Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President r973 Activities 
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Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 1973 A c tivities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
President’s Message of Transmittal 

To the Congress of the United States: 

I am pleased to transmit this report on our Nation’s 

progress in aeronautics and space activities during 

1973. 

This year has been particularly significant in that 

many past efforts to apply the benefits of space technology and information to the solution of problems on 

Earth are now coming to fruition. Experimental data 

from the manned Skylab station and the unmanned 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite are already being 

used operationally for resource discovery and management, environmental information, land use planning, 

and other applications. 

Communications satellites have become one of the 

principal methods of international communication 

and are an important factor in meeting national defense needs. They will also add another dimension to 

our domestic telecommunications systems when the 

first of four authorized domestic satellite systems is 

launched in 1974. Similarly, weather satellites are now 

our chief source of synoptic global and local weather 

data. Efforts are continuing to develop capabilities for 

worldwide two-week weather forecasts by the beginning of the next decade. The use of satellites for efficient and safe routing of civilian and military ships and 

airplanes is being studied. Demonstration programs are 

now underway aimed at improving our health and 

education delivery systems using space-age techniques. 

Skylab has given us new information on the energy 

characteristics of our sun. This knowledge should help 

our understanding of thermo-nuclear processes and 

contribute to the future development of new energy 

sources. Knowledge of these processes may also help 

us understand the sun’s effect on our planet. 

Skylab has proven that man can effectively work and 

live in space for extended periods of time. Experiments 

in space manufacturing may also lead to new and improved materials for use on Earth. 

Development of the reusable Space Shuttle 

progressed during 1973. The Shuttle will reduce the 

costs of space activity by providing an efficient, economical means of launching, servicing and retrieving 

space payloads. Recognithg the Shuttle’s importance, 

the European Space Conference has agreed to construct a space laboratory-Spacelab-for use with the 

Shuttle. 

Notable progress has also been made with the Soviet 

Union in preparing the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

scheduled for 1975. We are continuing to cooperate 

with other nations in space activities and sharing of 

scientific information. These efforts contribute to global 

peace and prosperity. 

While we stress the use of current technology to solve 

current problems, we are employing unmanned spacecraft to stimulate further advances in technology and 

to obtain knowledge that can aid us in solving future 

problems. Pioneer 10 gave us our first closeup glimpse 

of Jupiter and transmitted data which will enhance 

our knowledge of Jupiter, the solar system, and ultimately our own planet. The spacecraft took almost two 

years to make the trip. It has traveled over 94,000 miles 

per hour-faster than any other man-made objectand will become the first man-made object to leave our 

solar system and enter the distant reaches of space. 

Advances in military aircraft technology contribute 

to our ability to defend our Nation. In civil aeronautics, 

the principal research efforts have been aimed at reducing congestion and producing quieter, safer, more 

economical and efficient aircraft which will conserve 

energy and have a minimum impact on our environment. 

It is with considerable satisfaction that I submit this 

report of our ongoing efforts in space and aeronautics, 

efforts which help not only our own country but other 

nations and peoples as well. We are now beginning to 

harvest the benefits of our past hard work and investments, and we can anticipate new operational services 

based on aerospace technology to be made available 

for the public good in the years ahead on a routine 

basis. 

The WHITE HOUSE, 

Nineteen Hundred and Seventy-four. 

iii 
Table of Contents 

I . U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activitiesin 1973 . . Introduction .... 

Space Activities .............. 

Aeronautical Activities ................. Space Ground Support ................. 

Supporting Research and Development ... Relationship With NASA ...... 

Nuclear Propulsion Program Termination . Isotopic Heat for Spacecraft Thermal 

Functions .......................... .............. Introduction .......................... Activities Within the United Nations .. 

Satellite Services ...................... 

VI . Department of State 

International Cooperation .............. 

Support to Federal Agencies ............ 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation ...... 

VI1 . Department of Transportation . . Introduction ............. 

Use of Satellites in Air and Water TrafFic 

Control ............................ Aviation Safety Research and DeveloDment .............................. Environmental Programs ............... Energy .............................. Aerospace Technology Utilization ....... VI11 . Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ...... IX . Department of the Interior ................. Introduction .......................... ......... 

Remote Sensing and Space Activities ..... Other Activities ....................... 

Introduction .......................... Use of Satellites in Environmental Monitoring and Prediction ................ 

XI . Department of Commerce ........... 

Other Satellite and Space Applications ... 

XI1 . United States Informat 

Introduction ..... Radio ............................... Press and Publications ... 

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XI1 . United States Information Agency-Continued 

Motion Pictures and Television .......... 

XI11 . National Science Foundatio ......... Introduction ........... 

emy of Engineering, National Research 

Council ................................ Introduction .......................... Space Science Board .... 

Commission on Natural Resources ....... Division of Earth Sciences .............. Division of Chemistry and Chemical 

Division of Engineering ................ 

Office of Scientific Personnel ............ XV . The Smithsonian Institution ................ Introduction .... Smithsonian Astr 

National Museum of Natural History ..... National Air and Space Museum ........ Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ...... XVI . Office of Telecommunications Policy ......... Introduction .... .... Aerosat .............................. Direct Broadcast Satellites .............. 

Satellite Launch Insurance ...... 

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Division of Physical Sciences ... 

............. 

Specialized Satellite Services ............ 

Introduction .......................... Aeronautics .......................... 

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Append i xes 

A.1 . U.S. Spacecraft Record .................... A-2 . World Record of Space Launchings Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ........ A-3 . Successful U.S. Launches-1973 ............. 

C . History of United States and Soviet Manned 

115 

115 

116 

B . US . Applications Satellites, 1958-73 ......... 122 

D . U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ................ 

F-1 . Space Activities of the U.S. Government ...... 

F-2 . Space Activities Budget .................... 

Space Flights ........................... 126 

128 

129 

130 

E . Nuclear Power Systems for Space Application . 

U.S. Space Budget-New Obligational Authority .................................... 130 

Aeronautics Budget. ....................... 131 

131 

V 
Benefits From Space 

Space provides a unique vantage point, a unique base for operations and a unique environment. Each of 

these elements has been employed as a basis for Earth applications. 

Mineral and Energy Exploration 

For example, the unique capability provided by 

satellite imagery for detecting large scale geological 

features not readily detectable by any other known 

means, makes such imagery particularly applicable for 

mineral and energy exploration. Thus, in a Northern 

Alaska area where petroleum exploration was not currently underway, this Earth Resources Survey Satellite 

imagery identified geological trends which may indicate substantially larger oil reserves than previously 

assumed. 

Space Processing 

The unique zero gravity environment of space is 

now being explored for the processing and pioneering 

of materials and products that we have thus far been 

unable to produce on Earth due to effects induced by 

gravity. The picture on the left is that of an IndiumAntimonide Crystal that was grown to near chemical 

perfection aboard Skylab 3. These first experiments 

show the way to process more complex and important 

materials in space. For example, manufacture on Earth 

of integrated circuits for computers and other electronic devices has been hindered by the poor yield of 

acceptable quality electronic crystals. Structurally and 

chemically more perfect crystals could substantially 

widen their use. 
I United States Aeronautics 

and Space Activities in 1973 

Introduction 

The year 1973 has been one of substantial advancement and achievement in aeronautics and space, contributing toward the fulfillment of national goals in 

science, the advancement of knowledge, and applications. In addition to the civilian sector, many Federal agencies are now using the products and systems 

of both aeronautical and space programs in the execution of their specific missions. This report covers the 

space and aeronautics activities of 17 Federal departments and agencies. 

This year especially significant advances have been 

made in demonstrating the potential benefits to be 

gained from space activities. In 1973, great progress 

has been made in the application of the knowledge and 

technology, acquired in previous years in the Nation's 

research and exploration programs, to solving our problems here on Earth. 

Notable strides have been taken in developing the 

technologies for acquiring and analyzing information 

about the Earth, its environment, and its resources 

from aircraft and spacecraft. This brings closer the 

day that information will be available to enable man 

to manage intelligently Earth's environment and resources. The Department of the Interior Sioux Falls 

Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data 

Center is now in its second year serving the public as 

the major distribution mechanism for remote sensing 

data. The great potential of these technologies has 

been demonstrated most convincingly this year by the 

data derived from the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS-l), launched in mid-1972. 

In addition major accomplishments were made in 

1973 in other areas of the application of space technologies to benefit man on Earth. Substantial progress also took place in planetary and deep space exploration, in the understanding of man's ability to live 

and work in space for extended periods, and in aeronautics. 

1973 Defense activities included further development and implementation of satellite based communications and navigation systems, development of new 

military aircraft, and construction of Advanced Medium STOL Transport Prototypes, which may have 

important implications for civil transport as well. 

In addition to its basic research and scientific exploration missions, NASA's role has been to develop 

the knowledge, technology, spacecraft and launch services necessary to support Federal organizations in their 

assigned tasks. This complements NASA's role of helping to pioneer new space services. 

This chapter reviews the activities in the U.S. space 

and aeronautic programs in 1973, and summarizes 

the progress. 

Space 

Space activity is no longer primarily exploration, 

but has become increasingly applications oriented. 

Some half-dozen Federal agencies now look to space 

as an economical way, and in many cases the only way, 

to carry out portions of their missions. In 1973, as for 

the past several years, over half the Federal money 

spent on space has been directed toward the development, operation and support of civil and military space 

applications such as meteorology, communications and 

Earth observations. As the years go by it can be expected that the percentage spent on applications will 

increase even further, particularly as States and local 

governments become involved in utilizing remote 

sensing for their own resource, hydrological, environmental, and demographic management. 

Resources and Environmental Monitoring and Management.-The ability to manage elements of the 

earth's environment and its resources is a long soughtafter goal of increasing importance which may now be 

nearing the possibility of achievement. A major factor 

helping to attain this end is the ability to monitor remotely various environmental and resource characteristics from aircraft and spacecraft. The ERTS-1 

spacecraft, launched in 1972, is providing environmental and resource data which are being used 

throughout the world. In this country, cooperative 

efforts among the many involved departments and 

agencies have led to the use of ERTS imagery for land 

use and environmental impact studies, for monitoring 

hydrological and snow-pack parameters, and for 

1 
mapping. During 1973 the feasibility and operational 

utility of applying remote sensing from space to efficient management of our agricultural and forestry resources were tested. ERTS data were also used to 

determine the feasibility of detecting water pollutants 

from space to aid in environmental monitoring and 

management. The utility of ERTS imagery in showing changes induced by man’s activities, such as strip 

mining, has been recognized by elements of both Federal and State governments. 

In Alaska, trends of faults extending off-shore from 

the North Slope oil fields and geological formations revealed by ERTS imagery near the Umiat Oil Field 

indicate promising areas for future petroleum exploration. In addition, six prospective copper bearing formations have been discovered from ERTS imagery in 

the mountains of central Alaska, two of which are now 

being drilled by a private mining company. 

The launch of NOAA-3 on November 6, 1973, provided for the first time an operational satellite for 

obtaining direct readout of vertical temperature profile data on a global basis. The satellite carries 

sensors that provide data for measuring snow cover useful in river and flood potential forecasting, determining sea surface temperatures helpful in fishery 

management, and determining weather and ice conditions for ship routing. NOAA-3 adds to the growing list 

of satellites used in operational weather prediction and 

is a step toward 2-week global weather forecasting. Insight into Earth’s atmospheric processes, obtained from 

the study of the Mars and Venus atmospheres, also 

promises to be a significant factor toward achieving 

long-term weather prediction as well as toward understanding atmospheric pollution mechanisms. 

During the year, accurate measurements of the 

lunar orbit, utilizing the laser retroreflector placed on 

the moon earlier by Apollo astronauts, have been 

used to derive information about Earth dynamics such 

as polar motions, rotation and large-scale crustal movements. The relation of these parameters to earthquakes 

is being studied. Earth dynamics programs have been 

established to combine satellite tracking and geophysical research programs to aid in the understanding and 

ultimately the predicting of earthquakes. 

Communications.-Space communications technology, 

pioneered by NASA, has advanced to the point where 

civilian communications by satellite is now a private 

sector activity. 1973 saw the fifth in the series of INTELSAT IV Satellites successfully launched. Construction was also commenced on a new series of INTELSAT IV-A Satellites which will provide vastly 

increased capability in 1975. Authorizations were 

granted for construction of four US. domestic satellite systems, and for two U.S. entities to provide 

interim domestic U.S. satellite services using the Canadian Telsat Satellite System. Communication satel2 

lites have provided the world with a substantial advance toward conserving scarce resources such as 

copper. One communications satellite is capable of replacing large amounts of scarce materials required by 

conventional systems to provide the same capability. 

Pressed by a shrinking world and increased interdependence the world’s nations seeking to meet their 

growing communications and education needs have developed an explosive interest in communications satellites. In 1973, 83 countries entered into Definitive 

Agreements for INTELSAT thereby permanently establishing the global commercial satellite system envisioned in the Communications Satellite Act of 1962. 

In April 1973, NASA launched, on a cost reimbursable basis, a second ANIK satellite for Canada’s 

Telesat system, thus establishing the world’s second 

operational domestic satellite system, the first being 

the Soviet Union’s Molniya system. Brazil and Japan 

are actively considering domestic communication satellite systems while other countries have also expressed 

interest. India is working towards the implementation 

of an operational system-INSAT-as a follow on to 

the ATS-F Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) to be conducted cooperatively with 

NASA in 1975. India is spending a substantial sum to 

establish the necessary SITE ground receivers in some 

2000 remote villages to serve several million people. 

France and Germany continued negotiations with 

NASA to launch two jointly owned experimental communications satellites in 1974 and 1976. 

The United States has continued to assist in the development of a future aeronautical mobile satellite S~Stem, negotiating with European and Canadian authorities to establish an initial developmental satellite 

system in the North Atlantic. Similarly, the United 

States has been working to further the development 

of an international maritime mobile satellite service. 

Such a service will significantly improve maritime communications thereby enhancing maritime safety and 

management. Meanwhile US. entities have been authorized to establish a developmental system for use 

by the Navy and commercial maritime users prior to 

implementation of an international maritime system. 

Over the past year, satellite communications played 

a significant role in space activities for national defense. The Defense Satellite Communications System 

continued to provide secure communications in support of critical command, control, intelligence, and 

warning needs. Excellent progress was made during 

the year on the future Fleet Satellite Communications 

System in support of tactical communications requirements of the Navy and Air Force. The engineering 

model is in design and fabrication, and a contract has 

been let for the production of fleet broadcast receivers. 

Extensive studies, analysis, and experiments have 

confirmed the feasilbility of the DOD satellite NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. 
Exploration.-The most significant and exciting 

planetary exploration of the year was the flyby of 

Jupiter by Pioneer 10 in December. It survived the 

intense radiation field of Jupiter to give us our first 

close-up glimpse of the solar system’s largest planet 

with its spectacular red spot. The resultant data may 

well produce a shift in thinking about Jupiter, the 

solar system, and planetary energy processes. Data indicate that due to Jupiter’s own internal heating, the 

day and night temperatures are the same. The unusual 

disc-like radiation region of Jupiter suggests an interaction of the solar wind with the planet’s magnetic 

field that is quite different from Earth‘s case. 

Mariner Venus/Mercury was successfully launched 

in November and is on its way to giving us our first 

closeup glimpse of Mercury, the planet closest to the 

Sun. 

Making use of the experiments left on the Moon 

and the treasure trove of lunar data and samples gathered during the historic Apollo project, efforts will be 

continuing internationally for many years to come, 

to determine the nature, origin, history and dynamics 

of our sister planet and to further our understanding 

of the Earth, 

Physics and Astronomy.-Accomplishments in the 

physics and astronomy program in 1973 have added 

significantly to our knowledge and understanding of the 

physical processes governing the Earth, the solar system, and even the universe. 

The Atmospheric Explorer Satellite (AE-C) was 

launched successfully in December to investigate 

photochemical processes in Earth’s upper atmosphere. 

The knowledge gathered from this mission should be a 

substantial contributor to understanding pollution 

processes in the atmosphere. To maximize the data 

gathered with a single satellite, the spacecraft is capable of changing perigee using onboard propulsion. 

An Interplanetary Monitoring Platform, IMP-J, 

was successfully launched in October. It will acquire 

additional measurements of the cislunar radiation environment over a significant portion of the solar cycle, 

as well as measurements of the interplanetary magnetic 

field and the Earth’s atmosphere. It is expected that 

the results of this mission will be useful in developing 

a solar flare prediction capability and will enable us 

to continue the long term assessment of the varying 

radiation hazards for space missions. 

Galactic and solar radio noise is beins measured by 

Explorer 49, launched into lunar orbit in June. This 

unusual satellite is stabilized by employing gradients in 

the Moon’s gravity field to maintain the alignment of 

the satellite, and utilizes 750-foot antennas for its 

measurements. 

Exhaustive observations of the Sun were taken by the 

crews of the Skylab during 1973 and the data are now 

undergoing analysis. Observation of spectacular X-ray 

flares emerging from the Sun was one of the first accomplishments. There is evidence of fundamentally 

different flare mechanisms than previously theorized. 

There is reason to believe that analysis of the solar 

astronomy data will establish a revision of our understanding of the Sun and its effects on Earth. 

Lower altitude and ground-based measurements 

have also made major contributions. One of the most 

important discoveries was the observation by groundbased telescopes of two quasars with the largest red 

shifts ever observed. These objects provide information 

on the state of the universe in its very earliest stage. 

Other important work includes theoretical calculations 

on how a star develops into a supernova which has improved our understanding of the mechanism of stellar 

explosion. 

The knowledge acquired from these programs, while 

of great importance to science in its quest for understanding, is potentially of far greater importance to 

the future of man on Earth. This knowledge will contribute to our understanding of atmospheric processes 

and ultimately to our ability to forecast and control 

weather and to manage the environment in which we 

live. Knowledge of stellar and solar physical processes 

may provide new insight into nuclear processes and 

thereby aid us in developing new sources of energy. 

Skylab.-Skylab was 1973’s largest and most visible 

space program, making important contributions in 

many application and science areas. The program was 

established for four explicit purposes: (1) to further 

extend the science of solar astronomy beyond the 

limits of Earth-based observations; (2) to develop improved technologies for surveying Earth resources from 

space; (3) to increase man’s knowledge in a variety 

of other scientific and technological regimes; and (4) 

to determine man’s ability to live and work in space for 

extended periods. 

The Skylab program has proven to be one of the 

most exciting and useful of all the space programs to 

date. The ability to repair the laboratory and return 

it to a habitable condition after major thermal excursions and power failures, resulting from loss of the 

meteroid shield at launch, demonstrated the importance of man employing his skills in certain space activities. The program revealed no specific upper limit 

to man’s ability to live in weightlessness. 

Data acquired by the huge solar telescope are still 

being analyzed as part of our important studies of the 

Sun. Imagery of the Earth’s atmosphere and surface 

characteristics was acquired and provides a new dimension in the technology of surveying resources and 

monitoring pollution through remote sensing. One of 

the significant results is the identification of a potential mineral deposit near Ely, Nev. Onboard experiments to further determine the utility of space for 

exotic manufacturing of materials and mechanical 

3 
parts have also awakened worldwide interest. One biclogical experiment was designed to use weightlessness 

to alter the life cycle of the gypsy moth in the hope 

that a means could be found to control this insect pest 

which has been killing millions of valuable trees in 

Eastern United States each year. 

Space Shuttle.-Recent events have highlighted the 

interrelation of all parts of the globe in a political, 

economic, resource, energy, and environmental web. 

Operations in space enable man to obtain a global 

perspective which can enhance global cooperation. 

To enable the United States and the free world to 

operate routinely in space, the United States has undertaken to build a reusable Space Shuttle. The importance of the Space Shuttle goes considerably 

beyond reducing launch costs, which it certainly 

will do. It provides a quick response and a flexibility for civil and defense space operations never before known. With the advent of the Shuttle transportation system and its large payload capability, we 

will be in a position to trade performance and weight 

for cost reduction in considering operations in Earth 

orbit. Because of the capability for repair and retrofitting of space payloads that the Space Shuttle provides, and the considerably more benign launch environment, the cost of developing and building space 

payloads may begin at last to approach those for use 

on Earth. In 1973 the Space Shuttle program advanced 

towards its goal. Contracts were let for propulsion, and 

the design of the Shuttle itself is proceeding on schedule. Recognizing the importance of the Shuttle, Europe 

this year committed itself to build a companion space 

laboratory-Spacelab-to be used for a wide variety 

of orbital research applications. 

Znternational Cooperation.-The United States is 

working with many other countries to share the benefits of space research. Cooperative activities of broad 

international scope range from scientific investigations 

of the farther reaches of the solar system to highly 

practical applications that affect the lives and wellbeing of people throughout the world. Cooperation is 

particularly important in a shrinking world in which 

such vital activities as communications, transportation, 

weather forecasting, pollution control, and resource 

and energy management are increasingly international 

in extent. 

One highlight of 1973 was conclusion of an agreement with nine European countries for the development of a manned orbital ldboratory (Spacelab) for 

use with the U.S. Space Shuttle. Spacelab represents 

a major European contribution to our national program which will provide opportunities for US. and 

foreign scientists to accompany their experiments into 

space for the first time. 

Another leading development of 1973 was the notable progress made with the U.S.S.R. in preparing for 

the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project-the joint flight test 

of compatible rendezvous and docking systems-which 

is on schedule for a July 1975 launching. 

Space applications received new emphasis, with data 

supplied by the NASA Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS) and the Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) on Skylab stimulating new 

interest at home and abroad. Brazil and Canada have 

established their own ERTS data acquisition and processing facilities, and other countries hope to do the 

same. Significant results of ERTS data analysis include 

location of subsurface water close to usable soils in the 

Sahelian desert in North Africa, improved charting 

of the Amazon river system, and major revisions in the 

forestry map of Thailand. 

Meanwhile, the benefits of cooperation in space 

science continued to be available to NASA and its 

partners abroad through cooperative scientific satellite 

and sounding rocket projects and through the flight of 

foreign experiments on NASA spacecraft. Work went 

forward on six cooperative satellite projects, while 

Skylab served as a focus for a great variety of international scientific studies ranging from four foreign 

flight experiments (one each from Belgium, France, 

Japan, and Switzerland) to ground-based analytical 

studies of Earth imagery from EREP and Solar imagery from the Apollo Telescope Mount. 

Other important developments of 1973 included 

the coming-into-force of the INTELSAT definitive 

arrangements and construction under DOD management of two satellites to be launched in 1974 for the 

United Kingdom Skynet military communication 

program. 

In support of the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communications Link, parallel communications channels utilizing the INTELSAT and Molniya systems are 

planned for 1974. These parallel channels require the 

construction of an earth station in the Soviet Union 

to access the INTELSAT system and the construction 

of an earth station in the United States to access the 

Molniya system. 

Aeronautics 

Emphasis in the aeronautics programs was placed on 

both civil air transportation and on satisfying defense 

needs. In the former, the dbjectives were to provide 

the technology for improved, more efficient, transportation systems while reducing the environmental impact of those systems. Defense objectives centered on 

maintaining the security of the Nation. 

Ciuil Air Transportation.-The Nation's aeronautical 

research and development activities are objectiveoriented, direct toward the timely development of capabilities in areas of national priority and need. A 

major effort, aimed at alleviating noise and congestion 

near airports and removing or reducing other current 

4 
growth restraints in civil air transportation such as 

cost, safety and energy restrictions was continued 

through the year. This effort included a focused program to provide congestion reduction technology 

through the development of improved avionics and 

development of a superior short-haul, high-density 

STOL and VTOL aircraft technology. These efforts, 

as are most in the area of civil aeronautical research 

activities, are conducted with the active cooperation of 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

and the Department of Transportation. 

The environmental impact of aircraft noise in the 

vicinity of airports has been the largest single impediment to the orderly growth of air commerce. NASA 

has vigorously been pursuing several solutions to this 

important problem. In 1973, noise reduction efforts 

included the modification of existing jet engines in 

commercial use, design of acoustic engine nacelles, 

changing flight procedures and developing quieter engines. NASA’s JT8D jet engine refan program is desigmed to demonstrate the technology to reduce the 

noise footprint of 727, 737, and DC-9 aircraft by 75 

percent. These aircraft account for over 60 percent of 

the operations of the domestic fleet. The new wide 

body jets now entering service already have benefitted 

from NASA’s past noise reduction efforts. 

Other research on reducing the environmental impact of aircraft and promoting their efficient, economical use further advanced this year. Cooperative 

studies of the anticipated effects of high altitude supersonic transport aircraft upon the stratosphere were 

completed and the reports of this program, the Climatic Impact Assessment Program, will be submitted 

to the Congress in 1974 after it has been thoroughly 

reviewed. Programs aimed at providing the technology for aircraft engines having lower emission levels of 

pollutants were continued with the specific goals now 

relating to standards proposed under the Clean Air 

Amendments of 1970. 

In the area of aeronautical operations and the application of aircraft technologies, the Nation has moved 

forward rapidly in increasing automation of the air 

traffic control system in order to promote safety, reduce 

congestion and increase the number cf flights completed on time to the original destination. This will not 

only be a great time saver and convenience to travelers, 

but will be a major contribution toward the conservation of air transport fuel. During 1973, installation was 

completed of 60 automated radar terminal systems at 

the Nation’s busiest terminal areas. Twenty air route 

traffic control centers have also been automated, supplying the entire country with computerized flight data 

processing capability. 

Federal, State and local governments have been 

actively increasing their use of aircraft in their routine 

operations. For example, aircraft are employed in the 

maintenance of hydroelectric and irrigation system ; 

for location and suppression of forest and mine fires, to 

acquire mapping photography, and in the regulation 

of wildlife. Aerial photography has been used for 

resource survey and revision of inventory maps. Programs of fully operational remote sensing for forest 

fire detection, prevention, and mapping have been 

expanded. 

Remote sensing from aircraft €or environmental 

quality purposes was accomplished within both operational and research programs. Goals of missions flown 

included (1) the identification of land misuse as it 

relates to cultural growth, (2) the identification, tracking, and mapping of oil spills, (3) identifying and 

monitoring of agricultural runoff, (4) assessing the 

impact of pollution, (5) monitoring of Ocean dumping, 

(6) monitoring environmental trends, and (7) monitoring changes due to strip mining. Aircraft also served 

as support for space sensing activities. 

Defense.-Development of advanced technology suitable for future military systems is a major goal of both 

DOD and NASA. Joint efforts were continued in research and in the development and test of experimental and prototype aircraft in order to point the 

way towards advanced systems of superior capability. 

NASA also continued to provide direct support to specific military aircraft developments in order to enhance the probability of their successful development. 

Significant advances in these military systems were 

achieved in 1973. A decision was made for full-scale 

development of the economical (designed to a target 

cost of $1.5 million) A-IO aircraft which will provide 

close air support for ground combatants. The B-1 

strategic bomber for the 1980’s is now scheduled for 

its first flight in mid 1974. The F/FB-111 development was completed, providing an enhanced all 

weather attack capability. The Navy F-14 carrierbased tactical fighter is meeting or exceeding design 

requirements in flight test and in the fleet environment. 

The Air Force F-15 advanced tactical fighter is on 

schedule and 11 aircraft delivered to the Air Force 

are in flight test. Two contractors are in the final fabrication stages of two Light Weight Fighter Prototypes to explore new technology leading to a low cost, 

high performance, austere fighter. All milestones for 

the S3A carrier-based antisub warfare aircraft have 

been met successfully and 45 additional aircraft have 

been ordered. Progress has been made in providing 

airborne warning, and command and control systems. 

Under the Advanced Attack Helicopter development 

program, two contractors were selected for a competitive fly-off program. The military Utility Tactical 

Transport Aircraft System development is continuing 

on schedule. In addition, two contractors are each 

building two Advanced Medium STOL Transport 

Prototypes for the military which may also provide a 

base for future civil STOL transportation systems. 

5 
I1 National Aeronautics 

and Space Council 

The National Aeronautics and Space Council was 

established in the Executive Office of the President 

by Section 201 of the National Aeronautics and Space 

.ict of 1958. The same act also established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The 

Council was abolished in the fiscal year 1974 President's 

budget to the Congress. The Council was abolished 

because the major policy issues of the past have been 

largely resolved in the national space program, and 

a special advisory group in the Executive Office of the 

President was considered no longer necessary. Interagency coordinating arrangements were considered 

adequate to handle any future issues that may arise. 

The Vice President of the United States was Chairman of the Council. Other members included the 

Secretaries of State, Defense, and Transportation, the 

Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space 

.idministration, and the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission. The Council's small staff consisted 

of an executive secretary who had the supervisory responsibility for the staff. Other staff included permanent members, and detailees from the various 

agencies that were represented on the Council. 

7 
I11 National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

Introduction 

The function of the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) is to plan, direct and conduct 

aeronautical and space activities. The goal of NASA’s 

space activities is to pursue the peaceful uses of space 

for the benefit of all mankind. To help achieve this 

goal, the National Aeronautics and Space Act enunciated a number of contributing subgoals: to expand 

human knowledge of phenomena in the atmosphere 

and space, to develop and operate space vehicles, to 

preserve U.S. leadership in aeronautics and space technology, to discover and apply benefits obtained from 

space, and to cooperate with other nations on peaceful applications. 

In previous years, the emphasis in space has been on 

the first three goals. 1973 has been the year of “cashing in” on the technology development and knowledge 

obtained from our lunar and space exploration programs. 1973 is the year in which wider emphasis was 

placed on the latter goals-space applications, benefits, 

and international cooperation. 

Skylab has been the space exploit most in the news. 

Not only did Skylab function to demonstrate numerous 

space applications, but the ability of the astronauts to 

also rescue the mission by repairing the damaged 

spacecraft through extra vehicular activities (EVA’S) 

has laid to rest many of the questions on man’s ability 

to think, work, and live in space. 

In the unmanned applications area, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) provided data 

during 1973 useful for land use planning, mapping, 

identification of farm crops, locating natural resources, 

and monitoring flooding and pollution. 

Satellite communication systems, capitalizing on 

technology developed by NASA, are now one of the 

world’s chief sources of international communications 

and are already being applied to domestic communications as well. ATS-F, the final communications-oriented advanced technology satellite planned by NASA, 

is scheduled for a 1974 launch. In addition to pioneering new communications technology, it will also be 

used by India to demonstrate satellite supplied education to remote villages and by HEW to demonstrate 

remote delivery of health consultation and educational 

television. 

Weather satellites pioneered by NASA have now 

been in use for many years. In November, the NASA 

developed ITOS-F was launched. Satellites of this 

class will enable the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) to retire many ocean survey 

vessels which have been using radiosondes to obtain 

afmospheric vertical temperature profile data. The 

resultant cost savings will be significant. 

Technologies developed for the conduct of aerospace 

activities are now being applied to such diverse potential uses as earthquake prediction, development of residential solar heating, and economical fuel-saving integrated utility systems for housing. 

Despite the surge in applications, science and exploration have not been neglected, for they too provide benefits. Study of other planets helps us understand the Earth. Mars and Venus provide global laboratories for testing atmospheric theories, which will 

help advance the day when we can make accurate longrange weather predictions, weaken storms, and perhaps even control climate. Understanding the moon’s 

geology helps us understand the Earth’s geology with 

its many implications for locating minerals and comprehending Earth‘s dynamics and its associated earthquakes. 

In December, Pioneer 10 visited the massive planet 

Jupiter with its huge red spot, its intense radiation 

and magnetic fields, its multicolored atmosphere, and 

its dozen moons. The resultant data have already begun 

to unlock its many mysteries. 

With the acceleration of the growth of space applications, inexpensive ready access to space is particularly 

desirable. The Space Shuttle, designed to provide such 

access, as well as to reduce other costs of space operations such as payload costs, is moving ahead toward 

its first test flight in 1977. In 1973, many of the necessary subcontractors were selected by the prime contractor. Europe, recognizing the Shuttle’s importance, 

has this year chosen to build a companion Spacelab. 

NASA’s vigorous aeronautics research program is 

concentrating on reducing the environmental impact of 

aircraft and making air transport more efficient. One 

9 
program is designed to demonstrate the technology necessary to reduce the noise of 60 percent of the domestic 

commercial air fleet through modification of their engines. Another major endeavor is aimed at relieving 

airport congestion by improving aircraft systems and by 

development of STOL/VTOL aircraft that can use 

alternate, less congested, airports. Programs to increase 

aircraft efficiency, with accompanying fuel savings, include improving aerodynamic design and utilizing 

weight-saving materials. NASA’s efforts to promote aircraft safety and reduce vehicle fire hazards have already been applied in other civil uses. 

NASA is also actively working with other Federal 

agencies and internationally to bring the benefits of 

aerospace technology and information to ourselves and 

other nations. 

This chapter elaborates on NASA’s efforts in these 

and other areas. 

Applications Programs 

Space applications programs include Earth observations (meteorological and Earth resources surveys) , Earth and ocean physics, and communications. Operational space systems have already evolved in meteorology and communications and, in the latter, private industry has assumed a large share of the responsibility for further exploitation of the communications 

satellite technology developed by NASA. The final 

communications-oriented advanced technology satellite planned by NASA, ATS-F, neared completion of 

its development stage. Planned to be launched in 1974, 

the spacecraft will then be used by the United States 

to relay health information and experimental educational programs directly to inexpensive television receivers in remote regions of the Federation of Rocky 

Mountain States, Alaska, and Appalachia. Remote 

areas lacking ground communication facilities will 

derive great benefits in the form of rapid, economical, 

widespread dissemination of health services information and educational programs. 

The Earth resources survey program is the next activity expected to become operational. Earth Resources 

Technology Satellite 1 (ERTS-1) was launched in 

July 1972, and has already been highly successful in 

providing imagery useful in land use planning, rapid 

mapping of large areas, identifying farm crops, locating natural resources, and warning of flooding and 

pollution. 

NASA‘s applications programs are not only demonstrating that space has practical uses in daily life, they 

are also helping people understand where the technology can be put to work for human good. 

Earth Observations.-Earth Resources Technology 

Satellites.-The United States made what is proving to 

be a fundamental advance in the application of technology by launching the ERTS-1 in July 1972. For the 

first time a wide range of data was routinely being 

acquired over the entire United States and other portions of the world. This year, we have learned to 

derive valuable information from this new technological tool. Major advances have been made in petroleum 

and mineral exploration, identification of major crops 

and inventory of acreage, and in the evaluation of the 

environmental impact of man’s activities. Satellite 

technology is proving to be an effective tool for more 

effective exploration, management, and monitoring of 

natural resources. 

In Alaska, for example, a previously unnoticed regional trend was identified on ERTS-1 imagery near 

the Umiat Oil Field. The alignment of many small 

lakes in that area-first detected by ERTS-identified 

a regional feature similar to the domed structures 

which form oil traps. Trends of faults were extended 

offshore from the North Slope oil fields indicating 

promising areas for future petroleum exploration. In 

addition, six copper porphyry prospects were discovered from ERTS imagery in the mountains of central 

Alaska, two of which are now being drilled by a private mining company. 

Indentification of wheat, corn, and soybean crops 

can readily be accomplished. Accuracies exceeding 90 

percent were attained for acreage measurement of major crops in many states and several foreign countries. 

Land use application of ERTS data also shows 

major promise. Land use maps and map updates of 

Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, 

Minnesota, New York, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, and 

others were prepared using ERTS data. The scale of 

ERTS maps is regional, and the maps are most effective for State and rural uses. Such mapping is a 

cost effective way of examining our entire Nationespecially the State of Alaska. 

During the major flood of the Mississippi River in 

the spring of 1973, computer recognition and mapping 

of surface water from ERTS data were used by the 

Corps of Engineers to evaluate flooded acreage and 

flood control structures. Also, circulation and sedimentation patterns observed in ERTS imagery of the coasts 

are being used by Delaware to develop a deployment 

strategy for equipment to control oil spills. 

The excellent results of this research program encouraged NASA to cooperate with operational agencies in a series of major applications tests. In one, the 

Department of Agriculture is using ERTS-1 to make 

a wheat inventory covering the United States and 

Canada. 

Plans were also made for continuing research on 

new applications of data from earth resources survey 

satellites to such areas as estimation of crop production ; irrigation control experiments ; mapping new 

geologic structures and mineral prospects; detection 

and mapping of geothermal energy resources ; developing interrelations of fish schools and remotely sensed 
marine indicators ; initial systems to measure environmental changes; and identification of sources of pollution. 

NASA and the Department of Interior began studies of ways of achieving a smooth transition from a 

research and development system such as ERTS-1 to 

an operational Earth resources survey system. 

International interest in directly obtaining and using 

ERTS data increased markedly. Canada and Brazil installed and began operating ERTS data receiving and 

processing facilities, Italy announced that it would construct an ERTS station, and several other countries 

were studying such installations. 

Skylab/Earth Resources Experiment Package 

(EREP) .-This Package was carried aboard Skylab 1, 

launched in May. The EREP sensors were operated 

during the SL-2 and SL-3 missions, and data were collected for 136 investigators from the United States and 

19 other countries. The investigators are using the data 

to study a variety of Earth resources problems related 

to agriculture, forestry, geology, hydrology, mineralogy, 

meteorology, oceanography, demography, and cartography. The particular value of the EREP package to 

investigators is in the increased spectral coverage and 

improved resolution of its instruments. Coverage extends to the thermal band and microwave sections of 

the radiation spectrum. Both improvements will be 

used to assess new uses for such data and the requirements for new instrument development. 

Earth Observations Aircraft Program.-The Earth 

Observations Aircraft Program (EOAP) served as a 

complementary source of remote sensing data for the 

Earth resources survey investigative program, providing continuing support to in-house and interagency surveys and to sensor development efforts. The major portion of the aircraft program effort was devoted to 

ERTS and Skylab investigation. Aircraft survey flights 

provided verification data needed by investigators for 

interpretation of space-acquired imagery. To date, 

some 497 overflights of ERTS and Skylab test sites 

have been completed. 

The program uses several different aircraft, operating at altitudes up to 21 km (65,000 feet), to test remote sensing instruments and techniques. The high altitude flights simulate conditions resembling those of an 

orbiting spacecraft and permit sensors in development 

to be tested and compared without the need for large 

numbers of costly launches. The range of the sensor's 

performance capabilities can be established and data 

handling and analysis techniques can be verified. 

Meteorology and Environmental Monitoring.-Nimbus.-Nimbus 5, an experimental weather satellite, 

launched in December 1972, achieved its objectives in 

February 1973; however, it continued to operate with 

five of the six major experiments capable of providing 

useful data. These experiments demonstrated the capability to obtain remote atmospheric sounding from 

cloudy regions and at altitudes higher than previously 

possible. Such data could be used to improve long-term 

weather forecasts and to increase understanding of 

atmospheric processes. A surface composition mapping 

radiometer carried on the mission demonstrated that 

the composition of the surface could be determined by 

measuring the modification of the thermal emission of 

igneous rock. 

Nimbus-F, scheduled for launch in 1974, will provide improved remote sounding techniques including 

bek'er vertical range and resolution for atmospheric 

sounding. It will contribute substantially to the Global 

Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) Atlantic 

Tropical Experiment (GATE) by measuring the lower 

stratospheric winds in the tropics. This experiment will 

provide additional knowledge of the movement of 

atmospheric energy from the tropics to temperate zones. 

Development of the new Air Pollution and Oceanographic Observing Satellite (Nimbus-G) was initiated. 

Its sensors will furnish data for data-use investigations 

applicable to air pollution, oceanography, the ocean/ 

atmosphere interface, and the Earth and atmosphere 

heat budget. It is scheduled for launch in 1978. 

Improved TIROS Operational System.-In November, the NASA-developed ITOS-F was launched; 

a Delta launch vehicle boosted the spacecraft into 

a nearly polar orbit from the Western Test Range. 

The cost of the spacecraft, instruments, launch vehicle, 

and launch services were fully reimbursed by NOAA. 

After successful launch, the spacecraft was designated 

NOAA-3. Satellites of this class will enable NOAA to 

retire many ocean survey vessels which have been using 

radiosondes to obtain atmospheric vertical temperature profile data. The resultant cost savings will be significant. NOAA-3 is the second spacecraft of this series 

which provides operational atmospheric sounding and 

very high resolution, day-and-night cloud-cover imaging. Plans for follow-on missions call for launches at 

the rate of about one per year over the next 4 years. 

Synchronous Meteorological Satellites (SMS) Program.-The objective of this program is to develop a 

geostationary satellite system capable of meeting 

NOAA's requirements for the National Operational 

Environmental Satellite System (NOESS) . The SMS 

spacecraft, carrying the large technically sophisticated 

visible and infrared spin scan radiometer (VISSR) 

sensor, will be able to take full-Earth disk pictures every 

half-hour, day and night, thus satisfying the requirement for short-term weather forecasting and continuous viewing. The SMS system can also collect environmentally significant data from up to 10,000 sensing 

platforms in remotely located surface sites, and relay 

unprocessed and processed data to regional forecasting 

11 528-338 0 - 74 - 2 
or warning stations. SMS-A, due to be launched in 

early 1974, was completely integrated and tested ; the 

fabrication, integration, and test of the follow-on spacecraft, SMS-B and SMS-C/GOES-A, were on 

schedule. 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) .- The major activity in this program was the detailed 

planning and preparation for the Data Systems Test 

(DST) scheduled for 1974. NASA was assigned primary responsibility for this test, which will provide an 

early simulation of the observing, data collection, and 

data processing system concepts and procedures under 

consideration for the First GARP Global Experiment 

(FGGE), currently planned for 1977. Progress was 

made in developing techniques for routine real-time 

processing and assimilation of satellite sounding data, 

in developing procedures for determining wind fields 

from cloud-track images obtained by geostationary 

satellites, and in the development of a carrier balloon 

system employing dropsondes to obtain vertical wind 

profiles in data sparse equatorial regions. The latter 

will be tested in conjunction with the GARP Atlantic 

Tropical Experiment during 1974. 

Earth and Ocean Physics Program.-This year the 

Earth and Ocean Physics Application Program 

(EOPAP) , formally established in 1972, made substantial scientific and technical progress. 

Sea Measurements from Skylab.-The exploratory 

Skylab tests of the altimeter and scatterometer measurement techniques were successful. Initial analyses of 

the altimeter data showed that the sea surface topography was indeed measurable, and that the results 

correlated very well with the mean sea level determined 

by observing the gravity field. 

Ocean Satellites.-Planning for the proposed SEASAT-A mission was accelerated. The objectives were 

set and the instrument complement was decided upon 

in a series of meetings involving NASA and the user 

agencies, particularly the Departments of Commerce, 

Defense, and Transportation. 

Preparations for the launching of GEOS-C in mid1974 continued on schedule. This satellite will offer the 

first opportunity for observing the oceans on a global 

basis and should be a boon to the shipping industry. 

The final definition phase of LAGEOS, a passive geodetic satellite for use with high precision laser ranging 

systems, was started, and actual construction scheduled 

to begin next year. 

Toward Earthquake Prediction.-The preliminary 

Polar Motion Experiment based on tracking the Beacon 

Explorer spacecraft with a laser-an entirely new technique-yielded an improved determ’ination of the motion of the pole. An accuracy of one meter was maintained over a 5-month period, and it was possible to 

12 

determine one component of the pole position using 

6-hour spans of data from a single station. The results 

were comparable with those obtained by conventional 

techniques using 5-day spans of data fmm 40 stations 

around the world. The great decrease in the time required for the measurement by the new technique suggests the possibility of much more refined testing of the 

hypothesis that certain movements of the pole actually 

precede large earthquakes. 

Studies of satellite orbital data provided the first 

experimental evidence for the influence of ocean tides 

upon the solid Earth tides. The results imply that 

future studies of the dynamics of the oceans and of the 

Earth’s crust should enlarge understanding of earthquake mechanisms. 

Development work continued on the Very Long 

Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) technique for making 

accurate measurements of crustal motions. First tests 

were made of a mobile VLBI terminal which will 

greatly expand the usefulness of this promising technique for making measurements of motions along 

earthquake faults. Analysis of the data taken during 

the first observing period of the San Andreas Fault 

Experiment (SAFE) in 1972 was begun; initial results 

indicated that measurement accuracy increased. 

Advance models of the Earth‘s gravitational field 

were generated on the basis of the final sets of data obtained during the national geodetic satellite program, 

the 10-year effort which provided the foundation for 

the Earth and Ocean Physics Applications Program. 

Communications Applications From Space Research.-As the world grows smaller and nations 

more interdependent, and as more of the developing 

nations move into the industrial age, the need for improved communications becomes more urgent. In 

many cases the most expedient practicable way to 

establish a capability for such communications is by 

satellite-to bridge the oceans, the mountains, the 

jungles, and the plains. 

Current experimental use of NASA’s Applications 

Technology Satellites in the remote villages of Alaska is 

bringing improved emergency medical care. In the 

wide-flung islands of the Pacific, the satellites are providing for educational and cultural exchange and interplay which can lead to improved international 

understanding and amity. 

In Februray 1972, the President’s visit to mainland 

China was televised live to the rest of the world via 

INTELSAT using transportable ground stations flown 

in for the purpose. In 1973, United States-manufactured permanent ground stations were installed for use 

by the Peoples Republic of China in communicating 

with the rest of the world through the INTELSAT 

satellites. 

Domestic Applications.-Six applicants have been 

allowed by the FCC to proceed with the development 
of satellites to serve both general purposes and special 

purpose networks in the United States. This will result in a minimum of 14 reimbursable launches in the 

next 5 years. 

Maritime Satellite Communications.-The US. 

Navy has contracted with Comsat for interim fleet services to be provided by a maritime satellite system beginning in 1974. The satellite system planned by Comsat, 

called MARISAT, will have sufficient capability to 

provide, for the first time, a precursor operational service for the US. merchant fleet. 

International Applications.-NASA launched a second ANIK satellite for Canada on a reimbursable basis 

in April. This established the second operational domestic satellite system, the first being Russia’s Molniya. 

Several of the approved US. applicants for domestic 

satellite services are leasing channels from the Canadian system in order to initiate US. service earlier 

than would be possible through US. owned satellites. 

India continued to work towards the implementation 

of an operational system, INSAT, as a follow-on to the 

ATS-F Satellite Instructional Television Experiment 

(SITE) to be conducted in 1975. It is described in 

more detail !below. 

Brazil is considering establishing its own domestic 

satellite system to provide interconnection of the populated regions along the coast with outposts of civilization in the mountain and river-valley regions of the 

country. 

Japan conducted design studies of several satellite 

systems for domestic communications and direct broadcast service with planned launchings to begin in late 

1977. Successful implementation of these systems could 

give Japan a commanding lead in the ability to sell 

similar systems to others. 

Negotiations were underway for NASA to provide 

reimbursable launch services for two experimental communication satellites (Symphonie in late 1974 and 

1976) developed jointly by France and Germany. 

Similar arrangements were in process between NASA 

and the European Space Research Organization 

(ESRO) for launch of two other applications research satellites, one a c~mmunications test satellite 

(OTS in late 1976) and the other a maritime test 

satellite (MAROTS in 1977). In addition, the United 

States (Government/Industry) and ESRO were about 

to enter into an agreement for an aeronautical satellite 

system (AEROSAT) for the North Atlantic region. 

Several other countries have also expressed varying 

degrees of interest in the possibility of implementing 

their own domestic or regional satellite systems. 

Looking Ahead.-As a result of the projected increase in satellite service, there will be a large number 

of satellites competing for a limited number of 

synchronous orbital locations and an already crowded 

radio spectrum. Continued research and experiment 

in the United States can help it maintain leadership in 

this area and reap the resultant benefits. 

NASA Communications Programs.-Applications 

Technology Satellite (ATS) F.-ATS-F is a multiuser 

communications experiments satellite, scheduled for 

launch in April 1974. During 1973, integration of the 

various spacecraft elements and experiments was completed and end-to-end testing was in progress. 

The ATS-F Health and Education Telecommunications Experiment (HET) , which is being conducted 

in conjunction with HEW, is scheduled to start in April 

1974. Educational television programing will be provided via satellite to hundreds of remote villages 

throughout the Rocky Mountain States, Appalachia, 

and Alaska. In addition, medical consultation will be 

provided between health centers and rural areas of the 

country. 

Following the HET experiment, the ATS-F satellite will be moved from the United States to India to 

support a Satellite Instructional Television Experiment 

(SITE) which will be conducted by the Indian Government. Instructional television programs will be provided to about 2,000 Indian villages. The Indian 

ground-station development was successfully completed, and television program production initiated. 

Upon the completion of the SITE experiment, the 

satellite will be moved back to the United States for 

continued experimentation. In addition to these principal broadcast type experiments, a number of other 

user oriented and technology experiments are carried. 

Communications Technology Satellite (CTS) .- 

The Communications Technology Satellite is a joint 

development of the Canadian Department of Communications (DOC) and NASA. This experimental 

satellite, scheduled for launch at the end of 1975, is 

expected to contribute toward developing a capability 

for routine broadcast services to small, low-cost community terminals. It will pioneer the use of the newly 

allocated 12 GHz frequency band allocation, which 

imposes no restrictions on power levels for the satellite. 

The United States will contribute the Thor/Delta 

launch vehicle, the super-efficiency 200-watt output 

Transmitter Experiment Package (TEP) , and facilities for environmental testing and launch of the spacecraft being designed, developed, and built by Canada. 

After the satellite is successfully placed into geostationary orbit, NASA and DOC will conduct communications experiments, sharing the experiment time 

equally. Experiments will be performed over a wide 

variety of potentially beneficial satellite applications. 

They form the basis for development of low-cost user 

ground terminals. Included are experiments related to 

educational and health services to remote areas of the 

country, and interchange of university curricula. In 

13 
addition, scientific experiments associated with the 

transmission of digital television will be performed. 

Communications Satellite Research Terminated.- 

On January 5, NASA announced that it was phasing 

out its communications satellite research work as one 

of the program reductiaons needed to adjust activities to 

a lower agency spending level. On the premise that the 

satellite communications industry was economically 

self-viable, NASA felt that further advances in satellite communications research and development, past 

those envisioned with its flights of ATS-F and CTS, 

could be accomplished by industry on a commercial 

basis without Government support. 

Advanced Communications Research and Technical Consultative S2vices.-In 1973, emphasis was 

placed on providing a sound technological base for 

future space applications programs. Studies were initiated on frequency allocation, bandwidth, and orbit 

requirements for future applications missions, particularly for Earth observation satellites. Studies and investigations were initiated to open up new regions of 

the spectrum for space applications and research. 

Efforts were continued to develop or improve space systems components and technologies which will facilitate increased efficiency in utilizing the geostationary 

orbit and radio frequency spectrum including improvements to shaping ante,nna patterns and better methods 

of compressing data and reusing available radio 

spectrum. 

Technology and feasibility assessments of spacecraft and telecommunications systems and component 

problems of domestic and INTELSAT satellites were 

performed at the FCC’s request. Systems evaluations 

were also initiated for the FCC on INTELSATs IV A 

and V. Throughout 1973 participation in U.S. Government and international telecommunications committees was continued, particularly in support of 

NASA’s space applications interests in Earth resources 

and in weather and climatology effects. 

Other Applications.-Data Collection.-A phenominal growth (several orders of magnitude) in the use 

of Earth and satellite based sensors is expected within 

this decade. Efforts have been initiated to provide the 

techniques, advanced technology, higher frequencies, 

and interference free environment required to meet 

these projected needs which will utilize ground-tosatellite, satellite-to-ground, and satellite-to-satellite 

telecommunications links. 

Modular Integrated Utility System.-NASA continued working with the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development (HUD) to develop a Modular 

Integrated Utility System (MIUS) for commercial, 

industrial, or residential applications. This cooperative effort with HUD, which draws upon NASA’s ex14 

perience in developing life support systems for manned 

spacecraft, represents an important step in applying 

space derived technology tlo the needs of man here 

on Earth. 

The MIUS system would provide all of the utility 

functions such as heating and cooling, electrical power, 

water treatment, and solid waste management and disposal for integration into a building or building complex (apartments, stores, shopping centers) . By combining all of these functions, energy needs can be 

reduced by about one-third. Significant reductions can 

also be expected in the amount of water required and 

the volume of solid waste to be removed. 

In 1973, the MIUS systems requirements were established and a conceptual design evolved. Plans were 

made for NASA to provide HUD with final design and 

performance specifications for a demonstration system. 

A demonstration of MIUS in an actual operating environment is expected to be undertaken with private 

enterprise sometime in 1974. The Federal Government 

will encourage private enterprise to make integrated 

utilities systems available on a commercial basis. 

Community Uses.-In 1973, special studies were 

getting under way to identify advanced technologies 

that will be needed to implement such new applications as disaster warning, communications as a substitute for transportation, microwave transmission of high 

levels of energy, and electronic mail handling. In all 

these areas, tremendous growth is expected to overburden the systems now available and it is urgent that 

the new technologies from the space program be considered as full or partial replacements. 

Manned Space Flight 

The year 1973 has seen the emphasis in manned 

space flight turn from exploration to applications. Skylab focused on the use of man in space and the use 

of space to monitor and survey Earth, to determine our 

solar environment, and to provide a unique environment for manufacturing and for the study of biological and chemical processes. The reusable Space 

Shuttle is designed to routinize our ability to employ the 

advantages of space for Earth observation, communication, navigation, space manufacturing, and environmental, demographic, hydrological, transportation, and 

resource management. 

Skylab Program.-The basic purposes of the Skylab 

program are: to determine man’s ability to live and 

work in space for extended periods; to further extend 

the science of solar astronomy beyond the limits of 

Earth based observations ; to develop improved techniques for surveying Earth resources from space; and 

to increase man’s knowledge in a variety of other 

scientific and technological regimes. 

The first Skylab manned mission made significant 
contributions to the purposes of the program, and in 

many cases the crew did more than called for in the 

flight plans. Among their accomplishments were 267 

scientific investigations, 82 hours of telescopic observations of the Sun, and photographs of more than 4 million square miles of the Earth’s surface. Skylab’s second 

manned mission added to the successes of the first in 

the area of scientific experiments and extended the 

stay time in space to 59 days. This was surpassed by 

the scheduled 84-day third mission, which again acquired vast quantities of scientific, biomedical, Earth 

resources, and solar astronomy data. 

Data from the Skylab missions has not yet been fully 

analyzed, but we already know a great deal more about 

the human body and its behavior in space than we 

knew before. This knowledge is transferable to medical science and will enlarge our understanding of the 

functioning of the human body on Earth. We have 

also increased our information about the Sun and its 

relationships with the Earth, which may eventually 

contribute to a better understanding of our weather. 

The Skylab astronauts have observed the Earth‘s resources, its atmosphere, its waters, its vegetation, and 

its pollutants, The EREP (Earth Resources Experiment Package) instruments for remote Earth sensing 

performed two functions : They advanced the technology and gathered data useful for research in agriculture, 

forestry, ecology, geology, geography, meteorology, hydrology, hydrography, and oceanography. 

Skylab I, 2.-The first Skylab mission was directed 

toward establishing the experimental space station in 

Earth orbit and conducting medical experiments associated with long periods of manned space flight. Emphasis was also placed on solar astronomy, Earth resources, and other technological experiments. Flight 

crew members were commander Captain Charles 

Conrad, Jr. (USN) ; science pilot, Cmdr. Joseph P. 

Kerwin (USN) ; and pilot Cmdr. Paul J. Weitz 

(USN) . The unmanned Skylab 1 was launched by a Saturn 

V on May 14 and inserted into a circular orbit of 435 

kilometers (272 miles). The Apollo Telescope Mount 

(ATM) solar arrays deployed normally, but the Workshop solar array system did not. 

Subsequent analysis and inspection revealed that the 

meteoroid shield was torn away during boost, carrying one of the Workshop solar wings with it, while a 

piece of the shield wrapped around the second Workshop solar wing and kept it from deploying. As a result, 

the Workshop lost power and became overheated, and 

the launch of the manned Skylab 2 was postponed 

until May 25. The period between the two launches 

was used to devise ways of “fixing” Skylab and training 

the crew to carry out the “fix.” At the same time, 

ground controllers devised an attitude for the Skylab 

that would provide power and still keep the inside temperature at a reasonable level. The solution finally 

selected was to have Skylab 2 carry aloft three thermal 

shields-a “parasol,” a “twinpole,” and a “sail.” 

Skylab 2 was launched by a Saturn IB on May 25 

and made rendezvous with the Workshop several hours 

later. As they approached the Workshop, the crew observed that one solar panel was missing and the other 

was partly deployed, restrained by a piece of the micrometeoroid shield. A standup EVA (extra-vehicular 

activity) attempt to deploy thc array was unsuccessful. 

After docking, the crew entered and activated the 

Multiple Docking Adapter and then went into the 

Workshop. Once in the Workshop, the crew was able to 

deploy the parasol sunshield through the scientific air 

lock. The results of deployment were noted almost 

immediately: Internal temperatures dropped markedly. By mission day 4 the internal temperature had 

decreased to 90°F. 

On mission day 14, astronauts Conrad and Kerwin, 

in the course of a 3Vz hour EVA, used specially devised tools to release and extend the stuck solar wing. 

Their work was completely successful and recovered 

approximately 3,000 watts of electrical power. 

The Skylab 2 mission concluded with the landing in 

the Pacific and recovery of the Command Module on 

June 22. 

The first Skylab manned mission accomplished all 

its primary objectives, including the following specific 

achievements : Approximately 80 percent of the 

planned solar data were obtained; 12 of the 15 planned 

Earth resources data runs were completed; and all 16 

medical experiments were conducted as required. The 

time history of man’s adaptation to the zero-g environment was obtained for the first time, and data were 

taken on 43 experiments, including eight in the Skylab 

student project. 

The 28-day mission-the longest manned space mission to date-was a significant step in developing a 

capability for extended space flights. Skylab provided 

the first opportunity in manned flight to collect a vast 

amount of inflight physiological data. Sixteen separate 

medical experiments were conducted to determine the 

time course of the effects of extended space flight. Results showed that the crew experienced no unexpected 

changes, and the postflight test revealed that the crew 

returned to preflight conditions in every monitored 

function. 

The five major ATM experiments, constituting the 

most comprehensive and powerful solar observatory 

ever built, made sample observations supporting every 

major solar physics objective identified for the first 

mission, including, a significant flare in the lower solar 

atmosphere and transients in the corona, with its million degree temperature, quiescent features such as 

multimillion-ion prominences suspended in the corona, 

and the mysterious convection and storm patterns 

which somehow cause the solar wind. 

15 
The EREP remote sensing techniques were used for 

many hours of intense observations of the Earth. Data 

were acquired over predetermined ground test sites in 

31 States and Puerto Rico; in Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, Nicaragua, Bolivia, and Canada; in the Pacific 

and Atlantic Oceans, the Caribbean Sea, and in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Opportunities were taken to observe 

unplanned events. The crew obtained the first active 

microwave measurements of a major storm, Hurricane 

Ava, in the Pacific. Analysis of these data and data 

acquired by instrumented NOAA and Air Force aircraft which flew through the hurricane are expected to 

demonstrate that space systems can be used to improve 

studies of hurricanes. Also, in cooperation with NO,AA 

stations in south central Oklahoma, data were obtained 

which may provide clues to causes of severe thunderstorms. 

One of the outstanding aspects of the mission was 

the ability of the crew to repair the Skylab space station and leave it in condition for satisfactory completion of the overall Skylab program. It demonstrated 

clearly that man could function effectively in space 

and that his presence could be the key to the success 

of a mission. 

Skylab 3.-SL-3-the second manned missionwas launched on July 28 and made rendezvous with the 

Workshop later that day. 

Crew members were Commander Alan Bean (Captain, USN) ; Science Pilot Owen K. Garriott (Ph. D.) ; 

and Pilot Jack Robert Lousma (Major, USMC) . Early in the flight, a series of problems threatened the 

mission : the crew suffered motion sickness, there were 

unexplained leaks of oxidizer in the Service Module 

reaction control system, the Airlock Module primary 

coolant system lost coolant pressure, and the attitude 

control rate gyros behaved erratically. 

However, the health of the crew improved, and 

it was able to resolve the other problems so as to permit 

the mission to proceed. The crew found it could work 

well ahead of the premission flight plan. The flight 

control teams and the mission management operated 

smoothly and flexibly to take advantage of the crew's 

efficiency to add unscheduled tests and experiments 

which helped increase experiment data yield above 

premission planning. Skylab 3 was a highly successful 

mission that left Skylab in an excellent position to complete the program with the third and final mission. 

The first of three periods of extravehicular activity 

took place on mission day 10. Astronauts Garriott and 

Bean worked outside the workshop for a total of 6 

hours, 31 minutes putting in place a twin-pole sun 

shield that lowered temperatures and gave more permanent protection to the workshop. The elapsed time 

was a record space walk. 

During EVA-2, on the 28th mission day, Astronauts 

Garriott and Lousma successfully carried out a number 

16 

of tasks in a 4'/2-hour period. Astronauts Bean and 

Garriott carried out EVA-3 on the 57th day, replacing film and retrieving two experiments and parasol 

samples in 2 hours 41 minutes. 

On the 59th day of the mission, the astronauts returned to Earth, landing in the Pacific Ocean approximately 250 miles from San Diego, California, on September 25. 

In addition to its scientific successes and the achievements of the crew, the Skylab 3 mission set a number 

of major records: longest duration manned space 

flight: 59 days 11 hours 9 minutes; longest cumulative 

time in space for one man: 69 days for Captain Alan 

Bean (Apollo 12-10 days, SL-3-59 days) ; most 

miles in orbit for a manned mission: 21,500,000 miles; 

longest orbital EVA: 6 hours 31 minutes, August 6, 

1973; and longest cumulative orbital EVA time: 13 

hours 40 minutes for Owen Garriott. 

Skylab 4.-SG4-the third manned mission-was 

launched November 16. The mission planning for this 

flight was significantly altered to include major observations of the comet Kohoutek, discovered earlier in 

the year. Astronauts Gerald P. Carr (Lt. Col. USMC), 

Commander; Edward G. Gibson (Ph.D.) , Science 

Pilot; and William R. Pogue (Lt. Col. USAF), Pilot, 

docked with the orbiting Skylab station several hours 

later to begin the final Skylab mission of 84 days. 

The crew carried out Earth resources, solar astronomy, medical, and other experiments. In addition, 

it used a special camera to photograph features of 

the Comet Kohoutek not observable from the Earth's 

surface. The ATM was also used for Kohoutek observations. 

At the end of the year, the Skylab 4 crew was well 

along with its work assignments and large quantities 

of valuable data were collected and transmitted to 

Earth. 

Skylab Results.-While it is important to remember 

that Skylab was conceived primarily as a development 

program in the extension of manned space flight to 

determine man's capabilities and limitations as well 

as demonstrate the adequacy of the design and operation of experiment and systems hardware, we have in 

fact acquired significant new knowledge about the 

benefits which space observations and experiments 

hold for man on Eaqth. This aspect of Skylab promises 

to be of increasing importance as the data is analyzed 

and the findings become better known and understood. 

This is true not only for direct earthly benefits but 

also for the insights it will give us into the uses of 

space in the Shuttle era. 

Skylab Biomedical Findings.-Preliminary biomedical analyses of the 28-day flight of Skylab 2 and the 

59-day Skylab 3 manned missions were completed and 
work continued on more detailed analyses of laboratory data. The Skylab 2 and 3 findings appear to validate medical predictions which defined the body systems most likely to be affected in missions of these durations : the cardiovascular system, vestibular system, 

fluid and electrolyte balance, and blood and blood 

generation systems. 

They did not produce evidence to indicate the involvement of body systems other than those anticipated. From the evidence collected, it was concluded 

that man can safely perform in spaceflight for up to 

60 days. 

Earth Resources Experiments Package.-Skylab will 

have taken over 40,000 photographs and more than 

230,000 feet of high density magnetic tape with the 

EREP sensors by the time the third mission is completed. This is considerably more than originally 

planned. These data are provided to 145 investigators 

here and abroad. They are also provided to other US. 

agencies ,for their use, and are available to the public 

through the Department of Interior EROS Data Center at Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 

Over and above the EREP data, handheld photography and visual observations were attempted for some 

50 sites representative of such features as barrier reefs, 

volcanoes, salt beds, earthquake damage, flooding 

damage, swamps, deserts, forest areas, vegetated areas, 

locust damage, geologic tectonics, water pollution, 

drought areas, and severe storms. 

The sequence of EREP data processing, data distribution, analysis, and publication of results is continuing and is expected to last several years. However, some 

initial results have already been identified by the EREP 

investigators. Perhaps the most significant, in terms of 

economic value, is the identification of a potential mineral deposit north of Ely, Nev. Other important results 

have been the identification of several areas of citrus 

fruit fly infestations on the Mexican side of the Rio 

Grande; demonstration of the use of remote sensing 

for snow mapping; employment as part of a study of 

land use classification systems of new urbanization patterns associated with the city of Phoenix, Ariz.; and 

demonstration of the use of EREP imagery for inventory of vegetation patterns using test sites in California. 

The high spatial resolution provided by the EREP 

film systems is particularly applicable to study of regional planning and land use in urbanized areas. Using 

an EREP color photograph of the Washington, D.C. 

area taken in September 1973, as an example, the feasibility of identifying individual building structures is 

clearly evident. Detailed analysis of the original 

photography, covering 10,000 square miles and including the Baltimore area, will produce a land-use assessment at the highest classification level contemplated by land-use planners. The Baltimore-Washington photograph and similar imagery for 12 other cities 

are being used by the Department of Interior to test 

the use of space imagery for updating the 1970 census. 

High spatial resolution for the identification of fields 

of an acre or smaller and the detection of impounded 

water, indicate the value and need for such a selective 

high resolution capability for future Earth survey 

systems. 

In summary, the Skylab/EREP data proved important in demonstrating the use of remote sensing from 

space for application studies and providing a basis for 

the definition of sensor characteristics for future space 

systems. 

Solar Astronomy.-The observing time prescribed 

for solar astronomy in the preflight plans was exceeded. 

In the main, the instruments worked very well 

throughout the missions, and the Sun cooperated by 

exhibiting unusual bursts of activity from time to time. 

The observing program for the second manned missions was changed somewhat as a result of previously 

unobserved phenomena revealed by the preliminary 

analysis of the first mission data. There is reason to 

believe that analyses of solar astronomy data will bring 

about a revision of our understanding of the Sun and 

its effects on Earth, for example, the supergranulation 

network and its role in coronal heating. The highly 

structured and transient nature observed in the corona 

calls into question previous theories concerning the 

relationships between the corona and events in the 

photosphere. Additionally, there is evidence of several 

fundamentally different flare mechanisms. 

Materials Processing in Space.-Yet another applications area, it promises improved materials for use on 

Earth. This is especially reflected in the formation of 

crystals used in the manufacturing of semiconductors. 

Several experiments in this area have yielded crystals 

of outstanding size and purity which are unheard of 

within the realm of our present ground based techniques. At the present time, the use of these semiconductors in power switching and control circuits, and in 

large integrated circuits for computer and communication systems, is severely limited by the small size and 

imperfections of single crystals. Larger and more perfect crystals could dramatically widen the use of semiconductors in many applications. 

Apollo/Soyut Test Project (ASTP) .-ASTP-a joint 

US.-U.S.S.R. project for the rendezvous and docking 

in Earth orbit of an Apollo spacecraft with a Soyuz 

spacecraft-is planned for July 1975. The mission 

would continue for up to 12 days with the docked portion scheduled to last 2 days. 

The ASTP was provided for in an agreement between the United States and the U.S.S.R. signed in 

Moscow in 1972, which also pledged both parties to 

cooperate in space science and applications. The proj- 
ect is an important step in international cooperation, 

a move toward developing an international space rescue capability, and a move toward future international space missions that could eliminate duplication 

and cut costs of space activities. 

In 1973, the design of the docking module and the 

docking system was essentially completed. All the hardware for the Apollof Soyuz flight mission continued on 

sch‘edule. The Command and Service Module, built 

for the Apollo program but not used, was modified 

slightly to adapt it for use in ASTP, and to accommodate the new docking module. 

The U.S.S.R. unit for use in the joint dynamic tests 

was delivered on schedule in September and joint testing of the two units began at the Johnson Space Center 

(JSC). A test program for selecting the final configuration of the U.S./U.S.S.R. interface seals for the 

docking systems was completed. 

ApollofSoyuz hardware was shown in a joint U.S. J 

U.S.S.R. exhibit at the Paris Air Show in May and 

June, and was ope of the most popular exhibits of 

the show. 

The U.S. and Russian flight crews were selected. For 

the United States the commander will be Brig. Gen. 

Thomas P. Stafford, an experienced and senior astronaut who participated in the flights of Gemini 6 and 

9 and Apollo 10. The command module pilot will be 

Vance D. Brand, the backup commander for the second and third manned Skylab mission. The docking 

module pilot will be Donald K. Slayton, one of the original seven astronauts selected by NASA in April 1959, 

and currently director of flight crew operations. Relieved of assignment as pilot of the Mercury 7 mission because of a heart condition, he was restored to full 

flight status in 1972. This will be his first space flight. 

Two prime crews were selected by the U.S.S.R. for 

the two space vehicles being prepared by that country. Alexei Leonov who flew on Voskhod 2 and was the 

first man to walk in space, and Valary Kubasov, who 

flew on Soyuz 6, were named as crew for the first prime 

space vehicle. The second prime vehicle will be 

manned by Anatole Filipchenko who flew on Soyuz 7, 

and Nikolai Rukavishnikov who flew on Soyuz 10. 

Initial familiarization of Soviet crews with Apollo 

systems took place in Houston in July. Similar familiarization of US. crews with Soyuz systems occurred in 

Moscow in November. 

In addition to fulfilling its primary purpose, ASTP 

offers another opportunity to conduct scientific experiments in space. 

Space Transportation System (STS) .-The STS consists of a reusable Space Shuttle and an upper stage 

Space Tug. The system is designed to provide economical and versatile space transportation for future decades to make accessible the full benefits of space. 

Space Shuttle.-The Space Shuttle, the major ele18 

ment of STS, will be a reusable manned space vehicle 

operated as a low-cost transportation system for a wide 

variety of space missions in low Earth orbit. It will 

deploy, service, and retrieve scientific and applications 

satellites of all types. Since it can carry payloads weighing up to 65,000 pounds, it will replace most of the 

expendable launch vehicles currently used. 

The Space Shuttle is needed to make space operations less complex and less costly. It will cut expenses 

because its major parts are reusable rather than expendable. In addition, it will be easier and more economical to prepare payloads for transportation on the 

Shuttle because of its volume and weight capacity and 

its interior space arrangements. The Shuttle will also 

make it possible to retrieve and repair orbiting spacecraft, lowering costs further and encouraging wider 

participation in space enterprises. 

During the past 3 fiscal years (1972-1974), Congress has authorized a total of $378.5 million for Space 

Shuttle research and development. As a result, the 

necessary technology was developed, and systems definition progressed into the design and development 

phases for the major program elements. 

The prime contractor for the design and development of the Orbiter and its integration with all other 

elements of the Shuttle system was chosen in 1972. This 

year the prime contractor selected most of the necessary subcontractors. 

In August 1973, a contractor was selected to design 

and develop the Space Shuttle external liquid propellant tank, which will be assembled at the NASA 

Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans. 

Spacelab.-Recognizing the importance of the 

Shuttle, the European Space Research Organization 

(ESRO) has elected to fund and develop a pressurized 

manned laboratory module and/or pallet with easy 

user access for a wide variety of orbital research applications during the Shuttle “sortie” missions. Sortie missions are those where the experiment remains with the 

Shuttle and returns to Earth with it. These missions 

may last from 7 to 30 days. 

The Spacelab is a key element in the Shuttle-oriented Space Transportation System. It provides a versatile capability for accommodating laboratory and 

observatory facilities to be carried on the Space Shuttle 

at the lowest practical investment in both developmental and operating costs. Furthermore, it reduces 

significantly both the time and cost required for space 

transportation. Combinations of the several Spacelab 

elements which meet specific requirements of individual missions will be transported to and from orbit in the 

Shuttle cargo bay and will be attached to, and supported by, the Shuttle orbiter throughout missions lasting up to 30 days. 

Identified in the United States as ‘Sortie Lab” during the conceptual phases, it assumed the European 
designation “Spacelab” when the final commitments 

were made in September. At that time, it was agreed 

that ESRO, representing nine European countries, will 

design and build the Spacelab hardware to U.S. requirements to satisfy the needs of both European and 

American users. The agreement calls for ESRO to design, develop, manufacture, and deliver one Spacelab 

engineering model and one flight unit to the United 

States on a schedule related to Shuttle program requirements. NASA, in turn, will procure all subsequent 

Spacelab flight hardware from Europe. 

The major effort of the two European prime contractors was devoted to finalizing conceptual designs 

and estimating the costs. When it was determined that 

the cost would be within previously established budgetary limitations, steps were taken to select a concept 

and a single prime contractor. June 1974 was set as 

the deadline for this activity, and at that time final 

design and development will begin. 

Space Tug.-The Shuttle upper stage, or Space 

Tug, is a proposed high energy unmanned propulsive 

stage used to extend the operating regime of the Space 

Shuttle from low Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit 

and beyond. The Tug and its payload would be carried 

into low Earth orbit in the Shuttle orbiter bay. The 

Tug would then be operated to place the payload into 

polar, intermediate inclination, or geosynchronous 

orbit, or for transplanetary injection of planetary 

spacecraft. Approximately half the payloads anticipated for the 1980’s require propulsion in addition to 

that provided by the Space Shuttle. NASA is, therefore, intensively studying the Space Tug as an integral 

part of the space transportation system. 

During 1973, NASA and the Department of Defense jointly conducted Tug system studies of new 

stages using cryogenic and Earth storable fuels, and of 

modifications of existing stages for reuse. The system 

analyses were complemented by NASA engine studies 

of new engine designs and modifications of existing 

engines. A data base for the Space Tug program assessment activity conducted later in the year was derived 

from the earlier studies. Tentative agreement was 

reached for DOD to develop an Initial Upper Stage 

(IUS) with the full capability Tug to be developed 

later. The IUS will be a modification of an existing 

stage and without a payload retrieval capability. The 

agreement makes two things possible : development of 

upper stage propulsion for initial Shuttle operations ; 

consequent deferral of a decision to begin development 

of a more expensive full capability Tug. 

Mission and Payload Integration.-This function 

became a leading NASA planning activity during 1973. 

The Mission and Payload Integration Office (MPIO) 

assumed responsibility for coordinating the definition 

of shuttle missions and the other Space Transportation 

System (STS) elements, and assuring that all users and 

potential users were coordinating their efforts. 

In preparing the Mission Model, NASA asked Shuttle users to project their requirements almost a decade 

ahead. The users are in the most innovative and rapidly changing fields that exist; the Mission Model 

should, therefore, be expected to change considerably 

as the program unfolds. However, the following rough 

estimates are useful for planning purposes. 

MPIO activity focused mainly on the continuing 

development and updating of the Payload and Flight 

Summaries that comprise the NASA Mission Model. 

The 1973 mission model analysis indicated approximately 986 payloads for the years 1980-1991, based on 

the estimated requirements of prospective users of the 

STS. Roughly two-thirds of the payloads were for civil 

and military applications, the balance for science and 

exploration. The analysis determined that about 725 

Shuttle flights would be required to fly these payloads. 

The economic comparison between the cost of the STS 

to fly these payloads and the cost of expendable systems 

to fly equivalent payloads indicated substantial savings in favor of the Shuttle. 

Space Biology and Medicine.-U.S.l U.S.S.R. Cooperation.-The joint working group of the U.S.S.R. 

Academy of Sciences and NASA held its third meeting 

on space biology and medicine early in the year and 

the fourth meeting in Houston late in the year. 

The working group exchanged information on experiences in manned space flight, particularly prelidnary biomedical results of the Apollo 17 mission, 

Skylabs 2 and 3, Soviet experimental research in the 

modeling of weightlessness and results of Soyuz 12. 

Before the meetings, written information was exchanged in several areas in order to develop common 

procedures for pre- and postflight examination of 

astronauts and cosmonauts. 

During the meeting, the U.S. delegation visited several medical research facilities and the Gagarin Center 

for Cosmonaut Training, Star City, where the group 

examined spacecraft trainers, medical equipment used 

in pre- and post-flight training and evaluation of cosmonauts, and medical intrumentation of the type on the 

Salyut spacecraft. 

Advanced Bioinstrumentation.-Because the effects 

of gravity profoundly alter the distribution of blood and 

gases in the lungs, many problems of basic pulmonary 

physiology can be studied in the weightless state, some 

much more effectively under zero gravity than under 

normal gravitation. One of the dividends of space 

flights in the Shuttle will be the opportunity to carry 

out such experiments. In preparation for such research, a new system for the thorough and rapid evaluation of pulmonary function was developed and placed 

under test in a hospital studying patients with chronic 

pulmonary disease. 

19 
Integrated Medical and Behavorial Laboratory 

Measurement System (IMBLMS) .-Work on developing a capability to provide clinical medical care and 

support to future space crews continued through 1973. 

It is a form of telemedicine. 

Shuttle missions of the 1980’s will require routine 

and emergency medical care for larger and more diverse space crews. They will also present other life 

sciences requirements in the area of medical research. 

Previous work on the IMBLMS was concentrated 

on developing an inflight medical and behavioral research capability. NASA has now shifted emphasis to 

the development of an onboard clinical capability, because of the obvious importance of inflight health 

maintenance. In view of the similarities between pmviding health care to crews in space and to a remote 

population on Earth, NASA developed a plan to verify 

the requirements for a space health care delivery system by building and testing a ground based analog of 

it. The test will also provide information and procedures which could improve health care and medical 

services to remote areas on Earth. 

NASA contracted for the design, assembly, and operational test of such a ground-based health care system in collaboration with the Department of Health, 

Education and Welfare (HEW). The latter assumed 

responsibility for site selection and will provide for a 

medical evaluation of the ground system. In April, the 

Health Services and Mental Health Administration 

of HEW selected the Papago Indian Reservation near 

Tucson, Arizona, as the site for the IMBLMS field 

test to begin early in 1975. 

A ground medical data base and the expertise of 

a large hospital are available to assist by telecommunications in the diagnosis and care of remote patients. 

The system makes optimum use of advanced medical 

instrumentation, TV, voice and data communications, 

and modern data processing techniques. With these 

aids, a specially trained paramedical crewman may 

examine a patient, transmit medical information to a 

physician in a control center miles away, and consult 

with the physician who may diagnose the problem and 

prescribe treatment. 

Advanced Programs.-Advanced Studies are used to 

probe into the future, to seek out new projects which 

should be considered by NASA, and to study them 

in sufficient depth to see whether they are feasible 

and properly related to National Objectives. 

During 1973, the major study effort was expended 

on Space Tug conceptualization. The Space Tug is 

the reusable upper stage carried into low Earth orbit 

by the Space Shuttle. Other studies were completed 

of the interfaces between the Space Shuttle, the Space 

Tug, and a representative group of potential future 

payloads. 

20 

During the last half of this year, the fiscal year 1974 

studies program was begun; this program will shift 

emphasis from the Space Tug and Shuttle interfaces 

to future program planning, improvements in the effectiveness and use of the Space Transportation System, and new mission and systems concepts. 

The results of Advanced Development from previous 

years has benefited the Space Shuttle program in 1973. 

In many cases, the selection of materials, subsystems, 

and systems for the Shuttle program was based on data 

from the Advanced Development technology effort. 

It is characteristic of such technology development 

programs that the application of results is not guaranteed and generally occurs after the lapse of some 

time. The high payoff that has occurred in the Shuttle 

should repeat itself with the Advanced Development 

efforts currently underway when development of the 

full capability Tug is initiated. 

New work initiated this year concentrated on the 

requirements of the Space Tug, including tasks on new 

communication systems, inflatable thermal radiators, 

attitude control propulsion, meteoroid protection systems and thin metal structures. Program planning for 

fiscal year 1974 was being redirected to emphasize 

technology work applicable to any of several new projects being considered to follow the Shuttle/Tug/Spacelab program. 

Space Science 

Man has always been curious about himself and the 

unknown universe that surrounds him. He has sought 

answers to such questions as is there life elsewhere, 

how did the Earth evolve, what is the nature of the 

solar system, and what are the energy processes of the 

Sun and the stars. However, the study of space is more 

than an attempt to satisfy man’s curiosity; it is through 

the knowledge gained by answering these and related 

questions that he can derive answers to existence here 

on Earth. A better understanding of the solar system 

and the universe helps us to develop new physical principles that can be applied to our terrestrial activities. 

Dynamics and relativity are two of the sciences that 

emerged largely from the study of celestial objects. The 

resultant capability to analyze and predict motion and 

to pioneer atomic power have been major factors in 

achieving today’s civilization and providing energy for 

tomorrow. 

However, space science achieves more than understanding. Its pursuit provides impetus to breakthroughs 

in technology needed to solve the difficult task of space 

exploration. Not only has Pioneer 10’s voyage to Jupiter unveiled that planet, but it also is a remarkable 

demonstration of the technical progress achieved in the 

reliability and capability of its systems. Successful functioning of sensors, propulsion, computers and other 

equipment, and reliable communications and control 

over a distance of over half a billion miles after a 2- 
year voyage through the rigors of space, is an impressive achievement indeed. Further, space provides a 

unique opportunity not only to answer questions about 

distant objects, but to directly observe and study the 

Earth, its atmosphere, its fields, and its interaction with 

the Sun and the Moon in a way that was never available before. The resultant understanding of the Earth 

from direct observation and from information gained 

from the “galactic laboratory” are now beginning to 

provide us a greatly improved understanding of the 

Earth’s dynamics, its composition, its atmospheric processes and resultant weather, and its energy balance. 

But, more than that, it tells us something about ourselves and our place in the universe. 

Planetary Exploration.-The basic questions that 

man has about the solar system-whether life exists 

elsewhere in it, how the system originated and evolved, 

and what the other planets are like-are very old and 

very broad. Until about 10 years ago, knowledge of 

the solar system was limited to an understanding of 

its mechanical characteristics, such as the location and 

the orbits of the major objects in it. For further progress 

we badly need data on the chemistry, physics, age, and 

evolutionary history of other bodies in the solar system. 

Our ability to operate and explore in space has now 

opened the door to obtaining this type of data. But 

the answers to these questions go beyond satisfying 

man’s basic curiosity. 

Better knowledge of the formation and composition 

of other planets helps us understand the processes that 

affect the composition and mineral properties of our 

own. Improved understanding of the atmospheres of 

other planets such as Mars and Venus helps us discover 

and test out theories about the Earth’s atmosphere. For 

example, three factors that have a major influence on 

the complex circulatory patterns of the Earth‘s atmosphere are the rotation of the Earth, evaporation of 

water vapor from the massive oceans, and clouds in the 

skies that lead to uneven heating and cooling of the 

surface and atmosphere. Venus and Mars span the 

range of radiation and convection of the Earth‘s atmosphere, but don’t have all the Earth‘s complexities. Study 

of the “simpler” atmospheric systems on Mars and 

Venus contributes to providing the urgently needed 

insight into the basic causes which control our atmospheric circulation and generate the major weather systems on Earth. 

Once we grasp these causes, we can then hope to 

understand the long-range effects of pollution, to 

make reliable long-term weather forecasts, to moderate severe weather systems, and possibly to modify 

climate. Thus, reaching out to the planets is reaching 

out for understanding that could help provide solutions to tomorrow’s problems here on Earth. Our current energy crisis is in part due to having lived too 

much for the present, while selling short the future. 

However, that future is now upon us. 

In this section we report the progress made in 1973 

toward learning more about our solar system. 

Exploration of Jupiter.-The most exciting planetary exploration of 1973 was the Pioneer 10 flyby of the 

gigantic planet Jupiter in an effort to begin to unravel 

its major mysteries: why Jupiter radiates 2% times 

the heat it receives from the Sun, what is its moving 

giant red spot that is larger than the Earth, the character of its powerful magnetic field, and the nature 

of its brilliantly hued atmosphere. 

Exploration of the outer region of the solar system 

was initiated with the launch of Pioneer 10 in March 

1972 and continued with Pioneer 11, launched in 

April 1973. Both spacecraft carry scientific instruments 

to investigate Jupiter’s magnetic fields, radiation belts, 

and the characteristics of its massive, turbulent atmosphere. Both are also studying for the first time the 

nature of the asteroid belt and the dynamics of the 

solar wind in the regions out beyond the orbit of 

Mars. Both Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 have thus 

far functioned satisfactorily. They have already extended the knowledge of the interplanetary environment obtained from earlier Pioneer and Mariner 

spacecraft, with Pioneer 11 adding to the data from 

Pioneer 10 on the nature of the smaller particles in 

the asteroid belt. The data indicate a lesser number 

of particles than anticipated. The information has improved our operational capability for future long-duration flights to the outer planets. 

Pioneer 10 flew by Jupiter on December 3 at a distance of 131,400 kilometers (81,000 miles) above the 

clouds, a distance chosen to provide the best overall 

initial data on Jupiter. The Pioneer 10 data are expected to greatly improve the understanding of the 

Jovian environment, and have provided the basis for 

selection of the targeting point for the Pioneer 11 

flyby in December 1974. 

Outer Planets Mission.-The Mariner Jupiter/ 

Saturn 1977 (MJS ’77) Project, approved in 1973 as 

part of the outer planets exploration program, will 

conduct comparative studies of the Jupiter and Saturn 

planetary systems and investigate the interplanetary 

medium between Earth and Saturn. 

The mission calls for two launches in 1977, within 

a span of 30 days, of identical spacecraft on flyby 

trajectories that will use the gravity assist swingby technique at Jupiter to reach Saturn. The spacecraft will 

encounter Jupiter about 1 years after launch and 

Saturn about 3% to 4 years after launch. 

During 1973 the science experiments were defined 

in detail, their interfaces with the mission and spacecraft were identified, and a major review and confirmation of the mission scope and science payload was 

completed. Mission analysis and minor spacecraft SYS21 
tem design modifications were carried out to insure 

compatibility of the mission and the spacecraft with 

the science experiments and objectives. The preliminary inission and systems design review was completed 

on schedule. In addition, procurement was started for 

Viking Orbiter subsystems which can be used on MJS 

and for those new spacecraft subsystems and science instruments requiring long lead times for development. 

Viking Mars Mission.-The Viking project is designed to begin a new phase of Mars exploration in 

1976 when two Viking landers reach its surface and 

begin their detailed scientific investigations. Emphasis 

will be placed on obtaining data relevant to the search 

for life on Mars and information that will help US 

understand the evolution of Mars and the solar 

system. 

During 1973, work on the Orbiter and Lander 

Systems progressed with completion of critical design 

reviews ; full scale spacecraft thermal and structural 

tests; integrated functional test of the Lander subsystems; initiation of Proof Test Lander assembly; and 

start of flight subsystem fabrication. 

Launch and Flight Operations System progress included organization and member selection for the 

flight operations team; development of configuration 

for the flight operations facilities ; start of computer 

programs; and ne= completion of the KSC spacecraft 

assembly, test, and launch facilities. Plans were made 

for the January 1974 launch of a structural model of 

the Viking spacecraft from KSC on a Titan/Centaur 

launch vehicle. 

At year end, the Viking program continued essentially on schedule with only two revisions: a 2 month 

delay in the start of the Lander Proof Test due to late 

subsystem deliveries and a change in the training of 

personnel for planetary operations. Training was rescheduled to early 1976 to more effectively utilize the 

scientists and operations team during the period when 

the spacecraft is in transit to Mars. The project continues to display high competence in overcoming technical problems in order to maintain schedule. 

Mariner VenuslMercury 1973.-The MVM 1973 

spacecraft was launched from Cape Kennedy on November 3 using an Atlas-Centaur D1A launch vehicle. 

It constitutes the first mission to Mercury. The short 

trip time of 5 months to Mercury is in sharp contrast to 

the 2 year Jupiter missions. 

The mission pIan calls for a 94-day transit time to 

Venus with arrival at closest approach on February 5, 

1974. The fly-by of Venus, at an altitude of about 5,300 

km (3,300 miles), provides a gravity assist to the spacecraft, changing its speed and deflecting its trajectory 

to produce a Mercury fly-by, at an encounter distance 

of about 1,000 km (621 miles), on March 29,1974. 

Although the primary objective of the MVM 1973 

program is the exploration of Venus and Mercury, sev22 

era1 other scientific excursions are planned while the 

spacecraft is enroute. The science mission includes a 

series of televised Earth-Moon mosaics, an ultraviolet 

spectrometer experiment to map the outer regions of 

the Earth’s geocorona, two magnetometers continuously monitoring the structure and discontinuities of 

the interplanetary medium, a charged particle telescope gathering solar and galactic cosmic ray spectra, 

and a plasma science experiment investigating solar 

plasma properties between 1.0 and 0.4 Earth-Sun 

distances. 

Making Planetary Exploration More Economical.- 

Studies to define the options available for the exploration of the solar system emphasized commonality of 

spacecraft design from mission to mission and a meaningful evolution of technology as mission objectives 

increase in complexity and performance. The thrust 

of these studies is to define the extent to which spacecraft components, such as electrical power and guidance and communications systems, developed for earlier 

missions can be utilized on subsequent (or future) interplanetary spacecraft. 

Conceptual design studies for low cost multiple 

probes and orbiter missions to Venus were completed 

in June. Work continued on the supporting technology 

for critical subsystems for these and subsequent planetary missions. 

Other work, based on the technology developed for 

the Venus atmospheric probes, was concerned with development of technology for future missions to the outer 

planets. 

TO improve understanding of the cost impact of future advanced mission technology requirements, the 

common cost drivers in past programs and ways of 

projecting them for future missions are being studied. 

Support Studies for Future Missions.-In support 

of exploring the inner planets, studies were made of the 

Pioneer Venus probe and orbiter missions and a Venus 

orbiting imaging radar mission. Preliminary studies 

were conducted for post-Viking 1975 missions to Mars, 

a mission to return a Mars surface sample to Earth, 

cometary missions to Grigg-Skjellerup and Encke, and 

for the outer planets a mission to oibit Jupiter and 

atmospheric entry probe missions to Saturn and Uranus. 

Launch vehicle options available for future planetary 

missions, including the Shuttle, were analyzed, and 

work is continuing to define the spacecraft interfaces 

with the Shuttle and to determine how the Shuttle 

payload and volume capability may be used for future 

planetary missions. 

Astronomy.-Looking into the heavens, we see billions 

of stars in every stage of birth, evolution, and demise. 

These observations enable us to develop theories of 

evolution for the stars and explanations for their physical phenomena. The advent of the space age which 
makes possible the use of instrumentation in space for 

making unique and better observations will increase 

our understanding and may also provide new physical 

concepts that are useful to us on Earth from both a scientific and a practical viewpoint. 

It is with these thoughts in mind that the following 

goals have been established for investigating and understanding the universe : 

To understand the origin and continuing evolution of the cosmic environment, by observing and 

intepreting the basic physical processes in our solar 

system, the stars, the galaxies, and the universe. 

To increase our knowledge of the fundamental 

laws and principles of physics, particularly energy, that govern observed cosmic phenomena. 

To utilize the understanding of the universe and 

the phenomena occurring in it for the benefit of 

mankind. 

The difficult problems in astronomy have acted to 

stimulate human thought and progress. Questions 

about the properties and nature of light, and about 

space and its relation to time sparked the development 

of spectroscopy, quantum mechanics, and relativity. 

Questions regarding the source of solar energy led to 

the development ol theories on nuclear reactions. Many 

aspects of these theories have been summarized by the 

now famous Einstein equation E = mc2. This basic understanding about the nature of matter had eminently 

practical results-nuclear power. Spectroscopic analysis 

as a tool has been used to impmve almost all the substances we use. Even an instrument as practical as the 

laser is, to a large extent, based on theories and expermients done in support and as part of astronomical 

research. 

To help answer the questions posed, optical telescopes on Earth have long been used to scan the 

heavens. However, they are limited to receiving radiation that has been filtered by our atmosphere. TO 

obtain “clean” radiation data in a broader spectrum, 

it is necessary to rise above the Earth‘s atmosphere. 

One of the most obvious and effective ways to gather 

the necessary information is to put an observatory into 

orbit above the Earth‘s atmosphere. As explained 

below, several already have been launched and others 

are being planned. 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatories.-OAO-3 

Copernicus, launched in August 1972, continued to 

obtain scientific data. In its first year, OAO-3 made 

more than 4,700 observations of 141 unique celestial 

objects with the Princeton University experiment, and 

more than 550 observations of 193 celestial objects 

with the University College London X-ray experiment. 

Princeton astronomers indirectly determined the 

density of the universe to be lower in value than proposed by some cosmologists. The finding, which implies that there is little undiscovered matter in the universe, is based on a measurement of the relative abundance of deuterium in interstellar gas and assumes the 

validity of the “big bang” origin of the universe. 

The University College London experiment observed extended X-ray sources identified with the 

cluster of galaxies within the Constellation Perseus. 

The nature of the X-ray emission is still unknown but 

a soft source was identified within the exploding Seyfert galaxy, NGC 1275. It is probable that some enormous upheavals are taking place in its nucleus, and 

this may be affecting the whole Perseus cluster of 

galaxies. 

OAO-2 operation was terminated in February 1972 

when the experiment failed after 50 months. It produced over 14,000 observations with the University of 

Wisconsin experiment and over 3,500 with the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory experiment. Scientific results reported this year include: detection of 

a hydrogen cloud a million miles in diameter around a 

comet; observations that may clarify knowledge of a 

group of stars with apparently anomalous elements and 

enormous magnetic fields; and new insights into the 

structure and composition of the Earth’s upper atmosphere. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) .- 

The development of HEAO missions to investigate 

celectial X-ray, gamma-ray and cosmic-ray phenomena 

continued. Subsystems for these missions would use 

about 80 percent of flight proven hardware design from 

other programs. Early launches will be made by an unmanned expendable Atlas-Centaur vehicle. These payloads are designed to be retrievable by the Space 

Shuttle. Ultimately, larger payloads will be launched 

and retrieved by the Space Shuttle. 

The Small Astronomical Satellite.-SAS-A, Explorer 42 (launched in 1970) continued to provide data 

on selected binary star system X-ray sources which it 

discovered. Since that discovery, scientists have focused 

attention on this area and are evaluating previously obtained data in more detail. 

The initial scientific results from SAS-B, Explorer 

48 (launched in November 1972) were presented this 

year. One of the major results from SAS-B was the 

observation of a diffuse cosmic gamma radiation background, which, when combined with Iower energy 

gamma ray observations taken QII Apollo 15, suggests 

that the gamma rays were produced continuously over 

the history of our universe, and, therefore, are a major 

factor in establishing the energy mechanisms responsible for the creation of the universe. Explorer 48 functioned successfully until June 1973, when the failure 

of a power supply ended its useful life. 
The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) .-A 

joint NASA-ESRO project was initiated this year. It 

will place a 45-cm astronomical telescope into geosynchronous orbit and operate it as an international observing facility. The satellite, planned for launch in 

1977, will be equipped with TV cameras capable of recording ultraviolet spectra from 1200 to 3200A. Astronomers will operate the orbiting telescope from 

ground control centers in the United States and Europe. An international group of astronomers W~S 

formed to guide the development and postlaunch operations. Eighty proposals for experiments were received and reviewed under NASA auspices; 60 were! 

accepted for the first 6 months of operation. A similar 

number were received and reviewed by ESRO and the 

United Kingdom Science Research Council. 

Large Space Telescopes (UT) .-The concept of 

the LST calls for a three-meter (approximately 10’ 

diameter) telescope orbiting the Earth and operating at 

very near the diffraction limit; it would make possible 

astronomical observations deeper into space and with 

more detail than has ever been possible. In 1973, NASA 

announced an opportunity for participation in the 

definition of instruments for the LST. One hundred 

and twenty proposals were received and evaluated, and 

36 were accepted. Six teams were formed and started 

work to define astronomical instrument requirements 

in the following areas: high and low resolution spectrographs, imaging optics, infrared devices, astrometry, 

data handling, and operations. 

The LST will be designed like ground-based telescopes to use a number of different scientific instruments at its focal plane. This general purpose characteristic will permit the LST to be used effectively as a 

national facility, capable of supporting worldwide astronomical needs of an international user community. 

Two prime contractors and their subcontractors 

started the definition phase of the optical telescope 

assembly. Work on the conceptual design of the spacecraft portion of the LST was under way as an in-house 

effort at MSFC. 

Radio Astronomy Explorer (RAE-B) .-Explorer 49 

was launched in June and placed into lunar orbit. 

The RAE series is designed to obtain low frequency 

radio data from solar, planetary, and galactic sources 

otherwise unobtainable from ground-based radio astronomy telescopes. Due to its lunar orbit, Explorer 

49 is providing better data than its predecessor, Explorer 38, since the Moon shields it from terrestrial 

radio interference. It observed solar bursts and galactic 

radio sources near the galactic plane and the OrionGum nebulae complex region. 

Other Astronomy Satellites.-In the international 

area, work also continued on the Netherlands ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy satellite and on UK-5, a si24 

. 

entific UK/U.S. satellite to make stellar X-ray observations (see below). 

Sun-Earth Relationships.-Virtually all the energy 

received by the Earth or existing on the Earth, including petroleum, had its origin in the Sun. The Sun controls the behavior of our atmosphere and provides all 

the energy and light necessary to support life on Earth. 

In addition to being the ultimate source of our 

energy the Sun has other extremely important shortterm effects on our environment. The Earth’s magnetic field is under continuous bombardment by a 

steady stream of supersonic charged particles from the 

Sun-the solar wind-which cause our Earth to be engulfed in a giant plasma bubble in space, called the 

magnetosphere. Through two special direct access 

paths in this bubble, the solar wind particles are normally able to strike the Earth’s upper atmosphere and 

produce the two brilliant northern and southern 

auroral ovals. However, major changes in solar wind 

intensity and frequently-occurring solar flares also can 

often produce major communications blackouts, and 

occasional major breakdowns in electric power plants. 

Thus, the interaction of the solar wind on the ionosphere has very important fundamental effects on our 

environment. 

There have been some recent major advances in our 

understanding of the mechanisms by which solar storms 

and flares affect our own climate. For example, it has 

been found that low pressure troughs over the North 

Pacific are normally produced immediately after geomagnetic disturbances caused by solar flares. Rainfall 

in Los Angeles has been shown to correlate directly 

with the 27-day solar rotation period. Continuation of 

these and other studies are necessary for the science of 

meteorology to be wedded ultimately to the science of 

magnetospheric and solar physics. 

Study of the Sun, its interaction with the Earth‘s atmosphere, and its direct effect on our own lives, is 

therefore one of the most important endeavors of 

mankind. In this section, we discuss the 1973 space 

effort in this vital area. 

Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) .-The ATM deployed aboard Skylab in May 1973, is the first of a new 

“second generation” of space observatories, where the 

skill of an on-board manned observer is added to the 

largest observatory ever placed in orbit. The great 

volume of high-quality solar observations obtained with 

ATM exceeded the most optimistic predictions of the 

experimenters. They have already acquired new insights into the structure of the Sun’s atmosphere and 

seen possible implications for atmospheric heating of 

the Sun by mechanical waves. Several flares were observed in a large number of different wavelengths, and 

at least one very spectacular eruptive prominence .(a 

huge burst of solar material) was recorded in progress. 
ATM also permitted for the first time a study of the 

nature of coronal holes discovered with OSO’s 6 and 

7. The solar wind, previously thought to constitute a 

continuous expansion of the hot outermost layer of the 

solar atmosphere into space, now appears to be originating primarily-perhaps exclusively-in coronal 

holes. The magnetic field associated with the solar wind 

appears to have a significant effect on the Earth‘s 

weather. 

The activities of the scientist-astronauts support 

the belief that many important scientific tasks in space 

can best be accomplished when a carefully trained 

observer is at the instrument itself. 

Orbiting Solar Observatories.--OSO-7, launched in 

September 197 1, added observations supporting ATM 

experiments on solar active and quiet regions during 

1973. It also observed surges of gas ejected from the 

inner corona with speeds approaching 1000 km/sec. 

In quiet Sun regions, OSO-7 observed oscillations of a 

5-minute periodicity, formerly observed only at lower 

heights. OSO-7 detected these in the upper transition 

region and low corona. This could be evidence of the 

long sought “heating mode” which is responsible for 

the high temperatures in the corona. 

Development of the last spacecraft in the series, 

OSO-I, continued. This spacecraft will offer the best 

combination of high spectral, angular and time resolution in many important UV and EUV lines. 

Explorers and International Satellites.-The final 

spacecraft in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 

series, IMP-J or Explorer 50, was launched on October 25, 1973. This spacecraft, like its companion IMPH-Explorer 47, which was launched the previous 

year, is designed to investigate the solar wind, the 

Earth’s magnetic tail, and solar and galactic cosmic 

rays near the Earth, but outside the Earth‘s magnetic 

field. Both spacecraft are in similar orbits-wide circular arcs that never come closer to the earth than 

30 Earth radii, nor farther away than 40. Initially they 

were placed nearly 180” apart, so that one would 

always be in the solar wind while the other would 

usually be in the geomagnetic tail. However, as they 

fall out of this synchronism and one begins to overlap 

the other, there will ,be times when they will be very 

close together in space and thus will be able to perform 

detailed studies separating time variations from space 

variations in the local plasma and fields. Thus, they will 

act as a prelude to the International Magnetosphere 

Explorer (IME) program, which is a cooperative venture between NASA and the European Space Research 

Organization (ESRO) . The IME will consist of three 

spacecraft: a mother/daughter pair to be launched 

in 1977 into a highly-elliptical orbit about the Earth to 

study detailed time-space variations; and a heliocentric spacecraft, to be launched in 1978, to one of the 

libration points between the Sun and the Earth, to 

study the solar wind input to the magnetosphere. 

Helios, a program to send spacecraft in 1974 and 

1975 closer to the Sun than ever before, is a cooperative United States-Federal Republic of Germany endeavor. Its purpose is to investigate the properties and 

processes in interplanetary space near the Sun (the 

region to within about 0.3 of the distance from the 

Sun to the Earth) so as to provide a better understanding of how the Sun affects the Earth. The United 

States will launch the spacecraft, and provide three 

scientific experiments, tracking and data acquisition 

facilities and personnel, and technical assistance in 

testing the spacecraft, and in reviewing the spacecraft 

design and the spacecraft test program. Germany will 

design, develop, and fabricate the spacecraft and provide seven experiments. 

This year, a substantial test phase was completed on 

the spacecraft engineering model ; subsystem qualification, assembly, and testing of the prototype spacecraft 

were underway, and integration was underway on the 

first flight spacecraft. 

Exploring Earth’s Upper Atmosphere.-A good deal 

of progress has been made in exploring and surveying 

the region above about 250 kilometers (150 miles) with 

the Atmosphere Explorer and Air Density Explorer 

spacecraft. However, an important gap exists in the 

125 to 250 kilometer (75 to 150 mile) region, where 

most of the solar ultra-violet energy is absorbed and 

where, consequently, most of the chemical and energy 

conversion processes occur that govern the structure 

of the upper atmosphere and may affect weather processes. Three Atmosphere Explorer spacecraft ( AE C, 

D & E) are currently being constructed to investigate 

systematically this lower region. This program is 

NASA’s primary effort to investigate the largely unexplored region of the lower thermosphere. This yeax 

the integration and test phase of the AE-C mission was 

completed, and the spacecraft was succesfully launched 

in December. 

Study of the Moon.-Study of the Moon provides insight into the evolution of the Earth and therefore its 

structure and its mineral composition. If one looks at 

the 4.6 billion years of lunar history, one discovers that 

nearly everything of major interest happened in the 

first billion-and-a-half years. By contrast, we know that 

many major events have occurred on Earth since that 

time. The changing of the surface of the Earth has 

done much to dbscure its past. The Moon’s surface lies 

open to reveal its antiquity. Apollo has contributed 

substantially toward unraveling its mysteries. 

As a result of the Apollo lunar studies, scientists 

learned that the Moon is asymmetrical in chemical 

composition, as well as in shape, surface topography, 

and mass distribution; and it is also much more com25 
plex than most scientists had expected before Apollo 11. 

When the complexity is understood, the results should 

greatly extend our comprehension of the processes that 

have formed the Moon, the Earth, and the solar system. Results to date indicate the following: 

The Moon was formed 4.6 billion years ago at the 

sme time as the Earth and the rest of the solar system. 

Chemical discrepancies between Earth and lunar rocks 

indicate the improbability of the Moon’s ever having 

been a part of the Earth. While it could have been 

formed elsewhere in space and then captured by the 

Earth, the most logical supposition is that the Earth 

and Moon formed as near neighbors in space out of related clouds of gases and solid matter. 

For the first half billion years after its formation the 

Moon was subjected to intense massive impacts that 

formed the major mare basins. From 3 to 4 billion 

years ago, on the near side, these huge scooped-out 

basins were filled with a series of lava1 flows resulting in 

the extensive, dark, flat, and relatively smooth lava 

surfaces visible today from Earth even with the naked 

eye. 

This flooding stage did not occur on the far side except in several isolated locations; in this area we have 

large, rough scooped out basins with no filling at all. 

The last major episode of lunar volcanism apparently 

ceased 3 billion years ago, although meteoroid impacts 

continued with decreasing severity in size and number. 

As a result the lunar surface has remained relatively 

unchanged up to the present time and records 3 billion 

years of solar and galactic history. 

Data from the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment 

Packages ( ALSEPs) and lunar orbital instruments 

suggest that the Moon has a front-side major compositional discontinuity at 55 to 65 km (35 to 40 miles) 

depth, corresponding to the Earth’s crust. Below this, 

extending to a deprh of approximately 1,000 km (620 

miles), there appears to be a relatively uniform zone 

of solid rock that corresponds to the Earth’s mantle. 

Below this may be a core of about 700 km (430 miles) 

radius. Data from the ALSEP seismometers and magnetometers suggest that this material is near the melting point and may be molten or, at least, semiplastic. 

However, the overall lighter density of the Moon (3.3 

gm/cc) compared to that of the Earth (5.5 gm/cc), 

and the absence of a significant lunar magnetic field, 

appears to rule out, for the Moon, a large molten 

nickel-iron core of the type thought to exist in the 

Earrh. The periodic moonquakes that correspond to 

the monthly nearest and furthest Earth-Moon distances 

originate at depths from 800 to 1,100 km (500 to 680 

over a semimolten core in response to tidal stresses. 

miles) and may be generated by a solid crust slipping 

During the next decade, the lunar program will exploit the data from Apollo and automated lunar flights 

and add to it information from Earth-based telescopes 

26 

carrying on continued studies of the lunar near side. 

Major advances in our understanding of the origin and 

history of the Moon and the solar system are expected 

to result from these scientific efforts involving second 

and third generation analysis of individual experiments 

and returned lunar material and the broad synthesizing of the data from the many related experiments. 

Lunar Program.-In mid- 1973, following the successful conclusion of the Apollo program, responsibility for the scientific study and exploration of the 

Moon was assumed by the Office of Space Science. 

This responsibility includes: collecting and reducing 

data from the scientific stations still operating on the 

lunar surface; curating, distributing, analyzing, and 

carrying out varied research on lunar samples; operating the ground-based laser observations ranging on 

the lunar laser retroreflectors; preparing cartographic 

products to meet scientific requirements; conducting 

an active program in lunar data analysis and synthesis, 

and in supporting research and technology (SR&T) ; 

interfacing with the U.S.S.R. to augment cooperative 

agreements regarding lunar sciences studies and exploration; and conducting advanced studies to determine the priorities for lunar science problems and to 

specify the optimum flight systems for resolving them. 

During the Apollo program, lunar scientists generally limited their efforts to reduction and analyses of 

data produced by their individual specific experiments. 

The current lunar program calls for continued detailed 

analysis of individual experiments and the synthesizing 

of results to increase knowledge of the origin and 

history of the Moon. A concurrent major goal is to use 

lunar results to further our understanding of the origin 

and history of the entire solar system. Data on hand 

will be augmented by new data being received from the 

five still-operating ALSEPs and an active SR&T program. In response to a NASA request, scientists submitted nearly 100 proposals to initiate the synthesis 

effort. The prosposals were evaluated, and the most 

meritorious will receive support. 

Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (AL 

SEP) .-The ALSEPs placed on the lunar surface by 

Apollos 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 continued to operate and 

most of the individual instruments were still collecting 

valid scientific data. 

The seismometers in all the ALSEPs are capable of 

detecting moonquakes and meteoroid impacts on the 

lunar surface. They have collected data showing that 

the Moon is seismically relatively quiet compared to 

the Earth, and that moonquakes are of much smaller 

amplitudes than earthquakes. Many of the moonquakes 

that do occur are cyclic in nature, being synchronous 

with the bimonthly closest approach and furthest 

separation of the Moon from the Earth. Moonquakes 

occur at much greater depth in the Moon (800-1,000 
km) (500 to 620 miles) than earthquakes do on Earth, 

indicating a stronger, thicker crust for the Moon. Data 

from a large meteorite impact on the farside of the 

Moon suggested the presence of a small semimolten 

core below 1,000 km (620 miles). Data from magneb 

meters on the Apollo 12, 15, and 16 ALSEPs, corroborated that conclusion by indicating that the Moon 

at that depth may have a temperature of 1,200 

1,500’K (depending on composition) or close to the 

melting point. 

Another important investigation was the heat flow 

experiment on the Apollo 15 and 17 ALSEPs which 

indicated that the Moon loses heat at a significantly 

higher rate than estimated before Apollo. The source 

of this heat is believed to be a high concentration of 

radioactive elements within a relatively thin surface 

layer, about 300 km (200 miles) ; if the level of radioacivity was distributed uniformly throughout the Moon 

(rather than within a thin surface layer) the entire 

body would be molten. Rocks with the necessary high 

radioactivity were found at the Apollo 12 and 14 sites 

and appear to represent a period of early lunar melting. 

Such rocks were also mapped from orbit by the 

gamma-ray experiment on Apollo 15 and 16, and the 

radioactivity found to be variable, with the lunar farside being relatively low in radioactivity. Thus, the 

orbital gamma ray survey, which covered 20 percent of 

the lunar surface, apparently measured important variations in near surface radioactivity and may be the best 

available indicator of heat flow variations over the 

lunar surface. Its results agreed with data from other 

orbital sensors, confirming the value of “ground truth” 

data accumulated at each Apollo landing site in interpreting the broad coverage of the remote sensing instruments. 

Laser Ranging.-The three laser ranging retroflectors placed at the Apollo 11, 14, and 15 landing sites 

show no signs of degradation. The laser telescope at the 

McDonald Observatory in Texas continued routine 

ranging on the reflectors with an accuracy of 15 cm. 

During a short period, the telescope also acquired the 

French laser reflector mounted on the Lunokhod vehicle delivered to the lunar surface by the U.S.S.R.’s 

Luna 21 flight. The data obtained were used to refine 

the lunar orbit and to increase knowledge of the 

angular motions of the Moon around its center of mass. 

A second laser observatory was being constructed on 

Mt. Haleakala in Hawaii, and systems testing was 

scheduled to begin in 1974. It should achieve an accuracy of 2 to 3 cm because of improvements in laser 

technology. As part of its effort to establish an international laser ranging observation program, NASA 

loaned laser equipment to Australia which is being used 

in that country’s first observatory, now under construction. The United States also increased cooperation with 

France and Japan, both of which are building laser 

ranging facilities. 

Long-term data from this project will be applicable 

to studies of such earthly problems as polar motion 

changes, fluctuation in the rotation rate, and motions 

of the tectonic plates, all of which may be related to 

earthquakes. 

Lunar Sample Studies.-In this program, more than 

130 domestic principal investigators, 55 foreign investigators, and 700 coinvestigators received samples 

from the Apollo flights. The distributed samples were 

held to a very small fraction (about 5 percent) of the 

returned lunar material, so as to assure adequate sample material for later studies and future researches by 

new or improved techniques. A second storage site for 

some of the materials is being established at White 

Sands, New Mexico, to make sure that representative 

samples would be preserved in the event that those at 

the Johnson Space Center were lost or destroyed. 

Launch Vehicle Programs.-During 1973, the Scout 

launch vehicle system was used to successfully launch 

a DOD navigation satellite. In addition, launch vehicles were processed to support four missions planned 

for the first half of 1974: three international cooperative Explorer class satellites and a Small Explorer 

Satellite developed by the University of Iowa. 

The Delta continued to be the most used NASA 

launch vehicle. Total Delta launches reached 99 with 

the launch of TELESAT-B, Radio Astronomy Explorer-B, ITOS-E, ITOS-F, IMP-H, and Atmospheric Explorer-C. During the ITOS-E mission, the 

second stage hydraulic system failed, causing the loss 

of the mission. A NASA Board investigated the failure 

and recommended a number of corrective actions to 

preclude its recurrence. 

This year, the Delta program office completed arrangements with non-NASA users for Delta launches 

on a reimbursable basis. Such agreements were made 

with the USAF for the Skynet I1 program, with the 

French-German consortium for the Symphonie Program, with the European Space Research Organization for the COS-B mission, with TELESAT Canada 

for an additional launching of the ANIK satellite, and 

with several US. firms (Western Union, Comsat, the 

American Satellite Corp., RCA, and the CML Satellite 

Corp. ) for domestic communications satellites. These 

arrangements mean that the Delta vehicle will remain 

the most active U.S. space booster. 

The Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle successfully 

launched three missions this year: Pioneer 11, an interplanetary exploratory spacecraft; INTELSAT IV 

communications satellite, fifth in a series of eight 

launches which began in 1971 and will be completed in 

1974; and the Mariner Venus/Mercury 1973 spacecraft. 

27 528-338 0 - I4 - 3 
A new launch system, consisting of the NASA-developed high energy fueled Centaur upper stage and 

the USAF-developed Titan I11 booster, was being prepared for an early 1974 launch. This Titan I11 Centaur 

vehicle will be used to launch the Viking mission 

and other heavy payloads beyond the lifting capability 

of Atlas Centaur. 

Sounding Rockets, Balloons, and Aircraft.-A variety 

of means in addition to spacecraft are utilized, as appropriate and economical, to obtain needed space science data. The NASA Airborne Science Program, 

which uses aircraft to make scientific measurements not 

possible from Earth, made major progress in 1973 with 

the installation of a 91 cm (36-inch) infrared telescope in a C-141 aircraft. Preliminary data from the 

flight tests indicated that the operational characteristics of the telescope will be within design requirements. 

The NASA Sounding Rocket Program launched a 

total of 71 rockets from Wallops Station, VA; White 

Sands Missile Range, NM; Alaska; Ft. Churchill, Canada; Sweden, Australia and Norway. About 55 research 

teams from universities, private industry, NASA centers, other U.S. Federal Government agencies, and foreign governments were supported. Rockets played a 

major role in relation to the Skylab missions during 

1973. Four calibration rockets were flown from the 

White Sands Missile Range to measure any instrumental changes that might have occurred within the solar 

UV and XUV experiments aboard the Skylab since 

launch. Two more support rockets flew during the 

Skylab 2 and 3 missions to provide high resolution 

solar X-ray spectral data in conjunction with Skylab’s 

high spatial resolution X-ray photographs of the Sun. 

Three other White Sands Missile Range rockets carrying solar physics payloads obtained information on the 

Sun’s UV and X-ray emission for correlation with observations of solar phenomena made by Skylab, OSO, 

and ground-based observatories. 

Another project under the sounding rocket program 

is a rocket probe experiment, Gravity Probe-A. This 

experiment involves an extremely accurate hydrogen 

maser clock designed to measure more accurately the 

relativistic effects predicted by Einstein. During 1973, 

the design of Gravity Probe-A was completed, and development of the hardware began. 

In the NASA Ballon Program, 49 balloons were 

launched from Palestine, Texas; Ft. Churchill, Canada 

and Australia. The balloons ranged from 0.1 million 

cubic feet to 36 MCF; the most common size was 11 

MCF. A balloon launched from Ft. Churchill on 

July 15 landed in Siberia early in August. The scientific 

payload was successfully recovered and returned to the 

United States by the U.S.S.R.-an example of international cooperation. The scientific data acquired dur28 

ing the flight is being analyzed. Another significant development was the successful testing of “super pressure’’ balloons from the Australian launch site. These 

balloons provide the capability of long-duration Earth 

orbital missions, opening new horizons for astronomy 

and high energy astrophysics missions. 

Shuttle/Spacelab Mission Planning.-Conceptual 

planning of specific Shuttle missions using the Spacelab was carried out this year. Core instrumentation 

and its gross requirements were identified. In addition, 

the National Academy of Sciences held a NASA-sponsored Summer Study at Woods Hole, MA, to assess 

the usefulness of the various modes of the Shuttle for 

scientific research, to identify Shuttle and Spacelab 

characteristics desirable for the various disciplines, and 

to outline some typical Shuttle/Spacelab payloads and 

missions. 

International Satellites and Probes.-The importance 

of space science to satisfying man’s innate curiosity 

and providing solutions to his long-term needs and 

problems has caused other nations to both build their 

own satellites and to enter into cooperative space projects with NASA. Thus, an agreement was reached with 

Italy to fly another cooperative satellite, San Marco 

C-2 in 1974, and negotiations were underway with 

West Germany for an additional cooperative aeronomy 

satellite, AEROS-B, to be launched in 1974. Work 

also continued on several major cooperative projects, 

including Helios; a Netherlands ultraviolet and X-ray 

astronomy satellite ; INTASAT, a Spanish ionospheric 

beacon satellite; and UK-5, the fifth in a series of UK/ 

US scientific satellites. The last mentioned will conduct 

stellar X-ray observations. 

Aeronautics and Space Technology 

The NASA Aeronautics and Space Technology programs are designed to serve national needs through 

activities in three areas: building a research and technology base, conducting systems and design studies, 

and carrying out systems and experimental programs. 

Within these three areas, wide-ranging research efforts push forward the frontiers of knowledge in aeronautics, space and nuclear technologies, and nonaerospace civil applications. The resulting benefits are 

already affecting the daily activities of people in this 

country, and their impact will be felt to an even greater 

extent in the future. 

Activities within these areas usually take the form 

of many small programs, but they all fall into one of 

the following categories : air transportation system improvement, spacecraft subsystems improvement, providing technical support to the military, and applications of technology to nonaerospace systems. 
For example, one of the restrictions on the growth of 

civil aviation is noise, another is congestion at airports, a third is the environmental impact of aircraft. 

This year, NASA research efforts were directed to reducing aircraft noise by modifying engines and installing sound deadening materials, by changing flight 

procedures, and by developing very quiet engines for 

potential application to current and future aircraft. 

Work was also done on clean combustors to reduce the 

environmental impact of jet engine emissions, and 

studies were made of the effect of jet engine exhaust 

emissions at high altitudes. 

Congestion in the air and on the ground at major 

airports has become a major deterrent to efficient use 

of air transportation. NASA has engaged in a variety 

of research projects aimed at resolving this problem. 

Solutions under consideration include improved ways 

of controlling terminal air traffic, using STOL and 

VTOL aircraft that could land at alternate smaller 

airports. 

Another aspect of NASA research was to investigate 

ways of increasing the efficiency of aircraft. Approaches 

being studied include reducing drag, increasing aerodynamic efficiency, and reducing weight through the 

use of advanced materials. 

Aircraft safety continued to be an important part 

of NASA research. Studies were made of the role of 

human error in aircraft accidents, of runway visibility, 

of fire retardant materials and paints for use in aircraft structures, and of the hazards of the vortices trailing behind large jets. 

A large number of other projects from improving the 

ride quality of passenger aircraft to developing more 

efficient, more economical power and propulsion 

sources were under investigation. Research on spacecraft subsystems included work on new spacecraft 

propulsion systems, advances in solar and other space 

power systems, support of the Space Shuttle, study of 

atmospheric entry, and flight research of lifting bodies. 

Reducing Aircraft Noise and Environmental Impact.-One of the chief recommendations of the 1971 

Joint DOT-NASA Civil Aviation R. & D. (CARD) 

Policy Study was that, “Aircraft noise is the largest 

single impediment to the orderly growth of air commerce, and should be minimized by a vigorous industry/government noise-reduction program.” The CARD 

Policy Study also concluded that though jet aircraft 

create only about one-seventh the pollution per 

passenger-mile when compared with automobiles, nevertheless due to anticipated air traffic growth, 

“Pollution from aircraft engine exhaust emissions will 

require continued attention.” In response to these recommendations, NASA has vigorously pursued the following noise and pollution abatement programs. 

Reducing Engine Noise From Existing Transport 

Aircraft.-The JT8D refan program will demonstrate 

the technology necessary to reduce the noise footprint 

area of 727,737, and DC-9 aircraft by 75 percent. These 

aircraft, all powered by JT8D engines, account for over 

60 percent of the operations of the domestic fleet. 

The refan program was started in August 1972 with 

contracts to engine and airframe companies from Lewis 

Research Center, Cleveland. The changes required in 

the current JT8D engines to reduce the jet noise on 

takeoff and the fan noise on approach were determined, and the acoustic nacelles for the modified engines and the air-frame interfaces to accommodate 

them were studied. Construction was started of the 

modified engines which will be ground-tested in acoustic nacelles designed for 727 and DC-9 aircraft. 

Actual flight tests of a DC-9 aircraft with the modified engines and acoustic nacelles will be made early 

in 1975 to demonstrate the noise levels achievable by 

the engine refan approach. The resulting technology 

will be applicable to both existing and new production 

JT8D-powered aircraft. 

Human Acceptability of Quieter Engines.-A study 

was completed at Columbia University to evaluate the 

acceptability of quieter engines. The study was a combined field survey/laboratory investigation of three aircraft noise levels: (1) baseline (2) -6EPNdB, and 

(3) -12EPNdB. The field survey established the attitudes and opinions people had about aircraft operations and noise; subjects for the laboratory 

investigation were selected from those surveyed. In 

the laboratory, subjects were exposed to noise stimuli 

at the three different levels and at exposure rates 

comparable to those actually encountered under flight 

paths around John F. Kennedy International Airport. 

The findings of the study were that: the subjects 

were able to perceive the noise reduction ; the subjects 

reported a mean annoyance reduction of -0.7 per 

-6EPNdB of noise reduction on an annoyance scale 

of 0 to 4. Work continued at Columbia University 

in an effort to understand the relative difference between takeoff and landing sounds on annoyance 

judgments. 

Noise Reduction Flight Procedures.-A B-727-200 

aircraft equipped with special avionics to assist the 

pilot in making two-segment noise abatement 

approaches was flown in scheduled airline passenger 

service. It was routed to cities with airport guidance 

capabilities for two-segment approaches. In the 6- 

‘month evaluation ~ith over 500 two-segment approaches made by 38 different flight crews the procedure was demonstrated to be safe, to be capable 

of interfacing with the ATC environment, to cause no 

significant increase in pilot workload, and to have no 

effect on passenger comfort. Evaluation of another 

29 
aircraft model will occur in 1974. The two-segment 

approach reduced the 90 EPNdB approach noise 

footprint area of the B-727 by about 65 percent. 

Clean Combustor Program.-Contracts for the first 

phase of the clean combustor program for jet engines 

were awarded to two companies. During this phase, 

analytical and experimental research will be conducted 

on a variety of low emission combustor design concepts. The most promising concepts will be selected 

for further research at larger scale during the second 

phase of the program in 1974. The final phase in 

1975 will include the demonstration of a clean combustor in a modern full-scale high pressure ratio engine. 

The clean combustor program is expected to demonstrate that a practical combustor can be developed 

to meet the very low pollution emission levels established by the Environmental Protection Agency Emission Standards for 1979. 

Quiet, Clean Short-Haul Experimental Engine 

(QCSEE) .-A powered lift propulsion research program was initiated. The program objective is to design, build, and test experimental engines to 

demonstrate the technology needed for very quiet, 

very clean and efficient propulsion systems to be used 

in economically viable and environmentally acceptable 

powered lift short haul aircraft. Program goals include: 95 EPNdB noise footprint area of less than 

0.5 square mile; emission levels of the experimental 

clean combustor program; thrust to weight ratio of 

6 to 1 or better; high bypass ratio engine technology 

for under the wing and over the wing systems; composite, variable pitch, thrust reversing, low pressure 

ratio fans with gear reduction drive for low tip speed. 

Global Air Sampling Program.-NASA is conducting a research program to determine the contribution 

of high altitude jet aircraft engine exhaust emissions 

to atmospheric pollution. One part of the program 

calls for installation of air sampling systems in commercial Boeing 747 airplanes to routinely measure 

global air quality in the world airlanes. NASA and 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration will examine the data to characterize the natural 

atmosphere and identify any trends in pollutant concentrations. The resulting information will be used 

to help establish exhaust emission criteria for future jet 

engines. 

Stratospheric Jet Wake Measurements.-NASA 

initiated a program to help predict the effects of aircraft operations on stratospheric air chemistry. It will 

seek to determine the nature and distribution of effluent 

emissions into the turbulent wake of an aircraft and 

the subsequent distribution and chemical reactions as 

the wake begins to diffuse and mix in the normally 

30 

quiescent stratosphere. Techniques to be employed 

include altitude chamber measurement of emissions 

from a J-58 engine for correlation of data from flight 

measurements of YF12 aircraft emissions, construction of analytical mlodels for jet/wake mixing studies, 

stratospheric chemistry studies, and flight experiment 

definition and data analysis. 

Relieving Airport Congestion and Reducing Dependence on Conventional Airports.-One of the real 

problems in fulfilling the promise of air transportation 

has been the air and ground congestion around principal airports due to facility overloads. The result has 

been lengthy delays, excessive energy consumption, and 

needless pollution. Suggested solutions have been to 

improve terminal air traffic control and to use short 

takeoff and landing (STOL) and vertical takeoff and 

landing (VTOL) aircraft that could use alternate 

smaller airports to relieve the overload. The following 

programs are designed to help achieve these aims. 

joint DOT/NASA STOL Operating Systems Program.-The program continued to pursue its objective 

of providing navigation, guidance, control, and flight 

management information for use in establishing system 

concepts, design criteria, and operational procedures 

for the STOL short haul aircraft. 

A STOLAND avionics system, devised for use in 

STOL ground simulations and flight evaluations of 

advanced concepts for terminal area navigation, guidance, control, and flight procedures, was instalIed in 

the C-8 augmentor-wing STOL research airplane. 

Initial flight checkouts were conducted late this year, 

and another STOLAND system was being prepared for 

flight experiments in a DHC-6 turboprop STOL airplane next year. 

Short and Reduced Take-Off and Landing Aircraft 

(STOL/RTOL) .-Flight tests of the C-8 augmentorwing research airplane continued. Purpose of the tests 

is to verify by early 1974 the increase in aerodynamic 

lift found in previous wind-tunnel model tests of the jet 

augmentor concept, and to determine the operational 

characteristics and limitations of the aircraft. The aircraft was modified this year to incorporate a powered 

elevator and an advanced terminal area guidance, navigation, and control system. The new equipment will enable the aircraft to accommodate broader, more representative experiments relating to STOL/RTOL 

handling qualities and operating systems. 

Powered-lift systems research in the wind tunnel concentrated on models of the jet augmentor-wing and 

upper-surface blown flap concepts. Large-scale teas of 

a swept jet augmentor wing model having lobe nozzles 

for reduced noise were carried out in the 40-by-80-foot 

tunnel. Upper surface blown flap studies were initiated 

with small and large-scale tests on two- and four-engined configurations. Ground-based simulation studies 
were continued jointly with the FAA. Purpose of this 

work is to help develop criteria on which to base requirements for handling qualities of powered-lift aircraft. The deflected slipstream and jet augmentor wing 

were the first concepts investigated. 

Terminal Configured Vehicle Operating Experiments.-This is a joint NASA-FAA program to evaluate and demonstrate advanced aircraft and equipment 

technology for digital automatic flight control and 

guidance systems which will make CTOL and RTOL 

aircraft environmentally more acceptable, safer, and 

compatible with advanced air traffic control systems for 

the terminal area. Included for study are electronic displays, flight procedures, and airplane modifications. 

NASA acquired a B-737 aircraft equipped with advanced electronic equipment including displays and 

began flight experiments. 

STOL Crosswind Landing Research.-A flight investigation to extend the operational limitations imposed by crosswinds on low-speed STOL and RTOL 

aircraft was initiated at the Langley Research Center. 

The research program covers piloting techniques and 

aircraft modifications such as a special crosswind landing gear which can be adjusted for research purposes. 

Candidate crosswind landing gear configurations were 

model tested to provide data helpful in design of the 

full-scale hardware. Conceptual design of a full-scale 

adjustable cross-wind landing gear will be initiated 

in 1974. 

Vertical Takeoff and Landing Aircraft (VTOL) .- Several lift-fan transport studies applicable to commercial short-haul aircraft were conducted. An investigation of hovering ground-effect was completed on a 

remote-fan transport configuration. Another more advanced remote-fan model was designed and was under 

construction ; wind-tunnel tests were planned for 1974 

in the V/STOL tunnel. Small- and large-scale tests 

were begun on small, light lift-cruise fan nacelles and 

vectoring-control systems for such aircraft. Contracts 

for conceptual design studies of advanced lift-fan civil 

transports were extended, studies of the application of 

lift-fan technology to military transports were initiated, 

and contractor oral reviews of the studies were held in 

November. The studies will be used to guide future 

technology programs. 

Wind tunnel tests were completed on a jet VTOL 

fighter configuration having one lift engine and two 

lift/cruise engines. Design and construction of a model 

of a fighter configuration utilizing the ejector-augmentor concept was completed. Free flight tests will 

be carried out in the full-scale tunnel next year. 

Fixed base simulator studies were initiated to develop 

control, stabilization, and guidance systems for zero 

visibility VTOL landings. Flight tests were begun with 

the X-14B variable-stability aircraft to verify hover 

control systems developed in analytical and simulation 

studies. 

Rotorcraft research studies included full-scale tests on 

the whirl tower of a rotor having an ogee tip shape 

intended to reduce the tip vortex strength and therefore rotor vibration and noise. In-house and contracted 

investigations of other rotor concepts indicated that 

the variable geometry and bearingless rotors are particularly promising; larger-scale model tests are 

planned. 

Flight tests were completed using the variable stability CH-46 helicopter to document vertical-velocitycommand concepts in steep approaches-both piloted 

and automatic. Studies of other landing approaches 

with a concave downward flight path (to avoid obstacles or reduce noise) were started, and another program was initiated to equip a CH-53 helicopter with 

an acoustically insulated passenger cabin for studies 

beginning in 1974, of noise, vibration, and motion 

qualities acceptable to civil transport passengers. 

VTOL Operating Systems Experiments.-The objective of this program is to establish a technology base 

leading to improved VTOL operating efficiency and 

safety, especially in low visibility conditions, and decreased environmental impact. Simulation and flight 

experiments were conducted using rotary wing VTOL 

aircraft (helicopters) at Langley Research Center, Va. 

Nonrotary wing aircraft were evaluated through 

simulation at the Ames Research Center. An adaptation 

of the STOLAND flight research system (called V/ 

STOLAND) developed for STOL flight research was 

being readied for use in ground simulations at Ames 

and later flight research with the Tilt Rotor Research 

Aircraft. 

VTOL Autaland System.-Research continued at 

Langley Research Center to establish design guidelines 

for practical, cost effective VTOL automatic landing 

systems for civil applications. This year flight tests were 

conducted on a three-axis velocity sensor. A strapdown laser gyro attitude measurement system, designed 

and built at the Marshall Space Flight Center, was delivered to Langley for flight testing. The newly developed systems and sensors appear to offer a cost effective way of meeting the performance requirements 

for VTOL automatic landing systems. 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft.-NASA and the 

Army awarded a contract in November for the design, 

fabrication, and test of two Rotor Systems Research 

Aircraft (RSRA) . Project management was placed in 

a NASA/Army Project Office at the Langley Research 

Center. 

The RSRA will obtain better data on the rotor concepts through actual flight test, it will achieve cost 

savings through repeated use of the vehicle by both organizations, and it will assure timely completion of re- 

, 

31 
search programs. The RSRA is expected to make its 

first flight in May 1976 and begin its service as an advanced research tool shortly thereafter. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft.-As the result of a 

competitive preliminary design effort, a contractor was 

selected in July to design, fabricate, and flight test 

two Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (TRRA) . It is to be 

used to demonstrate that the dynamic stability problems of previous models have been solved and that 

technology is ready for application bo military and civil 

aircraft. The project is being managed by a joint 

NASA/Army Project Office located at the Ames Research Center. 

A tilt rotor aircraft retains the hovering capability of 

the helicopter, and in addition, enjoys the speed and 

ride qualities of a turboprop when its rotors are “tilted” 

forward for cruise flight. The first flight is expected in 

May 1976. It will initiate a thorough flight test 

program. 

Aircraft Ride Quality.-The Flight and Langley 

Research Centers conducted a research program to determine the fundamental relationships between the 

physical environment (vibration, noise, etc.) of a transportation system’s passenger compartment and the 

psychological response (comfort related) of the passengers. Passenger response was studied under actual 

airline operating conditions and preliminary relationships were established for the effect of lateral and normal accelerations on passenger acceptance. For controlled flight conditions, the Flight Research Center 

at Edwards, CA conducted studies in the General Purpose Airborne Simulator (GPAS) to define the boundaries of passenger acceptance criteria. The flight research results, both airline and GPAS, are used as 

guides for the Langley simulation studies, in which a 

number of simulators study passenger response under 

controlled conditions. Work continued to define acceptable vibratory motions representative of enmute flight 

phases and to define acceptable motion relationships 

representative of those encountered during maneuvering in the airport terminal area. Data from this program will be used to establish passenger acceptance/ 

ride quality criteria for future short-haul transportation 

sys tems. 

Zncreasing Aircraft Eficiency.-Generally, for transport aircraft, the weight of the fuel is much greater 

than the weight of the payload. Therefore, relatively 

small reductions in fuel requirements due to reduced 

drag or higher propulsive efficiency, can not only reduce critical fuel consumption, but can have a large 

effect on the overall efficiency of the aircraft. Similar 

efficiency increases can be obtained through reduced 

structural weight. In an effort to achieve these gains, 

NASA is pursuing the following programs. 

32 

Advanced Transport Technology.-This program 

continued its research efforts to provide a technology 

base for future, more efficient, long haul subsonic and 

near-sonic transport aircraft. High-subsonic speed 

flight tests of a TF-8A airplane with a supercritical 

wing design were completed. Test results confirmed 

the predictions for reduced drag and optimized performance and demonstrated the importance of supercritical wing techziology as a key technical advance 

toward improved transport aircraft. 

Two major trunk airlines were asked to conduct a 

critical review of the advanced technology recommendations resulting from earlier system design studies. 

In their reviews, the airlines were concerned with reliability and maintenance costs as major factors influencing their assessment of the advantages of advanced 

technology. Knowing the areas of concern, NASA researchers are able to consider them during technology 

demonstration efforts. 

Earlier system design studies were extended to determine what technology was needed to make future 

transports more compatible with terminal area air traffic control systems. Better compatibility would reduce 

air system delays from congestion and lessen community noise impact. Results indicated that advanced 

technology can improve maneuverability in the terminal area, allow steeper approach paths, lessen approach and landing speeds, and significantly reduce 

noise footprint area at a cost of about 3 percent increase 

in gross weight. Plans were made to study engine 

nacelle designs for even greater reduction in the noise 

footprint area. This would be accomplished by applying interwoven acoustic absorbent and composite 

structural materials without increasing gross weight or 

operating cost. 

Other studies examined the relationship between 

new technology and fuel conservation. Results indicated that a future large long-range transport aircraft 

similar to the present Boeing 747 can achieve a 22- 

percent saving in fuel requirements through the application of advanced transport technology. 

As a consequence of national concern over potential 

costs and shortages of petroleum-based fuels, a system 

design study was begun to identify the aircraft technology needs for alternate aircraft fuels. Liquid hydrogen was selected for consideration because of its high 

energy per pound, and because its low density and large 

volume requirement may be most applicable to large 

aircraft. The study was designed to provide: an assessment of the feasibility and advantages of hydrogen fuel 

for long-range subsonic transport aircraft to be introduced in the years 1990-95; an assessment of the problems and technology requirements peculiar to hydrogen-fueled subsonic aircraft ; and an identification of 

actions required (theory, laboratory studies, flight re- 
search) to accelerate development of the new aircraft 

technology. 

Filamentary Composite Materials in Structural Applications.-These materials consist of strong nonmetallic fibers embedded in a plastic matrix. They have 

strength, stiffness properties, and resistance to fatigue 

that are superior to metals in many applications. Their 

use in aircraft construction could reduce weight by 25 

to 30 percent over a metallic structure. 

Several NASA programs were conducted to obtain 

design and manufacturing experience and to evaluate 

reliability and maintenance of composite components 

in service operations. An Army CH-54 helicopter with 

a composite reinforced tail cone began flight tests, and 

the center wing boxes of two USAF C-130 aircraft 

were being fabricated for flight testing in 1974. 

Composite external fairings were installed at six 10- 

cations on three wide-body commercial jet aircraft in 

regular passenger service. In addition, the aluminum 

spoilers on 27 other commercial jet airliners were replaced with graphite-epoxy composite spoilers. They 

will accumulate flight experience for 5 years. Plans 

were made for applications of composites to rudder and 

aileron components of commercial airliners. 

Skin Friction Drag Re duct ion .-The boundary 

layer flow over subsonic and supersonic aircraft accounts for approximately 50 and 40 percent, respectively, of rhe total drag resistance encountered in 

a normal mission. The Langley Research Center investigated methods for reducing boundary layer “skin 

friction” drag. Such a reduction would increase aerodynamic efficiency and reduce fuel consumption. Fuel 

savings could be a significant contribution to resolving 

the energy crisis facing the Nation. The compliant or 

flexible wall, gaseous injection through slots, or combined gas/particle injection were concepts under consideration. Each of these concepts was tested and appeared promising, but additional analyses and experimental studies are required to verify their economic 

application on aircraft. 

Efficient Low Speed Wing.--Significant progress 

was made in the analytical and wind tunnel development of a new airfoil section optimized for the lower 

speed general aviation performance range. Wind tunnel data predicted a 30 percent increase in maximum 

lift and a 50 percent improvement in lift-to-drag ratio 

over the present airfoils. The greater thickness (17 percent) permits lighter construction through optimum 

location of internal structure; at the same time, the 

larger internal volume makes it possible to use larger 

fuel tanks thereby increasing range. A twin engine 

aircraft was being modified to provide flight validation 

of the wind tunnel predictions. First flight of the 

modified airplane was scheduled for July 1974- 

Digital Fly-By- Wire Experimental Program.-The 

first phase of the program, completed in November, 

demonstrated the feasibility of digital fly-by-wire flight 

control of an aircraft utilizing equipment derived from 

the Apollo program. Over 40 flights were made in an 

F-8 aircraft which had been modified by replacing its 

conventional mechanical control linkages with electrical wires which carried signals from the Apollo computer to move the control surfaces. 

During the second phase of the program, which was 

started this year, the Apollo equipment will be replaced 

by conventional state-of-the-art aircraft equipment. 

Eventually, the system will become all-digital. Future 

aircraft designs will profit from the increased flexibility, 

improved performance, and lower cost offered by alldigital systems. 

Transonic Aircraft Technology Program 

(TACT) .-In this joint NASA/USAF program, a supercritical wing set was delivered by the manufacturer, 

static-tested by the Air Force, and installed on the 

F-I11 aircraft by NASA. Under the technical direction of the Flight Research Center, flight tests were 

begun in October to evaluate the benefits of supercritical technology for application to high performance 

aircraft. The design criteria derived from the tests will 

be applicable to both military and commercial aircraft. 

Panel Displays.-NASA scientists developed a twocolor monolithic array of light emitting diodes for the 

displaying of alphanumeric information on board aircraft and spacecraft. Green/red emission is obtained by 

careful control of the properties of gallium phosphide 

and by varying the current-frequency characteristics. 

These solid-state array modules applied to a flat-panel 

display device offer advantages over the cathode ray 

tube: low volume, light weight, and reduced power 

consump tion. 

Aircraft Safety.-Not only must aircraft be made 

more efficient, but air travel must be made safer as 

well. To help achieve this, NASA has been investigating factors causing human errors, working on fireretardant techniques, and studying hazards due to 

swirling vortices trailing behind large jet transports. 

Human Error in Aircraft Accidents.-The Lovelace 

Foundation, under a NASA Flight Research Center 

contract, completed an analysis of human error-related 

jet transport accidents for the period 1958-1970. Some 

74 accidents were examined using National Transportation Safety Board records as the data source. Approximately 70 variables per accident were used in the 

analysis in an attempt to discover the enabling factors 

or conditions that lead to a human error aircraft accident. Examples of enabling conditions are crew duty 

times, airport weather, runway conditions, night time 

operations, and crew decision making. The preliminary 

33 
finding was that if a number of enabling conditions 

occur simultaneously accidents seem to occur more 

often. Work was initiated to determine the quantitative 

significance of the findings. 

Runway Visibility Tests.-The first complete theoretical model of the light-scattering process in the 

Earth's atmosphere was developed at Wallops Station. 

After validation in actual fog conditions early in 1974, 

the model will be used in constructing accurate instrumentation for measuring runway visibility conditions a~ 

the pilot really sees them. It will also have another use. 

These conditions are now measured by estimating 

visibility as seen from the tower, or by a photocell 

which measures the output of a light a short distance 

away, and such methods may bear little relation to 

what the pilot actually sees. The validated scatter 

model can be used to evaluate present techniques. 

Fire-Retardant Polymers for Aircraft.-NASA has 

conducted extensive researcli on aircraft crash fires, 

developing fire-retardant foams used between the cabin 

shell and the interior of the aircraft and fire-retardant 

paints for use in engine nacelles and other similar areas. 

This year, a new fire-retardant phenophthaleinpolycapbonate polymeric window material was synthesized as a potential replacement for the flammable 

acrylic windows currently used in aircraft. The materials were applied to military aircraft to demonstrate 

their effectiveness. Tests were also made of fire retardant fabrics, coatings, and other aircraft interior 

materials to determine their safety and effectiveness. 

Fire Safety Technology.-Full-scale fuselage fire 

tests were conducted in the course of preliminary assessments of the nonflammable properties of new materials under consideration for aircraft interiors. These 

materials showed good fire-resistance performance and 

lower smoke production than current aircraft interior 

materials, but still produced significant amounts of 

toxic gaseous byproducts. The Ames Research Center 

continued investigating the mechanisms and types of 

toxic gases involved in the combination of various materials and the responses of the human organism. 

Tests of polycarbonate aircraft windows conducted 

at Ames demonstrated that the windows charred when 

exposed to flame, thus protecting the fuselage interior 

from infrared radiation produced by an outside fire. 

Combined with fuselage insulative foams developed 

earlier, the polycarbonate windows contributed to a 

six-fold increase in the time available for passengers to 

escape before the temperature inside an intact fuselage 

would be raised high enough by an outside fire to exceed human limitations. 

Additional research was conducted on a family of 

nonflammable, nontoxic inorganic polymers which are 

extremely expensive, but may become economically 

practical with further investigation. 

34 

Aircraft Wake Vortex Hazard.-NASA intensified 

its efforts to eliminate the hazard of the swirling vortices trailing behind large jet transports. Numerous 

wind tunnel, water tank, and preliminary flight tests 

were conducted by the Ames, Langley, and Flight Research Centers to identify mechanical devices or design 

changes which can accelerate vortex breakup. Several 

schemes were proposed for early vortex dissipation, and 

these and other techniques will be selected by June 

1974 for actual flight test evaluation with transporttype aircraft. 

Wake Turbulence Flight Tests.-To define the 

magnitude and extent of the safety hazard created by 

trailing vortices from large jet aircraft, NASA, the 

FAA, and industry conducted a joint flight investigation of the wake generated by several wide-body civil 

jet transports. Instrumented probe aircraft ranging in 

size from a Lear Jet to a DC-10 were flown through 

the wake of the wide-body aircraft. Measurements 

were made of critical parameters which define the 

vortex intensity, size, position, dissipation, and upset 

hazard to the probe aircraft. The FAA is using this 

data to establish standards for safe operational separation of aircraft. 

Advanced Supersonic Technology.-Though much of 

NASA's research is concerned with improving subsonic 

flight, research is continuing to make supersonic flight 

efficient, with low noise and environmental impact. 

Thus during 1973, research took place on propulsion, structures and materials, aerodynamics, and stability and controls applicable to military and civil 

supersonic cruise aircraft. 

The first phase of a contract study to determine the 

feasibility of developing an advanced supersonic transport configuration with low sonic boom was completed. 

The results indicated that a Mach 2.7 configuration, 

producing a sonic boom of 1 psf, was feasible but additional design studies would be required to overcome 

the unacceptably high sideline noise and takeoff distance. 

The aerodynamic data base was expanded with the 

completion of low-speed unpowered wind tunnel tests 

of advanced variable sweep and blended wing/fuselage 

arrow-wing configuration concepts. Low-speed 

powered tests were scheduled to be completed early 

next year. 

As part of the structures and materials effort, a high 

temperature titanium panel with conventional skin/ 

stringer construction but using a weld braze technique 

was built and will be flown on a YF-12 airplane. Flight 

evaluation will continue into 1974 on other titanium 

structures. The NASA/ JPL high speed interferometer 

was installed on the French and British Concorde aircraft and flights were conducted in June and October 

to obtain stratospheric natural background data. These 

data are expected to assist the Department of Trans- 
portation’s Climatic Impact Assessment Program 

(CIAP) to evaluate the potential climatic impact of 

high altitude aircraft. 

Thirty flights were completed by YF-12 aircraft in 

the NASAIUSAF propulsion and aerodynamics research programs. One series obtained basic flight information on steady-state inlet performance using a YF12 aircraft with an extensively instrumented propulsion system. Similar test data were obtained in a wind 

tunnel on a one-third-scale inlet. Another series of 

research flights collected information on aerodynamic 

boundary layer characteristics. The results were 

analyzed and compared with ground facility and flight 

test results to evaluate the methods used to extrapolate 

full scale flight. 

Preparations were made for a YF-12 flight loads 

symposium early in 1974. All results of the loads and 

structural analysis research accomplished during the 

1971-73 period will be reported and discussed. 

Military Support Programs.-NASA continued to 

provide support for the military. NASA engineers are 

assigned to and colocated in the USAF F-15 Systems 

Program Office and the Aeronautical Propulsion Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, and in the 

B-1 system program office at the contractor’s plant. 

NASA capabilities are made more readily available 

by the system of colocating personnel at program 

offices. 

Application of Aerospace Technology to Civil Systems.-Though aerospace technology has been applied 

to numerous civil applications, from air cushion 

vehicles to computerized metropolitan traffic control 

systems, the following two particularly important application programs are included in this section. 

Low PollutionlLow Fuel Consumption Automotive 

Engines.-NASA is cooperating with the EPA and the 

DOT to develop the technology for reducing the fuel 

consumption and polluting exhaust emissions of automotive engines. Two alternatives were studied: One 

approach is concerned with hydrogen injection for 

internal combustion engines. This work, at the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, is based on a 

recent discovery that relatively small quantities of 

hydrogen rich gas introduced into the internal combustion engine along with the normal gasolinelair mixture permits it to be operated with increased efficiency 

and greatly reduced pollutant emissions. The initial 

phase demonstrated its potential for application to aircraft and automobile engines. 

The second possibility is under study in a joint EPA/ 

NASAlindustry automotive gas turbine program. Here 

work was started on the application of aircraft gas 

turbine and combustor technology to automotive gas 

turbine design. The purpose of the program is to 

demonstrate by late 1975 that a gas turbine powered 

automobile can meet Federal exhaust emission standards, improve fuel economy, and possibly reduce costs 

to the consumer. 

NASTRAN Computer Program for Structural 

Analysis.-This program, initially released in 1970, 

is currently being used in the design and analysis of 

various types of aeronautical and space vehicle structures, and in the design of railroad roadbeds and 

tracks, nuclear reactors, large skyscrapers, automobiles, 

ships, turbines, heavy machinery, astrodome type 

sports stadia, and many other structures. A recent 

application was in the analysis of a long-span, cablestayed freeway bridge being designed for the city of 

Seattle. 

NASTRAN was expanded this year with the addition of the capability for complete thermal analysis 

and complete aircraft analysis. Work was begun to 

give NASTRAN the ability to predict aircraft flutter. 

By the end of the year, the number of engineers using 

NASTRAN exceeded 2,000, and the number continued to increase by about 50 percent per year. The 

program was used by over 180 non-aerospace companies in addition to widespread use in the aerospace 

industry. 

Space Communications and Navigation.-Space programs have pushed the limits of present day technology 

harder than virtually any other of man’s activities. 

In trying to improve communication and navigation 

for space activities, new developments in electronics 

and computer technology have emerged. The following 

describes some of NASA’s current programs in these 

areas. 

Optical Mass Memory Technology.-In this program 

an organic molecular system that exists in two different 

spatial orientations was synthesized for use in high 

speed, high capacity holographic computer memories. 

The conversion of one form of the molecule into the 

other is caused by the interaction with light irradiation 

and is the basis of writing binary information into the 

system. Readout is effected by the reconversion of 

the molecule to its original form by a different light 

source. The system offers ease of conversion, high 

storage density, and low cost of material, advantages 

which make it a likely choice for the laser read-write 

optical mass memory. 

Laser Communication Tests.-A laser data transfer system was tested at Marshall Space Flight Center 

using a high altitude aircraft at 60,000 feet altitude 

with a laser ground station atop a nearby mountain. 

The two laser systems were able to acquire and track 

one another successfully, but were not able to transfer 

data at the highest planned rate because boresight 

of the aircraft equipment was adversely affected by 

temperature variations. 

35 
High Temperature Antenna Technology.-The 

Langley Research Center completed development of 

the necessary background data and techniques for 

the design of the Shuttle antenna systems. Part of 

the development was devoted to determining which 

materials would protect the antenna against thermal 

and structural stresses and at the same time maintain 

good electromagnetic transmission characteristics. The 

research produced six protective antenna “window” 

materials, including composites of silica, boron nitride, 

and mullite fiber. A second element of the task was 

to develop a computer prediction program to analyze 

the electromagnetic radiation characteristics of antennas mounted on large complex-shaped vehicles. This 

program was verified by fabricating and testing scale 

models, and will obviate the need for costly and extensive full scale tests. As a final part of the development, an analysis was completed to determine the 

feasibility of structurally integrating the antenna with 

the vehicle. 

High Data Rate Antennas.-The Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory designed and tested a furlable conical antenna with a line feed for deep space missions requiring high data rates at extremely long distances. The 

size of antennas has been limited by the diameter of 

the shroud on the launch vehicle since they could 

not be folded and yet work efficiently when deployed. 

The new antenna has a surface accuracy when deployed which is so good that it can be used at the 

new X-band wavelength, and the line feed matches 

the conical antenna so well that an overall efficiency 

of 73 percent has been achieved at X-band. With the 

addition of an S-band capability the antenna will 

be suitable for most foreseeable missions to the outer 

planets. 

Spaceborne Microwave Amplifier.-Langley Research Center completed the development of a medium-power microwave traveling wave tube amplifier (TWTA) suitable for use on Space Shuttle and 

other space vehicles requiring several tens of watts 

for information transfer. The TWTA has an output 

power level of 100 watts at C-band and an overall 

efficiency greater than 42 percent. The design included the first use of heat pipe thermal cooling in 

space-type microwave amplifiers and will serve as the 

basis for its application to future higher power levels. 

S-X Band Experiment.-The Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory completed fabrication of dual frequency 

equipment called the S-X Band Experiment, which 

was installed on the Mariner Venus/Mercury spacecraft. The experiment adds an X-band radio link to 

the standard S-band link and provides for simultaneous 

transmission of the two signals to improve radio 

navigation for planetary exploration. In radio navigation, a delay of unknown length in the time it takes for 

36 

the spacecraft radio signal to reach the Earth results 

from the perturbation of the radio signal by electrically 

charged particles in space. The simultaneous use of 

both S and X band signals permits the differential 

delay effect to be measured and compensated for to 

improve navigational accuracies. The use of the higher 

frequency X-band link also permits the transmission 

of more data under clear weather conditions. Plans 

were made to include the dual frequency system on 

future planetary missions. 

Spacecraft Propulsion.-NASA is in constant search 

for more efficient ways to power spacecraft. Hydrogen 

combustion technology, which has evolved from space 

propulsion programs, is now being explored for civilian 

use in such areas as electric power generation and aircraft propulsion to help alleviate the world-wide petroleum shortage. 

Electric Propulsion.-This form of propulsion, with 

its high specific impulse (over 1,000 seconds), is being 

considered because of its potential for increasing payload and/or reducing cost of future space missions. 

This program emphasizes the development of the technology for both primary and auxiliary applications. 

In auxiliary propulsion work, final A ight acceptance 

tests were completed on a one millipound (150-watt) 

ion engine. This engine is to be flown as an experiment on the ATS-F to demonstrate north-south station keeping. A ground test was started to demonstrate 

a 5-year cycle of the same engine system. Endurance 

testing (13 million pulses) of a pulsed plasma thruster 

unit was completed. Such units are ideally suited for 

precise precession control of spinning type satellites. 

In the area of primary propulsion, a 6,000-hour 

endurance test was begun on a 30 cm (2.75 kw) ion 

thruster, which will be a standard module for future 

use and a companion power conditioner with a thermal 

self-radiating feature was tested to determine its performance capability. The power conditioner provides 

the proper voltages and currents to the thruster. 

Liquid Propulsion Technology.-A major long 

range goal of the chemical propulsion program is to 

discover new energy storage concepts capable of more 

than doubling the specific impulse of present chemical 

rockets. Atomic hydrogen is being evaluated for this 

objective, since it can release more than 10 times the 

energy available from the best rocket propellants now 

in use. The major problem to be solved is the method 

for stabilizing the very reactive atom until the energy 

release is needed in a rocket motor. The Lewis Research Center designed and conducted experiments in 

a laboratory apparatus which showed that the storability of a highly energetic material (such as atomic 

hydrogen) can be influenced by a powerful magnetic 

field. Further experiments were planned to investigate 

the maximum storage life of the energetic material. 
Small thrusters used to control the position and attitude of satellites and spacecraft emit materials which 

can cause deposits on the lenses, windows, and other 

critical surfaces of the spacecraft. In research on this 

problem, the amount of gas that can flow “backward” 

from the exit plane of a nozzle toward spacecraft surfaces was measured directly. The tests showed that, 

contrary to present flow theory, a relatively large 

amount of gas flows rearward from the nozzles. The 

research provided increased knowledge of spacecraft 

contamination. The data will be used to design nozzles 

that will reduce or eliminate backflow. 

Long Life Propulsion.-This program has been carried on for several years in an effort to define the best 

propellants, materials, and designs for long-life propulsion systems required on planetary missions with flight 

times up to 10 years. This year a propulsion system 

(thruster, tanks, valves) which uses space storable 

propellants (fluorinated oxidizer with hydrazine-type 

fuel) was tested in static firings at simulated space 

pressure. The propellants, which also give 30 percent 

higher specific impulse than present propellants, were 

tested at thrust levels of 1,000 pounds for 30, 400, and 

420 seconds. The results were satisfactory and indicated 

that space storable propulsion can be developed for 

future space missions. 

Solid Propulsion Technology.-An advanced solid 

propellant motor for spacecraft propulsion was successfully tested at simulated altitude. It gives low thrust 

during a relatively long burn time in order ‘to provide 

shockless ignition and low acceleration forces on spacecraft which carry delicate instruments and extended 

flexible beams and antennas. The motors burned for 

125 seconds at an average thrust of 7,886 N (1,773 lb.) 

which would give a typical planetary orbiting spacecraft a low acceleration of .042 m/sec2 (0.14g). The 

advanced features included a low-shock igniter, a lowburn-rate propellant, and an all carbon nozzle, weighing only 40 percent of a comparable ablative nozzle. 

A second type of new solid propellant motor, 

designed for upper stages of launch vehicles, was also 

successfully fired. It demonstrated a new capability for 

solid rockets-thrust termination on command, followed by reignition on command. Thus, it gives the two 

controlled thrust periods needed to place satellites in 

orbit. The rocket contained 1,450 kg (3,200 lb.) of 

high performance propellant; it delivered 97,800 N 

(22,000 Ib.) of peak thrust in two pulses, of 36 seconds 

and 15 seconds, with specific impulse of 303 seconds. 

Reusable Oxygen-Hydrogen Propulsion.-In the 

Lewis Research Center propulsion technology program, enghe preliminary design studies defining component and engine performance and operation requirements were completed. Contracts were awarded to 

demonstrate 1 O-hour life turbomachinery high speed 

bearings and seals, and small high pressure liquid 

oxygen and liquid hydrogen pump performance. 

Studies were continued of low cycle thermal fatigue 

problems and advanced fabrication techniques. 

Termination of Nuclear Propulsion Activity.- As a 

result of decisions announced early this year, the joint 

NASA/AEC Space Nuclear Systems Office was abolished and its activities terminated by July 1973. 

Development of solid-core nuclear rocket engines 

ceased and nuclear reactor power technology efforts 

were brought to an orderly conclusion. The decisions 

were made in recognition of the advanced technical 

development of such systems and the fact that there 

were no plans for their use in the space program in the 

next 10 to 15 years. 

Solar and Other Spacecraft Power Advances.-Solar 

power, pioneered for spacecraft use, is now being considered, in somewhat different forms, for home heating. 

As indicated in the following, NASA is continuing to 

push forward the frontiers of solar and other power 

sources. 

Energy Systems.-Continued improvements were 

made in performance, reliability, and life of power 

components and systems and at the same time costs 

were reduced. In solar cell research, wrap-around contacts were perfected to permit simultaneous contacting 

of many cells and making replacement of damaged cells 

easier. Growing of solar cell ribbons progressed. This 

technique will avoid wasting over three-quarters of the 

solar cell material in dicing, slicing, and polishing of 

wafers by the traditional method. High-efficiency, thin 

solar cells were demonstrated; they will make it possible 

to obtain more than a 50-percent increase in the power 

density of solar arrays. Plastic covers, to replace more 

expensive glass covers for such arrays, were prepared 

for flight testing. And the Solar Cell Radiation Handbook was issued. 

A number of nongassing nickel-cadmium cells were 

evaluated. The tests indicated that the new cell construction permits use of a plastic cell seal which has 

several advantages over the ceramic seal: It is cheaper, 

more reliable when no high pressures are developed, 

and allows more electrolyte to be added to each cell 

before sealing, as gas recombination is not critical anymore. In addition, eliminating semidry operation 

means less migration of cadmium metal and longer 

life for the separator and the cell. In preliminary tests 

on pulse charging, the new cells also showed better 

charge acceptance and lower end-of-charge voltages, 

another sign of longer life capability. 

In another area, the third electrode completed almost 5 years of service on the OAO, proving its reiiability and durability. A book on accelerated testing of 

space batteries was issued. It details the test approaches 

37 
being put into effect to reduce time and cost of cell and 

battery testing. 

An improved method for controlling power converters was developed and installed for evaluation at a 

remote FAA microwave repeater station. Another 

development was a solid-state electronic switch for use 

in higher-performing power processing protective 

circuits. 

Energetics and Lasers.-Basic research on a closed 

loop magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generator 

for the direct generation of electricity from rapidly 

flowing inert gases neared completion. Scientific data 

were obtained, and the next step will be to determine 

feasibility on the basis of physics principles. MHD generators do not employ moving parts and can be operated at much higher temperatures than turbines. They 

should therefore offer greater reliability and efficiency 

in space as well as the potential for power applications on Earth. 

In research on controlled thermonuclear fusion 

(CTF) , a “Bumpy Torus” apparatus with superconducting magnets was built at the Lewis Research Center and put into operation for producing fusion-like 

plasmas for research purposes. The Bumpy Torus differs from most other fusion research machines in that 

it is capable of continuous operation. This permits research on fusion plasma applications to be carried out 

under realistic conditions with somewhat greater ease 

than in pulsed CTF research machines. The purpose of 

this program is to develop the know-how for using 

fusion energy in space. Progress was made in research 

on fissioning uranium plasma when the first samples 

of such plasmas for laboratory research were produced 

in the Langley Research Center plasma focus apparatus. During this work, powerful nonequilibrium radiation in the ultraviolet and soft X-ray spectrum was observed. The observation is significant because knowledge of the spectral distribution of radiant power is 

essential to determining the feasibility of fissioning 

plasma applications. 

Primary goals of the NASA laser research program 

are a broader spectrum of frequencies, higher power, 

and greater efficiency. One project investigated the 

use of metal vapors as lasants, but the vaporization of 

metals presented additional problems. Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory researchers substituted copper chloride for 

copper as a lasant with promising results. 

Other work was directed toward the use of laser 

beams as superconductors for power transmission in 

space. A principal problem is the conversion of laser 

power to other useful forms of energy such as mechanical motion or electricity. New concepts for direct laser 

power conversion developed in this research program 

included the reversible photon engine and the nearinfrared, point-contact diode electromagnetic receiver. 

This work could revolutionize space power technology, 

38 

and by developing the technology for piping almost unlimited amounts of laser power through evacuated 

tubes, it could help solve major problems of power distribution on Earth. 

Radioisotope Power Systems.-The AEC continued 

development of radioisotope power systems for space 

missions in support of NASA (Viking and Mariner) 

and DOD missions. NASA continued to support technology projects on thermodynamic power conversion 

systems to provide lower cost radioisotope power systems for space. 

Space Shuttle Support.--ii supporting wind tunnel 

program was undertaken to evaluate the aerothermodynamic and flight performance characteristics of the 

Space Shuttle vehicle. A synthesis computer program, 

ODIN (Optimal Design Integration), was also developed to evaluate the effects of small design changes on 

performance, weight, and other parameters. Arc-jet 

tests of candidate heat shield materials were conducted 

to aid in the selection of the reusable Thermal Protection System (TPS) . Progress was also made in acquiring knowledge of the effects on heat transfer of gaps 

and joints in the TPS. Data from this study will be 

used by designers in selecting the best method of applying the heat protection system to the Shuttle. 

Advanced Atmospheric Entry Technology.-Progress 

was made in understanding the complex entry problems caused by the very high heating expected during 

probe entry into Venus, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter. 

As part of this work, a comprehensive computational 

program was developed. The program uses very highspeed computers to provide design data for entry probes 

with minimum heat shield weight and maximum payload. The experimental and analytical work make it 

possible to compute accurately the heat transfer and 

heat shield ablation rate for Venus entry; better estimates of planetary entry probe performance for other 

planets were also made possible. 

Research on graphite heat shields indicated that previously unexplained high mass loss rates were attributable to compressive thermal stress ; accordingly, plans 

were made to carry on work during the coming year 

to improve the high temperature strength of graphite. 

Studies of reflecting type heat shields, which can significantly reduce weight, continued, and an extensive 

screening program has identified silica as a high performance reflecting heat shield material. 

Lifting Body Flight Research.-This is a joint NASA/ 

Air Force program to develop a technology base for advanced spacecraft and military fighter type aircraft. 

The M-2, HG10, and X-24A lifting body vehicles 

used in the program were previously retired from 

flight status after completing a total of 108 research 

flights. This year, the X-24A underwent external modifications to increase its performance. Flight tests on the 
X-24B were begun to assess performance and handling 

qualities and to determine the control characteristics 

from low supersonic speeds through landing. 

Tracking and Data Acquisition 

The tracking and data acquisition program continued to support NASA flight missions, including Skylab and some 40 other flight projects. For Skylab, the 

networks provided the vital communications link 

between the astronauts and the ground-based flight 

controllers. The 1973 launches included such major 

missions as Pioneer 11, the Atmosphere Explorer, and 

the Mariner Venus/Mercury Mission. 

The networks increased their capability significantly 

as two 64-meter (210 feet) diameter antennas became 

operational. The new antennas are updated versions 

of the highly successful 64-meter antenna at Goldstone, 

California. One is in Spain, 40 miles from Madrid, 

the other in Australia, near Canberra. 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN) .- 

The STDN provided tracking and data acquisition 

services to over 40 individual space flight projects. 

The network supported all NASA Earth orbital missions and a variety of space projects conducted by 

other government agencies and foreign countries. 

Skylab.-Network activities were highlighted by the 

support rendered to the Skylab program. Shortly after 

the 8O-ton Skylab was launched on May 14, the network stations began receiving data that indicated the 

orbiting laboratory was in serious difficulty. The solar 

panels which provide the electrical power needed to 

operate the on-board systems had not deployed, and 

the interior of the spacecraft was overheating. 

Ground-based engineers analyzed data received by 

the network stations and were able to determine the 

status of the solar panels and assemble a “tool kit” 

for its repair by the astronauts. Also, by transmitting 

commands via the network, the flight controllers were 

able to maneuver the spacecraft to minimize the heat 

generated by the Sun. 

When the Skylab 2 astronauts went to work on the 

damaged Skylab, the network relayed real-time television of the men successfully accomplishing the first 

major repair job in space. The network supported this 

and the two subsequent manned Skylab missions. 

Lunar.-The network also continued its support of a 

number of lunar missions. Data was continuously recorded from five separate Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages (ALSEP) left on the Moon by 

Apollo astronauts and from the Radio Astronomy Explorer (Explorer 49), launched in June. The Explorer spacecraft was placed in lunar orbit to make 

measurements of galactic and solar radio noise. 

Support of Canadian Satellite.-The STDN also 

rendered launch and early post launch support to the 

second of a series of Canadian domestic communications satellites, ANIK-2. NASA services were furnished on a reimbursable basis. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System.-Work 

was essentially completed on studies and technology 

development for the TDRSS. The TDRSS system 

is designed to employ specially designed communications satellites in synchronous orbit to relay data between low altitude mission spacecraft and a single 

ground station located in the United States. It is expected to replace several existing ground stations, particularly those overseas, and, more important, provide 

nearly continuous access to future manned and unmanned spacecraft, such as the Space Shuttle. The system definition studies were completed and indicate that 

TDRSS service could be available in the late 1970’s, 

in time for the Space Shuttle era. 

Deep Space Network (DSN).-The DSN continued 

its support of NASA’s planetary and interplanetary 

space flight missions. Limited support was given to 

the extended mission phase of the Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 

9 spacecraft in orbit around the Sun. Heavy demands 

were placed on the network by the Pioneer 10 and 

11 and the Mariner Venus/Mercury missions. 

Jupiter Mission.-The Pioneer 10 mission required 

near continuous support as it sped through the asteroid 

belt on the way to Jupiter. When the spacecraft encountered Jupiter on December 3, the network began 

acquiring new data on the planet from the three 

large 64-meter (210 feet) antenna stations evenly 

spaced around the world. The Madrid, Spain, and 

Canberra, Australia, stations, which became operational earlier this year, with the station at Goldstone, 

CA, are providing the capability needed to obtain data 

from the planet. The distance to Jupiter from Earth, 

about 900 million kilometers (560,000,000 miles), far 

exceeds the range of the standard 26-meter (80 feet) 

antennas of the network. 

The network also provided near-continuous coverage to a twin spacecraft, Pioneer 11, launched April 6. 

The Pioneer 11 spacecraft will encounter Jupiter late 

next year. Based on analysis of data obtained from the 

Pioneer 10 mission, a decision will be made in the near 

future on a possible change in the trajectory of Pioneer 

11. 

VenuslMercury Mission.-The launch of the 

Mariner Venus/Mercury mission on November 3, significantly increased the workload on the network. Several critical flight phases occur before the spacecraft’s 

initial encounter with Venus (February 1974) which 

require 64-meter (210 feet) antenna support. For the 

first time in planetary missions it will be necessary to 
recover numerous TV images of Earth and the Moon 

immediately following the launch phase and while the 

spacecraft is still close to the Earth in order to calibrate 

the science system ; also, critical multiple mid-course 

trajectory changes \vi11 be required to achieve the precise flyby of the planet Venus and the use of the planet’s 

gravity to assist in achieving the follow-on trajectory 

needed to fly by Mercury. 

The entire sequence will require complex scheduling 

of the facilities, and possibly in the event of a spacecraft emergency, real-time sharing of the antennas. 

Saturn.-This year, the 64-meter (210 feet) antenna 

at Goldstone was also used to conduct the first suecessful radar probe of Saturn. The results of the probe 

were very significant: from them it appears that the 

planet’s distinctive rings may be composed of large 

chunks of solid material in orbit like a swarm of tiny 

moons. Scientists had previously thought that the rings 

of Saturn were made of gas, ice or dust, or some combination of these. 

International Affairs 

The highlights of 1973 were the conclusion of an 

agreement with the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) for the development in Europe of a 

manned orbital laboratory (Spacelab) for use with the 

US. Space Shuttle, and a marked increase in cooperative activity with the U.S.S.R. in fulfillment of the 

1972 Summit Agreement on the joint Apollo/Soyuz 

Test Project. 

Spacelab.-On September 24, culminating almost 4 

years of discussions and negotiations, NASA signed a 

Memorandum of Understanding with the European 

Space Research Organization (ESRO) providing for 

development by Europe of a laboratory (Spacelab) for 

use in manned sortie missions with the Space Shuttle. 

ESRO will design, develop, manufacture and deliver to 

NASA a Spacelab flight unit on behalf of Belgium, 

Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, 

Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, the 

European countries funding the $400 million effort. 

Spacelab represents a major contribution by the 

European community to the United States Space 

Transportation System. It will also provide opportunities for U.S. and foreign scientists and engineers to 

accompany their experiments into space for the first 

time. 

After delivery of the first Spacelab, NASA will manage all operational activities, including crew training 

and flight operations. Additional Spacelab units of the 

Same basic design needed for U.S. programs will be 

procured from Europe. 

40 

US/ USSR Cooperation.-Joint NASAISoviet Academy of Sciences Working Groups continued to implement the May 24, 1972 U.S./U.S.S.R. Agreement 

Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of 

Outer Space. This agreement provides for the Apollo/ 

Soyuz Test Project, a joint experimental flight in 1975 

to test compatible rendezvous and docking systems, and 

for cooperation in space science and applications. 

ApollolSoyut Test Project.-At a joint midterm review of this project in October, all independent activities were reported to be on schedule. Senior representatives of NASA and the Soviet Academy agreed that all 

joint working group activities were also on schedule, 

that the conduct and future planning of the project 

was satisfactory, and that the test mission could be expected to proceed as planned. Major progress included 

naming of flight crews and flight directors, familiarization of United States and Soviet crews with each 

other’s spacecraft, selection of joint experiments, exchange of safety assessment reports, dynamic testing of 

both United States and Soviet docking system development units, arrangements for participation by specialists of both sides in critical testing and fit checking, and 

detailed development of such operational aspects of the 

joint mission as crew activities, control center operation, and trajectories. 

Space Science.-In space science, the principal developments were data exchanges designed to assist 

both sides in assuring the success of their future missions to Mars and Venus, continuing exchange of 

physiological data from Soviet and US. manned space 

flight and ground-based programs, and work on common pre- and post-flight medical examination procedures. In addition, a NASA lunar scientist visited the 

Vernadsky Institute in MOSCOW, a joint working seminar was held on collisionless shock waves in the 

magnetosphere, and a meeting of lunar cartographic 

experts in Moscow considered basic principles for compiling lunar maps, a common system of selenodetic coordinates, and a joint project to compile a map of the 

Moon on a scale of 1 : 5,000,000. 

Space Applications.-In space applications, operational and scientific weather data from sounding rocket 

networks were exchanged, coordinated oceanological 

studies were carried out to compare radiation measurements by U.S. satellites with surface data acquired by 

Soviet ships in the Atlantic, a successful joint experiment was conducted in coordinated microwave measurements in the Bering Sea area, and further efforts 

were made to define projects in the study of the 

natural environment. 

Under a NASA/Soviet Academy agreement of 

October 1965, a joint U.S./U.S.S.R. editorial board 

continued work on a joint review of space biology and 

medicine planned for publication in 1974. 
International Satellite and Probe Launchings.-The 

second Canadian operational telecommunications 

satellite (ANIK-2) was launched April 20 from KSC. 

Plans were completed with Italy for a cooperative mission in 1974 using a second San Marco C spacecraft to 

acquire equatorial density measurements, and with 

Germany for the reimbursable launching in 1974 of a 

second AEROS satellite for aeronomy studies. These 

two satellites will be coordinated with the NASA Atmosphere Explorer spacecraft launched in December 

of this year to conduct the first such concerted and 

systematic study of atmospheric measurements using 

spacecraft and instrumentation of three countries. 

In addition, work continued on four other cooperative satellite missions : the CTS experimental communications satellite with Canada, the HELIOS solar 

probe with West Germany, the INTASAT ionospheric 

beacon with Spain, and the UK-5 stellar X-ray satellite ; and two other reimbursable projects-Canada's 

ANIK C operational telecommunications satellite and 

UKs X4 technology spacecraft. All but CTS are 

scheduled for launching in 1974. 

Discussions were undertaken with France/Germany 

and ESRO on several reimbursable launch missions : 

Symphonie, a French/German experimental communications satellite; and five ESRO spacecraft: 

COS-B for the study of cosmic rays, GEOS to investigate the outer magnetosphere, OTS for experimental 

communications technology, MAROTS for experimental maritime communications, and Meteosat to 

complement two American and one Japanese geostationary meteorological satellites for the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) . 

Foreign Participation in Approved NASA Missions.- 

Skylab : Four foreign experiments were flown aboard 

Skylab during 1973 : a French ultraviolet panorama 

experiment, a Swiss solar wind composition experiment, a Belgian space processing experiment to study 

silver grids melted in space, and a Japanese study of 

whisker-reinforced composites, the latter two experiments both using the multipurpose electric furnace 

facility. A UK scientist acted as a consultant in a 

NASA welding experiment, and physicians from Germany and the United Kingdom joined the Skylab 

biomedical team to evaluate effects of long duration 

space flight on crews. Agreement was reached for 40 

data analysis investigations, involving scientists in 19 

countries and the U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) for the study of Earth resources 

data from the Earth Resources Experiment Package 

(EREP) . Correlated astronomical sounding rocket 

programs were conducted with Germany and the 

United Kingdom, and foreign guest investigators were 

selected from France, Japan, and the United Kingdom to participate in the Skylab ATM solar telescope 

program. 

German and Australian scientists participated as 

coinvestigators on experiments aboard the Pioneer 11 

mission, and French and UK scientists acted as coinvestigators on the television science team for the Mariner VenusIMercury project. 

In response to NASA announcements of flight opportunity, a UK scientist was chosen to serve on the 

Imaging Science Team for the Mariner Jupiter/ 

Saturn spacecraft and German and French coinvestigators were selected for the same mission. French and 

German instrumentation was chosen for flight on the 

1978 Pioneer Venus Probe mission, and Canadian, 

French and UK scientists were selected to participate 

in the instrument definition for the large space telescope planned for launch on the Space Shuttle. Seven 

foreign experiments using data from the Tropical 

Wind, Energy Conversion, and Reference Level Experiment (TWERLE) to be flown on the Nimbus F 

spacecraft in 1974 were tentatively approved. Agreements were also concluded with Australia and France 

for lunar laser ranging programs. 

Earth Resources.-One hundred and forty foreign investigations using the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS) and Skylab EREP data were underway during 1973; they involved scientists from 37 

countries and the U.N. FA0 and the U.N. Economic 

Commission for Asia and the Far East. In addition, 

Brazil joined Canada in establishing its own ERTS 

data acquisition and processing facilities, and additional countries expressed interest in doing the same. 

Significant results of these projects to date include the 

utilization of ERTS data in the study of the long 

drought in Sahelian Africa (subsurface water has been 

located close to usable soils), a marked improvement 

in charting the Amazon and its tributaries, drastic revision of the forestry map of Thailand (with important 

economic implications), and the location of locustbreeding areas in Saudi Arabia. 

Sat e 1 lit e Ins t ru c t i on a 1 Television Experiment 

(SITE).-During 1973, work continued on this 

NASA/Indian experiment. SITE, a l-year experiment 

to be initiated in mid-1975, will involve TV signals 

transmitted from an Indian ground station via the 

NASA ATS-F spacecraft directly to some 2,000 village ground receivers. India is producing all the ground 

equipment and instructional programing. 

Sounding Rockets.-New agreements for cooperative 

or NASA sounding rocket programs were signed with 

Australia, Brazil, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, 

and Sweden. Cooperative launchings occurred from 

ranges in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Sweden, and the 

United States; 

41 
Lunar Sample Program.-Fifty foreign Principal Investigators were selected to participate in the NASA 

Apollo 17 Lunar Sample Program. They represent institutions in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Finland, 

France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Noway, South 

Africa, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the 

European Space Research Organization (ESRO) . 

Tracking and Data Acquisition Cooperation.-Agreements for use of tracking stations abroad were renewed 

with Canada. NASA Advanced Range Instrumented 

Aircraft (ARIA), to support launches, were accommodated by countries on four continents. An agreement for use of the airfield in Mauritius was terminated, and plans were announced for the closing of 

South African facilities. In October-December, NASA 

provided tracking support for the French EOLE satellite while France supported NASA’s Small Astronomy 

Satellite-2 during the first part of the year. 

Disseminating Technology and Benefits 

Technology Utilization Ofice.-This Office has prime 

responsibility for promoting the secondary use in the 

industrial and public sectors of research and development resulting from NASA’s aeronautical and space 

programs. 

Publications issued by this office include Tech 

Briefs-single-page technical summaries of useful new 

materials, devices, methods ; Technical Support Packages-in-depth technical descriptions to support Tech 

Briefs ; Compilations-sets of descriptive briefs on techniques or processes relating to a single field of use; 

and other NASA Special Publications. 

The inventory of NASA Tech Briefs increased again 

in 1973, reaching a total of 5,679. Tech Briefs were 

distributed to approximately 15,000 regular subscribers at industrial organizations and research groups, and 

copies were sent to about 85,000 others upon specific 

request. In addition, more than 25 Compilations, Technology Surveys, and general program materials were 

distributed in response to requests. 

Dissemination is achieved by means of six NASAsponsored Regional Dissemination Centers (RDC) , in 

Connecticut, Indiana, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, 

New Mexico, and California. The centers added 150 

new subscribers. Their income from sales increased 

from $580,600 in 1972 to an estimated $685,000 in 

1973. The Computer Software and Management Information Center (COSMIC) in Athens, GA, increased its inventory of computer software packages. 

During 1973, NASA’s licensing regulations were reissued; the regulations now make it possible to obtain 

exclusive rights to NASA inventions more expeditiously 

following the disclosure of new technology. To spread 

information about applications procedures and patents 

NASA has to offer, the Technology Utilization Program sponsored patent licensing conferences on the 

West coast and in the Northeast sections of the country. In addition, plans were made to conduct meetings 

in other geographical regions. 

Technology Application Projects.-The Technology 

Utilization Office continued its efforts to apply NASA 

technology to problems at Federal, State, and local 

levels. Working closely with other government agencies, 

the Office developed a number of technology applications projects involving State and local governments in 

the effort to transfer “hard” and “soft” technology to 

the public sector. Although it is still in the developmental stage, the effort showed that State and local 

governments may be able to strengthen and improve 

their programs in environmental quality, health care, 

law enforcement, transportation, and public safety by 

participating in the NASA technology transfer program. Projects that appear to be applicable at this level 

include the lead paint detector, the fireman’s life support system, the application of ferrofluids to solid waste 

separation, the drug detector, the low cost fire detection system, the characterization of atmospheric 

aerosols with laser radar (LIDAR), and the detection 

of structural deterioration in bridges. 

In another effort to expedite the transfer of space 

technology to public use, the Technology Utilization 

Office began a program of consultation with the venture capital community. The purpose of this activity 

is to identify organizations willing to invest capital 

in promoting commercial applications of technology. 

University Affairs 

NASA funded 1,45(6 research grants and contracts 

totaling $1 14,900,000 in support of research and space 

flight experiments at 228 universities. A special program was conducted to assure opportunities to minority 

schools to participate in the Nation’s aeronautics and 

space efforts. This program provided 5 1 research grants 

totaling $1,303,000 to 25 minority institutions. 

42 
IV Department of Defense 

Introduction 

Over the past year, satellite communications have 

played a significant role in DOD space activities. The 

Defense Satellite Communication Systems continued to 

provide secure communications in support of critical 

command, control, intelligence, and warning needs. 

Last year the 13 remaining Phase I satellites provided 

essential service to priority users while corrective modifications were completed on the remaining 4 Phase 

I1 satellites. Phase I1 service was terminated in June 

1973 with the failure of the second Phase I1 satellite. 

Launch of the third and fourth satellites in late 1973 

will allow Phase I1 service to be resumed with new 

earth and shipboard terminals, new modulation devices, and existing earth terminals that have been significantly improved over the past year. Progress was 

excellent during the year on the future Fleet Satellite 

Communications System in support of tactical communications requirements of the Navy and Air Force. 

The satellite design has been simplified, the Engineering Model is in design and fabrication, and a production contract was awarded for the Fleet Broadcast 

Receivers. Terminal segment development was begun 

in January 1973 on the Air Force Satellite Communications System which will meet strategic command and 

control needs. The Air Force Satellite Communications System space segment uses the Navy Fleet Satellite Communications System, the Air Force Satellite 

Data System, and global backup capability on other 

DOD satellites. Under a 1970 United Kingdom agreement for a follow-on to their Skynet I1 program, two 

satellites are being built by the United Kingdom, 

with United States manufactured communication subsystems, for launch by the United States in 1974. A 

new agreement was prepared for Skynet I11 communication satellites. .A contract was awarded for the 

United States to develop, procure, and launch two 

satellites in support of the NATO Phase I11 communications satellite program. In support of United States 

and U.S.S.R. Direct Communications Link policy discussions, an earth station for the Molniya system is 

presently being installed in the United States. Both 

the Molniya I1 and INTELSAT satellite systems will 

be used when the Direct Communications Link is 

operational in 1974. During 1973, high quality visual 

and infrared weather data collected by DOD satellites 

for the military forces, were made available to the 

civil/scientific community through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Extensive 

studies, analyses, and experiments have confirmed the 

feasibility of the satellite NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. 

Important events have occurred in major DOD 

aeronautics programs. A decision was made for fullscale development of the A-10 aircraft to provide close 

air support for ground combatants. The B-1 strategic 

bomber for the 1980's is midway in its development 

phase with first flight now scheduled for mid-1974. 

The F/FB-1 1 1 development was completed, and combat operations have shown our all-weather capability 

to attack targets is enhanced. The Navy F-14 carrierbased tactical fighter in flight tests, and in the fleet 

environment, is meeting and, in some cases exceeding, 

stringent design requirements. The Air Force F-15 

advanced tactical fighter is on schedule and 11 aircraft 

delivered to the Air Force are in flight test. Weapons 

delivery accuracy continues to be the hallmark of the 

A-7D attack airplane. Two contractors are each building two Advanced Medium STOL Transport prototypes for flight test to provide a future STOL transport development option. 

Also, two contractors have completed the design 

and are in final fabrication stages of two Light Weight 

Fighter prototypes which are to explore new technology leading to a low cost, high performance, austere 

fighter. All S-3A carrier-based, antisubmarine warfare aircraft milestones have been met; the development program has been very successful; and a contract option for 45 additional aircraft has been 

executed. Full scale development of the E-3A Airborne 

Warning and Control System (AWACS) avionics subsystem was initiated in January 1973 with system integration demonstration scheduled to start early next 

year. Three 747 aircraft procured during 1973 will be 

configured as interim National Emergency Airborne 

Command Posts and a fourth 747 procured in 1973 

will serve as a test-bed aircraft supporting Advanced 

43 528-338 0 - 74 - 4 
Airborne Command Post equipment development. 

The approved procurement of 81 C-5A Heavy Logistics Transport Aircraft has been completed and 77 of 

these have been performing strategic airlift missions 

on a worldwide basis. Development of advanced technology components continued for the austere Heavy 

Lift Helicopter prototype. The Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System development continued on schedule directed toward a competitive fly off. Under the 

Advanced Attack Helicopter development program 

two contractors were selected for a competitive fly off 

program. This development will significantly improve 

the combat effectiveness of our land forces at an affordable price. 

Space Activities 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) .- 

The mission of the DSCS is to provide secure communications in support of critical command, control, 

intelligence, and warning needs and to satisfy unique 

requirements of the President, Department of State, 

and other special users. 

Phase I, the Initial Defense Satellite Communications System (IDSCS), was acquired primarily as a 

research and development system with the additional 

objective to provide an emergency capability to supplement the Defense Communications System. Twentysix small, near-synchronous, low power IDSCS satellites were launched in the period 1966 to 1968. They 

had an expected maximum life of 3 years; however, 

13 are still operational, 3 having failed during 1973. 

Although the failures further reduced the system capability, it continued to provide essential service to 

priority users. 

Development and acquisition of Phase I1 DSCS, the 

follow-on operational system, was approved in 1968. 

The objectives of this phase are to establish an operational military satellite communications system that 

will satisfy unique and vital communications requirements of the United States and other authorized users 

that cannot be fulfilled by other communications 

means. These objectives are being met through the 

development and acquisition of six new, high-power, 

geostationary satellites, new earth and shipboard terminals, new modulation devices, and the modification 

and improvement of earth terminals acquired for the 

IDSCS. 

The first two of the six satellites were dual launched 

on November 2, 1971, utilizing a Titan IIIC booster. 

Technical problems with the satellite, positioned to 

serve the Pacific area, occurred during September 

1972. Similar problems developed in June 1973 with 

the satellite positioned for Atlantic users. Both cases 

resulted in termination of Phase I1 satellite services 

and reversion of users to the IDSCS. To preclude a 

recurrence of these problems with the remaining four 

satellites, corrective modifications were accomplished. 

44 

A dual launch of the third and fourth satellites in December 1973 will enable the resumption of service 

via the Phase I1 satellites in early 1974. 

Continuing progress was made toward modification of the earth terminals, acquired in the IDSCS 

phase, to significantly improve their reliability and 

capability during Phase 11. The Army received relivery 

of an engineering development model of a new heavy 

earth terminal and will separately procure 38 foot 

diameter antennas for medium earth terminals. The 

Army continued the development of new modulation 

and error correction coding equipment for the future 

conversion of the DSCS to a digital system. The Navy 

awarded an engineering development contract for an 

improved shipboard satellite terminal. Pending the 

availability of production models of this terminal, the 

Navy installed interim shipboard satellite terminals 

on two major command ships and is planning to install two additional terminals. 

Extensive studies and hardware design changes were 

accomplished to insure interoperability among DSCS 

users under various operational conditions. Preliminary 

planning was accomplished for the procurement of replenishment satellites, new earth terminals, and modulation equipment to maintain the DSCS as a viable 

system. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System.-The Fleet 

Satellite Communications system (FLTSATCOM) 

objective is to develop and deploy a satellite communications system to satisfy the most urgent, worldwide, 

near-term tactical communications requirements of the 

Navy and Air Force. The contract for the design and 

development of the FLTSATCOM spacecraft Engineering Model was awarded in late 1972. As a result 

of a preliminary design review completed in July 1973, 

a decision was made to simplify the design to reduce 

complexity and provide better launch-weight margin. 

Design fabrication, and testing of the spacecraft Engineering Model was initiated. Coordination for the procurement of the Fleet Broadcast Earth Station was 

completed, and the procurement cycle initiated with a 

production contract awarded for the Fleet Broadcast 

Receivers. Test and evaluation of the ship/submarine 

radio was completed and development of computer 

controlled information exchange subsystem continued. 

Air Force Satellite Communications System.-The 

Air Force Satellite Communications ( AFSATCOM) 

System will provide communications capability via 

satellite to satisfy high priority Air Force requirements 

for command and control of strategic forces. The AF 

SATCOM space segment is comprised of Air Force 

ultra high frequency (UHF communications capability on the Navy Fleet Satellite Communications (FLT 

SATCOM) System and the Air Force Satellite Data 

System (SDS) , and global backup capability on other 
DOD satellites. The AFSATCOM terminal segment 

will consist of airborne, mobile, and fixed terminals. 

The terminal development was begun in January 1973, 

and initial operational testing is scheduled to begin in 

mid-1974. 

International Cooperation.-The United States has 

developed, procured, and launched several advanced 

communications satellites for the United Kingdom and 

NATO. The United Kingdom’s initial communication satellite system, known as Skynet, achieved operational status in 1971. By early 1972, the Skynet 

satellites had failed, making the United Kingdom dependent on NATO and United States satellite resources. Under a 1970 United Kingdom agreement for 

a follow-on Skynet I1 program, two satellites are being 

built by the United Kingdom with United States manufactured communication subsystems. They will be 

launched by the United States in 1974. A new agreement was prepared for Skynet I11 communications 

satellites. 

The NATO Phase I1 communications satellite system 

became operational in 1972, with the orbit of two satellites similar to the United Kingdom Skynet I. One of 

these satellites failed in April 1972. A total of 12 earth 

terminals was operational in 1973. Fursuant to a June 

1972 agreement, a contract was awarded for the 

United States to develop, procure, and launch two 

satellites in support of the NATO Phase I11 communications satellite program. Agreements were completed with NATO and the United Kingdom to cover 

use of NATO and United Kingdom earth terminals by 

the United States in return for NATO and United 

Kingdom use of United States military communication satellites to provide more effective use of the assets 

of both systems and as a contingency against the failure of the remaining satellite. 

Policy discussions having been concluded between 

the United States and U.S.S.R. Government representatives concerning the implementation of the improved Direct Communications Link between the two 

governments, discussions were held regarding technical 

matters and operating procedures. Both the Soviet 

Molniya I1 and the INTELSAT satellite systems will 

be used. Contracts were awarded in 1972 lor the construction and operation of the U.S. earth terminal for 

use via the Soviet Molniya system and for the telegraph coders to meet both United States and U.S.S.R. 

requirements. The earth station and terminal equipment for the Molniya system are presently being installed in the United States. The improved Direct 

Communications Link is scheduled to become operational in 1974. 

Defense Systems Application Program (DSAP) .- 

This space program provides timely, high-quality visual 

and infrared weather data to DOD military forces. The 

satellites operate in two modes, stored and direct. In 

the stored mode, data are recorded worldwide, then 

transmitted from the satellite to the Air Force Global 

Weather Central in Nebraska for processing and use. 

In the direct mode, the satellite transmits real-time 

images of the local surface clouds to mobile terminals 

at key locations throughout the world. The terminal at 

Hawaii, for example, provided daily support to the 

Skylab mission to insure splashdown occurred in an 

area of clear weather. In December of 1972, the data 

from this program were declassified and made available to the civil/scientific community through the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) . 

Navigation Satellite Activity.-There are no existing 

navigation systems which can provide precise allweather, worldwide, three-dimensional position and 

velocity data in a common reference grid for military 

users. Space technology provides the potential to 

achieve such a capability with a single navigation and 

positioning system. 

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) 

is a major triservice development effort for such a 

space-based system. It is planned to be fully operational in the 1980’s. To date, extensive studies, analyses, and experiments using prototype equipment have 

confirmed the feasibility of attaining extremely accurate positioning and navigation with such a system. 

Under Air Force lead this program will emphasize 

desigLi of equipment for minimum life cycle costs and 

early full demonstration of operational utility. During 

1973, the Navy completed fabrication of the first of 

several technology satellites. The first launch will be 

in 1974 and be part of the joint service effort to validate 

the concepts of GPS. The Army conducted exploratory receiver development and tests in a navigatioAi 

satellite ground-based simulation environment at 

White Sands Missile Range. Participation by civil 

agencies in the development program is being 

encouraged. 

The Navy continued to investigate near term improvements to the existing space-based navigation aid, 

the Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT). 

Three improvement flight tests have been plamed. The 

first satellite, launched in September 1972, included 

testing of a Disturbance Compensation System (DISCOS) to detect orbit disturbances caused by solar 

radiation pressure and atmospheric drag and to compensate for these disturbances in order to improve system accuracy. Conceptual and circuit design of a 

second improved experimental satellite has been completed. Engineering, analysis, design, and construction 

of this new experimental satellite continued during 

1973. The third configuration is still under study. 

45 
Titan ZIZ.--The Titan I11 family of launch vehicles 

continues to serve for the bulk of DOD satellite 

launches. There has been a total of 72 Titan I11 

launches, and an additional 28 launch vehicles are on 

order to meet firm mission requirements. The first 

launch of a Titan I11 modified to launch a NASA 

Centaur upper stage is scheduled for January 1974. 

Space Ground Support 

DOD National Range and Tracking Facilities.-Department of Defense space activities are principally 

supported by the Air Force Eastern Test Range, Western Test Range and Satellite Control Facility, and by 

the Army’s White Sands Missile Range. These facilities 

are available to other Government agencies that may 

require their support. 

Eartern Test Range (ETR).-In 1973 the Air Force 

ETR provided continuing support for DOD space 

and missile operations, NASA space programs, and 

commercial satellites launched from the Cape Canaveral, Fla., area. This support included range safety, 

launch, and data acquisition functions. Improvement 

and modernization of the range instrumentation complex are in progress to achieve more efficient operation 

and provide required capability to satisfy user test 

requirements. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR).-The Army 

WSMR continued to provide grouad support to DOD 

and NASA aeronautics and space programs. A full 

spectrum of ground support was provided including 

technical data from instrumentation such as telemetry, 

radar, optical systems, real-time trajectory, and digital 

computers for the analyses of tests and flight safety. 

NASA program support included the Skylab calibration rocket program, an upper atmospheric rocket 

sounding program using the Aerobee rocket vehicle, 

numerous smaller rocket systems, and a variety of astronomical test programs. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF) .-During 1973, the 

workload remained relatively stable for the SCF. 

Preparatory efforts were underway for improved communication and data system capabilities. The completion of these efforts will result in a more responsive 

network with greater reliabilty. The last of the three 

new 46-feet antennas was completed at the Vandenberg Tracking Station completing the update of the 

three dual stations. 

Western Test Range.-The Space and Missile Test 

Center (SAMTEC) continued to operate the WTR 

in support of space and ballistic missile launches from 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, Calif. The last WTR 

Range Instrumentation Ship, the USNS Huntsville, 

has been placed in wet storage. This ship will be deactivated in 1974. The WTR has continued to selectively 

improve range instrumentation in order to meet range 

user requirements. The new midcourse radar at Kaena 

Point, Oahu, Hawaii, is operational. SAMTEC has 

entered into a joint procurement with the Navy and 

Army for three new Digital Instrumentation Radars. 

These small, highly reliable, transportable radars will 

be used to provide precise tracking information in 

order to enhance range safety. 

Aeronautical Activities 

A-IO Close Air Support Aircraft.-The Air Force 

completed its competitive prototype evaluation of the 

A-X candidates, the A-9 and A-10, for the close air 

support mission for which design requirements stressed 

responsiveness, maneuverability, survivability, and 

simplicity along with low cost. Early in 1973 full scale 

development of the winning A-X prototype, the A-10, 

was initiated. 

Development testing of the A-10 prototypes (two) 

has been continued with over 400 flight hours accumulated by mid-October 1973. One A-10 is going through 

a series of aerodynamic tests, while the other is being 

instrumented for airload tests. The A-10 “most probable” unit flyaway cost estimate is $1.7 million (1970 

dollars). However, the design-to-cost target is $1.5 

million. 

E-I Bomber Program.-The B-1 bomber is being 

developed in anticipation of the need for a more 

capable strategic aircraft for the 1980’s and beyond. In 

July 1973, an assessment of progress schedule, cost, and 

risk factors resulted in a revision to the development 

schedule. The program is midway in its development 

phase with first flight of the B-1 now scheduled for 

midyear 1974. 

The first of the three prototype aircraft is in final 

assembly with all major systems installed. The prototype engines have accumulated over 2,400 test hours. 

The planned first increment of the flight test program 

will consist of a three-vehicle, 22 calendar month 

period of engineering development testing necessary 

to expand the flight envelop and permit evaluation of 

key development and operational issues. 

FIFB-212 Aircraft.-Development of the F/FB-111 

is complete and the production deliveries remain on 

schedule with 14 of the currently authorized F-1 11’s 

remaining to be delivered as of November 1, 1973. 

Forty-eight F-1 1 1’s were deployed to Southeast Asia 

to conduct single aircraft, night, adverse weather 

bombing strikes. The operation and tactics employed 

were satisfactory and demonstrated an enhanced 

capability to attack targets around the clock in near 

all weather conditions. 
F-14 Carrier-Based Tactical Fighter.-Based on results to date the airplane is meeting and in some cases 

is exceeding the stringent requirements carefully detailed for the F-14 by the Navy in 1968. In flight tests, 

as well as in the fleet training environment, the F-14A 

is proving to be a highly maneuverable and agile fighter, 

and it has clearly demonstrated its air superiority 

capability against all versions of current fleet fighter 

aircraft. Additionally, the F-14A has successfully 

demonstrated the capability to fulfill the Fleet Air Defense role by virtue of its multitrack, multishot Phoenix 

air-to-air missile firings, achieving an unprecedented 

92 percent hit success ratio. By October 1973, 36 F-14 

aircraft had accumulated 5,900 flight hours. 

F-15 Advanced Tactical Fighter.-The F-15 program 

is proceeding on schedule. Eleven aircraft have been 

delivered to the Air Force. These aircraft are being 

used in flight test to investigate flight characteristics 

and to demonstrate flight performance of the aircraft/ 

engine and associated subsystems such as avionics and 

armament. Over 12,000 test flights had been conducted 

by the end of 1973. 

A-7D Attack Airplane.-Production deliveries of the 

A-7D airplane continued. The modernization program 

for the reserve forces was highlighted by the delivery 

of a new-production airplane to the Air National Guard 

on September 19, 1973. Weapons delivery accuracy 

continues to be the hallmark of A-7D operational 

effectiveness. 

Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) Prototypes.-The objective of the AMST prototype program is to design, fabricate, and evaluate turbofan 

powered, advanced technology, prototype aircraft in 

order to provide a STOL transport development option for the modernization of the tactical airlift force. 

Two contractors began building two aircraft each in 

January 1973. Engines were selected, preliminary 

design completed, extensive wind tunnel tests conducted, some engineering drawings released and initial 

parts manufactured. Flight testing for the YC-14 and 

YC-15 prototypes is scheduled to begin in the summer 

and fall of 1975. 

Lightweight Fighter Prototype Program.-This Air 

Force program will explore the advantages of promising new technology. Two contractors each have completed the design and are in final fabrication stages of 

two prototype lightweight fighter aircraft. A joint Air 

Force-contractor flight test evaluation will commence 

in early 1974 to determine the feasibility and operational practicality of potentially lower cost, high performance, relatively austere fighter aircraft that incorporate new aerodynamic concepts and design ideas. 

S3-A Carrier-Based Antisubmarine Warfare Aircraft.-In October 1973, the Navy procured the third 

production lot of 45 S-3A aircraft after the prime contractor met the long standing milestone of delivering 

the first four production aircraft to the Navy for use 

in Board of Inspection and Survey Trials. This milestone was met ahead of schedule, as have been all 

previous milestones with the S-3A program. This also 

marks the near completion of an extensive development 

effort in which over 3,600 flight hours were flown, including over 120 hours operating with a submarine 

target in a real-world environment. The S-3A development program is considered as having been very 

successful. 

E3A Airborne Warning and Control System 

(A WACS).-Full scale development of the AWACS 

mission avionics subsystems (da.ta processor, communication, navigation, display, and identification) , was 

initiated in January 1973. NATO interest in AWACS 

has been stimulated through an April 1973 evaluation 

in Europe of the AWACS radar development system 

and subsequent discussions with NATO officials. Modification of the radar development system in preparation for a system integration demonstration commenced 

in September 1973. Long lead procurement for production aircraft started in November 1973. Fabrication of three development test evaluation systems was 

started in January 1973 and system integration demonstration will be conducted between March and October 

of 1974. 

E-4A/B Advanced Airborne Command Post 

(AABNCP).-The AANBCP will provide the National Command Authorities (NCA) and Strategic Air 

Command (SAC) with a significantly improved and 

highly survivable airborne command, control and 

communication ( C3) center that will operate during 

all phases of general war. These aircraft will accommodate larger battle staffs and improved C3 equipment, and will enable the NCA and SAC to more 

effectively and flexibly control our general war forces 

throughout international crisis situations. 

Four 747 aircraft were procured during 1973. The 

first three aircraft will 'be configured as interim National Emergency Airborne Command Posts (NEACP) 

'by transferring the equipment from present NEACP 

EC-135's. The fourth 747 will be used as a test bed 

aircraft to support development and test of the advanced C3 equipment. 

C-5A Heavy Logistics Transport Aircraft.-The mission of the C-5A is to provide a fast reaction capability 

to airlift combat or support units worldwide under 

general war, limited war, and peacetime conditions. 

It is capable of air dropping troops and equipment. 

The aircraft is designed to match material with man47 
power mobility. The approved procurement of 81 aircraft has been completed. Seventy-seven of these are 

assigned to the Military Airlift Command (MAC) 

and have been performing strategic airlift missions on 

a worldwide basis. Two aircraft are in test and refurbishment programs, and two have been lost in ground 

accidents. Operational aircraft have achieved over 

100,000 flying hours. C-5’s flew approximately 150 

missions from October 15 to November 15 to resupply 

Israeli forces. They delivered about 11,000 tons of 

supplies, almost half the total tonnage delivered by 

MAC aircraft. The remaining tonnage was carried by 

C-141 aircraft in 420 missions. 

Fatigue life of the C-5 continued to be a subject 

of concern. Flight and fuel management techniques 

and an active lift distribution control system to reducc 

stress on critical wing areas have been implemented as 

measures to increase fatigue life. Service life is expected 

to increase from 6,500 to between 11,000 and 17,000 

hours. Instruments are being added to all C-5 aircraft 

to record wing stress. Design work on possible modified 

wing sections has been initiated. The decision to modify 

the wing will depend on operational experience factors. 

Heavy Lift Helicopter (HLH).-The basic HLH 

program goal is to field a tandem rotor, three engine, 

crane-type helicopter designed to carry externally bulk 

cargo, to off load containerships, and to move heavy 

tactical equipment. Development of advanced technology components for the HLH, such as the flight 

control system, rotor drive system, and cargo handling 

system, has been underway since 1971. The newly developed fly-byewire flight control system ,has been 

successfully demonstrated in fight, and tests of the 

individual components will be completed in June 

1974. A single austere prototype aircraft will be built 

to test these advanced technology components, verify 

the HLH technology and assure that mission requirements can be met. First flight of this prototype is 

planned for August 1975. 

Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System 

(UTTAS) .-The Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft 

System (UTTAS) will be the Army’s first true assault 

lift helicopter capable of carrying an infantry squad. 

It is designed to lift 11 combat-equipped infantrymen 

in a tactical troop assault and other related missions 

now performed by the UH-1 series helicopter. Sizing 

and other design parameters were chosen with a view 

towards reducing life cycle costs. As a result, cost 

effectiveness will be the primary state-of-the-art advancement achieved by the UTTAS. The UTTAS 

will have an increased payload over the UH-1 helicopter which will reduce the number of troop carrying helicopters that are required. The UTTAS will 

exhibit substantially improved maintainability, reliability, survivability, and performance. The Army 

48 

awarded airframe contracts in August 1972 for a competitive fly-off. In March 1972, a contract was signed 

for the development and procurement of the UTTAS 

engine. The UTTAS development is proceeding on 

schedule with no major problems. The engine has accumulated over 700 hours of test cell operation. 

Advanced Attack Helicopter.-Proposals in response 

to the Army’s solicitation for bids were received from 

five companies. Contracts were awarded on June 22, 

1973, to two companies to develop prototypes for a 

competitive flyoff. A stringent design to cost goal of 

$1.6 million (1972 dollars) average unit flyaway 

recurring cost in production has been established. The 

objective of the program is to acquire a weapon system that will significantly improve the combat eff ectiveness of our land forces at an affordable price. 

Supporting Research and Development 

Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC) .- 

AEDC provides environmental simulation testing for 

all major aeronautical, missile, and space programs 

under development as well as existing operational systems problems as they evolve. DOD programs supported by AEDC include Minuteman, F-15, B-1, 

A-10, Trident (ULMS), Safeguard, AWACS, SRAM, 

SCAD, Advanced Ballistic Re-Entry System 

(ABRES), Lightweight Fighter, advanced transport, 

Poseidon, and advanced technology programs. AEDC 

has provided significant environmental test support for 

NASA on the Apollo progam and is presently planning 

to support the Space Shuttle program. 

ARPA MAUl Optical Station (AMOS).-The objectives of AMOS are to provide radiation signatures 

of ballistic missiles and space objects, and to serve as 

a test bed for the development of optical techniques to 

characterize exoatmospheric objects. The Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) Maui Observation Station has continued its optical research 

program using two 48-inch and one 60-inch telescopes. A variety of target measurements were made 

on missile targets launched at the Western Test Range 

and on orbiting space objects. The station provided 

measurements support to the early phases of the NASA 

Skylab program. Two new sensor systems became operational in 1973, a multicolor infrared tracking radiometer with spectral coverage from 3 to 22 microns 

and a high brightness ruby laser illumination system. 

A new computer tracking system has improved the 

capability of precision pointing of the large telescopes. 

DARPA501 Space Experiment.-This experiment, 

launched into orbit in October 1972, was designed 

to accomplish a survey of the radiation background 

in space from a 400-nautical-mile polar orbit. One of 
the spectrometers continued to provide gamma ray 

spectra for its orbital environment through May 1973, 

and all five of the charged particle detectors are still 

operational. The experiment has successfully characterized the radiation background caused by interaction 

of charged particles with the satellite itself and by the 

processes taking place in the atmosphere under a 

variety of conditions. 

Solar Radiation (SOLRAD) Monitoring Satellite 

Program.-The planned space environment monitoring and forecasting system consists of a two-satellite 

constellation, deployed in a 70,000 NM circular orbit, 

and existing ground facilities for telemetry acquisition, 

command, data processing, and dissemination. Each 

satellite, designated SOLRAD-HI (Solar RadiationHigh Altitude), will be equipped with detectors sensitive to changes of solar electromagnetic (X-ray, UV) 

and particle (protons, solar wind) emissions. Component and subsystem design and fabrication continued, 

leading to a planned 1975 launch. 

Environmental Remote Sensing.-The Navy has a 

continuing need for global environmental information 

to support fleet air, surface, and subsurface operations. 

Weather information is required for aircraft carrier operations, ship navigation, and storm evasion. Oceanographic information is needed for submarine warfare 

operations and for safe routing of ships. Since traditional environmental measurements from the vast 

ocean areas of the world are extremely sparse, airborne 

and satellite remote sensing techniques provide a 

unique means of acquiring these measurements. 

The need for real-time weather data aboard ship is 

being met through the development of the satellite 

readout equipment which has been operating successfully in a feasibility status aboard ship for 2 years. The 

acquisition of environmental satellite data to meet the 

Navy’s global weather and oceanographic forecasting 

responsibilities is being accomplished through the development of a Satellite Data Processing System co-located 

with the Fleet Numerical Weather Central at Monterey, Calif. This system utilizes data selectively from 

existing satellite systems. The hardware specifications 

for the system were completed in 1973. Satellite sensor 

technology effort is directed to the attainment of allweather measurement of sea surface temperature, sea 

state, and other oceanographic parameters necessary 

for a complete operational capability. Airborne measurements in conjunction with Skylab as well as cooperation with NASA and NOAA in planning of 

experiments for GEOS C, NIMBUS-G, SEASAT-A, 

and GOES have complemented this development. 

Composite Materials for Military Aircraft.-The Air 

Force program in composites continues to emphasize 

the use of boron/epoxy and graphite/epoxy materials. 

The objective is to demonstrate the advantages of 

composite materials through the design, fabrication, 

and performance evaluation of specific major structural components. Static tests of a graphite/epoxy fullscale mid and aft fuselage portion of an F-5 aircraft 

demonstrated weight savings of 15 percent. Satisfactory 

progress is being achieved in another program to demonstrate the advantages of advanced composites in a 

fighter-wing application. Other projects with composites are focused on reducing the costs of the basic 

materials and developing low cost fabrication techniques to yield a composite structure at a price per 

pound equivalent to metallic structures. 

An Army program to fabricate and test main rotor 

blades for an AH-1G (COBRA) helicopter, constructed of multiple tubular spars, is underway. These 

blades are made of composite materials and offer a 

significant reduction in radar reflectivity and improved 

resistance to ballistic damage. Programs to fabricate 

such items as rotor hubs, transmission housings, and 

other drive train components from composite materials 

are in progress. Progress has permitted the design of a 

monocoque/sandwich aft fuselage for future tactical 

and utility helicopters. Preliminary conceptual designs 

of composite modular panels for large heavy lift helicopters indicate that advanced-composite helicopter 

airframe structures can provide significant system cost 

advantages in the 1980’s. Progress has also been made 

in the development of composite materials for aircraft 

windshields. 

Advanced Aircraft Propulsion.-Engineering development of the 1,500 shp Utility Tactical Transport 

Aircraft System (UTTAS) engine is proceeding on 

schedule to achieve design power. Emphasis upon the 

human factors aspect of maintainability will significantly reduce the maintenance man-hour costs over the 

life of this advanced technology engine. The modular 

aspect of this new engine is proving extremely helpful 

in test cell assembly and tear down. 

The Small Turbine Advanced Gas Generator 

(STAGG) program design phase was completed in 

October 1972, and initial gas generator tests commenced in September 1973. This advanced development will integrate the essential gas generator components for engine environment tests. STAGG technology will support future Army aircraft and auxiliary 

powerplants in the 200-1,000 shp range. 

A major success of the Army’s aeronautical propulsion program has been the development of efficient 

analytical methods for the design of small high 

temperature combustors. A combustor recently designed and fabricated on the basis of these new 

analytical techniques immediately achieved almost all 

its design performance parameters. The significant impmvements in combustion efficiency (99%) and 

demonstrated compliance with 1975 proposed EPA 

49 
regulations for this class of aircraft propulsion engine 

indicate tremendous potential for weight reduction and 

lower emissions. Comparable to the technological advance in combustor design, was the achievement of 

single-stage pressure-ratio of 10: 1 at 74 percent 

thermodynamic efficiency for the 3-5 Ibs/sec class of 

compressors. The demonstrated increase in compression results in a 20 percent or better reduction in 

specific fuel consuinption for future small gas turbines 

and translates into increased range or higher payload 

for a specific fuel load. 

Helicopter Rotor Dynamics.-Improvements in the 

responsiveness, efficiency, and utility of helicopters are 

achieved through progress in the structural dynamics 

of rotor blades. A sophisticated dynamics research 

model of a helicopter rotor system has been completed 

and is now available for research testing. By selecting 

different combinations of springs, rotor characteristics 

can be varied from those representative of stiff, hingeless rotors to those of fully articulated systems. Data 

obtained from use of this research model will allow, 

for the first time, comparison between theory and test 

data over a broad range of parametric structural 

variables. 

Fluidic Stabilization System for Helicopters.-Flight 

tests of a three-axis advanced hydrofluidic stabilization 

system (autopilot) were initiated in August 1973. The 

system is being tested on a UH-1M helicopter. Hydrofluidic controls promise improved reliability, lower 

cost, reduced maintenance requirements, and decreased system vulnerability over the electromechanical 

stabilization systems currently in use. 

Helicopter Noise Reduction.-Acoustic detectability 

is a major factor in helicopter survivability. An investigation to explore potential methods of noise reduction 

for a tilt-rotor aircraft emphasized quantification of 

aircraft performance, weight, and far-field rotor 

acoustic signature for their dependency on selected design parameters. This is the first step leading to an assessment of the performance and weight trade-offs 

that are required to achieve noise reduction by the most 

promising design. The Army will be able to establish 

the price in performance and/or dollars of further 

reducing the noise of the proposed tilt-rotor aircraft. 

A unique test facility is well on the way to completion, 

and once acoustic modifications are complete, it will 

be available for research on basic mechanisms of rotary 

wing aerodynamic sound generation and their correlation with performance parameters. 

Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPV’s) .-The objective 

of the program is to produce a family of vehicles that 

will complement manned aircraft by performing a 

variety of missions where crew attrition would be high 

or where RPV’s show cost savings without loss in effectiveness. RPV’s will be developed to demonstrate a 

capability to perform high altitude, long endurance, 

relay missions, and low and medium altitude tactical 

missions, such as reconnaissance, target acquisition, 

and electronic warfare. Specific prototype developments 

underway on subsystems include command and control, data transmission, advanced navigation, airframes, launch, and recovery and the integration of 

various sensor payloads with the RPV’s. Mission concepts are being refined to insure employment of RPV’s 

in the most effective manner. 

Relationship With NASA 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

(AACB).-The AACB serves as the principal formal 

coordinating body between the DOD and NASA. The 

Board met four times over the past year concentrating 

on providing broad policy guidance on major problems of concern to both agencies in the field of space 

and aeronautics. The Board continued to support the 

High Reynolds Number Tunnel (HIRT) , the Aeropropulsion System Test Facility (ASTF) , and the Full 

Scale Subsonic Wind Tunnel as vital to our future 

national aeronautical needs. The AACB will continue 

to develop a total advocacy package, covering these new 

national facilities. The Board agreed that HIRT has 

the highest national priority and NASA supports the 

DOD in acquiring this facility for acquisition with a 

1978 availability date as the first of the jointly advocated new national facilities. The NASA intermediate High Reynolds Number research facility may 

be included, after further AACB review, in the total 

national program plan on an appropriate priority basis. 

In the space area, the AACB undertook a review of 

DOD/NASA planning leading to a decision on the 

kind of a Shuttle upper stage that is needed and which 

agency should develop the upper stage. The Board 

cochairmen agreed that the planners of both agencies 

should emphasize modest upper stage approaches offering the least risk which will meet established needs. A 

tentative agreement was reached that the DOD will 

develop the initial upper stage for the Space Shuttle. 

This initial stage will be a modification of an existing 

expendable upper stage. 

Space Shuttle.-Over the past year, the DOD and 

NASA have worked closely in their respective rolesNASA as the Shuttle developer and the DOD as an 

important future user of the Space Shuttle. The DOD 

continued to strongly support this development. Coordination and planning goals are : ( 1 ) to insure that 

NASA knows and understands DOD needs so that the 

Space Shuttle, as developed, will be of maximum 

50 
utility for military payloads; (2) to provide data essential to planning and to support decisions leading to 

future use of the Shuttle; (3) to fully explore ways 

DOD can benefit most from the Shuttle’s unique 

capabilities; and, (4) to coordinate with NASA our 

Shuttle related activities with a view to the best possible 

use of resources available to both agencies. For planning purposes DOD has considered December 1982 as 

a target date for initial Shuttle launches from Vandenburg Air Force Base. In accord with the tentative 

agreement, the Air Force is now planning to provide 

the initial upper stage for use with the Space Shuttle. 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA) .-The 

joint Army/NASA program to develop two RSRA 

made significant progress in 1973. Two detailed proposals were evaluated, a winner was selected, and a 

contract was awarded in November for the design, 

fabrication, and flight test of the two RSRA. Delivery is 

expected in 1976. The RSRA will provide a much 

needed and unique capability for research on new 

rotor concepts, rotorcraft components and subsystems, 

and composite material structures on a common, fully 

instrumented test bed. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft.-The Army and NASA 

are jointly developing and testing a tilt-rotor research 

aircraft to advance the state-of-the-art of the tilt rotor 

concept and verify the technology base heretofore 

established by DOD, NASA, and the industry. The preliminary design of the research aircraft was completed in March 1972, and a contract for the fabrication and flight testing of two tilt rotor aircraft was 

signed in July 1973. The first flight of the aircraft is 

scheduled for June 1976. 

Medical Projects.-Biomedical support and studies rerelated to aeronautics and space flight have been provided by the Naval Aerospace Medical Research 

Laboratory, Pensacola, Fla. Vectorcardiograms obtained under weightless conditions aboard Skylab are 

undergoing evaluation. Assessment of the nuclear 

emulsions used to monitor radiation exposure of 

Apollo and Skylab astronauts continued. Studies on 

the effects of very strong magnetic field and of magnetic 

field free environments on man and animals were 

completed. Improved techniques for measuring 

changes in electrooculogram and electroencephalogram 

signals as a function of motion sickness severity levels 

are being derived. 

51 
V Atomic Energy Commission 

Introduction 

The AEC’s space nuclear systems program during 

1973 had four major objectives; i.e., (1) to develop 

and provide radioisotope thermoelectric generators 

(RTG’s) for scheduled DOD and NASA flight missions, (2) to evaluate and develop the improved and 

lower cost technologies required to meet the demands 

of projected requirements in the future, (3) to extend 

space technology to potential terrestrial energy applications, and (4) to continue with NASA the joint 

development of isotopic heat for spacecraft thermal 

functions. The former program emphasis which included a major effort on nuclear propulsion and reactor power systems was modified early in 1973 with 

the decision to discontinue the space orientation of the 

propulsion and reactor power programs. A small effort directed toward basic technology improvements 

and toward applying these space technologies to terrestrial energy related applications was continued. 

Nuclear space power systems offer some unique 

technical characteristics which make them mandatory 

in some space missions and advantageous in many 

others. They are not dependent upon the sun as a 

source of energy; are relatively resistant to external 

radiation; and are relatively unaffected by harsh or 

hostile environments. Thus, outer planetary missions, 

where sunlight is scarce or where hostile environments will be encountered, will require nuclear systems. In addition, those earth-oriented missions which 

have a strong requirement for radiation resistance, 

environmental independence or freedom from orbital 

constraints can best be satisfied through the use of 

nuclear energy. Over the past decade, 16-isotopicpowered RTG systems have been launched and 6 more 

are scheduled during the next 4 years. 

Space Electric Power 

SNAP-27/ALSEP.-The five SNAP-27 radioisotope 

thermoelectric generators (RTG’s) placed on the lunar 

surface by the Apollo astronauts continued to operate 

in excess of design requirements throughout the year. 

The first unit has now been in continuous operation 

for over 4 years. The design goal was a minimum of 

63 watts after 1 year and all five generators have now 

surpassed that goal. 

Transit RTG.-The RTG used in the Navy Transit 

Navigation Satellite, launched in September 1972, continued operating throughout the year. The design 

power is 30 watts after 5 years and, based on indirect 

measurements, the RTG power level appears to be 

in accordance with design expectations. 

Jupiter Spacecraft.-On April 5, 1973, the Pioneer 

11 spacecraft was launched on its long journey to fly 

by the planet Jupiter. Like its predecessor, Pioneer 10, 

it is powered by four Pu-238 isotopically fueled thermoelectric generators. Each generator is designed to provide a minimum of 30 watts or a total of 120 watts 

of electrical power during the spacecraft’s nearly 2- 

year, 500-million-mile journey and flyby of the big 

planet. 

Pioneer 10 fulfilled its basic mission objectives when 

it passed by Jupiter in early December of this year. It 

provided the power by which man’s first close-range 

scientific observations of this important planet were 

made and has contributed significantly to the understanding of our solar system. As of the end of 1973, 

the spacecraft was 25 million miles (beyond Jupiter and 

still functioning. The long life capability of the generators should allow the spacecraft to continue transmitting information back to Earth on the nature of 

the heliosphere for several years as it proceeds on its 

journey through the solar system and eventually Qn out 

into interstellar space. 

Pioneer 11 has completed approximately one half of 

its journey and is scheduled to reach Jupiter in late 

1974. The generators are currently operating within 

design expectations and should continue to operate well 

past Jupiter. If appropriate, the mission trajectory may 

be altered to extend its mission course to fly by the 

planet Saturn. 

Viking Mars Lander.-The two Viking Mars Lander 

missions scheduled for launch during the summer of 

1975 are also scheduled to use Pioneer-type isotopic 

generators. Two generators will be required for each 

of the lander missions. Final modifications were made 

53 
during 1973 to adapt the generator design to the Martian environment and to meet the slightly higher power 

requirements of the lander missions, i.e., a minimum 

of 35 watts per generator or a total of 70 watts after 

2 years. Two electrically heated engineering generators 

were fabricated and delivered to NASA in mid-1973 for 

integration testing. A prototype set of isotopically 

fueled generators was also fabricated, tested, and delivered. 

Multihundred Watt (MHW) Flight Missions-LES 

8/9 and MIS.-For several years, the AEC has been 

developing a higher powered, multihundred watt 

( MHW) isotopically fueled thermoelectric generator. 

This system will be flown for the first time in early 

1975 as the sole power supply for the DOD’s Lincoln 

Experimental Satellite (LES 8/9). Then, in 1977 this 

same system, adapted to outer planetary environments, 

will be used as the power supply for the two Mariner 

Jupiter/Saturn (M JS) spacecrafts scheduled for 

launch in that year. 

During 1973, the program was concentrated on the 

LES 8/9 mission. The design of the basic generator 

system was completed and qualification testing of the 

generator and isotopic heat source was initiated. Fabrication of the flight units for the LES program began 

during the latter part of the year. The basic generator 

is a modular unit designed to provide a minimum of 

125 watts of electrical power after 5 years of continuous 

operation. Higher power levels are achieved by using 

multiple units. The LES program will use two generators for 250 watts and the MJS program will require 

three for nearly 400 watts. A separate contract is 

currently being negotiated for the efforts associated 

with the Mariner Jupiter/Saturn mission. 

Low-Cost, High-Performance Generator Technology.-Future mission projections show a continuing 

need for radioisotope systems through the 1970’s and on 

into the 1980’s. Currently, the two major mission categories are the DOD’s SURVSATCOM satellite network and NASA’s continuing outer planetary 

exporation program. Both categories could require 

many systems for multiple launches. However, performance and cost requirements for the nuclear power 

system are significantly more stringent than those imposed on current systems. The SURVSATCOM goals 

are a reduction in costs by a factor of 4 to 5 and a 

significant reduction in weight. Decreased cost and 

significant reduction in weight are also important in 

the outer planetary missions where mission viability 

will become increasingly cost oriented and where total 

spacecraft weight is restricted by the overall booster 

capability. 

To meet these increased performance criteria, effort 

was initiated in 1973 on a low-cost, high-performance 

generator technology. The goal will be selection of a 

54 

reference system design by mid-1976 with development 

completed by the late 1970’s. Studies were conducted 

during 1973, under DOD funding, to identify the performance potential of various technologies and to provide a basis for selection of those heat source and 

converter technologies which should receive emphasis 

in 1974. 

Reactor Program Termination.-Early in 1973, the 

decision was made to discontinue the space-oriented 

reactor power system development efforts. The programs affected were the thermionic reactor development effort for high-power space systems and the 

Zirconium-Hydride/Compact Converter reactor thermoelectric efforts for medium power systems. Both programs were joint AEC/NASA sponsored efforts. 

The thermionic reactor development efforts were 

phased out by the middle of the year except for a low 

level of effort on basic thermionic conversion technology. This effort is directed toward applying the principles of thermionic conversion which has good 

potential for application to terrestrial energy related 

uses such as topping cycles for electric generating plants 

or remote location power supplies. Laboratory type experiments were carried out during the year to verify 

the feasibility of the theoretical performance improvements which are required if such a technology is to 

have any real terrestrial application potential. 

The Zirconium-Hydride/Compact Converter reactor thermoelectric efforts were reduced to a minimum 

level pending an evaluation of the potential future 

DOD needs for nuclear power systems. A skeleton technical capability was maintained. This would allow the 

program to be restarted at a minimal cost should such 

a need be identified. The joint DOD/AEC study to 

assess the future DOD needs began in the middle of 

the year and is scheduled for completion early in 1974. 

Nuclear Propulsion Program Termination 

With the termination of the NERVA program in 

1972, the continuing nuclear propulsion efforts had 

been centered at the AEC’s Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in New Mexico and the Nuclear Rocket Development Station in Nevada. Early in 1973, the decision was made to discontinue all space-oriented nuclear 

propulsion development efforts and the programs at 

these two locations were phased out by the middle of 

the year. Facilities were deactivated and any usable 

equipment was transferred to other Federal programs. 

The essential technology accomplishments were preserved through appropriate documentation and/or 

storage of reports and records in Federal record centers. 

A low level of effort was authorized late in the year 

to evaluate the potential of applying nuclear rocket 

reactor technology to terrestrial energy related applications; eg., thermochemical hydrogen production or 
process heat applications such as coal gasification or 

liquefaction. The effort includes both basic technical 

and systems feasibility studies. 

Isotopic Heat for Spacecraft Thermal Functions 

The Atomic Energy Commission and the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration have been involved in a joint effort for the past several years utilizing isotopic heat for spacecraft operations. The 

following joint effort projects were underway during 

1973: 

Pioneer 11 Jupiter Spacecraft.-Twelve, one-watt 

heaters were utilized on the Pioneer 11 spacecraft, 

launched in 1973, to heat the guidance system, sun 

sensor and magnetometer from the outer space extreme 

cold. 

Waste Management Water Recovery Life Support 

System for Spacecraft.-This four-man system was 

tested for 180 days utilizing isotopic heat for the 

thermal input to the process. This system provides 

drinking water recovery from urine condensate and 

wash water. It also disposes of all nonmetal trash and 

human waste. 

Trace Contaminate Removal Catalytic Oxidizer.- 

Isotopic heat is used in this system to remove trace 

contaminate gases from spacecraft cabin atmosphere. 

This system would be used by manned spacecraft in 

longer duration missions. 

55 
Introduction 

Growth of international space cooperation in support of foreign policy objectives and the National 

Aeronautics and Space Act was a matter of high priority to the Department of State during 1973. Attention 

continued to be focused both on expanded cooperation with individual countries and on space endeavors 

with multilateral and international organizations. 

Major achievements of the year were the finalization and conclusion of an agreement with nine European countries for the development in Europe of a 

laboratory module to be used in conjunction with the 

U.S. Space Shuttle System, and the increased cooperative activity with the U.S.S.R. pursuant to the Summit 

Agreement of May 24, 1972, in space science and applications, and the Joint Apollo/Soyuz Test Project. 

Other areas of interest were international cooperation 

in communications satellite systems, ratification of the 

Outer Space Liability Convention, and an expansion of 

interest and activities in Earth resources satellite 

programs. 

Activities Within the United Nations 

The United States continued to play a leading role 

in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses 

of Outer Space and its subsidiary organs, giving substantial support to the U.N. program of information 

and promotion concerning space technology applications and participating actively in the further development of international law applicable to outer space. 

In this connection, with the deposit of instruments of 

ratification by the United States, United Kingdom, 

and U.S.S.R. on October 9, the Outer Space Liability 

Convention entered into force for the three countries. 

Working Group on Remote Sensing.-The achievements of ERTS-1, the experimental satellite designed 

to survey Earth resources and the environment 

launched in July 1972, have been warmly applauded by 

the international community. Nevertheless, the very 

success of ERTS-1 stimulated concerns among some 

countries that this new technology may become a 

threat to national control over natural resources. Growing demands for an international review of the legal 

aspects of remote sensing from space of Earth resources 

are a reflection of these concerns. The U.S.S.R. and 

France have both drafted legal principles that might 

apply to this new technology. 

At its first substantive session (January 29-February 10, 1973) the Working Group on Remote Sensing 

of the Earth by Satellites pursued its assigned examination of various international aspects of the developing 

remote sensing technology. In so doing, the Group 

took into account the initial results of the mission 

of ERTS-1. The group expressed appreciation for 

the broad international participation in the ERTS-1 

and, prospectively, the EREP (Skylab) and ERTS-B 

programs. Contributing to a realistic appraisal of current state of the art, senior NASA officials presented 

an extensive technical briefing. The Working Group 

session was highlighted by the United States offer to 

provide a master copy of all data derived from our 

experimental satellite remote sensing program to a 

U.N. international distribution facility should one be 

established. A central element in the Group’s subsequent work is to be a study of possible alternative 

modes of international remote sensing data dissemination, taking account of the United States offer. 

Scientific and Technical Subcommittee.-The United 

States played a major role in the proceedings of the 

subcommittee which were focused on the U.N. space 

applications program and the report of the Working 

Group on Remote Sensing. The American position remained in favor of the broadest possible international 

cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space. This 

position manifested itself, inter alia, in our support for 

continuation of the program of panels and regional 

seminars carried on by the US. Experts on Space Applications, as well as our posture on further work of 

the Remote Sensing Working Group. 

Working Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites 

(DBS).-The DBS Working Group was convened for 

the first time in 3 years to consider new developments, 

both technical and political-legal, in the broadcast 

satellite field since its last session in 1970. Considering 

57 
that the Working Group could not perform its mandate without up-to-date information on the current 

and the prospective state of the art, the United States 

provided the Group with a detailed technical briefing 

early in the session. Many members of the Working 

Group, nevertheless, proved more concerned with 

political-legal implications of developing DBS technology. Following up on its initiative at the 1972 U.N. 

General Assembly, the U.S.S.R. asserted the necessity 

of internationally binding rules governing DBS. Other 

countries, led by Sweden and Canada, advocated consideration of agreed principles. The United States 

maintained that endorsement of the need for either 

a treaty or principles would be premature in light of 

the developmental stage of direct broadcast technology, 

cautioning that in any future consideration of the issue, 

concerns over protecting against possible unwelcome 

transmissions must be very carefully weighed against 

the importance of maintaining the free exchange of 

information and ideas. The Working Group took no 

action in this area, but recommended reconvening in 

spring 1974, primarily to reconsider political-legal aspects of DBS while continuing to take technical and 

economic factors into account. This recommendation 

ultimately was approved by the General Assembly. 

Legal Subcommittee.-Legal Subcommittee negotiators failed to reach agreement on pending treaties on 

exploration and use of the Moon and registration of 

objects launched into outer space. However, major 

progress was achieved on the latter. The United States 

made an important contribution by submitting its own 

draft registration treaty. Noting previous U.S. 

reservations toward a registration treaty, Canada, 

together with France a cosponsor of the earlier 

draft, called the U.S. move “an act of international 

enlightenment.” The U.S. draft, along with a modified 

French-Canadian text, became the basis for negotiation. Efforts at accommodation of remaining differences in the parent Outer Space Committee came very 

near to success. However, disagreement persisted over 

a provision requiring external marking of space objects 

by the launching state. We maintained that such a 

provision could not be justified on technical and economic grounds and would not contribute to the identification of an object which might return to Earth 

and cause damage. 

In contrast to registration, less progress was achieved 

on a Moon treaty. The three major outstanding issues-expansion of treaty scope to cover the other 

bodies of the Solar System, provision for advance notification of missions, and provisions concerning possible future exploitation of natural resources of celestial 

bodies-remained unresolved. The resources question 

proved the most intractable. The United States demanded a provision against a moratorium on resource 

exploitation pending establishment of an international 

regime governing such exploitation. A group of developing countries, apparently fearing possible implications for resource exploitation in other environments, 

especially the deep seabeds, insisted on an explicit 

moratorium provision. Despite intensive negotiations 

in the Outer Space Committee, the question remained 

at an impasse. 

Outer Space Committee.-Besides carrying on the 

negotiations mentioned above, the Outer Space Committee considered and approved the reports of its subsidiary bodies, including recommendations regarding 

their future work, and endorsed these to the General 

Assembly for final approval. One element of contention 

arose concerning priorities for the Legal Subcommittee-the United States prevailed in its support to giving 

highest priority to efforts at completing the registration 

and Moon treaties. The U.S.S.R. attempted to gain 

higher or equal priority for legal implications of direct 

broadcast satellites, but eventually settled for a priority 

lower than that for the unfinished treaties. The Subcommittee was also to reserve some time for considering the legal aspects of remote sensing. 

General Assembly.-The General Assembly had on 

its agenda the Outer Space Committee report and the 

question of a convention to govern international direct 

television broadcasting by satellites (a carryover from 

a 1972 Soviet initiative). Inasmuch as the Outer Space 

Committee’s report contained a recommendation for 

its future work affecting the latter question, a single 

resolution, cosponsored by the U.S., was tabled covering both topics and approving the recommendation. 

The resolution was adopted by a wide margin. The 

U.S.S.R. and its allies abstained, principally because the 

resolution also called for expanding the Outer Space 

Committee in a manner reflecting the changes in UN 

membership since the Committee’s establishment in 

1961, particularly the need for greater developing country representation. The U.S.S.R. maintained that the 

question of Committee enlargement had not been 

studied adequately. In our view, the relatively modest 

expansion from 28 to 37 members entailed in the resolution would permit the Committee to continue its 

previous effective operation on the basis of consensus. 

International Cooperation 

Cooperation With Europe.-In August and September 1973, after 4 years of discussion, the United States 

and nine members of the European Space Research 

Organization (ESRO) -Belgium, Denmark, France, 

Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, 

and the United Kingdom-signed an agreement providing for European development of a space laboratory 

to be used in conjunction with the U.S. Space Shuttle 

System. The space laboratory will consist of a pres58 
surized module, in which scientists can perform 

experiments in a shirt sleeve environment and an unpressurized instrument pallet or platform. The lab will 

remain attached to the Shuttle during orbital missions 

and like the Shuttle, will be reusable. The space laboratory will cost between $300 and $400 million, making 

it one of the most important cooperative programs in 

which the United States has been involved. Agreement 

among the European participants to develop the space 

laboratory as joint endeavor was made possible by a 

decision taken in the European Space Conference 

(ESC) to undertake two other operational projects; 

the L3S launcher, and a maritime satellite 

(MAROTS), and to form a single European Space 

Agency. 

On September 24, a joint State Department/ 

European Space Conference communique was signed 

marking the completion of arrangements to bring the 

agreement into force. At the same time NASA and 

ESRO signed a Memorandum of Understanding between the two implementing agencies. In remarks delivered at the signing ceremony the United States cited 

agreement as a “major cooperative understanding between the United States of America and Europe,” and 

said it would “add a new dimension to Atlantic 

partnership.” 

On January 17, 1973, the United States and the 

United Kingdom concluded an agreement providing 

for United Kingdom access to United States space 

launch capabilities on a reimursable basis. Under the 

agreement, the United Kingdom Department of Trade 

and Industry (DTI) will purchase appropriate 

boosters and launching services from NASA for satellite projects undertaken by DTI. This was the first 

agreement concluded pursuant to the US. Launch 

Assistance Policy of October 9, 1972. 

During 1973, NASA signed a cooperative agreement 

with Italy for a 1974 launch from the San Marco 

launch facility in Kenya and a reimbursable agreement with Germany for a launch of a second AEROS 

satellite in 1974. 

NASA discussions were held with France, Germany, 

and ESRO on a variety of reimbursable missions for 

which launch contracts are expected early next year. 

Cooperative sounding rocket campaigns with European countries continued in 1973. The Department 

provided assistance as NASA concluded agreements 

with Germany, The Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden 

for sounding rocket projects. 

Cooperation with Japan.-Space cooperation between the United States and Japan during 1973 was 

dominated by an increased flow of space hardware and 

technology to Japan, as authorized under terms of 

the 1969 United States/ Japanese Space Cooperation 

Agreement. These exports are being transferred under 

United States/ Japan industry arrangements subject 

to the approval of the Department of State’s Office of 

Munitions Control and are to be used in Japanese 

efforts to develop a space launch vehicle and a number 

of scientific and practical applications satellites for 

launch starting in 1975. 

Cooperation with the Soviet Union.-Joint NASA/ 

Soviet Academy of Sciences Working Groups continued 

to implement the 1972 U.S./U.S.S.R. Space Cooperation Agreement, which provides for a joint expenmental flight in 1975 to test compatible rendezvous and 

docking systems, and for cooperation in space science 

and applications. 

At the midterm review of the Apollo/Soyuz test project, held in October, both parties reported that all 

independent and joint working group activities were 

on schedule. 

In the space science and applications areas there 

has been a continuing exchange of operational and 

scientific weather data, coordinated oceanological 

studies, a joint experiment in coordinated microwave 

measurements in the Bering Sea, efforts to define projects in the study of the natural environment, interplanetary data exchanges, physiological data obtained 

from manned space flight exchanges, lunar sample 

scientist visits, and a joint meeting of lunar cartographic experts to consider basic principles for compiling 

lunar maps. 

Technology Transfer.-In 1973 the bulk of license 

requests for export of space-related hardware and 

technology processed by the Department of State’s 

Office of Munitions Control involved transfer under 

the United States/ Japanese Space Cooperation Agreement and exports to the European area. The Department continued to emphasize the export of hardware 

rather than the technology necessary to produce the 

hardware. 

Satellite Services 

Communications Satellites.-The definitive agreements establishing the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization ( INTELSAT) entered into 

force February 12, 1973. They consist of an Intergovernmental Agreement and an Operating Agreement. 

The US. Government is a party to the former, and 

designated the Communications Satellite Corp. (ComSat), a U.S. company, to be its signatory to the latter. 

Under the definitive agreements, INTELSAT has a 

structure consisting of an Assembly of Parties, a Meeting of Signatories, a Board of Governors and an Executive Organ responsible to the Board of Governors. The 

first meeting of the Assembly of Parties will be held in 

February 1974. ComSat participated in the first meeting of the Meeting of Signatories in November 1973, 

and represented the United States at the bimonthly 

meetings of the Board of Governors. 

59 

528-338 0 - 74 - 5 
The Board of Governors selected a Chilean national 

to be Secretary General with responsibility for the 

Executive Organ which will provide financial, legal and 

administrative support. ComSat will provide certain 

technical and operational management services to 

INTELSAT under contract until 1979. INTELSAT’s 

capital is divided among the 84 signatories according 

to their percentage use of the INTELSAT system. 

ComSat held about 40 percent of the capitalization as 

of December 31, 1973. 

On December 31, 1973, there were 68 INTELSAT 

Earth stations operating in 52 countries. In August 

1973, the fifth satellite in the INTELSAT IV series 

was launched thus adding substantial capacity to the 

global communications converge. These satellites enable INTELSAT to provide circuits for voice, data, 

teletype, and facsimile as well as television channels. 

Communications capability will be further augmented 

by the launch during 1974 of at least two more satellites 

in the INTELSAT IV series, and during 1975 by the 

launch of the first of two or three planned INTELSAT 

IV-A satellites. Whereas the INTELSAT IV satellites 

each have a design capacity of 4,000 circuits, the 

IV-A’s will each have a design capacity of 7,500 circuits. During 1973 initial system design work was undertaken for the introduction in 1978 of the even larger 

INTELSAT V satellites. 

On April 20, NASA launched ANIK-2, the second 

Canadian operational domestic communications 

satellite. 

Earth Resources Survey Program.-ERTS-I, the 

first satellite dedicated entirely to the survey of Earth 

resources from space, was launched on July 23, 1972. 

The initial results from the ERTS experiment are encouraging, and the reports on its performance before 

various U.N. committees have been well received. 

Experiments from 38 foreign nations and two international organizations are included in ERTS-1. Our 

remote sensing agreement with Brazil was extended on 

April 6, 1973, until April 1, 1976. Brazil is constructing 

their own ERTS receiving station under arrangements 

covered by a Memorandum of Understanding between 

NASA and the Brazilian Space Research Institute. 

NASA also accepted a large number of foreign Earth 

resources experiment proposals for Skylab, the manned 

space laboratory which had three manned missions in 

1973. 

Aeronautical Satellites.-Since the late 1960’s the 

United States has been negotiating with the European 

Space Research Organization and Canada on a proposed experimental aeronautical communications satellite system (AEROSAT) to test the use of this communications mode of international aviation purposes. 

These negotiations reached a final stage in 1973, which 

may result in the launching of two satellites over the 

Atlantic Ocean in the late 1970’s. It is thought that an 

operational system, which could be particularly useful 

for air traffic control and company communications 

over the North Atlantic, could be in place by the mid1980’s. 

Maritime Satellites.-For a number of years the 

world’s maritime nations have realized that a communications satellite system might be the solution to 

the inadequacies of the present system of communications with and between ships at sea. To this end, the 

United States participated during 1973 in the efforts 

of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative 

Organization (IMCO) to consider how a maritime 

communications satellite capability might be developed and implemented. Further discussions will be 

held in 1974. 

Support to Federal Agencies 

NASA Spaceflight Support.-The Department and 

its posts overseas continued in 1973 to support NASAmanned space flight missions, by arranging for the 

basing of recovery, tracking and other mobile support 

forces at foreign installations for Skylab missions I-IV. 

NASA tracking station agreements were renewed 

with Canada, the Malagasy Republic and Spain (for 

use of the Canary Islands). An agreement for use of 

an airfield in Mauritius was terminated and plans were 

announced for the closure of the South Africa stations. 

Facilities of the Department continued to support 

NASA’s lunar sample investigation program by transporting and handling lunar samples consigned to foreign scientists. 

Cooperation with the Department of Defense.-During 1973 the Department of State continued to work 

closely with the Department of Defense on various 

military space issues having international implications. 

60 
VI1 Department of Transportation I 

1 I 

Introduction 

The Department of Transportation (DOT) is 

charged to assure the coordinated and effective administration of the transportation programs of the 

Federal Government that are designed to encourage 

the provision of fast, safe, efficient, and convenient 

transportation by private enterprise to the maximum 

extent feasible. DOT must identify transportation 

problems and assist with their solution ; one technique 

that it uses is to stimulate and sponsor technological 

advances in transportation. Recognizing that aerospace 

research and development have contributed to solution of transportation problems and can continue to 

assist in the solution of urban and interurban transportation problems, the Department has encouraged 

and supported the use of applicable aerospace technology in the design of personal rapid transit systems, 

high speed ground vehicles, computer-controlled urban 

traffic systems, and other new and promising applications. 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) conducts the majority of the DOT programs related to 

aerospace. Its functions relate only to aviation, including promotion of aviation safety and of civil aviation, 

development and operation of a system of air traffic 

control, certification of pilots and equipment, a nationwide system of airports, and similar activities. 

One of FAA’s chief concerns is the modernization 

of the airspace system, including both air traffic control facilities and the flight service stations. During 

the last year, installation was completed of 60 automated radar terminal systems at the Nation’s busiest 

terminal areas. Twenty air route traffic control centers 

have also been automated, supplying computerized 

flight data processing capability over the entire 

country. 

A study recommended the modernization of flight 

service stations, proposing a system of about 25-50 

manned stations, operating in conjunction with about 

3,500 pilot briefing terminals to supply weather information and other data to pilots. 

Aernoautical satellites have great potential for use 

in air traffic control as well as for keeping track of 

ships at sea. Complex international arrangements are 

being made to facilitate operation and use of such systems when they become available. 

Other concepts and systems to facilitate air traffic 

and its control include microwave landing systems, 

intermittent positive control to assure adequate separation between aircraft, and the area naviation system. 

Aviation safety is the most conspicuous and perhaps 

the most significant of FAA’s responsibilities. Two devices to avoid midair collisions are being investigatedthe proximity warning indicator and the collision 

avoidance system, a more sophisticated proximity 

warning system-but FAA will continue its groundbased air traffic control system. The phenomenon of 

wake vortexes is a very serious threat to aviation; 

intensive studies are being made to eliminate or control 

the threat. Aircraft, like other forms of transportation, 

can also be sources of pollution. Both noise pollution 

and air pollution result from operation of aircraft, and 

particularly of aircraft engines. FAA’s programs are 

developing techniques to avoid both kinds of pollution; when they are available, FAA will require their 

use by appropriate regulation. Both types of control 

require coordination of studies-intragovernmental coordination for noise suppression programs and international coordination for evaluation of impacts upon 

climate resulting from the operation of fleets of highflying jets. 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation 

The major DOT aeronautical activity has been the 

development and operation of the National Airspace 

System (NAS) by means of which the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) provides air traffic control services and flight services to both military and 

civilian aircraft throughout the United States to help 

achieve the efficient use of airspace, and to prevent 

collisions. 

National Airspace System Modernization.-Because 

the number of aircraft, flights, and passengers has 

continued to increase, it has been necessary for FAA 

to modify and improve its air traffic control system 

almost continuously to prevent or minimize the ill 

effects of system overload: Congestion at the major 

terminals, delays in landings, fuel wastage when planes 

61 
are required to delay in traffic patterns before landing, 

and additional pollution from planes circling airports 

in holding patterns. 

In recent years the primary thrust of this modernization effort has been implementation of two-semiautomatic air traffic control systems which had been in the 

planning and implementation stages almost since 1961 

when the President authorized implementation of the 

two systems: 

Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS) 111, 

for introduction at 61 of the Nation’s busiest 

terminal areas. 

National Airspace System (NAS) En Route Stage 

A, for introduction at 20 air-route traffic control 

centers (ARTCC’s) in the contiguous 48 States. 

Calendar year 1973 saw FAA’s terminal area automation program reach a significant milestone. By 

year’s end, 60 ARTS I11 systems had been delivered to 

designated terminal locations. The 61st and last system, planned for the San Francisco-Oakland area, was 

placed in storage; 55 were in full operational use at 

the end of the reporting period; the remaining 5 were 

undergoing final operational shakedown testing. 

Unlike ARTS 111, which is going operational as a 

complete system at each designated site, NAS En Route 

Stage A is being installed and implemented in two 

phases. The first phase, which is essentially complete, 

provides automatic flight data processing and interfacility data transfer. The second phase provides digital 

radar displays and radar data processing. At the end of 

the calendar year, all 20 ARTCC’s had a computerized 

flight data processing capability. The computer updating equipment used at these centers facilitates communication between the controller and the automated 

system. 

As to software, 17 centers were operating under a 

version of the NAS En Route Stage A program. The 

Miami and Salt Lake City centers were using an interim 

software program designed for a single computer. The 

Jacksonville center was operating under another and 

earlier interim software program. 

In addition to these two major automation programs, FAA continued to test a prototype ARTS I1 

system for terminal areas that do not have the traffic 

density to qualify for ARTS 111. During the calendar 

year, a prototype ARTS I1 system was evaluated at 

the Wilkes-Barre, Pa., terminal radar approach control cab. The results of this evaluation enabled FAA 

to determine the final specifications for the ARTS I1 

production model. 

Flight Service Station Modernization.-Unlike the 

air traffic control system, which is reaping the benefits 

of automation and computer technology, FAA’s flight 

service station (FSS) system has not taken advantage 

62 

of the latest technological developments. In consequence, the FSS system is not as efficient as it might 

be. 

During the calendar year, a team composed of FAA 

and Office of the Secretary personnel, which had been 

formed to study and recommend ways of modernizing 

the FSS system, proposed that the current system of 

250 manned flight service stations be replaced by: 

A hard core of between 20 and 50 manned, largeApproximately 3,500 pilot briefing terminals loThese briefing terminals, each linked to one of the 

20 or more hub stations, would utilize a cathode-ray 

tube display coupled to computer inputs that would 

permit automatic filing of flight plans and provide individually tailored reports and other data. Pilots would 

simply punch a few keys to send their flight plans 

directly to a central computer processing facility, which 

would, store and retrieve information. Almost instantaneously, pilots would receive on the cathode tube display en route weather, Notices to Airmen (NOTAM), 

and additional information that could affect their 

flight. 

At the large-hub stations, flight service specialists 

would : 

Handle ground-to-air radio traffic. 

Provide preflight briefings and file Right plans for 

Give emergency flight assistance. 

Monitor navigational aids. 

The proposed system would have a number of significant advantages over the current system. Specifically, it would: 

hub flight service stations, and 

cated at approximately 2,500 airports. 

pilots without access to automated terminals. 

Be considerably cheaper to operate. 

Give pilots a direct link to the information they 

need. 

Provide pilots greater access to briefing materials. 

Tailor information more to the specific needs of 

individual pilots. 

Provide more up-to-date weather reporting. 

Do all the recordkeeping by computer, thus eliminating paperwork and clerical chores. 

Free the flight service specialist to concentrate on 

providing faster and better in-flight assistance. 

Testing of the automated Aviation Weather and 

NOTAM system in an operational environment is 

scheduled to begin at a single site during calendar 

1974. Present plans look to the nationwide implementation of the new system over a 10-year period. 

Advanced Air Trafic Management.-The Advanced 

Air Traffic Management System (AATMS) study is 

investigating new concepts for air traffic management 

for application in the post-1985 period that can meet 
the air traffic demands of that era. The study builds 

upon the work of the DOT Air Traffic Control Advisory Committee in 1969. The earlier study described 

concepts and system definition studies were performed 

to help identify future research needs. Promising candidate concepts include : Satellites for surveillance, 

communication, and navigation ; greatly expanded use 

of automation in the ground-based control functions, 

and utilization of integrated wave form techniques for 

signal transmission as a means to minimize the complexity and cost of aircraft equipment. 

A direct tie-in is being made with FAA work to upgrade the air traffic control system by defining potential means for further extending its capabilities through 

1985 and beyond as a part of the AATMS study. The 

results of these studies are expected to be a basis for 

FAA Air Traffic Control R. & D. Planning for fiscal 

year 1975 and later. 

Other ATC Developments.-Other FAA research and 

development activities in air traffic control and navigation included : 

Electronic Voice Switching Systems.-This program is 

designed to provide both air traffic control centers and 

certain large control tower facilities with the latest in 

telephone-switching technology. Such electronic 

switching systems would reduce the cost of communications while increasing air traffic control efficiency. 

The greater efficiency offered by electronic voice 

switching would be achieved by: (1) Increasing the 

speed of establishing communication between controllers, (2) reducing out-of-service time resulting from 

equipment failures, ( 3) acquiring increased system 

flexibility in rearranging existing services and adding 

new ones, and (4) improving maintenance communications. 

Microwave Landing System (MLS) .-This system, 

whose development was recommended by DOT’S Air 

Traffic Control Advisory Committee in March 1970, 

is regarded as a key element in FAA’s Upgraded Third 

Generation ATC System, which is expected to come 

into use in the 1980’s. The system’s development and 

implementation is proceeding in accordance with the 

5-year schedule established by an interagency Governmental committee. The first phase of the MLS program, to provide technique analysis and contract 

definition, was completed this calendar year. The second phase, scheduled for completion during the first 

quarter of calendar 1974, is a feasibility demonstration involving four contractors and two competing 

techniques. At the end of this phase, one of the two 

techniques will be chosen and carried into prototype 

development. 

Intermittent Positive Control (ZPC) .-This concept 

was developed by the Air Traffic Control Advisory 

Committee to provide automatic safety separation service. The new service would automatically separate Visual Flight Rules (VFR) aircraft flying within radar 

surveillance coverage whenever a potential for collision exists between them and other VFR or Instrument 

Flight Rules (IFR) aircraft. During the calendar year, 

the basic IPC concept-analysis and simulation-development activities were carried out. This resulted in 

defining the IPC system that will serve as the basis for 

continued development and testing activities, which 

will begin in the spring of 1974 in accordance with a 

plan developed during this reporting period. Simulation studies will also be conducted to assure that IPC 

logic will not interfere with the operation of the ATC 

system in high density terminal areas. 

Discrete Address Beacon System (DABS) .-This is an 

improved air-traffic control beacon system that will 

allow ground equipment to interrogate, and discriminate between, responses from specific aircraft of interest. It will also significantly reduce interference and 

provide a data link that could be used with a groundbased anticollision system. During the reporting period, 

an experimental facility for DABS was completed and 

testing begun. Test results are being used to develop 

specifications for a test-bed DABS model. At year’s 

end, procurement was expected to begin in early 1975. 

Area Navigation.-This recently implemented system 

of aerial navigation has a decided flexibility advantage 

over the VOR/DME (very high frequency omnidirectional radio rangeldistance measuring equipment) system in use today, because it permits establishing routes without deploying additional groundbased navigation aids along each route by utilizing 

the existing VOR/DME stations. Area navigation was 

officially launched in the United States on April 29, 

1971, when FAA established four transcontinental 

high-altitude area navigation routes between New 

York City and the west coast. The area navigation capability has been available and evaluated since the late 

forties using commercially built airborne equipment 

of varying degrees of sophistication. Problems associated with transitioning from the present route structure to a much more efficient structure, made possible 

using area navigation, have delayed its implementation. As a result, a joint FAA-aviation industry task 

force was established to define problem areas and 

develop solutions. FAA circulated the task force’s report to the aviation industry for comments in February 1973. At year’s end, a policy statement was being 

prepared for release. Meanwhile, the FAA was proceeding to validate the task force’s concepts, resolve 

problem areas, define airborne equipment characteristics, and quantify the system’s benefits. 

63 
Use of Satellites in Air and Water Traffic Control 

Aeronautical Satellite (Aerosat).-An aeronautical 

satellite system would further extend the capability of 

FAA in Air Traffic Control. Although such a system 

is not now in existence, extensive plans have been in 

preparation. An aeronautical satellite system serving 

aircraft flying transoceanic routes would have significant advantages over the present transoceanic air traffic 

control and communications system. Such a system 

would : 

Make new and less-congested communications 

channels available to overwater traffic. (The high 

frequency band now used on transoceanic routes 

is becoming increasingly cluttered by the growing 

number of international overocean flights and is 

expected to reach the saturation point by the end 

of the decade.) 

Improve the reliability of point-to-pint communications. (Today’s system suffers from fading, 

static, and other interference, often causing aircraft to lose radio contact with distant ground 

stations. ) 

Reduce aircraft separation standards-and thus 

increase overocean route capacity-by allowing 

air traffic controllers to monitor and pinpoint the 

location of ocean-crossing aircraft. (The lack of 

reliable point-to-point communication in today’s 

system, which makes ATC surveillance of transoceanic flights impossible, has imposed flight separation requirements over water that far exceed 

those in use over land and has thus severely limited 

the capacity of overwater air corridors.) 

During the calendar year, Congress approved an 

administration request for $2.7 million for Aerosat 

research. At the same time, the United States, the 

European Space Research Organization (ERSO) , and 

Canada were engaged in working out a final Memorandum of Understanding for launching the international program. While awaiting the signing of this 

agreement, the Department of Transportation and 

NASA were readying ground and flight equipment for 

a joint-test program that will utilize the ATS-F Satellite, scheduled for an April 1974 launching. 

Aerosat Program Activities.-Another in the series of 

international meetings on the Aerosat program was 

held at Ottawa, Canada, during Januan, 1973. At that 

meeting general agreement was reached on a Memorandum of Understanding and a technical specification for a joint program. During hearings before 

Senator Cannon’s Aviation Subcommittee (March 

1973) and Congressman McFall’s Transportation Subcommittee (April 1973), the substance of this joint 

international program was presented by DOT/FAA. 

The U.S. air carriers, represented by the Air Transport 

64 

Association, actively opposed the program. As a result, 

Congressional approval was withheld pending a resolution of the disagreement between DOT/FAA and the 

airlines. After extensive negotiations which resulted in 

some restructuring of the program, formal agreement 

was reached with the airlines on the revised program; 

it was documented through an exchange of correspondence in July 1973, and immediately transmitted to 

Congressman McFall’s and Senator Byrd’s Subcommittees on Transportation. As a result, congressional 

approval to release the revised U.S. position to the 

European and Canadian participants was authorized. 

This approval was subject to the condition that prior 

to signing any formal agreement, the Department of 

Transportation must make a formal presentation to 

both the Senate and House Appropriation Committees. The resulting U.S. proposal for the Aerosat program was formally transmitted to the European participants and Canada at a meeting in Madrid, Spain, 

in late July 1973. One portion of a U.S. proposal involved onlv Canada and the United States and aqreement on this aspect was consummated in late August 

1973. 

In addition to Aerosat activities, extensive planning 

and development of a progam has continued for experimentation with NASA’s ATS-F satellite. At 

NASA’s request, DOT ageed to take the lead in 

developing an integrated test plan for aeronautical 

and maritime experimentation to be conducted by 

FAA, USCG, and the Transportation Systems Center 

(TSC) , as well as the Maritime Administration, 

NASA, Canada, and the ESRO. This integrated test 

plan was completed and approved by NASA in early 

November 1973, with the ATS-F scheduled for launch 

in Anril 1974 and experimentation planned for May/ 

June 1974. 

Maritime Satellite (MARSAT).-Closely related to 

Aerosat in concept is a similar system using satellites 

to monitor ships’ activity (MARSAT). Two meetings 

of the Panel of Experts on Maritime Satellites were 

held in 1973. The activity centered primarily on institutional arrangements and technical parameters. 

The panel continued to review and up-date a Draft 

Convention for the Establishment of a Maritime Satellite System, with most of the discussion to date focusing 

on the creation of a new Intergovernmental Organization to implement the system. An international conference has been scheduled for February-March 1975, 

under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Maritime 

Consultive Organization (IMCO) , to provide a forum 

for intergovernmental negotiation of the convention. 

On the technical side, a summary of parameters for 

a maritime satellite system has been developed. This 

concept assumes that satellite dedicated specifically to 

this purpose will be used. Using this approach, a “first- 
cut” cost estimate of the dedicated system was calculated. This will be refined in the later work of the 

panel of which two additional meetings have been 

scheduled for 1974, and intensive economic studies 

will assess the commercial viability of the system. The 

goal of the panel remains the preparation of a detailed 

report covering the organizational, technical, economic, and operational aspects of a maritime satellite 

system, which would be submitted to the 1975 conference to serve as the basis of its discussion. 

Aviation Safety Research and Development 

Midair-Collision Avoidance.-FAA is firmly committed to the premise that its ground-based air traffic 

control system is, and will be for the foreseeable future, 

the primary collision-avoidance system in the United 

States. FAA recognizes, however, that it has a responsibility to investigate, evaluate, and implement all collision-avoidance techniques-provided they: ( 1 ) Enhance the system’s overall safety, (2) are compatible 

with the ground-based ATC system, (3) are in the 

interest of all airspace users, and (4) can be made 

economically attractive. 

Presently, two air-to-air collision-avoidance systems 

are at the center of the Government’s and the aviation 

industry’s attention : 

Proximity Warning Indicator (PWI) . This device 

helps the pilot visually locate any aircraft posing 

a threat or a potential threat of collision with his 

own aircraft, after which the pilot himself must 

evaluate the situation and determine his proper 

response. 

Collision-Avoidance System (CAS) . This system 

is technologically more sophisticated than the 

PWI. It detects all potential dangerous intruders 

in the airspace, evaluates the degree of danger, 

and, if necessary, indicates to the pilot in time for 

safe execution the proper avoidance maneuver. 

With no airborne CAS or PWI system presently operational, the main thrust of FAA’s air-to-air collisionavoidance program is to consider objectively all feasible 

alternatives to reducing and/or eliminating the threat 

of midair collisions. This program has been closely 

planned and coordinated with the Department of Defense and NASA. Though a number of hard technical, 

practical, and economic problems remain to be resolved, these joint FAA-DOD-NASA efforts are moving ahead rapidly on a broad front: Competing CAS 

systems are being tested and evaluated; PWI operational and system requirements are being refined ; the 

compatibility of evolving airborne CAS and PWI systems with the ground-based ATC system is being 

evaluated. 

Meanwhile, the capability of ground-based systems 

to assure safe separation will be developed and implemented as rapidly as possible through increased use of 

regulatory measures, the augmentation of ARTS I11 

and NAS En Route Stage A software programs, and 

the developnient of intermittent positive control and 

discrete address beacon systems. 

Wake Turbulence.-Vortexes hazardous to smaller aircraft form in the wake of large aircraft. This phenomenon has posed a potential threat to safety. It has 

also had the effect of restricting airspace capacity. 

Accordingly, FAA has been vigorously pursging a fullscale program aimed at reducing both the hazards 

posed by this phenomenon and its capacity-restrictive 

effects. 

Wake vortex data collection sites have been established at two major airports. At year’s end, a third site 

was expected to be established at Heathrow Airport in 

the United Kingdom. Concurrent efforts were also 

underway to define more fully the hazards experienced 

by aircraft when approaching, or penetrating, the vortex of another aircraft. The aim of these concurrent 

efforts is to develop a Wake Vortex Avoidance System, 

which will establish safe airspace spacings as a function 

of: ( 1 ) the life and transport of vortices under various 

meterological conditions, and (2) the actual hazard 

they present to encountering aircraft. 

Other Safety Programs.-FAA continued to pursue a 

variety of other aviation safety programs. In the area 

of aircraft safety, it continued to demonstrate the technical, operational, and economic feasibility of safety 

improvements and provide the data required for new 

or improved criteria for aircraft design, operations, 

maintenance, pilot performance, and weapon- and 

bomb-detection specifications. The more significant 

calendar year aircraft safety efforts included : 

A program to define steep takeoff and landing 

criteria for aircraft. This program involved pilots 

from the military services, domestic and international airlines, and aircraft manufacturers. 

A program seeking to modify the flammability 

characteristics of high volatility jet fuel (JP-4), 

which is used by the US. Air Force, so as to approach the flammability characteristics of low 

volatility jet fuel (kerosene), which is used by 

civil and naval aviation. A barrel of crude oil can 

yield nearly three times more JP-4 fuel than kerosene. Should this effort be successful, it would be 

a boon to jet-fuel users in these times of increasing crude oil shortages. 

Measurements of toxic gases from burning cabin 

materials. At the end of the reporting period, 60 

such materials were expected to be tested by the 

middle of calendar 1974. 

An investigation seeking to reduce fuel-tank fires 

due to lightning strikes while in flight or to static 

discharges while refueling. 
Analysis and testing of general aviation aircraft 

design and equipment to reduce stall-spin 

accidents. 

A study of general aviation seat-restraint system 

design. This study was completed during the reporting period and is expected to lead to the issuance of a new technical-standard order on seat 

and restraint systems. 

A cooperative study with NASA seeking to improve the design criteria for general aviation aircraft and thus materially improve occupant crashsurvivability. This study includes full-scale crash 

tests. 

Environmental Programs 

Aircraft Air Pollution.-FAA’s efforts in this area are 

directed toward providing itself with the necessary 

knowledge to administer the aircraft industry’s compliance with the engine-emission standards imposed by 

the Environmental Protection Agency. Specifically, 

FAA is seeking to: 

Gain a better understanding of the factors affecting the generation of undesirable emissions. 

Determine the trade-offs between performance 

and pollution. 

Determine the changes that occur with age and 

use of both turbine and reciprocating engines. 

An investigation was begun during the reporting 

period to determine the exhaust-emission variability 

of turbine engines. Testing involved the use of engines 

on test stands and in aircraft. In addition, the agency 

continued its efforts to determine what proportion of 

the total pollution around airports is contributed by 

aircraft-engine emissions. This study, coupled with 

other efforts, will ultimately lead to the development 

of monitoring criteria for use by FAA’s enforcement 

services. On tap for the near future is the exploration 

of ground operation procedures at one or more airports to determine how emissions may be reduced 

without affecting safety or appreciably reducing 

airport traffic capacity. 

Aircraft-Engine Noise Abatement.-Aircraft-engine 

noise continues to be a major inhibiting factor in airport development. It has worked to deter capacity increases for existing airports and the building of new 

ones. 

The recent introduction of three wide-body jets-the 

Boeing 747, the DC-IO, and the Lockheed L-1011- 

which meet the noise-emission requirements set down 

by the Federal Air Regulations (part 36) gave the airport communities around large terminal areas some 

relief. It also gave the public some encouragement that 

noise reductions were on the way. The effect, however, has not been wholly advantageous nationwide. 

The introduction of these wide-body jets had relegated 

the older and noiser aircraft to flying shorter route segments and into and out of medium- to low-activity 

terminals. Thus, while the noise level at the large transportation hubs has dropped, it has increased at other 

terminal areas. 

In recent regulatory actions, FAA has required all 

newly manufactured jet aircraft over 75,000 pounds 

(except DC-8’s and Boeing 707’s) to meet the noise 

standards set down by part 36 after December 1, 1973. 

New DC-8’s must meet these standards after December 1, 1974; all new airplanes in the transport category, after December 3 1,1974. 

Noise Program Coordination and Planning.-The 

Noise Act of 1972 identifies the EPA as the responsible 

Government agency for the coordination of the Government’s research and technology programs dealing 

with noise. In view of this assignment of responsibility 

and after consultation with the EPA, the joint office 

terminated the Interagency Noise Abatement Program 

(IANAP) activity that had been directed at interagency air transportation noise program coordination. 

However, the office continued to perform this function 

for NASA and DOT/FAA. A 5-year air transportation 

noise research and technology program was developed 

of which the purpose is to reduce aircraft noise to the 

lowest practical levels. Joint efforts are developing the 

techniques for measuring and predicting the noise of 

individual aircraft and of fleet operations, and for 

assessing the impact of this noise on individuals and 

communities. The plan was reviewed and assessed with 

respect to the on-going programs within DOT and 

NASA. Approprilate actions have been taken to modify 

programs as necessary. This program planning process 

will continue. 

Climatic Impact Determination.-The Climatic Impact Assessment Program (CIAP) , established in the 

Office of Assistant Secretary for Systems Development 

and Technology, provides management for a program 

to assess, by mid-1974, the effects upon the climate of 

high altitude aircraft, including subsonic and supersonic, projected to the time period 1985-1990. The 

program considers the impact on people, plants, and 

animals of climatic changes resulting from introducing 

into the upper atmosphere the propulsion effluents of 

a world high-altitude fleet. December 1974 is the target 

date for a report on the climatic changes which will 

take into account both sociological concerns and the 

possibility of applying technology to alleviate those 

concerns. 

Program accomplishments in 1973 are: 

Stimulated the support and collaboration of scientists in Britain, France, Belgium, India, Australia, Canada, and Japan. Reached tentative 

agreements with the U.S.S.R. 
Contracted more than 90 tasks involving participation of over 50 Government laboratories, universities, and private organizations. 

Made measurements in the stratosphere. 

Began data compilation in the stratosphere, troposphere, and biosphere. 

Participated in and encouraged engine improvement programs for zero environmental impact. 

Began international discussions with atmospheric 

research scientists in the United Kingdom, France, 

Australia, Japan, Belgium, and the Soviet Union. 

The National Academy of Science/National 

Academy of Engineering CIAP Program Advisory 

Committee of the National Research Council reviewed the CIAP program for the third time and 

made recommendations for initiating additional 

stratospheric research effort. 

Energy 

The rapidly worsening energy shortage required the 

Department during FY 1973 to give increasing emphasis to research on the energy-related aspects of 

transportation. The Department also established a 

transportation energy program within the Office of the 

Secretary to coordinate and review all DOT energyrelated efforts, suggests needed changes in the programs, and prepare DOT responses to the conservation 

efforts of the rest of the nation. 

Already in operation was the Transportation Energy 

R. & D. Goals Panel which had members from many 

Government agencies and was chaired by the DOT. 

The panel completed its work and issued its report on 

“Research and Development Opportunities for Improved Transportation Energy Usage.” 

The Department continued its program of studies on 

mass production techniques for advanced engines for 

automobiles in collaboration with the Environmental 

Protection Agency, as well as other research on forms 

of propulsion that tend to conserve energy. 

Aerospace Technology Utilization 

High Speed Ground Transportation Systems.-Severa1 new forms of transportation have been developed 

which employ technology and systems that were originally perfected for aerospace application ; others are 

under development. Most promising among these are 

several types of high speed ground vehicles, such as 

tracked air-cushion vehicles and tracked levitated vehicles that operate in their own guideways, or suspended from overhead structures. These are clean, efficient, fast, and economical means of transportation 

which will serve the Nation well and at the same time 

conserve energy. The high speed program includes 

three major elements: (1) a 150 mph Prototype 

Tracked Air Cushion Vehicle (PTACV), which is 

scheduled to start testing at the High Speed Ground 

Test Center (HSGTC) near Pueblo, Cob., early in 

calendar year 1974; (2) a 300 mph Tracked Levitated 

Research Vehicle (TLRV) , which is currently under 

test at the HSGTC; and, (3) an investigation of magnetic levitation suspension systems, which is still in its 

early stages. 

The application of aerospace technology to high 

speed ground transportation is illustrated by the 300 

mph TLRV program. The two primary contractors 

are aerospace firms. The aerodynamic design of the 

vehicle was based on wind tunnel tests conducted in 

an aerospace facility. The structural design and fabrication use aircraft construction techniques. The instrumentation approach, including the use of a telemetry 

system, is based on aerospace technology. The vehicle 

uses an active secondary suspension system, intended 

to improve ride comfort in high speed turns, which 

was patterned after the stability augmentation systems 

used on aircraft. 

The TLRV uses three JTF15D-1 turbofan engines-the engine used on the Cessna Citation. The 

fan air from these engines is used to supply the vehicle’s 

air cushions, for both levitation and lateral guidance. 

The core thrust is used for the initial low speed testing- up to about 100 mi/h. The thrust for the higher 

speed range will be provided by two linear induction 

motors, using wayside power pickup. The TLRV also 

uses hardware developed for other aircraft programs, 

including : the windshield, from the Gulfstream 

11; the seats and restraints, from the B-25; and the 

air conditioning unit, from commercial aircraft 

applications. 

Simulated Helicopter Training Device.-On August 9, 1973, the Coast Guard accepted and placed in 

commission its first simulated training device, the Variable Cockpit Training System for rotary wing aircraft. 

This system simulates the dynamic performance and 

response of the HH-35F and HH-52A helicopters and 

their systems and subsystems over the full operational 

ranges. This is accomplished with full sensation to the 

student of the parameters of Earth‘s atmosphere and 

the flight environment; yet, the device can portray 

emergency conditions without the actual flight hazards. 

This advanced simulation training technology will result in #overall improved training capability, with substantial cost savings to the Coast Guard. 

67 
VI11 Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency 

The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency has 

three basic categories of interest in space activities. In 

each of these ACDA participates in the formulation 

of US. policy and in negotiations necessary to reach 

international agreement. 

ACDA’s primary interest is in maintaining space as 

an environment free of competition in military forces 

and weaponry. This interest is embodied in the Outer 

Space Treaty, which bans the emplacement of “weapons of mass destruction” in space, on celestial bodies, 

or in Earth orbit and bans military bases, forces, 

maneuvers, and weapons testing on celestial bodies. 

The treaty was opened for signature in 1967, and a 

total of 68 countries have ratified it. Of the countries 

with independent space programs-the United States, 

U.S.S.R., France, Japan, and the Peoples Republic of 

China-only the Peoples Republic of China is not 

presently a signatory. 

Of almost equal importance is ACDA’s interest in 

protecting the use of space for purposes related to 

peace-keeping, crisis management, and treaty monitoring. Utilization of the unique features of space for 

crisis mauagement and peace-keeping is represented 

by the agreement negotiated in 1971 providing for 

the establishment of a secure, spacebased communications “hot line” between the Governments of the 

United States and the U.S.S.R., utilizing the U.S. 

Intelsat and the Soviet Molniya systems. ACDA’s interest in utilizing space for treaty monitoring is exemplified by the provision of the strategic arms limitation 

agreements with the U.S.S.R. which specifies that 

neither country will interfere with the national technical means of verification of the other. This provision 

would, for example, prohibit interference with a satellite in orbit used for verification of the agreements. 

Finally, ACDA seeks to encourage other countries 

to refrain from utilizing space technology and hardware to develop strategic offensive forces. ACDA participates in the detailed reviews which precede the 

export of US. space technology or hardware, and is 

active in the formulation of US. policy on bilateral 

and multilateral international programs for the peaceful use of space. ACDA also participates in similar 

reviews of commercial avionics systems, especially 

inertial navigation systems, which could be used in 

strategic weapons. As with space systems, the intent 

is to encourage legitimate trade and coopemtion but 

to institute any safeguards necessary to prevent illegitimate uses of such technology and hardware. 

69 
IX Department of the Interior 

Introduction 

The Department of the Interior, in meeting its responsibilities for the management, inventory, and conservation of the Nation’s resources, employs aircraft on 

an operational basis. Bureaus and offices within the 

Department owned or leased 109 aircraft for both 

mission-oriented flights land general utility. The Earth 

Resources Observation Systems ( EROS) program 

serves the Department by coordinating research and 

implementing operational use of the technology of remote sensing from aircraft and spacecraft that is applicable to resource inventory and management. Departmental activities include international cooperation 

in wildlife regulatory administration, scientific research 

ptojects, technical training programs, and technical 

assistance. 

Geological Survey employed aircraft in support of 

geological and geophysical investigations and in the 

management and monitoring of Federal Outer Continental Shelf mineral resources as in previous years. 

Research is continuing to be supported by the Office 

of Water Resources Research in the use of remotesensor data acquired by aircraft in hydrologic studies, 

and by the Bonneville Power Administration in the 

use of satellite meteorological data for input to water 

resource programs, especially the operation of hydroelectric systems. 

Aeronautics 

Operations.-On July 1, 1973, the Office of Aircraft 

Services was established under the jurisdiction of the 

Assistant Secretary-Management, for the purpose of 

raising safety standards, increasing the efficiency, and 

promoting the economical operation of aircraft activities in the Department. The Office has been given 

responsibility for Departmentwide functions related to 

control of aircraft services and facilities. This includes, 

among others, assuming ownership of and managing all 

aircraft and aircraft facilities now owned by the Department, its Bureaus and Offices; coordinating aircraft use to obtain the best utilization of existing equipment consistent with various mission requirements; 

and furnishing technical assistance in areas of specialized aircraft problems. 

The Bonneville Power Administration owns and 

operates six helicopters and two fixed-wing aircraft. 

Four helicopters are used for aerial patrol of transmission lines, transportation of personnel to remote 

microwave stations, and for the movement of men, 

tools, and equipment in restoration of interrupted transmission service. Two helicopters are used for construction, reconnaissance, and inspection of new transmission lines. Two fixed-wing twin-engine aircraft are used 

for transport of personnel to remote locations not serviced by commercial airlines or when commercial flight 

schedules are inadequate. In addition, they are used 

for aerial reconnaissance and line location investigations. 

In addition, Bonneville Power Administration contracts for low-level aerial coverage of transmission corridors for use in reconnaissance, tower sitings, design, 

and selective right-of-way clearing. Construction contracts may also call for use of helicopters in construction and logging where such methods will minimize 

environmental impacts in sensitive locations. 

In order to service the Snettisham Hydroelectric 

Project, 28 miles south of Juneau, the Alaska Power 

Administration uses contract float planes to transport 

personnel once every 10 days to this otherwise inaccessible site. Snow surveys of the Snettisham project 

watershed are conducted by helicopter on an average 

of four times per year to obtain planning data for the 

operation of the project. 

The use of aircraft by the Bureau of Land Management for wildland fire control continued to expand 

during 1973. The Bureau operated its own fleet of aircraft and chartered, leased, and contracted special aircraft to meet the tactical and logistical needs of fire 

suppression forces, including the aerial application of 

fire retardant chemicals. Aerial seeding of clouds to 

reduce lightning ignition of wildfire was operational 

during 1973, and high-altitude photography and infrared scanning were used to locate and map fires. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs has a formal agreement with NASA to obtain high-altitude photography 

71 
of all Indian reservations in the United States to be 

done on a reimbursable basis. The BIG also has entered 

into an agreement with USGS for the production of 

orthophotoquads and orthophoto mosaics from this 

photography and for technical assistance in photointerpretation. The orthophotoquads and orthophoto 

mosaics will be used as base maps for natural resource 

overlays and together they will be used to develop and 

implement comprehensive planning. 

The Bureau of Mines continued monitoring old strip 

mine pits turned trash dumps for Hurricane Agnes residue. Periodic flights resulted in the early detection and 

extinguishment of two fires with high potential for 

generating fires in coal seams. 

The Bureau of Reclamation utilized helicopters and 

fixed-wing aircraft for transportation of control survey parties and equipment, for investigations and 

inspections required for project operation and maintenance, and in the collecting of photography and scanner imagery used in planning, development, and 

management of multipurpose water resource projects. 

Typical uses included photographic reconnaissance for 

environmental assessment of reservoir sites, identification of potentially hazardous landslide areas, a survey of recreation development potential on Bureau reservoirs, and observation of Navajo Dam and canal 

distribution facilities during the initial filling of the 

reservoir to monitor possible seepage through the dam 

and canal system. 

The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife conducted aerial surveys over large portions of the 50 

States, Canada, and Mexico, to collect data for research and management purposes. Particularly, Bureau observers aboard the NASA CV-990 aircraft in 

the Bering Sea experiment (BESEX) were able to 

verify extensions of previously established marine mammal ranges. 

In another aerial survey, the disappearance of a 

rare and endangered marine mammal was established. 

Concern for the existence of the Caribbean monk seal 

was expressed less than 10 years ago; this species is now 

extinct. The Bureau has found aerial surveillance extremely useful in detection of illegal dredge and fill 

operations along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. This 

technique is now scheduled as a continuing operation using imagery obtained from fixed-wing aircraft 

and spacecraft. 

The Bureau of Reclamation found color infrared 

aerial photographs to be an accurate and rapid means 

of conducting a land-use suitability survey of approximately 300 square miles of land on the Dolores Project 

in southwestern Colorado. Thermal infrared scanner 

imagery is being evaluated as a means of identifying 

predawn cold air pockets that represent a frost damage potential in orchard lands. Photographic and optical mechanical scanner imagery has been used in 

demonstrating a relationship between crop reflectance 

or emission and the depth to near-surface ground water 

in irrigated agriculture. Studies are continuing in the 

use of aircraft remote sensing for identification and 

mapping of weeds and phreatophytes in Bureau canals 

and reservoirs. Contractors’ aircraft continue to be used 

in atmospheric water resources research as cloud-seeding platforms and for collection of meteorological and 

hydrological data. 

The Geological Survey contracted for 275,000 square 

miles of aerial photography for its national topographic 

mapping program. Of this total, over 50,000 square 

miles were photographed et 37,500 feet as quad-centered, high-altitude coverage used for orthophoto 

image maps. The quad-centered photography is used 

for analyzing map revision requirements, making 

interim map products and final photo image maps. Acceptance ,of color photography for topographic mapping is still minimal although environmental studies 

have given impetus to the purchase of color infrared 

photography for wetland and land-use maps. 

Research.-The Bonneville Power Administration has 

contracted for high-altitude color mosaic coverage for 

many of its facilities. This 1 : 48,000-scale photography 

is being used for regional environmental studies and 

reconnaissance. In addition, high-altitude color phtography has been obtained for several select facility 

study areas as part of an effort to determine the suitability of infrared photography for providing resources 

and land use data needed for facility location and environmental impact evaluations. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs is coordinating research on the Navajo-Hopi Reservations, Ariz., of 

applications of remote-sensing techniques to land 

resource problems. A section within the Navajo-Hopi 

Reservations is being used as a test site for developing 

a land-use map to include range and soil data. The 

map is being prepared at a scale of 1: 24,000 using 

high-altitude color and color infrared photography 

flown by NASA. The Bureau of Indian Affairs is also 

continuing its remote-sensing project on the Salt River 

Indian Reservation, adjacent to Phoenix, Ariz., for 

regional comprehensive planning and for monitoring 

changes in natural conditions on the reservation 

bordering the Phoenix metropolitan area. 

The Geological Survey continued to apply the interdisciplinary approach of physics and geology to the 

development and improvement of remote-sensing 

techniques by identifying the parameters by which 

rocks, soil, and moisture can be remotely discriminated, 

and developing methods to analyze and display remotesensor data. High-altitude thermal imagery of the 

Denver Front Range area reveal subtle topographic 

features, not seen on topographic maps, which can be 

related to mineralized areas. Some quartzites can also 

72 
be distinguished thermally in the mountains as well as 

at the north end of the Pikes Peak batholith. Thermal 

infrared survey flights over Mount Rainier detected 

48 previously unrecorded pinpoint radiation anomalies 

around the main cone and higher flanks in outcrop 

areas of andesite flows. A new trielement scanner which 

records two thermal infrared bands and one visible 

band has been acquired. One of its main functions will 

be to determine the effectiveness of measurement of 

energy level in the two thermal bands for discriminating rock types. 

Space 

Research.-Research by the Department in space 

applications to Earth resources was coordinated by 

the Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) 

program. Experiments using the Earth Resources 

Technology Satellite (ERTS) and Skylab Earth Resources Experimental Package (EREP) data are in 

progress, and most are achieving meaningful results. 

Individual bureaus and offices have had substantial 

success in testing the use of or incorporating some of 

the evolving techniques and products into operational 

aspects of their programs. 

The EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak., in its 

second year of operation, continues as the primary 

public sales outlet for spacecraft- and aircraft-acquired 

remote-sensing data. Data are available at the Center 

from NASA aircraft remote-sensing missions and from 

aerial mapping missions flown for the Geological Survey in addition to satellite data from ERTS-1. Personnel and equipment in Sioux Falls are now located 

in the new Karl E. Mundt Federal Building, a 107,000 

square foot facility located on 320 acres, 18 miles 

northeast of Sioux Falls. The new facility was dedicated August 7,1973. 

Data sales to other Federal agencies, State and local 

governments, universities, private industry, and general 

public totaled $300,000 in fiscal year 1973, and are 

proiected at almost $1 million for fiscal year 1974. 

ERTS data in the forms of both imagery and magnetic 

tapes are available from the facility. 

The Data Center also operates training and applications assistance facilities with principal emphasis on 

the transferring of techniques for extraction of information to operational users. Techniques for application of the data to environmental and resource management problems being developed by various research 

investigators, universities, and NASA, are documented 

in procedural form and made available to users through 

the applications assistance staff at the Data Center. 

Short courses for both U.S. and foreign scientists and 

resource managers in the use of remote-sensing data 

are also offered by the EROS Data Center. 

The EROS Experiments and Evaluation Office located at the NASA Mississippi Test Facility opened its 

users’ assistance center to the general public. Since 

January over 700 potential users of remote sensing 

have visited the center to receive briefings on the 

EROS program, to search out available data through 

the computer link with the EROS Data Center in 

South Dakota, or to use the image enhancement and 

interpretation equipment. A remote-sensing training 

program has been instituted as well as a cooperative 

program with the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife to undertake a land and water management study 

of the Atchafalaya River Basin in Louisiana. In conjunction with the Geological Survey of Alabama 

(GSA) an ERTS-1 satellite image mosaic of Alabama 

was prepared by the Experiments and Evaluation 

Office and published by the GSA. 

The EROS program initiated several research projects and supported others, including efforts to develop 

a conceptual model for utilization of remotely collected 

areal data to monitor and measure continental water 

flux. The theoretical work is near completion and the 

model is now to be tested against aerial- and satelliteacquired data. A study was completed that demonstrates that large-scale unreclaimed stripped land can 

be easily seen on all MSS bands. The demonstration 

area was in southeastern Ohio. Revision of existing 

geology, physiography, and land-use maps at scales of 

1: 250,000 and smaller utilizing ERTS-1 imagery as 

the primary source has been successfully accomplished 

in several test sites, including the Lake Ontario Basin. 

The EROS program mapped the Mississippi River 

flood using ERTS-1 imagery of the 1,200 mile reach 

below St. Louis, Mo. The flood data obtained March 31 

and May 4 and 5, 1973, were compared with imagery 

collected by ERTS on October 1 and 2, 1972, when 

the river was confined to its normal channels. Using 

additive color techniques, temporal composites of MSS 

band 7 were created that vividly depict the flooded 

areas in relation to the normal channel. 

The EROS program also supports the ERTS data 

collection at the Technology Applications Center of 

the University of New Mexico. The center serves as a 

data collection point and provides data management 

and technical assistance to 11 Federal, State, and local 

agencies investigating, within ongoing programs and 

projects, the application of ERTS in the State of New 

Mexico, under the supervision of the Middle Rio 

Grande Council of Governments. 

As part of an ERTS experiment involving Latin 

America, evaluation of ERTS-1 imagery has led to 

the conclusion that the data are ideally suited for 

small-scale geologic mapping and structural analysis 

of remote inaccessible areas such as the Andes of 

South America ; some compilation of geologic, drainage and cultural maps at 1 : 1 million scale has been 

accomplished and maps have been revised with marked 

improvement in content. Recognition of change in 

73 
various hydrologic aspects, in vegetation and snowline, 

has been possible by analysis of repetitive data. 

ERTS imagery acquired over Iceland in support 

of a multidisciplinary, multinational experiment has 

been particularly useful in displaying subtle geologic 

structure and landforms. Results indicate that a reappraisal of some of the geologic history of Iceland may 

be necessary. Enhancement is due to a combination of 

low sun angle (7" ) and snow cover in this near polar 

region. Images were also acquired prior, during, and 

after the eruption of Kirkjufell, providing this experiment team and others with a new tool for studying 

erupting volcanoes: new deposits, and the direction 

and areal distribution of the eruption plume. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs is now investigating 

the use of ERTS imagery and high-altitude photography ( 1 : 80,000 black and white, 1 : 40,000 color infrared) to develop resource data for Environmental 

Impact Statements and overall reservation planning 

on the Crow-Northern Cheyenne Reservations, Mont. 

Delineations from ERTS imagery will be controlled 

to a 1 : 125,000-scale orthophoto mosaic. 

The feasibility of establishing a comprehensive natural resource information system has been demonstrated under a Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Bureau of Land Management contract. The Natural Resources Information System (NRIS) was developed to 

digitize all types of data, both graphic and tabular, as 

they pertain to a specific geographic location and 

which can be useful at multiple management levels. 

All seven of the resource-oriented bureaus within the 

Department of the Interior participated in the project. 

The basic objective of the NRIS development program 

is to provide the resource managers of the Department 

with a capability to manipulate and analyze large volumes of relevant map data and thereby to assist them 

in their planning and managing functions. This computer-based approach can be viewed as a tool to be used 

in cataloging, inventorying, correlating, and analyzing 

available data in a uniform, consistent manner, at 

speeds and complexities not practical by conventional 

manual methods. 

The Bureau of Land Management has prepared a 

mosaic of ERTS imagery at a scale of 1 : 1 million of 

the Powder River Basin, Wyo., which is to be used as 

baseline information in monitoring the impact of strip 

mining about to begin in the Great Plains coal basin. 

The Bureau is also using ERTS-I imagery to prepare 

broad vegetative rangeland maps, and in several districts have used it for soils and wildlife habitat identification. 

The Bureau of Mines investigated the applicability 

of aircraft and satellite remote sensing for locating 

problem fault-fracture systems important to evaluation 

of structural conditions prior to surface and underground mine development. At least five rock types have 

been discriminated to date and related fault systems 

74 

have been successfully located using airborne multispectral scanning, particularly in the UV and thermal 

regions of the spectrum. Comparisons of findings with 

satellite-derived data have been made, but only moderately successful results were obtained. 

Fault and fracture trace maps have been derived 

from low-altitude aircraft data and ERTS-1 imagery 

of east-central Kansas and central Appalachia are 

being examined to test the potential applications of 

remote sensing to petroleum and natural gas exploration and for locating sites for underground coal gasification. 

The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation is evaluating 

various sensors and aerial imagery interpretation techniques for their potential use for the inventory of existing urban and rural recreation lands and waters and 

areas of critical environmental concern with recreation potential. A second objective of the Bureau's investigation is to monitor the impact of proposed facilities and developments and of other land use changes 

upon existing and potential recreation and related environmental resources. 

The data relay capability of the ERTS-1 satellite 

is being tested by the Bureau of Reclamation in the 

San Juan Mountains of southwestern Colorado under 

severe environmental conditions. Data from seven remote reporting stations are relayed via the ERTS-1 

satellite through NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 

to the Engineering and Research Center in Denver 

in near real time. Measured variables include temperature, precipitation, wind speed, wind direction, solar 

radiation, and streamflow. 

Preliminary evaluation of ERTS-1 imagery by the 

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for determining numbers and distribution of prairie ponds and lakes 

in North Dakota has shown that surface water areas 

larger than 2 acres can be recognized. The feasibility 

of pond and lake mapping using concurrent aircraft 

and spacecraft data has been demonstrated. A project 

is being conducted to evaluate Skylab EREP sensors 

for measuring surface-water conditions and vegetation 

types in waterfowl breeding habitat. Habitat quantity 

and quality as well as seasonal changes will be determined. Skylab and aircraft multispectral scanner and 

photographic data were collected over test sites in 

North Dakota during May, June, and August of 1973. 

Extensive ground truth was collected to verify the 

remote-sensing data. The assessment of the relationship between caribou winter range and snow cover, the 

evaluation of snow cover disturbance as a result of caribou grazing, and determination of succession of grazing forage types are the focal points of an ERTS-1 investigation in northern Alaska. Certain winter component units have been identified and their areas of 

distribution have been defined using ERTS-1 imagery. 

Cooperation of the US. Navy Photo Reconnaissance 
Squadron VQ-1 enabled the Bureau to acquire multispectral imagery from a number of test plots in Alaska. 

This imagery will be used to provide an intermediate 

stage of interpretation between ground track surveys 

and space-acquired imagery. The goal is to substitute 

multispectral imagery obtained from fixed-wing aircraft 

for ground truth surveys whenever possible. 

The Geological Survey utilizes data from manned 

and unmanned spacecraft to improve remote-sensing 

techniques as a supplement to conventional and airborne research methods in geological and geophysical 

investigations. Objectives include : Determination of 

variations of physical properties such as spectral reflectance or thermal inertia, which can be used to 

discriminate materials or conditions ; evaluation of the 

broad view supplied by satellite imagery to analysis of 

geomorphic and tectonic relationships of regional or 

larger scope ; identification and repetitive observation 

of features whose physical condition or detectibility 

vary with time, season, or circumstance by use of satellite imagery or by ground monitoring through relay by 

satellite telemetry. Significant results of investigations 

include: Indication of advance warning of the February 23, 1973, eruption of Fuego Volcano in Guatemala by satellite telemetered data showing an increase 

in microseismic activity. Computer ratioing of ERTS 

imagery of Goldfield, Nev., to identify rock types and 

hydrothermally altered areas some of which are related 

to mineralization. Worldwide mapping of desert sand 

seas being completed using ERTS imagery promises 

a better understanding of ancient windblown sandstone deposits important as reservoirs for oil and water. 

Study of Alaskan ERTS imagery has revealed a significant number of linear features, probably faults, which 

will help better understand the complicated structure 

of the State. ERTS imagery of coastal areas has provided a better insight into near-shore currents and 

coastal processes. Landform and land-use characteristics and geologic surficial materials in the Midwest 

and Great Plains can be differentiated using ERTS 

imagery more accurately than on 1: 250,000-scale 

topographic maps. Also, for the first time the existence 

of an isolated crustal anomaly, located in central 

Africa, has been discovered on the basis of POGO 

satellite magnetic data. 

Geological Survey experiments using the ERTS Data 

Collection System are testing its application to hydrologic problems and the system is under study for possible nationwide application. One experiment became 

a practical operation when snow moisture content and 

streamflow data from central Arizona that were relayed to the Salt River project enabled the project 

managers to successfully anticipate runoff and thereby 

regulate release of reservoir water preventing flooding 

in Metropolitan Phoenix. In southern Florida, water 

stage data relayed via;.ERTS Data Collection System 

can be correlated with the area under water as identified on the ERTS image. It was then possible to determine the volume of water in storage in the Loxahatchee Reservoir by electronic density analysis of 

successive ERTS images. 

A new description of the dynamics and morphology 

of the ice over the Beaufort Sea has resulted from investigations using measurements from drifting stations, 

aircraft, ERTS, and Nimbus satellites. The ERTS 

images have also been used to identify surging glaciers 

and to delineate spring snowlines which can then be 

correlated with an “equivalent snowline altitude” to 

provide estimates of snowmelt runoff. 

The Geological Survey has examined ERTS-1 

imagery for its cartographic application. Sample satellite image maps have been prepared, both in black 

and white and in color, at scales of 1: 250,000, 

1 : 500,000, and 1 : 1,000,000 scales. These maps carry 

a geodetic (Universal Transverse Mercator) grid from 

which positions can be determined to national map 

accuracy standards. In conjunction with NASA, ERTS 

parameters have been established that insure that successive ERTS images (18 days apart) will cover the 

same nominal scene on the Earth’s surface. Moreover, 

the printing of ERTS images has been redefined so 

that such imagery may be printed on a mathematically 

defined map projection referred to as the Space 

Oblique Mercator. The establishment of such parameters and projection means that mapping from an 

ERTS-type satellite can be automated. Steps required 

to achieve such automation have been defined and procedures are being established. Implementation of such 

procedures would accompany the conversion of ERTS 

from an experimental to an operational system. 

The U.S. Geological Survey published and made 

available for public sale its first gridded image mosaic. 

The mosaic of the State of New Jersey, derived 

from three consecutive images in a single orbit, meets 

national map accuracy standards. A mosaic of the State 

of Florida is being prepared for publication early in 

1974. 

As part of the Geological Survey’s Census Cities 

Project, an experiment to map land use in an urban 

area by automatic digital processing of ERTS-1 data 

shows promise. Computer maps of a large part of the 

San Francisco-Oakland and San Jose urbanized areas 

have been produced using a segment of an ERTS-1 

frame. Classification was achieved by grouping 28 

spectral classes into 11 functional classes. Reliability 

was checked by comparing computer results to highaltitude color air photographs. 

Ofieratioris.-The Geological Survey provided support to NASA for mission planning, including the 

Venus-Mercury flyby, and postmission analysis. 

Geologic analysis and mapping of Apollo and Mariner 

75 
data continued. Guidance was provided on the application of remote-sensing techniques to planetary 

exploration. 

International Cooperation 

The launch of the Earth Resources Technolo<gy 

Satellite (ERTS-1) led to widespread interest in using 

imagery from the satellite for experimental mapping 

of resources and brought many requests for training and assistance in remote sensing. As a result, in 

1973 the USGS conducted training courses or seminars 

in Mali, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand. 

The Sahelian Seminar, held in Bamako, Mali, from 

April 17-28, emphasized applications to the Sahelian 

Zone in the disciplines of agriculture, forestry, hydrology, ecologv, geology, and economics. The East Asian 

Seminar, held in Quezon City, Philippines, from 

May 7-1 8, addressed the disciplines of agriculture, 

forestry, cartography, geology, oceanography, fishery, 

and land use. The Indonesian course was presented 

in Jakarta between January 12 and February 2 as the 

first phase of the multispectral photographic remotesensing survey of Bali. In addition to lectures on remote-sensing theory and techniques, especially multispectral photographic theory, application of these 

techniques to agriculture, forestry, fishery, geology, 

hydrology, oceanography, land use, and soils were 

presented. Some of the trainees will be involved in the 

actual survey of Bali for which the aerial survey was 

flown in July 1973. In Thailand, a 4-week course in 

application of remote sensing to problems in geology, 

agriculture, forestry, land use, and hydrology was 

given to a class of 27 students from southern Asia. In 

the field of geology, emphasis was given to training in 

the use of ERTS data and of aerial multiband data 

from a camera available in Thailand. In a class exercise, most of Thailand was mapped at a scale of 

1 : 1,000,000 from ERTS imagery. Even in this rough 

first attempt by students, tectonic provinces could be 

defined which have interesting possible correlations 

with the known distribution of mineral showings. A 

follow-up program of ERTS mapping was started in 

two divisions of the Thailand Department of Mineral 

Resources. 

An international remote-sensing training course was 

also held in Sioux Falls, S. Dak., June 2-29, for students from 11 foreign countries. The course, which 

emphasized ERTS technology and data applications, 

covered the disciplines of geology, hydrology, cartography, agriculture, forestry, and soils. 

As a direct result of courses given by USGS personnel in Brazil near the end of 1972, a remote-sensing 

group was organized in the Companhia de Pesquisas 

de Recursos Minerais (CPRM) and equipment was 

obtained to provide capability for remote-sensing data 

gathering and analysis. The CPRM program is to include large-scale geologic mapping from ERTS images 

and radar mosaics, as well as detailed aerial surveys of 

specific economic areas. 

The EROS program also sponsored two training 

courses at Inter American Geodetic Survey Headquarters, Fort Clayton, Canal Zone for approximately 60 

Latin American scientists. Four in-country demonstration projects were initiated and mechanisms for data 

and reference material distribution were established. 

76 
X Department of Agriculture 

Introduction 

The Department of Agriculture continues to recognize the need for a technically feasible and economically sound remote sensing program that can 

effectively utilize aerospace technology to collect realtime Earth resources data for more efficient inventory, 

protection, and management of our agricultural and 

forestry resources. This involves testing the feasibility 

and operational utility of using aerospace-acquired 

data, along with other relevant data, to inventory and 

make more accurate quantitative predictions of the 

food and fiber resources of the Nation; to evaluate the 

productivity of the land; and to monitor changes 

affecting the total production and quality of our resources and environment. 

Remote Sensing and Space Activities 

Research planning in USDA is being aimed at the 

full utilization of aerospace remote sensing data capabilities, and the efficient processing and interpretation of the massive data potential where it can best 

serve toward the impmvement of our agricultural, 

forestry, and related resource production and development systems. During 1973, a number of significant 

findings and advances were made, and important pmgrams developed, utilizing remote sensing technology, 

as follows: 

Agricultural Research Service.-1 . In crop identification studies, data from Band 7 of the ERTS-1 multispectral scanner was found to be the most effective 

in discriminating bare soil and five categories of vegetation. Utilizing all four channels permitted a 91-percent accuracy in correctly identifying crops. Fields having more than 40-percent plant cover were more accurately identified than those with less cover. Fields 

above 20 acres in size were more correctly identified 

than those of 10 acres or less. 

2. Earlier crop data handling experience required 

approximately 14 days of computer time to process 

data over a l-million-acre tract of cropland. Modifications have been made that permit this data to be 

displayed and read out in 3 hours. Software and hardware improvements have enabled this increased 

efficiency. 

3. Areas of iron-deficient (chlorotic) grain sorghum 

down to 2.8 acres in size have been detected and isolated from ERTS-1 magnetic tape data. 

4. ERTS-1 imagery is being used to locate and 

determine the extent of highly erodible (by wind) soil 

areas in Texas and New Mexico. Feasibility studies 

thus far indicate a good possibility for utilizing this approach to prognosticate erodible potentialities before 

erosion actually occurs. 

5. Low concentrations of sediment are important in 

the transport of pesticides and ionic pollutants. Spectral reflectance of water, containing sediment, was 

measured for several increasing concentrations of clay 

particles in water. Measurements indicate that low (75 

ppm) concentrations of some sediments may be measured by remote sensing techniques. 

6. Utilization of a discriminative analysis technique 

has provided the ability to use ERTS magnetic tape 

data to distinguish, with good discrimination, grassland watersheds with high runoff from those having 

low runoff. The best discrimination occurs using MSS 

Bands 5,6, and 7. Irregularly shaped areas can readily 

be determined by the application of computer techniques to isolate ERTS digital data. Extension of these 

techniques could lead to a rapid analysis system for 

large grassland watersheds. 

Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service.-1. A complete set of ERTS-1 color composite 

9 inch by 9 inch imagery is being prepared for a demographic survey and census operation of Afghanistan. 

This undertaking is being accomplished at the Salt 

Lake City photographic laboratory in cooperation with 

USAID and the Department of Commerce under an 

Afghanistan project agreement. During the past year 

this facility, in addition to its regular aerial photograph 

processing, has also processed over 4,000 ERTS-I 

images and transparencies in black and white, color, 

and color infrared for various U.S. Federal, State, and 

local agencies in addition to universities and the public 

at large. Over 300 ERTS-1 color composites have been 

rendered by this laboratory, 

77 
2. An extensive ground-truth-gathering project over 

18 U.S. counties is being conducted with NASAHouston in an investigation to develop an automated 

crop identification and classification system utilizing a 

digital data processing approach. 

3. In cooperation with the Canadian Department 

of Agriculture, an experiment is in progress to correlate ERTS-1 digital imagery with ground truth observations of selected spring wheat sites. The purpose 

is to develop techniques for estimating acreage yield 

and crop vigor from satellite data utilizing ancillary 

information such as soil moisture, ground temperature, 

and other relevant parameters. 

Animal and Plant Health Znsfiection Service.-Extensive gypsy moth damage to millions of acres of trees 

in Eastern United States occurs annually. A sterile 

male technique may aid in the control or elimination 

of this insect provided a diapause (hibernation) can be 

terminated at will. The ability to break this stage by 

chemical or physical means in the laboratory has not 

been possible. 

A proposed experiment, in cooperation with NASA 

on Sklab 4, is to terminate diapause of gypsy moth 

embryonated eggs by exposure to zero gravity in space 

and thus remove the barrier to the use of the environmentally sound sterile male technique to aid in the 

control of this pest. 

Forest Service.-1 . A space-related research spinoff 

has been the development of a unique surveying instrument for boundary line location. The instrument system is based on NASA laser research, and a prototype 

instrument was developed under a NASA contract. 

The instrument is undergoing field testing. A vertically 

aimed laser beam is detected by a remote electro-optical 

detection device located up to a mile in distance, regardless of intervening terrain or cover. The system, 

named LEAPS, is expected to more than double the 

speed of boundary line detection work. 

2. Continual use is being made of aerial photography for resource surveys and revision of inventory 

maps. Increasing advantage is being taken of improved 

cameras and films to cover larger areas with a single 

photograph while still retaining the required image 

resolution, positional accuracy, and stereoscopic 

coverage. 

3. ERTS-1 images enlarged to 1 : 250,000 scale have 

proved useful as an aircraft navigation tool for the 

acquisition of small-scale photography. In areas of 

rapid change, the ERTS photolike images improve 

the performances of the pilot team and photographer 

in obtaining photos of particular areas with greater 

precision. 

4. An unsupervised computer-learning technique 

has been programed for automated separation of forested versus nonforested areas using ERTS tapes or 

microdensitometer data obtained from photographs. 

5. Fully operational remote sensing techniques for 

forest fire detection and mapping have been expanded. 

Including the prototype eouipment designed and built 

by the Fire Laboratory of the Forest Service, three 

fire scanner-mapper units will soon be in operational 

use. A contract has been let for a first commercially 

manufactured bispectral scanner based on research 

and development by the Forest Service. 

6. In Southern United States, a comparison of fall 

ERTS imagery with late winter or early spring imagery 

permitted the detection of Kudzu vine (used for soil 

erosion control) which damages forest stands when 

not kept under control. 

7. As a result of a severe frost in the bay area of 

California, over 2 million eucalyptus trees were killed 

or severely damaged. Aerial photos were used to map, 

plan firebreaks, and to assess the damage and excessive 

tree-removal costs by private landowners and insurance 

companies. The actual damage is being correlated with 

the aerial photography and ERTS imagery. 

Sod Conservation Service.-1. The Cartographic 

Division, in cooperation with the Joint Federal-State 

Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, has compiled an available mosaic of Alaska at a scale of 

1 : 1,000,000, using MSS Band 7 of ERTS-1. 

2. Under a contract for NASA, ERTS imagery 

(Bands 5 and 7) is being used to compile mosaics of 

conterminous United States at a scale of 1 : 1,000,000. 

The entire project is expected to be completed during 

the summer of 1974. 

Other Activities 

Worldwide cognizance of USDA expertise in agriculture and forestry has brought representatives from 

many nations to seek advice and assistance on agricultural and forestry applications of remote sensing. 

During 1973, many briefings were given to visitors from 

Afghanistan, Canada, Colombia, England, India, Indonesia, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, and Korea. 

Cooperative ventures with the Department of State 

(USAID) and the Department of the Interior 

(USGS) occurred during the year in providing expertise assistance to the central West African countries 

of Mali, Niger, and Upper Volta. ERTS and other 

remote sensing technologies were used to assist in a 

more rapid and accurate inventorying of their natural 

resources and to expedite an expanded resource management program. 

78 
XI Department of Commerce 

Introduction 

Department of Commerce agencies that actively 

utilize or contribute to aeronautics and space in carrying out their missions are the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau of 

Standards, the Maritime Administration, the Office of 

Telecommunications, and the Bureau of the Census. 

indirect contributions are made by the U.S. Patent 

Office and the National Technical Information 

Service. 

Use of Satellites in Environmental Monitoring 

and Prediction 

Environmental Satellite Operations.-As the year 

began, the National Environmental Satellite Service 

(NESS) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) had operational control of 

thrce polar-orbiting satellites: ESSA 8 and 9 of the 

older TIROS Operational Satellite (TOS) series, and 

NOAA 2 of the new Improved TOS (ITOS) series. 

ESSA 9 was deactivated on November 29, 1973. ITOS 

E, whose sensor complement was identical to NOAA 2, 

was launched on July 16, 1973, but failed to achieve 

orbit because of a hydraulic pump failure in the second stage of the launch vehicle. ITOS F, the backup 

satellite, was successfully launched on November 6, 

1973, and named NOAA 3. NESS assumed control of 

NOAA 3 on November 29, 1973, following the NASA 

postlaunch systems checkout. NOAA 3 will become the 

operational satellite in 1974 and NOAA 2 will then 

serve as an “in-orbit” backup. Like its predecessor, 

N0.4A 2, the satellite is equipped with radiometers that 

provide visible and infrared images of cloud cover, 

snow, and ice, and the sea surface, and gathers information on temperatures and moisture in the atmosphere. Another sensor provides data on the solar 

proton count and distribution in polar regions. A new 

feature introduced on NOAA 3, direct readout from 

the Vertical. Temperature Profile Radiometer 

(VTPR) , has evoked considerable international interest. Several foreign countries, including France and 

Norway, are receiviag the VTPR direct transmissions. 

A VTPR workshop was held at NESS in July to 

familiarize representatives of European and South 

American environmental services with NOAA 2 VTPR 

products. 

Vertical Temperature and Wind Profiles.-Approximately 1,000 vertical profiles of atmospheric temperatures are derived daily from VTPR data by NESS. 

These are transmitted to users worldwide via the Global 

Telecommunications System. These VTPR soundings 

have become a primary source of temperature information for the National Meteorological Center (NMC) 

upper-air analyses over Northern Hemisphere oceans. 

NMC is now testing a global analysis and forecast 

scheme which will rely almost entirely upon VTPR 

for data in the Southern Hemisphere. A preliminary 

test of the impact of VTPR data on NMC forecasts 

over North America showed some improvement in 

forecast skill. Research is underway to develop a fourdimensional data assimilation technique for direct use 

of satellite information in numerical forecast models. 

The launch of NASA’s Nimbus 5 in December 1972, 

provided data from three new sounding instruments: 

the Infrared Temperature Profile Radiometer 

(ITPR) ; the Selective Chopper Radiometer (SCR) ; 

and the Nimbus E Microwave Spectrometer (NEMS) . The results of NESS studies using these sensor data 

have demonstrated the ability to determine the vertical 

thermal structure of the atmosphere at selected levels 

from the Earth’s surface up to 50 kilometers through 

broken cloud or cloudless skies from infrared radiometer measurements and through dense clouds from 

microwave radiometer measurements. Indications are 

that temperature fields observed in the Northern 

Hemisphere by satellite instruments are markedly 

similar to those observed by radiosonde instruments. 

The satellite sounders can economically produce many 

more soundings per day than is possible with groundreleased radiosondes. This is particularly advantageous 

over oceans and inaccessible land areas. 

Cloud vector data, derived from the Applications 

Technology Satellite (ATS) 3, have been used to supplement high- and low-level winds obtained from balloon and rawinsonde observations. In meteorologically 

disturbed areas where multilevel clouds often pre79 
clude the tracking of low-level clouds, inferences about 

the nature and intensity of the disturbance frequently 

can be obtained from a pattern of high-cloud vectors. 

Environmental Warning Services.-With the advent 

of the Geostationary Observational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES) system, expected to be in operation 

by the summer of 1974, the development and movement of destructive weather phenomena will be observed almost continuously. An important aspect of 

the GOES system is the regional service provided by 

the Satellite Field Services Stations (SFSS) already 

established at Washington, D.C., Miami, Kansas City, 

and San Francisco. These stations, established in preparation for GOES and currently utilizing ATS-3 

data, will provide analysis and interpretation of nearcontinuous GOES imagery to regional centers for use 

in preparation of short range forecasts, advisories, and 

warnings of severe local disturbances such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and gales and for tropical storms 

and large-scale mid-latitude storms. 

Determining Ocean Conditions.-Following the 1972 

launch of NOAA 2, research was renewed to develop 

improved methods for mapping global sea surface temperatures using the Scanning Radiometer (SR) and 

the Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) data. 

Multiday compositing of the infrared SR data is combined with climatological information to produce global sea-surface temperature charts. 

The VHRR data have been used extensively in detailed studies of temperature fields associated with phenomena such as the Gulf Stream, warm and cold eddies, coastal upwelling, and discharge of river water 

into the oceans. Experimental charts showing many of 

these thermal features of the sea surface in the Western 

Atlantic are derived routinely from analyses of VHRR 

imagery; these charts are transmitted experimentally to 

subscribers via the National Weather Service facsimile 

circuit. Response to this new satellite product from a 

diverse group of Government and non-Government 

users has been favorable. Using these data, NESS scientists have suggested that the satellite-observed cold 

water eddies that have broken away from the Gulf 

Stream may some day be used for ship routing purposes. 

VHRR imagery has proved to be nearly ideal for 

sea-ice studies. Satellite observations of ice conditions 

in the Ross Sea and McMurdo Sound in Antarctica 

assist the US. Navy Fleet Weather Facility, Suitland, 

Md., in routing resupply ships. The Fleet Weather Facility, using VHRR and Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS) imagery, prepared sea-ice and 

weather forecasts that were transmitted via the ATS 3 

Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) to Jacques Cousteau’s 

ship Calypso after it sustained ice damage in Antarctic 

waters. 

Ice Analysis charts based on VHRR satellite imagery 

80 

were prepared for the Bering and Beaufort Seas and 

also transmitted experimentally via facsimile circuit to 

the Alaskan area. Such information was useful for 

routing ships for resupply of Arctic ports and for search 

and rescue, for supporting Coast Guard icebreaker activities and for scientific studies such as the Arctic Ice 

Dynamics Joint Experiment (AIDJEX) , 

Determining Lake Conditions.-The VHRR and 

ERTS 1 imagery have also proved to be of considerable 

value in the International Field Year for the Great 

Lakes (IFYGL) and related Great Lakes studies. For 

example, spring warming processes, which occur in 

different stages in each lake, are clearly delineated in 

a time sequence of VHRR infrared images. Cloud-free 

VHRR observations, together with virtually simultaneous ERTS coverage of Lake Erie ice conditions, were 

obtained during freezeup, growth, and breakup stages. 

Furthermore, the added capability of near-infrared 

sensing on ERTS permitted detection of melt water on 

the ice surface. This type of information is useful for 

routing merchant ships and extending the navigation 

season on the Great Lakes. 

Determining Hydrological Conditions.-Quantitative 

estimates of snow cover, in terms of percent of basin 

coverage, were derived from VHRR imagery, and 

snow maps were prepared for the American River, 

Feather River, Upper Columbia River, Red River of 

the North, and Genesee River basins. These compared 

favorably with ERTS snow maps and showed a considerable cost improvement over more conventional 

high-altitude aircraft photography. Quantitative snow 

cover data needed for river and flood potential forecasts were sent to the appropriate River Forecast Centers within 36 hours after sufficiently cloud-free satellite images of each basin were received. 

Estimating Rainfall.-NOAA’s Environmental Data 

Service Center for Experiment Design and Data 

Analysis conducted a review of methods for estimating 

rainfall from satellite data. The primary purpose was 

to determine the usefulness of the methods for the 

GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE). The 

methods include the use of cloud-top temperatures deduced from radiation measurements, visible image 

brightness, image area, and qualitative cloud-type identification from visible images. Ground-truth data have 

been obtained from various rain gage networks and 

radar records. 

Pollution Monitoring.-A Marine Ecosystems Analysis 

(MESA) program pilot experiment using satellite data 

was carried out over the New York bight area during 

‘Area covering Long Island, New York City, and New 

Jersey coastline out to a depth of 100 fathoms. 
April 1973. The principal aims of the MESA program 

are to develop a better understanding of the biological, 

chemical, geological, and physical properties of the 

area, to assess man’s impact on the system, and to predict the consequences of current and future actions. 

The experiment, a cooperative effort of a number of 

Government agencies and private industry, involved 

the use of two satellites (NOAA 2 and ERTS 1 ) , two 

helicopters, and supporting oceanographic vessels and 

equipment. Detailed photography, multispectral imagery, and ocean-surface data were acquired in a 500- 

square-mile area in the vicinity of Sandy Hook, N.J., 

and the west end of Long Island. The remote sensing 

experiment verified that strong physical and chemical 

features manifest themselves throughout the apex of 

the New York bight area. For example, ERTS imagery 

clearly showed large pollution areas such as acid and 

sewage dumps. 

Weather Modifications.-Using NOAA 2 Satellite 

nighttime infrared imagery from the SR and VHRR 

sensors, data were provided to Niger describing the location and size of cloud formations. This information 

was used to support Niger’s cloud seeding project which 

was part of an effort to alleviate that country’s prolonged drought. 

The Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory 

continued its experimental work in lightning suppression. Seeding thunderstorms from a B-26 aircraft with 

aluminum-coated nylon chaff significantly reduced 

electric fields in thunderstorms. Benefits derived from 

these studies were the reduction of lightging induced 

forest fires (about 70 percent of the world’s forest fires 

are lightning caused) , protection of exposed explosive 

stores, and the suppression of lightning at Kennedy 

Space Center during spacecraft launches. 

Skylab Experiments.-In connection with the Skylab 

program, experiments were conducted for development 

of global wind and wave forecast models utilizing 

satellite-borne microwave sensors. Surface wind and 

wave data over test sites in the Pacific Ocean and Gulf 

of hlexico were collected concurrently from ships, aircraft, meteorological charts, and the Radiometer/Scatterometer sensor of the Skylab Earth Resources Experiment Package. 

Znternational Cooperation.-The United States and 

the Soviet Union completed the ninth year of environmental data exchange over the direct Washington-Moscow circuit. These data include visible and 

infrared cloud cover pictures from the U.S. NOAA 2 

and 3 and the U.S.S.R. Meteor 12, 13, 14, and 15 

Satellites. 

The second and third coordination meetings on 

geostationary meteorological satellites were held in 

Zurich and Tokyo in January and October 1973, respectively. Representatives from the United States, 

Japan, and the European Space Research Organization 

participated. Observers from the Soviet Union attended both meetings. Among the subjects considered were determination of satellite locations, standardization of communication frequencies, data rates 

and formats, message codes, data collection, telecommunications, and uniformity of archival products. 

Under the World Meteorological Organization 

( WMO) Voluntary Assistance Program, the National 

Weather Service (NWS) installed Automatic Picture 

Transmission ground stations in 17 countries and procured stations for installation in 4 others. 

Fisheries.-Studies conducted by the NOAA National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) in cooperation with 

NASA and industry demonstrated the usefulness of 

remote sensing from satellites for improving fisheries 

research, management, and utilization. Image density 

levels from the ERTS 1 MultiSpectral Scanner were 

correlated with menhaden distribution patterns in the 

Mississippi Sound. The correlations were explained 

statistically using water transparency, color, salinity, 

and depth measurements. From these, regression 

models could be developed and used to predict areas 

of potential menhaden fishing success or failure in the 

study area. 

The data acquisition phase of the Skylab Gamefish 

Experiment dealing with the North Central Gulf of 

Mexico was completed during the summer of 1973. 

Preliminary analysis of sea surface data collected by 

research and sportfishing vessels suggest that statistically significant correlations may exist between selected 

oceanographic parameters and the distribution and 

abundance of billfishes. 

Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys.-The 

NOAA Data Buoy Office is adapting technology and 

improving environmental data buoys ; these buoys are 

equipped with sensors to measure oceanic and atmospheric environmental parameters and are linked 

through telemetry to Earth satellites and shore stations. 

Four severe environment buoys were deployed for evaluation: two in the Gulf of Mexico, one off the US. 

mid-Atlantic coast, and one in the Gulf of Alaska. Although these buoys are experimental in nature, synoptic data were collected routinely for dissemination on 

the national environmental data networks for use in 

analysis and forecasting. Tests and evaluations were 

completed on six experimental polar applications buoys 

deployed as part of the initial phase of AIDJEX using 

Nimbus 4 satellite for data relay and position location. 

Tests and analyses are continuing on position location 

devices for drifting buoys which utilize the previously 

developed Omega and navigational satellite systems. 

81 
Demographic Studies.-The Bureau of the Census, 

using Agency for International Development funds, 

is studying the utility of ERTS-1 imagery for demographic studies and census operations in three lessdeveloped countries. The first project is concerned 

with Afghanistan; similar studies will be done for two 

other countries, yet to be selected. The countries to be 

chosen will differ from each other and from Afghanistan in their cultural and physical geographic environments; the willingness and ability of their governments 

to participate in such a project also will be a determining factor. The ERTS 1 imagery together with correlative ground-truth data wilI be used to classify land 

use areas. This information in turn will be used in the 

development of population distribution models. If expectations are realized, information on population 

trends, urban growth, and internal structure of national 

land areas will be obtainable from satellite imagery. 

Other Satellite and Space Applications 

NavigationlCommunications Satellite.-The Maritime Administration completed a 6-month test in which 

nine U.S.-flag ships and NASA’s ATS 5 and ATS 3 

satellites were used to evaluate shipboard equipment 

and techniques in communications and radionavigation. During collection of the technical data for this 

test, fleet management techniques were developed and 

evaluated by the participating shipping companies. 

Determination of the Earth’s Shape and Gravity 

Field.-The Worldwide Geometric Satellite Triangulation program was completed and its results published. 

The system consists of a global network of 45 stations, 

whose relative configuration was determined by simultaneously photographing the PAGEOS satellite from 

various locations on the ground. The scale was determined by seven baselines established by direct ground 

measurements. The entire system was referred to the 

Earth’s center of mass as origin by comparison with 37 

stations whose positions were obtained by Doppler satellite measurements and tied to the geometric network 

by ground surveys. The Earth‘s gravitational field was 

determined by using satellite orbital data and ground 

gravity measurements, using as a constraint the relative 

configuration of 17 of the Doppler observing stations. 

This program increases the density of stations on the 

North American Continent. 

Prediction of Earthquakes by Using Lunar Ranging.-The successful placement of a laser retroreflector 

package on the Moon by Apollo astronauts has made 

possible very accurate measurements of the lunar orbit 

which can, in turn, be used to obtain information about 

Earth dynamics such as polar motions, rotation, and 

large-scale crustal movements. The National Bureau of 

Standards (NBS) has worked with the Jet Propulsion 

82 

Laboratory and the University of Texas to determine 

the distance to the moon to an accuracy of about 10 

centimeters over a distance of 400 million meters. The 

Bureau has also analyzed the accuracy limitations inherent in lunar ranging measurements attributable to 

atmospheric uncertainties and tidal corrections. For 

studies using the new-lunar ranging station being constructed in Hawaii, an accuracy goal of 2 to 3 centimeters has been set. Based on the results of these calculations, it appears it will be feasible to locate a 

moveable station to a 5-centimeter accuracy and by this 

means to determine strain buildup, and to map motions 

in the tectonic plates of the Earth‘s crust to establish 

their relation to earthquakes. 

Space Support Activities 

Skylab and ERTS Support.4ther NOAA support 

to the Skylab and ERTS programs included National 

Weather Service forecasts of cloud cover for use in 

scheduling Earth sensing experiments from Skylab, 

supporting aircraft, and ERTS-1. In addition, forecasts were made for Skylab launchings and recovery 

areas. 

The NOAA Space Environment Laboratory provided continuous observations and forecasts of phenomena on the sun for daily planning of observations by 

Skylab astronauts with the Apollo Telescope Mount 

(ATM) experiment. The specialized needs of the ATM 

program were satisfied by a network of globally dispersed solar observations and by real-time data from 

ITOS satellites. 

Computer Processing of Satellite Images.-Screening 

and readins the information content in large quantities of Earth satellite photographs pose formidabIe 

problems in coding, sorting, and analyzing the data. 

The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) has devised 

an automated computer image processiqg procedure 

which permits complex analysis of large-scale bulk 

data. This methodology permits more complete and 

more accurate use of the information content of satelIite photographs in Earth resources and environmental 

surveys. Structural and dynamic behavior of significant 

geological features, resource distributions, pollution in 

rivers and oceans and crop and land population densities can now be subjected to sophisticated pattern 

analysis, 

Humidity Instrumentation for Mars Viking Mission.-NBS has provided to NASA apparatus capable 

of generating reference frost-points in a simulated 

Martian atmosphere and has designed procedures for 

calibrating sensors to be used on the Mars Viking 

Mission. 

NBS has developed a continuous-flow humidity generator for experimental use by NASA in evaluation of 

life-support breathing systems. 
Radiation Eflects Studies.-NBS continues to provide 

NASA-Goddard with information about the efforts of 

radiation on electronic components and semiwnductor materials. Recent studies deal with the effects of 

nuclear radiation on microwave (mixer) diodes used 

for communications and radar systems. Results of these 

studies will be of use in the design of shielding to prevent equipment failure under exposure to space radiation. These studies are complemented by calculations 

of the energy transport of high-energy radiation and 

the deposition of this energy by impact on various materials to determine the effectiveness of radiation 

shielding. 

Cryogenic Technology.-NBS is engaged in special 

studies for NASA to establish engineering data and 

techniques needed to evaluate the future use of liquidsolid (slush) and solid hydrogen as an improved space 

vehicle fuel. These studies will provide NASA with 

basic data and engineering information on cryogenic 

fluids and systems for use in spacecraft application. 

Technical data on the thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties of metals at cryogenic temperatures, 

and criteria for selection of reliable materials have recently been furnished to NASA. 

Analysis of A pollo Lunar Samples.-NBS is determining the chemical and isotopic composition of lunar 

samples collected on the various Apollo missions. Analyses of Apollo 14, 15, and 16 samples are complete, and 

work on Apollo 17 samples is well underway. A variety of high precision and accurate analytical techniques are being used in the analysis. 

Early work indicated the concentrations of many elements in lunar materials were remarkably similar to 

those in terrestrial materials, and their isotopic abundances were identical to those found in Earth samples. 

Recently, however, unique isotopic differences have 

been found in lunar materials, most notably in the element potassium, where the ratios vary by more than 

1 percent in lunar soils. The presence of these variations in isotopic abundances could have important implications in future theories about the formation and 

the source of lunar soils. 

Space Shuttle Experiments.-NBS is assisting NASA 

in efforts to utilize the Space Shuttle as an orbital 

workshop for materials science and manufacturing in 

a zero gravity and vacuum environment. Projects include research and development in crystal growth, 

purification of materials, physical processes in fluids, 

and preparation of composite materials. These projects 

are expected to yield new and innovative materials 

processing methods of broad commercial importance. 

Measurements and Calibrations.-NBS develops 

many measurement techniques and calibration procedures for NASA. These are used to evaluate the design 

and monitor the performance of electronic equipment 

used in communications, satellite tracking and spacecraft control equipment, optical and radiation detection systems used in space experiments, and temperatures and mechanical sensors used to insure adequate 

performance of aircraft and spacecraft. This program 

includes antenna measurements, electronics design, 

performance specifications, radar network evaluations, 

vibration and shock instrumentation, and the design 

of humidity sensors for water vapor determinations. 

NBS has provided several calibrated antenna horns 

to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for monitoring the 

performance of its Deep Space Tracking Station. The 

station’s massive antenna array is being used for space 

communications, radio-astronomy observations, and 

radar mapping of Venus. Assistance was also provided 

to help the Army determine the radar efficiency of a 

satellite ground station. 

Skylab radiometer systems measurements were 

evaluated and recommendations were made for improved measurement procedures. Special facilities were 

established at NBS to test windows of the Skylab spacecraft for structural integrity and to estimate their life 

under operating conditions. 

NBS also is calibrating instrumentation used in upper-atmosphere and space measurements of gamma 

ray intensity and distribution profiles, and is working on the design of a high resolution solar spectrometer for space use. The Bureau calibrates the ultraviolet 

radiation detectors used on space missions and furnished vacuum ultraviolet calibrations for the Skylab 

mission. 

Atmospheric and Solar Physics 

Astrophysics.-The Joint Institute for Laboratory 

Astrophysics, a cooperative effort of the NBS and the 

University of Colorado for the study of highly ionized 

gaseous species, has developed several models of active 

regions in the solar chromosphere. Proposed models 

of the lower chromosphere and upper photosphere of 

the sun, including descriptions of the chromospheric 

network, supergranule cells, plaques, and sun spots, 

are being compared with solar observations. 

Kinetic and photochemical processes in planetary 

atmospheres are the subject of continuing studies at 

NBS. Photochemical studies of the reactions of carbon, methane, and methane radicals with various substances are expected to provide significant insight into 

the atmospheric chemistry of Jupiter whose major constituent is methane. 

Zonospheric Physics.---NOAA’s Aeronomy Laboratory, 

in collaboration with the Institut de Physique du Globe, 

Paris, made radar observations of electron irregularities in the equatorial electrojet from two sites in Chad, 
Africa, during the June 30, 1973, solar eclipse. The 

purpose was to observe the effects of the reduced electron densities during the eclipse on the distribution of 

irregularities and electrical currents in the electrojet. 

These observations will contribute toward the development of a better model of the electrojet, which can be 

an important medium of communication in equatorial 

countries. 

NOAA’s Aeronomy Laboratory has discovered that 

ground-based measurements of twilight emission from 

molecular oxygen can be used to observe both ozone 

densities and atmospheric temperatures at altitudes of 

80 to 120 kilometers. These emissions in the night-glow 

yield mesospheric temperatures that show major 

fluctuations at midlatitudes for several days after auroral-zone geomagnetic activity. NOAA’s Air Resources Laboratories are studying coincident stratospheric ozone and water vapor data to determine possible relationship between these constitutents. The Laboratories also are studying data from the NASA Backscatter Ultraviolet (BUV) instrument to provide a 

benchmark of global total ozone amount (2-3 year 

data record) for comparison with future data, and ako 

to determine if any impact on increased oxides of nitrogen (NO,) is observable in the data obtained near the 

time of several recent nuclear detonations. Results of 

these studies also should be useful for assessing the 

impact of supersonic aircraft on the environment. 

Atmospheric Photochemistry.-In assisting the Department of Transportation (DOT), NBS has determined what data are needed to assess the impact of 

high altitude aircraft on the chemistry of the stratosphere. Critical data evaluations have been prepared 

on the photochemistry of various important reactions 

in the Earth’s atmosphere. NBS also has made measurements of radiation extinction coefficients of NO, in 

the near ultraviolet region. This information provides 

the technical basis for determining the photochemical 

behavior of pollutants in the Earth’s atmosphere. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Aeronautical Navigation and Communications.-The 

Office of Telecommunications (OT) is preparing a 

handbook for the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) on the problems of performance degradation 

in radar communications and navigation systems 

caused by multipath phenomena in propagation links. 

Such multipath degradation results in loss of communications, ambiguity in radar systems, and errors in 

navigation equipment for worldwide aeronautical applications. 

A preliminary study also was completed to determine 

the feasibility of navigating aircraft on Loran-C skywaves to great distances from transmitters. Since the 

Loran-C chains cover a large part of the Northern 

Hemisphere with skywaves, precision navigation may 

be quite possible in areas remote from transmitters, particularly in the vast areas of the Pacific Ocean. 

Safety Services for Aeronautics.-In support of the 

FAA, OT is making extensive laboratory measurements of three potential aircraft collision avoidance 

systems to determine their electromagnetic compatibility with existing radar altimeters and with a proposed air mobile satellite avionics system. These measurements are a critical part of determining the most 

effective Collision Avoidance System. 

The NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory 

conducted experiments, utilizing dual Doppler radars, 

to obtain information on the processes that occur in 

and around severe storms such as thunderstorms and 

tornadoes. Among the parameters explored were turbulence, winds, and wind shear. Also investigated were 

possibilities for using Doppler radar to detect signs of 

severe weather development. 

The Aeronomy Laboratory has developed a radar 

technique for detecting flying birds hazardous to aircraft near airport runways. The technique uses the 

distinctive Doppler radar spectrum arising from the 

moving wings of the birds to distinguish the size and 

species of the birds observed. 

The National Bureau of Standards is helping the 

Federal Aviation Administration to improve the utilization of available air-ground navigational and communications channels. Through its continuing program 

in illumination technology, NBS has developed procedures for the evaluation and design of aircraft landing lights, airfield lighting systems, and cockpit illumination. International standards on colors of signal 

lights have been completed and approved. A major part 

of these studies was determining the limits of navigational seeing under various atmospheric viewing conditions. 

NBS continues to provide information related to 

aerospace fire safety to the NASA Aerospace Safety 

Research Data Institute. Data on fire growth in enclosures and NBS studies of smoke and gases produced 

by burning aircraft interior materials have been used 

for evaluating potential hazards and for designing fire 

extinguishing procedures to be used in oxygen enriched 

atmospheres under reduced gravity. NBS is also field 

testing NASA-developed fire protective clothing to assess its usefulness for firefighters. 

Use of Remote Sensing to Study Coastal Processes.- 

Airborne and spacecraft remote sensors are being evaluated for use in studying and monitoring coastal processes and estuarine dynamics, and in cartography. A 

photographic and thermal remote sensing survey was 

conducted in Boston Harbor to investigate circulatory 

patterns and to develop new remote sensing techniques 
for water quality studies. The circulatory survey will 

provide additional data for charting tidal currents ; the 

data also will be included in the Tidal Current Tables 

published by the National Ocean Survey. 

Aeronautical Charts.-Two new Controller Chart 

Supplements have been prepared for the Federal Aviation Administration and updated on prescribed revision cycles. The supplements are Alaska, Hawaii, and 

Puerto Rico Airways and Standard Terminal Arrival 

Routes. These supplements provide precise geographic 

position information along airways and routes not 

otherwise readily available to i\ir Traffic Facility personnel for the management and control of air traffic. 

The Federal Aviation Administration, the Defense 

Mapping Agency, and the National Ocean Survey 

agreed OII the production of a joint civil/military issue 

of combined Alaska Terminal (Airport) publications. 

The publication will be produced every 56 days and 

will include Instrument Approach Precedure Charts, 

Standard Instrument Departure Charts, and Standard 

Terminal Arrival Routes. 

Support to Environmental Programs.-Aircraft 

equipped with remote sensors designed to measure 

water equivalent of snow and soil moisture were flown 

on field surveys over the Lake Ontario basin in support 

of the IFYGL. During the winter of 1972-73, surveys 

were flown along 28 selected ground tracks; water 

equivalent of snow was computed for each mile segment of track flown. Ground surveys provided corroborating information for evaluating soil moisture measurements obtained by remote sensing. 

Environmental Data Programs 

The National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial 

Data Center, (NGSDC) , of NOAA's Environmental 

Data Service (EDS), in its capacity as World Data 

Center A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, is collecting reports of the times and nature of solar observations 

made by ground-based observatories, rockets, and satellites that coincide with Skylab solar observations. 

Global scientists are interpreting Skylab observations 

by comparing them with the many different types of 

ground-based observations made during the same time 

periods. NGSDC has already produced a preliminary 

data catalog covering the period May 28 through June 

21, 1973, when the first group of Skylab astronauts 

were on duty, and for the intervening period before 

the second Skylab manned mission began, when some 

experiments were running automatically. 

Data users can now obtain from NGSDC 35-millimeter film copies of auroral photographs taken by U.S. 

Air Force DAPP (Data Acquisition and Processing 

Program) satellites. The auroral phenomena are 

photographed on the dark side of the Earth by these 

satellites. The ground features that appear in the photographs are useful for locating the position of the 

aurora with respect to the ground. 

85 
XI1 United States Information Agency 

Introduction 

In the first post-Apollo year, the U.S. Information 

Agency shifted emphasis in its space programing from 

the challenge of lunar exploration and the scientific 

benefits obtained, to Skylab and other space technologies that hold or promise direct benefits to man. 

The Skylzdb missions, with their focus on Earth, the 

Sun, and man, received the most attention from USIA 

media. Of all space missions this year, they also carried the widest impact abroad. The Mariner 10 mission to Venus and Mercury, and Pioneer lo’s flight to 

Jupiter, together with Skylab, were treated as the most 

ambitious examination of the solar system to come out 

of the space age. 

The Moon landings and the Apollo astronauts continued to hold attention overseas and to build up 

goodwill for the United States. The Apollo 10 spacecraft was viewed by a quarter of the people of France 

during exhibits in that country. A tour by the Apollo 

17 astronauts, who criss-crossed the equator from east 

to west to visit 12 countries between Dakar and Saipan, 

was highly successful; USIA was cosponsor with NASA 

and the State Department, and USIA officers served 

as escort and advance men. Five lunar rocks, placed 

under USIA control by NASA after the first Moon 

landing and already seen in most countries of the world, 

continued to draw crowds in the fourth year of circulation. 

Astronaut Jack Schmitt addressed the Latin-American Geological Congress in Caracas, Venezuela, and 

Astronaut Ronald Evans, also of the Apollo 17 crew, 

appeared in Guatemala City to be at the Guatemala 

Fair and to speak to Guatemalans on lunar discoveries. 

A mockup of the Skylab workshop and a replica of the 

lunar rover at the Teheran Fair drew such crowds 

that the police had to shut down the US. pavilion temporarily. 

While USIA used all its media to tell the story of 

space, various special events arranged by the Agency 

and posts, frequently in collaboration with NASA and 

the Smithsonian Institution, produced unusual results, and had special impact on foreign audiences. 

Radio 

Skylab was easily the leadillg space story on the 

Voice of America during the year. In addition to live 

coverage carried on special broadcasts in English, the 

VOA Science Editor prepared 129 special programs 

on all aspects of Skylab. These were carried on regularly scheduled broadcasts in all 36 languages, as were 

150 reports by correspondents. 

Virtually every aspect of Skylab was covered, as these 

sample titles indicate : “The Skylab Cluster,” “Skylab 

Wardrobe,” “Medical Care in Space,” “The Tool 

Chest,” “Many Nations Will Use Skylab Results,” and 

“Skylab: A Promise More than Fulfilled.” 

Altogether the Voice devoted over 400 hours of 

broadcast time to space, using close to 3,500 features, 

interviews, and reports on space. 

VOA reported fully on the Pioneer and Mariner 10 

probes, on results from the Earth Technology Resources satellite, and on preparations for the ApolloSoyuz mission. The cosmonauts were interviewed in 

Houston and Los Angela, and the U.S.-Soviet conferences in Moscow and Washington were covered. 

The European Spacelab agreement was prominently 

featured. So were Space Shuttle developments. 

Press and Publications 

The Agency’s Press and Publications Service, which 

reaches many newspapers and audiences not serviced 

by U.S. commercial news services, was especially active. 

Over 120 stories and 350 photos and drawings on space 

were distributed overseas during the year. About half 

the articles were carried on the Agency’s Wireless 

File-the audioteletype system connecting Washington 

with United States Information Service (USIS) posts 

daily. 

UIA publications carried 26 space stories and 61 

photos, and an Agency-prepared pamphlet, “Project 

Apollo,” received worldwide distribution. The Pictures 

Branch supplied over 150 black and white and color 

items to posts. Among these were pictures screened 

from the 27,000 Earth photographs taken by Skylab 

crews, and many of the 100,000 terrain pictures from 

87 
the Earth Resources Technology Satellite selected for 

distribution by USIS posts in appropriate regions. 

Thirty Wireless File stories on the 87 days two Skylab crews spent in orbit emphasized that this record 

voyage was devoted to research to advance science and 

technology for the benefit of man. Typical headlines on 

the articles read: “Skylab Shows How Space May Become Major Resource,” and “Immediate Uses Foreseen for Skylab‘s Earth Observations.” 

Weeks before Skylab’s initial launch, science writers 

and radio and television space specialists abroad received a Press Service packet of 21,000 words containing an outline of the missions, interviews of the astronauts with photos, and a four-part series on Skylab‘s 

scientific and technical aspects. Skylab Sighting Predictions over various countries, furnished by NASA, 

were sent out biweekly by wireless. 

Pioneer 10’s journey to Jupiter was covered, prelaunch, in two Wireless File articles, “Tupiter Launch 

to Open Big US. Space Year,” and “US. Spacecraft 

Proves Distant Universe Accessible.” All posts received 

for distribution a special article written by Dr. A. H. 

Abdel-Ghani, Chief of the Outer Space Affairs Division of the United Nations, “What Space Exploration 

Means to Developing Nations.” 

America Illzistrated, USIA’s monthly magazine distributed in the U.S.S.R. and Poland, used 10 space 

stories, 5 of them in a special issue on the 500th anniversary of the birth of the Polish astronomer, Copernicus. Another issue carried three stories on Skylab, while 

stories on weather satellites and the mapping of Mars 

by space satellites appeared in other issues. 

Topic, distributed in sub-Sahara Africa, carried six 

space stories, one of them on the value to agriculture 

of ERTS and another on Dr. George Carruthers, the 

black-American scientist who designed the camera 

spectograph left on the Moon. A1 Majal, distributed 

in Arabic-speaking countries, published three space 

stories, Economic Impact, one, and Insight, a London 

USIS magazine, ran a piece on the U.S. Viking project for landing on Mars in 1976. 

The Special Proiects Office collected from business 

and commercial publications 20 space stories and 153 

photos, drawings, or paintings placed in local newspapers and magazines by posts, or used in post-produced magazines and pamphlets. Among these were a 

National Geographic Maqazine painting; of all 32 

Apollo astronauts on a simulated lunar surface, distributed as a poster in the U.S.S.R. and Poland, and 

an article and 11 pictures on Apollo-Soyuz from Rockwell International’s Skyline magazine. 

Motion Pictures and Television 

This medium of the Agency used various means to 

tell the space story. “Science Report,” a half-hour 

monthly report distributed by posts in 95 countries to 

national television networks, ran seven major segments 

on space. These included the complete story of Apollo 

17, two films on the Earth Resources Technology Satellite, and pre- and postlaunch reports on Skylab. 

“Ahora,” a monthly television series for 17 LatinAmerican countries, produced “New Star in the Sky,” 

a review of what Earth satellites do for man. An Indonesian series, “Laporan Dari Amerika,” produced a 

special on Skylab. Two other television series shown 

worldwide, “Vision U.S.A.” and “Washington Correspondent,” featured Skylab reports. 

NASA’s film on Apollo 17, “On the Shoulders of 

Giants,” was distributed in 126 prints (77 English, 23 

French, 12 Spanish, 8 Russian, 2 Romanian, 4 Polish). 

Fully 291 prints of the NASA Apollo 16 film, “Promise 

of the Moon,” were distributed in 16 languages. Also 

distributed were NASA’s “New View of Space,” on 

uses of photography in the space program, and three 

NASA backgrounders for television on Skylab, ocean 

research, and the Apollo-Soyuz project. 

A dozen film clips on Apollo 17 and Skylab were 

distributed worldwide for use in telecasts and newsreels abroad. Through the US. Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, two NASA films were 

offered to foreign television systems; one of them, “A 

Man’s Reach Should Exceed His Grasp,” getting 

screening in nine European countries as well as Korea, 

Israel, Singapore, Qatar, Pakistan, Sudan, Kuwait, and 

Libya. 

At the Skylab launch, television facilities for “standup” programs at the launch site were arranged for a 

half-dozen European commentators. USIS posts in 12 

countries worked to program astronauts or otherwise 

support space programs on television-in Paris, Raymond Loewy, designer of the Skylab interior, appeared 

on a prime-time network talk show. In Buenos Aires, 

the post arranged two television talk shows for Astronauts Donald Slayton and James Lovell, while in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, USIS-provided space photos were 

used on a Skylab TV program. 

The Agency has placed a wide variety of Agencyand NASA-produced space films in 28 film festivals 

abroad. USIA’s “Windfall from Space” was shown at 

the Brisbane Film Festival, while NASA’s “Blue 

Planet” was seen at film festivals in Argentina, Brussels, Colombo, Cracow, Edinburgh, Grenoble, Islamabad, Rio de Janeiro, Trento, and Trieste. NASA’s 

“New View of Space” won the Silver Cup and Diploma 

of Cinematographic Merit at the 20th International 

Exhibition of Special Cinematography in Rome. 

Information Centers and Exhibits 

World audiences viewing both major and minor 

space exhibits continued to be unquestionably positive 

in reaction. The Apollo 10 spacecraft generated attention in the press and on radio and television as it 
moved through Central and Northern France, a quarter of the people in the nation filing past it for a close 

look. Officials at the Lyons, Strasbourg, and Metz Fairs, 

where Apollo 10 was shown, insisted the 10- to 16- 

percent increase in attendance over the previous year 

was due to the Apollo hardware. Apollo 10 proved to 

be the centerpiece attraction at the Marseilles Fair in 

the autumn. 

At the Izmir International Fair in Turkey, Soviet 

space hardware was shown in the Soviet pavilion, while 

the U.S. pavilion exhibited a Moon rock, the spacesuit 

and helmet of Astronaut James Lovell, and the visor 

worn by Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin on the first Moon 

landing. At the Intercamera Exhibit in Prague, space 

as seen by the astronauts was shown in 26 color transparencies and photo panels, together with a Moon rock 

and a photomural of the lunar surface. In Poznan, 

Poland the U.S. exhibit at the World Philatelic Exposition was easily the most popular attraction. In the 

Copernicus Pavilion, USIA has assembled a “Moon 

Letter,” cancelled on the moon by the Apollo 15 astronauts, plus a Moon rock and lunar exploration tools. 

At a Warsaw event commemorating the 500th anniversary of the birth of Copernicus, a U.S. exhibit featured instruments used in lunar exploration. 

The mockup of the Skylab workshop presented in 

full size at the Teheran Fair, together with a full size 

Lunar Rover was credited with getting the Teheran 

Fair in Iran off to a smashing start. Preopening press 

and video coverage concentrated on the space items in 

the U.S. exhibit. Opening attendance soared, and police were forced to close, briefly, the US. pavilion 

before restoring order. An Iranian viewing the US. 

exhibit commented, “Really, what we are seeing is the 

magic of USA.” 

The Information Center Service continued to provide posts with lunar maps, space posters, models, and 

slides. 

Eight new titles of books on space were added to the 

“Current Books” list recommended for USIS libraries. 

The Agency published seven books on space; Richard 

S. Lewis’ “Appointment on the Moon,” the story of the 

first Moon landing, was serialized for publication in 

Bengali in India, and John Noble Wilford’s “We Reach 

the Moon” was published in Chinese. 

Summary 

The bulk of the Agency’s communications effort on 

the subject of space went into publicizing the Skylab 

missions as potential sources of practical benefits to 

man. Agency media emphasized this theme in Voice 

of America broadcasts, in motion pictures and television, and in dozens of news stories and magazine articles.,The same theme was used in Agency coverage 

of the Earth Resources Technology Satellite and of the 

upcoming Space Shuttle. Other coverage emphasized 

the scientific benefits from the Mariner mission to 

Venus and Mercury and the Pioneer mission to Jupiter. Agency press, radio, and films officers overseas 

worked to place special stories, provide film on space 

activities, arrange television facilities for covering space, 

and place broadcasts of space activities on national 

networks abroad. It was typical of the Agency’s involvement that when the press service’s chief space correspondent lectured on “Space in the Seventies” to 

audiences in East Asia, and the Agency’s science adviser spoke to scientific groups in East Europe on Skylab, both officers, while not representing NASA directly, were received as expert analysts and authoritative space spokesmen by their audiences. 
National Science Foundation 

Introduction 

The National Science Foundation is an independent 

agency established to promote the progress of science 

through the support of research and education in all 

fields of science and in engineering. A number of NSF 

programs contribute to the aeronautics and space 

sciences, principally scientific research project support, 

the polar research programs and a variety of educational programs including institutes and fellowships. 

Most of the research work supported by the Foundation 

in the aeronautics and space sciences is carried out by 

investigators affiliated with U.S. colleges and universities, many of whom use the specialized facilities available at the national research centers or the unique 

facilities of the Antarctic Continent. While the activities carried out with Foundation support rarely result 

directly in the production of material for commercial 

use, they are directed to improving our understanding 

of natural phenomena from which stem new opportunities for further technological accomplishment. 

Astronomy 

The US. effort relating to the June 30, 1973 

total solar eclipse was coordinated by the National 

Science Foundation. Support was provided for two 

major scientific expeditions to Africa comprising 38 

major experiments manned by approximately 100 scientists and technicians: one expedition site was located in 

Chinguetti, Mauritania (West Africa) and the other 

in Loiyengalani, Kenya (East Africa) . Smaller groups 

were supported at three other sites, including one in 

Chad, as well as at sea and aboard aircraft. Infrared 

emission and the polarization of different parts of the 

Sun’s corona were measured ; the apparent positions 

of stars near the sun were recorded to test the theory of 

the relativistic bending of light; and the time variations 

in the Sun’s corona and chromosphere were recorded 

with instruments flown on the French Concorde SST 

aircraft. In the more distant universe, one of the most 

important discoveries has been the observation of two 

quasars with the largest red shifts ever observed. These 

objects provide information on the state of the universe 

in its very earliest stage. Other important work includes theoretical calculations on how a star develops 

into a supernova which has improved our understanding of the mechanism of stellar exposion. Other events 

of importance in astronomy are discussed in the following paragraphs. 

Kitt Peak National Observatory.-The purpose of the 

Kitt Peak National Observatory is to provide the U.S. 

scientific community with facilities for astronomical 

research in the fields of stellar, solar, planetary, galactic, and extragalactic astronomy. The facilities include 

nine ground-based telescopes and the instrumentation 

necessary to make astronomical observations in the 

optical and infrared regions of the electromagnetic 

spectrum. The major observing facilities are located at 

an elevation of 6,800 feet on Kitt Peak, 40 miles southwest of Tucson, Anz. The research programs conducted at KPNO increase our knowledge about the 

origin and evolution of stars, the physics of the outer 

layer of the Sun, and the characteristics of planetary 

atmospheres. Using the 4-meter Mayall telescope that 

was dedicated in June 1973, astronomers at KPNO 

have initiated new observing programs directed toward the study of nebulae, pulsars, quasars, and other 

faint galactic and extragalactic objects. Among the 

highlights during the calendar year were observations 

of a new class of galaxy called a “ring” galaxy. Galaxies of this type consist of a luminous elliptical ring and 

have either a displaced nucleus or none at all. These 

galaxies have nearby normal companion galaxies, believed to be triggering mechanisms for the formation 

of the “rings.” The “ring” galaxies, composed of relatively young stars less than 100 million years old, are 

moving rapidly away from their normal companions. 

Astronomers believe these galaxies are collapsing 

clouds of interstellar gas. 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory.-The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) is 

headquartered in Charlottesville, Va., on the grounds 

of the University of Virginia. Three major radio telescope systems are operated at the principal observing 

site at Green Bank, W. Va. A 36-foot telescope de528-338 0 - 74 - 1 91 
signed to operate at millimeter wavelengths is located 

on Kitt Peak, near Tucson, Ariz., and a major new 

telescope designated the Very Large Array (VLA) is 

under construction near Socorro, N. Mex. During the 

year, visitor use of the 36-foot telescope resulted in the 

discovery of sulfur monoxide molecules in interstellar 

space. Because most of the 22 molecules discovered to 

date (for the most part at NRAO) are organic in 

nature, the discovery of an inorganic species is particularly significant. During the year, NRAO scientists 

have provided important new information tending to 

support the hypothesis that quasars are located at or 

near the edge of the observable universe. 

National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center.-The 

unique, 1,000-foot diameter reflector of the radio/ 

radar telescope at the Arecibo (Puerto Rico) Observatory of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (NAIC) has been resurfaced with 38,000 aluminum panels. The smoother surface, completed in 1973, 

is capable of adjustment to within % inch of the 

contour of a true sphere 1,740 feet in diameter, and 

will permit radio astronomy research operations to 

wavelengths as short as 4.2 centimeters. The National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration is sponsoring 

the installation of a high-power S-band radar transmitter on the feed platform suspended high above the 

ref3 ector. The transmitter is designed to take advantage 

of the upgraded surface for radar astronomy research 

directed to mapping the surface of Venus with a resolution of about 1 mile. The ionospheric physics research program concerned with the complicated processes that govern the behavior of the upper atmosphere 

has been continued during these upgrading activities. 

A new technique of continually sweeping a 430-megahertz radar beam for backscatter measurements has 

been successfully applied to the measurement of threedimensional vector velocities in the F-region. A sufficiently short time resolution has been obtained to show 

that the nighttime ionospheric plasma is given a distinctive east-west motion as a result of interaction with 

the winds in the neutral atmosphere. 

Cerro Tololo Znter-American Observatory (Chile) .- 

The Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory 

(CTIO) was established in Chile, South America, to 

provide a visitor-oriented astronomical research facility 

in the Southern Hemisphere for the US. scientific 

community. During calendar year 1973, CTIO operated and maintained, at the observing site on Cerro 

Tololo, six major optical telescopes. In addition, a 

dome and building are nearing completion to house 

the recently relocated 1.0-meter reflector of the Yale 

University Observatory. During the past year, visiting 

astronomers conducted successful searches for the optical counterparts of X-ray sources. Using positions 

determined by satellite observations, one group of investigators found an optical component of an X-ray 

source in a neighboring galaxy, the Small Magellanic 

Cloud. The source is a binary system whose primary is 

a luminous young star and the secondary an invisible 

source believed to be a collapsed “neutron star.” In 

addition, studies of X-ray sources located in our galaxy 

revealed a source associated with a spectroscopic binary 

system. The mass of the X-ray source was estimated at 

2.5 solar masses, a value in excess of that permitted 

for neutron stars. This object is regarded as a possible 

“black hole,” a compact stellar body whose gravitational field is so strong that no electromagnetic radiation can escape from it. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

Solar-Terrestrial Research.-The Solar-Terrestrial 

program is concerned with the space physics of the 

Earth‘s environment and the interaction of this environment with the earth’s atmosphere. Topics studied 

include the outer reaches of the solar atmosphere, the 

interplanetary plasma, and the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

The normal Sun continuously forces out from its surface a flow of charged particles-the Solar Wind. Intermittently, much smaller numbers of particles in 

disturbed solar regions are accelerated to high energies, by mechanisms not yet understood, and are spewed 

into space. A large part of the program is devoted to 

these particles and their interactions. Optical and radio 

studies of the dynamics of the atmosphere are supported. Investigations of the Solar Wind which use 

cosmic rays as a probing tool are funded. Observational and theoretical research on the interaction of the 

Solar Wind with the Earth’s magnetosphere and the 

atmospheres of other planets are sponsored. Major attention is also devoted to the Earth’s magnetosphere 

and particles and fields in it. Trapping and release of 

particles, wave-particle interactions, currents and magnetic fields, are all associated with spectacular aurora, 

magnetic storms, interference with radio, long-line telephonic communication, and with surges on large power 

networks. During the year progress was made on several new areas. For example, a study of radio waves 

transmitted from the Antarctic, through the magnetosphere and received in Canada, unexpectedly showed 

that the North America electric power grid is depositing energy in the near-earth magnetosphere. Analysis 

of this new effect will be continued. Other new results 

indicated space-weather coupling and a quantitative 

understanding of magnetospheric electric fields. 

Aeronomy.-The atmosphere of the Earth from an 

altitude of about 50 kilometers to roughly 1,000 kilometers is generally taken as the domain of aeronomy. 

The Foundation supports theoretical and field studies 

of phenomena which occur in this region and laboratory investigations to provide insight into the atomic 
and molecular processes taking place there. Phenomena 

investigated include light of the night sky, aurora, 

ionospheric instabilities, and the dynamics of the normal ionosphere at all latitudes. The most intensive investigations now involve the auroral zone in Alaska 

and center about an incoherent scatter radar located 

near Fairbanks. Striking new informution about electric currents and winds in the high atmosphere is being 

obtained. Ionospheric instabilities in the tropics involving complicated plasma phenomena are of considerable current interest. The atmospheres of the 

other planets are being investigated as testing grounds 

for theories developed for the Earth‘s high atmosphere. 

Meteorology.-A broad range of investigations into the 

dynamical and physical behavior of the atmosphere is 

supported, including field observations, laboratory experiments, and theoretical and numerical analysis of 

the data together with the development of techniques 

for remote sensing. An area applicable to space sciences 

is the development of techniques for remote sensing of 

atmospheric motions, and particulate and gaseous species. A variety of radar and lidar studies are supported, 

together with other investigations aimed at monitoring 

the build-up of carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere and changes in concentrations of atmospheric 

particulates. In this latter category, the records of a 

variety of astronomical observatories around the world 

are being analyzed for atmospheric turbidity changes 

over the past 50 years. 

National Center for Atmospheric Research 

(NCAR).-In May 1973, the Skylab space station 

was launched. The successful operation of NCARs 

White Light Coronagraph experiment, developed 

under NASA sponsorship and installed on the Apollo 

Telescope Mount portion of Skylab, was the culmination of 10 years of effort by NCAR staff. Three 

film magazines totaling some 20,000 frames of coronal 

photographs have been returned to Earth by the 

astronauts thus far, and the quality of the pictures 

has exceeded all expectations. Much fine detail can 

be seen in the coronal structure, and a wide variety 

of changes in the corona, some induced by solar flares, 

has been documented. The instrument has performed 

without serious problems, and the staff anticipates that 

it will continue to gather excellent data during the 

remainder of Skylab’s mission. 

NCAR scientists have developed an airborne instrumentation system to measure basic properties of atmospheric aerosols which have significant effects on 

propagation of light in the atmosphere. The instrument was flown on the NASA Convair 990 Airborne 

Laboratory during January 1973, to measure sizenumber distribution, scattering phase function (angular variation of scattered-light intensity), and refractive index of atmospheric participates throughout the 

troposphere and lower stratosphere. Additional measurements were carried out in cooperation with the 

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center to provide data 

necessary for interpretation of their tests of an airborne laser device for detecting clear air turbulence. 

Isotopic studies of sulfate and nitric acid vapor in the 

stratosphere have shown a similar composition in both 

hemispheres. This tentatively rules out manmade pollution as the prime source of atmospheric sulfur and 

points to natural phenomena (e.g. volcanoes) as the 

prime causes for this contamination. Isotopic studies 

of nitrogen are underway to discover if the source of 

nitric acid vapor is the photodissociation of molecular 

nitrogen at very high altitudes or the oxidation of 

nitrous oxide. These studies are important in determining the impact of supersonic aircraft on the 

stratosphere. Members of the Upper Air Project 

(UAP) , in conjunction with Florida State University, 

Drexel University, and NASA, have been developing 

a series of experiments for remotely determining the 

vertical distributions of temperature and chemical constituents in the stratosphere on a global scale. The first 

of these experiments is scheduled for flight on NimbusF in 1974 and a more comprehensive set of measurements will be provided for Nimbus-G in 1978. 

Engineering 

Fundamental areas of engineering research which 

are directly rekted to space and aeronautical applications are supported. Stability and laminar to turbulent 

transition, unsteady boundary-layers, laminarturbulent interface represent some of the currently 

supported areas. Emphasis has been on the understanding of the basic physical phenomena and to reduce 

empiricism. Support has also been provided in the areas 

of vortex formation and decay, unsteady wake structure, sand computational fluid mechanics. A continuing 

effort is being made to upgrade laboratory instrumentation and to support the development of dynamic measurement and real-time data processing techniques. 

Materials Research 

Two areas of research currently underway in fundamental properties of materials are potentially of importance to the aeronautics and space-related 

materials field : mechanical properties and electronic 

properties of solids. In the former, investigations include the propagation of shock waves through materials to study dislooation motion and its relation to 

mechanisms of dynamic failure--a type of failure not 

evident in a static environment; theoretical studies of 

deformation at high strain rates to provide information 

of possible failure mechanisms resulting from meteorite 

impact, and efforts to strengthen copper-titanium dloys without compromising corrosion resistance or 
fabricability. Recent studies of the electronic properties 

of materials include : alloying compounds to produce 

materials having enhanced luminescent properties for 

use as diodes, and thin-film nucleation, growth, and 

diffusion research for the development of coatings for 

solar energy collectors. Other space-related investigations include work with energy storage mechanisms and 

environmental properties of materials. 

Chemistry 

The NSF supports a broad program of research 

in modern chemistry. Although terrestrially based and 

aimed largely at solving Earth-bound problems, this 

research creates knowledge that is essential for progress 

in the aeronautics and space sciences. For example, 

research in chemical analysis leads to improved methods for characterizing and understanding matter, 

ranging from new materials for space vehicles to the 

chemical composition of interstellar space. The identification of new molecules and the study of molecule 

formation in space is made possible by the prior chemical synthesis and spectroscopic analysis of molecules 

on Earth. 

U.S. Antarctic Research Program 

Siple Station, 950 miles from the South Pole, had 

its first full year of operation in 1973. Primary feature 

of the station is a 13-mile long dipole antenna that 

transmits very low frequency signals (vlf) into the magnetosphere. In 1973, scientists at Siple succeeded in 

transmitting a series of vlf signals that were detected at 

the magnetically conjugate station near Roberval, Quebec. Analysis resulted in the discovery that emissions 

caused by alternating the transmissions between two 

frequencies are somehow "trapped" between the two 

frequencies. Also, a vlf receiver on Explorer 45 received Siple transmissions while at 10,000 miles altitude and 14' north of the equator. This was the first 

time that a satellite received signals ducted along magnetic field lines. 

Education Activities 

In fiscal year 1973 the Foundation's Education Directorate obligated $989,25 1 for activities which were 

related to the aeronautic and space sciences. The 

greatest proportion of those funds supported the training of 61 graduate students through fellowships and 

traineeships. These funds also provided for upgrading 

the aeronautic and space sciences subject matter background of 164 teachers in secondary schools and 44 

faculty in colleges and universities. Also supported 

were projects wherein 209 superior secondary school 

students obtained unusual independent study and research experiences related to the aeronautic and space 

sciences and 13 projects designed to improve instructional programs in these disciplines at the undergraduate level of education. 

94 
National Academy of Sciences 

National Research Council 

XIV National Academy of Engineering 

Introduction 

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) and the 

National Academy of Engineering (NAE) are private 

organizations dedicated to the furtherance of science 

and engineering and their use for the general welfare. 

The charter of the NAS, a Congressional Act of Incorporation signed by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, calls 

upon it to serve as an official adviser, upon request 

and without fee, to the Federal Government on any 

question of science or technology. The Academy of 

Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the NAS, as a parallel organization of distinguished engineers, sharing with the NAS its Federal 

advisory responsibilities. Most of the activities undertaken by the two Academies are carried out through 

the National Research Council (NRC), which is 

representative of the major scientific and technical 

societies, and whose members are derived from universities, industry, and the scientific agencies of the Federal Government. 

Highlights of the work of the Academies-Research 

Council during 1973 in aeronautics and space include a 

special study by the Space Science Board on the scientific uses of the Space Shuttle; the Aeronautics and 

Space Engineering Board‘s counselling on future directions in commercial aircraft and on engineering and 

management aspects of the Space Shuttle ; recommendations of the Space Applications Board on practical 

uses of space systems; studies of high-altitude aircraft 

effects by the Climatic Impact Committee and Committee on Toxicology; studies on noise and vision by 

committees of the Assembly of Behavioral and Social 

Sciences ; applications of remote-sensing programs to 

Earth resources surveys and the International Hydrological Decade ; advice on aerospace materials by the 

National Materials Advisory Board ; the Committee 

on Atmospheric Sciences’ reports on atmospheric 

chemistry and weather modification ; and planning for 

participation in the Global Atmospheric Research Program and International Magnetospheric Study. 

Space Science Board (NRC) 

The Space Science Board is a consultative group 

concerned with shaping the most effective national program in space research. The Board also acts as Academy representative to the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International Council of 

Scientific Unions (ICSU) . Particular attention during the year was given to 

scientific uses of the Space Shuttle, flight programs in 

astronomy, cooperative experiments for the joint US.- 

U.S.S.R. manned space mission in 1975, biological effects of high-energy ions, and maintenance of a viable 

and balanced program of space science in an era of 

constrained budgets. In April 1973, the Board‘s chairman presented testimony on the space-science program 

to the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space 

Sciences. Close liaison was maintained with the National Academy of Engineering’s Aeronautics and 

Space Engineering Board and Space Applications 

Board, and the Board is assisted by its specialized committees and panels. 

A special study on Scientific Uses of the Space Shuttle, held in July 1973, with some 50 US. and 10 foreign 

scientists, focused on the scientific potential of NASA’s 

space transportation system, to become operational in 

the 1980’s; and it examined the usefulness of a shuttle-borne space laboratory and pallet to be developed 

by a European consortium. Findings and recommendations were presented informally to the NASA Administrator at the conclusion of the study and to members 

and staff of the House and Senate Space Committees 

in October. The report of the study will be published in 

early 1974. 

Two new committees were established during 1973 to 

advise the Board on astronomy and planetary science. 

The Committee on Space Astronomy began its review 

of the NASA astronomy program, emphasizing plans 

for the restructured high-energy astronomy observatories (HEAO) , the forthcoming orbiting solar observatory (OSO), and the proposed large space telescope (LST) . The Committee on Planetary and Lunar 

Exploration, meeting for the first time in late November, began its activities with a briefing and review of 

the NASA planetary program. 

The report of the Committee on Space Biology and 

Medicine’s Radiobiological Advisory Panel, “HZEParticle Effects in Manned Spaceflight,” was published 

in April 1973. This report discusses the potential bio95 
logical hazard of high-energy heavy ions in space and 

recommends a program of research, predominantly 

ground based, to pinpoint the hazard to man in longduration space missions. A review of NASA’s programs 

in microbiology by a committee panel evaluated both 

ground based research programs and operational plans 

for Skylab. Biomedical initiatives during the year included formation of a Panel on Renal and Metabolic 

Effects of Spaceflight to look into mechanisms responsible for physiological changes observed in manned 

space flight, and formation of an ad hoc Exobiology 

Panel to consider investigations after the Viking 1975 

mission. 

The Committee on International Relations assists 

and advises the Board, particularly on US. participation in the international Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) . The chairman of the Committee 

also serves as the Academy’s national representative 

and as vice president of COSPAR. In preparation for 

the 1973 COSPAR meeting in Konstanz, West Germany, an ad hoc panel of the Committee met to judge 

U.S. scientific papers and to make recommendations 

to the COSPAR Program Committee. 

Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board (NAE) 

The Aeronautics and Space Engneering Board 

(ASEB) was established in 1967 to provide advisory 

services in aeronautical and space engneering to interested Government agencies, principally NASA. During 1973 the ASEB continued its review of current 

and proposed NASA programs in aeronautics, especially those with greatest potential for the next generation of commercial aircraft. The Board continued 

considering other problems associated with the futare 

of civil aviation research and development, as identified by the Joint NASA-DOT Policy Study Group on 

the subject; and in aerospace engineering, the ASEB 

continued its review of engineering and program management of the Space Shuttle. The Board has expressed 

a special interest in reducing costs of future space flight 

and experimentation. 

Key ASEB members and staff participated in the 

Space Science Board’s study on Scientific Uses of the 

Space Shuttle. Afterward, the two Boards met jointly 

to review the study’s conclusions and recommendations. 

The ASEB maintains continuing contact with the 

Space Applications Board and plans to work more 

closely with both Boards in order to help insure optimal utilization of funds allocated to space research 

and applications. 

The Board’s conclusions and recommendations have 

been transmitted informally by its Chairman to the 

President of the Academy and to the Administrator 

of NASA. The Board wili continue to stress research 

and development that is critical to achieving a dynamic, 

96 

forward-looking, advantageous aeronautics and space 

engineering program. 

Space Applications Board (NAE) 

The Space Applications Board was established in 

1973 to provide advice and recommendations to the 

Federal Government on applications of space techniques and capabilities and to stimulate collaboration 

among the pertinent components of Government and 

industry. The Board’s membership is extremely broad, 

encompassing natural and social sciences, public affairs, and communications. Liaison is maintained with 

the relevant Academies’ groups. 

As its initial action, the Board identified for NASA 

the salient national problems that the practical application of space systems may help to resolve. It also 

advised NASA that institutional factors are pacing the 

rate at which space systems are being usefully applied; 

the Board now plans to examine how such factors may 

affect achievement of the potential benefits of Earth 

observations by sateIlities. From a preliminary review 

of NASA’s space applications, the Board found that 

potential users and the general public are not sufficiently aware of some important capabilities of space 

systems; consequently it suggested to NASA some corrective measures, including preparation of manuals 

on the Earth Resources Technology Satellite, ERTS-1. 

Climatic Ismpact Committee (NAS-NAE) 

The Climatic Impact Committee (CIC) is a multidisciplinary group concerned with potential, inadvertent climate modification resulting from high-altitude 

aircraft or other manmade activities affecting the upper 

atmosphere and particularly the stratosphere. In its 

advisory role to the Department of Transportation 

and other Federal agencies, the tasks of CIC include: 

( 1 ) advising on research priorities; (2) following the 

progress of research, especially that sponsored by 

DOT’S Climatic Impact Assessment Program (CIAP) ; 

(3) predicting the effects, if any, of projected fleets of 

high-altitude aircraft on the Earth‘s climate, and the 

biological, social, and economic ramifications; and (4) 

advising on development of international regulations 

for high-altitude traffic to avoid climate degradation, 

risks to health and safety, and other undesirable 

consequences. 

To accomplish these tasks, the Committee held regular meetings in 1973 and convened specialist panels 

in such fields as risk-benefit analysis and atmospheric 

modeling. It conducted a workshop on methodology 

in August 1973 as a precursor to a major study in 

1974. The scope of problems addressed included possible global changes in ultraviolet light at the Earth‘s 

surface due to ozone depletion by aircraft engine effluents, possible changes in temperature and precipitation due to particulates of burned fuels introduced into 
the stratosphere, corresponding biological effects, and 

the economic and social costs of such changes. The 

study’s tasks included consideration of methods for 

projecting a realistic aircraft fleet size, including SST’s 

and Space Shuttle, in the next 15 to 20 years; methods 

for estimating likely changes in climatologic factors 

based on projected fleets; methods for determining 

costs of designing and operating aircraft fleets that 

would produce no variations in the climatologic factors; and methods for applying regulatory constraints 

on high-altitude aircraft operation to insure no harmful 

effects. The conclusions of this study and the 1974 study 

will be published at the end of 1974. 

Assembly of Behavioral and Social Sciences (NRC) 

Committee on Hearing, Bio-Acoustics, and Biomechanics.-CHABA is advisory to the Federal Aviation Administration, NASA, DOT, the armed services, 

Environmental Protection Agency, and National Institutes of Neurological Diseases and Stroke and of 

Occupational Health and Safety. An ad hoc panel 

of the Committee assisted NASA in the preparation of 

the 1973 edition of Bioastronautics Data Book by 

selecting chapter authors and reviewers and guiding 

its progress to publication. 

Several of the Committee’s working groups are concerned with transportation noise. Advice was given to 

NASA, FAA, and EPA on the research that should 

be initiated or continued concerning noise near airports. A study undertaken in 1973 assesses the impact 

of aircraft noise resulting from closing Love Field and 

opening the Greater Dallas-Fort Worth Airport. A 

Committee group is recommending standards for noise 

levels within aircraft that are safe for hearing as well 

as levels that are acceptable for voice communication 

among crewmembers. The Committee works with 

DOT and FAA in advising on the U.S. position on the 

sonic boom for the International Civil Aviation Organization, and during 1973 it assisted FAA in reviewing 

and advising on contracts to investigate the effects of 

sonic boom on fish and wildlife. The Committee, on 

request, advises NASA on noise research proposals and 

critically reviews contractor reports. 

In a broadly applicable study of research on crash 

injury, a CHABA working group advised interested 

agencies about restraint systems and protective helmets. 

The effects of sustained (30-40 second) linear accelerations of 6-8 g’s from future fighter aircraft are 

also being investigated. The Committee periodically 

advises the NATO Advisory Group on Aerospace Research and Development on hearing and vision problems of NATO pilots. 

Committee on Vision.-The substitution of simulators 

for aircraft in the training of pilots would permit a 

large reduction in the cost of many aerospace activities. 

A working group on Visual Elements in Flight Simulation surveyed the current state of technological development of simulation of the pilots’ visual environment; a summary of its findings was published late 

in 1973. 

Since many sources of radiation in the aerospace 

environment are potentially damaging to the eye, limits 

of tolerable exposures must be established. Current 

interpretations diverge on research results concerning safe levels of exposure to laser radiation; consequently, a working group has been formed to study 

retinal damage produced by exposure to both coherent 

and noncoherent radiation, ranging from the nearultraviolet through the near-infrared portion of the 

spectrum. 

Commission on Natural Resources (NRC) 

Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for Earth 

Resource Surveys.-CORSPERS is advisory to the 

Departments of Interior (UWS) , Commerce 

(NOAA) , Agriculture, Navy, Army (Civil Works, US. 

Army Engineers), Environmental Protection Agency, 

and National Science Foundation on the use of remote 

sensing from spacecraft and aircraft platforms. It 

presently operates throuyh eight panels: Biology, Cartography, Environmental Measurements, Geology, 

Geography, Hydrology, Information Management, 

and Oceanography. The Committee is engaged in a 

review of the usefulness of remotely sensed data, such 

as from the ERTS program. This usefulness will be 

related to the resource managemnt and the environmental monitoring responsibilities of the Federal agencies and State and local governmental interests. 

Division of Earth Sciences (NRC) 

U.S. National Committee for the International 

Hydrological Decade.-The Work Group on Remote 

Sensing in Hydrology of the U.S. National Committee 

for the International Hydrological Decade (IEID) is 

concerned with the applications of aeronautics and 

space-related activities to hydrological problems. The 

Work Group is preparing a report-“The Role of 

Remote Sensing in the International Hydro1,ogical 

Program”-that, in part, highlights how remote sensing can aid water resource research and day-to-day 

operations domestically in developing countries and internationally. The Work Group also helped plan the 

Interdisciplinary Symposium on Advanced Concepts 

and Techniques in the Study of Snow and Ice Resources, held in December 1973. Space-related activities, which possess exceptional potential for management of snow and ice resources were among several 

areas of technological development discussed. 

97 
Division of Chemistry and Chemical 

Technology (NRC) 

Advisory Center on Toxicology.-The Center serves 

as a central source of information and technical staff 

to enable the Committee on Toxicology to answer the 

specific questions presented by its 10-sponsoring agencies, one of which is NASA. In 1973, the Committee 

and the Center completed a 2-year review of possible 

deleterious effects of ozone on flightcrews in high-flying 

aircraft. Since ozone is an atmospheric constituent at 

altitudes above 30,000 feet, its presence in these aircraft is a real possibility. Because of limitations of the 

presently available data, it was not considered advisable to change the present threshold limit value of 

0.1 parts per million. As more data become available, 

the Committee will reconsider the problem. 

In conjunction with advice from the Space Science 

Board, Environmental Studies Board, and other groups 

within the Academies, the Center is currently investigating the environmental effects of the mercury-ion 

engine. NASA wants to use this engine in its solar 

electric propulsion system (SEPS) now under development, and it sought the Committee’s advice for the 

necessary Environmental Impact Statement. The Center also served as liaison between NASA and manufacturers of various nonflammable substances such as 

Teflon, Vitron, and Fluorel. NASA was interested in 

the pyrolysis products of the substances and asked the 

Center to obtain any information from the manufacturers as well as pure samples of these materials. 

Other questions from NASA during 1973 included: 

Possible irritation from exposure to printing inks 

thought to include cashew nut shell liquid; sensitization 

from Hoppe’s Powder Solvent No. 9; identification of 

data on chronic continuous toxicity of methylchloroform ; identification of compounds known to cause 

bone marrow depression ; and association of polyurethane foam and pyrolysis products to loss of red blood 

cell mass and bone marrow suppression. The Skylab 

astronauts apparently had bone marrow suppression 

that NASA suspected to be a result of exposure to these 

products. But since no published indications of such 

an association were found, other possible causes were 

discussed with NASA. 

Division of Engineering (NRC) 

National Materials Advisory Board.-The Board‘s 

general goal is the advancement of materials science 

and engineering in the national interest; more specifically, it attempts to identify technical problems and to 

propose potential solutions. A significant part of the 

Board’s activities are devoted to studying aerospace 

materials and furnishing advice to the Government and 

indirectly to industry and academia. 

Early in 1973, the ad hoc Committee on Application of Fracture Prevention Principles to Aircraft completed its assessment of the latest concepts for fracture 

prevention. Its report (NMAB-302) reviewed the elements of current fracture controls plans and associated 

technologies, recommending some trade-off studies 

coupled with caution and flexibility in the use of existing criteria. 

Several of the other studies completed in 1973 relate to materials in aerospace applications. A NMAB 

ad hoc committee, in its report “Materials Science 

Application and Coordination” (NMAB-299), provided suggestions for impmving technology transfer and 

strengthening the role and utilization of voluntary 

standards in the development of Government regulations. The ad hoc Committee on Directional Solidification in its report (NMAB-301) provided a comprehensive evaluation of this emerging new technology. 

In a report “Opportunities in High-pressure Technology” (NMAB-303), the potential applications of highpressure technology, with particular reference to 

Department of Defense needs, were reviewed. 

Several studies involving aerospace materials, initiated late in 1972 and in 1973, are continuing. Among 

them are: a study of materials for detecting electromagnetic radiation; a study to define the technical potential of HY-steel and titanium castings; a survey of 

needs and opportunities for adhesives for structural use 

in aerospace vehicles; a survey of the firesafety aspects 

of polymeric materials with attention to available materials, production costs, data requirements, test methods, and toxicity problems. 

Division of Physical Sciences (NRC) 

Committee on Atmospheric Sciences.-The Committee on Atmospheric Sciences, through its examination 

of scientific and technological advances, encourages research and development that will provide a balanced 

national program in atmospheric sciences. Two major 

studies were completed in 1973-“Weather and Climate Modification : Problems and Progress” (NAS, 

1973) and “Atmospheric Chemistry: Prdblems and 

Scope” (in press) . These studies-in conjunction with an earlier study, 

“Atmospheric Sciences and Man’s Needs” (NAS, 

1971)-point to the necessity of a system of regional 

and global observations to meet increasing requirements for improved short- and long-term weather forecasting, better understanding of atmospheric chemical 

and photochemical processes, expanded research in 

weather modification potentials, and improved explanation of the interactive roles of the atmosphere, 

oceans, and land masses. Most such observations and 

measurements must be obtained by remote sensing devices, through an integrated system including groundbased, satellite, and aircraft-borne sensors. 

Increasingly, data must be obtained from polarorbiting and geostationary satellites on atmospheric 

98 
temperature, moisture, and trace constituents in order 

to cope with problems bearing on global weather, climate, and pollution. Also, space platforms will be utilized to gather data from remote platforms on the 

Earth‘s surface and in the atmosphere in regions where 

information is not now obtainable through conventional means. Studies of severe storms will likewise require satellite data to develop better forecasting capabilities and warning systems; moreover, studies must be 

undertaken to find ways to decrease the severity of 

violent storms. 

These efforts will require advanced computer 

models. Experimental studies of the atmosphere and 

oceans are presently both data- and computer-limited. 

U.S. Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research 

Program.-The Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP), an international effort, is being developed through the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and the World Meteorological 

organization (WMO) . GARP’s primary objective is to 

provide a sound physical and mathematical basis for 

extended prediction of the large-scale atmospheric motions; in addition, GARP will provide data for experimental studies of numerical climatic models for the 

globe. 

The U.S. Committee for GARP serves as the principal scientific mechanism for the formulation of U.S. 

scientific objectives and plans, specification of observational and measurement requirements, and for assistance in the detailed design and planning of experiments. The USC-GARP has been serving as the communication link, both nationally and internationally, 

between scientists and Government. 

The first major field experiment, the GARP Atlantic 

Tropical Experiment (GATE), will be carried out during June-September 1974, It will emphasize the study 

of the interaction and interdependence of convective 

and synoptic scales of motions in the tropics, which in 

turn interact with atmospheric processes at higher latitudes. The observational phase of GATE will involve 

ships, aircraft, buoys, balloons, and polar-orbiting, and 

geosynchronous satellites. A geostationary satellite, 

singled out by scientists as the most important element 

of the program, will provide 24-hour imaging of trop 

ical cloud systems. 

A second major program of the GARP will be initiated in 1977, to obtain similar data on a global scale. 

In this way GARP will contribute to improved global 

weather services and to a better understanding of the 

physical basis for climatic variations. 

Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research.-The 

Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research (CSTR) of 

the Geophysics Research Board is the NAS’ affiliate 

to the Inter-Union Commission on Solar-Terrestrial 

Physics (IUCSTP) , which is now being converted to 

an ICSU Special Committee. The Committee reviews 

the status of U.S. research in solar-terrestrial problems, 

assists in coordinating this research with that of other 

countries, and provides advisory services to the Federal Government. Although the Committee’s studies 

deal principally with ground-based research, the work 

of CSTR is directly relevant to the space program, because these observations are used in support of, ar? 

supported by, and in some cases are used in lieu of, 

observations with space vehicles. 

For example, a key part of the IUCSTP program is 

the International Magnetospheric Study 1976-78, 

which is aimed at international coordination of longterm magnetospheric experiments including space, 

ground-based, balloon, and rocket measurements. In 

January 1973, in cooperation with the Space Science 

Board, CSTR conducted a study to identify the fundamental unanswered scientific questions regarding the 

Earth’s magnetosphere and to appraise opportunities 

for U.S. participation in the IMS. “International 

Magnetospheric Study: Guidelines for United States 

Participation’’ was issued as an NAS-NRC report in 

May 1973. As a result of this study a new CSTR panel 

on IMS has been established to examine the needs 

for ground-based experiments to support the IMS, to 

define in light of recommendations of the joint study a 

specific program of ground-based research for the IMS, 

and to recommend any possible redirection of the existing U.S. ground-based research program. The panel’s 

conclusions will be published in early 1974. 

Committee on Radio Frequencies.-The Committee 

on Radio Frequencies (CORF) and its Subcommittees 

on Space Science, Radio Astronomy, and Earth and 

Life Sciences, coordinate the views of the U.S. scientific and engineering communities regarding the radio 

frequencies needed for research. CORF works closely 

with Study Group 2 of the U.S. National Committee 

for the International Radio Consultative Committee 

(CCIR) in preparing documents on space research and 

radio astronomy for the CCIR Study Group 2 meeting to be held in Geneva in March 1974. These documents represent the U.S. position on CCIR questions 

relating to the communications for vehicles and to 

interference problems with radio astronomy and radar 

astronomy. CORF is making arrangements with NASA 

to conduct a radio-astronomy interference experiment 

in May 1974, using ATS-F to determine what measures can be taken to protect radio astronomy observatories from interference from broadcast satellites. 

Office of Scientific Personnel 

The Office of Scientific Personnel administers the 

NRC-NASA Resident Research Associateship Program (postdoctoral and senior postdoctoral) and the 

NASA International University Fellowship program. 

The Associateship awardees have an opportunity to 

99 
conduct research, largely of their choice, in science and 

engineering related to the objectives of the NASA 

centers. Their work contributes to the total research 

effort of the centers; and through the associates, research results from NASA laboratories are made available to universities and other components of the science and engineering communities. On August 31, 

1973, there were 185 associates on tenure, including 

101 from the United States and 84 from 17 other 

countries. 

The NASA International University Fellows, who 

are from abroad, study and conduct research at U.S. 

universities. Since the inception of the program in 

1961, 357 graduate and postdoctoral fellows from 20 

countries have held these appointments at 36 universities. NASA and the space agencies or other scientific 

organizations of the cooperating countries jointly finance this fellowship program. During 1973,57 fellows 

were on tenure. No new appointments have been made 

in the International Fellowship Program since February 1973, as NASA has decided to terminate the program for budgetary reasons. 

100 
The Smithsonian Institution 

Introduction 

Through research conducted in many laboratories 

and at observation sites around the world and by the 

public education and information programs conducted 

by its museums, the Smithsonian Institution continues 

its active role in national aeronautics and space efforts. 

The bureaus most directly involved are: the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) y the National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) , and the 

National Air and Space Museum (NASM) ; and the 

Center for Short-Lived Phenomena (CSLP) a unit of 

the Office of International and Environmental 

Programs. 

During the past year, Smithsonian observing stations gathered astrophysical and geophysical data, 

much of it from an extensive laser-camera satellite 

tracking network. Other space experiments in highaltitude ballons and satellites observed energy sources 

unattainable from ground-based sites. This work included solar observations aboard the Skylab and the 

possible identification of a “black hole.” In both Washington and Cambridge, Mass., laboratory techniques 

were used to analyze returned lunar samples and meteoritical material recovered on the Earth. 

In addition, the Smithsonian’s museums added to 

man’s appreciation of the new discoveries in space 

science through exhibits and displays. 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) 

continued to support a broad program of investigations designed to increase man’s understanding of the 

universe. More specifically, this program included 

satellite tracking for Earth-physics research, study of 

extraterrestrial materials, and active paticipation in 

space flight missions. 

Geoustronomy.-A new Earth Dynamics Program 

(EDP) combined many aspects of SAO’s highly successful satellite-tracking and geophysical research programs in anticipation of NASA’s proposed Earth and 

Ocean Physics Applications Program (EOPAP) . The 

EDP’s main objectives are to develop theoretical 

models and to improve understanding of the kinematics, 

internal structure, and dynamics of the Earth. The program will include the mapping, with 1- to 2-centimeter accuracy, of polar motion, rotation, plate motion 

(continental drift) crustal motions in active regions 

such as fault zones and rifts, and core-mantle interactions. The results of this research will be used in 

applications such as earthquake predictions. 

SA0 scientists helped plan the first satellite in this 

program, the LAGEOS satellite designed to measure 

tectonic motions. 

The Earth Physics Satellite Observation Campaign, 

a major 2 I-month-long international tracking effort 

organized by SA0 as a precursor of EOPAP, was completed this year, with SAOs observing network producing nearly 91,000 laser-range measurements. 

This same network produced data that, when combined with other satellite and surface-gravity data, 

formed the foundation for the complex calculations 

culminating in the SA0 Standard Earth 111. For these 

calculations, SA0 greatly extended those computer 

programs treating lunar and solar perturbations, air 

drag, tidal effects, radiation pressure, and other effects 

to derive a highly significant model of the Earth as a 

whole with respect to gravitational variations and geodetic positions and networks. 

Satellite-tracking data were also used to produce 

models of the Earth’s upper atmosphere. In addition to 

continuing studies of the relationship between solar 

activity and upper atmosphere densities, recent findings show that the effects of Earth radiation pressure 

relative to those of atmospheric drag increase with 

height through the lower thermosphere. 

A spacecraft-to-spacecraft Doppler tracking experiment is being prepared for the Apollo-Soyuz space mission. The primary objective of this experiment is to detect and measure the localized anomalies of the Earth’s 

gravitational field. Gravity anomalies associated with 

major tectonic plate boundaries may be detectable 

from space with this experiment. 

Mapping of the East African Rift system using 

ERTS-1 images continued and has led to the cornpletion of sheets (1: 1 million scale) showing the 

101 
revealed geological lineaments of Ethiopia, Somalia, 

and Yemen. 

Extraterrestrial Materials.-A Lunar Petrology group 

studied soil samples from the Apollo 15, 16, and 17, 

and Soviet Luna 20 missions. Of particular interest 

were studies of the breccia chipped from a large boulder 

by the Apollo 17 astronauts at the foot of the South 

Massif in the Taurus-Littrow area. The samples are 

the first to be positively linked with a known lunar 

surface feature and the first possible example of a 

deposit from a maria-basin forming event. Also, a 

search for ancient meteoritic components in lunar materials was conducted with electron microprobe 

techniques. 

Theoretical studies have begun in an effort to explain irregularities in the thickness of the Moon’s lowdensity crust, the offset position of the Moon’s center 

of mass, and the differences in moments about the 

lunar axes of inertia. 

Mineralogical and petrological techniques for analyzing lunar samples were also used in studies of meteorite samples recovered on the Earth, particularly the 

Allende meteorite, a carbonaceous chondrite with important cosmochemical implications. 

Another SA0 group used radioisotopic techniques to 

investigate both lunar samples and meteorites. The 

lunar work was designed to relate the intensities of 

recent solar flares with those averaged over the past 

1,000 years to determine the production of neutrons 

in the Moon by both galactic cosmic rays and solar 

flams. The neutrons provide information on the mixing rates and depths of the lunar regolith. 

Similar radioisotopic techniques were used in a program to detect muons and, by implication, neutrinos 

at various depths in the Earth. Muons are extremely 

unstable secondary particles produced by both cosmic 

rays and neutrinos. According to theory, the number 

of muons produced by cosmic rays should decrease 

the deeper one goes into the Earth. At a depth of some 

2,000 feet below sea level, the only muons detectable 

would be those produced by the neutrinos. The SA0 

muon detector, then, is a relatively small and portable 

device thfat so far has been carried to locations in Massachusetts railway tunnels and to a deep gold mine 

in India to establish baseline levels. 

The primary and secondary impact rate of interplanetary dust particles onto the lunar surface was 

determined from direct measurements using polished 

surfaces exposed on the Surveyor 3 and from indirect 

measurements of lunar rock samples. In related esearch, microprobe analyses of particles from the Boxhole and Wabar meteorite craters allowed a comparison with lunar meteoritic spherules. 

Space Experiments.-A new group at the Observatory continued satellite observations of the universe 

102 

in the X-ray range of the spectrum using the UHURU 

spacecraft. In addition to general investigations of 

high-energy radiation from stellar and galactic sources, 

the group found evidence to support the existence of 

a suspected “black hole” in the constellation Cygnus. 

These regions of intense gravitational attraction have 

been described previously only in theory. Earlier rocket 

and satellite data showing powerful X-ray emissions 

were combined with optical observations this year to 

describe the suspected source more precisely. This same 

research group is participating in the planning of 

scientific payloads for the HEAO-A and HEAO-B 

satellites. 

Ultraviolet results from SAO’s Celescope experiment aboard the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 

(OAO-2) were compared with ground-based observations of the same objects during several observing programs conducted in both Arizona and Chile. In addition to allowing an improvement and extension of 

Celescope results, the observational programs were 

used for a better determination of the distribution and 

properties of the interstellar medium and the earlytype stars. 

A major reference work related to the Celescope experiment was completed this year. Blanketed Model Atmospheres for Early-Type Stars, designed as a COITIpanion volume to the Celescope Catalog of Ultraviolet 

Stellar Observations will be issued by the Smithsonian 

Press. 

A 40-inch-aperture balloon-borne telescope, constructed by SA0 in collaboration with Harvard and 

the University of Arizona to observe infrared radiation from sources at the center of the Milky Way, was 

flown for the second time. No scientific data were taken 

on this flight, but valuable engineering and operational 

information was obtained. 

Gamma-ray results obtained on previous balloon 

flights were analyzed this year and produced baseline 

levels used for ground-based tests at SAOs Mount 

Hopkins Observatory. 

Smithsonian scientists participated in the planning 

for space experiments related to observations of Comet 

Kohoutek. Indeed, the first determination of the 

comet’s orbit and potential brightness was made at 

SAO. 

Work continued on a NASA-supported experiment 

to test the equivalence principle of Einstein’s Theory 

of Relativity by employing a maser clock in a rocket 

probe. This 3.5-hour experiment will use the stability 

of the hydrogen maser to measure the theoretically 

predicted gravitational redshift to an accuracy of about 

20 parts per million, which is some 500 times more 

accurate than the best previous measurement. 

Analysis of data from the Orbiting Solar Observatories continued at SAO, with particular interest in the 

spectra of solar prominences and filaments obtained by 
extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectrometers. Smithsonian scientists also were involved in similar experiments prepared by Harvard University for the Apollo 

Telescope Mount aboard the Skylab satellite. Initial 

examination of the Skylab data shows them to exceed 

all expectations in terms of quality and importance. 

Researchers now expect to make revolutionary progress 

in understanding the physical mechanisms of coronal 

heating, the solar wind, and solar flares. 

National Museum of Natural History 

Lunar and meteorite research continued at a high 

level of activity in the Museum’s Department of Mineral Science. Most of the departmental staff have been 

involved in lunar research under NASA grants. Several 

papers describing this work have been published this 

year and others will appear shortly. Currently the staff 

is engaged in intensive research on the Apollo 17 

collections. 

Current research in meteoritics includes the analysis 

and description of several recently fallen meteorites, 

the study of phosphorus distribution in iron meteorites, 

and a review of the mesosiderites. 

National Air and Space Museum 

The National Air and Space Museum (NASM) continued its role as both a repository and display center 

for the artifacts of space research and exploration. 

Among the many new exhibits opening this year was a 

special display of telescope systems from the Orbiting 

Astronomical Observatories, including the Smithsonian’s own Celescope experiment from OAO-2 and 

the large Princeton-designed experiment from OAO-3. 

The latter experiment, dubbed “Copernicus,” was displayed during the week of festivities in Washington 

marking the 500th anniversary of the birth of Nicolas 

Copernicus. 

In addition to its education activities, the NASM 

initiated a Center for Earth and Planetary Studies 

designed to apply the results of Apollo lunar exploration to Earth and planetary sciences. 

In cooperation with the US. Geological Survey, a 

geologic map of the lunar farside was prepared based 

on interpretations of both the lunar orbital photographs 

taken by Apollo missions and the geochemical and 

geophysical data obtained from lunar orbit. Geological 

provinces were correlated with physical and chemical 

provinces to understand the Moon’s petrological evolution. Studies of the orbital photographs also revealed 

numerous features which shed new light on both impact and volcanic processes on the Moon. 

Staff members contributed to the establishment of 

NASA’s newly instituted lunar mapping program, including the selection of areas for large-scale orthophoto maps and, with the cooperation of the International Astronomical Union, application of new nomenclature to lunar features. 

Joint studies of lunar volcanism conducted with the 

University of Utah resulted in quantitive description 

of many different levels of lunar lavas. Determination 

of lava-flow levels was obtained from the Apollo 17 

Lunar Sounder radar data and confirmed by laser 

altimetry and metric camera mapping. 

Center for Short-Lived Phenomena 

As an international alert system for science, the 

Smithsonian Center for Short-Lived Phenomena receives and disseminates rapidly news of transient geophysical, biological, and astrophysical events of major 

scientific importance. The Center is a facility of the 

Office of International and Environmental Programs. 

The Center‘s participation in astrophysical and 

space activities in 1973 included the report of four 

fireballs in Czechoslovakia, California, Germany, and 

Wales; and two meteorite falls in Upper Volta and 

California. The Center assisted in efforts to recover the 

meteoritical material and to distribute samples to the 

scientific community. 

The Center provided operations support for a joint 

NASA-SA0 project to study the feasibility of observing large-scale short-lived events by the Earth Resources Technology Satellite ( ERTS-1) instrumentation. 

During the flights of the Skylab missions, the Center 

coordinated a “Short-Lived Event Alert Program” by 

which the orbiting astronauts were notified of major, 

on-going, natural Earth events with potential visibility 

from the spacecraft. Among the events reported by the 

program were floods, oil spills, volcanoes, and 

earthquakes. 

528-338 0 - 14 - 8 

103 
XVI Office of 

Policy 

Introduction 

Against the backdrop of a growing number of 

proposed new international and domestic communications satellite systems and services, the Office of 

Telecommunications Policy ( OTP) carries out Presidentially delegated functions in accordance with Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1970 and Executive Order No. 

11556 of September 4, 1970. The Office provides oversight and coordination for interagency and Government/industry communications satellite activities with 

a view toward facilitating the orderly application of 

developing technology. 

During 1973, international activities centered on 

proposals to provide aeronautical and maritime satellite services and efforts by other nations to create new 

international regulatory frameworks for future satellite 

broadcasting directly into the home. OTP participated 

with the State Department and the FCC in the coordinated oversight of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) as the US. designated entity in 

the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) . Another major OTP function was the continuing 

review of space-related communications activities to 

insure the coordinated, effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum. A survey on satellite launch insurance 

was also conducted. 

Aerosat 

OTP continued to work with the State Department 

and the DOT/FAA to conclude a Memorandum of 

Understanding between the European Space Research 

Organization (ESRO) , Canada, and the FAA which 

would establish an experimental aeronautical satellite program. The program is intended to evaluate the 

use of satellite communications in improving air traffic control over the high seas. This international arrangement, the result of a U.S. Government position 

developed jointly with the State Department and 

DOT/FAA, calls for the creation of a new industry/ 

Government entity to provide the satellite channels for 

the program. The major portion of this telecommuniTelecommunications 

cations entity would be owned equally by ESRO and 

a private US. communications corporation, with 

Canada owning approximately 6 percent. 

Direct Broadcast Satellites 

Growing international interest in the possible use 

of satellites to broadcast programs directly into the 

home was reflected in increased U.N. and UNESCO 

activities. The major development was the reactivation 

of the U.N. Working Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites, which met in June to review recent technological 

developments in light of pending proposals by other nations to establish new international legal regimes. The 

Working Group is scheduled to meet again in March 

1974. OTP is actively participating with the State 

Department, FCC, USIA, and other interested agencies in the formulation and presentation of the U.S. 

position. 

OTP funded two contract studies on direct broadcast satellites. One, conducted at MIT's Center for 

International Studies, concerned foreign attitudes and 

motivations toward international control of such satellites. The other concerned cost-analyses of utilizing 

direct broadcast satellite technology for education in 

three developing country models. 

Marsat 

The International Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) was the principal international forum 

for discussions concerning the provision of international 

satellite communications to civilian ships on the high 

seas. OTP assisted in coordinating the preparation of 

the U.S. Government position with interested agencies 

and with prospective private industry participants. It 

actively participated in the IMCO deliberations. OTP 

will continue to promote efforts to identify requirements for international maritime satellite services while 

avoiding prejudgements on the operational or organizational means of providing such services. 

OTP is following closely the policy implications of 

the development of a maritime satellite capability to 

meet US. Navy requirements between 1974-76. AS 

authorized by the FCC, the satellite will also offer com105 
mercial communications satellite services for maritime users. 

Frequency Management 

The introduction of new international satellite systems and services, as well as proposed US. governmental and domestic commercial systems, created new 

demands on the already limited electromagnetic spectrum. 

The Director of OTP established a new system review procedure with emphasis on Government space 

programs. This procedure is designed to insure the 

availability of frequency support before the expenditure of funds for the development and procurement of 

communications-electronic systems. 

Under OTP guidance, the Interdepartment Radio 

Advisory Committee (IRAC), including an FCC liaison representative, developed proposals of the United 

States for the World Administrative Radio Conference for Maritime Mobile Telecommunications 

(WARC-MAR), to be held in Geneva, 1974. The 

proposals include guidelines to facilitate the development of maritime satellites. 

IRAC also participated in formulating Government 

positions on space telecommunications issues and planning decisions dealt with during the Plenipotentiary 

Conference of the International Telecommunication 

Union in Spain, September-October 1973. 

Satellite Launch Insurance 

In furtherance of the national “open skies” policy 

for domestic satellite systems, OTP conducted a survey of prospective entrants and insurance industry 

representatives to determine whether the planned level 

of commercial insurance against launch failure is a 

significant barrier to market entry, The Office is continuing to examine the adequacy of commerically 

available insurance and the necessity for continued 

Government involvement in this area. 

106 
XVII Federal Communications 

Commission 

Introduction 

During 1973 the INTELSAT Definitive Arrangements came into force and the fifth in the series of 

INTELSAT IV satellites was successfully launched. 

Construction was also commenced on a new series of 

INTELSAT IV-A satellites. The Commission authorized construction of satellites for four domestic satellite systems, and authorized two U.S. entities to provide U.S. domestic satellite service by using Canadian 

Telesat satellites. The Commission also authorized 

construction of three satellites to provide service to the 

U.S. Navy as well as to other maritime users. Rules 

were adopted to govern the broadcasting satellite and 

fixed satellite services to reflect the results of the 1971 

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 

World Administrative Radio Conference on Space 

Telecommunications ( WARCST) . 

Communications Satellites 

ZNTELSAT.-On February 12, 1973, the 

INTELSAT Definitive Arrangements entered into 

force. There are now 83 member countries in the organization. The fifth satellite in the INTELSAT IV 

series was launched on August 23, 1973, and is now in 

position for service in the Atlantic Ocean region. At 

the end of the year there were three INTELSAT IV 

satellites in the Atlantic Ocean region and one INTELSAT IV satellite in both the Pacific and Indian Ocean 

regions. Another INTELSAT IV satellite, an operato be launched in early 1974. 

INTELSAT has approved a “follow-on” program 

to the INTELSAT IV series, providing for the construction of three INTELSAT IV-A satellites, which 

will have approximately twice the capacity of the INTELSAT IV’s. The first of these satellites, which are 

planned for use in the Atlantic Ocean region, is scheduled for operation in 1975. Planning is now underway 

for an INTELSAT V series of satellites for use in approximately 1978. 

In 1973, the Commission adopted definitive policies 

for the authorization of domestic communication-satellite facilities and gave authority to proceed with the 

J tional spare for the Pacific Ocean region, is scheduled 

construction of four different domestic satellite systems. 

The first of these is expected to go into operation in late 

1974. Two U.S. entities have been authorized to offer 

U.S. domestic satellite service even earlier by using 

their own Earth stations in conjunction with satellite 

transponders leased from the Canadian domestic Telesat system. Earth stations to operate with the various 

domestic systems have been authorized in all parts of 

the contiguous United States, as well as in Alaska and 

Hawaii. 

The systems now planned will provide long-distance 

domestic telephone circuits and private line services for 

a wide variety of customers needing voice, data, and 

video circuits. One of the systems also plans to distribute specialized video programs to CATV systems 

throughout the country by means of individual small 

receive-only Earth stations. 

International Telecommunication Union.-The International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative 

Committee (CCITT) and the International Radio 

Consultative Committee (CCIR) are permanent organs of the International Telecommunication Union 

(ITU) , that study technical and operating questions 

on telegraphy and telephony, and radio, respectively, 

and issue recommendations on such matters. Many 

of these questions deal directly or indirectly with space 

communications. 

The World Plan Committee is a joint CCITT/CCIR 

study group and the parent body of the four Regional - 

Plan Committees (Africa, Asia and Oceania, Europe 

and the Mediterranean Basin, and Latin America). 

The work of the Plan Committees generally deals 

with technical and economic aspects of telecommunications and involves the development of traffic and 

circuit forecasts and the compilation of data on major 

arteries and routing. 

During April 1973, Commission personnel were 

members of US. delegations to the World Administrative Telegraph and Telephone Conference held in 

Switzerland and to the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference held during September-October in Spain. Members of the Commission’s staff also participated in a 

regional Plan Committee meeting for Latin America 

1 07 
held in Brazil and in a meeting of a working party of 

the World Plan Committee held in Switzerland. 

Frequency Allocations.-During 1973, the Commission’s rules were brought into conformity with the 

revised International Radio Regulations adopted by 

the 1971 ITU WARC-ST which became effective 

internationally on January 1, 1973. Amendments, effective on March 1, 1973, were made to the Table of 

Frequency Allocations and Definitions in Part 2 of the 

Commission’s rules. These included revisions to the 

frequency bands available to the broadcasting-satellite 

and fixed-satellite services. 

Frequency allocations were adopted for the amateur, 

mobile, radio-navigation, Earth exploration and meteorological satellites services as well as for the space 

research, space operation, standard frequency, and 

time, and radio astronomy services as originally proposed by the Commission in accordance with the 

WARC-ST results. 

For long range planning purpose+ bands were allocated to the various space radiocommunications services and the radio astronomy service between 40 and 

300 gigahertz. Twenty frequency bands were made 

available by the WARC-ST for the fixed satellite service, most of which are shared with microwave relay 

services. To assist in the effective sharing of these 

frequencies, the Commission, on April 2, 1973, 

amended parts 21 and 25 of the rules to establish revised methods for the determination of coordination 

areas and for the calculation of interference. 

The Commission agreed to a l-year use of nonGovernment frequencies by a program sponsored by 

the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 

which will use the Advanced Technology Satellite 

(ATS-F) to provide educational and medical communication services to areas in the Rocky Mountain 

region, Appalachia, certain Southeastern States and 

Alaska. The experiment is scheduled to begin with the 

launching of the ATS-F satellite in early 1974. 

Specialized Satellite Services 

Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service.-The Commission staff is continuing to assist in the development 

of a future aeronautical mobile satellite service. Negotiations have been taking place with European and 

Canadian authorities to establish an initial develop 

mental satellite system in the North Atlantic area. It 

is anticipated that this initial system will provide a 

limited VHF capability (the frequencies now normally 

used by aircraft over land) in addition to a L-band 

(approximately 1600 MHz) capability to be used for 

evaluation and experimentation only. US. participation in the experimental joint system will be by a 

commercial entity. 

108 

Maritime Mobile Satellite Service.-The Commission staff is continuing to work both nationally and internationally to further the development of a maritime 

mobile satellite service. Such a service will significantly 

improve maritime communictions in terms of accuracy, 

reliability, speed, and variety of transmission modes, 

which will, in turn, enhance maritime safety and 

management. 

Internationally, the Intergovernmental Maritime 

Consultative Organization (IMCO) through its Panel 

of Experts on Maritime Satellites met twice in 1973 

to expedite the implementation of a maritime mobile 

satellite service. Operational requirements have been 

stated and technical, financial, and economic studies 

are in progress. A meeting of governments is planned 

early in 1975 to further refine the work of the Panel 

of Experts and to negotiate any international agreements that are found to be necessary. 

In April 1973, the Commission allowed the construction to proceed of three satellites that will be part 

of a 5-year system intended to provide maritime service 

to the Navy as well as to other maritime users beginning in September 1974. One satellite is planned for 

deployment over the Atlantic and another over the 

Pacific with the third held as an on-the-ground spare. 

In August 1973, the Commission authorized a consortium of four carriers to participate in this Navy/ 

Maritime system. 

The Navy communication services will be provided 

in the UHF-band on a lease basis for a period of years 

beginning in 1974. The satellite capacity used by the 

Navy will be under its control and will be used to provide fleet communications. The commercial maritime 

communications will be provided utilizing a L/C band 

capability. The satellite design is such that during the 

period of the Navy service most of the satellite power 

will be required to meet the Navy service requirements; 

only limited power will be available for commercial 

maritime use. When the Navy service is completed, 

however, the entire satellite power can be utilized to 

provide commercial maritime service. 

Amateur-Satellite Service.-The Commission has 

established a new Amateur-Satellite Service conforming with the WARC-ST Radio Regulations, as revised 

by the Geneva Conference in 1971. Certain frequencies within the Amateur Radio Service were allocated 

to this new service on a shared basis with other amateur radio activities. The Commission is now proceeding to establish rules for this new service. 

The OSCAR 6 satellite, sixth in the “Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio” series exceeded its 1- 

year design life on October 15, 1973. The satellite continues to operate satisfactorily on a 910-mile, circular. 
Sun-synchronous, polar orbit. Designed and constructed by amateur radio operators, and launched 

piggyback by a NASA Delta vehicle, OSCAR 6 is testing a variety of communication techniques with small 

amateur radio station terminals of various types. Over 

1,500 amateur radio operators at user stations in all 50 

States and in 70 countries have succeeded in establishing two-way communications through the 2- to 10- 

meter repeater station aboard the satellite. Two-way 

transcontinental communications tests using relatively 

unsophisticated terminals in automobiles and aircrdt 

have been successful. Other successful experiments include the transmission of telegraphy, teleprinting, facsimile, television, and FM, AM and single-sideband 

AM telephony. 

Schools throughout the country are using OSCAR 6 

as an instructional tool. Material is available showing 

how to construct an inexpensive ground terminal for 

use in the classroom and how to use it to teach spaceage concepts such as Doppler measurement, orbit 

plotting, orbital period determination, and telemetry 

experiments. Several amateur operators using the satellite have reported observing an upward or L6inverted’’ 

Doppler effect on the signals received from the 435.1 

megaherth beacon transmitter, the mechanism of which 

has not yet been fully explained. 

109 
1 I 

Introduction 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has 

a strong continuing interest in both aircraft and spacecraft for research and operational use of remote sensing. The case for remote sensing in the detection of 

pollutants is substantial and gives impetus to establishing remote sensing as a management decision and 

evaluation tool in the Agency. The remote identification of specific local instances of pollution has been 

accomplished from aircraft through visual identification and photographic documentation. Recent years 

have brought the rapid evaluation of new instrumentation with a unique capability of monitoring pollution. These instruments include the laser, multispectral 

scanner (MSS) , microwave radiometer, and others. 

It is expected that further testing and evaluation of 

these sensors from aircraft and possibly spacecraft 

could result in the full appreciation of remote sensing 

technology for monitoring the environment. The objectives of environmental monitoring are to characterize existing environmental conditions, identify trends, 

evaluate compliance with standards and assess the interchange of pollutants among air, water, and land. 

Since EPA is essentially mission oriented, all its work 

in research and development is directed toward the 

solution of problems. 

The effective control of variables which determines 

environmental quality requires the use of reliable and 

timely information such as can be provided by aerial 

surveillance. Thus a significant facet to effectuate environmental quality management lies in the ability to 

monitor environmental characteristics and provide 

timely interpretation of data obtained. Such timely 

data are essential throughout the pollution abatement 

effort-from initially identifying the problems, from 

aircraft or spacecraft, to finally providing direct evidence in enforcement actions. When such data are 

provided in support of an enforcement action, these 

data must be legally defensible. Photographic camera 

and multispectral scanner (MSS) data show great 

promise for enforcement measures. However to insure 

uniformity and reliability these data require standardized measurement and calibration procedures. 

Aeronautics 

During 1973, the EPA utilized aircraft and helicopters as platforms for overhead monitoring in both 

operational and research programs. The primary facility for conducting overhead monitoring for the Agency is the National Environmental Research Center 

(NERC ) , in Las Vegas, Nev. The NERC air fleet consists of 12 surplus military aircraft, which includes 2 

helicopters. The helicopters are committed to the National Eutrophication Survey Program and the St. 

Louis Regional Air Pollution Study and for support of 

EPA Regions, Staets and cities. The fixed wing aircraft 

are heavily committed for low altitude surveillance of 

areas where enforcement actions are contemplated. Examples of the objectives and missions flown by the 

NERC-Las Vegas aircraft are: 

-identify isotherms in the vicinity of power plants, 

-detect and monitor algae and phytoplankton in 

-identify land misuse as it relates to cultural 

-identify, map, and track oil spills, 

-monitor sedimentation and turbidity of water, 

-identify and quantify pollutants in air, 

-identify secondary effects of pollution from &- 

-identify and monitor acid mine drainage, 

-identify and monitor industrial outfalls, 

-identify and monitor hazardous mine tailings, 

-identify salinity seeps in ground water, 

-monitor nutrient and salinity balance of estuaries, 

-identify and monitor agricultural runoff, 

-monitor secondary effects of dredging, 

--determine appropriate control and preventive 

-assess environmental impact from all types of 

-monitor environmental trends, 

-monitor Ocean dumping. 

Because of the busy flight schedule for the NERC 

aircraft, the available overhead monitoring capability 

for general use in monitoring ambient conditions and 

lakes, 

growth, 

tary landfills, 

measures of pollution, 

pollution, 

111 
environmental trends, and for testing and demonstration of new sensors, is limited. Therefore EPA has 

developed mutually beneficial cooperative programs 

with other Federal agencies. A formal interagency 

agreement exists with the Nationla1 Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA) , Langley Research 

Center for the conduct of tests and evaluation of 

sensors on NASA aircraft. These sensors include metric 

and multiband cameras with various film/filter combinations, multispectral scanners, lasers for oil and algae detection, and microwave radiometers for oil and 

salinity measurements. Flights are scheduled and coordinated with EPA field teams for the collection of 

ground truth information to corroborate the aerial 

data. The analyses of the combined data are conducted 

collaboratively between EPA and NASA, under the 

technical direction of the NERC-Las Vegas. 

Flight tests are usually conducted in conjunction 

with EPA regional personnel, and often involve State 

and local environmentalists in the test plan. As an 

example, the State of Maryland conducted la 25-hour 

study of the Patuxent River, collecting extensive 

ground truth data, that is, samples of water, earth, 

air, etc. The State requested EPA assistance for some 

remote sensing during this study for detecting chlorophyll, mapping the tidal areas, and in mapping a 

powerplant effluent. The EPA regional personnel COordinated the aircraft flight tests while participating 

in the ground truth acquisition with State personnel. 

The two NASA aircraft were equipped with multiband 

cameras, a multispectwl scanner (MSS) , and an infrared scanner. The data are presently being analyzed 

jointly by EPA, NASA and the State of Maryland. 

Other flight tests were conducted in early 1973 when 

the Ann Arundel County Health Department of Maryland requested assistance in the South River where 

there are increasing numbers of problems with outflow 

from municipal sewage treatment plants and private 

homes. The present situation has resulted in the closure 

of significant portions of the South River to the seafood 

industry. Of course, control and abatement actions are 

underway. However, there is a need by the county 

health department for efficient means to regularly 

monitor the area to assure that the problem is not 

recurring. The remote sensor capability available at 

NASAILangley was tested and the resultant data are 

being analyzed in conjunction with the EPA Annapolis 

Field Station. The long-term objective of the flight 

tests is to identify which sensors are most applicable 

to the monitoring role for areas rapidly becoming 

urbanized. 

On occasion, the Agency has requested and received 

support from the Department of Defense for overhead monitoring photos. Such data are obtained during routine flights and are used for determining environmental trends. 

Space 

EPA has direct contact with NASA’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center and has been receiving Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1) imagery on 

a regular and timely basis. This imagery is sent to the 

various EPA regions for evaluation. 

ERTS-1 data will be used to monitor and quantify 

algae blooms in reservoirs in Idaho and Washington. 

Satellite data are being used to monitor the size, shape, 

and movement of the “green water effect” in Lake 

Superior, where 250,000 liters of taconite tailings per 

day are being dumped into the lake. 

A detailed ERTS-1 and aircraft monitoring study 

of Puget Sound is being conducted to: 

(1) Determine the effect of image contrast and 

(2) Determine pollution dispersion problems; and 

(3) Monitor dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll. 

Movement of near-surface water in Wicomico Creek 

basin in Maryland has been mapped using the ERTSMSS. Turbidity patterns and algal concentrations are 

being monitored in the bays in the San Francisco area. 

Oil slicks identified near Baltimore augurs well for 

spotting and tracking oil pollution using remote 

sensing. 

Several State and Federal Government agencies 

have recognized the utility of ERTS-1 to show changes 

induced by strip mining activity. One group, the Geological Survey of Indiana, has already used ERTS-I 

imagery to revise strip mine maps compiled in the 

1960’s. In Ohio, comparison of ERTS-1 imagery with 

aerial photography taken only 1 year earlier revealed 

a significant increase in the area of disturbed land. 

The impact of strip mining of coal is expected to 

be especially significant in the Western States. In 

Montana, for example, the output of less than 3.5 million tons in 1971 is expected to grow to more than 

80 million tons by 1980. The ability of an ERTS-type 

satellite to routinely depict this change and to monitor the effectiveness of land rehabilitation on a State 

or regional basis would be extremely useful to planners 

in assessing future land use priorities and alternatives. 

Sources of siltation from construction along rivers 

and lakes are being monitored using ERTS data. Monitoring of sources and potential sinks of pollutants will 

be investigated as an extension to land-use mapping. 

An EPA acid mine drainage experiment is being 

conducted with ERTS in the States of Pennsylvania 

and West Virginia where seepage from shaft and open 

coal mines mix into the surrounding streams which 

feed the Potomac River. The resulting acid stream 

causes destruction of adjacent vegetation. Knowledge 

of the source of the seepage is required in order to 

enforce present laws or to take measures to prevent 

seepage from abandoned mines. The purpose of this 

investigation is to determine the most cost effective 

scale with altitude; 

112 
system for detecting and monitoring the effects and 

extent of acid mine drainage, utilizing ERTS as appropriate. ERTS should be most effective in providing 

a synoptic view and in identifying large areas of vegetation destroyed by acid mine drainage. ERTS imagery 

is not expected to be adequate for monitoring the water 

quality in small streams-this will perhaps only be 

possible with in situ sampling. The emphasis on land 

use results from the fact that land-use maps do not 

exist for the selected test area and from the requirement to correlate land use with acid mine drainage 

effects. The end effort of the experiment is to define 

the optimum mix of sensing techniques for performing 

the required monitoring. 

An automated in situ sensor system has been developed with a data link to the NASA Nimbus satellite 

which has led to a program utilizing sensors in tandem 

with a satellite data relay system. The project provides 

for the automatic sensing, recording, and transmittal 

of 5 to 8 water quality parameters from the Greater 

Miami River to the satellite, where the data are, in 

turn, transmitted via the NASA Lewis Research Center to the NERC-Cincinnati for near real time analysis. Such programs are intended to demonstrate the real 

time capability of data relay systems and the potential 

of geostationary satellites. 

International Cooperation 

The EPA is participating in the United Nations 

Environment Program, which was set up by the United 

Nations General Assembly to develop recommendations 

of the United Nations Conference on the Human 

Environment held July 1972, in Stockholm, Sweden. 

A U.S. basic paper on Monitoring and Surveillance 

of the Environment is being prepared by a Policy 

Level Committee with representation from EPA and 

other Federal agencies. The submission to the committee for a system for atmospheric monitoring is outlined 

below. 

A combination of remote sensing and aerial in situ 

sensing provides the best promise for application to 

global, regional, and impact atmospheric monitoring 

needs. Use of these techniques provides: (a) Wide 

geographical coverage ; (b) Three-dimensional data 

through the atmosphere; (c) Synoptic coverage responding to effects of topography, meteorology, and 

atmospheric structure ; (d) Dispersion and removal 

rate data; (e) Trend documentation; (f) Interbasin 

or interregional effects; (g) Microscale health effect 

data; and of great importance; (h) Cost effectiveness. 

The goal of this program would be a monitoring system to develop baseline, trend and impact data on 

atmospheric pollutants in a timely fashion rather than 

tedious data collection from limited ground level ill 

situ measurements followed by a lengthy collation 

and extrapolation/estimation to three-dimensional atmospheric effects. This system would provide an integrated view of atmospheric pollutants. 

A well-developed system of aerial monitoring for 

air quality parameters of interest could provide the 

necessary data in a timely fashion and at much less cost 

than a ground-based system. The mobility afforded 

by aircraft and the addition of monitoring devices to 

regular cargo and civil transport aircraft would permit a relatively small number of personnel and much 

less equipment to cover large regions and still provide 

satisfactory data on small local areas of interest. 

113 
Appendixes 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure 

Year 

1957. .......... 0 1 0 0 

1958. .......... 5 8 0 4 

1959 9 9 1 2 

19 60 ........... 16 12 1 2 

1961 ........... 35 12 0 0 

1962 ........... 54 12 4 1 

1963. .......... 60 11 0 0 

1964 ........... 69 8 4 0 

1965 ........... 94 8 3 0 

........... 

APPENDIX A-1 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure 

Year 

1966 ........... 95 12 5 '1 

1967 ........... 77 4 10 0 

1968 ........... 61 15 3 0 

1969 ........... 58 1 8 1 

1970 ........... 36 1 3 0 

1971.. ......... 45 2 8 1 

1972 ........... 33 2 8 0 

1973 ........... 23 2 3 0 

Total.. ... 770 120 61 12 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

This earth escape. failure did attain earth orbit and thereNoms: The criterion of success or failure used is the attainmen! of earth orbit or earth escape rather than a judgment of 

mion success. This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating 

countries which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles. 

fore is included in the earth-orbit success totals. 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

Year 

United Chinese United 

States U.S.S.R. France Italy -. .Tapan Repiblic Peoples Australia Kingdom - 

1957 .................................. 2 ............... ......................................... 1958 ........................ 5 1 ............... ......................................... 1959 ................ 10 3 ................................................................ 19 60 ........................ 16 3 ................................................................ 1961 ........................ 29 6 ....................................... ...................... 1962 ........................ 52 20 ................................................................ 1963 ........................ 38 17 .............. .................................. 19 64 ........................ 57 30 ................................................................ 1965 ........................ 63 48 1 ...................... ............................ 1966 ........................ 73 44 1 ...................... ............................ 1967 ........................ 57 66 2 1 ............ .... 1 ............ 1968 ........................ 45 74 ................................................................ 1969 ........................ 40 70 ................................................................ 1970 ........................ 28 81 2 '1 1 1 ........................ 1971 ........................ 30 83 1 '2 2 1 ............ 1 

30 74 .......... '1 1 .................................. 1973 ........................ 23 86 ................................................................ 

Total. ................. 596 708 7 5 4 2 1 1 

I Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple Note: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft. 

115 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successf u I U . S. Lau nches-1973 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

spacecraft name Cospar designation 

launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

period 

(minutes)- 

inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Mar. 6 

Defense 

13A 

Atlas-Agena 

Mar. 9 

Defense 

14A 

Titan IIID 

Apr. 6 

Pioneer 11 

19A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Apr. 20 

Anik 2 

23A 

Thorad-Del ta 

Objective: Development of space flight tcchniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To obtain, by a launch during the 1973 

Jovian opportunity, precursory scientific information beyond the orbit of Mars with the 

following emphasis: (a) Investigation of the 

interplanetary medium; (b) investigation of the 

nature of the asteroid belt; (c) exploration of 

Jupiter and its environment. 

Spacecraft : Hexagon-shaped spacecraft with an auxiliary offset hexagonal compartment for 

scientific instruments and 9-ft diameter parabolic 

antenna reflector; 4 radioisotope thermoelectric 

generators (RTG) on trusscs 120' apart extend 

5.6-ft radially beyond the periphery of the an- tenna reflector. A 4-segment folding magnetometer boom extends radially 15.4 ft beyond the 

reflector and 120° from the RTG's; from the top 

of the high-gain antenna feed to the bottom of 

the low-gain antenna measures 9.6 ft. 12 scientific instruments will measure magnctic fields, 

plasma, cosmic rays, and charged particles, 

electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet, 

visible and infrared ranees. and asteroid/ 

and technology. 

and technology. 

iiieteoroid population. 6 thrusters; spin stabilized. 

Weight: 570 lb. 

Objective: To provide transmission of television, 

voice, and other data throughout Canada. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 6-ft diameter and 1 1-ft 

high; 60-in optically transparent antenna weighing 9 Ib affixed to top of spacecraft remains stationary, pointed toward Canada as satellite 

revolves; spin stabilized. Provides IO-color TV 

channels or up to 9,600 telephone circuits; 23,000 

solar cells. Weight at launch: 1,200 lb; weight 

in orbit: 600 lb. 

22,792 

22,280 

1,435.0 

0.2 

163 

94 

88.- 6 

95. 7 

Heliocentric, 

later to 

become solar 

escape 

trajectory 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed May 19, 1973. 

Second in new Pioneer series, spacecraft following Jupiter flyby path 

of its twin, Pioneer 10. Spacecraft 

began 7 month journey through 

the asteroid belt on Aug. 18, 1973. 

Spacecraft functioning normally 

and all 12 science instruments are operational. By Dec. 31, 1973, 

spacecraft was 360 million miles 

from the Earth. Jupiter encounter 

planned for early December 1974. 

22,189 Launched by NASA for Canadian 

22, 123 Domestic Communications Satel1,430. 7 lite System into transfer orbit. 

0. 1 Apogee kick motor fired by Canada April 23 and spacecraft placed 

in stationary equatorial orbit off 

the west coast of South America. 

The American Satellite Corp. 

signed an agreement with Canada 

to lease satellite time, and on June 18 conducted the first relay 

of a telecast across the United 

States by a domestic communications satellite. 

116 
APPENDIX A-34ontinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1973 

Apogee and 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

spacecraft name Cospar designation 

launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

period 

(minutes)- 

inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Ma 14 Objective: To establish the Skylab Orbital AssemSkyKab 1 (SL-I) bly in Earth orbit; to obtain medical data on the 

27A crew for use in extending the duration of manned 

Saturn V space flight; to perform inflight experiments. Spacecraft: Consists of 4 major modules: Orbital 

workshop (OWS), airlock module (AM), multiple 

docking adaptor (MDA), and Apollo telescope 

mount (ATM) . Cylindrical spacecraft measures 

85.3 ft when deployed in orbit and has habitable 

volume of about 12,200 ft3. Weight in orbit: 

164,869 lb. 

May 16 

Defense and technology. 

28A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

May 25 

Skylab 2 (SL-2) 

32A 

Saturn IB 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Objective : To establish the Skylab Orbital Assembly 

in Earth orbit; to obtain medical data on the crew for use in extending the duration of manned 

space flight; to perform inflight experiments. 

Spacecraft: Apollo Block I1 command and service 

modules (CSM) modified for Skylab use. Command module is conical n shape, 12 ft 10 inches 

diameter and 11 ft 5)/2 in high, and has a habitable 

volume of 210 ft. Service module is cylindrical, 

12 ft 10 inches in diameter and 24 ft 10 in long, 

with a 20,000-lb thrust main propulsion system, 

reaction control system, fuel cells, oxygen, and 

radiators. CSM/S-IVB weight in initial Earth 

orbit: 67,163 lb. CSM weight after S-IVB 

separation: 30,817 lb. Total weight of docked 

assembly (CSM/Workshop): 193,589 lb. 

273 

263 

93. 2 

50.0 

247 

83 

89. 8 

110.4 

273.4 

263.5 

93. 2 

50. 0 

Skylab Workshop successfully placed 

in circular orbit but during 

launch, vehicle vibration resulted 

in meteoroid shield loss and solar 

array damage. Shield failure had 

released the securing mechanism on solar array 2 which ripped off 

and also prevented solar array 

wing 1 from deploying. Solar 

array damage and shield loss re- sulted in electrical power shortage 

and temperatures inside Workshop which reached 125' F. Temperature was reduced somewhat 

by pitching Workshop axis to and 

away from Sun. Skylab 2 three- man crew docked with Workshop, 

deployed solar parasol lowering 

temperatures and freed solar array 

wing I restoring electrical power. 

Workshop was employed for 3 

manned visits (Skylab 2, 3, 4). 

Decayed June 13, 1973. 

Crew consisted of Charles Conrad 

J:., commander; Paul J. Weitz 

pilot; Joseph P. Kerwin, science 

pjlot. First manned Skylab mission. CSM hard docked with 

Skylab Workshop on May 25. 

Next day crew entered Workshop and deployed makeshift 

solar parasol through the solar 

airlock. Temperatures decreased. 

On June 7, jammed solar array 

wing manually released during 

3 h 30 min 2-man EVA. Power 

restored. On June 19, 1 h 36 

min 2-man EVA to retrieve 

and replace Apollo Telescope 

film cassettes. CM splashdown 

at 9:50 am., e.d.t., June 22. 

Total flight time 28 days 50 

min. Despite mission anomalies, 

80 percent of solar data planned was obtained; 12 of 15 Earth resources data runs were ac- complished; and all 16 medical 

experiments were conducted. 

117 
APPENDIX A-34ontinued 

Successf u I U .S. Lau nches-1973 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

period Remarks 

(minutes)- 

inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

June 10 

Explorer 49 (RAE) 

39A 

Thorad-Delta 

ezn: 

LZ: 

40A 

Titan IIIC 

46A 

Titan IIID 

July 28 

Skylab 3 (SL-3) 

50A 

Saturn IB 

118 

Objective: To make measurements of galactic and 

solar radio noise at frequencies below ionospheric 

cutoffs and external to terrestrial background interference by utilization of the Moon for occultation, focusing, or aperture blocking for increased 

resolution and discrimination. 

Spacecraft : Truncated cylinder 36 inches in diameter and 31 in high with 4 fixed solar paddles 

mounted on main body; outside skin of aluminum 

honeycomb material; lunar insertion motor attached to upper end of body is jettisoned after 

lunar orbit insertion. Overall measurements with 

the 2 cameras mounted on the solar arrays are 72 in wide, 58 in high, and 63 in long. Spacecraft 

contains 1 -libration damper boom extendable to 

630 ft and 1 retractable 120-ft dipole antenna for 

calibration tests. The experiment antennas consist of 2 back-to-back V antennas formed by 

deploying 4 0.6-in diameter elements up to a maximum length of 750 ft each measuring 1,500 

ft tip-to-opposite-tip. The Velocity Control Propulsion Subsystem (VCPS) utilizes hydrazine 

fuel and a thruster for velocity correction and ia 

jettisoned after spacecraft is properly oriented in 

lunar orbit. Also carries tape recorders, battery, 

and the telemetry and command subsystem. The 

730-lb weight at liftoff includes the lunar insertion motor and the VCPS; weight in lunar orbit: 

442 Ib. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To perform unmanned Saturn Workshop operations; to reactivate the Skylab orbital 

assembly in Earth orbit; to obtain medical data 

on the crew for use in extending the duration of 

manned space flights; to puform idight experiments. 

Spacecraft: Apollo Block I1 command and service 

modules (CSM) modified for Skylab use. Command module is conical in sha 12 ft 10 inches 

in diameter and 11 ft 554 in higrhnd has a habitable volume of 210 ft. Service module is c lindrical, 12 ft 10 inches in diameter and 24 10 in 

long, with a 20,000-lb thrust main propulsion 

system, reaction control system, fuel cells, oxygen, 

and radiators. CSM/S-IVB weight in initial 

Earth orbit: 67,721 lb. CSM weight after S-IVB 

separation: 31,234 lb. Total weight of docked 

assembly (CSM/Workshop) : 193,050 lb. 

and technology. 

660.6 Last scheduled U.S. space mission 

653.7 to the Moon. Will conduct the 

221.2 most extensive study ever under38.7 taken of low-frequency signals 

from galactic and extragalactic 

radio sources. Spacecraft uses the 

Moon as a shield from extraneous 

radio noise from Earth. Lunar 

orbit insertion at 3:21 a.m., 

e.d.t., June 15; all experiments 

turned on. 

Lunar orbit 

22, 237 Still in orbit: 

22,232 

1,436.0 

03 

170 Decayed Oct. 12, 1973: 

96 

88. 7 

96.2 

273.4 Crew consisted of Alan L. &an, 

262.8 commander; Owen K. Garriott, 

93.2 science pilot; Jack R. Lousma, 

50.0 pilot. Second manned Skylab mission. CSM docked with Skylab 

Workshop at about 4 p.m., e.d.t., 

July 28. Leak in 2 of 4 clusters of 

CSM steering rockets threatened 

safe reentry and rescue preparations initiated but not required. 

Crew’s motion sickncss caused re- scheduling of tasks. 2-man EVA on Aug. 7 lasted 6 h 31 min; 

during space walk astronauts 

deployed twin-pole Sun shield 

and experiments, inspected ATM, 

and retrieved film. 2-man EVA on Aug. 25 lasted 4 h 31 min. Final 

2-man EVA on Sept. 23 lasted 

2 h 41 min. CM splashdown at 

6:20 p.m., e.d.t., Sept. 25. Total 

flight time 59 days, 1 1 h 9 min. EXperiment accomplishments sur- passed all plans. 150 percent of 

observing time scheduled for 

ATM was accomplished; EREP sensors were operated on 39 data 

runs, exceeding scheduled 28 

passes; all crew medical experiments successfully conducted. 
APPENDIX A-3-Continuea 

Successful US. Launches-1973 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

spacecraft name Cospar designation 

launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

period Remarb 

(minutes)- 

inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Au . 17 

De&nse 

HA 

Thor-Burner I1 

Au .21 

Detnse 

56A 

Titan IIIEAgcna 

Aug. 23 

Intelsat IV F-7 

58A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Sept. 27 

Defense 

68A 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Oct. 26 

Explorer 50 (IMP) 

78A 

Thorad-Delta 

Oct. 30 

Defense 

81A 

scout 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To provide equivalent of 3,000 to 9,OOO 

telephone circuits simultaneously or 12-color TV 

channels or a combination of telephone, TV, and 

other forms of communicafions traffic. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 93.7-in diameter and 17.3 ft 

high; spin stabilized; 12 communications re- peaters (transponders); 6 antennas (2 global 

transmit antennas, 2 global receive antennas, and 

2 steerable spot-beam antennas) ; 45,O 12 solar 

cells. Weight at liftoff: 3,058 lb. Weight after 

apogee motor fire: 1,544 lb. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To perform detailed and near continuous 

studies of the interplanetary environment for 

oribital periods comparable to several rotations 

of active solar regions; to study particle and field 

interactions in the distant magnetotail including cross sectional mapping of the tail and neutral 

sheet. 

Spacecraft: 16-sided drum-shaped structure 62 in 

high and 53-in diameter. Upper portion of spacecraft contains an aluminum honeycomb shelf 

which supports experiments and spacecraft 

electronics. The lower portion has an 18-in thrust 

tube to accommodate solid propellant kick motor. 

Spacecraft structure consists of aluminum honeycomb RF shield panels and 3 bands of solar 

panels (16 panels per band) mounted on an aluminum honeycomb substrate. 2 diametrically 

opposed experiment booms (each 10 ft long) and 

2 attitude control system booms (each 4 ft long) 

spaced 90° from experiment booms, are appended 

to spacecraft exterior and deployed after launch. 

2 weeks later, 4 200-ft antennas are extended in 

support of electric and magnetic fields experiments. The spacecraft is fitted with 8 equally 

spaced, RF antennas (4 active 4 passive turnstile 

type) which extend radially. Spacecraft is spin 

stabilized and contains 12 scientific experiments 

and 2 engineering tests. Weight at launch: 875 lb. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

and technology. 

and technology. 

530 Still in orbit. 

502 

101.5 

98.8 

244 

701.0 

63. 3 

24,317 Still in orbit. 

22,232 Launched by NASA for Comsat 

22,229 Corp., manager of Intelsat. 5th 

satellite in improved Intelsat IV 

0.4 series. Apogee motor fired by 

Comsat on Aug. 25 and satellite 

stationed at 330° east longitude over the Atlantic Ocean. Commercial operations began Sept. 9,1973. 

1,435.6 

239 Decayed Oct. 29, 1973. 

a0 

89. a 

110.5 

87,732 

28. 7 

179,496 Spacecraft launched into elliptical 

transfer orbit. Kick motor fired 

17,279. 1 1 a.m., e.s.t., Oct. 29, to place 

spacecraft in nearcircular orbit 

halfway between Earth and 

Moon. Spacecraft functioning 

properly and all 12 experiments 

turned on. Returning good data. 

708 Still in orbit. 

56 1 

105.6 

90.2 

528-338 0 - 74 - 9 119 
APPENDIX A-S-Continued 

Successful US. Launches-1973 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

period 

(minutes)- 

inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Nov. 3 

Mariner 10 

85A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Nov. 6 

NOAA 3 (ITOS F) 

86A 

Thorad-Delta 

Objective : During the 1973 opportunity to conduct Heliocentric. 

exploratory investigations of the planet Mercury 

by obtaining measurements of its environment, 

atmosphere, surface, and body characteristics, 

and to conduct similar investigations of Venus 

during its flyby. First priority is assigned to 

Mercury investigations. 

Spacecraft : Basic octagonal structure measures 5454 

in wide diagonally and 18 in high. 2 solar panels 

each 106 in long and 38.4 in wide are attached 

by outriggers to the top of the octagon; the 2 

panels have a combined photovoltaic cell area of 

5 1.7 ftl. When fully deployed, spacecraft measures 12.2 ft from the top of the low-gain antenna to 

the bottom of the heat shield of the thrust vector 

control assembly of the propulsion system; span 

is 26.2 ft with solar panels extended; the 20-ft 

magnetometer boom adds an additional 10.8 ft 

to the overall span. Low ain antenna con- sists of 2 conical plates slottej into the outer end 

of a pair of concentric tubes, each 9.35 ft long 

and measuring 2.25 in and 1.0 inch in diameter. 

Motor-driven high gain antenna consists of 

aluminum honeycombed parabolic dish reflector 

54 inches in diameter. 2 sets of reaction control 

jets consisting of 3 pairs of jets each are mounted 

at the tips of the solar panels and also on the 

outrigger structures supporting the high-gain 

antenna and magnetometer boom. Canopus star 

tracker assembly located on upper ring structure 

of octagon. 7 experiments include 2 TV cameras, an infrared radiometer, an ultraviolet airglow 

spectrometer, UV occultation spectrometer, 2 

magnetometers, plasma science experiment detector, charged particle telescope, and dual 

frequency radio system. Propulsion subsystem is 

a multistart monopropellant hydrazine system. 

Weight at launch: 1,108 lb. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in a Sun-synchro- nous orbit having a local equator crossing time 

of approximately 8:30 am., descending to permit regular and de endable daytime and nighttime meteorologicaf observations in both direct 

readout and stored modes of operation. 

Spacecraft : Rectangular, box-shaped spacecraft 

with a deployable 3-panel solar array. The base 

of the man body is about 40 in by 40 in and the 

overall height is about 48 in. The total area of 

the array is 48 ftl with each of the 3 panels 

measuring 36.4 in by 63.8 in. 3-a+ stabilized, 

Earth-oriented satellite carries nmary sensor complement of 2 Very High Resofution Radiometer (VHRR) instruments and 2 Scanning 

Radiometer (SR) sensors for daytime and nighttime coverage, 2 Vertical Temperature F’rofile 

Radiometers (VTPR) which permit determination of the Earth’s vertical temperature profile over every part of the Earth’s surface at least 

twice dail and 1 secondary sensor, the Solar 

Proton &nitor (SPM) which provides continuous measurements of proton and electron 

flux activity near the Earth. Thermo-control 

system; 4 antennas. Weight: 760 lb. 

Mariner Venus/Mercury successfully 

launched on dual flyby mission. 

Spacecraft will arrive at point of 

closest ap roach to Venus on Feb. 5, 19f4, after a 148-millionmile trip in 94 days. During Venus 

flyby, spacecraft’s speed reduced 

and trajectory path bent in toward 

Sun; as craft travels toward 

Mercury, its speed will be accelerated by the Sun’s gravitational 

force. Spacecraft will pass 621 

miles above surface of Mercury 

on Mar. 29, 1974. Spacecraft will 

conduct first exploration of 

Mercury; will be first to send 

back real time TV of Venus and 

Mercury; and will be first to use the gravity of one planet to reach 

and explore another planet. As 

of Dec. 31, 1973, Mariner 10 was less than half way to Venus. 

938 First to transmit local-area atmos931 pheric temperature measure- 116. 1 ments to ground stations around 

102. 1 the world. Becomes rimary satellite in NOAA glotal weather 

watch program. Spacecraft functioning normally and turned over to NOAA on Nov. 29, 1973, for 

operational use. 

Remarks 

120 
APPENDIX A-34ontinued 

Successf u I U .S. Lau nches-1973 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

spacecraft name Cospar designation 

launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

statute miles)- 

(minutes)- 

inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

period Remarks 

Nov. 10 

Defense 

88A 

Titan IIID 

Nov. 10 

Defense 

88B 

Titan IIID 

Nov. 10 

Defense 

88D 

Titan IIID 

Nov. 16 

Skvlab 4 (SL-4) 

90A 

Saturn IB 

Dec. 13 

DSCS F-3 

IOOA 

Titan IIIC 

Dec. 13 

DSCS F-4 

lOOB 

Titan IIIC 

Dec. 16 

Explorer 51 

lOlA 

Thorad-Delta 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

Objective: To perform unmanned Saturn Workshop operations; to reactivate the Skylab orbital 

assembly in Earth orbit; to obtain medical data on the crew for use in extending the duration of 

manned space flights; to perform inflight experiments. 

Spacecraft: Apollo Block I1 command and service 

modules (CSM) modified for Skylab use. Command module is conical in shape, 12 ft 10 inches 

in diameter and 11 ft 534 in high, and has a habitable volume of 210 ft. Service module is cylindrical, 12 ft 10 inches in diameter and 24 ft 10 in 

long, with a 20,000-lb thrust main propulsion 

system, reaction control system, fuel cells, oxygen, 

and radiators. CSM/S-IVB weight in initial earth 

orbit: 68,856 Ib. CSM weight after S-IVB separation: 32,849 lb. Total weight of docked assembly 

(CSM/Workshop): 192,061 lb. 

and technology. 

and technology. 

and technology. 

Objective: Defense communications link. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Defense communications link. 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

Objective: To investigate the photochemical cesses accompanying the absorption of solar &E 

violet radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere by 

making closely coordinated measurements of the 

reacting constituents from a spacecraft with onboard propulsion to permit perigee and apogee 

altitudes to be varied by command. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 16-sided satellite 53 inches 

in diameter and 45 inches high. Consists of 2 shells, 

inner shell holds 14 scientific instruments and 

outer shell is covered with solar panels. Orbit adjust propulsion subsystem carries 367 lbs of hydrazine fuel and employs 3 thrusters. Spin-stabilized 

satellite also contains an omnidirectional S-band 

antenna and redundant nickeltadmium batteries. 

Weight at launch: 1,473 lbs. 

165 Still in orbit. 

101 

88. 7 

96. 9 

314 Still in orbit. 

303 

94. 5 

96. 3 

906 Still in orbit. 

88 1 

114.6 

96. 9 

272 Crew consisted of Gerald P. Carr, 

262 commander; Edward G. Gibson, 

93. 2 science pilot; William R. Pogue, 

50.0 pilot. 3d and final manned Skylab 

mission. CSM docked with Skylab 

Workshop at 5:02 p.m. e.s.t. 

Nov. 16. Next day crew entered 

workshop and activated all system. On Nov. 22, Pogue and 

Gibson repaired broken radar 

antenna during record 6 hr 34 

min 35 rec EVA. 3 more EVA’S 

planned. Crew performing medical experiments and taking earth resources photos; also studying 

cbmet Kohoutek. 1 of 3 control 

gyroscopes failed but full 84-day 

mission still planned. 

22, 447 Still in orbit. 

22,245 

1,445.0 

2.0 

22, 455 Still in orbit. 

22,335 

1,449.0 

2.0 

2676.3 First of a series of 2d generation 

97.2 spacecraft. Placed initially into 

132.5 elliptical orbit; the onboard pro68. 1 pulsion system permits the satellite 

to dip into the largely unexplored 

region of the lower atmosphere. 

121 
APPENDIX B 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-1973 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Oct. 31, 1962 

Jan. 11, 1964 

Oct. 10, 1964 

Mar. 9, 1965 

Mar. 11, 1965 

Apr. 3, 1965 

Apr. 29, 1965 

Aug. 10, 1965 

Nov. 6, 1965 

June 9, 1966 

June 23, 1966 

Aug. 19, 1966 

Oct. 5, 1966 

June 29, 1967 

Jan. 11, 1968 

Apr. 14, 1969 

Apr. 8, 1970 

Anna 1B 

Sicor I 

Beacon-Exdorer 

XXII 

Secor I11 

Secor I1 

Secor IV 

Beacon-Explorer 

XXVII 

Secor V 

GEOS-I Explorer 

XXIX 

Secor VI 

Pageos I 

Secor VI1 

Secor ~~~~~ VI11 

Secor IX 

GEOS I1 

Secor XI11 

Top0 I 

GEODESY 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Agena D 

scout Conducted reflecting-light geodetic measurements. 

Thor-Agena D 

Thor-Able Star 

Atlas-Agena D 

scout 

Used 3 independent measuring techniques: Doppler frequency 

Used radio triangulation and trilateration. 

shift, flashing lights, and radio triangulation. 

Scout 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thor-Agena D 

Atlas-Agena D 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thor-Burner I1 

Thor-Del ta 

Thor-Ageria D 

Thor-Agena D 

Spacecraft is a 100-ft-diameter balloon used as a photographic 

target to make geodetic measurements. 

122 
APPENDIX &Continued 

US. Applications Satellites 1958-1973 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Dec. 18, 1958 

Aug. 12, 1960 

Oct. 4, 1960 

Mar. 30, 1961 

Oct. 21, 1961 

Dec. 12, 1961 

June 2, 1962 

lulv 10, 1962 

bed. 13, 1962 

Feb. 14, 1963 

May 7, 1963 

May 9, 1963 

July 26, 1963 

Jan. 21, 1964 

Jan. 25, 1964 

Aug. 19, 1964 

Feb. 11, 1965 

Mar. 9, 1965 

Apr. 6, 1965 

May 6, 1965 

Dec. 21, 1965 

June 16, 1966 

Oct. 26, 1966 

Nov. 3, 1966 

Dec. 7, 1966 

Jan. 11, 1967 

an. 18, 1967 c ar. 22, 1967 

Apr. 6, 1967 

July 1, 1967 

Sept. 27, 1967 

Nov. 5, 1967 

June 13, 1968 

Aug. 10, 1968 

Sept. 26, 1968 

Dec. 18, 1968 

Feb. 6, 1969 

Feb. 9, 1969 

Score 

Echo I 

Courier 1B 

Lofti I 

Westford I 

Oscar I 

Oscar I1 

Telstar I 

Relay I 

Syncom I 

Telstar I1 

Westford I1 

Syncom I1 

Relay 11 

Echo I1 

Syncom I11 

LES I 

Oscar I11 

Intelsat I (Early 

Bird) 

LES I1 

LES I11 

LES IV 

Oscar IV 

IDCSP 1-7 

Intelsat 11-Fl 

OV 4-1T 

~ OVelR 

ATS I 

Intelsat 11-F2 

IDCSP 8-15 

Intelsat 11-F3 

ATS I1 

IDCSP 16-18 

LES V 

DATS 

DODGE 

Intelsat 11-F4 

ATS I11 

IDCSP 19-26 

ATS IV 

LES 6 

Intelsat 111 (F-2) 

Intelsat I11 (F-3) 

Tacsat I 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Atlas B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Atlas-Agena B 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

Thor-Del ta 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIA 

Thor-Agena D 

Thor-Del ta 

Titan IIIA 

Titan IIIC 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Agena D 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Agena D 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Centaur 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

First Comsat, carried taped messages. 

100-ft balloon served as first passive Comsat, relayed voice and 

First active-repeater Comsat. 

Low-frequency experiment; failed to separate from rest of 

First attempt to establish filament belt around Earth; failed to 

First amateur radio “ham” satellite. 

Industry-furnished spacecraft in near-Earth orbit. 

Active-repeater Comsat. 

Successfully injected into near-synchronous orbit but commuFilaments formed reflective belt around Earth as planned for 

First successful synchronous orbit active-repeater Comsat. After 

135-ft balloon, passive Comsat, first joint use by United States 

Synchronous-orbit Comsat; after experimental phase., used 

Experimental payload did not reach intended apogee. 

First Intelsat (Comsat Corporation) spacecraft, 240 2-way voice 

circuits : commercial transatlantic communication service 

initiated June 28, 1965. 

All solid state advanced experiment. 

All solid state, UHF signal generator. 

All solid state SHF or X band experiment. 

Initial defense communication satellites program (IDCSP) - 

Active-repeater spacecraft in near-synchronous orbit, random 

spaced. 

First in Intelsat I1 series spacecraft; 240 2-way voice circuits or 

1-color TV channel. Orbit achieved not adequate for com- mercial operation. 

Transmitter and receiver for low-power satellite-to-satellite F 

layer experiments. 

Multipurpose, including VHF exchange of signals with aircraft. 

Transpacific commercial communication service initiated 

Jan. 11, 1967. 

Positioned to carry transatlantic commercial communication 

traffic. 

Multipurpose, but did not attain planned orbit. 

Tactical military communications tests with aircraft, ships, and 

Electronically despun antenna experiment. 

Multipurpose, gravity stabilized. 

Positioned to carry commercial transpacific communication 

Multipurpose including communications. 

Multipurpose; failed to separate from Centaur, did not reach 

planned orbit. 

Continued military tactical communications experiments. 

First in Intelsat I11 series of spacecraft, 1,200 2-way voice 

circuits or +color TV channels. Positioned over Atlantic 

to carry tral€ic between North America, South America, 

Africa, and Europe. Entered commercial service on Dec. 24, 

1968. 

Stationed over Pacific to carry commercial traffic between the 

United States, Far East, and Australia. 

Demonstrated feasibility of using a spaceborne repeater to satisfy 

selected communications needs of DOD mobile forces. 

TV signals. 

payload. 

disperse as planned. 

nication system failed at orbital injection. 

emergency communications experiment. 

experimental phase, used operationally by DOD. 

and U.S.S.R. 

operationally b DOD. 

mobile land stations from near synchronous orbit. 

traffic. 

123 
APPENDIX B-Continued 

US. Applications Satellites 1958-1973 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

May 22, 1969 

July 26, 1969 

August 12, 1969 

Nov. 22, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1970 

Jan. 23, 1970 

Mar. 20, 1970 

Apr. 23, 1970 

Jul. 23, 1970 

Aug. 22, 1970 

Jan. 26, 1971 

Feb. 3, 1971 

Nov. 3. 1971 

Dec. 19, 1971 

Jan. 22, 1972 

lune 13. 1972 

bt. 15,. 1972 

Nov. 9. -, 1972 

~~ - 

Apr. 20, 1973 

Aug. 24, 1973 

Dcc. 13, 1973 

Apr. 13, 1960 

une 22, 1960 JF eb. 21, 1961 

June 29, 1961 

Nov. 15, 1961 

Dec. 18, 1962 

June 15, 1963 

Sept. 28, 1963 

Dec. 5, 1963 

June 4, 1964 

Oct. 6, 1964 

Dec. 13, 1964 

Mar. 11, 1965 

June 24, 1965 

Aug. 13, 1965 

ar. 25, 1966 

May 19, 1966 

Aug. 18, 1966 

Apr. 13, 1967 

May 18, 1967 

SeDt. 25. 1967 

E: 2 E: 

Mk. 1,’19g 

Aug. 27, 1970 

Sept. 2. 1972 

Odt. 30, 1973 

Intelstat III(F4) 

Intelsat III(F-5) 

ATS V 

Skynet I 

Intelsat III(F-6) 

Oscar V 

(Australis) 

(IDCSP-A) 

NATOS AT-I ~ (NATO-A) 

Intelsat I11 (F-7) 

Intelsat I11 (F-8) 

Skynet I1 

Intelsat IV (F-2) 

(IDCSP-B) 

. NATOSAT-I1 ~~- .~~~ 

(NATO-B) 

DSCS 2-1,2 

Intelsat IV (F-3) 

Intelsat IV (F-4) 

Intelsat IV (F-5) 

Oscar VI 

Anik 1 (Telesat 1) 

Anik 2 (Telesat 2) 

Intelsat IV (F-7) 

DSCS 2-3, 4 

Transit 1B 

Transit 2A 

Transit 3B 

Transit 4A 

Transit 4B 

Transit 5A 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

NavSat 

Triad 01-1 

NavSat 0-20 

COMMUNICATIONS-Continued 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Thor-Del ta(TAT) 

Thor-Delta(TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas Centaur 

Atlas Centaur 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Titan IIIC 

Stationed over Pacific to replace F-3 which was moved westward to the Indian Ocean. Completes global coverage. 

Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Not usable. 

Multipurpose; for millimeter and L band communications; 

entered flat spin. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the IDCSP program. 

Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the 

United States, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. 

Ham radio satellite built by amateur radio operators at Melbourne University, Melbourne, Australia. 

First NATO satellite, stationed over Atlantic to carry military 

traffic between the United States and other NATO countries. 

Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the 

United States, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. 

Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Not usable. Last 

launch of Intelsat I11 series. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the IDCSP program. Spacecraft failed to achieve .- 

the proper orbit. 

First in Intelsat IV series of spacecraft; 3-9,000, 2-way voice 

circuits or 12solor TV channels. Positioned over the Atlantic. 

Second NATO satellite, stationed over the Atlantic to carry 

military tr&c. 

Operational defense communications satellites launched as a pair to 24-hour synchronous orbits to provide high capacity 

voice, digital, and secure voice communications for military 

networks. 

Second in new high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. 

Third in new high capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Fourth in new high capacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Amateur radio relay. 

Launched for Canada. 

Launched for Canada. 

Fifth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. 

Follow-on to DSCS 2-1, 2. 

NAVIGATION 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

First navigation satellite. Used Doppler frequency shift for 

position determination. 

Used the first spacecraft nuclear SNAP-3 as a secondary power 

Thor-Able Star 

scout 

scout 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

scout 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Able Star 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

supply. 

Operational prototype, power failed during first day. 

Used gravity-gradient stabilization system. 

Used first nuclear SNAP-SA as primary power supply. 

First experimental station keeping Transit navigation satellite. 

124 
APPENDIX %Continued 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-1973 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

WEATHER OBSERVATION 

Tune 19. 1962 

sept. 18, 1962 

June 19, 1963 

Dec. 21, 1963 

Aug. 28, 1964 

Feb. 28, 1966 

May 15, 1966 

Oct. 2, 1966 

Dec. 6, 1966 

Jan. 26, 1967 

Apr. 20, 1967 

Nov. 5, 1967 

Nov. 10. 1967 

Aug. 16; 1968 

Dec. 15, 1968 

Feb. 26. 1969 

Apr. 14; 1969 

Jan. 23, 1970 

Apr. 8, 1970 

Dec. 11, 1970 

Aug. 16, 1971 

Oct. 15, 1972 

Dec. 11, 1972 

Nov. 6, 1973 

July 23, 1972 

Tiros I 

Tiros I1 

Tiros 111 

Tiros IV 

Tiros V 

Tiros VI 

Tiros VI1 

Tiros VI11 

Nimbus I 

Tiros IX 

Tiros X 

ESSA 1 

ESSA 2 

Nimbus I1 

ESSA 3 

ATS-1 

ESSA 4 

ESSA 5 

ATS-3 

ESSA 6 

ESSA 7 

ESSA 8 

ESSA 9 

Nimbus I11 

ITOS I 

Nimbus IV 

(Tiros M) 

NOAA-1 

(ITOS-A) 

Eole (CAS-1) 

Thor-Able 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delt a Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena D 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor- Agena 

Thor-Delta 

Thor- Agena 

Thor-Delta 

scout 

NOAA-2 (ITOS D) Thor-Delta 

Nimbus V Thor-Delta 

NOAA-3 (ITOS F) Thor-Delta 

First weather satellite providing cloudsover photography. 

First weather satellite designed to transmit continuously local 

cloud conditions to ground stations equipped with APT 

receivers. 

Carried advanced videcon camera system, APT, and a high 

resolution infrared radiometer for night pictures. 

First weather satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit. 

First operational weather satellite; carried 2 wide-angle TV 

Complemented ESSA 1 with 2 wide-angle APT cameras. camera systems. 

Odd-number ESSA spacecraft carry 2 advanced videcon camera systems. Even-numbered spacraft carry 2 automatic picture transmission camera systems. 

Provided continuous black-and-white cloud-cover pictures from a synchronous orbit, using a Suomi camera system. 

Provided continuous color cloud-cover pictures from a synchronous orbit, using 3 Suomi camera systems. 

Provided first vertical temperature profile on a global basis of the 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Fifth in a series of 7 advanced research and development weather 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

French satellite to gather data from constant density surface 

ballons relaying meterological data for the study of the 

characteristics and movements of air masses. New balloons are released daily from 3 sites in Argentian, for this cooperative French/United States project. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Provided the first atmospheric vertical temperature profile 

measurements through clouds. 

atmosphere from the spacecraft to the Earth’s surface. 

satellites. 

ERTS-1 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are 

proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry 

resources, mineral and land resources, land use, water re- sources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and the 

environment. 

125 
APPENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryLedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

MercuryAtlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 

7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 

Mercury-Atlas 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

8 

9 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 1 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apollo 11 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21,1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24,1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12,1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15,1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3,1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3,1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11,1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21,1968 

Jan. 14,1969 

Jan. 15,1969 

Mar. 3,1969 

May 18,1969 

July 16, 1969 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovsky 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, 2d 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

A. Cernan 

ohn W. Young 

ichael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgi Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Boris Volynov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Khrunov ames A. McDivitt 

avid R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. StafTord 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

1 h 48 min. 

15 min. 

16 min. 

25 h 18 min. 

4 h 55 min. 

4 h 56 min. 

94 h 22 min. 

70 h 57 min. 

9 h 13 min. 

34 h 20 min. 

119 h 6 min. 

70 h 50 min. 

24 h 17 min. 

26 h 2 min. 

4 h 53 min. 

97 h 56 min. 

190 h 55 min. 

330 h 35 min. 

25 h 51 min. 

10 h 41 min. 

72 h 21 min. 

70 h 47 min. 

71 h 17 min. 

94 h 35 min. 

26 h 37 min. 

260 h 9 min. 

94 h 51 min. 

147 h 1 min. 

71 h 23 min. 

72 h 56 min. 

241 h 1 min. 

192 h 3 min. 

195 h 19 min. 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing. 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 250 mi from target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 4 mi of Vostok 3. 

Landed 5 mi from target. 

First long U.S. flight. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 3 mi of Vostok 

First 3-man crew. 5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneumin). 

vers in orbit. 

21-min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within lft of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

First initial-orbit rendezvous; first tethered 

flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (853 

mi). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 

5 h 37 min). 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First US. 3-man mission. 

8 with Agena target rocket). 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of Moon; first manned 

departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned 

flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 

Cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation 

of lunar module to landing and takeoff 

from lunar surface and rejoining with 

command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 47,000 

ft from the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock and 

soil samples to Earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

126 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14, 969 

Apr. 11, 970 

June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6,1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7,1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28,1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Vladislav Volkov 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Timofeyevich 

Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislov Nikolayevich 

Volkov 

Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James Bensen Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke! Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly, I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr Klimuk 

Valentin Lebedev 

118 h 42 min. 

118 h 41 min. 

Soyuz 6, 7 and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial observations. 

118 h 50 min. 

244 hr 36 min. 

142 h 55 min. 

424 h 59 min 

216 h 2 min. 

47 h 46 min. 

570 h 22 min. 

295 h 12 min. 

265 h 51 min. 

301 hr 52 min. 

672 h 50 min. 

1,427 h 9 min. 

47 h 16 min. 

................ 

188 h 55 min. 

.. 

Second manned lunar landing. Continued 

manned exploration and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor 111 spacecraft which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted due to explosion in the 

service module. Ship circled Moon, with 

crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just 

prior to reentry. 

Longest manned space flight to date, lasting 17 

days 16 h 59 min. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pin-point landing capability and 

continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not 

board space station launched Apr. 19. 

Crew recovered Apr. 24, 197 1. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occu ied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perisled during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first 

Apollo “J” series mission which carry the 

Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight 

EVA of 38 min 12 s was performed during 

return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired 

damaged station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in continuing long 

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources 

duration mission. 

experiments. 

127 
APPEND= D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Thrust Max. Payload (1b)s 

sands of (ft) (ft) 300NM Escape First 

Vehicle Stages Propellant 4 (in thou- dia. Height a 

Ib ) orbit launch 

Scout .............. 1. Algol I11 ......... Solid .............. 107.2 3. 75 64.4 410 85 1 1972(60) 2. Castor 11.. ....... Solid.. ............ 61. 1 

3. Antares X-259.. .. Solid.. ............ 22.0 

4. FW4.. .......... Solid .............. 5. 3 

series. nine TX 354-3. Solid.. ............ 2 156 

Thor-Delta 2900 1. Thor plus LOX/RP .......... 205 8 116 3,900 1,050 1973(60) 

2. Delta (DSV-3). .. NaOd/Aerozine. .... 3. TE 364.. ........ Solid.. ............ Atlas-Aaena.. - ...... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP.. ........ sustainer 

(SLV/3A). 

2. Agena.. ......... IRFNA/UDMH.. .. Titan IIIB-Agena.. . 1. LR-87. .......... NzO,/Aerozine.. .... 2. LR-91. .......... Nz04/Aerozine. ..... 3. Agena.. ......... IRFN/UDMH. .... Titan IIIC.. ....... 1. Two 5:segment Solid.. ............ 

2. LR-87. .......... NzO,/Aerozine. .... 

120-in diameter. 

3. LR-91. .......... Nz04/Aerozine. ..... 4. Transtage. ....... NZO,/Aerozine. ..... Titan IIID.. ....... 1. Two 5:segment Solid.. ............ 120-in diameter. 

2. LR-87. .......... Na04/Aerozine. ..... 

Titan HIE-Centaur. 1. Two 5-segment Solid.. ............ 

2. LR-87. .......... N,O4/Aerozine. ..... 3. LR-91. .......... Nz04/Aerozine. ..... 4. Centaur (Two LOX/LH. ......... 

Atlasr&ntaur. ..... 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP.. ........ 

2. Centaur (Two LOX/LH .......... 

3. LR-91.. ......... Nz04/Aerozine. ..... 

120-in diameter. 

RL-IO). 

sustainer. 

RL-10). 

Saturn IB.. ........ 1. S-IB(eight H-I). LOX/RP.. ........ 2. S-IVB (one 5-2). . LOX/LH.. ........ 

9. 4 

15 

400 10 100 7,700 

I6 

464 10 119 67,500 

102 

16 

2,400 10x30 108 26,000 

523 

102 

16 

2,400 10x30 95 6 21,000 

523 

102 

2,400 10x30 128 ....... 

523 

102 

30 

431 10 103 10,300 

30 

1,640 21.6 142 34,000 . . 230 

1,430 1968(60 ) 

6 1,100 1966 

6, 200 1965 

........ 

11,500 

1971 

I974 

2,500 1967(62) 

........ 1966 

1 The date of first launch applies to this latest modification Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Diwith a date in parentheses for the initial version. methylhydrazine-IRFN/UDMH ; Nitrogen Tetroxide and 2 Set of 3. UDMH/NzH4-N204/Aerozine ; Liquid Oxygen and Liquid 3 Height to spacecraft interface. Hydrogen-LOX/LH. 4 Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Liquid 6 Due east launch. 

Oxygen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP ; Solid propellant 

combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid; 6 Polar launch. 

128 
APPENDIX E 

Nuclear Power Systems for Space Applications 

Designation Launchdate Application Remarks 

SNAP-3 

SNAP-SA 

SNAP-IOA 

SNAP-1 9 

SNAP-27 

Pioneer 

Transit 

LES 819 

Viking 

MJS 

June 1961 

November 1961 

September 1963 

December 1963 

April 1964 (Aborted) 

April 1965 

May 1968 (Aborted) 

April 1969 

November 1969 

April 1970 (Aborted) 

January 1971 

July 1971 

April 1972 

December 1972 

March 1972 

April 1973 

September 1972 

Navigation satellites (DOD). 

Navigation satellites (DOD). 

Space reactor test. 

Nimbus B weather satellite 

(NASA). 

Apollo Lunar Surface Experimental Packages - ALSEP 

(NASA). 

Jupiter flyby (NASA). 

Navigation satellites (DOD). 

Space communications (DOD). 

Mars lander (NASA). 

Mariner Jupiter/Saturn flyby 

(NASA). 

Experimental units to demonstrate nuclear power 

First satellites fully powered by nuclear systems. 

capabilities. 

Demonstrated space reactor power system. 

Fuel from aborted mission recovered from offshore 

All 5 units still operating in excess of design requirewaters. 

ments. 

First spacecraft (Pioneer 10) passed Jupiter in DeOperated for 16 months of scheduled 5-year mission. 

Two spacecraft scheduled for simultaneous launch 

in 1975. 

Two spacecraft scheduled for launch in 1975. 

Two spacecraft scheduled for launch in 1977. 

cember 1973. 

129 
APPENDIX F-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

17-YEAR BUDGET SUMMARY-NEW FISCAL YEAR OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY 

[In millions of dollars (may not add due to rounding)] 

NASA Department Total 

ofDefense AEC Commerce Interior Agriculture NSF space 

Total Space' 

1959 ................ 1960 ................ 1961 ................ 1962 ................ 1963 ................ 1964 ................ 1965 ................ 1966 ................ 1967 ................ 1968 ................ 1969 ................ 1970 ................ 1971 ................ 1972 ................ 1973 ................ 1974 Est. 

1975 Est. 

305.4 

523.6 

964.0 ..... 

1,824. 9 

3,673.0 

5.249. 7 

5,099.7 

5; 174. 9 

4, 967.6 

4,588.8 

3,990.9 

3, 745.8 

3, 311.2 

3, 306.6 

3,406.2 

3,038. o 

3,244.7 

235.4 489.5 34.3 .......................................... 759.2 

461.5 560.9 43.3 . 1 1,065. 8 

926.0 813.9 67.7 .6 1,808.2 

1,796.8 1,298.2 147.8 50.7 ...................... 1.3 3.294.8 

.................................. 

.................................. 

3,626.0 1,549. 9 213. 9 43.2 ...................... 1.5 5;434.5 

5.046.3 1.599.3 210.0 2.8 ...................... 3.0 _. 6.861.4 -. ---- - 5; 167.6 1; 573. 9 228.6 12.2 ...................... 3.2 6,985.5 

5,094.5 I, 688.8 186.8 26.5 ...................... 3.2 6,999.8 

4,862.2 1,663. 6 183.6 29.3 ...................... 2.8 6,741.5 

4,452.5 1, 921.8 145. 1 28. 1 0.2 0.5 3.2 6, 551. 4 

3.822.0 2.013.0 118.0 20.0 0.2 0. 7 1.9 5.975 R 

3: 547.0 

3; 101.3 

3,071.0 

3,093. 2 

2. 762. 4 

2, 933. 5 

1: 678.4 

1; 512. 3 

1,623.0 

1,407.0 

1; 668.0 

2,032.0 

102.8 

94.8 

55.2 

54. 2 

42. 2 

36. 6 

8.0 ~. ~ 

27.4 

31. 3 

39. 7 

62. 8 

62. 2 

1. i 

1.9 

5. 8 

10. 3 

8. 9 

7. 6 

... 

0.8 

0.8 

1.6 

1. 9 

1. 9 

1. 9 

-. - 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2. 6 

2. 0 

2. 0 

5: 340.5 

4,740.9 

4, 574. 7 

4,824.8 

4,548.2 

5, 075. 8 

1 Excludes amounts for aviation technology. Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

U. S. SPACE BUDGET - NEW OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY 

-Other 

'm Delenre 

BILLIONS OF DOLLARS 

8.0 

9 ticluder mounts lor aviation trthndogy. 

Source: Ollitc 01 Mcnaqtnent and Budget 

130 
APPENDIX F-2 

Space Activities Budget 

fln millions of dollars] 

Ncw obligational authority Expenditures 

1973 1974 1975 1973 1974 1975 

actual estimate estimate actual estimate estimate 

Federal space programs: 

NASA' .............................. 3,093.2 2,762.4 2.933.5 3,069.4 2,888.9 2,962. 8 

Defense .............................. 1,623.0 1,668.0 2,032.0 1,557.0 1,688.0 1,900.0 

AEC ................................ 54. 2 42. 2 36. 6 51. 1 40.1 42. 1 

Commerce. .......................... 39. 7 62. 8 62. 2 29.4 65. 0 66.0 

Int &or .............................. 10. 3 8. 9 7. 6 8. 3 9. 3 7. 9 

NSF ................................. 2. 6 2.0 2.0 2. 3 1. 7 1. 8 

Agriculture. ......................... 1. 9 1. 9 1. 9 1.9 1. 9 1. 9 

Total .............................. 4,824.9 4,548.2 5,075.8 4,719.4 4,694.9 4, 982. 5 

Manned space flight.. ................. 1,538.8 1,413.5 1,530.0 1,537.5 1,479. 1 1,568. 1 

Space science and applications.. ........ 1,092.4 897.7 939. 0 1,063. 6 947.8 936.0 

Space techno1 ..................... 146.5 124. 1 133.5 166.2 141.0 132.6 

Supporting operations. ................ 328.9 364.0 356.4 315.5 357.9 351.5 

Less receipts.. ........................ -13.4 -36.9 -25.4 -13.4 -36.9 -25.4 

NASA: 

Aeronautical tznology ... 313.0 275.6 31 1.2 241.6 288.4 309.7 

~ 

TotalNASA ....................... 3,406.2 3,038.0 3,244.7 3,311.0 3,177.3 3,272. 5 

1 Excludes amounts for Aeronautical Technology. Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

Aeronautics Budget 

[In millions of dollars] 

New obligational authority 

1973 1974 1975 

actual estimate estimate 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

NASA' .................................................................. 313.0 275.6 311.2 

Department of Defense'. .................................................. 1,799.0 1,682.0 1,869.0 

Department of Transportation *. ............................................ 75. 3 73. 6 83.0 

Total .................................................................. 2,187.3 2,031.2 2,263. 2 

1 Research and Development, Research and Program Mana Research, Development. Testing, and Equipment of aircraft 

8 Office of Secretary of Transportation and Federal Aviation 

Source: Ofice of Management and Budget. 

agement, Construction of Facilities. 

and related equipment. 

Administration Research and Development. 

131 

US. WVERNllEM PRINTING OFFICE : I914 w-858