully used at stations in the Antarctic. As Loran C 

chains became synchronized and available, they were 

used to provide time reset capabilities without the 

necessity for carrying portable clocks from station to 

station. 

As data acquisition for the world net drew to a close 

in the fall of 1970, NOS continued the Cooperative 

Program of Satellite Triangulation Densification in 

North America which was established in 1963. TOPOCOM and Canadian interests furnished airlifts and observer personnel. The United Kingdom is continuing 

support by providing two observation teams. 

Observations were conducted from July through 

September 1970 at five stations in the southern United 

States, Currently, field teams are on station in Alaska, 

Canada, and Greenland. Current plans call for the 

completion of the field work during 1972 and the 

computations during 1974. 

Photogrammetric A pplications.-In the area of aerial 

photography technical and theoretical assistance was 

provided in support of the NASA Apollo Program. 

A metric camera experiment was designed to determine 

geometric as well as gravimetric conditions on the 

moon. 

NOS operates two aircraft to conduct aerial photographic missions required for NOAA progams. One 

aircraft is a Government-owned, twin-turboprop; 

the other is a leased, twin-engine aircraft. Both are 

manned by specially trained NOAA pilots and aerial 

photographers. 

71 
The aerial metric photography, in which panchromatic, infrared, and color film is used, supports aeronautical and nautical charting programs, seaward 

boundary surveys, and coastal inundation mapping. 

Photogrammetry is also used in surveys of areas devastated by earthquakes and hurricanes, surveys of estuarine and ocean currents, and for monitoring crustal 

movements in areas of high seismicity. 

Seismological Activities.-Expansion of the Tsunami 

Warning System continued. The eventual goal is a 

network of 30 seismograph stations and 84 tsunami 

detectors (tide gage and wave sensors). It is planned 

that elements in the network will eventually telemeter actual recordings to an analysis center in Hawaii 

via a geostationary satellite. Automatic transmissionby triggering or on query from the satellite-automatic 

signal identification, and on-line earthquake hypocenter and tsunami arrival-time computations are being planned. 

Seismic background characteristics were determined 

for the Goldstone, Calif., NASA facility where a proposed laser satellite communication installation would 

be located. Vibrations caused by local industrial 

sources were identified and documented, and an optimum location for the installation was selected on the 

basis of this information. 

A site evaluation study was made at White Sands, 

N. Mex., using shallow seismic refraction techniques. 

NASA plans to use the selected site for a project to 

determine the feasibility of using energy from rocket 

thrust plumes as a seismic energy source for the moon. 

Geomagnetism.-NOS continued its long-term cooperation with NASA in the development of geophysical instrumentation for space applications. A controlled magnetic environment test chamber, the NOS 

Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center, is used in this 

work. NOS also provided facilities and technical assistance to the US. Naval Oceanographic Office for 

testing and calibrating instrumentation employed on 

Project Magnet, a worldwide, airborne geomagnetic 

survey. 

In a joint effort with NASA, NOS is using computers 

to process geomagnetic analog records from some 50 

worldwide magnetic observatories and geomagnetic 

data collected by satellite and space probes. These cooperative efforts have been in progress for the past 

7 years. 

NOS published a Technical Report (C. & G.S. 38) 

containing a description of a Fortran I1 computer 

program for deriving magnetic values at points near 

and above the earth's surface. The mathematical model 

is the International Geomagnetic Reference Field for 

1965; this model is used as a common base by scientists 

around the world in studies of the earth's main magnetic field and in studies of related atmospheric, iono72 

spheric, and outer space parameters. The report also 

includes tables of total magnetic intensity and annual 

change data on a worldwide grid, and small scale 

world charts of total magnetic intensity. 

The 1970 issue of the World Magnetic Charts was 

published; for the first time analytical methods were 

used to describe secular change patterns as well as 

distribution of the magnetic field. Among other important uses, these charts provide basic magnetic data 

for worldwide nautical and aeronautical charts. 

Use of Navigation Satellites.-Five NOAA survey 

vessels are equipped with satellite navigation systems 

to provide the accuracy in position fixing necessary 

for deep sea surveys. 

Satellite Telemetry Applications.-The Coast Survey 

Marine Observation System is a stable, moored, subsurface platform from which oceanographic and atmospheric measurements can be collected. A surface 

float with attached telemetry antenna provides the 

capability for telemetering data in real time via the 

ATS-3 satellite. The telemetry package was provided 

through a cooperative agreement with NASA. The 

power source is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator provided through a cooperative agreement with 

the U.S. Navy. One of the first applications planned 

for the platform is its use as a tsunami detection station in the mid-Pacific Ocean. 

Plans are being made for development of a system 

for telemetering geomagnetic data in real time via 

satellite from a network of magnetic observatories to 

a central receiving station in College, Alaska. 

National Environmental Satellite Service 

The National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS) 

plans and operates environmental satellite systems, 

gathers and analyzes satellite data, and develops new 

methods of using satellites to obtain environmental 

data. As environmental satellite technology matures, 

sensors will be added to measure additional atmospheric characteristics, and to provide data on solar, 

ionospheric, oceanographic, and other geophysical 

phenomena. 

Environmental Satellites.-The operational environmental satellite system inaugurated the second generation operational spacecraft with the launch of the 

NASA-funded I-TOS 1 in January 1970. The Improved Tiros Operational Satellite ( I-TOS) replaces 

both the Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) and 

Advanced Vidicon Camera System (AVCS) satellites 

of the first-generation Tiros Operational Satellite 

(TOS) system which have been used since 1966. 

NOAA 1 (I-TOS A), the first of the NOAA-funded 
second-generation satellites, was launched in December 

1970. 

The I-TOS satellites fulfill a major service objective-daily observation of global weather conditions, 

day and night. 

Operations of NOAA Satellites.-At yearend, two of 

the first-generation TOS satellites-ESSA 8 (APT) 

and ESSA 9 (AVCS) -remain in operable condition : 

ESSA 8 is used regularly to supplement the direct 

readout service from I-TOS 1 and NOAA 1. ESSA 

9 is held in standby status to supplement the global 

observing services of the I-TOS spacecraft if needed. 

The I-TOS satellite provides both full global coverage and direct local readout services. Observations 

are provided twice daily at 12-hour intervals. In addition to vidicon camera systems of the type used in the 

earlier TOS satellites, the I-TOS satellite carries a 

two-channel scanning radiometer. This sensor provides 

daytime and nighttime (infrared) observations of the 

earth's cloud cover. In addition, the data from the 

infrared sensor can be converted to temperature; in 

cloudy areas this information provides a measure of 

cloud top height. In clear and partly cloudy areas, sea 

surface temperatures may be derived from the infrared 

observations for use by environmental service agencies. 

Both global and direct readout services are provided 

by I-TOS. Observations by the vidicon camera system 

and/or the scanning radiometer are recorded as the 

satellite proceeds along its orbit. The stored data are 

transmitted to ground stations in Alaska and Virginia, 

relayed to a central processing unit at Suitland, Md., 

processed, and made available to environmental service agencies nationally and internationally. 

Data from the APT camera and the scanning-radiometer are broadcast continuously for reception by simply equipped ground stations within a 2,000-mile 

range of the satellite. A given station can obtain observations from the satellite during a period centered 

on 3 p.m., local standard time, and again around 

3 a.m., local standard time. These data are acquired 

and used daily at some 500 locations in over 50 countries around the world. The pictures are used as a 

basis for local, area, and air-route forecasts, to illustrate 

television weather progams and newspaper weather 

reporting, and to support a variety of operations. In addition to the imaging and temperature sensors, the 

I-TOS carries a solar proton monitor (SPM) as part 

of its complement of operational instruments. This 

sensor provides a measure of the solar proton flux in 

the polar regions. These measurements are used in 

providing support to telecommunications agencies. 

Data from SPM were used to support Apollo 13 during critical hours before reentry. 

Applications Technology Satellites.-NOAA has cooperated with NASA to continue the experimental 

operation of ATS-1 and ATS-3. During this past year, 

intensive operational experiments have been conducted 

in the application of geostationary satellite observations to severe storm advisory services and to hurricane 

surveillance, advisory, and warning services. Results 

of these experiments demonstrate the utility of near 

continuous observations to vital public warning and 

advisory services. For example : 

One-At the National Severe Storms Center, on 

July 14, 1970, a line of clouds of the type associated 

with the early stages of severe weather was observed 

in the ATS picture. These clouds were in an area 

known to have high potential for the development 

of severe weather, but were undetected in the conventional network at this time. This interpretation of 

the satellite pictures led to an early issuance of a 

severe weather watch for the area downstream from 

where the cloud line was located. It was some 4 hours 

later that radar detected the squall line. This early 

warning was of particular value to the public as 26 

events of severe weather occurred in the forecast area 

later in the day. 

Two-On August 13 and 14, 1970, a tropical disturbance moved across the Atlantic from off Africa 

to just north of Puerto Rico. As it moved toward the 

U.S. mainland, it was observed by both satellites and 

aircraft. This storm contained unusually strong easterly 

winds, which the aircraft measured, ranging between 

50 and 70 miles per hour in local areas. Normally, 

whenever winds this strong are observed in a tropical 

disturbance, it is named and warnings are issued so 

that all interests in its path can take hurricane precautions. However, the satellite showed that this was 

not a rotating storm and, therefore, did not cause 

immediate danger. On the basis of these satellite observations the decision was made at the National Hurricane Center in Miami not to name the storm and 

not to forecast that it would become a hurricane. The 

storm subsequently broke up, reformed, broke up 

again, and finally passed into the U.S. mainland near 

Cape Hatteras without becoming a hurricane. 

An operational version of these stationary satellites, 

the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) is being developed in NASA's Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) program. 

Launch of the first GOES prototype, SMS-A, is 

planned for mid-1972. 

Nimbus ZV.-This NASA research and development 

satellite, launched April 8, 1970, carried an improved 

version (SIRS-B) of the Satellite Infrared Spectrometer (SIRS-A) first flown in 1969 on Nimbus 111. 

SIRS-A provided measurements along the satellite 

track from which atmospheric temperature profiles 

could be derived. The SIRS-B provides measurements 

along and to either side of the satellite track, from 

which both atmospheric temperature profiles and at73 
mospheric water vapor content can be calculated. 

Temperature soundings obtained routinely from 

SIRS-B are used daily in the numerical upper air 

analyses and forecasts prepared by the NWS. The SIRS 

soundings are now being disseminated for use by 

other national and international environmental service 

agencies. 

Environmental Service Products.-The NESS has 

continued the daily production and distribution of 

global and sectional cloud cover mosaics for use by 

environmental service agencies. Production of the average brightness and minimum brightness charts has continued also. These show 5-, lo-, 30-, and 90-day 

average cloud cover conditions, and the extent of snow 

and ice fields, respectively. 

During the past year, techniques have been developed for deriving sea surface temperature analyses, 

and depictions of vertical and horizontal cloud distribution from the I-TOS infrared measurements. Production and evaluation of these new environmental 

service products have begun on a trial basis. 

Operational Applications.-Meteorologists continue 

to find the satellite photographs particularly useful for 

detecting and tracking weather systems over about 80 

percent of the earth where conventional observations 

are not available. This worldwide weather surveillance continues to contribute to more reliable and 

timely environmental service-forecasts, advisories, 

warnings-to maritime operations and to communities 

located within and around the ocean basins. For example, the 45 named tropical cyclones that occurred in 

the Northern Hemisphere in 1970 were all detected 

and tracked by satellites. Advisories concerning these 

storms and a larger number of unnamed tropical storms 

in both hemispheres, were sent to U.S. installations and 

foreign meteorological services worldwide. 

Winds derived routinely from cloud motions observed by ATS 1 and 3 are used daily in numerical 

weather analyses produced by the National Weather 

Service and by US. military weather services. 

Solar proton observations are used by the Space Disturbance Forecast Center in Boulder to support telecommunications and space activities. The data also 

are distributed to other space environment service 

agencies. 

Research and Development Programs of the National 

Environmental Satellite Service.-The NESS devotes 

its research and development efforts toward applications studies to increase the utility of satellite observations to environmental services and development of 

techniques and sensors for measuring environmental 

variables from a satellite platform. 

74 

Major emphasis during this past year has been 

placed on studies to develop and refine techniques for 

extracting and using quantitative data from satellite 

observations for weather, oceanography, and hydrology 

service programs. 

Some progress has been made toward automating 

methods for extracting winds from cloud motions observed by ATS 1 and 3. 

Techniques for deriving temperature and geopotential height fields from SIRS data have been refined to 

eliminate dependence on the short-term statistical history of conventional observations. 

Techniques currently available for remote sensing 

of the earth's surface are ineffective when the earth 

is cloud-covered. Microwave technology shows some 

promise of reducing or removing this restriction. Basic 

microwave physics has been examined and microwave 

observations obtained from the NASA aircraft program 

have been analysed during 1970 as part of a program 

to evaluate the utility of microwave sensors for acquiring data to meet NOAA requirements. 

Major effort has been devoted to the design and development of the Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer (VTPR) and the Infrared Temperature Profile Radiometer (ITPR) . The VTPR is scheduled to 

begin operation on I-TOS in 1972. The ITPR, an 

advanced version of the VTPR type atmospheric temperature sounder, has completed aircraft tests and is 

scheduled to fly on a NASA Nimbus satellite in 1972. 

A team of United States and British scientists, under 

the leadership of NESS, has begun preliminary studies 

to specify the next generation atmospheric sounder for 

operational use in the latter half of the 1970's. 

International Cooperation.-Worldwide direct readout service via APT continued during 1970 and direct 

nighttime observations from the scanning radiometer 

were added. Some 50 countries own and operate 

ground stations to receive these satellite observations. 

Weather facsimile experiment transmissions through 

ATS 1 and 3 have continued on a semioperational 

basis providing APT ground stations with a variety of 

satellite products. 

The NESS provided training and study facilities for 

WMO and AID Fellows from Turkey, Japan, Korea, 

Indonesia, Chile, Argentina, the Philippines, India, 

Poland, Vietnam, and Pakistan. 

Znternational Cooperation Plans.-The United States 

is cooperating with countries engaged in space activities, as well as with other countries of the world, in 

the application of satellites to meteorology. This cooperation presently manifests itself in two major international programs, the Global Atmospheric Research 

Program (GARP) and the World Weather Watch 

(WWW). 
During March 1970, a planning conference on Environmental Data Service 

GARP was held in Brussels, Belgium, to review plans 

and to ascertain the possible national contributions to 

the experiments. Environmental data from satellites 

will play a major role in the data requirements for the 

experiments. At this conference the United States 

reported that present plans call for one geostationary 

environmental satellite to be launched in mid to late 

1972, and possibly another by mid-1973. In addition 

to the plans for geostationary satellites, the program 

for the polar orbiting ITOS operational meteorological 

satellites will be continued. 

The WWW plan for 1972-75 calls for two or three 

near-polar orbiting meteorological satellites in continuous operation during the period. The plan also 

includes four geostationary satellites to provide for reasonably complete near-global cloud coverage, and for 

wind determinations in the tropics from cloud displacement measurements. The United States has indicated 

that it will support this requirement in a fashion similar to that proposed for GARP. The plan also states 

that at least some of the near-polar orbiting satellites 

should be equipped with local direct readout of cloud 

images. The United States is the only country so far 

that has supported this requirement by equipping its 

satellites with direct readout sensors. The United 

States has assisted WMO members in the installation 

of direct readout stations in their countries, through 

support under the WMO Voluntary Assistance Program. Support for 10 direct readout stations has been 

provided to date. Internationally, this has been a very 

important program since it offers to developing countries the opportunity to obtain almost instantaneous information on the meteorological conditions affecting 

the climate of the country for a relatively small expenditure of equipment and personnel resources. 

Washington-Moscow Data Exchange.-The United 

States and the U.S.S.R. have continued the exchange 

of satellite information over the Washington-Moscow 

data circuit throughout 1970. The Soviet Union has 

provided television and infrared information from four 

identical Meteor satellites (Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6), all 

launched this year. The primary application of data 

received from Moscow at the World Weather Center, 

Washington, has been for research purposes. The 

United States has transmitted to Moscow satellite 

photographs and cloud analyses derived from data 

from ESSA 8 and 9, and the Improved-TOS satellites; these data are used routinely in the analyses 

made at the World Weather Center, Moscow. Representatives from the two countries met in Washington 

in March to discuss the joint operation of the circuit. 

Emerging from this meeting were agreements on highspeed data exchange and a change of circuit routing 

within Europe to improve reception of information. 

The Environmental Data Service collects, processes, 

archives, publishes, and issues environmental data 

gathered on a global scale. The Service maintains data 

centers for geodetic, geomagnetic, seismological, meteorological, aeronomic, and oceanographic information, 

providing a single source of environmental data readily 

available to specialized and general user groups. It 

provides administrative support for the corresponding 

World Data Centers-A, which receive data from COoperative investigations and other international 

sources. It also sponsors and conducts research and 

development activities to improve these functions, and 

coordinates the international exchange of atmospheric 

and space data. These functions are exercised through 

the data centers and related research and information 

activities described below. 

The National Climatic Center (NCC) .-This center 

is at Asheville, N.C., and archives meteorological surface and upper air data and NOAA satellite data. 

Raw and processed data from the National Weather 

Service and its cooperators, the US. Air Force’s Air 

Weather Service, the Naval Weather Service, and 

foreign meteorological services are archived at the 

NCC. The NCC provides data retrieval services for 

a variety of users such as aviation and space activities, 

research, commerce, industry, and individuals. Data 

users can purchase, at production cost, copies of data 

in manuscript, microfilm, photographic, or magnetic 

tape form, and data summaries prepared to user specifications. Catalogs of satellite data are published periodically by EDS. The NCC also conducts a referral 

service for satellite data archived elsewhere, and provides information and advice about pertinent meteorological data. Accomplishments at the NCC 

relating to aeronautics and space activities during 1970 

include : 

1. Glossy 8 X 10 prints of individual frames of satellite cloud photography are now available from the 

NCC for interested users. Satellite photographs were 

previously available only in film strips. 

2. The first of four volumes on the Upper Air Climatology of the Southern Hemisphere was produced 

in cooperation with the Department of Defense and 

the National Center for Atmospheric Research. 

3. In cooperation with the Naval Weather Service 

Command, the first of two volumes of an Upper Air 

Climatology of the Northern Hemisphere was published ; the second volume is in process. 

4. Data for the above six volumes are available from 

NCC on magnetic tape, microfilm, and microfiche. 

These data have been supplied to NASA for use in its 

space vehicle reentry studies. 

5. Progress on the design of a Clear Air Turbulence 

Atlas was achieved through a contract. An extensive 

411-222 0-71-6 75 
bibliography on the subject was compiled at NCC to 

supplement the contractor’s listing, and is available on 

microfilm. 

6. Climatological summaries were prepared for 41 

selected airports in the United States in cooperation 

with the Federal Aviation Administration. These summaries contain several bivariate tables computed from 

observations taken when ceilings were below 200 feet 

or visibilities were less than one-half mile. These summaries were published by the FAA. 

7. Cloud analyses transmitted on the national facsimile circuit are being coded and punched into cards 

for use by NASA in cloud cover studies. 

8. The NCC has accepted responsibility for the receipt, processing, publication, and distribution of the 

High Altitude Meteorological Data received from the 

Meteorological Rocket Network, the EXAMET Net, 

and participating foreign countries. The data are published for the World Data Center-A for Meteorology 

and Nuclear Radiation. 

In addition to the above, satellite data provide a particularly important contribution to the global Basic 

Data Sets which are being assembled by NCC for research in the Global Atmospheric Research Program. 

It will be the most complete collection of meteorological data possible for one winter month (Nov. 1969) 

and for one summer month (June 1970). ATS cloud 

and wind data and the SIRS data included are unique 

and otherwise unobtainable over large ocean areas. 

The Aeronomy and Space Data Center (ASDC) 

BouZer, CoZo.-ASDC has assumed responsibility for 

part of a new contract program between the NASA 

Manned Spacecraft Center and the NOAA Research 

Laboratories Space Disturbances Laboratory. Under 

this program 24-hour-a-day optical and radio monitoring data of solar conditions are gathered at three 

sites : Boulder, Colo., Carnarvon, Australia, and the 

Canary Islands. The solar films and solar radio noise 

data obtained are sent to the ASDC for processing, 

scaling, and archiving, after which they are made 

available to other scientists. The program produces a 

set of quality-controlled, highly homogeneous data, 

using the system developed by NASA in 1966 for the 

detection of hazardous solar particles. The solar patrol 

films, and reduced solar flare and radio noise data 

from these earlier observations, made in support of the 

Apollo and other space missions, have been transferred 

to this data center: and also are available to users. The 

Aeronomy and Space Data Center also archives solarterrestrial data recorded by satellites and space probes. 

In addition, it publishes data monthly on several solar 

parameters (protons, X-rays, and solar wind) measured by satellites and space probes, in Solar Geophysical Data. This provides the international scientific 

and technical community with data valuable for understanding many solar-terrestrial relationships. Analyses of satellite and space probe experiments, included 

in data compilations for special events are published 

in the World Data Center-A Upper Atmosphere Geophysics Report series. 

The National Oceanographic Data Center.-Oceanographic observations acquired by aircraft and satellite are still in an early stage of development. The National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) has been 

conducting pilot projects for processing, storage, and 

retrieval of such data. It has acquired and begun digitization of a small number of air expendable bathythermograms to develop a processing system for the 

large number of observations anticipated. NODC has 

also undertaken a study to determine optimum techniques for storage and retrieval of sea surface temperature measurements acquired by airborne radiation 

thermometry. 

The Geomagnetic Data Center.-This center furnishes hundreds of copies of observatory data annually 

to space researchers throughout the world. These data, 

primarily magnetograms (analog records) and indices derived from them, are furnished on microfilm: 

magnetic tape, and hard copy. They are used for correlation with data obtained from satellites and for 

interdisciplinary space studies. 

The EDS Laboratory for Environmental Data Research.-This EDS Laboratory is investigating the 

uses of meteorological satellite data for climatological 

analysis : 

1. Cloud climatology studies, in cooperation with 

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center are designed to 

compute the mean monthly cloud cover over the 

Pacific Ocean. Frequency distribution of cloud cover 

amounts have been computed from the 8 years of satellite cloud cover analysis available, and maps of specific 

cloud amount frequency are ready for publication. 

2. Climatological analyses, derived from satellite 

data, of cloud cover amounts in the Pacific Ocean 

are being compared to those in the Atlantic and 

Indian Oceans in an effort to understand oscillations 

in the cloud cover. 

3. The influence of orographic effects on cloud cover 

was investigated with satellite cloud maps. It was 

found that the relative humidity at or near the surface 

is an important factor controlling the amount of orographically produced clouds. 

4. Estimates were made of the energy associated 

with the large scale buoyant lifting of air masses over 

tropical oceans, using cloud top height data derived 

from satellite measurements. The estimates based on 

satellite data were within 10 percent of those based 

on surface observations. 

5. The relationship between the scales of satellite 

observed patterns and of sea-water temperature dis76 
tributions derived from satellite data are currently being studied by EDS, NASA, and the Naval Oceanographic Office. 

National Bureau of Standards 

The goal of NBS is to strengthen and advance the Nation’s science and technology and to facilitate their 

effective application for public benefit. In working 

toward this goal, the Bureau pursues a wide range 

of activities, including many projects in space and 

aeronautics, in its three major institutes: the Institute 

for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research, and the Institute for Applied Technology. 

Institute for Basic Standards 

Source for High Energy Photon Calibrationr.-With 

the support of the Goddard Space Flight Center a 

source of monoenergetic photons is being developed 

that will be used in calibrating high energy photon 

detectors for use in satellites, rockets, and balloons. 

The NBS 180-million electron volt (MeV.) synchrotron will be used to produce a low flux of monochromatic photons in the 10-MeV. to 180-MeV. energy 

range by in-flight annihilation of positrons. This 

source will be in operation this year and may be used 

by many groups through the country. 

Studies of the Penetration of High-Energy Radiation 

Through Matter.-The National Bureau of Standards 

is engaged in a long-range program for studying the 

interactions of fast charged particles and photons with 

matter. A part of this program, slanted towards problems and applications in space technology and science, 

is supported by a contract with NASA. 

Computer programs have been written for calculating the penetration and diffusion of high-energy radiation through extended media. Their reliability has 

been established through an extensive series of comparisons with experimental data, and these programs 

are now beginning to pass from the development phase 

to the production phase. Many applications have been 

made to problems arising in a variety of space-related 

fields. Typical examples are : the interpretation of 

cavity chamber measurements in water media irradiated with high-energy electron beams, in order to establish the relation between the measured ionization 

in air and the corresponding absorbed dose in water; 

the determination of the response function of silicon, 

germanium and sodium iodide detectors, that is, the 

statistical relation between observed pulse height distributions and the actual photon or electron energy 

spectra; the calculation of the flux of auroral electrons 

incident onto the earth‘s atmosphere from the knowledge of the secondary x-rays observed in balloon experiments at heights of 30-40 km. ; and the prediction 

of three-dimensional auroral ionization and luminosity 

patterns. 

Low Gravity Thermometry.-NBS has developed an 

instrumentation system to detect the presence of liquid 

or gaseous phases as well as the temperature of hydrogen in a spacecraft cryogenic propellant tank under 

near-zero gravity conditions. The measurement system 

employs a thin-film carbon sensor that provides a relatively high-voltage signal for temperature measurement. Favorable heat-transfer characteristics allow the 

same sensor surface to discriminate between liquid and 

saturated vapor. 

Apollo-I3 Investigation.-Two members of the NBS 

Cryogenics Division worked as part of a six-man Board 

of Consultants to help establish the sequence of events 

leading to the Apollo-13 in-flight explosion. They were 

asked to assist NASA’s investigating team to ensure 

scientific objectivity, critically review the analyses made 

by NASA personnel, and contribute their own expertise 

in the field of cryogenics. The carefully determined 

data on oxygen properties generated and supplied by 

the Cryogenics Division enabled the investigators to 

identify the most probable cause of failure and to 

establish a basis for redesign. 

Comparison of Near- and Far-Field Determination of 

Antenna Patterns.-To support the deep space program as well as lunar missions, N-4SA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory required an accurate calibration of 

standard-gain horns to be used with their 2 10-foot 

dish antenna at Goldstone, Calif. 

The approach NBS used to calibrate these horns 

was the measurement of the near-field distribution of 

radiation in a plane area in front of the horns. The 

data was then mathematically transformed to arrive 

at far-field antenna-gain patterns of high accuracy and 

great detail. The end result was a superior measurement at low cost. 

Time and Frequency Signals Useful to NASA Sites.- 

The NBS standard frequency radio stations provide 

NASA tracking stations with high-frequency timing 

signals accurate to within milliseconds. The transmitter 

in Hawaii (WWVH) has been relocated and equipment and antennas improved, which will significantly 

improve services in the far Pacific areas. Where a more 

precise and stable frequency reference is required, the 

very low frequency transmissions of WWVL in Fort 

Collins, Colo., are widely used by NASA sites. Where 

ultraprecision timing applications exist in the United 

States, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center is considering using a new TV timing system developed by 

NBS which is accurate to nanoseconds. 

77 
NASA has also contracted with NBS to theoretically 

predict amplitude and phase for various VLF transmissions under varying propagation conditions. Paths 

considered are between several VLF stations such as 

WWVL, and nine NASA tracking stations throughout 

the world. The VLF signals are used for calibrating the 

station frequency standards. 

Photo Absorption and Ionization Data for NASA.- 

During the past year NBS has begun a collaborative 

program with the Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, 

to compile and critically evaluate photo absorption and 

photo ionization cross-section data for atoms and simple molecules. These data are of critical importance in 

interpreting satellite, rocket and ground observation of 

radiation from planetary atmospheres and other hot 

radiating astrophysical objects. 

A New Transition Probability Scale for Iron.-Astronomers are dependent upon laboratory values of 

atomic transition probabilities for their determination 

of the abundances of elements in the sun and stars. 

Measurements of many neutral iron transition probabilities have been performed at NBS with a wallstabilized arc and a delayed coincidence lifetime 

apparatus, leading to a new set of data consistent with 

all other recent measurements. This set ties together 

these previously unrelated measurements, and differs 

from the older, widely used data by factors up to 30. 

On the basis of these new results, astronomers now 

believe that there is about 10 times more iron in the 

sun than previously assumed. The new values for the 

iron transition probabilities also resolve a long-standing 

inconsistency between the iron abundance in the corona 

and the photosphere. 

Microwave Spectra of Molecules with Astrophysical 

Significance.-Radio astronomers have observed 

microwaves emitted from water vapor from several 

sources in the galaxy. This radiation corresponds to 

a vibrational-rotational transition in the ground electronic state of the water molecule. Detection of the 

corresponding radiation from water molecules containing a different isotope of oxygen (mass 18 instead 

of mass 16) would confirm the original assignment as 

well as provide information on the relative galactic 

abundance of these two oxygen isotopes and the emission excitation mechanism in the water molecule. Before an astronomical search can be made, it is necessary 

to have a laboratory measurement of the transition. 

This measurement has been made by NBS, the result 

being 5625.147k0.015 MHz. for the appropriate transition frequency in water containing oxygen of mass 18. 

Since absorption by the formaldehyde molecule in 

the galaxy has been detected, speculation exists about 

the occurrence of similar molecules. The new species 

thioformaldehyde, H,CS, has been generated and its 

microwave spectrum observed. A prediction of the appropriate frequency of the vibrational-rotational transitions (1046.48rt0.02 MHz.) has been made with 

precision sufficient for an astronomical search. 

Thermodynamic Measurements on Gaseous and 

Liquid Fluorine.-Fluorine is one of the most reactive 

oxidizers known and its use with hydrogen provides 

the highest specific impulse of any stable oxidizer-fuel 

combination. Accurate thermodynamic-property data 

on both substances are required for the design of efficient rocket-propulsion systems, but few physicalproperty measurements have previously been made on 

compressed fluorine because of its extreme reactivity 

and toxicity. After solving the compatibility problems 

associated with handling this substance, accurate vapor 

pressures, densities and specific heats were measured 

at temperatures down to the triple point (53.5' K.) 

and pressures to 21 meganewtons per square meter 

(equivalent to 3,100 p.s.i.) . The volumetric and thermal measurements are being used with ideal gasspectroscopic measurements to provide the most 

accurate and extensive thermodynamic-property data 

in existence for this substance. 

Advances in Radiative Transfer.-The primary 

means of deriving the physical properties of the atmospheres of stars, including the sun, is by understanding the radiation they emit. In general the radiation 

is not formed under thermodynamic equilibrium conditions. Some accomplishments at NBS in the theory 

of radioactive transfer directed towards this goal include: a means of solving the general noncoherent 

scattering problem ; investigation of the transfer of 

radiation in a stellar atmosphere in which electron 

scattering is important; and solutions of the radiation 

field in very extended spherical atmospheres. 

Downed-Aircraft Emergency Locator Beacon.-The 

FAA has engaged NBS to assist them in determining 

acceptable performance standards for an emergency 

locator beacon for downed aircraft. The NBS is determining the minimum radiated power from an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) ; developing a measurement technique to permit the FAA to evaluate 

commercial ELT's at their facilities; determining the 

environmental effects of terrain, metal, weather, etc. 

on the ELT; and investigating a means of transferring 

an approved standard ELT to production line testing. 

Use of the Moon as an Absolute Flux Calibration 

Source at Far Infrared and Microwave Wavehgths.-NBS has carried out calculations of the 

brightness temperature at the subsolar point on the 

moon in the spectral region between 5 microns and 

10 centimeters wavelength. These calculations used 

thermal properties and opacities of the lunar soil 

78 
which were determined from samples returned from 

the moon by the Apollo missions. The lunar source will 

be useful for calibrating observations of the sun, planets 

and other astronomical objects. This is especially important since the use of an extraterrestrial standard 

calibrates the atmospheric transmission as well as the 

instruments employed. 

Observations of the Solar Chromosphere.-NBS scientists have made observations of the resonance multiplet 

and three infrared subordinate lines of singly ionized 

calcium. These observations were made at Kitt Peak 

National Observatory and Sacramento Peak Observatory and analysis of the data is underway. Theoretical 

calculations have been completed of the density and 

temperature dependence of the intensity ratios of these 

lines. The observational data will be combined with 

the calculations to make improved models of the solar 

chromosphere and to investigate such structures as 

plages, sunspots, the chromospheric network, and 

supergranule cells. 

Apollo Lunar Ranging Experiment.-During 1970 

the McDonald Observatory, in cooperation with the 

Lunar Ranging Experiment Team, has carried out 

laser range measurements from the earth to the moon 

using the Apollo 11 retroreflector package on the 

moon. The number of successful measurements per 

month has increased rapidly during the year, with 

results being obtained for most observing periods in 

the latter part of the year. NBS has participated in 

the work of the Lunar Ranging Experiment Team 

during the year and is working jointly with the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Maryland 

in the early analysis of the results. Substantial corrections are already indicated to the eccentricity of the 

lunar orbit and to the mean distance from the earth 

to the reflectors. 

Institute for Materials Research 

Planetary Atmospheres.-Theoretical calculations of 

radiative absorption cross sections for carhon dioxide 

and formaldehyde have been made by NBS in collaboration with NASA-Goddard. These cross sections are 

required to model the equilibrium behavior of a carbon 

dioxide atmosphere (e.g., Mars and Venus) . 

Simulated Lunar Samples.-The Bureau of Standards produces a wide range of materials of certified 

composition that can be used to calibrate analytical 

instruments and determine the accuracy of techniques 

of chemical analysis. A series of eight trace elements 

in glass Standard Reference Materials ( SRM’s) has 

recently been produced and certified for trace elements 

at four concentration levels (500, 50, 1, and 0.02 parts 

per million). These SRMs will be of value in establishing the accuracy of methods used in geoIogy and 

geochemistry and their application to lunar and other 

“space samples”. The standards will be used to calibrate a wide variety of techniques including emission 

spectroscopy, nuclear methods of analysis, mass spectroscopy, polarography, and spectrophotometry. 

Microprobe Standard Reference Materials 

(SRM’s) .-These standards were produced and certified to provide a highly homogeneous material at 

about the micrometer of spatial resolution. They are 

intended primarily for use in calibration of quantitative electron microprobe analytical techniques that are 

widely used for the chemical analysis of lunar materials. Twelve different metallic SRMs in the form of 

coated wires are offered for sale. 

Thermodynamic Data of CHNOPS Compounds.- 

The Chemical Thermodynamics Data Center has completed a handbook of thermodynamic data of the 

compounds of the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. This work was 

supported by NASA and is in support of their Exobiology Program. 

Thermodynamics of Fluoride Compounds.-NBS has 

made an investigation of the thermodynamic properties 

of trifluoride and pentafluoride of chlorine which are 

of interest as oxidants for rocket propellants. The 

thermodynamic properties of fluorides and oxyfluorides 

of molybdenum are also being investigated because of 

their importance in evaluating the performance of 

molybdenum as a rocket structural material in a high 

temperature environment containing fluorine or fluorine containing compounds. 

Analysis of Apollo Lunar Samples.-Analysis of 

lunar soil samples was carried out at NBS by scientists from other institutions. NBS has developed a new 

electron microprobe multiple detector system that allows the simultaneous investigation of seven elements 

on a given scan. Investigation of Apollo 11 samples 

with this instrument was done at the request of NASA. 

Institute for Applied Technology 

Tape Head Sticking.-NBS has carried out a study 

for NASA to determine the cause of failure in satellite 

tape recorders due to tape head sticking. A material 

was found in the tape backing film which produces a 

large increase in the coefficient of friction and which 

may be the cause of recorder failure, 

Sterilizable Magnetic Tape.-A program sponsored 

by NASA, managed by NBS, and carried out at Battelle Memorial Institute produced a prototype mag79 
netic tape that is stable when subjected to sterilization 

by heat, high energy radiation, or chemicals. The tape 

is needed for spacecraft designed to explore other 

planets without contaminating them. 

Thermal Properties of Transistors.-Reliability of 

electronic systems used in space and aeronautics depends in large measure on the properties of the semiconductor devices used in their construction. An abrupt 

change in current-gain of a power transistor was correlated with the onset of current crowding in its operation and the formation of a hot-spot. This parameter 

is much easier to measure than thermal resistance 

which has been used to detect such instabilities in the 

past. This observation is expected to have great applicability in screening devices for defective constructions which might lead to burn-out of the device under 

operating conditions. It was also found that after a 

hot spot is formed in many transistors, it cannot always 

be eliminated by a reduction of the collector-emitter 

voltage to an operating condition normally free of hot 

spots. This “thermal hysteresis” effect reduces the maximum safe operating range of some transistors. 

Wire Bond Evaluation.-NBS continued work on 

methods for the evaluation of wire bonds used in 

connecting semiconductor chips to external leads. Bond 

failure is a dominant cause of device failure in missile, 

spacecraft, and aircraft systems in both radiation and 

nonradiation environments. Techniques to establish 

uniform and reproducible bonding conditions have 

been developed for ultrasonic wire bonding machines. 

These involve direct measurement of the vibration 

amplitude of the bonding tool tip with a capacitor 

microphone or a magnetic detector. These observations have demonstrated that the vibration amplitude 

may be quite different for two or more operating conditions which have the same values of the parameters 

usually controlled. This appears to be a significant 

source of bond variability which can be avoided by use 

of the new techniques. 

Microwave Semiconductor Devices.-NBS has undertaken a new project to provide improved measurement 

methods for microwave diodes. These diodes are critical elements in civilian and military satellite and 

ground communication links and in radar systems in 

which the sensitivity and range, and the reliability of 

the sets, depend substantially on the quality of the 

diodes. Serious trouble has been encountered in government procurement of these diodes because of the 

inadequacy of measurement methods currently in use 

to demonstrate conformance to performance specifications. Work has begun on measurements for properties 

such as noise figure, conversion loss, and impedance of 

mixer diodes. 

Aircraft Tire Wear.-A program funded by the Air 

Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory is being conducted 

by NBS to develop a mathematical model of aircraft 

tire wear. Other work on aircraft tires includes a study 

of the internal stress in statically deformed pneumatic 

tires, computer simulation of skidding, modes of failure 

and impact performance, wave geometry, and development of nondestructive testing instruments and methods of measuring tread wear. 

Wind Speed and Direction Indicators.-NBS has 

worked to improve instrumentation for measuring wind 

speed and direction. This work was supported by the 

Naval Air Systems Command and is important in carrier launches. 

Analysis of a Capacity Concept for Runway and Final 

Approach Path Airspace.-The present measure of 

such capacity is that embodied in the “Airport Capacity Handbook” and based on a “tolerable average 

delay level” plus an assumption of highly random 

arrival times for aircraft. In an FAA-requested study, 

NBS has developed an alternative “maximum throughput rate” capacity concept, and rigorously established 

its representability by a simple mathematical formula. 

Because the formula explicitly combines the various 

parameters influencing capacity (e.g. traffic mix of aircraft types, runway occupancy time for each type, in-air 

separation standards), it is useful for studying “what 

if?” questions concerning capacity, such as the effect of 

a shift toward more use by large fast planes, as well as 

in analyzing the relative effectiveness for capacity enlargement of runway improvements versus improvements permitting smaller in-air separations. 

Performance of High Temperature Thermocou#les.- 

NBS investigation has shown that significant errors can 

be introduced when making temperature measurements with noble metal thermocouples in environments 

found in advanced aircraft propulsion systems. Further 

investigation is proceeding to determine the ranges of 

flow velocity and temperature in which such errors are 

important when noble metal thermocouples are used 

to monitor and adjust the performance of such systems. 

Development of means to minimize catalytic errors has 

begun. 

Maritime Administration 

The Maritime Administration is continuing its investigations into the commercial applications of existing satellite systems for both communications and 

navigation. 

It is evident from trade and traffic density forecasts 

that the marine industry will require new or additional 

radio frequency allocations. An experiment is underway to evaluate UHF communications (L-band) using 

80 
the ATS-5 satellite. If this project is successful, a new 

bank of radio frequencies will become available at a 

user cost comparable to or lower than VHF systems. 

Additionally, data transmission for marine traffic control (improved safety) could become a practical reality 

through a shoreside data-control center. 

Satellite navigation systems offer significant potential 

from both economic and safety standpoints. The Maritime Administration is sponsoring shipboard tests of 

such systems (synchronous and orbiting) to determine 

relative reliability and reduce hardware costs. 

Office of Telecommunications 

The Office of Telecommunications of the Department 

of Commerce was reorganized in September to undertake a larger role in guiding the development of the 

Nation’s telecommunications. The reorganization was 

accomplished by the Secretary in response to the President’s Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1970. The Office 

of Telecommunications is responsible for an extensive 

program of telecommunication services, economic and 

policy analyses, and technical and analytic support for 

the new Office of Telecommunications Policy in the 

Executive Office of the President. The Institute for 

Telecommunication Sciences was transferred from 

ESSA. The reorganized Office of Telecommunications 

operates as a primary unit in the Office of Assistant 

Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology. 

Office of Telecommunications studies have practical 

applications to aeronautic and space technology in 

areas of navigation, communication, remote sensing, 

and technical input to support policy considerations 

in frequency assignments. Work during 1970 included : 

1. Radio propagation studies to improve the accuracy of long range radio-navigation systems used in 

aeronautical (as well as other) navigation. Results of 

the study now permit predictions and corrections for 

the effect of irregular and inhomogeneous terrain on 

the accuracy of Loran C radio-navigation positioning. 

2. Studies were conducted on the effective use of the 

radio frequency spectrum assigned to space and aeronautic activities. Reports were prepared on “Electrospace Planning and Engineering for the Air Traffic Environment,” and “Interference Predictions for VHF/ 

UHF Air Navigation Aids.” The “Electrospace” report 

deals with service limitations imposed upon VHF/ 

UHF/SHF radio communication links by cochannel 

and adjacent-channel interference, and summarizes 

methods that can be used for predicting available 

desired-to-undesired signal ratios (protection ratios) 

and determining the required protection ratios. The 

“navigation aid” report contains service range information relevant to distance measuring equipment 

(DME) , instrument landing system (ILS) , tactical air 

navigation (TACAN) , and VHF omnirange (VOR) . 3. Forecasts were made of radio propagation conditions for high frequency circuits used in the NASA 

Ground Communications Network. Operations included the issuance of “Special Disturbance Warnings” 

to the network and 24-hour to 6-hour forecasts for 

specific circuits of the networks during the Apollo 13 

missions. 

4. A method was proposed and developed to use 

satellite relays to synchronize a network of stations for 

use in worldwide navigation of air and space vehicles. 

Field measurement data showed that widely separated 

oscillators could be maintained within a synchronization of 1 percent of a cycle at 10 GHz. for an indefinite 

time as far as atmospheric transmission delays are 

concerned. 

5. Laboratory and field measurement programs were 

conducted on the simulated and observed characteristics of microwave signals passing through the troposphere. The variations in amplitude and time delay of 

such signals are important in proposed techniques for 

using satellites to study global atmospheric structure. 

Other applications include communication between 

high-flying aircraft, orbiting satellites, and any elevated 

vehicle communicating with ground stations over paths 

with low elevation angles. Results to date indicate that 

signal fading of greater than 40 decibels occurs frequently. Horizontal space diversity can provide significantly improved system reliability. 

6. A field measurement and analysis program in 

Radio Frequency Interference between satdlite and 

ground stations is underway. The principal objective 

of the study is to determine the possibility and feasibility of alternatives to the present criteria specified for 

frequency sharing of satellite-ground terminals. 

7. The staff participated on U.S. National Committees to the International Consultative Radio Committee 

(CCIR) . Contributions made through the State Department provide, in part, the basis of US. positions 

relative to CCIR planning for the forthcoming World 

Administrative Radio Conference on Space Telecommunications scheduled for June 1971, in Geneva. 

81 
XI1 United States Information Agency 

Introduction 

In the year following the first moon landing the U.S. 

Information Agency brought some of the experience of 

that event to the home ground of millions. Pieces of 

the moon-lunar rocks returned by the Apollo 11 and 

12 astronauts-were exhibited by the U.S. Information 

Service in virtually all the capital cities d the five 

continents, and many provincial cities as well. 

At Osaka, Japan, an extra large lunar specimen, 

accompanied by the Apollo 8 spacecraft and a fullscale simulation of Apollo 11’s landing site, was the 

center piece of the American Pavilion and was regarded as the greatest attraction at Expo ’70. Over 

18 million visitors filed by the lunar exhibit during 6 

months, or at the rate of 100,000 a day. 

The Agency’s own feature film on the first moon 

landing, “The Infinite Journey,” a 90-minute color 

documentary was shown in 132 countries. Many posts 

held VIP premieres of the film on the July 21 first 

anniversary. 

The Agency employed all its media to tell the story 

of the mishap-laden journey of Apollo 13 and its final 

safe recovery. Later the Agency, and its posts abroad, 

assisted in the world tours of the Apollo 12 and Apollo 

13 crews to many countries abroad. Through photos, 

films, wireless file, books, posters, and other media, the 

Agency and its 190 posts continued to explain the 

American space program to world audiences. 

Guidelines 

These guidelines were used in treatment of space 

developments : 

(a) The moon landings under Apollo represent an 

extension of man’s need to explore the unknown, the 

application of man’s most advanced tools to unlocking 

the secrets of earth‘s nearest neighbor, and the intention to use both space knowledge and technological 

know-how for man’s immediate benefit on earth. 

(b) Looking beyond Apollo into the seventies, the 

American space program promises to be bold, diversified, and wide ranging. Its objectives are that the 

United States should continue lunar exploration ; 

explore further the near planets and initially survey 

the outer planets; work to substantially cut costs by 

developing reusable space vehicles ; seek to extend 

man’s living and working capability in space; expand 

the practical applications of space technology, and 

encourage greater international cooperation in space. 

(c) The United States encourages the participation 

of other countries in major aspects of its post-Apollo 

programs, and welcomes the agreement with the Soviet 

Union for development of mutually compatible docking arrangements as an instance of significant mutual 

endeavor in space. 

(d) The American space program values automatic 

machines and uses them, but regards the role of man 

in space as established and invaluable. Either or both 

may be required, depending upon the objective. 

(e) In fact the automatic instruments left on the 

moon by the Apollo 12 crew had been there 1 year to 

the day when the Soviets landed their robot vehicle, 

Lunokhod, on the moon. At the end of its first year the 

U.S. robot science station had produced valuable scientific findings on the nature and character of the moon, 

and showed every expectation of operating for still 

another year. 

(f) No automatic machine, however, can be regarded as the equal of the astronaut, whose superior 

mobility and carrying capacity, together with his ability 

to exercise experience and judgment, make him a 

superior instrument for either close-up or wide-ranging 

exploration. 

Treatment 

Radio.-The crisis-ridden Apollo 13 mission was probably the most massive broadcasting effort of the year 

for the Voice of America. A look at Voice coverage, 

however, shows broad and detailed treatment of many 

space events. 

Highlights show news carrying full reports on Skylab, the proposed space shuttle, the space ferry, further 

unmanned missions to Mars and Venus, and other 

space ventures proposed for the 1970’s. 

Voice broadcasts reported fully, for instance, on the 

Soviet’s Luna 16 and 17, broadcasting Western reaction, scientific analyses, and congratulatory messages 

from NASA officials. Russian and most other services 

carried coverage of the first lunar rock conference at 

Houston where 200 United States and foreign scientists 

appraised the initial lunar soil and rock experiments. 

The Italian Service interviewed a NASA scientist on 

medical applications of space research, while an 

82 
Estonian-language broadcast featured a discussion 

with an American astronomer on the subject of the 

moon structure. Hindi and Tamil shows promoted the 

moon rock as its exhibit moved through India. An 

hour-long Hindi broadcast interviewed India’s leading 

meteorologist on weather satellites, analyzed the US. 

space program for the 1970’s, and carried the NASA 

Administrator’s statement on the desirability of United 

States-Soviet space cooperation. 

All VOA airshows commemorated the moon-landing 

anniversary, including a documentary that featured 

Neil Armstrong’s press interview. 

When word first came that trouble had developed 

aboard the Apollo 13 spacecraft, VOA was on top of 

the story with calm, factual coverage, staying with it 

around the clock until after recovery. Prerecorded 

features were canceled for live reports from three 

Voice correspondents from Houston. In Latin America 

alone an estimated 108 million listeners heard Voice 

of America Spanish, Portuguese, and English broadcasts relayed by more than 1,400 stations. 

Press and Publications.-The year saw no diminution 

of the demand from overseas for publishable material 

on the space program, so output of the Press and Publications Service continued at the high volume level of 

the year before. 

The magazine effort was particularly comprehensive. America Illustrated, the Agency’s magazine for 

the Soviet Union and Poland, devoted the whole of its 

April issue to space-16 in-depth articles on all major 

aspects of the program. This material was in large part 

picked up by other Agency magazines. 

By the end of this year, editorial and art work had 

been completed on another special issue of America 

Illustrated, to be produced in February, to coincide 

with Apollo 14. This material will also be printed at 

approximately the same time in Panorama (Pakistan), 

Marzhaye Now (Iran), Pregled (Yugoslavia), Span 

(India), and the two Far Eastern magazines World 

Today and Horizons. 

The extensive wireless and mailed feature output 

covered the entire spectrum of the space program, with 

emphasis on such aspects as additions to the body of 

scientific knowledge from moon exploration, spinoff 

values (sample titles: Space Research Produces Fire 

Protection Chemical, Space Medicine to Help Solve 

Problems on Earth), and U.S. efforts toward international cooperation. 

In news terms, the dramatic return of the crippled 

Apollo 13 was thoroughly reported, after which attention was turned to the 1971 mission of Apollo 14. 

During the year, as the moon specimens continued 

their travels, literally millions of copies of a simple twofold leaflet entitled “A Lunar Sample,” were printed 

in various languages for distribution to audiences viewing the rocks. 

Photo output was vaned. There were three picture 

stories, on special-issue stamps commemorating the 

moon landing, “An Artist Among the Astronauts,” and 

“True Face of the Earth” on aerial photography which 

include three pictures from Apollo missions. 

A special feature package on Apollo 13 : 14 articles, 

five fact sheets, and an illustration of the mission’s 

target point on the moon was in the hands of press and 

other media correspondents abroad weeks before liftoff. This was designed to inform foreign correspondents 

on salient aspects of the mission well in advance of 

launch. Providing full technical, biographical, and 

scientific details on the mission, the usefulness of the 

advance press kits has been widely acknowledged by 

the foreign press. The advance packet for Apollo 14 

was produced and transmitted to the field ‘in the late 

summer, and is being updated as new material 

develops. 

Motion Pictures and Television.-The Agency gave 

its usual full coverage to Apollo 12, sending out a preflight filmed interview with the Astronaut Training 

Chief and, following the mission, 784 prints of “Apollo 

12: Pinpoint for Science” to 129 countries in 26 

languages. 

Premission and postmission filmed reports on Apollo 

13 were also distributed, as well as a moon-landing anniversary interview with Astronaut Armstrong. Reports 

on the 1970 eclipse of the sun, tracing of the weather 

via satellite, and a half-dozen other subjects appeared 

in Science Report, a half-hour monthly show distributed in, and telecasted regularly in 83 countries. In 

addition a considerable variety of film footage on space 

was distributed abroad in answer to requests by commercial film and television producers. 

Newsclips sent worldwide to posts included the 

Saturn 5 roll-out for Apollo 13, the visit to Cape Kennedy of the President of the Congo, and the first press 

conference of the Apollo 14 crew. A half-hour production on astronaut training, “Moonlanding: Step 2,” 

was sent to 126 countries for a total of 427 prints. 

It is interesting that the Agency itself used space for 

transmission of its programs abroad fully 16 times during the year. This is more than communications satellites had been used previously since the Agency began 

using them in 1964. 

But it was the feature film on the first moon landing 

that was the Agency’s major space film effort of the 

year. In production for a year, “The Infinite Journey” 

led the viewer through man’s agelong quest for discovery and, through the evolving Apollo program, to 

the moon. The film is expected to continue to have use 

through coming years. 

83 
Information Centers and Exhibits.-The exhibiting of 

historic space artifacts and lunar rocks to foreign audiences was of major significance in its relation to the 

American posture abroad. 

In Eastern Europe, where audiences identify deeply 

with space, the Apollo 10 spacecraft was viewed by a 

million at the Budapest International Trade Fair, and 

became “the darling of the Fair” at the Poznan Trade 

Fair in Poland where close to a half million viewed it. 

After showings in Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, the spacecraft was the center piece of “Research and Development: USA” at the Bucharest International Fair. The 

Apollo 10, a lunar rock and various accompanying 

space artifacts caused near chaos in the Fair’s traffic 

flow, and drew an estimated 300,000 Rumanians. 

Transported on a specially designed flatbed truck, 

Apollo 10 had been viewed by 2.5 million Europeans 

close to the end of the year. In Western Europe it was 

shown in the Scandinavian countries (Norway’s largest 

newspaper called it “a small piece of human triumph 

that will adorn Oslo in the days ahead”), Vienna, and 

West German cities. 

In November 1969 NASA made six pieces of moon 

rock available to USIA for world showing. These, 

scheduled and exhibited on all continents during the 

past year, are still greatly in demand. Showings are 

scheduled well into 1971. 

In the first 6 months of 1970 the samples had been 

scrutinized by 8,370,513 persons, with millions more 

having seen them on television. Perhaps that many 

XI11 

1 1 

National 

people again viewed the lunar rocks in the second 

half of the year. 

In an eight-city tour of France, a moon rock called 

on the hometowns of one quarter of the French people, 

with 30 million more Frenchmen viewing it on television. Through television also, roughly half the population of metropolitan Portugal saw a lunar rock. In 

Ethiopia the moon rock was said to have marked the 

beginning of a wider acceptance of science. The Dean 

of Trinity Cathedral of Addis Ababa declared: “The 

American people have given us a scientific method for 

religion-to know how God had created unknown 

worlds. Thank God for giving us a chance to see this 

stone from the moon.” In Singapore citizens of every 

age and race stood in block-long queues under a pitiless 

tropical sun waiting for a look at the rock. The exhibiting of the rock was in fact unique in its effect and immediate impact. In Moscow viewers nearly burst the 

walls of a moon rock exhibit that had not even been 

advertised. 

To satisfy the demand for books on space, some 1,000 

newly published books on Apollo and other aspects of 

space were shipped to post libraries. Under the 

Agency’s book publishing programs, 17 titles on space 

exploration were produced in Chinese, Burmese, Thai, 

and Bengali, among other languages. 

To inform audiences on the benefits of space exploration 106 sets of a slide lecture on this subject were 

sent out; so was a space science reader, “Footprints 

on the Moon: The Apollo Story,” for English lessons. 

Science Foundation 

Introduction 

The National Science Foundation was established by 

Congress in 1950 as an independent agency to promote 

the progress of science. The Foundation supports scientific research and programs to strengthen research 

potential in all fields of science, and in 1970, contributed to the support of the aeronautic and space sciences 

through a number of its programs. Most of the research project support is provided to investigators 

who are sponsored by colleges and universities. The 

Foundation also supports and administers a number of 

national programs and national research centers which 

in turn provide significant support to investigators in 

84 

the aeronautic and space sciences throughout the 

country. Through these organizational mechanisms 

the Foundation makes available radio and optical telescopes, scientific balloon services, and the unique facilities of the Antarctic continent. 

Astronomy.-There has been a high rate of discovery 

of interstellar molecules in space just in the past 2 

years. The identification of molecules of the OH radical, water, and ammonia have led to the discovery of 

more complex and unexpected molecules in space including formic acid, methyl alcohol, formaldehyde, 

carbon monoxide, and cyanoacetylene. All of the discoveries to date have been made at facilities in the 
United States and many of them through the use of 

instruments at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. The continuing discoveries by radio astronomers of these interstellar molecules should provide 

new knowledge of the formation of organic molecules 

in the universe. 

The new detectors used for infrared astronomy for 

both ground-based and flight instruments have enabled astronomers to look at stars and galaxies in a spectral region which was not accessible in the past. The 

galactic center has proven to be an intense source of 

infrared waves, and many young stars also give off 

large amounts of infrared. Some of the sources suggest 

that stars are surrounded by large quantities of dust. 

The Stratoscope Telescope was carried to a 15-mile 

altitude by a 5.5-million-cubic-foot helium balloon in 

the late spring of 1970. The 36-inch telescope was operated by ground command and produced pictures of 

unprecedented sharpness. The resolution of the telescope was five to 10 times better than ground-based 

installations which must peer through the earth’s perturbing atmosphere. Photographs of Uranus showed 

a slightly flattened disk with distinct limb darkening 

from which it may be possible to learn more about the 

nature of the atmosphere. High quality pictures of 

Jupiter are undergoing further study. The nucleus of 

one of the Seyfert galaxies also was photographed and 

found to be about half the expected size. This discovery indicates that the approximately 10 billion stars 

in each Seyfert-like galaxy must be moving at an unusually high speed to avoid collapse into the center 

of the nucleus. 

The positions of intense radio sources, which could 

conceivably be utilized as new navigational beacons, are 

now being measured with high accuracy by very long 

baseline techniques. These techniques involve the simultaneous observations of an object in space from 

two or more widely separated instruments and can be 

extended for use with earth satellites and lunar stations to provide longer baselines. The long baselines 

are made possible by the use of accurate clocks and 

recorders at different sites. 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory (West Virginia and Arizona) .-The National Radio Astronomy 

Observatory (NRAO) maintains three major radio 

telescope facilities at Green Bank, W. Va. These include a three-element array of 85-foot diameter telescopes used as an interferometer; a 140-foot diameter 

fully steerable telescope ; and a 300-foot diameter 

transit telescope. A 36-foot diameter millimeter-wavelength telescope is maintained at Kitt Peak, Ariz. All 

facilities are used at maximum capacity with observing time demands backlogged several months. Astronomers use NRAO instruments in very long baseline 

experiments to study celestial radio sources. Studies of 

their angular diameters, fine structure, and intensity 

variations have led to new theories of the formation 

of stars and galaxies. In another area of investigation 

at NRAO, new information concerning the distribution of molecules in the interstellar medium has opened 

new fields for astrophysical research. 

Kitt Peak National Observatory (Arizona) .-Research is carried on in three principal fields-solar, 

stellar, and planetary sciences. In addition, major efforts are directed towards the design and construction 

of auxiliary instrumentation for use on telescopes and 

rockets. The observatory maintains seven telescopes for 

use of resident staff and visiting scientists: an 84-inch 

diameter general-purpose telescope; a remote control 

50-inch telescope used mostly for photometric observations ; two 36-inch photometric and spectroscopic telescopes; two 16-inch photometric telescopes; and the 

world’s most powerful and versatile instrument for the 

study of the sun’s surface and atmosphere-a 63-inch 

aperture solar telescope. A new, 150-inch telescope is 

expected to be in operation in 1972. Instruments at 

both Kitt Peak and its sister observatory in the Southern Hemisphere on Cerro Tololo are used to study the 

composition and characteristics of stars within our own 

galaxy as well as of distant galaxies and objects in 

remote regions of the observable universe. The unique 

soIar telescope facility has been particularly useful in 

the study of physics of the outer layer of the nearest 

star, our sun, and has resulted in a better understanding of solar-terrestrial relationships. The rocket program has contributed to the solutim of important 

problems concerning the chemistry and dynamics of 

planetary atmospheres and stellar X-ray sourres. 

Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (Chile) .- 

Six telescopes were in operation during the year and 

available to scientists and students with observing programs, with the largest a 60-inch reflector used in a 

wide variety of investigations including low- and highdispersion spectroscopy, photometry, and wide-field 

photography. A 150-inch telescope is under construction and should be ready for use in 1973. This instrument is similar to the one under construction at Kitt 

Peak and is being jointly funded by the National Science Foundation and the Ford Foundation. Visitors 

and staff are conducting programs of research in photometric, spectroscopic, and photographic observations 

of the moon, planets, asteroids, stars, pulsars, gaseous 

nebulae, clusters, quasars, and galaxies, many of which 

are visible only from the Southern Hemisphere. Studies 

of the rich star fields of the southern Milky Way and 

the Magelkanic Clouds which are our nearest galactic 

neighbors have contributed significantly to our knowledge of the universe. Extensive surveys of stellar objects in the southern skies from this observatory have 

also enabled us to construct improved models of our 

own galaxy. 

a5 
Arecibo Observatory (Puerto Rico) .-The Arecibo 

Observatory was officially designated as a national 

center on October 1, 1969, and the 1,000-foot diameter telescope is now available to scientists and students 

throughout the United States. The unique facility consists of a fixed horizontal spherical antenna with an 

antenna beam that can be moved to angles of 20” in 

any direction. Radar research at the Arecibo Observatory has provided high spatial resolution maps of the 

Moon, Mercury, and Venus which are of great importance to space missions. Radar investigations have 

also yielded new information on the rotational characteristics of Venus and Mercury and, closer to earth, 

on the structure, dynamics, and chemistry of the ionosphere. 

Meteorology Program.-The meteorology program 

supports a number of research programs which relate 

to aeronautics and space activities at various universities. These include studies of the large scale dynamics 

of the atmospheres of the earth and other planets. 

In the earth‘s atmosphere, there are several investigations underway to study clear air turbulence, the constituents and energetics of the stratosphere, atmospheric electricity, and remote-sensing techniques for 

constituents and atmospheric motions. An increasing 

use of satellite data is evident in such studies. 

Examples of this work include a study of the physical 

and statistical aspects of clear air turbulence, a study 

of the dynamics of the atmospheres of Mars, Venus, 

and Jupiter by means of both numerical experiments 

and analytic work, and a study of the distribution of 

atmospheric ozone and the energetics of the upper 

atmosphere to determine the radiation heating in the 

stratosphere. 

Studies of atmospheric motions on all scales form 

the basis of dynamical meteorology and a considerable 

effort across the Nation in many universities results in 

analytic studies and numerical simulations of atmospheric dynamics. These range from studies of global 

dynamics to studies of boundary layer fluctuations at 

the earth’s surface. 

Remote sensing of the atmosphere represents one 

of the great advances in meteorology. Radar investigations, lidar and other optical techniques, and satellite 

soundings and photographs form the basis of a number 

of meteorological investigations supported by the National Science Foundation. These techniques yield information on severe storms, atmospheric motions and 

energetics, the motions of particulates within the 

atmosphere, radiation balances, and concentration of 

chemical species. 

Solar-Terrestrial Program.-The earth’s ionized outer 

atmosphere is influenced primarily by energetic particles and radiation from the sun and by interaction 

with the neutral atmosphere below. In 1970 a wide 

variety of outer-atmosphere phenomena were studied 

under the sponsorship of the National Science 

Foundation. 

The sun, as the source of energy, was studied with 

particular emphasis on the dynamics of the outer regions of the solar atmosphere. The energetic plasma 

ejected continuously from these regions (the solar 

wind) was also studied, with model studies of the 

interaction of the solar wind and the terrestrial magnetic field. Structure in the solar wind and the interplanetary medium was examined through measurements of scattered light in the night sky and effects 

on cosmic rays reaching the earth. 

Energy from the solar wind is injected into the 

magnetosphere where it is stored temporarily as an 

increase in magnetic energy in the tail of the magnetosphere. It is subsequently released spasmodically in 

bursts called “magnetospheric substorms,” which are 

associated with disturbances in virtually all outer 

atmosphere phenomena in many different regions of 

the magnetosphere. Research supported in this area 

is providing a comprehensive view of the morphology 

of these disturbances and has produced a suggested 

way in which they might be modified or controlled; 

that is, through the use of a satellite to inject a low 

temperature plasma into a critical location. This has 

major significance in problems related to radio communications blackouts and to augmentation of surveillance radar clutter, both of which are associated 

with substorms. 

In studies of the ionosphere, the dominant trend is 

the continued development of incoherent scatter 

radar techniques. There is a large and growing demand 

to study the ionosphere using the national facility at 

Arecibo and strong interest in the Millstone Hill facility near Boston. 

A highlight of the year was the spectacular eclipse 

of the sun seen by millions of viewers near the U.S. 

eastern seaboard and by many millions more on television. Coordination of the many research teams observing the eclipse in the United States and Mexico 

was provided by the National Science Foundation. 

National Center for Atmospheric Research (Colorado).-During 1970 the National Center for Atmospheric Research continued its studies of the sun, 

the interplanetary medium, and the earth’s atmosphere. A major portion of its observing resources are 

devoted to measurement of solar prominence magnetic 

fields, which clearly are important to all forms of solar 

activity. Increasingly sophisticated models were developed and used to investigate the circulation of matter 

in the solar interior and its effects on the solar atmosphere. Present models of interactions between the 

solar corona and its magnetic fields reveal a discrepancy between observed and calculated coronal densities 

during the supersonic expansion of the solar corona 

86 
which produces the solar wind. Attempts continue to 

resolve this discrepancy, which also bears on coronal 

' heating. In solar-terrestrial physics, high altitude tidal 

winds, and their interactions with the earth's magnetic 

field were extensively studied. 

An improved rocket-borne sampler, using liquid neon 

rather than liquid hydrogen, which can withstand preflight heat for decontamination at 840' F., was built 

and tested for launching in 1970. The use of constant-level superpressure balloons carrying lightweight 

electronics packages to track global horizontal air 

movements has continued. Test flights from New Zealand have demonstrated that above 53,000 feet balloons 

stay aloft an average of over 6 months and circle the 

globe many times. In the past year development was 

started on a concept for obtaining tropospheric wind 

data by releasing dropsondes from a balloon in the 

stratosphere. 

In a related program, a series of superpressure balloons were launched from Ascension Island to investigate the so-called 26-month equatorial wind oscillation. These balloons are interrogated by the Nimbus 4 

weather satellite, which obtains their positions and the 

atmospheric pressures and temperatures at the balloon 

float altitudes (67,000 or 77,000 feet). 

During February and March of 1970 the Colorado 

Lee Wave Experiment was carried out in the Boulder 

area. Simultaneous observations were made at altitudes 

up to 65,000 feet of lee wave profiles, the growth and 

decay of clear and rotor cloud turbulence, and the 

characteristics of downslope windstorms. The study 

linked mountain-wave turbulence with Kelvin-Hehholtz waves and was a step toward learning to predict 

and detect atmospheric turbulence-a topic of great 

concern to commercial aviation. 

Engineering.-The Engineering Division supports a 

number of research programs related to aeronautics 

and space activities. In general, the support provided 

is oriented toward earth-based problems such as wind 

flow over urban areas, wind effects on structures, dispersion of contaminants in the earth's boundary layer, 

application of aeronautical knowledge to biomechanics problems, aerodynamics of tube and air cushion vehicles, and a broad program of basic fluid 

mechanics and heat transfer research. Particular 

emphasis is being given to societal related problems, 

to technology transfer, and to directing aeronautical 

researchers into new activities such as biomechanics. 

Fundamental areas of research supported include the 

effects of adverse pressure gradient on turbulent boundary-layers, hypersonic rarified gas dynamics, and variational approaches in fluid mechanics, to name but a 

few. Research in specific engineering problem areas is 

supported by grants such as cavitation scale effects 

for generalized value shapes, aerodynamic performance of gravity vacuum tube vehicles and dispersion 

of pollutants from tall chimneys. Support for research 

on the aerodynamics of insect flight is another interesting area of research where the results will be of interest 

to life scientists and possibly aid in the control of insect 

populations. 

Experimental studies are underway to investigate 

plume dispersion from a tall stack under the meteorological conditions which cause fumigation-a condition where relatively high concentrations of pollutants 

are brought close to ground level. Once this process is 

better understood, appropriate action can be taken 

to alleviate the pollution potential. 

Mathematics.-The Mathematics Section supports a 

wide range of research which directly and indirectly 

supports the space and aeronautics activities. The development of structure and methodology for solutions 

of integral and differential equations provides a basis 

for solutions of particular problems in these areas. 

Studies in celestial mechanics are underway. A program on convergence procedures in orbit calculations 

is being conducted at one university. In another example, difficulties which arise in the energy and momentum calculations associated with the problem are 

under investigation. In the area of stellar dynamics 

investigations are underway on the motion of a star 

in a galactic potential, on dynamics of large scale astrophysical phenomena, on the interstellar medium, and 

on bar-shaped galaxies. 

US. Antarctic Research Program.-Many Antarctic 

studies relate directly or indirectly to the space program. Informal consultations on mutual problems are 

frequent between NSF and NASA, and a NASA official 

presently serves in an advisory capacity to the US. 

Antarctic Research Program. , 

Space program officials have shown particular interest in the management of the Antarctic program, as 

its operation at the end of a long logistic line bears 

some resemblance to the lunar exploration program. 

There are parallels, as well, between the Antarctic 

environment and those that may be encountered on 

other planets. For this reason, soil microbiological 

studies have been carried out in Antarctica for several 

years. 

Because of the ease with which low-energy phenomena can manifest themselves at high geomagnetic latitudes, the polar regions are especially productive 

regions from which to perform investigations of the 

ionosphere and magnetosphere. Correct interpretation 

of the measurements leads to a better understanding of 

how the sun affects and controls the earth's environment. The measurements are made from ground level 

87 
and from balloons, rockets, and satellites; they are 

made of events of opportunity as well as on a synoptic 

basis. 

Education Activities.-In fiscal year 1970 approximately $2.4 million was obligated by the Foundation’s 

three education divisions for activities which were, 

either in whole or in part, related to the aeronautic 

and space sciences. Since some of these awards were 

multidiscipline in nature-e.g., a project which provided training in several different disciplines for a 

group of high school teachers of science-it is therefore estimated that approximately $2.16 million was 

awarded in fiscal year 1970 for education in the aeronautic and space science per se. 

The greatest proportion of these funds supported 

graduate fellowships and traineeships. These funds also 

___ 

provided for upgrading the subject matter background 

of teachers of science and mathematics in secondary 

schools, colleges, and universities, unusual independent study and research experiences for students and 

the improvement of instructional programs in aeronautic and space science in colleges and universities. 

More than 1,450 individuals received training in the 

aeronautic and space sciences in projects supported by 

the three education divisions in fiscal year 1970. The 

majority of these individuals were junior and senior 

high school teachers of science and mathematics. Of 

the $2.16 million obligated by the Foundation for 

education programs in the aeronautics and space 

sciences in fiscal year 1970,76 percent was for graduate 

education, 8 percent for undergraduate education and 

16 percent for pre-college education programs. 

National 

XIV National 

National 

Academv of Sciences 

Academy of Engineering 

Research Council 

Introduction 

The National Academy of Sciences and the National 

Academy of Engineering are private organizations of 

scientists and engineers that serve as official advisers 

to the Federal Government under a congressional act 

of incorporation. These advisory services are carried 

out largely by the National Research Council, which 

was established by the Academy to act as an operating agency. 

Highlights of the work of the Academies-Research 

Council in aeronautics and space during 1970 include 

the Space Science Board’s study on priorities in space 

science and earth observations for the next decade 

and its review of the NASA life sciences programs; the 

Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board’s counseling 

on civil aviation R. & D. policy and on the space 

shuttle ; studies on development and applications of 

aerospace materials by the National Materials Advisory 

Board ; the Committee on Atmospheric Sciences’ Friday Harbor study on physical problems of the atmosphere; administration of NASA fellowships; and a 

wide range of advisory and review work in aeronautics, 

space applications, and physical life sciences, space 

programs. 

Space Science Board 

The Space Science Board is the National Academy 

of Sciences’ principal advisory group on scientific direc88 

tion of the U.S. space program and acts as Academy 

representative to the Committee on Space Research 

(COSPAR) of the International Council of Scientific 

Unions (ICSU) . At Board meetings, space research 

and related topics are discussed with the senior staff 

of interested Federal agencies. During 1970, as is 

customary, sessions were scheduled to take into account 

critical times in budget planning and formulation; 

thus the Board’s views have been made available to 

program planners for consideration. The Board, and 

several individual members, responded to requests 

from the Senate and House space committees for views 

on aspects of the space program in the form of testimony and statements on specific topics. 

Priorities in Space Science and Earth 0bservations.- 

A Study on Priorities in Space Science and Earth Observations was convened by the Board at Woods Hole, 

Mass., from July 27 to August 15, 1970, with the 

participation of more than 90 scientists. Undertaken at 

the request of the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, the study was asked to .determine 

criteria for relative priorities and to recommend levels 

of effort and support to be allocated to NASA programs 

in planetary exploration, lunar exploration, astronomy, 

fundamental and solar-terrestrial physics, the environmental sciences portion of space applications, and the 

life sciences, during the period 1971-80, based on 

likely contributions to basic knowledge and social benefit and on estimated total funding to be available. 
The Study developed sets of priorities at three levels 

of funding. Evaluation of new starts during the coming 

decade was emphasized. The recommended programs 

and priorities were presented to NASA management at 

the conclusion of the study and are contained in the 

study’s report, in press. 

Review of NASA Life Sciences Programs.-A special 

study was conducted in the spring and summer of 1970 

in response to a NASA request for a study of its objectives, programs, and procedures in the life sciences. 

The Study was to develop general guidelines for the 

organization and conduct of the life sciences activities 

within NASA. In its report, “Life Sciences in Space” 

(1970), the study calls for central direction of the 

NASA life sciences, with functional reorganization 

along disciplinary lines, and makes specific recommendations concerning the advisory structure, experiment selection, and personnel recruitment. It emphasizes the importance of international cooperation 

in space biological and medical programs. Exobiologythe search for extraterrestrial life and for deeper understanding of the origin of life-should remain the prime 

scientific priority in NASA life sciences, and, if manned 

spaceflight is to continue, a far broader program of 

space biomedicine and human biology should be undertaken to insure man’s safety and efficiency and to 

qualify him for space. Finally, the study stresses the 

importance of ground-based research preparatory to 

and in support of space experiments. 

Exploration of Venus.-The capability of relatively 

small spacecraft to answer fundamental questions about 

the planet Venus was assessed at a June 1970 study. 

The report, “Venus : Strategy for Exploration” 

( 1970) , concludes that scientific investigation of Venus 

is one of the most important objectives for planetary exploration in the 1970’s and 1980’s. It recommends that 

the Delta-launched, spin-stabilized, planetary Explorer 

be the prime vehicle for unmanned study of the planet 

by orbiters, atmospheric probes, and landers. The report recommends a mission strategy and, in the interest 

of maintaining minimal costs, emphasizes simplicity of 

operation on early lander missions and suggests that 

NASA be prepared to accept somewhat higher risk of 

mission failure if substantial over-all cost savings can be 

achieved. 

Other Special Studies.-Possible contamination of 

Mars by spacecraft was the topic of two conferences 

held in July. The first, undertaken by the Board at the 

request of NASA’s Bioscience Programs Office, reviewed and re-evaluated the probability of growth and 

spread of terrestrial organisms released from spacecraft 

which might crash land on the Martian surface. The 

practical importance of the question lies in the fact that 

significant planetary contamination would confuse the 

readings of instruments seeking to detect evidence of 

life on Mars, and that the greater the probability of 

growth of terrestrial organisms, the more strict must 

be the standards for sterilization of the spacecraft. On 

the basis of information obtained since the last review 

in 1967, the review group felt confident in recommending a reduction from the current value of the 

probability of growth from one in a thousand to one 

in 10,000. The second meeting was held by the Board’s 

Committee on Potential Contamination and Interference from Space Experiments at the request of the 

Science Adviser to the President. It considered the 

potential contamination risks incurred with use of 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) as 

power supply for the unmanned Viking 1975 mission 

to Mars. Concluding that the advantages of the RTG 

are considerable and the risk of compromising future 

experiments small, the Committee saw no objection 

to use of the RTG on this mission. 

The Division of Physical Sciences’ Solid State 

Sciences Panel and a Space Science Board group conducted a joint study for NASA’s Office of Advanced 

Research and Technology on the possibilities of increased solar cell efficiency. 

Space Medicine and Biology.-Review of individual 

NASA research projects and flight experiment proposals was a central activity of the Board’s Committee 

on Space Medicine and its panels during 1970. These 

evaluations, made at the request of NASA, covered a 

wide range of disciplines in the life sciences; programs 

in cardiovascular physiology, calcium dynamics, and 

microbiology were given particular attention. The 

Radiobiological Advisory Panel issued its report, 

“Radiation Protection Guides and Constraints for 

Space Mission and Vehicle Design Studies Involving 

Nuclear Systems,” in November 1970. Also published 

was “Space Biology,” the report of the special Board 

study at the University of California, Santa Cruz, in 

July 1969, concerned with biological studies in the 

space environment. 

International Relations.-The formal international 

activities of the Space Science Board are centered in the 

Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) . COSPAR, 

as an Inter-Union organization of ICSU, fosters fundamental research in space science through the use of 

rockets, satellites, and deep-space probes. Data and 

singificant results are exchanged on a cooperative basis 

through the World Data Center system. The 13th annual meeting of Cospar took place in Leningrad, 

U.S.S.R., May 20-24, 1970, immediately following 

the Inter-Union Commission on Solar-Terrestrial 

Physic’s symposium. One major symposium was held 

during the COSPAR meeting-Remote Sounding of 

the Atmosphere. Reorganization of the COSPAR work89 
ing group structure was augmented by the appointment 

of permanent chairmen and assignment of membership 

in the working groups. As in past years, the Board Committee on International Relations organized the U.S. 

participation in the COSPAR meeting, reviewed U.S. 

contributed papers, and prepared the annual report to 

COSPAR on U.S. space research during 1969. 

COSPAR accepted the invitation of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences to host the 1971 annual 

meeting in Seattle, Wash., June 21-July 2. Symposia 

proposed for 1971 include: Results From the Recent 

Total Solar Eclipse, High Resolution Astronomical Observations From Space, Movements of the Neutral and 

Ionized Components of the Atmosphere Above 120 

km., and Global Biophysics. 

Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board 

The Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board 

( ASEB) of the National Academy of Engineering provides advisory services to the Government in the areas 

of aeronautics and space engineering by focusing 

capabilities available within the Nation’s engineering 

community on significant issues involving aerospace 

policies and programs. It recommends priorities to be 

assigned to engineering objectives, proposes ways to 

apply engineering competence to aerospace problems 

of national importance, and recommends methods of 

improving education in aerospace engineering and 

related disciplines. 

During Cktaber-December 1969, the Board formed 

the ad hoc Study Advisory Committee on Aeronautics 

(SACA) to provide expert and broad advice and counsel to NASA and the DOT in their joint study of civil 

aviation R. & D. policy. The SACA met once in 1969 

and four times in 1970 to offer comments on direction 

of the study, review its progress, and critique drafts of 

its report. Upon conclusion of each meeting a summary 

of comments was submitted to the study’s director. 

Since mid-1969, the ASEB has examined : ( 1 ) engineering approaches and concepts considered for the 

space shuttle, concentrating on sizing of the shuttle 

booster and orbiter, and (2) the overall program balance and timing for the various phases of development. 

The Board held a series of meetings at the NASA 

centers engaged in the space shuttle program and has 

submitted informal comments on the program’s progress and direction to the NASA Administrator. NASA 

has strongly endorsed the Board’s plan to continue 

following that program and to bffer periodic advice on 

problem areas and critical decision points. This review 

is expected to continue into 1971. 

The Board intends to continue its study and evaluation activities both in aeronautical and space transportation systems throughout 1971. The latter, in 

particular, may be expected to include increased 

90 

consideration of international cooperation in space and 

space station utilization. 

Division of Behavioral Sciences 

Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics, and Biomechanics (CHABA) .-CHABA sponsored two aerospace 

meetings : the Fifth Annual Meeting on Vestibular 

Functions as Related to Space Travel, in Pensacola, 

Fla., and a Symposium on Biodynamic Models and 

Their Applications, in Dayton, Ohio. CHABA is 

cooperating with the International Civil Aeronautics 

Organization and the Organization of Cultural and 

Economic Development in setting international criteria 

for sonic boom. Another working group is establishing 

criteria for noise and vibration levels in aircraft. A 

report was published on the detection of submarines 

by means of sonar in helicopters. A revision of the 

Bioastronautics Data Book is nearing completion. 

Committee on Vision.-At the request of NASA, a 

working group has been formed to advise the agency 

on its program to develop certification requirements 

for simulation of the aviator’s visual environment. The 

NASA program to develop a device for testing visual 

functions during spaceflight has been reviewed. The 

chairman of the Committee’s Executive Council debriefed the Apollo ll commander on visual problems 

encountered in lunar exploration. 

A working group continues to advise the FAA on 

its program to develop proximity warning indicators 

(PWI) for general aviation aircraft. Suggestions for 

research have been reviewed, and information on related programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, and 

NASA is being collected. Any recommendations for 

specifications will be sent to the Aircrew Station Standardization Panel and to the FAA. 

At the request of the Air Force and the Army, a 

working group has been formed to study the levels and 

effects of microwave radiation in aircraft and in radar 

installations. 

Division of Earth Sciences 

Committee on Space Programs for Earth Observations, Advisory to the Department of Interior.-The 

Advisory Committee has continued to prepare memoranda for the Department of Interior advising on 

various aspects of remote sensor programs in the discipline areas of geography, cartography, geology, 

hydrology, and oceanography. Meetings of specialized 

panels in these fields, as well as of a parent committee, 

addressed problems and opportunities arising in connection with the Department’s Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) program. Committee investigations have included such tasks.as the development of 
sensor technology, the evaluation of in-house and contract research proposals, the application of data to the 

tasks of the Department of Interior, and design and 

use of optimum equipment to be used in future earth 

resources survey aircraft, spacecraft, and processing 

centers. 

Division of Engineering 

National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB) .-The 

general purpose of the NMAB is the advancement of 

materials science and engineering in the national interest. It undertakes to define technical problems, 

potential approaches, and new opportunities of national concern and relevance to Government, industry, 

or academia, attempting thereby to stimulate appropriate action. 

Aeronautical and space materials and their applications continue to represent an area of problems that 

challenge the most advanced capabilities of materials 

technology. These difficulties derive from the extreme 

environmental conditions imposed on the materials 

used in aeronautical and space operations and the inherent necessity for minimum structural weight. A 

large part of the Board’s attention and effort is devoted 

to advising the Government on its programs of aerospace materials research and development. 

Beryllium, because of its light weight, strength, stiffness, and other unique properties, is being used to 

advantage in certain aerospace applications. However, 

problems relating to brittleness and inherent anisotropy 

remain. At the Government’s request, the Board 

arranged and held a 3-day conference in March to 

review a large variety of applications of beryllium in 

aerospace hardware during the past 5 to 10 years and 

to discuss problems and opportunities. The Conference 

Proceedings were published in Report NMAB-272. In 

addition, an NMAB study is being conducted by the 

ad hoc Committee on Beryllium to recommend policy 

options relative to the future Government role in 

advancing beryllium technology. 

A number of other NMAB ad hoc committee studies 

now under way concern the development and application of aerospace materials. Noteworthy among these 

are: A study to identify the factors that promote or 

inhibit the use of advanced materials, to evaluate the 

influence of these factors, and to recommend measures 

to encourage prompt utilization; a study of testing 

methods useful in predicting material performance in 

structures and components; a study of practices in aircraft design and materials selection, materials behavior, 

fabrication processes, and inspection techniques, to 

guide and foster optimal fracture-prevention practice 

in aircraft; and a study to define problems of producing high-performance castings (metal) and to plan a 

program for upgrading the technology. 

Division of Physical Sciences 

Committee on Atmospheric Sciences.-The Committee on Atmospheric Sciences is presently engaged in two 

studies involving research and technological development and application for observing and measuring the 

terrestrial atmosphere. A wide variety of physical problems dealing with the atmosphere were discussed and 

evaluated during a summer study held at Friday 

Harbor Laboratories of the University of Washington 

during June 1970. Scientific and technical issues pertaining to requirements necessary for advances in understanding atmospheric dynamics, chemistry, climate, 

and modifications-both intentional and inadvertent-were identified. The second study, nearing completion, concerns weather modifications and has 

elements in common with the first. Many of the specific 

measurements that have been identified as necessary to 

understand the dynamics of climate also pertain to the 

determination of ability to modify weather. 

Among the principal conclusions of the studies are 

the following : 

-The monitoring and measurements from 

space platforms should be coupled during the 

developmental stage with data obtained from 

ground-based sensing as well as from aircraft. 

-The concerns of the public, the Government, 

and scientists have focused upon a major need to 

obtain reliable and continuing data on the particulate and gaseous composition of the atmosphere, 

particularly in light of the effects that man’s 

activities may be having on the global change of 

climate. Local and regional aspects of man’s interference with natural atmospheric processes are 

also very important. Global aspects are those to 

which the satellite is most obviously a key element. 

Measurements of the cloud populations of the 

globe have been continuing for a number of 

years. It is now important that measurements 

crucial to the radiative and heat budgets be 

made. Such measurements will include secular 

changes in global albedo and will require monitoring global and regional changes in cloud cover as 

well as the thermal characteristics of the 

atmosphere-ocean-land complex. 

-The role of man in contributing large quantities of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide to the 

atmosphere may now be sufficiently great to alter 

the radiative and chemical characteristics of the 

atmosphere which are important in bringing about 

long-term changes in the global climate. It seems 

therefore prudent and wise to plan for an integrated system of monitoring from the earth’s 

surface as well as from space which will confirm 

the existence, location, and time-variation of 

constituents, both gaseous and particulate, of 

natural or man-devised origin. 

91 411-222 0 - I1 - 7 
-The relative importance of various atmospheric constituents in effecting climatic change 

must also be tested through the use of existing 

numerical atmospheric models and models specifically developed to study long-term climatic 

changes. Computer developments that will permit 

testing of experimental models should be utilized 

to the fullest extent possible. 

U.S. Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research 

Program.-The Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) , a major international program established to improve our knowledge of the dynamics of the 

general circulation of the global atmosphere, has the 

ultimate goal to develop the physical and mathematical basis for extended predictions of the planetary 

circulation. The US. Committee for the GARP 

(USC-GARP) has worked closely with Federal agencies in developing the scientific objectives and is continuing to establish observational and technological 

requirements through its working groups that are considering specific scientific problems and planned field 

programs to deal with them. The USC-GARP is also 

serving as the focal point for coordination and communication between the scientific community and the 

Government, and will continue to assist in developing 

international planning for the scientific activities. 

During the International Planning Conference on 

GARP, held in Brussels in March 1970, 25 nations 

agreed to move toward the implementation of the 

proposed observational experiments, in particular a 

tropical experiment to be conducted in the Atlantic 

during 1974, and a first global experiment to be undertaken a few years later. Space-based observation systems are crucial to both experiments for the identified 

remote measurements, data collection, platform tracking, and communications. GARP requirements have 

already been incorporated into the U.S. operational 

meteorological satellite system planned for that period, 

and several other nations, notably France, Germany, 

Japan, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.S.R. have 

indicated their intention to contribute space platforms. 

The USC-GARP will continue to participate in both 

national and international planning and coordination 

of these particular activities. 

Office of Scientific Personnel 

The NASA International University Fellowships in 

Space Science and the NASA Postdoctoral and Senior 

Postdoctoral Resident Research Associateship Programs, which are administered for NASA by the Office 

of Scientific Personnel, continue to have a strong attraction for scientists and engineers. The NASA International University Fellowships Program, jointly 

financed by NASA and participating space agencies of 

other countries, was completely subscribed, with 52 fullyear fellowships, both in 1969 and 1970. A total of 282 

fellowships have been awarded from the beginning of 

the program in 1961 to December 1970. 

The number of applications for the Resident Research Associateship Program continues to exceed by a 

wide margin the number of appointments which are 

available. On August 30, 1970, there were 192 associates on tenure. 

The associateship program, initiated in 1959, provides an opportunity for investigators of unusual ability 

to conduct research in NASA centers. In the fellowship 

program young scientists from other countries study 

and participate in space research at leading universities in the United States. 

Committee on SST-Sonic Boom 

The Committee on SST-Sonic Boom, through its 

subcommittee structure, met as necessary during the 

year to determine what additional sonic boom research 

is needed to better understand the impact of the boom 

on people, animals, and structures. Deliberations were 

based on a review of ongoing sonic boom research, 

within the guidelines of Presidential directives. 

One of the areas of sonic boom generation and propagation research in which little work has been done 

and which the Committee currently considers important is the careful field measurement and subsequent 

analysis of shockwave phenomena produced by an 

aircraft in the Mach 1.0-1.2 range. During the year, a 

team from NASA's Langley Research Center planned 

such a field test centered on the 1,527-foot Bren Tower 

located on Jackass Flats at the AEC Nevada Proving 

Ground. The tower serves as the focal point for instrumentation to measure air mass and shockwave characteristics. The data obtained from this test will be of 

particular value as a check on sonic boom theory now 

in process of formulation and refinement in this speed 

regime. These theoretical efforts are under way partially as the result of earlier Committee interest and 

support of such work. The Committee cooperated with 

NASA on the Bren Tower project and continued its 

policy of close collaboration with other organizations 

sponsoring sonic boom research work in other areas. 

92 
The Smithsonian Institution 

I I 

Introduction 

The Smithsonian Institution has been concerned with 

aeronautics and space sciences for nearly a century, 

since its second Secretary conducted his pioneering 

research in the dynamics of manned flight. 

Today, the Smithsonian Institution continues its contributing role in this Nation’s aeronautics and space 

programs. The Institution’s research programs in these 

disciplines are coordinated through the Office of the 

Assistant Secretary for Science. Aeronautics- and 

space-related activities are conducted by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) , the Office of 

Environmental Sciences, the National Museum of Natural History, the Center for Short-Lived Phenomena 

(CSLP) , and the National Air and Space Museum. 

Recognizing the new tools and methodologies that 

are emerging with the development of satellites and 

space technology, the Smithsonian Institution is exploring the possibilities of their applications to biological 

and ecological problems requiring wide-range and 

long term surveillance. Observations of climatic 

changes on earth as reflections of a variety of cyclical 

fluctuations help to establish a baseline for the study 

of the world ecosystem. 

The responses of animals to the environment can also 

be monitored and a test for a system for tracking migrating animals is currently underway. The Institution 

was cosponsor with NASA for a Symposium on Animal 

Orientation and Navigation which took place at Wallops Island, Va., on September 9-13, 1970. 

The support of the public for the U.S. activities in 

space is largely dependent on the extent to which the 

man on the street understands its purposes. The exhibits in the National Air and Space Museum are 

designed to educate its visitors and to stimulate their 

interest. The great number of people visiting the 

museum daily attest to our success in this respect. 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) 

has attempted to follow the tradition of its founder 

through a dynamic program of astrophysics and space 

sciences contributing to both the specific goals of the 

national space program and the broader goals of pure 

discovery. 

During the past year, SA0 researchers have made 

significant advances in the understanding of the nature 

and evolution of the solar system through the analyses 

of lunar and meteoritical samples; of the energetic 

processes in the universe through the observation of 

high-energy sources of radio, infrared, and gamma ray 

emissions; and of earth itself through an extensive 

program of geoastronomy that has helped establish 

basic models for the earth’s size, shape, atmosphere, and 

gravitational field. Throughout all this research SA0 

has fostered international cooperation and whenever 

possible has as actively contributed to those worldwide 

efforts complementing national goals. 

Earth Physics.-In ranging experiments utilizing 

satellites equipped with retroreflectors, the current 

laser systems developed by SA0 have proven about 20 

times more accurate than the Baker-Nunn camera used 

at the satellite tracking stations. Continued development of these systems may produce precision further 

improved by a factor of 10. Eventually, the laser should 

permit the measuring of the distances between ground 

stations to an accuracy of 1 inch. Obviously, such a capability would offer many new scientific possibilities, 

such as the direct measurement of continental drift, 

the solid-earth tides, the rotation of the poles, the 

spreading of the seabeds, ocean-level profiles, and 

large-scale crustal shifts. 

Spacecraft-tracking data obtained by this network 

of cameras and lasers have contributed much to earth 

physics, specifically in SAO’s research on atmospheric 

density variations, the gravitational field, and the 

geometry of the earth. 

For example, much of what is known about the 

earth’s atmosphere above 200 km. is based on SA0 

analysis of satellite orbital data gathered over the past 

decade. By a long-term study of the correlation between satellite drag and solar activity, SA0 scientists 

last year generated the bulk of the data for an “International Reference Atmosphere.” This tabulates the 

mean temperature and density variations of the atmosphere at any position for any period of the day and 

for varying solar and geophysical circumstances. 

Similarly, the “Smithsonian Standard Earth” provides the most accurate representation yet produced 

of the earth’s size, shape, and gravitational field. The 

1970 edition was improved both by the addition of new 

93 
laser data and by the contribution of data from a score 

of international sources, including the U.S.S.R. 

Znternational Scientific Cooperation.-Since its inception, the SA0 spacecraft-tracking activity has fostered a high level of international cooperation, both 

through the operation of stations in foreign countries 

and through the active participation of foreign scientists in SA0 research programs. 

In addition, SA0 has organized cooperative tracking programs for earth-science purposes, drawing on 

the resources of other agencies both at home and 

abroad. Such a joint campaign is now being implemented with overall coordination by the Centre National DEtudes Spatiales of France and with SA0 

serving as one of the four major “subcenters.” This program, known as the International Satellite Geodesy 

Experiment or ISAGEX, will be conducted from January to June 1971 and will emphasize laser tracking. 

Some 20 countries will participate. The observational 

data from this ambitious joint venture should permit 

significant advances in earth physics. 

Analysis of Meteoritical and Lunar Samples.--On 

January 9, 1970, near Lost City, Okla., the field manager of SAO’s Prairie Network recovered a 22-pound 

fragment of a meteorite photographed falling to earth 

6 nights earlier. Within the next 4 months, three 

more fragments of the same fall were recovered in this 

area. This marked only the second time in historyand the first time, intentionally-that a meteorite 

photographed entering the earth’s atmosphere had 

been recovered. 

The rapid recovery of the Lost City Meteorite allowed almost immediate analysis of its short-lived radioisotopes created by cosmic-ray bombardment in 

space. More important, the photographic record of 

the fall provided information on the meteorite’s origin 

(from the asteroid belt beyond the orbit of Mars) and 

its loss of mass in flight. Because the meteorite proved 

to be a bronzite chondrite, a type accounting for 35 

percent of all falls, Lost City provides a standard reference model for many objects recovered in the past. 

Moreover, the photographic data can be used to calibrate information gathered on thousands of bright 

meteors photographed by the Prairie Network in the 

past 5 years. 

Because of SAO’s extensive experience with the 

analysis of recovered meteoritical material, three separate research groups were selected by NASA as principal investigators of lunar material returned by the 

Apollo astronauts. 

One group, engaged in the mineralogical and petrological studies of samples through X-ray diffraction 

and electron-microprobe techniques, found an unexpected amount of gabbroic anorthosite in Apollo 11 

samples. This anorthosite material matched the chemical composition of materials in the lunar highlands as 

revealed by earlier Surveyor landings, thus suggesting 

that the anorthosites might be mountain fragments 

tossed into the Mare Tranquillitatis (Apollo 11 landing 

site) by cratering impacts. The unusual anorthosite 

content of the lunar highlands has led to the suggestion 

that this material may have formed in the early evolution of the moon when it floated to the top of the 

molten matrix as a sort of geological scum, thereby 

forming the first part of the moon’s crust. This theory 

has led, in turn, to a search of earth itself for similar 

outcroppings of anorthosite as examples of this planet’s 

own primordial crust. A new view of the earth’s evolution may result from this research on the lunar samples. 

Another group has been conducting radioisotopic 

analyses of Apollo 11 and 12 samples to find traces 

of argon-37 and tritium, radioactive isotopes created 

by cosmic-ray exposure. This research reveals information concerning both radiation levels on the moon 

and exposure ages of the samples themselves. In related 

research, a third group is using a small, tabletop laser 

to free the radioactive gases in the lunar samples for 

mass-spectrometer analysis. 

Energetic Processes in the Universe.-The past several 

years have witnessed an explosion of new astronomical 

discoveries, many of which may have consequences for 

mankind beyond our imagination. For example, at the 

edge of the known universe, powerful quasars are observed receding at nearly the velocity of light. The 

regular, rapid flashes of pulsars indicate the presence 

of matter so compressed it might be comparable to 

squeezing all the world’s automobiles into a thimble. 

Intense sources of infrared radiation are detected at 

the core of several galaxies, including our own Milky 

Way. A host of molecules, many representing organic 

chemicals basic to the chain of life on earth, have been 

discovered in interstellar space, and a uniform microwate background seems to engulf the entire sky, indicating to some astronomers that they might be 

receiving the left-over radiation from the primordial 

explosion that created the universe. 

To understand these and other problems associated 

with the creation and evolution of the universe, SA0 

scientists are conducting intensive research programs 

utilizing new instrumentation capable of observing 

longwave radio radiation, infrared and ultraviolet light, 

and very shortwave gamma rays. 

SA0 prepared and operated aboard the OAO-A2 

an experiment called Celescope. It consisted of four 

astronomical telescopes mated with special television 

cameras designed to photograph star fields in four different wavelengths of ultraviolet light. 

During more than 16 months of operation that ended 

in late April 1970, the Celescope experiment observed 

3,000 star fields, taking 8,700 photographs that covered 

about 10 percent of the sky, including about 20 percent 

94 
of the region near the Milky Way containing the majority of ultraviolet objects. 

The photographs provide data for more than 25,000 

stars in four ultraviolet regions of the spectrum. The 

experiment also observed the Moon, Comet Tago-SatoKosaka, and the planets Mars and Jupiter in ultraviolet 

light. 

Smithsonian scientists are now compiling and 

analyzing the data in preparation for making a detailed 

comparison of the actual observations with theoretical 

stellar models developed at SAO. Complete analysis is 

expected to take several years, culminating in a catalog 

of ultraviolet star brightnesses and an interpretation 

of the material that will enable astronomers to refine 

their theories of the evolution of young or “hot” stars. 

Observing the universe at radio wavelengths with 

both an 85-foot antenna operated jointly with Harvard 

University and a 140-foot antenna maintained by the 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank, 

W. Va., Smithsonian astronomers have discovered two 

new important constituents of interstellar gas-formic 

acid and methyl alcohol. 

The search for these and other molecules in space 

is aided by the accurate determination in the laboratory 

of a particular molecule’s radio wavelength frequency. 

These same laboratory experiments have also provided 

a possible explanation for the process by which infrared 

energy is converted to the microwave radiation observed from the water and hydroxyl molecules in space. 

One of the most challenging fields of research at 

SA0 involves gamma-ray astronomy. Theoretical 

studies indicate that some celestial objects should be 

emitting gamma rays. This ultra-high energy radiation 

may provide the key to understanding many phenomena, including magnetic fields, the density of matter, 

high-energy particles in intergalactic space, radio 

sources, and the pulsars. Indeed, gamma-ray studies 

may even provide answers to basic questions concerning the creation of matter and antimatter in the 

universe. 

The search for gamma-ray sources is being conducted at SAO’s Mount Hopkins Observatory with a 

10-meter optical reflector and with balloon-borne 

detectors launched from Texas and India. The observations at Mount Hopkins represent one of the most 

sensitive ground-based searches ever conducted. One of 

the major suspected sources now under investigation is 

the pulsar at the center of the Crab Nebula. 

Man in Space.-During the past year, SA0 scientists 

also contributed to the growing body of information 

concerning the effects of the outer space environment 

on man. 

Several theories have been suggested to explain the 

mysterious light flashes reported by Apollo astronauts. 

One investigator has theorized that the flashes may be 

Cherenkov light created inside their eyeballs. He suggests that when the charged particles, known as cosmic 

rays, penetrate the spacecraft walls and the helmets of 

the astronauts, they pass into the vitreous humor of 

the eyeball and produce extremely brief bursts of light. 

In short, the astronauts’ eyeballs may be acting as small 

Cherenkov radiation counters. The theory was tested 

on the Apollo 13 flight, when the astronauts made careful observations of the flashes in a darkened cabin both 

with their eyes open and with them covered by a lighttight mask. On a future flight, they will attempt similar 

observations when in lunar orbit to see if the moon 

serves as a barrier against such radiation. 

The Office of Environmental Sciences 

Satellite tracking of animals, together with the monitoring of physiological factors simultaneously with conditions of the environment provides unique opportunities 

for investigating a vast array of important biological 

questions-such as the migratory movements and navigational guidance mechanisms of animals, patterns of 

dispersal, and concentration associated with feeding 

and/or reproduction, the entrainment of physiological 

cycles by environmental parameters, and patterns of 

the vector transmission of disease by migratory or 

nomadic animals. 

As an initial step in this direction, a wild free-roaming elk was tracked and monitored on the National Elk 

Refuge during the month of April 1970, demonstrating 

the practicability of tracking animals on the surface 

of the earth by satellite. The experiment so far has 

been a qualified success, and the study will be continued with an improved instrument collar through 

an entire migratory cycle to correlate behavioral activities with tracking and simultaneous monitoring of 

physiological and environmental parameters. 

National Museum of Natural History 

The past year has been unique in the association of the 

National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) with 

the space program. After many years of collection and 

research on randomly acquired extraterrestrial rocksmeteorites-scientists at NMNH have been privileged 

to examine the lunar rocks purposefully collected by 

the Apollo missions. Thus the preceding man-years of 

thought, training, and experimentation were put to the 

ultimate challenge of elucidating the history and evolution of the moon from these samples. 

Samples of the Apollo 11 collections were received 

at the Museum in mid-September 1969, and since then 

virtually everyone in the Department of Mineral Sciences has been actively involved in a coordinated research effort on them, and on samples from the Apollo 

12 mission. NMNH has been able to plan and execute 

95 
a truly comprehensive investigation of the lunar materials-their chemical and mineralogical composition, 

and the interpretation of these data to provide a tentative account of their petrologic history and evolution. 

Although the samples received were small (totaling less 

than an ounce), it was possible to extract from them 

a remarkable variety of rock and mineral fragments. 

Among these was a unique object, a small metallic 

spheroid 4 millimeters in diameter. It evidently formed 

as a droplet of nickel-iron from a metallic meteorite 

which crashed on the moon. The surface of this spheroid is spotted with small craters, the product of impacts of lunar particles traveling at supersonic 

velocities. In its shape and surface features it mimics 

the moon itself. 

Center for Short-Lived Phenomena 

The Smithsonian Center for Short-lived Phenomena 

(CSLP) serves as an international early-alert system 

for the rapid receipt and dissemination of information 

concerning unpredictable and short-lived geophysical, 

biological, and astrophysical events of major scientific 

importance. During 1970, the CSLP participated in a 

number of activities related to the space sciences. 

The Analysis of Extraterrestrial Materials.-The 

CSLP participated in the investigation of 13 major fireball events occurring in seven countries and six States 

during the year. These investigations included contact 

with event areas by telephone and cable, collecting 

eyewitness reports of magnitude, direction, duration, 

color, sound phenomena, and impact locations where 

they occurred. The reports were telephoned and cabled 

to interested scientists throughout the world who made 

on-the-spot investigations of the majority of the reports. 

As a result of these investigations, the CSLP was 

responsible for the recovery and delivery to laboratories of four meteorite fragments from falls in Venezuela (January 18), Ethiopia (May 11 ) , Sudan (August 15), and Swaziland (October 6). All four samples 

were subjected to extensive study, including radioisotopic analysis, in Smithsonian laboratories. 

Man in Space.-Under contract to NASA, the CSLP 

continued its role in the attempts to determine the validity of the transient lunar phenomena-brightenings, 

colorations, etc.-supposedly observed in the moon’s 

surface by ground-based observers. 

During the Apollo 13 flight, the CSLP coordinated 

communications between 2 16 astronomical observers 

in 34 countries and the NASA Manned Spacecraft 

Center for the rapid relay of reports of transient lunar 

phenomena to the astronauts. The Apollo astronauts 

were unable to confirm any observations made from 

ground stations. 

National Air and Space Museum 

Under the terms of the space artifacts agreement with 

NASA, the National Air and Space Museum continued 

to receive rocket engines, manned spacecraft, scientific 

satellites, spacesuits, etc. All such material in exhibitable condition is placed on display at the Smithsonian 

or loaned to NASA centers, museums and other appropriate organizations in the United States and 

abroad. Overseas loans are coordinated with the 

U.S. Information Agency and the Department of Commerce. During 1970 major overseas exhibits of spacecraft were displayed at Expo 70 in Japan, and in 

western and eastern Europe. They were viewed by millions of visitors. 

At the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, several newly displayed aircraft include an RAF Humcane and the “Polar Star” of Antarctic fame. Charles 

Lindbergh‘s Tingmissartoq was displayed at Expo 70. 

Other new exhibits at the museum were the communications satellite Early Bird, and Astronaut Armstrong’s Apollo 11 lunar visor. An outstanding and 

complete library of oral history of space flight was 

received from a private donor. 

96 
XVI Federal Communications 

Commission 

Introduction 

The major responsibilities of the Federal Communications Commission in aeronautics and space include 

the following: 

1. Specific responsibilities in the communications 

satellite field such as authorizing Comsat’s participation in the ownership and operation of satellites for 

use in the global communications satellite system and 

authorizing the construction and operation of U.S. 

non-Government earth stations. 

2. Participation in national and international groups 

and organizations concerned with satellite communications for general use, as well as specialized uses by the 

aviation, marine, and amateur radio services. 

3. Administration of domestic rules and regulations 

applicable to non-Government radiocommunications. 

4. Participation in national and international development of frequency allocations and solutions to technical, operational, and policy problems regarding 

aeronautical communications, space satellites, and 

radio astronomy, as well as the coordination of international notification of specific frequency assignments 

and use. 

Communication Satellites 

International satellite communications have continued 

to grow at a rapid rate, so that at the end of the year 

the Intelsat system was using 2,126 circuits, an increase 

of 710 circuits over the number in operation at yearend 1969. Membership in the International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium (Intelsat) increased 

by an additional seven countries, as of ‘December 31, 

1970. The Global Satellite System now has 43 earth 

stations with 51 antennas in operation in 30 different 

countries. 

Two additional satellites in the Intelsat I11 series 

were successfully launched and placed in service over 

the Atlantic Ocean. The configuration of the space 

portion of the Global System now consists of the two 

Intelsat I11 satellites serving the Atlantic region, one 

Intelsat I11 satellite serving the Pacific region, and 

one Intelsat I11 satellite serving the Indian Ocean region. An Intelsat I1 series satellite is providing service 

between the mainland and Hawaii. A sixth satellite, 

also of the Intelsat I1 series, is available for service in 

the Atlantic region on a contingency basis. 

The first commercial satellite, Early Bird, launched 

April 24, 1965, designed with a useful lifetime expectation of- 18 months, has now lost its stationkeeping 

capability after five years of operation and is drifting 

westward. It could be used in emergency for communications between the US. earth stations on the 

west coast and the Hawaii earth station. 

The Intelsat I11 F-2 satellite launched December 18, 

1968, for service over the Atlantic experienced difficulties requiring its replacement, and the Intelsat 

I11 F-8 satellite, launched July 23, 1970, never 

achieved proper orbit due to an apparent malfunction 

of the satellite apogee motor. 

The first satellite of the Intelsat IV series now under 

construction is scheduled for launch and placement 

over the Atlantic Ocean in early 197 1. 

The earth station in Alaska became operational in 

July 1970 with 80 circuits authorized for service to the 

U.S. mainland. The Guam earth station also became 

fully operational, bringing the total number of US. 

earth stations now operating in the Intelsat system to 

eight. Construction has been authorized and is now 

underway for a new replacement antenna at the 

Andover, Maine, earth station. 

International Radio Consultative Committee 

A Plenary meeting of all the study groups of the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) , including Study Group IV (Space Systems), was convened in February 1970 at New Delhi. The CCIR, 

encompassing 14 study groups, serves as an adviser 

to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 

on technical matters involving the use of radio. Five 

FCC members attended the plenary, one of them as 

vice chairman of the U.S. delegation and another as a 

major working group leader for Study Group IV. The 

plenary approved documents prepared by Study Group 

IV at the final CCIR meeting of September 1969 in 

Geneva with only minor changes. At the plenary continuation of an International Working Party (IWP) 

of Study Group IV on Efficient Use of the Geo-Station97 
ary Orbit and an IWP of Study Group V on Propagation for Space Telecommunications was approved. 

An FCC representative serves on both IWP’s. The 

IWP of Study Group IV met in London during the 

week of October 19 and the IWP of Study Group V 

met in Nice during the week of November 30 with the 

FCC member attending both meetings. 

At the plenary a special joint study group meeting 

preceding the Space Conference, 1971, was set for 

February 1971. FCC members have been heavily involved in the preparation of over 100 technical documents for this special meeting, including documents 

on feasibility of satellite broadcasting on several frequency bands, criteria for sharing of frequencies between Comsat and terrestrial radio systems at frequencies above 1 GHz, discussion and proposals for 

the escalation of power fhx densities from satellites 

with angle of arrival in bands shared with radio relay 

systems, and other similar documents. 

The Commission will provide participation by about 

four of its members to the special joint study group 

meeting in February 1971. The intensive preparation 

for this meeting is responsive to the needs of the World 

Administrative Radio Conference ( WARC) on Space 

in June 1971. 

Radio Astronomy and Space Services 

The Commission has been in continuing consultation 

with the Office of Telecommunications Policy and the 

Department of State in the preparatory work for the 

forthcoming WARC on matters pertaining to radioastronomy and the space services. The ITU Administrative Council adopted a resolution in 1968 calling 

for such a conference and set forth a tentative agenda 

for comments. The date on which it will convene has 

now been set for June 7, 1971, and will run for 6 

weeks. In response to the resolution, the FCC initiated 

an inquiry (docket No. 18294) in August 1968 for the 

purpose of developing proposals to that conference 

which would be responsive to the needs of its licensees. 

This preparatory work, conducted in consultation with 

the Office of Telecommunications Management and 

its successor, the Office of Telecommunications Policy 

(OTP), evolved through a series of seven notices of 

inquiry into a document entitled “Draft Proposals of 

the United States of America for the World Administrative Radio Conference for Space Telecommunications (Geneva, 197 1 ) .” The latter document was also 

transmitted abroad in August 1970, by the Department of State, to elicit the comments and reactions of 

other member countries of the ITU. The formal proposals of the United States to the Conference will be 

based on these draft proposals, as modified to take into 

account the national and international comments. 

Aeronautical Services 

Commission staff representatives have continued working nationally with other Government agencies and 

the aviation industry, and internationally with the 

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 

and the CCIR, toward development of system parameters and the application of space radio communication techniques to help satisfy the communication and 

navigation requirements of domestic and international 

civil aviation. During 1970 various tests and study programs previously established, as well as new programs, 

have been pursued. New authorizations or renewals 

have been granted where required, 

The air transport industry, under the authorization 

of the Commission, continued tests which were begun 

in 1966 to assess the relative merits of emission techniques and normal power versus substantially higher 

power abroad aircraft as elements between a communication aeronautical station and aircraft via satellites. The Commission staff continued study of the 

results of those tests as well as the results of studies such 

as the previously contracted industry report of the program in order to determine the most suitable techniques 

to be used in aeronautical satellite systems. Such information assisted the Commission in developing 

preliminary views transmitted internationally for coordination prior to the forthcoming WARC. 

The Commission, in discharging its statutory responsibilities with respect to nongovernment uses of radio 

for aviation, prescribes the manner and conditions 

under which frequencies may be assigned for aeronautical telecommunications. In addition the Commission assigns frequencies to aircraft radio stations, aeronautical en route, radionavigation, aeronautical advisory, and other stations comprising the aviation radio 

services. 

The Commission continued to authorize various 

scheduled airlines to participate in tests using NASA’s 

Applications Technology Satellites (ATS) . Tests using 

ATS are presently continuing over both the Atlantic 

and the Pacific between ground terminals and aircraft. 

Continued analysis of the results is in progress with 

particular emphasis on the potential effect of satellite 

systems on the existing aeronautical radio communications systems. Further test programs, particularly in 

regard to UHF usage and technology are being prepared. Actions within the Commission are being taken 

to provide for the capability of collision-avoidance systems. The possibility of simplified and inexpensive 

equipment to provide pilot warning, in addition to the 

more complex and expensive collision-avoidance systems is being studied. 

Commission staff representatives have participated 

in the preparation of guidance material for the use of 

U.S. representaitves to international conferences including those of the CCIR and the ICAO. Members of 

98 
the staff again served on the US. delegation to the 

CCIR interim meeting at Geneva this year which 

treated, inter alia, aeronautical satellites. The staff is 

preparing documentation for the forthcoming WARC. 

This is particularly important because presently the 

ITU rules provide only a portion of the frequency requirements to satisfy the aeronautical requirements 

foreseen for the near future. Staff emphasis will be on 

the required changes to satisfy aeronautical requirements through the time period present to 1980. 

Maritime Mobile Service 

The ITU World Administration (Maritime) Radio 

Conference held in Geneva in September-November 

1967 adopted recommendation No. MAR 3 relating to 

the utilization of space communication techniques in 

the maritime mobile service. The recommendation 

invited administrations, IMCO, and the CCIR, respectively, to undertake a study of maritime operational requirements for a safety and navigation radio communications system via satellite and the technical 

aspects of such systems. In 1970, the Commission, 

working with the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) Subcommittee on 

Radiocommunications, CCIR, the Radio Technical 

Commission for Marine Services (RTCM) , industry, 

and other Government agencies, is continuing to study 

the potential value of adapting satellite relay techniques to the communications requirements of the 

marine mobile service. 

The RTCM, an organization established by the 

FCC in which Government and industry, cooperate in 

studies of existing and proposed systems of maritime 

communications, previously established a special conimittee 32-57, Maritime Mobile Satellite Communications, to investigate the possibilities of utilizing satellites 

for marine communications and navigation. A test 

program was developed which was subsequently 

adopted by the Maritime Administration as a basis for 

tests conducted during early 1968 in which VHF communications were relayed via NASA's ATS-1 and 

ATS-3 satellites between US. ground terminals and 

the merchant ship S.S. Santa Lucia en route from Port 

Newark, N.J., through the Panama Canal to Valparaiso, Chile, and return. These tests together with 

those performed during 1967 through 1968 by the U.S. 

Coast Guard from the cutters USCGC Klamath, Staten 

Island, Glacier, and Cusco have demonstrated the 

feasibility of communicating with ships at sea via satellite. This was a basic and vital first step. 

The Commission is continually analyzing the results 

of these and other test programs and study reports to 

determine their validity and potential for satisfaction 

of maritime communications requirements and to establish the parameters for the additional test and study 

programs that may be required. Additionally, working 

with the RTCM, the staff is developing a program 

plan for the evolutionary development and implementation of marine communication systems using 

space techniques. In 1970 it was determined that further information was required before a program plan 

can be finalized. 

A Government-industry program has resulted in the 

establishment and documentation of a comprehensive 

statement of operational requirements which is being 

used as guidance in the development of the evolutionary program plan. Updating from newly received information was accomplished. 

A detailed study generated by the RTCM SC-57 in 

1970 and funded by governmental agencies, has been 

performed for the purpose of determining the required scope of a satellite system to satisfy maritime 

mabile requirements, on a worldwide basis, in the present to 1980 time frame. This study, as well as the test 

programs previously mentioned are being analyzed to 

determine specific existing and foreseen problems in 

order that feasible solutions can be promulgated. 

Present efforts are directed, in particular, to the 

problem of feasibility of the sharing of systems or subsystems between aviation and marine services; feasibility of sharing of frequency bands for commonality 

(particularly for search and rescue) ; problems of terrestrial and space systems sharing frequencies ; and 

preparation of documentation in advance of the forthcoming ITU Space WARC. Preconference coordination with other administrations is in progress. 

The Commission, in reviewing responses to the seven 

notices of inquiry in docket No. 18294, is developing 

the U.S. position concerning maritime communication 

needs using satellite techniques. The ITU radio regulations (pars. 273A and 352B, EARC for Space, Geneva, 

1963) presently contain authority for the aeronautical 

mobile service to use space communication techniques 

whereas no provisions exist for the maritime mobile 

service. The major efforts involved presently are directed specifically toward the analysis of all information now available in order to establish a viable US. 

position for the 1971 WARC. 

Amateur Radio Service 

The Radio Amateur Satellite Gorp. (Amsat) satellite, Australis-Oscar (AO-5), carrying telemetry beacons, was launched January 23 and functioned 23 days 

on 144 MHz and 46 days on 29 MHz before the batteries were depleted. The command system for the 29- 

MHz. beacon functioned reliably; the passive attitudestabilization system proved to be excellent for the low 

polar orbit. Reception of the 29-MHz beacon indicated 

more experiments would be highly desirable at this 

order of frequency. The method of thermal control 

99 
and the simplified multiple-parameter telemetry system 

proved to be practical and useful. 

The same group is seeking NASA approval of a satellite proposal calling for the launch of a small communication relay satellite, Amsat-Oscar B( AO-B) , operating in the 144- and 432-MHz amateur bands as 

a secondary payload on an unspecified NASA launch 

late in 1971. It would be used in the conduct of an 

experimental multiple-access communications program 

involving small, low-powered ground terminals 

operated by the amateur service. 

Broadcasting Policy Coordination 

The Commission furnished a member of the US. delegation to the UNESCO meeting of governmental experts on international arrangements in the space communication field which was held in Pans in December 

1969. This meeting examined the problems involved in 

the use of space communication for the free flow of 

information, the rapid spread of education and greater 

cultural exchange. The meeting advised on a possible 

convention to insure legal protection of satellite television transmission against uses not authorized by the 

originating body; defined the studies which might be 

prepared by UNESCO on space communication; assessed the requirements of education, science, and culture in the allocation of frequencies for space communication; and discussed a draft declaration on the 

guiding principles which might govern the use of space 

communication for the furtherance of UNESCO's 

aims. 

The Commission was represented on the U.S. delegation to the third session of the working group on direct 

broadcast satellites of the U.N. Committee on the 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space at New York in May 

1970. This group further studied satellite broadcasting 

with particular regard to international cooperation and 

the legal questions raised by broadcasting via satellite. 

The Commission also participated in the work of 

Panel 1, Ad Hoc Intragovernmental Communication 

Satellite Policy Coordinating Committee, under the 

direction of the Office of Telecommunications Management (now Office of Telecommunications Policy) . The Panel studied national policies relating to the use 

of satellites for international broadcasting, including 

general consideration of the technical, economic, legal, 

political, and other aspects of such broadcasting. Panel 

1 issued its report on July 15,1970. 

100 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure 

Year 

1957. .......... 0 

1958 ........... 5 

1959. .......... 9 

1960 ........... 16 .~ 

1961 ........... 35 

1962. .......... 54 

1963 ........... 60 

1964. .......... 69 

.~ 

1961 ........... 35 

1962. .......... 54 

1963 ........... 60 

1964. .......... 69 

1 

8 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

8 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure 

Year 

1965 ........... 94 

1966 ........... 95 

1967. .......... 77 

1968 ........... 61 

1969 ........... 58 

1970 ........... 36 

8 

12 

4 

15 

1 

1 

3 0 

5 11 

10 0 

3 0 

8 1 

3 0 

Total.. ... 669 114 42 11 

1Thk earth escape failure did attain earth orbit and 

Notes: The criterion of success or failure used is the attaintherefore is included in the earth-orbit success totals. 

ment of earth orbit or earth escape rather than a judgment of 

mission success. 

This tablulation includes spacecraft from cooperating 

countries which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles. 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

Year United U.S.S.R. France Italy Australia Japan Red 

States China 

1957 ................... .......... 1958.. . ..................... 1959 ...................................... 1960 ....................... ....... 1961 ....... ....................... 1962 ...................................... ............ 

................ 

..................... 1966 ...................................... 1967 ......................... 1968.. ............................... 1969 ............................... 1970 ............ ......... 

.... 2 .................................................. 5 1 .................................................. 10 3 .............. .......... 16 3 .................................................. 29 .6 .................................................. 52 20 .............................. 38 17 .............................. 57 30 ........................................... 63 48 1 ........................................ 73 44 ................ 57 66 

45 74 .................................................. 40 70 .................................................. 28 81 2 11 .......... 1 1 

Total ............................... 513 465 6 2 1 1 1 

1 Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple 

Note: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft’ 

101 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U . S. Launches-1970 

Launch date (Gmt) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

Period 

(minutes)- 

Inclination to 

Equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Jan. 14 

Defense 

2A 

Titan IIIBAgena 

Jan. 15 

Intelsat I11 (F-6) 

3A 

Thrust-augmented 

Thor-Delta 

Jan. 23 

ITOS 1 (Tiros M) 

EA 

Thrust-augmented 

Thor-Delta 

(2 stage) 

Jan. 23 

Oscar 5 (Australis) 

8B 

Thrust-augmented 

Thor-Del ta 

Feb. 4 

9A 

Thrust-augmented 

SERT-I1 

Thor- Agena 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 253 

and technology. 78 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.8 

109.9 

Objective: To provide equivalent of 1,200 2-way 

voice circuits or 4-Color TV channels to carry 

communications traffic between the United 

East. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 56-in. diameter and 78 in. 

high ; spin stabilized ; 5-year lifetime electrical 

power system provides 130 watts generated by 

10,720 solar cells; rechargeable 20-cell nickelcadmium battery; weight 334 Ibs. 

22,259 

22,243 

1, 437. 2 

States, Latin America, Europe, and the Middle 0. 9 

Objective: To flight qualify the prototype space- 925 

craft, thereby obtaining the engineering data 887 

required for the evaluation of a single momentum 115.0 

101.9 

stabilized platform. To evaluate the use of the 

stabilized platform for operational methodology 

by performing cloud-cover observations in both 

direct readout and stored modes of operation. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular, box-shaped spacecraft 

with a deployable 3-panel solar array. 3-axis 

stabilized, earth-oriented satellite carries 2 

Advanced Vidicon Camera System (AVCS) 

and 2 Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) camera subsystems which provide daytime cover- age, and 2 Scanning Radiometer (SR) Subsystems (infrared) which furnish nighttime cover- age. Solar panels measure 3 ft. by 5 ft. each and 

total 48 sq. ft. Spacecraft measures 14 ft. with 

panels deployed. Thermal control system. 4 

antennas. 10,000-n-on-p solar cells produce 250 

watts average power. Weight: 675 Ibs. 

wheel stabilization system for an earth-oriented, 

Objective: To transmit low-power signals on 2 

amateur bands to be used by radio amateurs 

worla-widetor rraining in the art of tracking and 

for experiments useful ro NASA in radio 

propagation. 

Spacecraft: Carries 20 Ibs. of batteries and transmits 

at 29.45 mhz in 10-m band and 144.05 mhz in the 

2-meter band; weight: 39 Ibs. 

Objective: To accumulate 6 months (4382 hours) of 

satisfactory operation on an electric ion thruster 

system in space. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 21-in. long and 59-in. 

diameter is supported by same size Spacecraft 

Support Unit (SSU) which is attached to 21.5 ft. 

long and 5 ft. diameter Agena D second stage. 

Two 5 ft. by 19 ft. solar arrays attach-to Agena D 

stage measure 187.5 sq. ft. total and contain total 

of 33,300 solar cells for power total of 1471 watts. 

Spacecraft contains 21 kw ion thrusters each 

powered by 29 Ibs. of mercury propellant. 

Thermal control system. Weight in orbit is 

approximately 3,330 Ibs. of which 1100 Ibs. is 

spacecraft and SSU weight. 

92 1 

115.0 

101.9 

89 1 

627 

620 

105. 1 

99. 1 

Decayed Feb. 1, 1970. 

Launched by NASA for Comsat 

Corp., the manager of Intelsat. 

Stationed in synchronous orbit 

at 24O west longitude. Replaced 

Intelsat I11 F-2 over Atlantic. 

Spacecraft operating normally; 

began full-time commercial 

services Feb. 1, 1970. 

Second generation operational 

meteorological satellite placed 

in a circular, near-polar, sunsynchronous orbit. First launch 

of Delta with 6 strap-ons. Provides first daily global daynight cloud cover data; also 

furnishes both remote and local 

readout. All systems functioning 

normally. 

Built at the University of Melbourne 

in Australia and launched by 

NASA as secondary payload for 

the Radio Amateur Satellite 

Corporation. Spacecraft is 

functioning normally. 

First orbital test of electronbombardment ion engines. Spacecraft’s solar arrays are largest ever 

flown on N.4SA satellite. No. 1 

engine shut down July 23 after 

successful operation for 3782 

hours. No. 2 engine shut down 

Oct. 17 after 2,011 hours of 

operation. 

102 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-19704ontinued 

Launch date (Gmt) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

(minutes)- 

Inclination to 

Equator 

(degrees) 

Spacecraft data Period Remarks 

Feb. 11 

Defense 

12A 

Thor-Burner I1 

Mar. 4 

Defense 

16A 

Thor- Agena 

Mar. 4 

Defense 

16B 

Thor- Agena 

Mar. 20 

NATO I 

21A 

Thor-Del ta 

Apr. 8 

Nimbus-;IV 

25A 

Thrust-augmented 

Thor-Agena 

Apr. 8 

TOPO-1 

25B 

Thor- Agena 

Apr. 8 

Vela 11 

27A 

Titan I11 C 

Apr. 8 

Vela 12 

27B 

Titan I11 C 

Objective: Devekopment of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technobgy. 

Objective: Development of space flight technqiues 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: The NATO I is a military communications satellite plpced in geostationary orbit over the mid-Atlantic Ocean. It will be used for com- mand and control of NATO military forces with 

the U.S. terminal located at Norfolk. Va. 

(SACLANT). 

Spacecraft: Weight 285 lbs. 

Objective: To acquire a sufficient number of 

global samples of atmospheric radiation meas- urements for the purpose of comparing vertical 

temperature, water vapor, and ozone profiles, 

and of providing a basis for comparing the 

merits of the several instrument approaches. 

Comparative data are to be obtained from the 

successful operation of at least three of the five 

spectrometric experiments: The Satellite Infrared Spectrometer (SIRS), the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS), the Filter 

Wedge Spectrometer (FWS), the Selective 

Chopper Radiometer (SCR), or the Backscatter Ultraviolet (BUV) Spectrometer, or from successful operation of either the FWS or SCR, plus either the SIRS or IRIS. 

Spacecraft : 120-in. high and 132-in. wide spacecraft. Torus ring base structure 56-in. diameter 

with pyramidal frame structure and two 3-ft. by 

5-ft. solar paddles. Active three-axis stabilization. 

Solar cells provide 465 watts of power and 

eight nickel-cadmium batteries average 255 

watts. Weight: 1,488 Ibs. 

Objective: This Army tactical satellite survey system 

is a SECOR type satellite and is used through 

triangulation for ground tactical positioning. 

Spacecraft: Weight 48 lbs. 

Objective: To orbit nuclear detection sensors capable of monitoring X-ray, gamma ray, neutron, 

optical, electromagnetic pulse, and air fluo- rescence emsions. 

Spacecraft: weight 770 lbs. 

Objective: Same as Vela 11. Located in similar 

Spacecraft: weight 770 lbs. 

orbit; satellites separated by 180.O 

542 

480 

101.3 

98.6 

141.0 

139.7 

88. 4 

88.4 

315 . .. 

273 

94.0 

88. 1 

22,548 

21,258 

1,440 

2. 8 

684 

679 

107. 1 

99. 8 

66 7 

66 7 

107 

99 

68,478. 4 

68,810. 3 

6,695 

37. 7 

69,281. 8 

69,041. 2 

6,699 

32. 9 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed Mar. 26, 1970 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Spacecraft and sensors operating 

successfully except for FWS, 

which failed June 7, 1970. Primary objectives achieved and 

flight a success. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

103 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U . S. Launc hes-19704ontinued 

Launch date (Gmt) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

Period 

(minutes)- 

Inclination to 

Equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Apr. 11 

Apollo 13 (CSM 104) 

29A 

Saturn V 

Apr. 11 

Saturn IVB (AS 508) 

29B 

Saturn V 

Apr. 11 

Lunar Excursion 

Module (LM 7) 

29C 

Saturn V 

Apr. 15 

Defense 

31A 

Titan I11 B-Agena 

Am-. 23 

Ixhelsat I11 (F-7) 

32A 

Thrus t-augmen ted 

Thor-Delta 

May 20 

Defense 

40A 

Thor-Agena 

May 20 

Defense 

40B 

Thor-Agena 

Jun. 19 

Defense 

46A 

Atlas-Agena 

104 

Objective : To perform selenological inspection, 

survey, and sampling of materials in a preselected 

region of the Fra Mauro Formation; to deploy 

and activate an Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP); to develop man's 

capability to work in the lunar environment; to 

obtain photographs of candidate exploration sites. 

Spacecraft: Carried full lunar landing configuration 

including command module, service module, 

and lunar module. Three 31-cell Bacon-type 

hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells plus batteries in com- mand module and six batteries in LM. Total 

weight at initial earth orbit insertion: 296,463 

Ibs.; at translunar injection: 110,210 Ibs.; com- mand and service modules: 61,453 lbs. CSM: 

34 ft. long, 12.8 ft. diam. 

Objective: To bring payload to lunar transfer 

injection; then to fly independently to impact 

the moon in further seismic tests to be detected 

by Apollo 12 ALSEP instruments. 

Spacecraft: A cylinder about 61.3 ft. long by 21.7 

ft. in diam. Total weight at impact, about 28,665 

Ibs. 

Objective: To support lunar landing and takeoff 

for return to lunar orbit in support of tasks 

named above. 

Spacecraft: Combined descent and ascent stages 

about 13.5 ft. high, 12.3 ft. wide, and 10.3 ft. 

deep. Total weight about 34,067 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight echnique 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To provide equivalent of 1,200 twoway voice circuits or four color TV channels to 

carry communications traffic between the United 

States, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle 

East. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 56-in. diameter and 78-in. 

high ; spin stabilized ; 5 year lifetime electrical 

power system provides 130 watts generated by 

10.720 solar cells; rechargeable 20-cell nickelcadmium battery; weight: 334 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Circumlunar Aborted after 56 hours. GET due 

to loss of pressure in liquid oxygen in Service Module and 

failure of fuel cells 1 &. 3. Preflight damage to wiring insulation in tank caused electrical 

short circuits which initiated 

combustion in oxygen tank No. 

2. Astronauts were James H. 

Lovell, Jr., Fred Haise, Jr., 

and John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Splashdown in Pacific Ocean 

after total flight time of 142 

hrs. 54 min. 44 sec., April 17, 

1970. 

Lunar strike Crashed on moon April 15, 1970 

about 88 miles from Apollo 12 

landing site with a force equal 

to 11 tons of TNT, setitng up 

signals fdr 4 hours. 

Circumlunar After explosion in service module, 

the lunar module was used as a lifeboat by the astronauts for 

the flight around the moon and 

back toward earth; jettisoned 

just prior to reentry. Decayed 

in earth's atmosphere April 17, 

1970. 

240 Decayed May 6, 1970. 

a5 

89. 7 

110.9 

21,902 Launched by NASA for Comsat 

21,891 Corp., the manage of Intelsat. 

1,408. 1 Launch vehicle underperformed 

and onboard hydrazine thrusters 

pushed satellite into desired synchronous orbit 19" west longitude over Atlantic. Remaining fuel 

expected to maintain satellite in 

proper orbit for five years. Began 

commercial service May 8, 1970. 

0. 3 

147 Decayed June 17, 1970. 

111 

88.6 

83. o 

313 Still in orbit. 

304 

94. 5 

83. 1 

22,270 Still in orbit. 

22,240 

1,426. 5 

0. 1 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-19704ontinued 

Launch date (Gmt) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Jun. 25 

Defense 

48A 

Titan I11 B-Agena 

Jul. 23 

Defense 

54A 

Titan I11 B-Agena 

Jul. 23 

Intebat III(F-8) 

55A 

Thrust-augmented 

Thor-Delta 

Aug. 18 

Defense 

61A 

Titan I11 B-Agena 

Aue. 19 SKYNET 11 

62A 

Thor-Delta 

Au .26 

Degnse 

66A 

Thor-Agena 

Aug. 27 

Defense 

67A 

scout 

Sept. 1 

Defense 

69A 

Atlas-Agena 

Sept. 3 

Defense 

70A 

Thor-Burner I1 

Oct. 23 

Defense 

9OA 

Titan I11 B-Agena 

Nov. 6 

Defense 

93A 

Titan I11 C 

Objective : Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To provide equivalent of 1,200 two-way 

voice circuits of four color TV channels to carry 

communications traffic between the United 

States, Hawaii, and the Western Pacific. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 56-in. diameter and 78-in. 

high; spin stabilized; five year lifetime electrical 

power system provides 130 watts generated by 

10,720 solar cells ; rechargeable 20-cell nickelcadmium battery; weight: 334 Ibs. 

Objective: Devebpment of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: The Skynet I1 is the second and final 

military communications satellite launched for 

the United Kingdom. The satellite was to be 

placed in geostationary orbit over the Indian 

Ocean where it was to support communications of 

British forces. 

Spacecraft: Weight 285 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight technique 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To provide a navigation satellite. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: DeveIopment of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Apogee and 

Perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

(minutes)- 

Inclination to 

Equator 

(degrees) 

Period Remarks 

- 

255 Decayed July 6, 1970. . 7.7 -. 9 

. 

89. 8 

108.8 

251 Decayed Aug. 19, 1970. 

73. 9 

90. 1 

59. 9 

22, 553 

175 

642. 7 

Launched successfulLy into transfer 

orbit by NASA for Comsat 

Corp., the manager of Intelsat. 

28.0 Comsat-controlled apogee motor 

began scheduled 27 second burn 

at 27 hours GET to place satellite 

into planned synchronous orbit 

at 128" east longitude over Western Pacific, but motor cut 

off after burning 14.5 seconds 

and contact lost. Last of Intelsat 

111 series. 

246 Decayed Sept. 3, 1970. 

94 

89. 9 

110.9 

Orbit undetermined. Status un- known, contact lost during 

apogee boost motor firing. 

313 Still in orbit. 

30 1 

94.4 

74. 9 

757 Still in orbit. 

595 

106.9 

90. 0 

24,750 Still in orbit. 

19,830 

1,441.9 

10. 3 

542 Still in orbit. 

475 .. . 

101.2 

98. 7 

248 Decayed Nov. 11, 1970. 

81 

89. 8 

111.0 

22,299 Still in orbit. 

16, 186 

1, 197. 1 

7.8 

105 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful US. Launches-1970-Continued 

Launch date (Gmt) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

Inclination to 

Equator 

Spacecraft data Period Remarks 

(mixlutes)- 

(degrees) 

Nov. 9 

Orbiting Frog 

94A 

scout 

Otolith (OFO) 

Nov. 9 

Radiation/ 

94B 

scout 

Meteroid (R/M) 

Nov. 18 

Defense 

98 A 

Thor-Agena 

Nnv. 18 

~ 

Defense 

98B 

Thor- Agena 

Dec. 11 

DeGa 

Objective: To obtain information on the functioning and adaptability in weightlessness of the 

portion of the inner ear which controls balance. 

Alp0 to obtain data on the acceleration of .001 g 

or less at the otolith during weightlessness, and on water environment temperature. 

Spacecraft: Truncated cone with spherical top 

affixed to octogonal platform; 47-in. long and 

30-111. diameter. Two 9-ceLl battery packs deliyer 

28 volts; five antennas; four booms extend 78-111. 

from side of spacecraft; yoyo despin assembly. 

91 lb. Frog Otolith Experiment Package (FOEP) 

contains two bullfrogs and encased in pressuretight 18-in. diameter and 18-in. long container. 

Total weight: 292 lbs. 

Objective: Radiation-to demonstrate the feasibility 

and accuracy of an advanced dosimeter concept 

in a real time mode of the space environment; 

Meteoroid-to verify, in flight, the proper operation of instrumentation (including sensor materials) to be used on long duration flight 

experiments for future study of the meteoroid 

population of the solar system. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 30-111. diameter and 28-in. 

high attached to Scout 4th stage (FW-4); spin 

stabilized; total length (including FW-4) 67-in. ; 

7 sq. ft. of solar cells provide 25 watts of power; 2 

nickel-cadmium batteries; R/M weight: 46 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

328. 

186. 

92. 

37. 

.O 

4 

8 

4 

6 day flight met all research objectives and considered a success. Frogs adapted to zero gravity of 

space after three days in orbit. 

Demonstrated that sense organ of 

man rather than central nervous system makes the adjustments. 

328.0 Spacecraft launched as secondary 

186.4 payload, operating satisfactorily. 

92. 8 

37. 4 

140.4 Decayed Dec. 11, 1970. 

110.0 

88.5 

82.9 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in a sun-synchro- nous orbit having a local equator crossing time 

between 3:OO pm and 320 pm, and conduct 

in-orbit engineering evaluation so that daytime 

and’ nighttime cloudcover observations can be 

obtained regularly and dependably in both direct 

readout and stored modes of operation. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular, box-shaped spacecraft 

with a deployable 3-panel solar array. Threeaxis stabilized, earth-oriented satellite carries 2 

Advanced Vidicon Camera Subsystems (AVCS) 

and 2 Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) 

Camera Subsystems which provide daytime 

coverage, and 2 Scanning Radiometer (SR) 

Subsystems (infrared) which furnish nighttime 

coverage. Solar panels measure 3 ft. by 5 ft. each 

and total 48 sq. ft. Spacecraft measures 14 ft. 

with panels deployed. Thermal control system. 

4 antennas. 10,000 n-on-p solar cells produce 

250 watts average power. Weight: 675 lbs. 

317. 5 Still in orbit. 

302.0 

94. 5 

83. 1 

914.8 First operational spacecraft of 

884.0 Improved TIROS Operational 

114. 8 System (ITOS) series. Space101.95 craft is functioning normally. 

106 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U. S. La u nches-1970-Con t in ued 

Launch date (Gmt) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

(minutes)- 

Inclination to 

Equator 

(degrees) 

Period Remarks 

Dec. 11 

CEP 

106B 

Long-Tank, ThrustAugmented, ThorDelta 

Dec. 12 

Explorer XLII 

(SAS-A) 

107A 

scout 

Objective : To obtain information on electron 

density, temperature, and ion current in the 

ionosphere during a 2-orbit lifetime. 

Spacecraft: 5 lb. experiment which carries its own small analog computer; permanently attached to 

second stage of Delta launch vehicle. 

Objective: To develop a catalog of celestial x-ray sources by systematic scanning of the celestial 

sphere in the energy range from 2-20 KEV. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 22-in. diameter and 20-in. 

high; 4 solar paddles (10-in. by 53-in.) with 

solar cells on both sides, hinged to outer shell 

and measure about 13 ft. tip-to-tip. One nickelcadmium battery provides 27 watts average 

power; thermal control system; carries advanced 

x-ray instruments; spin stabilized; weight: 315 

Ibs. 

916.6 Spacecraft launched as secondary 

885. 7 

114. 9 

101. 9 

payload. Obtained useful information during 2-orbit lifetime 

which may aid in reducing 

ground data processing. 

355.4 

329. 9 

95. 7 

3. 04 

First launch of an American spacecraft by a crew of another 

country (Italy). Launched as 

part of San Marco project from 

mobile seaborne equatorial 

facility off coast of Kenya. All 

spacecraft systems operating 

normally. 

Jan. 21.. 

Feb. 18. 

Apr. 10.. . . . . 

May 21 

June2 ...... June6.. . . . . June 22.. . . . July 1.. . . . . . 

Aug. 29.. . . . 

Sept. 11. . . . . 

Oct. 20 

Oct. 24.. . . . . 

Nov. 4.. . . . . Nov. 14.. . . . 

Nov. 16.. . . . 

Nov. 24.. , . . 

Dec. 21. . . . . . 

APPENDIX A-4 

Aeronautical Events of 1970 

The Boeing 747 (the first jumbo jet, type certificated on Dec. 30, 1969) made its first flight in commercial airline 

operations. 

The rocket-powered HL-10 lifting body research vehicle achieved a new speed record for lifting body flight vehicles 

of Mach 1.86 (1,224 mph). 

A notice of proposed rulemaking banning flights by civil aircraft in the United States at speeds producing sonic 

booms capable of reaching the ground (except in designated flight test areas) was issued by FAA. (Final rulemaking action was expected early in 1971.) 

Landmark legislation (Public Law 91-258, of which title I is the Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 

and title I1 is the Airport and Airway Revenue Act of 1970) was signed into law by President Nixon, solving 

the longstanding problem of adequate funding for airport and airway development by establishing an Airport 

and Airway Trust Fund based on aviation-user taxes. 

The M2-F3 lifting body research vehicle made its first unpowered glide flight. 

The C-5A was introducted to the first operational squadron at Charleston AFB. 

The President issued a policy statement on international air transportation. 

Neil Armstrong, former NASA test pilot and Apollo 11 astronaut was appointed NASA’s Deputy Associate AdThe Douglas DC-10 “airbus” made its first flight. The DC-10 is a large-capacity jet designed for medium- and 

ministrator for Aeronautics. 

long-haul operations. 

placing of specially trained, armed U.S. Government personnel on flights of U.S. commercial airliners. 

President Nixon announced a 5-point program to deal with the problem of air piracy. The program included the 

A full-scale hvDersonic research engine was tested for the first time in the 8-foot, high-temperature structures tunnel at LaAgley at a Mach No.-of 7.4 reaching temperatures of 2,000’ F. 

760 m.p.h. 

craft will have a payload of 22.5 tons, double the existing free world capability. 

medium- and long-haul operations. 

win 

- 

The X-24 lifting-body research vehicle, having first flown earlier this year, made its first supersonic flight, reaching 

The Anglo-French Concorde 001 flew at the speed of mach 2 at 50,000 ft. 

The joint Army-Navy-Marine Corps Heavy Lift Helicopter request for proposals was issued to industry. This airThe Lockheed L-1011 “airbus” completed its maiden flight. The L-1011 is also a large-capacity jet designed for 

In ?joint Navy-NASA flight program, a modified T-2-C aircraft made its first flight with a thick supercritical 

The #:14A Tomcat, Navy air superiority fighter, successfully flew for the first time at Calverton, N.Y. 

107 
APPENDIX B 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-1970 

GEODESY 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Oct. 31, 1962 Anna 1B 

Jan. 11, 1964 Secor I 

Oct. 10, 1964 Beacon-Explorer 

XXII 

Mar. 9, 1965 Secor I11 

Mar. 11, 1965 Secor I1 

Apr. 3, 1965 Secor IV 

Apr. 29, 1965 Beacon-Explorer XXVII 

Aug. 10, 1965 Secor-V-- 

Nov. 6, 1965 GEOS-I Explorer 

XXIX 

June 9, 1966 Secor VI 

June 23, 1966 Pageos I 

Aug. 19, 1966 Secor VI1 

Oct. 5, 1966 Secor VI11 

June 29, 1967 Secor IX 

Tan. 11. 1968 GEOS I1 

Lpr. 14, 1969 Secor XI11 

Apr. 8, 1970 Top0 I 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Agena D 

scout Conducted reflecting-light geodetic measurements. 

Thor-Agena D 

Thor-Able Star 

Atlas-Agena D 

scout 

scout 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thor-Agena D 

Atlas-Agena D 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thor-Burner I1 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena D 

Thor-Agena D 

Used 3 independent measuring techniques: Doppler frequency 

Uses radio triangulation and trilateration. 

shift, flashing lights, and radio triangulation. 

Spacecraft is a 100-foot-diameter balloon used as a photographic 

target to make geodetic measurements. 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Dec. 18, 1958 

Aug. 12, 1960 

Oct. 4, 1960 

Mar. 30, 1961 

Oct. 21, 1961 

Dec. 12, 1961 

June 2, 1962 

July 10, 1962 

Dec. 13. 1962 

Feb. 14; 1963 

May 7, 1963 

May 9, 1963 

July 26, 1963 

Jan. 21, 1964 

Jan. 25, 1964 

Aug. 19, 1964 

Feb. 11, 1965 

Mar. 9, 1965 

Apr. 6, 1965 

May 6, 1965 

Dec. 21, 1965 

June 16, 1966 

Score 

Echo I 

Courier 1B 

Lofti I 

Westford I 

Oscar I 

Oscar I1 

Telstar I 

Relay I 

Syncom I 

Telstar I1 

Westford I1 

Syncom I1 

Relay I1 

Echo I1 

Syncom I11 

LES I 

Oscar I11 

Intelsat I (Early 

Bird) 

LES I1 

LES I11 

LES 1V 

Oscar IV 

IDCSP 1-7 

Atlas B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Atlas-Agena B 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Del ta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIA 

Thor-Agena D 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIA 

Titan IIIC 

Titan IIIC 

First Comsat, carried taped messages. 

100-foot balloon served as first passive Comsat, relayed voice 

First active-repeater Comsat. 

Low-frequency experiment; failed to separate from rest of 

First attempt to establish filament belt around earth; failed to 

First amateur radio “ham” satellite. 

Industry-furnished spacecraft in near-earth orbit. 

Active-repeater Comsat. 

Successfully injected into near-synchronous orbit but commuFilaments formed reflective belt around earth as planned for 

First successful synchronous orbit active-repeater Comsat. After 

and TV signals. 

payload. 

disperse as planned. 

nication system failed at orbital injection. 

emergency communications experiment. 

experimental phase, used operationally by DOD. 

States and U.S.S.R. 

operationally by DOD. 

135-foot balloon, passive Comsat, fist joint use by United 

Synchronous-orbit Comsat ; after experimental phase, used 

Experimental payload did not reach intended apogee. 

First Intelsat (Comsat Corporation) spacecraft, 240 2-way 

voice circuits ; commercial transatlantic communication 

service initiated June 28, 1965. 

All solid state advanced experiment. 

All solid state, UHF signal generator. 

All solid state SHF or X band experiment. 

Initial defense communication satellites program (1DCSP)- 

Active-repeater spacecraft in near-synchronous orbit, random. 

spaced. 

108 
APPENDIX %Continued 

US. Applications Satellites 1958-1970-Continued 

COMMUNICATIONS-Con tinued 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Oct. 26, 1966 

Nov. 3, 1966 

Dec. 7, 1966 

Jan. 11, 1967 

Jan. 18, 1967 

Mar. 22, 1967 

Apr. 6, 1967 

July 1, 1967 

Sept. 27, 1967 

Nov. 5, 1967 

June 13, 1968 

Aug. 10, 1968 

Sept. 26, 1968 

Dec. 18, 1968 

Feb. 6, 1969 

Feb. 9, 1969 

May 22, 1969 

July 26, 1969 

August 12, 1969 

Nov. 22, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1970 

Jan. 23, 1970 

Mar. 20, 1970 

Apr. 23, 1970 

Jyl. 23, 1970 

Aug. 22, 1970 

Intelsat 11-Fl 

OV 4-1T 

OV 4-IR 

ATS I 

Intelsat 11-F2 

IDCSP 8-15 

Intelsat 11-F3 

ATS I1 

LES V 

IDCSP 16-18 

DATS 

DODGE 

Intelsat 11-F4 

ATS I11 

ATS IV 

IDCSP 19-26 

LES 6 

Intelsat I11 (F-2) 

Intelsat III(F-3) 

Tacsat I 

Intelsat III(F-4) 

Intelsat I11 (F-5) 

ATS V 

Skynet I 

(IDCSP-A) 

Intelsat III(F-6) 

Oscar V 

(Australis) 

NATOSAT-I 

(NATO-A) 

Intelsat 111 (F-7) 

Intelsat I11 (F-8) 

Skynet I1 

(IDCSP-B) 

Thor-Delta( TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thor-Delta( TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta( TAT) 

Atlas-Agena D 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Atlas-Agena D 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Centaur 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta( TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta( TAT) 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Thor-Del ta (TAT ) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

First in Intelsat I1 series spacecraft; 240 2-way voice circuits or 

1 color TV channel. Orbit achieved not adequate for com- mercial operation. 

Transmitter and receiver for low-power satellite-to-satellite F 

layer experiments. 

Multipurpose, including VHF exchange of signals with aircraft. 

Transpacific commercial communication service initiated Jan. 

11, 1967. 

Positioned to carry transatlantic Commercial communication 

Multipurpose, but did not attain planned orbit. 

Tactical military communications tests with aircraft, ships, and 

Electronically despun antenna experiment. 

Multipurpose, gravity stabilized. 

Positioned to carry commercial transpacific communication 

Multipurpose including communications. 

Multipurpose; failed to separate from Centaur, did not reach 

planned orbit. 

Continued military tactical communications experiments. 

First in Intelsat I11 series of spacecraft, 1,200 2-way voice 

circuits or 4 color TV channels. Positioned over Atlantic 

to carry traffic between North America, South America, 

Africa, and Europe. Entered commercial service on Dec. 24, 

1968. 

Stationed over Pacific to carry commercial trafFic between the 

United States, Far East, and Australia. 

Demonstrated feasibility of using a spaceborne repeater to satisfy 

selected communications needs of DOD mobile forces. 

Stationed over Pacific to replace F-3 which was moved westward 

to the Indian Ocean. Completes global coverage. 

Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Not usable. 

Multipurpose; for millimeter and L band communications ; 

entered flat spin. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the IDCSP program. 

Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the 

United States, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. 

Ham radio satellite built by amateur radio operators at Melbourne University, Melbourne, Australia. 

First NATO satellite, stationed over Atlantic to carry military 

traffic between the United States and other NATO countries. 

Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the 

United States, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. 

Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Not usable. Last 

launch of lntelsat 111 series. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the IDCSP program. Spacecraft failed to achieve 

the proper orbit. 

traffic. 

mobile land stations from near synchronous orbit. 

traffic. 

~~ ~~ 

NAVIGATION 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 13, 1960 Transit 1B Thor-Able Star First navigation satellite. Used Doppler frequency shift for 

Dosition determination. 

June 22, 1960 Transit 2A 

Feb. 21, 1961 Transit 3B 

June 29, 1961 Transit 4A 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

- Thor-Able Star Used the first spacecraft nuclear SNAP-3 as a secondary power 

supply. Nov. 15, 1961 Tranist 4B Thor-Able Star 

Dec. 18, 1962 Transit 5A scout Operational prototype, power failed during first day. 

June 15, 1963 NavSat scout Used gravity-gradient stabilization system. 

109 
APPENDIX &Continued 

US. Applications Satellites 1958-197O-Continued 

NAVIGATION-Continued 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Sept. 28, 1963 NavSat 

Dec. 5, 1963 NavSat 

June 4, 1964 NavSat 

Oct. 6, 1964 NavSat 

Dec. 13, 1964 NavSat 

Mar. 11, 1965 NavSat 

June 24, 1965 NavSat 

Aug. 13, 1965 NavSat 

Dec. 22, 1965 NavSat 

Jan. 28, 1966 NavSat 

Mar. 25, 1966 NavSat 

May 19, 1966 NavSat 

Aug. 18, 1966 NavSat 

Apr. 13, 1967 NavSat 

May 18, 1967 NavSat 

Sept. 25, 1967 NavSat 

Mar. 1, 1968 NavSat 

Aug. 27, 1970 NavSat 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

scout 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Used first nuclear SNAP-SA as primary power supply. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 1, 1960 

Nov. 23. 1960 

July 12,’ 1961 

Feb. 8, 1962 

June 19, 1962 

Sept. 18, 1962 

Tune 19. 1963 

bec. 21,- 1963 

Aug. 28, 1964 

Jan. 22, 1965 

July 2, 1965 

Feb. 3, 1966 

Feb. 28, 1966 

May 15, 1966 

Oct. 2, 1966 

Dec. 6, 1966 

Jan. 26, 1967 

Apr. 20, 1967 

Nov. 5, 1967 

Nov. 10. 1967 ~ I ~- 

Aug. 16, 1968 

Dec. 15, 1968 

Feb. 26. 1969 

Apr. 14; 1969 

Jan. 23, 1970 

Apr. 8, 1970 

Dec. 11. 1970 

Tiros I 

Tiros I1 

Tiros I11 

Tiros IV 

Tiros V 

Tiros VI 

Tiros VI1 

Tiros VI11 

Nimbus I 

Tiros IX 

Tiros X 

ESSA 1 

ESSA 2 

Nimbus I1 

ESSA 3 

ATS- 1 

ESSA 4 

ESSA 5 

ATS-3 

ESSA 6 

ESSA 7 

ESSA 8 

ESSA 9 

Nimbus 111 

ITOS I 

Nimbus IV 

(Tiros M) 

NOAA-1 

(ITOS-A) 

Thor-Able 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thora-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena 

Thor-Delta 

First weather satellite providing cloud-cover photography. 

First weather satellite designed to transmit continuously local 

cloud conditions to ground stations equipped with APT 

receivers. 

Carried advanced videcon camera system, APT, and a high 

resolution infrared radiometer for night pictures. 

First weather satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit. 

First operational weather satellite; carried 2 wide-angle TV 

Complemented ESSA I with 2 wide-angle APT cameras. 

Odd-numbered ESSA spacecraft carry 2 advanced videcon camera systems. Even-numbered spacecraft carry 2 automatic picture transmission camera systems. 

Provided continuous black-and-white cloud-cover pictures from a synchronous orbit, using a Suomi camera system. 

camera systems. 

Provided continuous color cloud-cover pictures from a synchronous orbit, using 3 Suomi camera systems. 

Provided first vertical temperature profile on a global basis of the 

atmosphere from the spacecraft to the Earth’s surface. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Fifth in a series of 7 advanced research and development weather 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite 

satellites. 

110 
APPENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryMercuryVostok 2 

MercuryAtlas 6 

MercuryAtlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

MercuryAtlas 8 

MercuryAtlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Redstone 3 

Redstone 4 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apollo 11 

Apr. 

May 5,1961 Alan N. Shepard, Jr. 

July 

Aug. 6, 1961 Oherman S. Titov 

Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 

May 24, 1962 M. Scott Carpenter 

Aug. 11, 1962 Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Aug. 12, 1962 Pavel R. Popovich 

Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

May 15,1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

June 14, 1963 Valery F. Bykovsky 

June 16,1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 

12, 1961 Yuri A. Gagarin 

21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, 2d 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrcng 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Nov. 11, 1966 James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. Komarov 

Oct. 11, 1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Oct. 26, 1968 Georgi Beregovoy 

Dec. 21, 1968 Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Jan. 14, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 

Jan. 15, 1969 Boris Volynov 

Alecksey Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniv Khrunov 

Mar. , 3, 1969 James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

July 16,1969 Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

May 18, 1969 

1 hr. 48 mins. 

15 mins. 

16 mins. 

25 hrs. 18 mins. 

4 hrs. 55 mins. 

4 hrs. 56 mins. 

94 hrs. 22 mins. 

70 hrs. 57 mins. 

9 hrs. 13 mins. 

34 hrs. 20 mins. 

119 hrs. 6 mins. 

70 hrs. 50 mins. 

24 hrs. 17 mins. 

26 hrs. 2 mins. 

4 hrs. 53 mins. 

97 hrs. 56 mins. 

190 hrs. 55 mins. 

330 hrs. 36 mins. 

25 hrs. 51 mins. 

10 hrs. 41 mins. 

72 hrs. 21 mins. 

70 hrs. 47 mins. 

71 hrs. 17 mins. 

94 hrs. 35 mins. 

26 hrs. 40 mins. 

260 hrs. 8 mins. 

94 hrs. 51 mins. 

I47 hrs. 

71 hrs. 22 mins. 

72 hrs. 40 mins. 

241 hrs. 1 min. 

192 hrs. 3 mins. 

195 hrs. 19 mins. 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing. 

First flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 250 mi. from target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4) 

Came within 4 mi. of Vostok 3. 

Landed 5 mi. from target. 

First long U.S. flight. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 3 mi. of Vostok 

First 3-man crew. 5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneu2 1 -minute extravhicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight. 

Rendezvous within 1 foot of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting space craft (Gemini 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

Agena 10, then Agena 8.). 

First initial-orbit rendezvous; first tethered 

flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (853 

miles). 

Longest extravehicular activity (Aldrin, 5 

hours 37 minutes). 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

mins.). 

vers in orbit. 

8 with Agena target rocket). 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of moon; first manned 

departure from earth’s sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned 

flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 Cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in earth orbit operation 

of lunar module to landing and takeoff from 

lunar surface and rejoining with command 

module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system, 

including lunar module descent to 47,000 

ft. frcm the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to earth. First return of rock and 

soil samples to earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

111 
APPENDIX &Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights-Continued 

Spacecraft Launch date Crew 

Soyuz 6 Oct. 11, 1969 Georgiy Shonin 

Soyuz 7 Oct. 12, 1969 Anatoliy Filipchencko 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Vladislav Volkov 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

Soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 

Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Soyuz 9 Jun. 1, 1970 Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 

Flight time Highlights 

118 hrs. 21 mins. 

118 hrs. 43 mins. 

Soyuz 6, 7 and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

earth and celestial observations. 

118 hrs. 51 mins. 

244 hrs. 36 mins. Second manned lunar landing. Continued 

manned exploration and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor I11 spacecraft which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

142 hrs. 55 mins. Mission aborted due to explosion in the 

service module. Ship circled moon, with 

crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just 

prior to reentry. 

Longest manned space flight lasting 17 days 

16 hrs. 59 mins. 

424 hrs. 59 mins. 

APPENDIX D-1 

US. Space Launch Vehicles 

Thrust Height Payload (pounds) 

(in thou- Max. spacepounds) (feet) (feet) orbit Escape launch 

Vehicle Stages Propellant sands of dia. craft 300 NM First 

Scout .............. 1. Algol (IIB) ....... Solid ............. 100.9 3.3 64.4 320 50 1 1965 (60) 

2. Castor 11.. ...... Solid.. ........... 60. 7 

3. Antares 11.. ..... Solid.. ........... 20.9 

4. Altair I11 or FW4. Solid.. .......... Thrust-augmented 1. Thor (SLV-2J) LOX/RP. ....... 

Thorad-Delta. ulus. 

5. 9 

170 11 92 2,000 525 1968 (60) 

tgree TX 354-5.. . Solid.. ........... 2 52 

3. FW-4D/TE364.. . Solid ............. 5.9/10.0 

three TX 354-5.. Solid.. 2 52 

2. Delta (DSV-3). .. IRFNA/UDMH.. . 7. 8 

Thrust-augmented 1. Thor (SLV-2H) LOX/RP. ........ 170 11 90 2,900 ... 1966 (60) 

Atlas-Burner 11.. ... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP.. ....... 400 10 84 4,950 700 1968 

Thorad- Agena. plus . ........... 2. Agena.. ......... IRFNA/UDMH ... 16 

sustainer (SLV3A). 

2. Burner 11.. ...... Solid.. .... 10 

Atlas-Agena. ....... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP.. . 6465 10 100 7,500 1,430 1968 (60) sustainer (SLV3A). 

IRFNA/UDMH.. . 16 

Nz04/Aerozine. ... 100 

IRFNAWDMH.. . 16 

... NzO4/Aerozine.. .. 5527 

NzO4/Aerozine. 100 

Titan IIIB-Agena.. . N204/Aerozine. ... 440 10 113 8,000 1,550 1966 

Titan IIIC.. ....... 1. Two 5-s Solid ............. 2,400 10x30 107 25,000 5,500 1965 

... 4. Transtage. ....... NzO4/Aerozine 16 

Titan-Centaur ...... 1. Two 5-segment. .. Solid. ........ 2,400 10x30 209.5 732,000 11,000 1974(est.) 

120” diameter. 

2. LR-87.. ... Nz04/Aerozine. ... 440 

3. LR-91.. ......... 110 

4. Centaur (Two 30 

RL- 10). 

Atlas-Centaur . 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP.. ....... 400 10 103 

sustainer . 2. Centaur (Two LOX/LH ......... 30 

RL-10). 

See footnotes at end of table. 

9, 100 2,700 1967 (62) 

112 
APPENDIX D-I-Continued 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles-bntinued 

Thrust Height Payload (pounds) 

(in thou- Max. spacepounds) (feet) (feet) orbit Escape launch 

Vehicle stages Propellant 4 sands of dia. craft 300 NM First 

Uprated Saturn IB.. 1. S-IB (Eight H-1). LOX/RP.. ....... 1,600 21.6 142 40,000@ ....... 1966 

Saturn V.. ........ 1. S-IC (Five F-1). . LOX/RP.. ....... 7,570 33 3281 285,000@ 100,000 1967 

2. S-IVB (One 5-2). LOX/LH.. ....... 200 105 NM 

2. $11 (Five 7-2).. . LOXLH.. ....... 1. 150 105 NM 

3. S-IVB (Onye 5-21. LOXILH.. ....... 230 

1 The date of first launch applies to this latest modification Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine-IRFNA/UDMH ; Nitrogen Tetroxide and 

a Each motor. 50% UDMH and 50% Hydrazine (N2H4)-N204/Aerozine; 3 363 feet, including Apollo modules and Launch Escape Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen-LOX/LH. 

System. 5 Vacuum thrust; stage 1 is ignited at altitude. 4 Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Liquid Oxygen 6 Thrust at sea level. 

and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP ; Solid propellant 7 Structural weight limitation currently 12,000 lbs. 

combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid; 

with a date in parentheses for the initial version. 

Appendix D-2 

U.S. Successful Launches to Earth Orbit or Beyond 

By Launch Vehicle, 1958-70 

Launch vehicle Subtotals Launch vehicle Subtotals 

Thor-Able ...................................... 3 Titan IIIBAgena ................................ 29 

Thor-Able Star. ................................. 14 Titan IIIC ...................................... 14 

Thor-Delta ...................................... 76 

Thor-Altair ..................................... 5 SCOUTtot al ............................. 43 

Thor-Agena ..................................... 155 TITAN total. ............................. 57 

Thor-Burner 11. ..... 

THOR total. . 

Atlas. .............. Atlas-Agena ......... Atlas-Centaur ....... 

ATLAS total. . 

Titan 11. ........... Titan IIIA.. ........ 

10 

Saturn I .................. 6 ............. 263 Saturn IB ................. 3 

16 SATURN I total. 9 

90 SATURN V total.. 8 

17 REDSTONE total. ..... .............. 3 

UPITER total. ........ 4 

............................ 11 Grand total. ..... ............ 513 

.......... 

... 

..... 

123 4 ANGUARD total. ....................... 3 

0 

............................ 3 

APPENDIX E 

Nuclear Power Systems for Space Application 

Designa tion Application Status 

SNAP-3 

SNAP-SA 

SNAP-19 

SNAP-27 

SNAP-1OA 

Transit 1 

Pioneer 1 

Ving 1 

Navigation satellites (DOD) 

Navigation satellites (DOD) 

Nimbus B weather satellite (NASA) 

Apollo lunar surface experiment 

package (NASA) 

Unmanned missions 

Navigation satellites (DOD) 

Jupiter flyby mission (NASA) 

Mars unmanned lander mission 

(NASA) 

Units launched in June and November 1961. Unit still operating at 

reduced power levels. 

Units launched in September and December 1963. Units still operating 

at reduced power level. Third satellite failed to orbit in April 1964. 

First Nimbus B launch aborted; Pu-238 fuel recovered from offshore 

waters. Replacement unit launched in April 1969 and has operated 

continuously at gradually reducing power levels since that time. 

First SNAP-27 placed on lunar surface by Apollo 12 astronaut in 

November 1969. System is supplying total power for ALSEP. 

Tested in orbit in 1965. 

Development program underway. 

Modified SNAP-19 generator system will be used. 

Modified SNAP-19 generator system will be used. 

1 Planned missions. 

113 
APPENDIX F-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

lO-YEAR SUMMARY AND 1972 BUDGET RECOMMENDATIONS, JANUARY 197 1-NEW OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY 

[In millions of dollars (may not add due to rounding)] 

NASA Department Total 

of Defense AEC Commerce Interior Agriculture NSF space 

Total Space 1 

305.4 235.4 489.5 34.3 .......................................... 759.2 

964.0 926.0 813.9 67.7 .6 1,808.2 

523.6 461.5 560.9 43.3 ............ . 1 1,065.8 

1,824.9 1,796.8 1,298.2 147.8 .7 ............... 1. 3 3, 294.8 ..... 3,673.0 3,626.0 1,549.9 213.9 43. 2 1. 5 5,434. 5 

5, 249. 7 5, 167.6 1, 573.9 228.6 12.2 ............... 3.2 6,985.5 

..... ...... ......................... ..... 

1964.. .............. 5,099.7 5,046.3 1,599.3 210.0 2.8 3. 0 6, 861.4 

5, 174. 9 5, 094. 5 1,688. 8 186. 8 26. 5 3. 2 7,003. 9 

4, 967.6 4,862. 2 1, 663. 6 183. 6 29. 3 2.8 6, 744. 5 

1968. 4,588.8 4,452.5 1,921.8 145. 1 28. 1 0. 5 3. 2 6, 553. 2 

1969.. 3,990.9 3,822.0 2,013.0 118.0 20. 0 2. 0 0. 7 1. 9 5,977. 6 

1970.. 3,745.8 3,547.0 1,678.4 102.8 8.0 2. 0 0.8 2. 4 5, 341.4 

1972 budget 

3,297.0 3, 101.4 1,553. 1 94.5 25. 0 3.0 1. 1 2. 2 4, 780. 3 

............... 

.............. 

.............. 

......... 

......... 3,270.0 3,055.4 1,552.6 56.2 32. 0 7. 0 1. 5 2. 0 4, 706. 7 

BIL 

8. 

1 Excludes amounts for aviation technology. Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

U. S. SPACE BUDGET - NEW OBLlCATlONAL AUTHORITY 

-Other 

$@$&$ Delenie 

IONS OF DOLLARS 0 NASA 

1964 1965 1966 1967 1969 1970 1971 1971 1963 

RtOUfST 

JAN. 1971 

NASC STAFF 

114 
APPENDIX F-2 

Space Activities Budget, January 1971 

[In millions of dollars] 

New obligational authority Expenditures 

1970 1971 1972 1970 1971 1972 

actual estimate estimate actual estimate estimate 

Federal space programs: 

NASA 1. ............................ Defense .............................. AEC ................................ Commerce ........................... Interior. ............................ NSF ................................ Agriculture. ......................... 

3, 547.0 3, 101.4 

1,678.4 1,553. 1 

102.8 94.5 

8.0 

2.0 

2.4 

0.8 

25.0 

3.0 

2. 2 

1. 1 

3,055.4 

1,552.6 

56. 2 

32.0 

7.0 

2.0 

1.5 

3, 565.2 

1, 756. 1 

102.6 

24.0 

2.0 

2. 3 

1.0 - 

Total.. ........................... 5,341.4 4,780.3 4,706.7 5,453.2 

Manned space flight.. ................. 2,262.5 1,770.2 1,637.6 2,209.2 

Aviation technology. .................. 198.8 195.6 214.6 187.9 

NASA : 

Space science and applications ........ 637. 1 693.2 889.8 569.4 

Space technology. .................... 288.4 278.2 208.0 328. 1 

Supporting activities. ................. 364.9 373.1 333.4 460. 2 

Less receipts.. ....................... -5.9 -13.3 -13.4 -5. 9 

3, 185. 2 

96. 5 

23. 0 

3.0 

2. 1 

1. 1 

1, 577. 0 

2, 957. 6 

1, 574. 8 

62. 3 

29.0 

6.0 

2.0 

1. 5 

4,887. 9 4,633. 2 

1,887. 3 1, 662. 2 

631. 1 727.2 

286. 1 234.6 

183.7 194.8 

392.6 345.6 

-13.3 -13.4 

TotalNASA.. ..................... 3,745.8 3,297.0 3,270.0 3,748.9 3,367.5 3, 151.0 

~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ 

1 Excludes amounts for aviation technology. Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

Aeronautics Budget 

[In millions of dollars] 

New obligational authority 

1970 1971 1972 

estimate estimate 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

NASA' ................................................................. 198.8 195.6 214.6 

Department of Transportation ............................................. 41. 8 70.0 81. 5 

Total .................................................................. 1,881.5 1,908.4 2, 271. 5 

Department of Defense 2. .................................................. 1,640.9 1,642.8 1,975.4 

1R. &D.,R.&P.M.,C.ofF. 2 R.D.T. & E. aircraft and related equipment. 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

115 US. GOVUUIMENT PRINTING OFFICE:I971-0-411-222