Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1974 Activities 
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Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1 9 74 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
President’s Message of Transmittal 

To the Congress of the United States: 

I am pleased to transmit this report on the activities 

and accomplishments of the United States in aeronautics and space in 1974. This is in accordance with 

Section 206 of the National Aeronautics and Space 

Act of 1958, as amended (42 U.S.C. 2476). 

During 1974, the Nation’s activities in aeronautics 

and space continued to produce significant benefits, 

to experiment with and develop new applications, to 

increase scientific knowledge, and to advance technology. The report shows: 

The use of communications satellites continued 

to expand as a principal method of international 

communications. The first domestic privately 

owned communications satellites opened a new 

dimension in our tele-communications systems. 

Satellites continued to play an essential role in 

national defense activities-in communications, 

navigation, and other fields. Demonstration programs tested the use of satellite systems to improve 

delivery of health and education services. 

Experimental uses of Earth observation satellites 

were tested in crop surveys, pollution monitoring, 

land use planning, water resources management, 

and other fields, Weather satellites continued to 

be our chief source of both global and local 

weather data; a new geostationary satellite began 

continuous observation of weather affecting the 

Western hemisphere. 

The Skylab manned space station mission was successfully completed ; it demonstrated that human 

beings can survive and work well in space for 

months or more at a time and provided a store of 

new scientific and technical data on the Sun, Earth 

resources, medical effects of space flight, and other 

fields. Development of the Space Shuttle progressed 

on schedule, and within costs, toward the goal of 

a versatile reusable vehicle for toutine and 

economical use of space at the end of the decade. 

Joint preparations and training with the Soviet 

Union proceeded for the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz 

manned docking experiment. Cooperative space 

activities with other nations continued on the basis 

of mutual benefits. Development by European 

nations at their expense of the Spacelab for use 

with the Space Shuttle got well underway. 

Exploration of the planets continued with successful missions to Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury. The 

science of astronomy advanced with important new 

observations and discoveries using ground-based, 

high-altitude, and space telescopes. 

In aeronautics good progress was made in developing technology to reduce energy requirements, 

noise, and pollution of civil aircraft. Modernization 

of the air traffic control system continued with the 

introduction of semiautomated equipment for air 

route traffic control. 

Milestones in military aircraft development included the roll-out of the B-1 bomber, delivery of 

the first operational F-15 fighter aircraft, deployment to the fleet of the A-6E all-weather attack 

aircraft, and the successful testing of the new CH53E helicopter. 

Transfer of aeronautical and space technology to 

other fields continued with many beneficial applications in energy, materials, transportation, medical 

care, and other areas. 

I believe that all Americans, and people of all 

nations, can be gratified with the accomplishments 

and the continued progress toward achieving the 

objectives of the National Aeronautics and Space Act 

of 1958 that are comprehensively described in this 

report. 

The WHITE HOUSE, 

Nineteen Hundred an2 Seventy-five. 

iii 
Table 

I. Summrfry of U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities in 1974 _______________________ Introduction ______________________- 

Space ............................. Aeronautics ____________________---- 

11. National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Introduction ________________-__-- -- Applications to Earth ______________- 

Study of Sun-Earth Interactions and Cosmic Processes _____________-____-- 

Exploration of the Planets __________- 

Analysis of Lunar Data _____________- 

Study of Man ...................... Space Transportation _____________-- 

Tracking and Data Acquisition ________ Space and Nuclear Research and Technology __________________________ Aeronautics Research and Technology _- 

International Affairs __________-___--- DissemiFating.Technology and Benefits-- 

University Aflairs ______-____--_----- 

111. Department of Defense __________________ Introduction ....................... Space Activities ..................... Aeronautics ________________________ Aircraft Research and Technology ______ Space Research and Technology ______ Space Ground Support _______-____-- 

International Cooperation ____________ Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board ________________________ IV. Department of Transportation _____________ Introduction ....................... Office of the Secretary Programs _____- 

Aviation Safety Research and Development ............................ Air Traffic Control and Navigation ____ V. Department of Commerce ________________ Introduction ....................... Use of Satellites in Environmental Monitoring and Prediction ________-___-- Other Satellite and Space Applications-- 

Space Support Activities _____________ Atmospheric and Solar Physics _______ Aeronautical Programs _______________ Environmental Data Programs ________ VI. Department of the Interior ________________ Introduction ....................... Space _____________________________ Aeronautics ________________________ International Cooperation ____________ VII. Department of State ..................... Introduction __________________ _____ Activities Within the United Nations ____ International Cooperation ____________ Satellite Services .................... Support to Federal Agencies _ ________ VIII. National Science Foundation ______________ Introduction .................... __ _ Astronomy ___________________ ______ Atmospheric Sciences ________________ U.S. Antarctic Research Program ______ Engineering ___________ _ ____________ Materials Research __________________ Chemistry ______ _______________ ____ Research Applied.to National Needs-_-_ 

Education Activities _________________ IX. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, National Research 

Council _____________________-______- 

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Introduction _____________---____ ___ Aerospace Science ________________--- 

Space Applications _________-____-_-- 

Aerospace Engineering ______________ Education ......................... X. Office of Telecommunications Policy ________ Introduction ______________--____--- 

Aeronautical Satellite Experiment ______ Maritime Mobile Satellite Service _____- 

Proposed Amendment to Communications 

Satellite Act of 1962 __----__---- Direct Broadcast Satellites ____________ Frequency Management ____________-- 

Satellite Launch Insurance ___________ XI. Federal Communications Commission _______ Introduction ____________________--- 

Communications Satellites __________- 

Specialized Satellite Services __________ International Telecommunications Union 

Frequency Allocation and Coordination-- 

XII. The Smithsonian Institution ______________ Introduction ....................... Smithsonian Astrophysical ObservatoryNational Museum of Natural History __ Center for Short-Lived Phenomena ____ National Air and Space Museum ______ XIII. Environmental Protection Agency __________ Introduction _______________________ Orqanization of Remote Sensing Activities ............................. Aircraft Oriented Research and Applications ............................ Space Programs and Applications 

XIV. Atomic Energy Commission _______________ Introduction ....................... Jupiter Spacecraft __________________ Lincoln Experimental Satellite ________ Viking Mars Lander ________________ Mariner/ Jupiter Saturn ______________ Generator Technology _______________ Terrestrial Power ___________________ XV. Department of Agriculture _______________ Introduction _______________-____ __- Remote Sensing Activity _____________ Providing Expertise to Other Nations __ XVI. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ____ XVII. United States Information Agency _________ Introduction .................... ___ Press and Publications _______________ Radio ............................. Motion Pictures and Television ________ Information Centers and Exhibits ______ 

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Appendixes 

U.S. Spacecraft Record ___________________ World Record of Space Launchings Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ______ Successful U.S. Launchings - 1974 ________ US. Applications Satellites, 1970-1974 _____ US.-Launched Scientific Payloads. 1970-1974- 

US.-Launched Space Probes. 1970-1974 ____ History of United States and Soviet Manned 

Space Flights ________________________- 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ______________ Space Activities of the U.S. Government ____ US. Space Budget-New Obligational Authority ............................... Space Activities Budget __________________ Aeronautics Budget ____________________-- 

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V 
Spacecraft Study Matters Vital to Earth 

Life on Earth is dependent on the Sun, interactions between the Sun and Earth, and the changes induced by human activities, Space provides a unique vantage point to study such phenomena. In this sequence we observe the Sun, one region of severe interaction between the Sun and human food supplies, 

and finally how weather factors on one continent influence those on another. 

This Skylab 4 image shows one of the 

most spectacular solar flares ever recorded. 

The flare spans more than 588,000 kilometers (367,000 miles) of the solar surface. 

We need to study the Sun because it is 

our primary source of energy, providing 

us with the heat and light needed for life; 

it influences our weather; and it can affect 

navigation instruments and disrupt radio 

communications. 

The dark area of vegetation (outlined) 

stands out in this Earth Resources Technology-1 (ERTS-1) image of the 

parched, sun-drenched African Sahel 

which forms the border of the Sahara 

desert. The dark area was found to be 

ranchland where grass cover was maintained by controlled grazing. Thus, 

ERTS-1 pictured how encroachment of 

the desert can be slowed by controlled 

grazing. The drought in the Sahel is believed to be due to a change in climateas yet unexplained-that is affecting 

world food supplies. 

Imagery from the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite-1 (SMS-1) shows hot, 

dry, dust-laden air blowing off the Sahara 

desert across the Atlantic. Weather in 

Florida was influenced when the air 

reached there six days later. About half 

of the tropical storms, including hurricanes, originate when hot air from the 

Sahara meets cool air along Africa’s Atlantic coast. 

vi 
I Summary of United States Aeronautics 

and Space Activities in 1974 

Introduction 

In 1974 the U.S. Government activities in aeronautics and space continued to make significant contributions toward the fulfillment of the nation’s goals 

in space and aeronautics, including application of 

space systems and technology to beneficial uses on 

Earth, exploration of space and increase of scientific 

knowledge, development of improved space systems 

and technology, international cooperation, and advancement of civil and military aeronautics. Also in 

1974, space activities in the private sector expanded 

to provide additional services to the public. The 

accomplishments in 1974 are summarized in this 

chapter and described in detail in the following chapters for each of the 16 Federal agencies having activities related to aeronautics and space. 

Space 

In 1974, the United States launched 28 space payloads. Twelve were for Defense purposes and 16 were 

launched by the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA). Of the NASA-launched 

payloads, eight were communication satellites with the 

balance being designed to secure weather, oceanic, 

atmospheric, or astronomi-cal data or to advance 

satellite technology. The majority (nine) of the 

NASA-launched payloads were international in 

character, being launched with, or for, the United 

Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Netherlands. 

Earth Resources and Environment 

During 1974, several Federal departments and 

agencies, as well as many State agencies, universities, 

and private institutions, continued experimentation on 

the use of remotely sensed data from space and aircraft in the study and monitoring of Earth resources 

and the environment. 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) continued its efforts in the development and evaluation 

of aerospace remote sensing technology for use in 

improving its agricultural and forestry programs. This 

involved additional research on the feasibility and 

operational utility of using aerospace-acquired data to 

accomplish more accurate quantitative predictions of 

food and fiber resources, along with better evaluations 

of land productivity; and to monitor changes affecting the total production and quality of our natural 

resources and environment, including man-environment interactions. 

NASA, the USDA, and the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) initiated a 

joint Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment 

(LACIE) to develop and demonstrate the capability 

to inventory wheat from space. The initial phase will 

be directed at the Great Plains wheat-producing region. The results of these investigations may lead to 

demonstrations of the feasibility of utilizing remote 

sensing technology for more accurate and timely 

worldwide inventories of major crops. 

Both NOAA and the Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) continued to use satellite data for 

environmental monitoring. Information on oceanographic and hydrologic conditions in the form of 

analyzed maps depicting sea and lake ice conditions, 

thermal boundaries in the oceans, lakes, and rivers, 

and snow cover estimates in selected river basins was 

disseminated by NOAA to users via National Weather 

Service Facsimile networks. The information in these 

maps was derived from satellite data. Satellite data 

continues to play an important role in pollution 

monitoring, weather modification experiments, and 

meteorological and oceanographic research. 

Satellite imagery, along with appropriate ground 

truth data, was used by the Department of Commerce to monitor urban development, to classify land 

areas, and to make population estimates in the United 

States and selected foreign countries. 

The Department of the Interior participated with 

NASA and other agencies in a wide variety of activities involving remote sensing by aircraft and 

satellites for such uses as land management, preparation of environmental impact statements, and mapping. 

Instrumental to all of these satellite-derived 

advances was the data acquired and transmitted to 

Earth by the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1 

(ERTS-1, redesignated LANDSAT-1 on January 15, 

1 
1975). Designed to last a year, ERTS-1 began its 

third year of operation on July 23, 1974, still providing valuable data for application to improved monitoring and management of Earth’s resources and the’ 

environment. Data from the last Skylab mission, 

which ended early in 1974, also contributed greatly 

to the nation’s capabilities in these disciplines, so 

important to satisfying the growing demands on the 

Earth’s limited resources and the problem of its population’s wastes. 

Meteorology 

During 1974, satellites and aircraft played 

an increasingly important role in the low-cost 

gathering of meteorological data on a large scale. 

During the year, the United States, in cooperation 

with many other nations, made substantial advances 

toward obtaining an understanding of the dynamics 

of global weather and in the development of satellite 

systems to gather and use this knowledge. In time, 

these can lead to accurate long range forecasts with 

potentially vast economic benefits for agriculture, 

construction, transportation, recreation, and other 

industries. 

From June 15 to September 23, the United States 

and 69 other nations monitored virtually every known 

meteorological factor along a 20-million-square-mile 

tropical area of land and sea stretching from the 

eastern Pacific Ocean across Latin America, the 

Atlantic, and Africa to the western Indian Ocean. 

Some 4,000 people using 41 ships, 40 buoys, 12 aircraft, and five United States satellites and one Soviet 

satellite probed from about a mile below the sea 

surface to the top of the atmosphere. Agencies of the 

U.S. participating included the Department of Commerce, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of Transportation, the 

National Science Foundation, and the Department of 

State. 

The study, part of the Global Atmospheric Research 

Program (GARP), is called GATE for GARP 

Atlantic Tropic Experiment. The tropics are believed 

to be a key to Earth‘s weather. Supporting GATE 

was the initial task of NASA’s Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS-1 ) , launched. May 17. 

SMS-I is the prototype of the forthcoming U.S. 

Department of Commerce Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellite (GOES) System. From geostationary orbit, SMS-I maintains a 24-hour weather 

watch on most of the Western Hemisphere, transmitting data to produce a picture every 30 minutes. 

It can also acquire and provide information from 

hundreds of instruments mounted on balloons, stream 

gauges, ocean buoys, merchant ships, and fire, 

weather, agricultural, and seismic stations. It thus 

contributes to our growing capability to provide long 

range weather forecasts and predict climatic changes, 

both of which can contribute to efficient management 

of the nation’s food and fiber resources as well as to 

the alleviation of the worst effects of severe storms. 

Communications 

The application of communications satellite technology was broadened this year to provide vital 

services while keeping down costs. Improved communications through satellites have contributed 

to such wide-ranging areas as education and medical 

care in remote areas and toward increasing safety and 

speeding up day-to-day operations of ships and airliners, activities having large potential economic 

benefits. 

Beginning operations in July 1974, the experimental 

Applications Technology Satellite-6 ( ATS-6) has 

relayed graduate college courses from the University 

of Kentucky to teachers in 15 isolated Appalachian 

communities. It has enabled physicians and other 

health professionals of Veterans Administration hospitals in remote Appalachian regions to attend seminars and obtain medical consultations. This programming has been certified for continuing education 

credit by the American Medical and other professional 

associations. 

The same satellite also was used to provide career 

education to junior high school students in remote 

areas of the Rocky Mountains. In addition, it has 

furnished communications links between medical 

aides in isolated Alaskan villages and physicians in 

regional Alaskan hospitals. This Health, Education 

Tele-communications (HET) experiment is participated in by NASA, the Department of Health, 

Education and Welfare, the Veterans Administration, 

the Federation of Rocky Mountain States, and various 

other organizations. In 1975, ATS-6 will be made 

available to the government of India for telecasting 

of educational programs to thousands of Indian 

villages. 

ATS-6 has also demonstrated the feasibility of high 

quality ship-to-shore communication via satellite. The 

experiment is applicable to aircraft position location 

and other communications. 

The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization has completed a study of a maritime 

satellite system to service merchant fleets at sea. In 

addition, the United States, Canada, and the European Space Research Organization have agreed on a 

program to test the use of satellites for air-traffic communication over the Atlantic. 

The INTELSAT global communications satellite 

system continues to grow in capability and participation. At the end of 1974, it had 86 Earth stations in 

62 countries and a membership of 86 countries. 

Westar 1 and 2, the first two domestic communica2 
tions satellites, were launched by NASA this year 

on a reimbursable basis for Western Union, which is 

using these satellites to provide commercial services. 

The Telesat Canada Anik satellites, launched beginning in 1973, are also being used by commercial U.S. 

organizations for domestic service on an interim basis. 

Additional domestic satellite systems are expected to 

begin operations in 1975 and 1976. 

Space Operations 

Skylab, one of the world’s most productive 

missions in terms of observations on humans, 

the Sun, and the Earth, came to a successful 

conclusion with the safe splashdown and recovery of 

the third manned mission on February 8, 1974. It 

demonstrated that man can perform work in space 

not only to conduct assigned tasks, but to overcome 

severe problems-saving and making “more than successful” a mission that appeared doamed after the 

failure of the Skylab micrometeoroid shield during 

ascent. The results of the Skylab missions show that 

we have not yet found a limit to the time people can 

successfully live and work in space. 

Considering the need for a space rescue capability 

for future manned missions, and as an effort to 

increase international cooperation, the US. and the 

Soviet Union have scheduled a cooperative space 

docking experiment in 1975. During 1974, the two 

nations worked cooperatively preparing for the 1975 

mission. This project will yield much valuable experience on the problems associated with working 

with another nation in space, including those problems related to dissimilar equipment, communications, 

tracking, launch sites, and language. In addition to 

the docking experiments, valuable experiments in 

space processing, pollution monitoring, and other 

areas will be performed by the American astronauts 

participating in the Apollo-Soyuz flight. 

The large scale development effort on the Space 

Shuttle continued to grow in 1974 as design work 

approached completion and the program moved into 

the hardware test and fabrication stages. The Space 

Shuttle is the major element in the new Space Transportation System (STS) designed to reduce the cost 

of both civilian and defense space activities and make 

the full advantages of space available in the 1980’s 

and beyond. 

The STS consists of the Space Shuttle, the Interim 

Upper Stage (IUS) or Space Tug, and the Spacelab. 

The Space Shuttle will provide routine access to 

Earth orbit for placing, repairing, or retrieving satellites and for carrying the Spacelab to provide an opportunity for scientists and technicians to accompany 

and conduct their experiments in space. In 1974, 

NASA awarded the final major contract for the Space 

Shuttle. The Department of Defense will develop the 

IUS. Spacelab is being developed by the European 

Space Research Organization (ESRO) at European 

expense as a component of the Space Transportation 

System. In 1974, ESRO awarded the contract for 

Spacelab development and work has started. This 

European contribution has established a new dimension in US.-European space cooperation. 

Exploration of the Solar System 

,Gathering information of interest to the world, of 

great scientific importance, and of significant relevance to problems we have on Earth, Mariner 10 

(formerly known as Mariner Venus/Mercury ’73) 

early in 1974 flew by Venus and Mercury and provided an immense amount of data, including the first 

close-up pictures of Venus and Mercury. A second 

pass by Mercury occurred on September 21, 1974. A 

remarkable third flyby is scheduled for March 1975. 

Observations of Mercury revealed a lunar-like 

cratered surface, an unexpected faint magnetic field, 

a thin atmosphere, chiefly helium, and surface temperatures ranging from minus 160 degrees Centigrade 

(minus 300 degrees Fahrenheit) on the night side to 

430 degrees Centigrade (800 degrees Fahrenheit) on 

the day side. 

Mariner 10 ultraviolet photographs of Venus show 

vivid cloud bands rotating more than 60 times faster 

than the planet. Other results suggest dense cloud 

layers below the fast moving uppermost cloud deck, 

although no atmospheric storms have been found on 

Venus. Studies of the atmosphere of Venus have 

helped us assess potential problems of the effects of 

pollutants in the Earth’s stratosphere, and are contributing to the analysis and understanding of them. 

On December 3, 1974, Pioneer 11 successfully flew 

within 43,000 kilometers (27,000 miles) of Jupiter, 

survived the planet’s intense radiation, and is now on 

its way to a rendezvous with Saturn in 1979, when it 

may return man’s first closeup view of Saturn and its 

mysterious rings. 

Data gathered by Pioneer 11 have supplemented 

the data obtained by Pioneer 10 (which flew past 

Jupiter in late 1973). The Pioneer 11 encounter was 

three times closer than Pioneer 10, and culminated a 

two-year, billion-kilometer (600,000,000-mile) journey 

from Earth. The spacecraft swept past the giant 

planet at a record speed of more than 160,000 km 

(100,000 mi.) an hour. 

Pioneer 11 flew over Jupiter’s North and South 

Poles, returning spectacular pictures of its turbulent 

cloudtops never before seen with such clarity. The 

apparently placid polar regions showed huge masses 

of air cells, spouting gases like bubbles in boiling 

water, becoming increasingly turbulent away from the 

poles and finally blending into the huge bands of 

colorful streaking gases that girdle the gigantic planet. 

3 
This new Pioneer 11 data will add to the knowledge 

obtained from Pioneer 10, which first gave us a new 

picture of the solar system’s largest planet. Sifting 

through Pioneer 10 data, investigators have concluded that Jupiter is a whirling ball of liquid hydrogen, without any detectable surface. They also suggest 

that the Great Red Spot-a mystery since Galileo 

first turned his telescope on it-is a gigantic hurricane 

which has been raging along a 40,000 km (25,000 

mi.) front for at least 400 years. 

Helios A, launched in December 1974, is a cooperative mission with the Federal Republic of Germany 

which will fly closer to the Sun than any previous 

mission and will provide extensive new data on our 

basic energy source and the sustainer of all life on 

Earth. Using a variety of sensors, Helios will supplement the outstanding data gathered by the Skylab 

Solar Telescope. 

Astronomy 

Using ground-based, rocket, balloon, and 

satellite measurements, research in astronomy, 

supported by NASA, the National Science Foundation, and the Smithsonian Institution, brought new 

discoveries during the year : the first-time verification 

of water molecules in comets, as comet Kohoutek 

streaked through our solar system; a 13th satellite of 

Jupiter; a pylsar that is a member of a double star 

system; and new data on the size and shape of the 

Crab Nebula. Even though Kohoutek did not live up 

to its predicted brightness, the fortuitous timing of it 

with Skylab enabled observations from space that 

greatly increased our knowledge of comets. 

Defense 

Satellites continued to play an essential role 

in our national defense activities. During 1974 significant actions were taken to expand and improve the 

Defense Satellite Communications System to better 

serve the needs of the National Command Authorities 

and the World Wide Military Command and Control 

System. The NAVSTAR global-positioning satellite 

program also advanced significantly during the year. 

Contracts were let for the Phase I satellites and for 

user-equipment development. The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program continued to furnish weather 

data both to the military and to the civil-scientific 

community through NOAA. 

Terrestrial Applications 

In addition to direct applications of space to human 

needs, a strong concerted effort is being made by 

NASA and the other agencies to apply space-derived 

technology directly to terrestrial use in such areas as 

energy, materials, transportation, and health care. 

Examples include solar heating and cooling, more 

4 

efficient automobile engines, and new medical technology. 

Aeronautics 

Federal activities in aeronautics included research 

and development designed to improve civil air transportation, advance military capability, and through 

the export of superior aircraft continue to provide a 

positive input to the US. balance of payments. 

Energy Reduction 

In the civil sector, NASA is conducting 

an aggressive program to reduce energy requirements for aircraft as a part of a broader effort 

to improve aircraft performance and economy. The 

program includes the development of more efficient 

propulsion systems; the reduction of drag by the use 

of novel concepts such as the super-critical wing and 

compliant aircraft skin panels; the reduction of aircraft structural weight through the application of 

lightweight composite materials to aircraft structures ; 

the use of advanced active flight control systems; and 

investigations of the use of alternative fuels such as 

hydrogen and fuels derived from the liquification of 

coal. 

During 1974, flight tests with an F-8 aircraft with 

a NASA-designed supercritical wing demonstrated a 

15 percent increase in range without using any additional fuel. NASA also demonstrated a significant 

reduction in skin-friction drag using compliant aircraft skin concepts. This approach has a potential for 

a 50 percent skin drag reduction. A series of studies 

was initiated to explore opportunities for achieving 

major reductions in fuel consumption for subsonic 

commercial aircraft through improved propulsion 

systems and airframe modifications. Flight evaluation 

of composite wing midsections was begun under a 

NASA-U.S. Air Force program. Results of the. July 

1974 NASA-sponsored symposium on active controls 

indicates that their use to enhance aircraft controllability and reduce structural loads has a potential 

for a 25 percent reduction in aircraft gross takeoff 

weight, with an accompanying reduction in fuel 

requirements. 

Reduction of Environmental Impacts 

A strong continuing effort was maintained by NASA 

and the Department of Transportation to reduce the 

undesirable environmental effects of aircraft. The 

noise-reduction program is concerned with propulsion 

systems, airframe noise, sonic booms, and enhancing 

the airport environment by using modified landing 

approach techniques. A steep approach landing procedure tested last year was further validated this year 

by a United Airlines DC-8 long-range transport 

equipped with a sophisticated navigation system 
modified to accommodate this new procedure under 

mutine scheduled-service conditions. The ground area 

subjected to objectionable noise was reduced about 50 

percent. NASA ground tests of modified JT8D commercial jet engines indicated that the ground area 

affected by objectionable noise from current commercial aircraft using this engine could be reduced by 75 

percent. 

The engine-emission-reduction program is aimed at 

assessing the impact of high-altitude jet aircraft engine exhaust emissions on the stratosphere, and their 

contribution to atmospheric pollution; and on developing and demonstrating clean-engine technology 

to reduce emissions from current and future aircraft 

engines of all classes. During 1974, a United Airlines 

Boeing 747 equipped with an atmospheric-sampling 

instrument package commenced routine service on a 

commercial air route over the United States to 

Hawaii to measure the atmospheric effects of aircraft 

exhaust products along major intercontinental airline 

routes. Phase 1 tests were completed on several combustor concepts in the NASA Clean Combustor technology program, meeting 1979 EPA idle mode emission goals. 

-----The Climatic Impact Assessment Program has fulfilled its congressional commitment by completing a 

three-year comprehensive international collaboration 

and scientific data exchange. Ten major countries including the U.K., France, and USSR, which now fly 

supersonic transports, have participated in this program. The report of findings is complete. Additional 

actions have been identified and some follow-on 

activity initiated. These results will be used as a basis 

for developing regulatory actions to prevent adverse 

environmental impact caused by aircraft operations 

in the stratosphere. 

Air Traffic Control 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

programs have stressed investigations, inhouse and at 

selected universities, relating to airport capacity and 

techniques of improved air traffic control and navigation. The new microwave landing ‘system has been 

completed through Phase I1 of a three-phase development program. 

Modernization of the air traffic control system by 

FAA has continued with the introduction of semiautomated equipment for the air route traffic control 

centers and for the radar terminals. At the end of the 

year, all 61 of the planned Automated Radar Terminal Systems were in operation at the high density 

terminals, and less complex systems are being installed 

at locations with lower levels of aircraft activity. 

A long-term program has been initiated among the 

United States, Canada, and ESRO involving experiments with satellites in geostationary orbits over the 

Atlantic. FAA was designated as the responsible 

United States agency and COMSAT was selected as 

the U.S. contractor to supply and support the satellites. The objective of this joint program is to evaluate 

the use of satellites to enhance communication and 

assist in controlling transatlantic air traffic. 

Safety 

FAA, NASA, and other agencies are involved 

in research and development efforts to improve aircraft safety and increase the chances of survival in 

the event of an accident. During 1974, FAA placed 

particular emphasis on the investigation and development of means to reduce mid-air collisions. NASA’s 

program conducted in cooperation with FAA focused 

on reducing flight accidents through improved inexpensive instrumentation for general aviation aircraft, 

increased safety in terminal-area operations, and increased aircraft and human survivability in case of 

accident. 

During fiscal year 1974, several promising laboratory-developed techniques for minimizing the effect 

that one aircraft’s wake can have on another aircraft 

were flight tested to determine their full-scale performance. Also, a prototype laser doppler system for 

detecting and tracking these wakes near airports so 

that other aircraft can be warned of their locations 

and take appropriate avoidance action began operational evaluation at John F. Kennedy Airport in New 

York. A new tire material which promises longer life 

and improved blowout protection for heavily loaded 

aircraft tires was developed by NASA chemists. A 

new brake compound which reduces brake wear and 

effects of brake heating was also developed and is 

currently being tested. Five full-scale general aviation 

aircraft were crash-tested to provide data for the design of more crashworthy aircraft in the future. NASA 

developed and tested during 1974, both in laboratories 

and full-scale fuselage tests, numerous new fire retardant materials for potential aircraft interior use 

which, in the event an aircraft should experience an 

in-flight or post-crash fire, could increase escape and 

survival time for passengers and crew. 

Although these and other developments from the 

aviation safety program are intended primarily for 

aircraft use, many of these developments, such as the 

advanced tire, brake, and fire-retardant materials, 

can play a significant role in enhancing the safety of 

other modes of transportation. 

Research on Future Air Transportation 

A significant part of NASA’s aeronautics program 

continued to be addressed to advancing short haul, 

Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL), and Vertical 

Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) concepts to meet the 

specialized needs of the civil air transportation system 

i 5 
and the military services in the 1980’s. The program 

includes the development of puropulsive-lift aircraft 

technology, tilt-rotor aircraft technology, and advanced rotor-craft technology. Avionics and operating 

procedures technology are being developed for navigation, guidance, and control of both short-haul and 

conventional aircraft in the 1980’s environment. 

Defeme 

Development of advanced aeronautical technology 

suitable for future military systems is a major goal 

of both DOD and NASA. Joint efforts in research, 

development, and test of experimental and prototype 

aircraft produced significant progress in 1974 toward 

the goal of achieving advanced systems of superior 

capability. 

In 1974, the development of the A-10 Close Air 

Support Aircraft continued on schedule with over 

1000 flight test hours being accumulated on the two 

prototype aircraft. Rollout of the Air Force B-1 

bomber, under development since 1970, occurred in 

October and its first flight successfully took place in 

December. The A-6E All-Weather Attack Aircraft 

has been deployed to the U.S. Sixth Fleet, and is 

ready for deployment to the U.S. Seventh Fleet. The 

first two squadrons of the F-14 Carrier-Based Tactical 

Fighter were deployed on the USS Enterprise in 

September. The Navy has defined the requirements 

for a carrier-based strike fighter aircraft (NACF) 

which will complement the F-14 in maintaining maritime air superiority and beachhead air defense in the 

early 1980’s. The Air Force F-15 Advanced Tactical 

Fighter continues on schedule, the first operational 

aircraft being delivered to Tactical Air Command in 

November 1974. Plans are underway to modify a 

significant number of the newer F-4’s to incorporate 

the advanced Wild Weasel avionics system for use in 

search and destruction of hostile radar systems. The 

Air Force Lightweight Fighter Program will commence full scale development after source selection in 

early 1975, following the 1974 flight evaluation of 

prototypes. 

The Utility Tactical Aircraft System (UTTAS) 

will be the Army’s first assault helicopter capable of 

carrying a combat-equipped infantry squad. Prototypes by two manufacturers will participate in a competitive fly-off during 1975-76. The widely used H-53 

series helicopter has had its payload more than 

doubled (to over 16 tons) by the incorporation of a 

third engine in the new CH-53E. By the end of 1974, 

the first two prototype CH-53E’s successfully accumulated well over 100 flight hours. First flight of the 

Advanced Attack Helicopter, being developed competitively, is scheduled for the Spring of 1975. 

Initial deployment of the E-2C Carrier-Based Airborne Warning and Control System took place in 

September 1974. The E-3A Airborne Warning and 

Control System (AWACS) underwent a Systems 

Integration Demonstration from March through October 1974, as an aid to making a production decision. 

AS of the end of 1974, a total of three 747 aircraft 

had been accepted by the Air Force for modification 

as E-4A interim National Emergency Airborne Command Posts. 

The remote-piloted-vehicle (RPV) concept advanced substantially this past year through the use of 

very reliable and miniature electronic devices and 

more efficient configuration design. The RPV is unmanned, being flown by a pilot from a cockpit on the 

ground. This economical approach permits extendedflight-duration missions and releases personnel not 

only from tedious flights but from highly dangerous 

missions. RPV’s also offer substantial savings for 

research and development through the use of scale 

models in place of more expensive full-sized aircraft. 

A major success of the Army’s aeronautical propulsion research and exploratory development program 

has been the development of efficient analytical methods for the design of small high-temperature combustors. Tests of the technique indicate a tremendous 

potential for weight reduction and lower emissions for 

this class of aircraft propulsion engines. 

The NASA-U.S. Army Rotor Systems Research Aircraft program to test promising new rotor systems 

under actual flight conditions entered the initial fabrication phase with delivery scheduled for 1977. The 

NASA-U.S. Army Tilt-Rotor Research Aircraft program also reached the fabrication phase, with delivery 

of two craft expected late in 1975. 

A Proximity Warning System to prevent aircraft 

collisions will soon become a reality at four major 

installations where the Army has its greatest concentration of aircraft. 

6 
11 

Introduction 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the civilian agency established by the 

National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 to plan, 

direct and conduct aeronautical and space research 

and exploration activities. Under the basic policy 

objective that activities in space shall be devoted to 

peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind, 

NASA’s statutory goals include the expansion of human knowledge of phenomena in the atmosphere and 

space; development and operation of aeronautical 

and space vehicles and equipment; discovery and 

application of potential benefits of space activities; 

preservation of US. leadership in aeronautics and 

space science, technology, and applications ; and COoperation with other nations on peaceful applications. 

In NASA’s early years, the focus of the space 

program was on the development of the technology 

required for space operations and on broad questions 

of space science, applications, and operations. In 

science, NASA began with the exploration of space 

around the Earth, then expanded its inquiry to determine the general nature of the Sun, Moon, solar 

system, and universe. Experimental communications 

and weather satellites demonstrated the feasibility of 

using space to improve critical services needed by 

modern society. The ability of man to live and perform useful work in space was demonstrated by a 

series of manned space flight programs of increasing 

complexity, duration, and productivity, culminating 

in the Apollo missions to the Moon and the Skylab 

.experimental space station. 

As experience and knowledge have accumulated, 

NASA has identified a growing number of Earthoriented space applications, and non-space applications for space-developed technology. Its scientific 

inquiries are now focused not only on important 

scientific questions but also more directly on scientific 

questions related to urgent human needs back on 

Earth. Space operations have become almost routine 

and NASA’s technology advances are now directed 

at reducing the cost of space operations as well as 

developing new capabilities for the future. 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

In space applications we are no longer just examin 

ing if certain things can be done, but are engaging in 

experimental demonstrations of practical uses having 

significant potential benefits. Experimental satellites 

are being used to demonstrate the use of satellite 

communications systems for education and health care 

purposes. Other experimental satellites are showing 

how to acquire and use various forms of remotely 

sensed data for mapping, inventorying, and monitoring Earth resources and atmospheric pollution. 

In space science we are now asking more specific 

questions. For example, NASA is looking at the detailed structure of the Sun from space, seeking to 

understand better its energy processes, and the sunspots, flares, prominences, and other solar phenomena 

that interact with the Earth’s atmosphere to affect 

our weather, climate, ecology, harvests, atmospheric 

pollution processes, and radio communications. 

In planning the exploration of other planets, NASA 

is emphasizing studies of their atmospheric processes, 

geological formations, mineralization, and other factors that will aid us to understand better our own 

planet, the Earth. Investigators of distant stars are 

studying newly discovered energy sources so powerful 

that they are unexplained by present knowledge. Discovery of the physical Jaws that will unlock their 

secrets could eventually transform mankind’s future 

here on Earth. 

Space operations are a going business, much of 

which is directed at the routine employment of space 

flight capability to conduct scientific and applications 

programs. More than half of NASA’s launches in 

1974 were reimbursable launches paid for by commercial, other federa! or foreign users of space. 

In space technology, the Space Shuttle, NASA’s 

largest project in the 1970’s, is under development 

to provide the Space Transportation System for the 

1980’s for launch and recovery of science and applications payloads and the conduct of laboratory operations in space utilizing the Spacelab being developed 

by the European Space Research Organization. Besides opening up a whole range of new possibilities in 

space, the Shuttle is designed to permit the conduct 

of space missions at lower cost. 

t 

7 
NASA’s current space objectives, toward which its 

Pioneer and stimulate the employment of new 

space applications in such areas as meteorology, 

communications, Earth resources survey, pollution monitoring, navigation, space processing, 

and data collection and management. 

Provide launch services for a growing list of 

commercial users, other civilian federal agencies, 

and foreign nations. 

Assist federal, state, and local agencies and US. 

industry and small business in applying spacedeveloped knowledge and technology directly to 

terrestrial civil applications in such areas as 

energy, medical technology, transportation, materials, remote delivery of education and medical 

care, and pollution-control technology. 

Explore the solar system to understand the formation and nature of other planets, which can help 

us better understand the dynamics and structure 

of the Earth and its atmosphere, and learn more 

about its resources and how to preserve its environment. 

Improve our understanding of the Earth-Sun 

interactions that affect almost every aspect of 

our existence. 

Seek to discover the nature of cosmic processes 

that can be of benefit to mankind. 

Use the unique environment of space to study 

the adaptive biological processes of humans and 

other living organisms, both to prepare for 

broader future participation in manned space ).. 

flight and to develop medical understanding and 

techniques for use on Earth. 

Continue the search for evidences of the existence 

of life on other planets and elsewhere in the universe in order to gain new insights into the nature of life itself and into fundamental philosophical questions of man’s place in the universe. 

Develop the Space Shuttle system within the 

projected cat estimates to provide an improved 

and economical means of conducting all space 

operations in the 1980’s. 

Seek to reduce the cost of space activities ge‘nerally by studying lower cost approaches and 

applying advanced technology to reduce the 

cost of payloads and equipment. 

Support United States policy in seeking better 

relations with the Soviet Union through the 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project-a joint docking 

mission in 1975. 

Cooperate with other nations generally in space 

activities on the basis of mutual interests, without the exchange of funds. 

In aeronautics, NASA serves as the principal agency 

for aeronautical research and technology for both 

activities in 1974 were directed, include to: 

c 

civil and military aviation. NASA’s basic goal in aeronautics is to provide US. industry and the Department of Defense with advanced concepts and technology which will enable them to maintain the superiority of our aircraft over any competitor. On the 

civil side, technological advance is essential to preserve our position in aircraft exports, one of the 

major positive contributors to our balance of payments. On the military side, technological superiority is essential to an effective defense posture. 

For civil aviation, the emphasis of NASA’s continuing work in aeronautical research is on the technology required for improved, more efficient, more 

convenient, safer transportation, with special focus 

on reducing energy consumption and minimizing environmental impact. For military aviation, the emphasis is on improved performance and the specialized 

technological requirements of each of the military 

services. 

NASA’s current objectives in aeronautical research 

and technology, to which its activities were directed 

in 1974, include: 

Reduce the energy requirements of current and 

future aircraft and concurrently seek to improve 

their performance and economy of operations. 

Reduce noise, pollution, and other undesirable 

environmental effects of aircraft. 

Improve aircraft safety and operations through 

the application of advances in space and aeronautical technology. 

Advance the technology and explore new systems 

concepts for improved short haul, short takeoff 

and landing, and vertical takeoff aircraft. 

Continue to provide research and technical support to the aeronautical development programs 

of the military services. 

This chapter summarizes NASA’s 1974 activities 

in space, aeronautics, and the applications of aerospace technology. 

Applications to Earth 

The primary objective of NASA’s applications 

program is to employ space and its technologies to 

help in the solution of problems here on Earth. Applications programs employ remote sensing to conduct observations in Earth Resources Survey, Pollution Monitoring, Weather and Climate, and Earth 

and Ocean Physics. Space observations are already 

finding use at local and national levels, here and 

abroad, for such activities as weather forecasting, 

crop estimation, land-use determination, mapping, 

mineral exploration, resource determination, environmental monitoring, and hydrological management. 

Other program areas utilizing space systems and related technology to increase man’s ability to deal 

with problems amenable to technological solutions 

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are Communications, Material Processing in Space, 

Technology Applications, and energy-related activities. 

The program areas listed above and NASA activities to aid users in their application are individually 

reported upon in this section. 

Earth Resources Survey 

The Earth Resources Survey Program involves the 

application of space or space-related remote sensing 

systems to the measuring and monitoring of parameters associated with agriculture, forestry, minerology, marine and inland water resources, cartography, land use and urban development, and geology. 

The experiments conducted within this program are 

designed to explore the technology that could permit, 

on an operational basis, the measurement, monitoring, 

and eventually management of the world’s resources 

including food, fiber, timber, and water; the identification and the utilization of other resources, such as 

minerals and fossil fuels; and the wise planning for 

use of arable and habitable lands. 

During 1974, the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS-1, now known as LANDSAT-1) 

continued to acquire much new data on resources’ 

parameters and these data, along with extensive data 

from the Earth Resources Experiment Package carried on Skylab and those from the Earth Observations Aircraft Program, were used to further our 

measurement and monitoring capability. Planning 

for the initiation of new experimental and demonstration programs was continued. 

Earth Resources Technology Satellites.-ERTS- 1 , launched July 23, 1972, has been a successful experimental mission and has provided data for more than 

300 specific investigations. The data returned from 

ERTS-1 have proven to be of exceptional quality, 

and some of the applications that have been identified from the investigations are summarized below. 

Agriculture investigation results indicate that use 

of ERTS-1 technology could result in more timely 

estimates of crop production and yield. 

Land use inventory data obtained from ERTS-1 

have been incorporated into some existing state and 

regional land use information management systems 

and have provided valuable updates of these systems. 

In water resources, numerical water distribution 

models have been implemented by the U.S. Geological Survey in South Florida. These models combine data on the area of surface water from ERTS-1 

imagery with data on water level obtained from 

ground measurements relayed to ERTS-1 by Data 

Collection Platforms, providing accurate and economical estimates of ground water available for irrigation and urban use. ERTS-1 data have also been 

utilized in the accurate prediction and management 

of water coming from snowmelt. These predictions 

are particularly important in the Western United 

States where small increases in the accuracy of runoff predictions may have significant economic benefits. 

In the coastal zones, ERTS data have been used 

to map variations in current circulation patterns and 

to infer sand transport due to offshore currents off the 

coast of California; to provide information on water 

circulation patterns within the Delaware Bay; and to 

reveal unexpected circulation patterns in the northern 

portion of Cook Inlet, Alaska. 

SKYLAB/EREP.-The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) , which was flown on Skylab, 

included a complement of six advanced photographic and electronic sensors which acquired data in 

the visible, infrared, and microwave portions of the 

electromagnetic spectrum. These sensors were flown 

to gain information for the design of future automated systems and to explore the feasibility of using 

data with increased spatial resolution and data in 

other spectral bands such as in the microwave region for resource survey studies. These data will be 

correlated with information obtained about selected 

ground sites from aircraft and/or from on-site 

measurements. Particular emphasis is being placed 

on validating the utility of spectral signature identification from orbital altitudes. Investigations are 

being conducted in the areas of agriculture, range and 

forestry, geology, water resources, coastal zones, land 

use planning, and cartography. 

Applications Demonstrations.-As a result of 

NASA’s success in its remote sensing research programs, several experimental demonstrations of remote sensing capabilities are being planned. These 

programs are major efforts designed to demonstrate 

and transfer developed and proven technology to 

operational user agencies. They are designed to serve 

as the transition from the R&D remote sensing system to the operational system. 

Presently planned demonstrations include: ( 1) a 

capability to inventory crops, (2) a system to extend the shipping season in the Great Lakes through 

ice monitoring, (3) the capability to generate or update environmental maps of a (predominantly) wetlands area, and (4) an automated natural resources 

system oriented to state or regional use. 

Earth Observations Aircraft Program.-In 1974 

the emphasis in the Earth Observations Aircraft Program shifted from obtaining complementary remote 

sensing data for the support of satellite missions to 

an integral part of NASA and interagency applications research and demonstration projects. The aircraft program now supports activities in meteorology, 

environmental quality, and earth and ocean physics 

research tasks in addition to those of Earth resources 

. 
survey which dominated flight activity in previous 

years. The primary objectives of the program continue to relate to the identification and development 

of sensors for future space missions, and the development of remote sensing and analytical techniques. 

During 1974 NASA operated one of the aircraft in 

support of other agency programs to measure pollutants and climatic impacts associated with the stratosphere. Also, another aircraft supported the Global 

Atmospheric Research Program’s Atlantic Tropical 

Experiment. These activities are described in the 

following sections. 

Pollution Monitoring 

1974 marked the second year of existence of 

NASA’s Pollution Monitoring Program as an entity. 

This program is aimed at developing and demonstrating the technology needed to monitor parameters associated with the pollution of the atmosphere and the waters of the earth. This technology 

is expected to contribute to an eventual national capability for operational systems capable of continually 

monitoring the environment and helping to maintain 

an acceptable environmental quality. 

Oceanographic and Air Pollution Observing Satellite.-The Nimbus G Oceanographic and Air Pollution Observing Satellite planned for launch in 

1978 is a major focus of the program; its nine experiments are designed to provide data on air and 

water pollution, oceanography, the atmosphere/ 

ocean interface, and the Earth’s energy balance. Although serving as a technology demonstration program, Nimbus G marks a first step towards eventual 

operational monitoring on regional? national, and 

global scales. Procurement for the design and construction of the spacecraft and associated experiments is underway. 

In May, a successful major prototype demonstration test was conducted for the Lower Atmosphere 

Composition and Temperature Experiment designed 

to measure vertical profiles of trace stratospheric constituents on a global scale. A successful test, conducted 

under the Advanced Applications Flight Experiment 

(AAFE) Program, obtained data over a five-hour period on atmospheric constituents between 36 and 42 

kilometers (22.6 and 26 miles). It was supported by 

15 simultaneous correlation experiments using balloons, rockets, and aircraft-borne remote and in situ 

experiments as well as ground-based observations. 

Several universities, the Department of Transportation, the Department of Defense, and the National 

Center for Atmospheric Research participated. 

High Altitude Atmospheric (Stratospheric) Monitoring.-Emphasis in stratospheric research is increasing, both to establish a national baseline of 

stratospheric structure and composition and to monitor possible changes in stratospheric conditions resulting from natural phenomena and man’s activities. 

Stratospheric processes are especially important because of their influence upon atmospheric temperatures and solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface. 

Data from high altitude (20 kilometers; 12.6 

miles) aircraft surveys have indicated baseline upper 

atmosphere particle densities of about 15 particles/ 

cm3? varying by a factor of two to three on a day-today basis. Up to 80% of the particles are in the 

size range of less than 0.1 micron diameter and are 

of sulfate origin. Flights to the north polar regions 

mark the beginning of quasi-hemispherical surveys 

of ozone, nitric oxide, and aerosols to determine regional variations. Recent transfer of an Air Force 

WB-57F aircraft to NASA, for use in support of the 

Department of Transportation’s Climatic Impact 

Assessment Program and the NASA stratospheric research program, will enhance the capability for determining the baseline stratosphere and studying the 

effects of both natural and man-derived pollutants. 

Low Altitude Atmospheric (Tropospheric) Monitoring.-Recent aircraft flights of two different carbon monoxide remote monitors in the Washington, 

D.C. area marked the initiation of a program to 

define the capability of remote sensors for satisfying 

urban/regional scale monitoring needs. Initial 

studies will concentrate on carbon monoxide and 

sulfur dioxide to support national requirements for 

ambient air monitoring of these pollutants. Remote 

sensor measurements, supported by computer models 

and in situ ground-truth measurements, are expected 

to demonstrate the capabilities of an integrated 

urban/regional system by 1980. 

Water Pollution Monitoring.-Algae serve as biological indicators of water quality because of their 

response to nutrients (growth) or to toxic substances 

(disappearance) . Remote measurement of algae 

bloom concentrations, distributions, and possibly 

algae type have been demonstrated through the use 

of infrared photography, multispectral scanners, and 

active laser systems. Continued analysis of studies in 

the upper Potomac River, in cooperation with the 

Environmental Protection Agency, have demonstrated the capability of making detailed maps of 

algae blooms with concentrations as low as about 

30 micrograms per quart (or liter). Multispectral 

scanner studies of Clear Lake-a highly fertile lake 

in California-have shown highly complex algae 

distributions with distinctive spectral signatures apparently related to algae type. Research continues 

with a four-color laser system optimized to detect 

fluorescence from the red, golden, brown, green, and 

blue-green groups of algae. 
Weather ad Climate 

The Weather and Climate program has the longest history among U.S. programs to apply space 

techniques. These activities are primarily directed 

toward improving the accuracy of both the short and 

long-term weather forecasting. 

Within the Weather and Climate program, basic 

and applied research is conducted to support spacerelated experiments, satellite development, and operations of the National Weather Program. Activities 

also include the development and demonstration of 

new sensing techniques and atmospheric modeling 

techniques in support of the Global Atmospheric 

Research Program (GARP) . During 1974 the first 

Synchronous Meteorological Satellite ( SMS) was 

launched and made significant contributions to the 

acquisition of near-continuous cloud cover imagery 

of the Western Hemisphere. SMS was a major component of the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment 

described below. 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) .- The GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) 

is a highly successful international atmospheric research experiment to gather data to contribute to 

the understanding of the behavior of the tropical 

atmosphere and its ultimate effect on global weather. 

The experiment began during the summer of 1974 

and lasted 101 days. In this first large-scale international GARP experiment, NASA participated 

through data collection by the ship VANGUARD, 

a CV-990 aircraft, a direct-readout ground station, 

and the meteorological satellites, SMS-1, ATS-3, 

and Nimbus-5. 

A second principal GARP activity was the May 

1974 Data Systems Test (DST) ; primary responsibility was assigned to NASA for the DST, which 

produced the first real-time global data set. The 

observation system consisted of the Nimbus-5 atmospheric sounders, the operational satellite NOAA3, ATS-3, and the conventional network of surface, 

upper-air, and aircraft observations. Processing of 

satellite sounding data from Nimbus-5 and procedures for determining wind fields from cloud-track 

images obtained by geostationary satellites highlighted the DST. 

The DST provided a simulation of the observing 

data collection and data-processing system concepts 

and procedures under consideration for the First 

GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) currently planned for 1977-79. Further testing is planned for 1975 

following the launch of Nimbus F. FGGE will concentrate efforts to utilize collected data in attaining 

the following goals: ( 1) A more realistic atmospheric 

model for extended range forecasting, general circulation changes, and climate prediction, (2) assessment of the practical limits of weather systems 

predictability, (3) deve!.opment of more efficient 

methods for assimilation of meteorological observations, and, in particular, usage of non-synoptic data 

as a basis for predicting large-scale atmospheric motions, and (4) design of an optimum composite 

meteorological observing system for numerical 

weather prediction of general circulation features. 

Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) Program.-SMS-1 was launched into a geostationary 

orbit during May 1974. The Visible and Infrared 

Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) aboard offers fullEarth disk pictures of the Western Hemisphere every 

30 minutes during the day or night. The VISSR has 

the capability of a visible-range resolution of about 

0.56 miles (0.9 kilomters) and an infrared resolution 

of 5.6 miles (9 kilometers). The acquisition of such 

high-resolution data at frequent intervals in realtime will contribute significantly to efforts of identify. 

ing, monitoring, and tracking severe weather phenomena such as hurricanes and atmospheric conditions 

conducive to tornado formation. This added observational tool should aid short-range forecasting and 

promote more timely issuing of weather and disaster 

warnings. SMS-1 and SMS-B (to be launched in 

1975) will comprise, in part, a geostationary satellite 

system which can fulfill the NOAA requirements for 

the National Operational Environmental Satellite 

System. 

ATS4.-Although this is primarily a communications satellite, its launch in May of 1974 marked it 

as the first geostationary three-axis stabilized satellite. 

Such stabilization ability will be of major importance 

in future geostationary Earth-oriented spacecraft because of the greater viewing time thereby afforded. 

The Geosynchronous Very High Resolution Radiometer aboard ATS-6 was designed to derive cloudtracked winds and sea-surface temperatures in support of GARP as well as measure reflected solarenergy and emitted infrared energy. This instrument 

produced about 600 very high quality color images 

before it was disabled due to a component failure. 

Earth and Ocean Physics Applications 

During 1974, the Earth and Ocean Physics Applications Program continued its ground-based and 

flight activities in support of its primary goal, which 

is to identify, develop, and demonstrate relevant 

space techniques that may contribute significantly to 

the development and validation of predictive models 

for earthquake hazard alleviation, ocean-surface 

conditions, and ocean circulation. 

GEOS-C, the Geodynamic Experimental Ocean 

Satellite is proceeding to launch readiness in March 

of 1975. Data from this program is expected to vali5'15466 0 - '15 - 2 

11 
date the use of a radar altimeter for measurement 

of the ocean geoid, as well as to provide accurate information on wave height and sea state. 

Two new projects were defined as part of the 

Earth and Ocean Physics Program in 1974. These 

are the Tectonic Plate Motion and SEASAT-A projects. The former is concerned with the physical 

motions of the Tectonic plates which make up the 

surface of the Earth while the latter is designed to 

acquire data on ocean dynamics. Both will contribute 

to a better understanding of Earth and ocean 

processes and their effect upon the environment in 

which we live. 

Communications 

NASA has long been active in programs to develop 

the technologies for utilization of space systems in 

communications systems of vastly increased capability. A major segment of the communications industry, including established firms, new quasigovernmental corporations, and international organizations, is heavily involved in space communications. 

The world-wide need for improved communications 

received added impetus. During 1974, a number of 

countries moved ahead with planning for communications satellite services. The United States will be 

a major supplier of subsystems, spacecraft, launch 

services, and ground-station equipment. Continuing 

our commitment to launch commercial communication satellites for international services on a reimbursable basis, another INTELSAT IV was launched 

on November 21, 1974, and additional launches are 

expected in 1975. 

There was continued growth in domestic commercial communications satellite activities, as Western Union inaugurated its domestic satellite service. 

NASA provided launch services for Western Union’s 

Westar A in April and Westar B in October 1974, 

on a reimbursable basis. RCA is continuing development and construction of satellites for its domestic 

system and anticipates a first launch in 1975. The 

American Satellite Corporation is leasing capacity on 

the Canadian communications satellite ANJK pending a decision to launch its own. The Comsat Corporation’s Maritime Satellite-MARISAT-neared 

completion in 1974 and a launch is planned for 1975. 

The result was a favorable outlook for growth 

in domestic telecommunications industry. In planning for the growth of existing services and the 

inclusion of new services over the next 10 to 15 

years, NASA is assisting in preparations for the World 

Administrative Radio Conferences in 1977 and 1979. 

In May 1974, NASA successfully launched the 

sixth in its series of Applications Technology Satellites (ATS-6) . This spacecraft, employing the most 

powerful and versatile communications systems 

launched in the series to date, has been employed 

in experiments in the use of satellites for health and 

education communications to remote areas. 

With the launch of the ATS-6, NASA’s activities in 

communications research and development are being 

refocused toward exploring more advanced elements 

of this technology, with further application of already 

developed technology being left to the private satellite 

and communications industry. 

Applications Technology Satellite.-The Applications Technology Satellite 6 (ATS-6), the most 

versatile and powerful communications satellite yet 

developed, was successfully launched into synchronous orbit May 30, 1974. This satellite is distinguished by its 30-foot parabolic reflector antenna 

which can relay high quality signals, such as instructional color television, to small, inexpensive 

ground terminals. At the end of the first month of 

flight, all systems had been successfully evaluated 

with very few anomalies encountered, and the 

spacecraft was declared operational. 

ATS-6 contains a total of 23 experiments covering 

a wide variety of useful applications and new techniques. One very important applications experiment 

explores continuous voice communication with and 

position determination for ships and airplanes in 

trans-oceanic travel. There arc also experiments to 

investigate characteristics of newly allocated radio 

frequencies being considered for future communications use and to determine the power density levels, 

frequency distribution, and geographical location of 

sources of interference to presently used satellite 

communications frequencies. There is also an experiment to demonstrate a ground-based equipment approach to reducing the cost and complexity of controlling satellites and achieving a measure of commonality between satellites to reduce development 

costs. There are other experiments in day-night cloudcover imagery and several experiments in space 

science. All of these have performed satisfactorily. 

The satellite mission was formally declared a success 

on September 25, 1974. 

The ATS-6 Health, Education Telecommunications (HET) experiment, which investigates the 

practicability of satellites for broadcasting educational and health information to people in remote 

or isolated areas, began operations in July 1974 with 

the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) and 

the Veterans Administration (VA) components. The 

ARC components provided two summer courses for 

graduate college credit, relayed through ATS-6 from 

the University of Kentucky at Lexington, to teachers in 15 isolated Appalachian locations. 

During these courses, the participants were able 

to initiate inquiries and provide responses to test 

questions through a spacecraft launched earlier, 

12 
ATSS. Additional college credit courses with interactive capability will continue throughout the current academic year. The VA component of HET 

provide seminars and medical consultation for 

physicians and health professionals at 11 VA hospitals. This programming is certified for health professions continuing education credit by the American 

Medical Association. The Rocky Mountain component of HET started career education instructional 

television in September. As with tKe Appalachian 

component of HET, some of the reception terminals 

are equipped to utilize ATS-3 for interaction between participating junior high school students and 

instructors in Denver, Colorado. The Alaskan health 

component of HET, which experiments with provision of improved health care to isolated Alaskan 

villages, also started operation in September. In this 

component, audio and video medical data and teleconferencing can be transmitted between medical 

aides at remote locations and physicians located in 

regional hospitals in Alaska and at the University of 

Washington's School of Medicine. 

Following the experiments in the United States, 

it is planned to move the ATS-6 satellite from the 

United States to India to support a Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) to be conducted by the Indian Government. Instructional 

television programs are planned to be provided to 

about 5,000 Indian Villages, 2,000 of them by direct 

broadcast to individual receivers. The Indian ground 

station is completed and ready for the SITE experiment. Television program production is underway 

and production of television receivers to serve the 

village sites is accelerating. In July 1976, following 

completion of SITE experiments, ATS-6 is planned 

to be moved back to the United States for additional 

experiments. 

Communications Technology Satellite (CTS) .- The Communications Technology Satellite is a joint 

development of the Canadian Department of Communications and NASA. This experimental satellite 

will be launched near the end of 1975 and is planned 

to begin experimental broadcasting to small low-cost 

terminals. This spacecraft pioneers the use of the 

12 GHz frequency allocation which has been set 

aside for broadcast satellites. The United States is 

providing the super-efficient 200 watt output Transmitter Experiment Package for the satellite and the 

Thor/Delta launch vehicle. The United States will 

perform environmental testing and launch of the 

Canadian-developed spacecraft. During 1974 solutions were developed for problems associated with 

operating the Transmitter Experiment Package in a 

space environment. An engineering model of this 

package was delivered to Canada and integrated with 

the Canadian spacecraft. With the CTS in geostationary orbit in view of the United States and Canada, NASA and the Canadian Department plan to 

conduct numerous communications experiments, sharing time on the spacecraft equally. Experiments to 

be performed range over a wide variety of potentially 

beneficial satellite applications. Included are experiments related to educational and health services to 

remote areas of the country and interchange of unive'rsity ' curricula. In addition, scientific experiments 

associated with the transmission of digital television 

will be performed. In 1974 coordination with Canada 

and preparations for the launch continued. 

Advanced Communications Research and Technical Consultation Services.-In 1974, emphasis was 

placed on conducting research needed to explore the 

higher regions of the radio frequency spectrum. 

Studies continued on frequency allocation and bandwidth and orbit requirements for future applications 

missions. Studies and investigations to open up new 

regions of the spectrum for applications research 

were continued as were efforts to develop or improve 

space systems components and technologies to facilitate increased efficiency in use of the geostationary 

orbit. Much of this effort is stimulated by increased 

crowding of the radio frequency spectrum and is 

designed to discover methods of alleviation. Technical consultation to the Federal Communications 

Commission, in the form of satellite systems evaluations, continued to expand as more and more new 

applications for domestic and international satellite 

services were filed. This consisted of numerous satellite system evaluations for the FCC. Spacecraft design reviews for INTELSAT and the United States 

domestic communications satellite applicants continued. 

A major effort in 1974 involved the beginning of 

preparations for the World Administrative Radio 

Conferences to be held in 1977 and 1979. In this 

work NASA provides technical support to the Federal Communications Commission, the Office of 

Telecommunications Policy, and the Department of 

State, as they prepare the United States position for 

these two world conferences. 

Data Collection Via Satellite.-Expansion of data 

collection activities using spacecraft continued in 

1974. Interest in the use of Earth-based sensors to be 

interrogated by satellites continues to cxpand. Installation of a read-out station for data-collection platforms in the Gulf Coast region of the United States 

was initiated at the National Space Technology 

Laboratories in Mississippi. 

Disaster Warning System.-In response to a request from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , a comparative study 

13 
of ground-based and satellite-based communications 

segments of a national disaster warning system was 

conducted. The concept would make it possible to 

transmit real-time warning alerts into U.S. homes, 

businesses, and institutions and providing communications links between ground-based components of the 

natural disaster control system. 

Data Management.-In 1974, NASA initiated a 

concentrated effort in data management. The intent 

is to devise techniques to reduce costs and improve 

efficiency in handling experimental data and information. The objective of this effort was to define 

optimized data systems to satisfy identifiable needs 

of data users and to improve performance and reduce 

costs of components used in sensor data formatting, 

processing, storage, and dissemination. The improved 

and optimized components, in turn, are planned to be 

integrated into an optimized overall system. Initially 

addressing only the data and information activities 

associated with Applications programs, it is envisioned 

that in time these new techniques will be employed 

elsewhere in NASA and in other data management 

programs. 

Space Processing 

Space Processing Applications has as its primary 

goal the identification, development, and demonstration of processing techniques that are designed to take 

advantage of the unique qualities of the space environment to produce materials which might be more 

economical to process in space or impossible to produce on Earth, but which could be of great value 

if available. 

Research begun in 1973 was continued in order 

to further analyze the results of Skylab and to develop concepts for new processes. On November 4, 

1974, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

presented President Ford with a crystal of indium 

antimonide that was grown aboard Skylab in January 1974 as part of the space-processing experiments 

on the Skylab missions. An example of the potential 

in space processing, this crystal was the purist and 

longest yet produced by man. Such crystals could 

make feasible substantial reductions in the size of the 

components in computers, television sets, and other 

electronic devices. 

Non-Space Applications of Space Techlzology 

( Technology Applicatiolzs ) 

Many of the problems and difficulties facing the 

nation today in areas such as housing, transportation, 

public safety, and pollution control could be reduced 

or eliminated by new technological developments. 

Toward this goal, NASA, through its Technology 

Applications program, is bringing together teams of 

experienced scientists and engineers to work with 

other federal agencies, state, and local governments 

in developing technology systems for use in hospitals, 

police departments, ground transportation, etc. 

One such system originally developed in this program is the Modular Integrated Utilities System, a 

concept to integrate all community utility functions 

into a single, energy-efficient, environmentally benign 

package. This ongoing program being conducted by 

NASA’s Office of Energy Programs for HUD was 

detailed in last year’s report. 

Another system is the Activated Carbon Treatment System, developed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory. This system, which uses technology 

developed for the production of solid-fueled rockets, relies on activated carbon to treat municipal 

sewage or industrial wastes. The removed organic 

material is then “pyrolyzed” to produce more activated carbon. The system was demonstrated this 

year at a treatment facility operated by Orange 

County, California. 

This process eliminates the problem of sludge 

disposal and may result in substantial savings in 

new plant construction and operating costs. The 

US. Environmental Protection Agency has approvdd 

a grant for the County Sanitation Districts of Orange 

County to construct a 1,000,000 gallons per day plant 

which would use this process. 

In a reiated area, NASA is developing a Water 

Quality Monitoring and Control System for use in 

municipal sewage treatment facilities or smaller 

“package” sewage treatment plants. This system will 

use many of the advanced sensors developed for 

future long-duration manned space flights. 

User Affairs 

During 1974, NASA’s Office of Applications made 

significant strides in improving its understanding of 

the many needs of the various “user communities,’’ 

and at the same time progress was made in exposing 

to those communities the potential application of 

space technology and systems to help meet their 

needs. These activities have been focused in the Office 

of User Affairs of the Office of Applications. NASA 

is working closely with such mission-oriented agencies of the Federal Government as the Departments 

of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, Health, Education and Welfare, Housing and Urban Development, 

and Transportation, and the Corps of Engineers and 

the Environmental Protection Agency. In addition, 

NASA also expanded its active dialogue with state 

government agencies and regional organizations in 

such areas as resources and land use management, 

energy, communications, and the environment. 

, 

Environmental Afifi1ications.-NASA jointly sponsored (with the Environmental Protection Agency) 

14 
two major regional meetings to identify EPA problem areas which are conducive to solution by applications of NASA-developed technology. These 

conferences were attended by technical experts from 

various NASA field installations, by representatives 

from EPA National Environmental Research Centers, 

and by representatives of EPA regional offices. These 

conferences resulted in the identification of a large 

number of significant environmental problems to 

which NASA technology and expertise can be applied. 

Work plans are in progress toward developing specific projects to implement solutions to the problems 

on a jointly funded basis. 

Summer Study of Space Applications.-A major 

activity of the User Affairs program involved representatives of the user community in reviewing NASA’s 

applications programs at a Summer Study of Space 

Applications held at Snowmass, Colorado. This study 

was formally sponsored by the National Academy of 

Engineering’s Space Applications Board and took 

place from June 30 through July 13, 1974. 

The study was focused on 14 multi-disciplinary 

panels and a staff which together totaled more than 

100. Senior officials from industry, academia, state 

and local governments, federal agencies, and representatives of the applications program user communities participated. These were well known experts from 

a variety of fields, many of whom had little previous 

knowledge of the ongoing and future activities of the 

NASA applications program. The Director of the 

Summer Study was Jack M. Campbell, President of 

the Federation of Rocky Mountain States, and 

former governor of New Mexico. 

The working panels were organized into the following disciplinary areas : Weather and Climate; 

Uses of Communications; Agriculture, Forest and 

Range; Environmental Quality; Materials Processing 

in Space; Land Use Planning; Marine and Maritime 

Uses; Extractable Resources; and Inland Water. 

Additional panels of an “overview” character addressed the subjects of Institutional Arrangements, 

Information Services and Processing, and Costs and 

Benefits. These panels provided perspective regarding 

cost and institutional inhibiting and driving factors. 

These panel activities were supported by inputs from 

a Panel on Space Transportation and a NASA Technology Support Team. 

,Establishment of the National Space Technology 

Laboratories.-Effective June 14, 1974, the National 

Space Technology Laboratories (formerly the Mississippi Test Facility) was created at Bay St. Louis, 

Mississippi. This step was taken in recognition of 

capabilities that exist there for conducting remote 

sensing, environmental, and related research and 

technology activities, which have been enhanced in 

recent years by the co-location at NSTL of research 

and technology activities of several other government 

agencies. 

NASA Elzergy Program 

To provide a focus for the application of its advanced aerospace technology to energy needs, NASA 

has established an Office of Energy Programs. This 

office will manage NASA energy programs and will 

coordinate NASA support to other Federal agencies 

conducting energy research and development. 

Solar Energy Electricity Generation.-NASA has 

pioneered in the development of solar energy collection and conversion systems. The Skylab space station and the upcoming Viking Mars Lander spacecraft are among the many spacecraft utilizing solar 

arrays to produce electricity. In cooperation with the 

National Science Foundation, NASA is conducting 

a program to reduce the cost and improve the 

efficiency of solar cells. Promising progress has been 

made in the growth of high-quality, single-crystal 

silicon ribbons for application to mass-produced, lowcost solar cells. 

Microwave Energy Transmission.-Transmission 

of electricity via microwave radiation is also being 

investigated as a vital component of possible large 

satellite power stations. In a recent NASA demonstration at the Venus test site at Goldstone, California, a record was set for wireless transmission of 

power. A one-square-meter receiving-and-rectifying 

antenna (rectenna) delivered approximately one 

kilowatt of power at a range of 1.6 kilometers. The 

efficiency of the rectenna in converting the incoming 

microwave power to direct current power was 

slightly over 75 percent. 

Solar Heating and Cooling.-The use of solar 

energy for heating and cooling of buildings is being 

investigated as a potential alternative to current methods. Under the 1974 Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration Act, NASA has initiated program planning 

in conjunction with the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development and several other Federal agencies to demonstrate the residential and commercial 

feasibility of solar heating and cooling units and to 

develop the capability within private enterprise for 

the widespread application of this abundant source 

of energy. 

In June, an experimental solar house was completed at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, which will ultimately derive up to 

85 percent of its heating and cooling energy from the 

sun. Ground was broken in July for a 50,000-square 

foot office building at the Langley Research Center in 

15 
Hampton, Virginia. This building should be able to 

derive up to 90 percent of its heating and 50 percent 

of its cooling from a field of solar collectors. 

These facilities will provide test beds for new components, as well as aid in understanding the day-today problems associated with solar heating and 

cooling. 

Wind Energy Program.-Wind-energy systems 

have been used for centuries for pumping water, 

grinding grain, and in limited cases, generating electricity. Wind-driven electrical generating systems, 

however, have thus far not been cost-competitive 

with fossil-fueled plants. 

NASA has many years of experience in airplane 

and helicopter technology involving blade designs 

incorporating advanced materials, structures, rotating 

machinery, etc. As a result of this program, the NSF, 

as a part of its Five-Year Wind Energy program, has 

assigned NASA the responsibility for design, fabrication, and testing of windmills. The intent of this 

effort is to determine if such systems are technically 

feasible and if they can generate electrical power 

reliably and cost-effectively. At the present time, design and construction of a 100 Kilowatt Wind Generator is underway at the NASA Lewis Research 

Center. Initial testing is scheduled for July 1975. 

Transkortation Systems Aerodynamic Drag Stitd- . ies.-NASA, in cooperation with the Department of 

Transportation, is conducting two studies designed. 

to reduce the drag and correspondingly increase the 

fuel’ economy of transportation systems. At the Flight 

Research Center, trucks are being tested to determine 

the drag reduction possible through changes in their 

basic aerodynamic shape. In addition, an assessment 

is being made of selected commercially-available 

drag reduction “add on” devices. 

At the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, 

California, scale models of automobiles (sub-compact, compact, and full size) are undergoing wind 

tunnel tests. Aerodynamic changes such as the addition of front and aft spoilers, vehicle underpanning, 

etc., are being evaluated, both in the wind tunnel 

and in full-scale road tests 

Low Pollution/Low Fuel Consumption Automotive Engines.-A relatively recent discovery has 

shown that small quantities of hydrogen-rich gas 

introduced into the internal combustion engine, along 

with the normal gasoline/air mixture, permit operation with increased efficiency and greatly reduced 

pollutant emissions. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 

in cooperation with the Environmental Protection 

Agency and the Department of Transportation, is 

conducting tests using bottled hydrogen. Results indicate that fuel economy improvements of nearly 

25 percent and emissions below the 1977 Federal 

standards can be obtained. 

A major accomplishment during this year was the 

development and demonstration of a generator which 

produces a hydrogen-rich gas directly from gasoline 

and is of a sufficiently small size to be packaged on 

board a normal automobile. Such a device may permit essentially the same economical and low-pollution performance as was previously demonstrated 

for bottled hydrogen. 

Energy Conversion Alternatives Study.-Currently 

over 60 percent of the heat generated in an electric 

power plant is wasted. Many alternative approaches 

are possible for reducing this wasted energy. NASA 

is conducting a study to obtain a comparative evaluation of the merits of various energy conversion systems utilizing coal or coal-derived fuels. The study 

is jointly funded by the National Science Foundation, 

the Department of the Interior, and NASA. The 

final report from the study should be available by the 

end of Calendar Year 1975. 

Advanced Coal Energy Extraction.-To help meet 

the Nation’s energy needs, the Department of ‘the 

Interior is expanding its research and development 

effort to increase coal production with enhanced mine 

safety. NASA was requested early in 1974 to assist 

with that effort by selective application of its background and experience m engineering and physical 

sciences. 

NASA is now working &h the Bureau of Mines’ 

to select mutually agreeable technology advancement 

projects that build on expertise unique to NASA and 

will be complementary to the Bureau of Mines research and development program. Both near term 

(1978) and intermediate term (1985) technology 

advancement projects are under consideration. 

Study of Sun-Earth Interactions and 

Cosmic Processes 

NASA’s Physics and Astronomy programs are directed toward the investigation of the Earth, the 

Sun and the solar system, the galactic and extragalactic phenomena, and how they interrelate. These 

programs also seek to discover new physical and energy principles by studying the awesome processes 

that abound in this gigantic cosmic laboratory. AS 

most of the radiations from these processes are 

screened from the Earth’s surface, it is advantageous 

to place our instruments above the Earth‘s atmosphere-in space. 

To achieve these program objectives, NASA uses 

techniques ranging from theoretical and laboratory 

research through aircraft, balloon, and sounding 

rocket flights to small explorer spacecraft, large 

16 
automated observatories, and manned spacecraft. 

Research teams involved in this program are located 

at NASA field centers, other government laboratories, universities, and industrial laboratories. Foreign participation is encouraged with the participating country providing its share of the costs. 

Study of the Sun 

The Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO-7), 

launched in September 1971, attained an impressive 

list of achievements prior to reentry in July 1974. 

Achievements include detection of nuclear reactions 

in solar flares, the discovery of oscillations in the 

Sun’s transition region between the chromosphere 

and corona, and the development of improved techniques for forecasting the appearance of active 

regions. Particularly significant are the excellent 

observations taken by OSO-7 in conjunction with 

the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount experiments. 

Development of the last spacecraft in the series, 

OSO-I continued in 1974, pointing towards a 

planned launch for May 1975. OSO-I is designed to 

offer the best combination of high spectral, spatial, 

and time resolution ever obtained in many important 

UV and EUV lines. From these data, the detailed 

structure, dynamics, and heating of the chromosphere 

and transition region will be studied. OSO-I also contains several advanced X-ray instruments for studying solar, stellar, and cosmic X-ray sources. 

The Apollo Telescope Mount ( ATM) deployed 

aboard Skylab from May 1973 to February 1974 was 

a new “second generation” space observatory, where 

the skill of an on-board manned observer was added 

to the largest observatory yet placed in orbit. 

The data acquired by the six major ATM instruments, together with those obtained by the worldwide program of complementary ground-based and 

rocket-borne observations, form the most comprehensive set of simultaneous high-resolution solar data 

ever collected. An analysis of these data promises to 

produce substantial growth in man’s knowledge of 

the structure and dynamics of the solar atmosphere, 

and of the coupling between the solar atmosphere, the 

solar wind, and the terrestrial atmosphere. For example, ATM data indicate that most of the solar 

wind may be “blowing” from the mysterious coronal 

holes. Similarly, the observation of flares-the cataclysmic events that have dwarfed the world’s total 

power consumption for thousands of years at the 

present rate-has shown that there are different 

mechanisms at work in different flares. 

Sun-Earth Interactions 

An important objective of the Magnetospheric 

Physics program is to understand the processes by 

which the Sun influences the entire near-Earth 

environment and the upper atmosphere, thereby 

producing climatic and other variations. The region 

of maximum solar absorption is near 100 miles 

(160 km) altitude and this region is now being SYStematically investigated on a global scale for the 

first time by the Atmosphere Explorer (AE) -C (Explorer 51) launched in December 1973. 

Data from AE-C have already demonstrated the 

importance of large-scale dynamic atmospheric motions which have a direct bearing on the distribution 

of pollutants. The complicated chemical processes 

which accompany the absorption of sunlight are being investigated in this program. These processes 

must be understood before we can predict the longterm effects of man-made contaminants on our atmosphere. 

Another important objective of the Magnetospheric Physics program is to understand the processes which occur in the outer magnetosphere where 

the solar wind interacts with the Earth‘s atmosphere 

and magnetic field. The Hawkeye satellite, launched 

June 3, 1974, was placed in the region of the magnetic neutral point, at an altitude of about 77,000 

miles (124,000 km). This is where the Earth’s magnetic field is neutralized by the solar wind, and where 

solar-wind particles can enter the Earth’s atmosphrre to produce the polar auroras. 

The International Sun-Earth Explorer program 

(ISEE) (formerly International Magnetosphere 

Explorer (IME) program), which is a cooperative 

venture between NASA and the European Space 

Research Organization (ESRO) is proceeding on 

schedule. The ISEE will consist of three spacecraft: 

an A/B pair to be launched in late 1977 into a 

highly elliptical orbit about the Earth to study detailed time-space variations of particle population 

and electric and magnetic fields; and an ISEE-C 

spacecraft to be launched in late 1978 into a halo 

orbit around one of the libration points between 

the Sun and the Earth to study the solar wind 

impact to the magnetosphere and to measure cosmic 

rays. 

Znternational Coopsratiue Study of the Sun 

Helios is a cooperative space project between the 

Federal Republic of Germany and the United States 

which has the general scientific objective of providing increased understanding of fundamental solar 

processes and solar-terrestrial relationships. The Helios-A spacecraft, launched by a Titan-Centaur on 

December 10, 1974, and Helios-B, to be launched a 

year later, are to go in over two-thirds the distance 

from the Earth to the Sun, closer than any previous 

spacecraft, during the three-month period after 

launch. Germany built the spacecraft and seven of 

the experiments; the US. provided three experi17 
nients, the launch vehicles, launch and flight operation support, and technical support. 

Orbiting Astronomy Observatory (OAO ) 

The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory3 (OAO3-Copernicus), launched in August 1972, is continuing to obtain scientific data. The primary objective of OAO-3 is to obtain high-resolution ultraviolet spectra of stars necessary to investigate the 

composition and physical state of matter in interstellar space and of stellar sources. 

In its first two years of operation, OAO-3 obtained over 9,800 observations of 243 unique celestial 

objects with the Princeton University experiment, 

and over 1,400 observations of 234 celestial objects 

with the University College London X-ray experiment. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) 

The basic scientific objective of the High Energy 

Astronomy Observatory program is to explore the 

previously inaccessible regions of celestial X-ray and 

gamma-ray sources and of cosmic-ray flux. This program has the potential to enhance our understanding of newly discovered energy processes and of the 

creation of matter. It should also greatly improve our 

understanding of observed phenomena such as quasars, pulsars, novae, and supernovae, the most intense energy phenomena yet discovered. 

During 1974, primary emphasis was placed on 

the detailed design of the HEAO-A spacecraft and 

scientific payload. Design of the HEAO-B instruments has begun and definition of the HEAO-C 

payload is continuing. In addition, long-lead items 

are being procured. The design of a facility to calibrate the large X-ray telescope on HEAO-B was 

completed and construction started. 

International Satellites 

In addition to the previously mentioned ISEE, 

work continues on the International IJltraviolet Explorer (IUE), a joint project between NASA, UK, 

and ESRO. This project’s goal is to place a 45-cm 

astronomical telescope into a, modified gkosynchronous 

orbit and operate it as an’ international observing 

facility. The satellite, planned for launch in FY 

1977, is designed to obtain ultraviolet spectra of 

stars from 1200 to 3200A. 

In continuing the high scientific priority given to 

X-ray astronomy, two international cooperative Explorer-class missions were launched in 1974. ANS, 

a cooperative satellite with the Netherlands, was 

launched on August 30 from the Western Test Range. 

The UK-5 Satellite, fifth in the series of cooperative 

programs with the United Kingdom, was launched 

in October 1974 from the San Marco Range off the 

coast of Kenya, Africa. This mission was the first 

three-sided cooperative program as, in addition to 

the US/UK effort, the launch was conducted by 

Italy at their launch site. 

Scientific Investigation of Comet Kohoutek 

A bright, long-period comet, Comet Kohoutek, was 

discovered in March 1973, and was the basis of an 

intensive scientific campaign to study the origin and 

structure of comets and their relationship to the 

early formation of the solar system. The combination of aircraft and space observations with ATM, 

and ground-based studies organized in NASA’s Operation Kohoutek, yielded a substantial breakthrough 

in the knowledge of the composition and morphology 

of comets and indicated the great effectiveness and 

flexibility of space instruments for such special events. 

The detection of a cloud of hydrogen surrounding 

the nucleus and the improved data on the upper limits of the abundances of many other elements will 

measurably enhance the validation of various cometary theories. 

Spacelab Science Payloads 

Several studies have been undertaken related to 

planning science payloads for the Space Shuttle. 

Initial studies pertained to facility-class payloads that 

would be flown from once to several times per year 

and would have an operational life comparable to 

traditional ground-based facilities. The spacecraft 

science payloads program builds upon the experience 

and accomplishments of both previous and on-going 

flight projects including the extremely successful 

Skylab. 

In Atmospheric and Space Physics a preliminary 

payload design for an Atmospheres, Magnetospheres, 

and Plasmas-In-Space Spacelab (AMPS) has begun. 

This facility concept capitalizes on the commonality 

of instrumentation required for dynamic investigations of the near-Earth environment in the several 

disciplines represented. 

In Astronomy, similar definition studies have begun for a meter-class, cryogenically cooled, infrared 

telescope facility; a meter-class, high-resolution optical/ultraviolet. telescope facility; and a solar physics 

telescope cluster facility. 

Large Space Telescope (UT) Defirtition 

A LST placed in Earth orbit could be used for observations not possible from Earth-based telescopes 

due to the atmospheric veiling effects on many wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Preliminary systems definitions and advanced technological development on selected elements of the 

LST were carried out this year. These studies show 

that the design of a telescope of 2.4 to 3 meters (8 to 

18 
10 feet) in diameter is feasible. Such a telescope 

could make possible astronomical observations ten 

times deeper into space, possibly to the edge of the 

cosmos, with more detail than has ever before been 

possible. 

Sub-orbital Program 

As a link between theoretical and laboratory research and orbiting spacecraft, NASA uses jet aircraft, sounding rockets, and balloons to test and 

qualify new instrumentation for future space missions, to make scientific measurements not possible 

from Earth, and to acquire short-term physics 

and astronomy data from the upper reaches of the 

atmosphere in a more economical and timely manner than attainable from satellite instrumentation. 

Airborne Science Program.-The initial data obtained with the new 91-centimeter infrared telescope 

carried by a C-141 aircraft to above 90 percent of the 

Earth‘s veiling atmosphere, has demonstrated the potential for infrared astronomy. This program also simulated the interaction between the experimenter, the 

scientific instrumentation, and the flight platform as 

might take place on a Space Shuttle flight. 

Sounding Rocket Program.-Sixty-eight Physics 

and Astronomy sounding rockets were launched this 

year at locations in the United States, Canada, Sweden, and Norway by diversified research teams from 

universities, industry, foreign governments, and NASA 

Centers. A significant accomplishment was the 

launching of 54 rockets from Wallops Island, Virginia, within a period of 24 hours in support of a 

joint Air Force/NASA-sponsored investigation of 

the atmospheric layering and density distribution of 

ions and neutrals. Observations of colored luminescent clouds caused by the release of chemicals from 

several rockets provided a large amount of correlative data and created considerable public interest, as 

reported by visual sightings from as far as Connecticut and South Carolina. 

Other firsts included the acquisition of ultraviolet 

spectrum data of a planetary nebula with a prototype instrument developed by NASA astronomers, 

and the first ultraviolet photograph of a star cluster. 

Balloon Program.-BaIloons continue to be an important platform for large, heavy telescopes required 

to conduct infrared, gamma-ray, and cosmic-ray astronomy. During the past year, 45 scientific payloads 

were launched from the United States and Canada. 

One significant observation was of the strongest 

source ever seen in the far infrared. The source is 

one-tenth as bright as the Moon, and its origin is still 

a mystery. Important observations were also made 

of the Crab Nebula in high energy X-rays as this 

strong source was occulted by the Moon. In addition, 

hundreds of cool clouds in our galaxy, previously 

unknown, were detected using a new telescope of 

radical design. 

The further development of the balloon itself 

showed satisfactory progress with the successful flight 

of the largest balloon ever flown, with a diameter 

of 450 feet-half again as long as a football field. 

The application of the super-pressure balloon, de-. 

veloped to increase the length of flight time from 

several days to several months at constant altitude, 

will provide for future, long-duration Earth-orbital 

flights with astronomy and high-energy astrophysics 

payloads. 

Exploration of the Planets 

Progress was continued in 1974 toward a better 

understanding of the planets, their satellites, and interplanetary space in the solar system. In addition to 

the contribution to science and basic knowledge, better comprehension of the formation and composition 

of other planets helps us understand the processes 

that affect the composition and mineral properties 

of our own. Similarly, improved understanding of the 

atmospheres and magnetic fields of other planets 

such as Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, helps US 

to discover and test out theories about the Earth’s atmosphere, magnetosphere, and weather. 

Mariner Venus/Mercury 1973 

Mariner 10, the Mariner Venus/Mercury ’73 

spacecraft, was launched on November 3, 1973. 

Within hours following planetary injection, a nearEarth science phase commenced consisting of Earth 

photography and ultraviolet spectrometer scans. While 

passing through the lunar orbit on November 5, 

new photography of the Moon’s polar region was 

obtained. These hundreds of new lunar photographs 

were utilized to calibrate the TV system. 

Venus encounter occurred on February 5, 1974, 

when the spacecraft passed the planet at an altitude 

of 5760 km. The first closeup pictures ever taken 

of Venus revealed clearly the high-speed circulation 

of the upper atmospheric clouds. These circulation 

patterns, photographed in ultraviolet, displayed 

properties of the Venusian atmosphere not previously 

known to planetary scientists. 

The Mercury encounter on March 29, 1974, 

marked man’s first close-up look at the smallest and 

innermost planet of our solar system. High-resolution photography of the surface revealed a lunarlike terrain that was densely cratered but with a 

well-developed crust, covering what could be an 

Earth-like interior. The pictures revealed a surface 

morphology that showed large circular basins and 

scarped ridges that reflect a unique period of planetary evolution. 
Additional science findings included a surprising 

planet-related magnetic field, a sparse helium atmosphere, and unexpected streams of high-energy 

electrons and protons in the shadowed region behind 

the planet. 

Following completion of the Mercury encounter 

sequence, Mariner 10 was placed on a trajectory for 

a second Mercury encounter which took place on 

September 21, 1974. During this second encounter, “a 

spacc first,” Mariner 10 flew by on the sunlit side 

to obtain photography of the South Polar region not 

possible during the first encounter. A remarkable 

third fly by is schcduled for March 1975. 

Viking Alars Mission 

The Viking project is designed to begin a new 

phase of Mars exploration in mid-1976, when two 

Viking Landers reach its surface and begin their 

detailed scientific investigations. The scientific objectives of this mission are to obtain data concerning 

the search for life on Mars and to gather information which will help us understand the evolution of 

Mars and the solar system. The two Viking spacecraft are planned to be launched in August 1975. 

During 1974, qualification testing of Viking science instruments, engineering subsystems, and the 

complete Orbiter and Lander spacecraft was 

completed. A major accomplishment in the qualification testing was the exposure of a complete Lander 

to multiple heat sterilization cycles. 

Exploration of Jupiter 

The close-up exploration of -the outer planets 

started when Pioneer 10 flew past Jupiter late in 

1973. Objectives of Pioneers 10 and 11 were to conduct the first exploratory investigations of the interplanetary region out beyond the orbit of Mars, the 

Asteroid Belt, and the planet Jupiter. Pioneer 10 

was launched in March 1972, and Pioneer 11 in 

April 1973. 

During this year, much of the data obtained while 

in thc encounter period has been analyzed with 

interesting results. As examples: 

-The interior of Jupiter is even hotter than previous estimates. As a result, the planet must be composed largely of liquid hydrogen; 

-The familiar circular cyclones and anti-cyclones 

of the Earth are stretched completely around Jupiter. The grey-whitr iones are rising cloud ridges 

that extend 20 km above the orange-brown belts; 

-The strong tilted magnctic field plus the rapid 

rotation rate and large diameter of Jupiter provide 

an imniense outc‘r magnetosphrre that is unique in 

the solar systrni, a beautiful “space lab” for the 

study of plasma ('energetic particle physics. 

Outer €%nets Mission 

The Mariner Jupiter/Saturh 1977 (MJS’77) project, warmly endorsed by the Space Science Board 

of the National Academy of Sciences, was approved 

in 1973 as part of the outer planets exploration 

program. Two identical spacecraft are planned to be 

launched in 1977 to Jupiter where they will be accelerated by Jupiter’s gravity and orbital velocity for 

the trip to Saturn, thus enabling attainment of valuable encounter data on both Jupiter and Saturn. In 

addition to obtaining information on the planets 

themselves, on the interplanetary medium, and on 

interstellar cosmic rays, these spacecraft should yield 

close-encounter data on Saturn’s rings and on the 

massive satellites of both planets. These Mariner 

class spacecraft are planned to encounter Jupiter 

about one and one-half years after launch and Saturn 

in approximately three and one-half years after 

launch. 

During 1974, the detailed spacecraft system design was essentially completed, and most of the subsystem and science instruments preliminary designs 

were completed. A major effort was carried out to 

arrive at a satisfactory approach for protecting the 

spacecraft from the strong radiation at Jupiter measured by Pioneer 10. 

Pioneer Venus Project 

The Pioneer Venus project, started in FY 1975, is 

aimed toward two of the major goals of planetary 

exploration : improving our understanding of the 

origin and evolution df the solar system, and improving our understanding of dynamic processes on 

Earth. This project’s primary goal is to obtain a 

detailed characterization of Venus’ atmQsphere 

which in turn, is expected to provide information 

that will be beneficial toward understanding the 

Earth’s atmosphere. 

The project has two flight missions: one to make 

in-situ measurements at multiple locations on Venus 

with atmospheric entry probes; and the other an 

orbiter mission to provide data on a planetary scale. 

A systems contractor and scientific instrumentation were selectcd during 1974 to maintain a schedule 

leading to two Atlas Centaur launches in 1978. 

Analysis of Lunar Data 

In 1974, the effort was continued to carefully extract and analyze the information available from lunar 

flights, Earth-based obsc‘rvations, and laboratory expcriments. A Lunar Data Analysis and Synthesis program was initiated to support nearly 50 Principal 

Investigators in their efforts to correlate existing data 

and improve our knowledge of lunar origin, history, 

coinposition, and present environment, as well as the 

20 
Moon’s relationship to the Earth and solar system. 

In June 1974, about 40 US. and 75 U.S.S.R. 

scientists participated in a four-day conference in 

Moscow on the cosmochemistry of the Moon and 

planets, Agreement on basic lunar mapping principles was obtained during the second joint US.- 

U.S.S.R. Cartography meeting. 

Continuing analysis of the Apollo 15-17 metric 

photography is pfoQiding increasingly accurate positioning and detaiIing of surface’ features. In 1974, 

the first large-scale maps were produted and distributed to lunar investigators for intensive study. 

Geochemical measiirements made from the orbiting Apollo spacecraft are allowing us to extend the 

detailed knowledge of lunar surfacp composition at 

the landing sites to the approximately 25 percent of 

the Moon’s surfare that was flown over by the Apollo 

orbiters. Chemical elements initially measured from 

orbit included aluminum, silicon, magnesium, uranium, potassium, and thorium. Recent refinements 

in data-processing techniques are now permitting 

measurements of iron and titanium from orbit to be 

added to this list. This proven technique is now 

available for future planetary missions. 

The five Apollo Lunar Surface ‘Experimental 

Packages {ALSEP’s) placed on the Moon are still 

returning useful scientific data. 

Over the long term, the most valuable scientific 

result of the lunar program may well be an increasrd 

knowledge of oitr Earth and the rntire solar system. 

A second laser telesPopr, being completed on Mount 

Haleakala in Hawaii, will complemrnt the existing 

telescope at the McDonald Observatory in Texas, 

which is now ranging on the three laser ranging retroreflectors placed at the Apollo 11, 14 and 15 

landing sites and also on the U.S.S.R.’s 1,unokhod I1 

reflector. As a result of this laser program, scientists 

have now determined to a high degre? of accuracy 

the path of the Moon around the Earth and thr 

motions of thc Moon around its own axis. With these 

results, and the new Hawaiian station. it is planned to 

hegin the determination of minute variations in the 

Earth’s rotation rate and the wobhlcs or wandering5 

in the Earth’s pnlar axis of rotation. 

-These irrrgularitirs are thouqht by some scirntists to be associatrd with large carthquakes and 

perhaps even to prccrdr thcrii. These phenomrna 

are being studied for their possible implications for 

rarthquahr prcdiction. 

Studies initiated on .4pollo 17 samples of large 

lunar boulders are revealing important relationships 

between lunar rock types that were not obtainable 

from the small rocks and soil grains returned prcviously. The age of one Apollo 17 rock is the oldest 

yet determined. At 4.7 billion years, it is nearly a 

billion years older than the oldrst knowri Earth 

rocks. Since the Moon and the Earth are currently 

thought to have formed as near neighbors in space, 

study of these oldest lunar rocks provides data bearing on the earliest years of the Earth. The original 

crust of the Moon, presently believed preserved as 

the lunar highlands, resembles a relatively lightweight, light-colored volcanic Earth rock known as 

anorthosite. Previously considered of minor significance, the role of this rock in Earth’s history is now 

being ’reassessed by geologi~ts. 

In its first billion years, the Moon experienced 

intensive bombardment by asteroid-like bodies as 

large as several miles in diameter. Although the 

Earth must have undergone similar bombardment, 

subsequent erosive processes have erased much of the 

record. As a result of this current interest in meteoritic impacts and their contributions to planetary 

surface topography, an impressive number of more 

recent Earth features have been restudied and reidentified as the modified remnants of small meteoritic craters. Some of these Earth craters have associated mineral deposits of large economic value, 

hence, the better the understanding of their origin, 

the better the chances of finding new deposits of 

similar genesis. 

Analyses of the lunar minerals reveal that they 

were formed under conditions in which free oxygen 

and water were much scarcer than when terrestrial 

minerals and rocks were formed. If. as the 

majority of scientists now believe, thr Earth and 

Moon originated as near neighbors in space, these. 

compositional differences must reflect different conditions prevailing at the time of formation. The discovery of rusted Moon rocks has bqen particularly 

exciting as it indicates that water and oxygen ,vital 

to life may be derived from the Moon’s surface. 

Study of Man 

NASA’s Space Biomedical Research Program is an 

intcgrated program of research into the effects of 

space and space flight environments on living organisms, their components, and functions. It focuses on 

the living system, from man on down to the simplest 

cell. Space Biomedical Research provides for the 

conduct of a ground-based and spaceflight research 

proqram dcsiqned to eliiridate and enhance man’s 

ability to function effectively, efficiently, and safely 

during space flight, and to conduct life-sciences research using the unique environmrnt of space t~ 

support and advance Earth-based science. 

Skylab 

complete medical study of man in space. For the first 

timr, an cxtended medical study of man in space, 

with a doctor on board, was accomplished. 

Skylab, a multi-faceted mission, produced the most 

21 
The Skylab flight program came to a successful 

conclusion on February 8, 1974 with the safe return 

of astronauts Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson and 

William R. Pogue. This last Skylab crew spent 84 

days in orbit, establishing a new record for longduration manned space flight. The last Skylab mission met or exceeded all of its planned objectives. 

The analysis of the scientific data collected during the three missions will continue over the next 

several years. However, most of the data collected 

by Skylab should be in the public domain by mid1975 and be available to interested parties for independent studies. 

Skylab demonstrated that a multidisciplinary 

manned space station is not only practical but can 

be highly productive. The men worked well in space, 

actively enjoying the experience of living in orbital 

weightlessness. It was possible to maintain essentially 

normal operations of the immensely complex vehicle 

even in the face of a number of equipment malfunctions. Also, the crew produced large volumes of 

very high-quality data in many scientific and engineering fields, more than fulfilling the expectations 

on which the experiment program was based. The 

observations and data taking of the Comet Kohoutek 

resulted in the greatest advance in cometary research 

since Halley’s time. 

Medical Results of Skylab 

With the successful completion of the third 

manned Skylab mission, the most significant series 

of inflight medical studies on man’s adaption to and 

performance in space flight came to an end. The 

three manned missions of 28, 59 and 84 days, respectively, provided medical data from a series of 

studies of the time course of adaptive changes which 

occur as a result of the weightless environment inherent in space flight. All of the observed changes 

returned to the preflight dalues during the postflight 

observation period, indicating that the changes were 

reversible. 

All of the medical-experiment equipment launched 

in Skylab performed throughout the entire Skylab 

Flight Program with no major failures. This permitted the scheduled performance of all tnedical 

experiments as planned and provided reliable and 

repeatable data. 

The significant adaptive changes occurring in man 

during the Skylab missions are summarized as follows : 

1. There is an apparent redistribution of body fluids 

within the first few hours of exposure to the weightless environment of space flight, followed by a complementary adaptive change of the cardiovascular 

system which ultimately plateaus in three to five 

weeks. The underlying physiological mechanisms involved in these related changes are not completely 

understood as yet. The current Space Life Science 

Research Program is preparing, through ground-based 

studies, inflight investigations on man and his biological surrogates which will be conducted in the 

Shut tle/Spacelab era. 

2. All three crewmen of the second manned mission 

experienced varying degrees of “stomach awareness,” 

nausea, and, in one crewman, vomiting which is currently believed associated with a response of the vestibular system. However, none of the crewmen of the 

first manned mission had such a response and only 

one of the three crewmen in the third manned mission 

experienced nausea and vomiting. When such responses did occur, they were alleviated within two to 

three days and all symptoms were totally absent in 

five days. The use of an anti-motion sickness medication (Scop-dex) as a preventive measure may explain the absence of any problem in the two crewmen 

in the third manned mission. It is also possible that 

they may not have had a problem without medication 

‘This condition is being vigorously studied in the Life 

Sciences ground-based research program. 

3. The Skylab medical-experiments program 

showed that at the end of the 84 days mission, a gradual and small loss of calcium was still taking place. 

The calcium loss observed in all the Skylab crewmen 

parallelled the loss of calcium observed in bed rest 

studies conducted in the Space Life Sciences Research 

Program. Although it is suspected that the calcium 

loss originates from selected bones in the body, current 

ground-based research studies are being conducted in 

order to identify the actual source. However, it will 

then be necessary to conduct medical experiments in 

the Shuttle/Spacelab Program to ascertain if the same 

physiological mechanisms are at play in the weightless environment of space flight. 

4. Prior to Skylab, it was believed that the 100 percent oxygen environment was the basis for the observed red blood cell mass loss that occurred in the 

Gemini and Apollo crews. A special pressurized 

chamber ground-based study proved that a 100 percent oxygen environment would cause such a change. 

However, a drop in red-cell mass was observed in 

Skylab with a mixed gas atmosphere of 30 percent 

nitrogen and 70 percent oxygen. Since the red-cell 

mass loss became less with each succeeding manned 

mission, it is believed that the change is due to some 

adaptive mechanism associated with red-cell production within the blood-forming organs of the body. 

Not only did the red blood cell mass loss decrease 

with extended mission duration but the recovery time 

to preflight values was quicker following the longer 

missions. This further supports the theory that these 

changes in red-cell mass are related to an adaptive 

process at the red-cell production level of response. 

22 
In summary, the medical results of the Skylab missions have added confidence to the potential commitment of man to long-duration space flight. These are 

no foreseeable, unresolvable problems which would 

limit the commitment of man for long duration space 

flight missions. The Space Life Sciences program 

ground-based research efforts and subsequent Shuttle/ 

Spacelab medical experiments are focusing on the 

key issues learned from Skylab with the ultimate 

objective of insuring that preventive or corrective 

measures will be available well in advance of a longduration manned space flight. 

The Impact of Space Medical Research 

On Health in the U.S. 

NASA is one of the few agencies that concentrates 

its research on the study of normal healthy body 

systems; most other medical research involves the 

study of diseasesd systems. This unique approach 

promises to provide needed insight into the basic 

physiology of man, and through this knowledge 

diseased conditions could be better identified, understood, and treated. NASA's diverse research has provided or promises to provide (1) a means of early 

identification of disease, (2) the necessary biological 

quantification of radiation doses for the use of accelerator-produced radiation in human cancer therapy, (3) an understanding of the loss of bone and 

muscle tissues from immoblized limbs, (4) a rapid 

means of measuring and interpreting human respiratory functions and condition, and (5) an increased 

understanding of and ability to diagnose cardiovascular disease. 

Import of Skylab Medical Results.-As an example, Skylab inflight medical investigations of physiological adaptive processes found that the weightless 

environment produced changes which cannot be explained on the basis of current theories of fluid/electrolyte balance, cardiovascular dynamics, and 

neurophysiology of the vestibular system. The Skylab 

medical experiments provided data under unique 

conditions (near zero-G) which portend new vistas 

for the study of basic physiological functions underlying the observed adaptive changes. Subsequent 

studies should provide better understanding and 

knowledge of these systems which could ultimately 

lead to improved preventive and therapeutic measures for the delivery of health care. 

Medical Information Computer System (MEDICS).-The Life Sciences Directorate at the NASA 

Johnson Space Center (JSC), has been developing a 

low-cost multiuser minicomputer system to meet a 

variety of space-related operational medical needs. 

The system, called MEDICS, is flexible, quickly 

learned, easy to operate, relatively inexpensive, and 

capable of yielding instantaneous information for as 

many as 16 users simultaneously. MEDICS can also 

be used in applications other than the space program; for example, MEDICS is planned to be used to 

support the joint NASA-HEW remote health care 

delivery project described below. 

MEDICS represents a significant advance in the 

application of minicomputers. MEDICS computer 

programs enable the operation of a time-shared 

generalized storage and retrieval system on a minicomputer, rather than the usual expensive largescale computer required for those types of operations. 

With the MEDICS software package, a hospital or 

regional medical center could make a relatively small 

equipment investment and put into operation a flexible time-shared management information system to 

meet diverse medical and administrative needs. 

Space Technology Applied to Rural Papago Advanced Health Care (STARPAHC) .-In April 1973, 

the Papago Indian Reservation near Tucson, Arizona, 

was selected as the site for the Integrated Medical and 

Behavioral Laboratory Measurement System (IMBLMS) field test. In this joint NASA-HEW project, NASA is providing the design, assembly, installation, and two years of operations of a telemedicine 

system, and HEW is providing the medical and paramedical personnel to use the system. Health care 

on the reservation was already a responsibility of 

HEW, administered by the Indian Health Service 

(IHS) . Shortly after site selection, the program 

added a new designation, STARPAHC, reflecting 

the involvement of the Papago reservation. 

The IMBLMS/STARPAHC remote health care 

delivery system, scheduled to begin test operations 

in early 1975, makes optimum use of advanced medical instrumentation; video, voice, and data communications; modern data-management techniques; 

and physician's assistants and other paramedical personnel functioning independently and under the remote supervision of a physician. The specially trained 

paramedics, called Community Health Medics 

(CHM) by the IHS, may examine a patient, transmit medical information to a physician in a control 

center miles away, and consult via two-way TV with 

the physician who may diagnose the problem and 

prescribe treatment. 

Other Medical Technology.-Materials, analytical 

techniques, computers, and communications systems 

originally developed for the exploration of space 

have been valuable to medical research and health 

care delivery. The examples which can be cited are 

many. High-purity carbon materials originally developed for rocket nozzle liners have proven to be 

very biologically compatible. They are now used in 

heart valves, and development of their use for direct 

23 
skeletal attachment of artificial limbs is progressing 

rapidly. Computer-assisted image processing and enhancement techniques originally developed for the 

.Pioneer and Mariner planetary exploration programs 

are now used to analyze chest x-rays and human 

chromosome patterns, to study possible countenneasures against atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), and even to visualize cheniical molecules. Communications satellites are already helping to deliver 

health care in Alaska, and medical instrumentation 

developed for Skylab is being used in emergency 

medical systems. 

A device developed for medical studies of astronauts who are on long space missions is the basis for 

a miniaturized medical diagnostic system capable of 

performing 12 different blood analyses. Another attribute of the system is that it uses approximately 

one-tenth cubic centimeter of blood to do its work. 

This is about a fiftieth of the blood simple required 

for most conventional analyses. The system is especially attractive for use with infants, the elderly, and 

emergency room cases where minimum blood samples 

arl available. 

Hospital patients can move about freely and yet 

provide the meaical staff with continuous readings 

of their heartbeats and body temperatures because 

the patients weaf space-age- wrist radios that transmit these readings to a hospital central station. This 

radio system is derived from equipment developed 

and used in the Mercury and Gemini-manned space 

flight programs. 

From a machine to conduct eye examinations on 

astronauts has come the Automated Visual Sensitivity Tester (AVST). With the AVST, a technician 

can in 10 minutes check a patient for such eye disorders as glaucoma, cataract, and scotoma (a blind 

spot in- the field of vision). Such tests usually take 

25 minutes with conventional manual techniques. 

The NASA biochemical machine procea for detection of extraterrestrial life has been adapted tp 

human health uses in FLASH (Fast Luciferace Automated Assay Specimens for Hospitals), which anaIyzes bacteria in urine samples. 

EPIC, a machine for measuring human coordination, is another device developed from NASA technology. It is expected to find many uses not only in 

biomedicine, rehabilitation, and the physiology of 

muscular coordination, but also in job-aptitude testing, law enforcement, and highway safety. In rehabilitation work, for example, test results can show 

progress or indicate need for remedial help. 

By swallowing a one-inch by half-inch bugged tablet, patients can keep medical personnel continuously 

informed about temperatures deep within their 

bodies. Local temperature increases can reveal infections. 

24 

A greatly improved pacemaker for heart patients 

uses many electronic and electrical components first 

developed for NASA spacecraft. This pacemaker 

uses a rechargeable battery rather than nuclear gem 

erated power, and therefore emits no radioactivity. 

These examples are illustrative of ways in which 

space-developed technology is being utilized for human betterment. 

Space Transportation 

In January 1972, the President formally proposed 

to the Congress that the United States initiate the 

development of the Space Shuttle. The SpacC’ Shuttle 

is the major component of the new Space Transportation System (STS) conceived for the 1980’s and 

beyond. Later in the 1970’s and early 1980’s, the 

United States plans to also develop the upper stage 

Space Tug which will boost satellites to synchronous 

orbits. In the meanwhile, it is planned to use an 

Interim Upper Stage to be developed by the USAB. 

In addition, the Europeans have agreed to develop 

the Spacelab that will be compatible’with the Space 

Shuttle and .will be taken into orbit and operated 

in-the Sh~ttle’s payroad bay. The new STS will be 

used to transport NASA and. hon-NASA payloads 

in commu+catioris, navigation, traffic . control,. 

meteorology, Earth obiervations, and space science: 

A stable of ‘unmanned expendable laufichers is 

available to meet current needs. The reyable launch 

system is being developed under NASA . direction. 

This section describes the progrgss made irf develop: 

ing the STS as well as the activities of the current 

expendable launch systems. 

Space Transportation System - - - - - - - 

The STS consists of a reusable Space Shuttle 

orbiter, Spacelab, and an upper stage Space Tug. 

The system is designed to provide economical 

and versatile space transportation for tuture decades. 

As discusse’d -under the- intehdional affain -settion, a manned laboratory (Spacelab), which 

can be housed in the Shuttle cargo bay, is 

concurrently being developed and funded by the 

European Space Research Organization to provide 

the user community with a ground-type laboratory 

which can take advantage of the unique environment of space. 

The STS is expected to be an economical and 

reliable transportation system for placing a wide 

variety of payloads (weighing as much as 29,000 

kilograms (65,000 Ibs.) ) into orbit and retrieving 

certain of these for return to earth. Because it utilizes 

a reusable orbiter vehicle and reusable booster rockets, 

the cost of each flight is anticipated to be less than 

most present launch techniques which expend the 

\ 
t 

launch vehicle.’ This feature is one of the prime 

motivation factors for the STS. 

In the 1980’s, the STS is planned to pennit the 

elimination of the rather large stable of launch 

vehicles that are used today. The STS is expected to 

be used to place almost all our satellites into orbit 

and have the capability of rendezvous with malfunctioning satellites to provide for repair on-orbit or for 

return to Earth. This capability assumes particular 

importance with the predicted growing future requirements for additional weather, Earth resources, 

communication, and navigational satellites. 

Space Shuttle.-The size and weight-carrying capacity of the Shuttle oibiter will free spacecraft designers from constraints that have made payloads 

very difficult and costly to build. With the Shuttle, 

it will br possible to use relatively inexpensive, more 

nearly standard laboratory equipment in place of 

specially constructed, highly miniaturized parts 

which are expensive to develop and test. It will 

also eliminate test articles and back-up hardware. 

The design effort on all of the major elements 

of the total shuttle orbiter system has now been initiated. Rockwell International/Space Division 

was selected to build the orbiter vehicle. Procurement to support this activity was initiated and 19 

subcontracts, each exceeding $10 million, have been 

authorized. Approximately half of the orbiter vehicle 

funds will be subcontracted to other firms throughout 

the country. This widespread use of the nation’s 

technical base is typical of the other major elements 

as well. 

The external tank for carrying the liquid cryogenic propellants for the orbiter main engines is 

being designed and built by Martin-Marietta Corp. 

in Louisiana. The main engines, which are the prime 

power plants for the oibiter, are being constructed by 

Rocketdyne in California. Hardware components of 

the engines, the long lead time clement of the Space 

Shuttle system, are already being tested. The fourth 

major element of the flight vehicle is the booster, 

consisting of two solid rocket motors strapped to the 

external tank to provide additional thrust during the 

initial launch phase. The motor for this element will 

be built by Thiokol in M’asatch, Utah. 

The Congress appropriatrd $475 million in FY74 

and $800 million in FY75 for the design, development, test, and evaluation to be accomplished during this period. These funds have been utilizcd to 

take advantage of the skills available throughout 

the United States and has allowed the development 

to proceed at a good pace. 

The first orbiter test flight scheduled for 1977 will 

be an unpowered flight after release from a carrier 

aircraft. This carrier aircraft, a commercial 747, was 

obtained in’July and preliminary flight testing, prior 

to initiation of modification to accommodate the 

orbiter, has started. The first manned orbital flight 

will occur in 1979 and the Shuttle is expected to be 

operational in 1980. 

Interim Upper Stage/Space Tug.-A large number of the payloads expected to be flown on the Space 

Shuttle during the 1980s will require a Shuttle Upper 

Stage to deliver these payloads to orbits beyond the 

capability of the Shuttle alone. In 1973 the Department of Defense and NASA agreed to a two-phase 

Upper Stage Program. Concurrent plans call for the 

USAF to develop an Interim Upper Stage (IUS) 

capable of delivering payloads to high energy orbits; 

no payload retrieval capability will be built into the 

IUS. NASA will be responsible for the planning of 

a full-capability reusable Tug, which will have the 

capability to deliver, retrieive, and, if economically 

desirable, service payloads in high energy orbits. The 

Interim Upper Stage is planned to be available in 

1980; thr Tug is expected to be operational about 

three years later. 

STS Mission and Payload Integration.-The Mission and Payload Integration Office continued its 

activities of studying the utilization of the STS and 

assuring hardware and operational compatibility between payloads and the STS. 

In 1974, primary efforts wcrc directed toward 

forniali7ing early Shuttle mission plans and conducting economic analyses for the continuing deveiopment and updating of the Payload and Flight Summaries that comprise the NASA Mission Model. 

Cuweent Luzc.nch Vehicles 

While awaiting the deployment of the STS, N&A 

is continuing to rely on expendable launchers to fulfill its launch obligations. The physical characteristics of these launchers are given in Appendix D, 

\vhile the details on their 1974 launch activities are 

given below. 

Scout.-During 1974, the four-stage solid-propellant Scout launch-vehiclr system placed six-satellites 

in orbit, five of which were cooperative or reimbursable international missions. In addition, standby 

readiness was maintained to support further launches 

of the US. Navy Transit Satellite Navigation 

S ys tein. 

Delta.--The first Delta mission in 1974-its 100th 

launch, was the first Delta launch utilizing surplus 

Saturn IR H-I engincs adapted to Delta. 

The vehicle was unsuccessful in attempting to 

place the British military cominunications satellite in 

geosynchronous orbit, due to a failure in the second 

stage electronics package. Appropriate corrective actions wcrr indtutrd and tb \,chicle laced six satel25 
lites in orbit including the first domestic commercial 

communications satellite, Westar-A; the important 

Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) to provide the initial operational capability to monitor 

severe storms ; a second Western Union satellite 

(Westar-B) ; the seventh in a series of operational 

meteorological satellites for NOAA; the British military communication satellite; and an experimental 

communications satellite for a joint French and German Government consortium. 

Also, during 1974, contracts were signed for seven 

additional reimbursable launches including three for 

RCA ; two for the French/German Government consortium; two for ESRO; and an initial agreement 

was made with the Japanese Government for three 

launches in 1976-1977. 

Atlas Centaur.-One Atlas Centaur launch took 

place during the past year. An Intelsat IV spacecraft was successfully placed in a synchronous transfer trajectory on November 21, 1974. Five launches 

are planned for the coming year to support reimbursable missions: four INTELSAT IV and IV A 

launches and one Comsat Domestic Communications 

Satellite launch. 

Titan Centaur.-A proof flight of the new Titan 

Centaur vehicle on Februafi 11, 1974, was only 

partially successful due to a failure of the Centaur 

stage boost pump. Corrective action was taken resulting in a successful launch of the German Helios-A 

solar probe in December. 

The Titan Centaur vehicle has been chosen to 

launch the dual Viking missions in 1975, as well as 

the second Helios spacecraft in 1976. 

Aduatzced Studies 

Advanced Studies provide a foundation for new 

manned space flight programs. These studies explore 

various potential program options to arrive at 

technical, cost, and schedule data which can be used 

by management in the decision-making process. 

Factors investigated include extension of existing 

capabilities, new modes of operation, or new concepts. During 1974, the last of the studies and 

related activities were completed relative to the 

Space Tug and Interim Upper Stage (IUS) of the 

Space Shuttle. They supported a decision for the 

USAF to develop the IUS and for NASA to defer 

the full-capability Tug until a later date. During 

this year an effort was initiated to perform integrated long-term planning for manned space systems during the ’80’s and ’90’s. This may ultimately 

result in a series of identified potential program 

options with first estimates of costs and schedules, as 

well as an identification of critical technologies 

needed. 

One study initiated is of the Manned Orbital 

Systems Concept, with investigation of the feasibility 

of the modules, transported to orbit in the Shuttle, 

being docked together to form an Earth-orbiting 

facility. Another is to analyze propulsion requirements 

of missions currently identified in the Mission Model 

Analysis and potential future missions. An investigation may then be performed to determine whether 

existing systems, uprated systems, or new propulsion 

systems would be most cost-effective. 

An investig tion is being performed to determine 

large structures that have been proposed, such as the 

Solar Satellite Power Station, or a large radiotelescope. Also being investigated is maintaining and 

servicing satellites in orbit, perhaps thus extending 

many-fold the lifetimes of a multitude of unmanned 

satellites as well as manned facilities. 

the feasibility 7 of assembling in orbit some of the very 

Tracking and Data Acquisition Program 

The objectives of the Tracking and Data Acquisition Program are to provide responsive and 

efficient tracking, data acquisition, communications, 

and related support to meet the requirements of 

all NASA flight projects. Such support is essential 

for achieving the scientific objectives of all flight 

missions, for executing the critical decisions which 

must be made to assure the success of these flight 

missions, and, in the case of manned missions, to insure the safety of the astronauts. During the past 

year the Tracking and Data Acquisition Program 

met the requirements of all flight projects on schedule and with excellent reliability. 

The majority of the support rendered the flight 

projects is provided through the facilities of two 

worldwide tracking networks-the Spaceflight 

Tracking and Data Network (STDN) and the Deep 

Space Network (DSN). The STDN furnishes support to all Earth-or8iting missions; the DSN supports the other major class of NASA’s flight programs, that is, the planetary and interplanetary 

missions. 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN) 

The operational activities of STDN remained at 

a high level during 1974 with support being provided to an average of 40 individual flight projects. 

In addition to supporting all of NASA’s Earth-orbital missions, the network supported space projects 

conducted by other Government agencies, private 

industry, and foreign countries through cooperative 

international programs. 

Communications.-One of the major inissions 

launched during the year and supported by the 

network was the Applications Technology Satellite. 
This satellite, named ATS-6, is the most complex, 

versatile, and powerful communications spacecraft 

launched to date. 

Meteorology.-In late May, the network supported the launch of the first in a new series of 

weather satellites-the Synchronous Meteorological 

Satellite (SMS) . The spacecraft, in near-synchronous orbit, is in a relatively fixed position above the 

Equator and is providing meteorologists with an 

updated picture of temperatures and clouds over 

the US. every 30 minutes. NASA’s tracking and 

data acquisition support to SMS is completed after 

the spacecraft is in orbit and its on-board systems 

operational. At that time the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) will assume the control of the satellite. 

Deep Space Network 

The Deep Space Network (DSN) continued to 

provide excellent support to NASA’s planetary and 

interplanetary missions. In addition to the substantial operational activities of last year, good progress was made in modifying and augmenting the 

network systems for support of future missions, such 

as the 1975 Viking missions to Mars. 

Venus-Mercury.-The Mariner 10, launched in 

November 1973, required a high level of network 

support throughout 1974. The mission imposed 

many “first-time” support requirements on the network, the most critical being the requirement to 

conduct multiple midcourse trajectory changes. 

These changes were needed to achieve a precise flyby 

of Venus to take advantage of that planet’s gravity 

to obtain the necessary velocity to fly by the planet 

Mercury. The ability $ the network to precisely 

track the Mariner spacecraft resulted in successful 

encounters of both planets, and the network received 

outstanding photographs of the planets. 

The receipt of a large number of these photographs, of excellent quality, was possible only through 

the 64-meter diameter antennas. The DSN has three 

of these large antennas evenly spaced around the 

world : Canberra, Australia; Madrid, Spain; and 

Goldstone, California. The capabilites afforded by 

the huge antennas and ultra-sensitive receiving systems have permitted NASA to conduct missions at 

ever-increasing distances from Earth and to maxiimize the science data return. 

]upiter.-The Pioneer 1 1 spacecraft required near 

continuous support throughout the year as it completed its journey to Jupiter, more than 900 million 

kilometers (560 million miles) away. When the 

spacecraft encountered Jupiter on December 3, the 

network began acquiring data on the planet from 

the three 64-meter antenna stations. The network 

support for Pioneer 11 is essentially the same as was 

provided Pioneer 10 one year earlier. 

The network is continuing its support of Pioneer 

11 as the spacecraft is now on a trajectory headed 

for Saturn. The spacecraft should encounter Saturn 

in mid-1979 and at that time the network will be 

acquiring data from a distance of over one and onehalf billion kilometers from earth. Without the advanced capabilities of the large 64-meter antennas, 

it would be impossible to conduct a mission over 

such extreme distances. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

A major objective in the longer-range plan for 

the Tracking and Data Acquisition Program is 

the introduction of the capabilities of a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) 

into the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network. 

The TDRSS is planned to consist of two satellites 

in synchronous orbit to relay data between low-altitude mission spacecraft and a single ground station 

located in the United States. The TDRSS is planned 

to provide nearly full-time, realtime contact with 

Earth-orbiting spacecraft and replace a number of 

the present ground stations of the STDN, leading 

over the longer term to overall reductions in tracking 

and data acquisition support costs. 

Good progress toward achieving the TDRSS objective was made in 1974 when Congress authorized 

(FY 1975 Authorization and Appropriation Acts) 

NASA to proceed with the needed procurement activities. The authority to implement the TDRSS 

is subject to further Congressional review of the economic tradeoffs between obtaining the services on 

a long-term leased basis from the private sector 

versus a NASA-owned system. 

Space and Nuclear Research and Technology 

The NASA Space and Nuclear Research and 

Technology programs are directed at providing a 

technology base for support of current and future 

space activities by advancing the technology used in 

systems required to transport, power, control, and 

communicate with the spacecraft, and in scientific instruments needed to achieve the objectives of current and future NASA space missions. Some of the 

resulting technology has applications to terrestrial 

uses as well. The significant accomplishments of the 

program in 1974 are noted below. 

Space Propulsion Technology 

Every major space mission that NASA has performed has been preceded by extensive rocket propulsion technology efforts. Propulsion systems take 

years to develop, and the technology must be ready 

before development starts. This means that the 

27 575-666 0 - 75 - 3 
technology for NASA missions in the 1980’s should 

be pursued in the 1970’s. Propulsion systems are 

expensive to develop and they are usually the major 

component of a vehicle system and, considering fuel, 

comprise the majority of the weight at launch. Therefore propulsion technology improvements can substantially improve performance and/or reduce cost 

of a program. 

NASA propulsion technology encompasses efforts 

in liquid and solid fuel chemical systems as 

well as electric-powered thrusters. In all cases 

the technology is aimed at expanding NASA’s 

mission capability at lower cost. Costs can be reduced by using lower cost hardware (typified by 

simpler solid fuel motors), by reusing systems over 

and over (like the Space Shuttle), or by improving performance of a particular stage enough to 

allow use of a smaller, cheaper launch system. 

Improved performance also opens the door to 

previously impractical missions such as out-of-theecliptic and close-to-the-Sun probes. A “new horizons” program has also been established to assure 

consideration of unconventional propulsion systems 

offering several times the energy levels now attainable. Selected program highlights are described 

below. 

Solid Propulsion Tcchno1ogy.-The final motor 

in a series of high efficiency solid-fuel motors was 

successfully tested in a static condition. This motor 

combined several advanced features such as a light 

weight all-carbon nozzle and expansion cone, a special igniter which provides a several second thrust 

buildup to minimize shock to the spacecraft, and an 

unusually flexible propellant. 

Planetary missions require propulsion systems which 

can withstand thermal sterilization cycling from about 

295 degrees to 410 degrees Kelvin (70 degrees to 275 

degrees Farenheit). The application of low-cost reliable solid motors to these missions has been prevented by the distortion tendencies and chemical 

instability of solid-fuels at these high temperatures. 

A significant step forward was taken this year with 

the successful static firing of a thermally sterilized 

solid-fuel motor. 

The high atmospheric pressures of planets like 

Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn require extremely large 

weight penalties if conventional chemical rockets 

or aerodynamic surfaces are used for entry or control. 

A pulsed detonation mode concept was developed 

which meets this challenge by using the output of a 

high-powered laser to detonate a small explosive 

charge remotely. The resulting shock wave is then 

directed by means of an expansion nozzle to provide 

thrust. The nozzle is designed to allow expulsion of 

the atmospheric gases which fill it between pulses, 

adding to the energy of the propellant. Firings of 

the proposed system were conducted in near vacuum 

conditions as well as at high pressure and in simulated atmospheres. 

Liquid Propulsion Technology.-A major longrange goal of the chemical propulsion program is to 

discover new energy storage concepts capable of 

more than doubling the specific impulse of present 

chemical rockets. Theoretical and experimental 

studies are continuing in the areas of atomic hydrogen: hydrogen enriched solids, and electronically 

excited solid helium. 

Experimental attempts to generate atomic hydrogen, by disassociating molecular hydrogen in a strong 

magnetic field and cooling the products to one degree Kelvin, have exhibited energy storage by the 

release of heat. Presses capable of developing pressures of 35,000 pounds per square inch are being 

developed to generate and study metallic hydrogen. 

An experimental effort on energy storage by hydrogen absorption in solids will study the promising 

hydrogen/deuterium palladium system. 

In the reusable oxygen-hydrogen propulsion technology program, contracts were awarded to develop 

high-performance liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen 

turbomachinery designed for 10-hour service life, 

and to develop a regeneratively cooled thrust chamber capable of completing 300 start/stop cycles. 

Fluorinated oxidizer (FLOX) propellant combinations offer up to a 30 percent increase in engine 

specific impulse over currently operational propulsion 

systems. This makes them attractive for use in future 

planetary missions which require long life systems. 

Eighteen month storage tests of titanium and aluminum in cryogenic fluorine and FLOX were completed 

this year. The tests indicate that the compatibility of 

these materials with fluorinated oxidizers is more 

than adequate for missions in excess of 5 years. 

Electric Propulsion Technology.-Electric propulsion is attractive as auxiliary propulsion for longlife 

station keeping and attitude control applications, 

and as primary propulsion for planetary/interplanetary and near-Earth applications requiring high 

specific impulse, reliability, and low mission cost. 

Tests of a one-thousandth of a pound (4.5 milliNewtons) thrust (150 watt) ion engine aboard the 

ATS-6 satellite were initiated this year to demonstrate north-south station keeping. Endurance testing 

of small engines in ground facilities continued. In 

the area of primary propulsion, the endurance testing 

of a standardized 2.75 kilowatt ion engine was continued past the one year mark. 

Space Power Technology 

Spacecraft depend on the Sun, batteries, fuel cells, 

and nuclear energy to supply the power needed to 

28 
operate instruments, computers, life-support systems, 

radios, and electric rocket engines. Due to weight 

restrictions, power for space missions has been limited, and the expansion of mission capabilities, therefore, requires improvements in existing kinds of space 

power systems and research on new concepts. Costs 

of power systems should also be reduced. For these 

reasons, NASA’s research and technology program 

gives considerable emphasis to the area of space 

power and covers a wide variety of energy sources 

and end uses. While space missions will be the 

major use of this NASA power-technology program, 

it is possible to apply this technology to other energy 

frelated systems. 

Sbacecraft Energy Systems Technology.-A test 

panel of newly developed, high efficiency solar cells 

was flown on the IMP J satellite to verify predictions 

of up to a 20 percent increase in efficiency with no 

loss in radiation resistance. The technical feasibility 

of making solar cells from a silicon ribbon grown 

.directly from the melt was demonstrated this year. 

This is one of the critical first steps in manufacturing 

low cost solar cells. A basic research effort has 

determined that the impurities that are introduced 

with the doping material degrade the performance 

of highly doped silicon solar cells. This problem 

has been holding up further improvements in 

efficiency. 

Preliminary specifications have been developed for 

primary batteries having five-to-ten year shelf life. 

These lifetimes are required for future outer planet 

atmospheric entry probes. These batteries have potential Earth applications as well. 

Recent progress in the regulation, distribution, and 

control of electric power in spacecraft was demonstrated by the flight qualification of a power-processing system for the CTS spacecraft. The system 

operates at 11,000 volts, exceeds 85 percent efficiency, 

and has a voltage ripple of+O.Ol percent. 

Nuclear Energy Technology.-An analysis was 

completed on gaseous fuel reactors which indicates 

that they could be operated, using uranium hexaflouride, at 1500 degrees Kelvin for high efficiency 

power generation. Gaseous fuel reactors couId also be 

utilized for the destruction of certain radioactive 

waste products from other nuclear power plants by 

transmutation and fusion of the waste material in 

the gaseous fuel reactors. Plans and designs were 

prepared for conducting low-power tests of such 

gaseous fuel reactors. 

Tests of a new thermionic energy converter designed to operate at lower temperatures with increased efficiency were successfully completed this 

year. Thermionic converters can be used to transform the heat energy from radioactive sources to 

electrical energy to power spacecraft systems. 

Direct Conversion of Nuclear Energy into Laser 

Light.-As part of the Nuclear Energy Technology 

Program, fission energy from a nuclear reactor was 

converted directly into laser light for the first time 

in an experiment this year. A helium-xenon laser was 

made to operate utilizing only the energy of fission 

fragments to energize the laser. This mechanism provides for the controlled conversion of nuclear energy 

directly into coherent laser light which could lead 

to major advances in energy conversion, long range 

communications, and power transmission over long 

distances. 

High Power Lasers and Energetics Technology.- 

Two new test devices that can produce fusion-like 

piasmas began regular experimental operation as 

part of a research program on methods to use fusion 

energy for space power plants. In one test series, 

helium was heated under steady-state conditions to 

a temperature of 100 million degrees Kelvin. 

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generators 

can make major improvements to power plant 

efficiency and can provide light-weight space power 

units. This year improved efficiency was measured in 

tests of an MHD generator system suitable for use 

with nuclear power plants. New efficient combustors 

were designed and tested in preparation for experimental testing of MHD generators powered by the 

burning of hydrogen and oxygen. 

Large, powerful superconducting magnets are required for efficient confinement of plasmas and for 

generatifig electrical power. Progress was made this 

year in developing processes for commercial manufacture of a new form of wire (i.e., ribbon) which 

can make large and powerful superconducting magnets stable and practical. 

NASA scientists invented a new technique for 

establishing laser action in metal vapors and developed a copper chloride vapor laser that radiates in 

the “Green Band.” A new form of laser action was 

demonstrated this year which depends on control of 

the spin energy of the nucleus. This process holds 

promise for use in low-noise amplifiers and biomedical research. 

In research on the transmission of power by laser 

light, the transmission of CO, laser power in a vertical direction was analyzed to include the changing 

composition of the atmosphere at various altitudes. 

It was determined that an increase of transmission 

efficiency of 70 percent could be realized by tuning 

the laser frequency so as to avoid the most important 

absorption lines in the atmosphere. 
Atmospheric Entry Technology 

The objective of increasing our knowledge and 

understanding of the origin and evolution of the 

solar system and extending our knowledge of the 

Earth by comparative studies of the outer planets 

requires the in-situ measurement of the atmospheres of these planets. The Advanced Atmosphere 

Entry Technology program is designed to establish a 

base of information to permit the design of probes 

that can enter the atmospheres of the outer planets, 

Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, in a safe, reliable, and 

predictable manner. In addition, the program is designed to provide the aerodynamic characteristics for 

spacecraft entering the Earth’s atmosphere. Selected 

highlights of the program are described below. 

Entry Aerothermodynamics.-Methods were developed for estimating the very high heating expected during entry into the atmosphere of Venus, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter. This year, estimates were 

made for the Pioneer Venus Project of the heating 

to be expected by a probe entering the Venusian 

atmosphere. 

Entry Technology Flight Experiment.-Fifteen 

flights have been completed in the Joint NASA/Air 

Force program which utilizes the X-24B research vehicle to help develop a technology base for advanced 

entry spacecraft and also for applications to hypersonic cruise vehicles. The vehicle’s flight characteristics, performance, and handling qualities have been 

evaluated in the speed range from Mach 1.6 to 

landing. 

Materials and Structures Technology 

Materials and structures are the building blocks 

of launch vehicles, spacecraft, and payloads for 

man’s exploitation of space. Supporting research in 

materials and structures has the goal of providing 

increased payload capability, resulting from structural weight reductions of up to 25 percent, and low 

cost, energy conservative systems. Selected highlights 

of the program are described below. 

Polymerization of Monomeric Reactants.- A new 

technique was developed for obtaining more processable, higher temperature resistant polymers for 

use as matrix materials in advanced resin fiber composites. These composites have potential for use in 

a variety of high performance applications. The 

composites are presently being evaluated to explore 

their use in advanced space transportation systems 

to achieve payload weight increases of 25 to 35 

percent. 

Seal Technology.-NASA has developed a hydrodynamic self-balancing or “lift pad” seal. The seal 

has demonstrated its ability to maintain close seperation without solid-to-solid rubbing, so that both leakage and wear are minimized. The concept has a 

variety of potential applications both within and outside of the aerospace field, e.g., the LOX pump of 

the Space Shuttle main engine, main bearings of 

aircraft gas turbine engines, etc. In aeronautics alone, 

it is estimated that as much as ten percent of the 

500 million barrels of crude oil used annually by the 

US. military and civil aircraft fleet could be saved 

through improved seal technology. Up to five percent savings are realizable from current advanced 

sealing concepts, such as the lift pad seal. 

Heat Pipe Technology.-A feedback controlled 

heat pipe and a thermal diode heat pipe, which permits heat transfer in only one direction, were demonstrated in flight tests on board the ATS-6 satellite. The devices were used for thermal control of 

temperature-sensitive spacecraft components. This 

advanced technology for heat transfer provides a 

greatly enhanced capability for spacecraft thermal 

control, and has potential use for heating and cooling, without electrical power or moving parts, in industrial plants, hospitals, laboratories, and homes. 

Guidance, Control and Znjormatiolt 

Systems Technology 

The increasing complexity of space missions has 

resulted in new instruments and components that 

have improved space exploration and operation capabilities. These instrument concepts can be applied to 

planetary as well as Earth-observation type missions, 

i.e., Earth Resources, Meteorology, Weather and Climate, etc. The applications of this new technology 

have imposed more stringent demands on the communication links between space vehicles and the 

user community. The reception, transmission, processing, and storage of information must be improved 

to satisfy these demands and must also be accomplished at lower cost and with increased reliability. 

The following paragraphs describe some of NASA’s 

achievements in these areas during the past year. 

Microwave Power Tubes.-A technique was developed for improving the efficiency of microwave 

power-amplifier tubes from their current 10 to 20 

percent efficiencies to greater than 50 percent. The 

new tube will be used to transmit 200 watts of 

power at 12 gigahertz on the Joint Canadian/NASA 

Communications Technology Satellite in FY 1976. 

Solid-State Data Storage System.-Tape-recorder 

type operations were demonstrated with a 6x104 bit 

feasibility model of a no-moving-part solid-state replacement system for scientific tape recorders. Studies 

indicate that a IOs bit unit can be developed that 

will have 10 times the expected useful life of con- 
vential satellite tape recorders, and will be smaller 

and require less power. 

Infrared Heterodyne Radiometer.-An infrared 

heterodyne radiometer which is sensitive to and 

capable of measuring wavelengths around 10 micrometers was developed. The radiometer was used to 

map the infrared radiation of the Moon and Mars 

with extreme accuracy and sensitivity. 

Wideband Communications Receiver.-The first 

Doppler tracking wideband receiver capable of operating with data rates exceeding 300 megabits per 

second and at a bandwidth of 2 700 megahertz was 

developed. In addition, a modulation system compatible with a carbon dioxide laser was operated 

this year. These two activities complete the development of the components for an optical data transfer 

system with a capacity capable of satisfying the requirements of future Earth resources missions. 

Solid-State Image.-A solid-state imaging sensor 

consisting of a 100x160 array of Charge Coupled 

Devices (CCD) was fabricated and tested as the 

active element in a planetary imaging camera. The 

sensitivity of the CCD camera is 10 times that of 

the Mariner 10 camera, with a four-fold reduction 

in weight and power. 

Semiconductor Laser Diode.-A breakthrough in 

laser technology was achieved with the development 

of the first continous wave semiconductor laser diode 

that operates at room temperature in the visible part 

of the spectrum. A minimum of 2000 hours of stable 

operation was obtained with the emission of tens of 

milliwatts of power. The power required to operate 

the device is 100 times less than that required for 

a typical gas laser. 

Space Shuttle Supporting Technology 

The Space Shuttle is a reusable, space transportation system essential for economical space exploration and exploitation. Since 1969, NASA has 

conducted a broad program to provide technology critical to the design and development of the 

Shuttle. This technology program was a multidisciplinary activity which involved aerodynamics, dynamics, structures, materials, propulsion, power, 

flight control, communications, operations, maintenance, and safety. Now that the Shuttle development 

program is well advanced, the Shuttle supporting 

technology program is confined to those areas, such 

as the evaluation of thermal-protection materials and 

flight performance, where significant contributions to 

the success of the Shuttle program can be made. 

Selected highlights of the program are described 

below. 

Shuttle Dynamics.-Studies were completed which 

defined methods to allow a wider range for the 

location of the center of gravity of the orbiter so that 

a broader range of payload sizes and shapes can be 

accommodated. 

Thermal Protection Materials.-Evaluation of the 

flight performance of Shuttle thermal protection materials is continuing in specialized test facilities. Results of tests on materials to be used as antenna windows indicate that no significant surface degradation 

or deterioration in the dielectic constant should occur. 

Propellant Gauging System.-A gauging system 

was developed to determine the quantity of liquid 

fuels in tanks under zero “g” conditions. The system, 

which has a maximum error of 0.5 percent over the 

full range of tank capacity, is based on the absorption 

of gamma rays passing through the tank. 

Low Cost Space Systems 

The LOW Cost Systems Office was established last 

year to lead an Agency-wide effort to reduce the overall cost of space systems. A cost-benefit analysis activity has been established and several common spacecraft components have been identified for standardization. Contracts have been let to develop two types of 

standard spacecraft tape recorders. Also, work has 

been initiated that will lead to the development of a 

standard spacecraft attitude control propulsion system, a flight computer, an inertial reference unit, 

solar cells, NiCd battery cells and a transponder. In 

addition, NASA’s business and program practices are 

being surveyed to identify opportunities for effecting 

cost savings in the administration and management 

of R&D programs. A study has been undertaken to 

identify those management techniques which were 

common to R&D projects that were accomplished at 

lower than estimated costs. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

The NASA Aeronautics Research and Technology 

programs are directed at serving national needs by 

focusing on the objectives of developing technology 

to (1) reduce energy requirements and improve the 

performance and economy of aircraft, (2) reduce the 

undesirable environmental effects of aircraft such as 

noise and pollution, (3) improve aircraft safety and 

terminal area operations, (4) advance short-haul, 

short take-off and landing, and vertical take-off and 

landing system concepts, and (5) provide aeronautical technology support to the military. The 

significant accomplishments of the program in 1974 

are noted below. 

Reducing Energy Requirements and lmproving 

Performance and Economy 

Events of this past year have shown the vulnerability of our transportation system to interruptions 

31 
in the supply of petroleum fuel. Air transportation, 

although highly productive, requires a significant 

portion of the Nation’s petroleum fuel. Relatively 

small reductions in drag and structural weight combined with higher propulsion system efficiencies can 

have a large effect on the overall fuel consumption 

and economic efficiency of the aircraft. Some highlights of the NASA programs for reducing energy 

requirements and improving performance and 

economy are described in the following paragraphs. 

Efficient Subsonic Wings.-The NASA-developed 

supercritical wing technology allows for subsonic aircraft cruise speeds to be increased nearer to the speed 

of sound without encountering undesirable increases 

in drag. This means that aircraft speed and distance 

can be increased without any increase in fuel consumption. Flight tests with an F-8 aircraft with supercritical wing demonstrated a 15 percent increase in 

distance traveled without using any additional fuel. 

An advanced wing, the NASA GAW-1, was developed 

for general aviation aircraft and is planned to be 

flight tested on a light twin-engine aircraft. 

Transonic Aircraft Technology.-More than onethird of the 50 planned test flights of the F-Ill aircraft equipped with an advanced supercritical wing 

were completed in the Transonic Aircraft Technology 

(TACT) program. Preliminary flight data confirms 

wind tunnel model data predictions of improved performance. 

Skin Friction Drag Reduction.-Preliminary tests 

were completed on compliant or flexible aircraft skin 

concepts which indicate a reduction of at least 16 

percent in skin-friction drag. Application of the compliant-wall concepts to aircraft have the potential of 

significantly decreasing aircraft fuel consumption. 

Filamentry Composite Materials.-NASA research 

has shown that the use of boron- or graphite-epoxy 

composite materials can reduce the structural weight 

of aircraft components by as much as 50 percent, resulting in reduced fuel consumption and increased 

performance and economic benefit. Although benchlevel research has demonstrated the advantages of 

composites, application is dependent on verification of 

their durability in airline operations. A five-year 

flight durability program, which will amass more than 

two million component flight test hours, is in progress 

and will include two components on military aircraft and four secondary plus two primary structural 

components on commercial aircraft. 

Active Control Technology.-The use of active 

control technology, together with improved aerodynamics, has been shown in analytical studies to have 

potential benefits in the areas of superior performance, increased aircraft life, reduced fuel consumption, reduced noise, and greater passenger comfort. 

Last year, flight tests demonstrated the feasibility of 

digital fly-by-wire control of aircraft. This year the 

design of a triply redundant system was completed. 

A program was initiated to develop techniques for 

the design of aircraft using active control concepts. 

Studies were completed by Boeing and Lockheed 

which defined how existing aircraft could be used 

to demonstrate individual active control concepts. 

. Gas Turbine Propulsioa Systems.-NASA and the 

Air Force initiated a long-range research program 

aimed at strengthening and expanding the technology 

base for aircraft gas-turbine propulsion systems. The 

Air Force will supply modern advanced technology 

engines to sellve as research propulsion systems and 

NASA has the responsibility for planning and execution of the research programs. 

Fuel Consumption Reduetion.-A system design 

study was begun to explore fuel-conserving opportunities for subsonic transport aircraft. The study is 

intended to quantitatively establish sensitivities and 

trade-offs among fuel conservation, noise, engine emissions, schedule delay, and economics and identify the 

technology advances needed for the design of future aircraft. A series of studies was initiated to determine various approaches for reducing commercial 

subsonic jet engine fuel consumption. The studies will 

examine modifications to existing engines and engine 

design concepts based on unconventional approaches 

with the objective of achieving a 30 percent reduction 

in fuel consumption. Other studies were initiated to 

establish the feasibility of major airframe-modification fuel conservation technologies for commercial 

aircraft. Alternate fuels such as hydrogen and methane are being studied by NASA as a possible means 

of reducing aircraft petroleum demands. Combustor 

tests have been run which evaluated the engine 

emissions resulting from blends of hydrocarbons 

which simulate fuels that could be produced from 

the liquification of coal. 

Remotely Piloted Research Vehicles.-Progress was 

made in evaluating the advantages of using unpiloted, scale-model aircraft for flight research involving 

hazardous or new high-risk aircraft concepts. A threeeighths scale F-15 fighter Remotely Piloted Research 

Vehicle (RPRV) was maneuvered into stalls and 

spins to investigate best means of recovery from 

spins. An advanced wing concept, the oblique wing, 

which has promise for reducing drag and sonic boom 

for high speed aircraft, was evaluated in low speed 

flight using the low cost RPRV approach. 

Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology.-NASA 

has initiated the Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology program to promote and stimulate the application of new advanced (high-risk) technology in a 

32 
multidisciplinary manner to the design of future 

highly maneuverable military aircraft. The program 

plans to utilize the RPRV flight test technique to 

realize the RPRV benefits of safety (unmanned), 

flexibility (remotely piloted), and low cost (subscale 

models). 

Supersonic Cruise Aircraft Research.-A shock 

stabilization system which optimizes inlet operation at 

very high speeds was designed and wind-tunnel tested this year. A cooperative airframe/propulsion control system, which minimizes undesirable interactions 

between airframe and propulsion systems, is being designed for flight testing on a Mach 3 aircraft. Flight 

and laboratory evaluations of various new structural 

concepts, suitable for the high Mach number environment, e.g., weldbrazed and honeycomb titanium panels, are in process. 

Aircraft Handling and Ride Quality.-NASA’s effort to provide passenger acceptance and ride quality 

criteria for future air transportation systems continues this year. Commercial aircraft motion data 

were collected in flight and the resulting data incorporated into simulation studies conducted in the 

Passenger Ride Quality Apparatus. Modified Boeing 

727 approach and landing trajectories were used 

to provide subjective ride-quality data applicable 

to projected short haul take-off and landing operations. 

In a cooperative program with Kansas University 

and Beech Aircraft Company, a split-surface stability 

augmentation system was designed and evaluated in 

the laboratory. This system may reduce pilot workload and provide better aircraft handling and ride 

characteristics. Flight tests will begin next year in a 

Beech 99 commuter airline aircraft. 

Reducing Undesirable Elzvironmental Effects 

Aircraft noise and exhaust pollution are two undesirable environmental effects. A major NASA 

responsibility in aeronautics is to perform the research and develop the technology to reduce aircraft 

noise and pollution in ways that are economically 

and operationally sound. 

Data and technical understanding resulting from 

the NASA programs serve to enlarge the technology 

base the aviation industry uses to develop hardware 

modifications and new designs. They furnish the 

government realistic and credible technical information needed in deciding and promulgating future 

noise and exhaust emission regulations. 

NASA’s noise and pollution reduction program is 

quite broad. In noise reduction, it includes fundamental studies of acoustics and noise sources, acoustic suppression and reduction techniques and technology demonstrations, community noise-impact-prediction methods, and techniques for assessing human 

response. In exhaust pollution reduction, the program 

includes combustion and pollution formation research 

as well as combustor design technology demonstrations. These activities include analyses and experiments to predict and measure the atmospheric impact 

of aircraft exhaust emissions. 

Some high1:ghts of the NASA programs for reducing undesirable environmental effects of aircraft are 

described in the following paragraphs. 

Reducing Engine Noise from Existing Transport 

Aircraft.-NASA’s Refan Program is a major effort 

involving the application of advanced technology to 

the quieting of the JT8D engine which powers a 

major portion of the Nation’s narrow-body commercial air fleet. The noise-footprint areas of these 

aircraft can be reduced substantially, when the engine’s two-stage fans are replaced with larger singlestage fans. During the past year, three refanned 

engines have been built and ground tested. To date, 

the refanned engines have met performance, endurance, and acoustic goals. Acoustically treated nacelles 

were fabricated, and the necessary airframe modifications determined to begin ground testing the engines on a Boeing 727 configuration and flight testing 

on a Douglas DC-9 aircraft in early 1975. 

Acoustic Composite Nacelle.-Conceptual design 

studies were initiated to define the means of integrating various acoustic composite material concepts 

in engine nacelle construction to reduce aircraft noise 

footprint area, without increasing operating costs and 

fuel consumption. 

Propeller and Rotor Noise Reduction-Studies are 

underway to determine the potential for reducing the 

propeller noise of general aviation aircraft. Initial 

concentration is on the use of shrouds and ducts to 

reduce propeller noise. Full-scale wind tunnel tests 

of a modified airplane with a shrouded propeller 

have been completed. 

Wind-tunnel tests were completed which demonstrate that low-speed propellers and rotors with serrated leading edges are quieter than conventional 

airfoils. Further tests are planned to determine 

whether the noise-reduction effects of serrations will 

apply to high-speed rotors, fans, and inlet compressors 

for jet engines. 

Airframe Noise Reduction.-A program was initiated to determine the source, magnitude, and methods of reducing airframe noise for large transport aircraft in approach (Le., flaps and landing gear extended) configurations. Preliminary noise-source 

measurements were made in conventional wind tunnels and anechoic chambers, and airframe noise-prediction techniques were developed using fundamental 

noise-source principles and data correlations. 

33 
Noise Reduction Laboratory.-The completion of 

the Aircraft Noise Reduction Laboratory at the NASA 

Langley Research Center this year provides a powerful new tool for research into the nature of aircraft 

noise and human response to it. 

Noise Reduction Flight Procedures.-The two-seg 

ment landing approach was developed by NASA to 

reduce aircraft noise levels on the ground, in communities near airports, due to aircraft approaches 

for landing. A United Airlines DC-8 aircraft, utilizing the two-segment approach, achieved a 53 percent 

reduction in the ground area impacted by noise 

above desirable tolerance levels. This year, there was 

a major effort to develop avionics and flight procedures that will allow current jet transport aircraft 

to make two-segment approaches under instrument 

flight conditions during routine schedule service. 

Quiet, Clean, Short Haul Experimental Engine.- 

NASA’s Quiet, Clean, Short Haul Experimental Engine (QCSEE) program has as its objective the demonstration of high-bypass-ratio engine technology for 

very quiet, very clean, and efficient propulsion systems 

technology which might be used in economically 

viable and environmentally acceptable powered-lift 

short-haul aircraft. General Electric Company will 

design, build, test, and deliver two experimental 

powered-lift propulsion systems to NASA for extensive ground evaluation of acoustic and aerodynamic 

performance in appropriate wing/flap system installations. The preliminary design of the two QCSEE 

propulsion systems was approved this year. The first 

system is designed for application to under-the-wing 

propulsive lift configurations; the second system is 

designed for over-the-wing configurations. 

Global Air Sampling Program.-The purpose of 

the global air sampling program is to determine the 

contribution of high-altitude jet aircraft engine exhaust emissions to atmospheric pollution. A United 

Airlines Boeing 747 equipped with an atmospheric 

sampling instrument package commenced routine 

service on a commercial air route over the continental United States to Hawaii. Subsequently, Pan American plans to fly a similar instrument package on a 

round-the-world commercial air route in the northern hemisphere. 

Stratospheric Jet Wake Measurements.-The near 

wake constituents of a YF-12 aircraft exhaust are 

being measured to determine the impact of supersonic aircraft engine emissions on the stratosphere. 

A water dump system is currently being tested on 

the YF-12 aircraft to mark its exhaust wake to assist 

the probe aircraft in locating the wake. 

Clean Combustor Program.-The NASA Clean 

Combustor technology program was expanded to develop technology to reduce aircraft emissions to meet 

Environmental Protection Agency emission standards for 1979. The expanded program will include 

the application and demonstration of clean combustor 

technology on all thrust classes of commercial aircraft engines, including internal combustion and turboprop engines. Phase I tests on several combustor 

concepts of the Clean Combustor Program reported 

last year were completed and the 1979 EPA idle 

mode emission goals for the T-2 class (large) engines 

were met. 

Engine Cycles for Supersonic Aircraft.-Engine 

cycle studies are underway that will lead to the 

selection next year of an optimum engine cycle for 

supersonic cruise aircraft to minimize noise and pollution. 

Improving Aircraft Safety and 

Terminal-Area Operations 

New aircraft types, changing operational environments, and revised flight procedures all have significant implications for aircraft safety and efficient airport operations. A continuing program of research is 

necessary to minimize the impact of these changes 

while at the same time providing a net improvement 

over the longer term. Airport terminal-area congestion and operational difficulties account for most 

flight and ground delays, with their waste of 

precious fuel and the travelers’ valuable time. The 

population living and working near airports is heavily 

impacted by aircraft noise. 

Safe and efficient terminal-area operations thus 

benefit the traveler, the aircraft operator, and the 

airport neighbor. Programs for improving aircraft 

safety and terminal-area operations continued to 

make progress this year; selected highlights are described below. 

Aircraft Wake Vortex Reduction.-The wakes left 

by large aircraft pose a significant hazard to other 

aircraft if adequate spacing between aircraft is not 

maintained. The problem of trailing vortices curtails maximum use of our Nation’s airports. Reduction of wake-vortex intensity would permit closer 

aircraft spacing in operations and thereby increase 

airport operational efficiency. Numerous techniques 

were evaluated for reducing wake vortices in windtunnel and water-channel tests. This year the most 

promising concepts were flight tested to determine 

their full-scale performance. Flight tests of techniques 

using wing-tip mounted splines and engine-induced 

turbulence verified the extent of wake vortex minimization predicted by model tests. Flight tests of 

another promising technique, varying spanwise lift 

distribution, were completed with a Boeing 747 late 

this year. Concurrently, in the event that aerodynamic reduction of aircraft wakes should be impractical 
for retrofitting the current jet fleet, NASA is developing a laser doppler system for detecting and 

tracking aircraft wakes in the vicinity of airports. 

This system would also enable air traffic controllers 

to adjust aircraft spacing more closely. Tests of a 

prototype system were completed this year and the 

system is undergoing operational evaluation at JFK 

airport in New York. 

Aircraft StalllSpin Characteristics.-According to 

the National Transportation Safety Board, 35 percent 

of all general aviation accidents and resulting fatalities are caused by the stall/spin phenomenon. Stall/ 

spin behavior is under investigation utilizing unique 

facilities, such as the spin tunnel at Langley Research 

Center, to determine design criteria for aircraft with 

vastly reduced stall/spin characteristics. 

Aircraft Landing Systems.-This year NASA research on aircraft landing systems led to the development of a new polymer additive for tires which will 

substantially reduce aircraft tire wear and blowouts. 

A new brake compound was developed which should 

increase brake life and reduce brake fading. Tests 

were completed which resulted in a new understanding of the operation of aircraft anti-skid systems under 

tire hydroplaning conditions. 

Aircraft Crashworthiness.-Five full-scale aircraft 

crash tests were performed this year as part of the 

General Aviation Crashworthiness program. Data 

from the program will be used to develop analytical 

methods for predicting structural collapse behavior 

under crash-impact situations, define a survivable 

crash envelope, improve restraint methods, and deline design methods to improve crash survivability. 

A total of 32 airframes damaged in Hurricane Agnes 

have been acquired from Piper Aircraft Corporation 

for this purpose. 

Fire Retardant Materials for Aircraft.-Each year 

aircraft accidents occur in which occupants survive 

the initial impact but succumb to the smoke, heat, 

and toxic fumes produced by post-crash fire. NASA 

research on developing fire-retardant materials for 

aircraft continued this year with the development of 

an improved fire-retardant window material. Tests 

were also made of fire-retardant fabrics, coatings, and 

other interior materials to determine their safety 

characteristics and effectiveness. Full-scale fuselage 

fire tests were conducted for preliminary assessment 

of nonflammable properties of new materials for 

aircraft interiors. The materials showed good fire 

resistance and lower smoke production than current 

materials, but still produced significant amounts of 

toxic by-products indicating that further research is 

needed. 

Human Error in Aircraft Accidents.-Last year the 

results of a preliminary study to assess the human 

error factor in aircraft accidents were reported. This 

work was continued to verify the significance of 

the previous findings and to define research studies 

that will provide solutions with special emphasis 

placed on the approach and landing flight phase. A 

comprehensive program was initiated to understand 

the requirements and roles of air crews and ground 

controllers in the automated air traffic control environment projected for 1985 and beyond. An 

oculometer, a device which unobtrusively provides 

accurate real-time data on where a pilot is looking 

during tasks, has been developed and put into operation. Use of the oculometer should provide an effective technique for use in the development of safe, 

efficient advanced flight-management systems. 

Terminal Configured Vehicle Operations.-NASA’s 

Terminal Configured Vehicle program has the objective of providing technology to enable future Conventional Take-Off and Landing (CTOL) aircraft 

to be totally compatible with advanced air traffic 

management systems. By 1982 this system should 

include such features as improved four-dimensional (position plus time) navigation, more flexible landing guidance systems, better communications, and 

more automation, such as for computer assisted separation of aircraft. To validate various airborne system 

concepts, extensive use is being made of simulators 

and flight experiments in a simulated high density 

terminal area. Flight research with a Boeing 737 aircraft, modified to include an advanced electronic display system, automatic guidance and control system, 

and aft flight deck, was initiated. The accuracies 

obtained give encouragement of attaining the goal 

of less than five seconds time variation from the 

flight program in routine operations. The program 

places emphasis on the human factor aspects of 

operations and the interactions of crew members. 

Advancing Short Haul, Short Take-Off and Landing, and Vertical Take-Off and Landing System 

Concepts 

The problems of airport congestion to the traveler, 

aircraft noise on the surrounding community, and 

new emphasis on fuel conservation, coupled with increased air traffic forecasts, are matters of national 

concern. Airport congestion in the high-density corridors especially detracts from the convenience of the 

shorter distance traveler, since a high percentage of 

total trip time is associated with ground operations. 

Introduction of new short-haul transports (vertical 

and short-take-off and landing aircraft) and systems 

might better utilize existing airports and airspace, 

provide precise touchdown times, and may contribute 

to reducing congestion and fuel consumption. These 

aircraft are expected to provide the means of containing noise within the airport boundaries because of 

35 
steep descent and ascent flight paths and the ability 

to maneuver around local population communities. 

Selected program highlights are described below. 

Propulsive-Lift Technology.-Research emphasis 

continued on the upper surface blown flap and jet 

augmentor wing propulsive-lift concepts this year. 

These concepts are aimed at providing transport aircraft with short-field performance and acceptable 

noise levels, with minimum penalty to cruise performance and operating costs. Studies are in progress to 

refine and expand the technology base for the upper 

surface blown flap concept, emphasizing cruise performance and noise aspects. The first of a series of 

advanced augmentor wing concepts intended to provide improved lift augmentation and reduced noise 

was tested on a semispan wind-tunnel model this 

year. Proof-of-concept flight tests of the C-8 augmentor wing research aircraft, incorporating an early 

version of the augmentor concept, were completed, 

verifying the increase in lift indicated from previous 

wind tunnel model studies. 

Quiet Short-Haul Research Aircraft.-A Quiet 

Short-Haul Research Airplane program was initiated 

to generate and verify, through flight research, a technology data base for design and certification criteria 

for practical and efficient quiet propulsive-lift shorthaul transports. Preliminary design studies were completed and the selection made of the propulsive-lift 

concept to be used on the research aircraft. Next 

year an existing C-8 Buffalo aircraft will be modified 

to a swept-wing hybrid-upper surface blowing advanced propulsive-lift configuration powered by four 

Avco Lycoming AFL 502 series engines. 

STOL Crosswind Landing.-A study of the problems associated with landing during extreme crosswinds in a typical Short Take-Off and Landing 

(STOL) aircraft was completed in 1974, resulting in 

follow-on research with a versatile tri-cycle crosswind 

landing gear system being planned for 1975. 

STOL Navigation, Guidance, and Control Systems.-An effort is being conducted under a joint 

NASA/FAA agreement to help provide the technology required for the design and development of an 

effective STOL short-haul air transportation system 

that can operate unobtrusively into city centers and 

suburban facilities. An operating systems experiments 

program was formulated to aid in the choice of 

terminal area navigation, guidance, and control 

system concepts for STOL short-haul aircraft, and 

will evaluate operational procedures. A flexible 

digital avionics research system (STOLAND) was 

installed in the CV-340 short-haul transport aircraft, 

and 8 test flights were made to obtain preliminary 

avionics system performance. STOLAND investigations were initiated this year with a DHC-6 turboprop and the C-8 Augmentor Wing Research Aircraft to obtain performance data. 

A control system for STOL and Vertical Take-Off 

and Landing (VTOL) aircraft, that uses optimal 

four-dimensional (position plus time) guidance techniques that can control touchdown time within 25 

second along tightly curved approach paths, was 

flight tested this year. This precise touchdown capability can double maximum STOL landing rates, and 

reduces the danger of interference with conventional 

aircraft on adjacent approach paths. 

Lift Fan and Vectored Thrust Aircraft Technology.-In the Vertical rake-off and Landing 

(VTOL) aircraft research program, small-scale wind 

tunnel tests were completed on an advanced lift plus 

lift-cruise aircraft model and on a vectored-thrust 

combat VTOL configuration. Small-scale tests of two 

lift-fan configurations were completed in the V/ 

STOL tunnel. These tests are aimed at providing 

part of the technology required for a VTOL civil 

transport having the speed range, operating costs, 

and capability of current medium range CTOL aircraft. Initial static tests of a thrust vectoring system, 

designed to have light weight and rapid response 

characteristics with small losses in thrust, were completed in 1974 as part of a joint NASA/Navy program. The program is expected to provide design 

information for future military aircraft having VTOL 

and high subsonic cruise speed capability. Flight dynamics research utilized the variable stability X-22 

tilt duct V/STOL airplane to investigate requirements for making decelerating approaches to a vertical landing under instrument flight conditions. 

VTOL Navigation, Guidance, and Control Systems.-An integrated navigation, guidance, and control system for VTOL aircraft is being developed as 

part of a joint NASA/Army program to improve the 

technology for short-haul aircraft. A CH-47 helicopter will be used for flight tests. A three-axis strapdown inertial navigation system, using ring lasers as 

low-cost, no-movingpart replacements for the conventional mechanical gyros, was developed; and accuracies of approximately one nautical mile per hour 

were demonstrated. Flight evaluation is planned next 

year. 

A program is underway to provide technology to 

demonstrate the capability of VTOL aircraft to land 

and takeoff with optimized fuel consumption and 

safety under low visibility conditions or at unprepared sites. 

Rotorcraft Technology.-In the rotorcraft technology program, the effort to reduce the noise and 

vibration due to vortices generated by the rotor blade 

tips continued with full-scale tests to examine the 

36 
effects of rotor blade tip shape on noise and lift performance; and with tower tests of a rotor concept 

using air mass injection near the tip. Studies of advanced rotor concepts included the completion of 

small-scale high-speed wind tunnel tests of the reverse 

velocity rotor designed for higher cruise speed application, tower tests of a large-scale variable geometry 

rotor designed for reduced vibration and noise, and 

aeroelastic analysis of the bearingless rotor designed 

for reduced drag and maifitenahce. Plight tests were 

completed on the CH-46 variable stability helicopter 

providing a quantitative comparison of several combinations of control and pilot display concepts evaluating trade-offs ip pilot workload, task performance, 

and complexity. 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft.-The joint 

NASA/Army Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA) program consists of the design and fabrication 

of two unique flight research vehicles incorporating 

special research measurement systems with the capability to test promising new rotor systems and to verify 

new analytical methods in a real flight environment, 

which cannot be simulated adequately in groundbased facilities. The program entered the initial fabrication phase this year with delivery scheduled for 

1977. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft.-The joint NASA/ 

Army Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft (TRRA) program, which consists of the design, fabrication and 

flight test of two tilt rotor aircraft, reached the fabrication phase this year with delivery scheduled late 

next year. The benefits offered by the tilt rotor concept result from combining the low disc loading hover 

efficiency of a helicopter with the good cruise efficiency and increased forward speed capability of a 

fixed wing aircraft configuration. 

Supporting the Military in Maintaining the 

Superiority of Military Aircraft 

NASA continues to assist the military by developing advanced technology suitable for future military 

systems. In addition to conducting these R&D programs, NASA has provided direct technical support to specific military aircraft programs, such as 

the F-15, B-1, YF-16 and YF-17 programs to enhance 

the success of their development. 

International Affairs 

Highlights of 1974 included joint testing and training for the Apollo-SoyuZ test flight in July 1975, four 

cooperative satellite 'launchings, selection of foreign 

investigators for studies based on remote sensing data 

to be obtained by the ERTS-B satellite, and onschedule progress in the development of Spacelab, the 

manned orbiting laboratory which our European partners are building to operate with the Space Shuttle. 

US /USSR Cooperation 

Joint NASA/Soviet Academy of Sciences Working 

Groups continued to implement the May 24, 1972 

US/USSR Agreement Concerning Cooperation in 

the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. This agreement provides for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project-a 

joint manned experimental flight in 1975 to test conipatible rendezvous and docking systems-and for cooperation in space science and applications. 

Apollo-Soyur Test Project (ASTP) .-ASTP is the 

joint US/USSR manned space flight provided for by 

the US/USSR Agreement Concerning Cooperation 

in Space which President Nixon and Chairman Kosygin signed at the Moscow Summit in May 1972. 

This experimental flight, on schedule for JuIy.1975, 

has as its primary objective the conduct of space 

experiments to test the technical requirements and 

solutions for compatibility of systems for rendezvous 

and docking of future manned spacecraft and stations. 

A successfuI mission will contribute to a rescue capability for future manned space flights and broaden 

opportunities for US and USSR space cooperation in 

the years ahead. The Apollo Spacecraft is also carrying 27 individual experiments on this mission, five 

of which are joint experiments with the Soviets. These 

experiments cover the fields of science, space processing and manufacturing, applications, and life sciences. Several of the experiments are completely 

funded, except for spacecraft integration costs, by 

foreign governments. For example, the Federal Republic of Germany is funding an e1ectrophoresi.l experiment to four to five million marks (apprpximately two million dollars). 

The ASTP mission plan calls for the Soyuz to be 

launched first from the Soviet launch site at Baikonir. 

The first Apollo launch opportunity will occur about 

seven and one-half hours after Soyuz liftoff. Once in 

orbit, the Apollo will perform the necessary rendezvous maneuvers and then dock with the Soyuz. For 

about two days, the astronauts and the cosmonauts 

will exchange visits between vehicles and carry out 

joint activities, including experiments in space science 

and applications. There will be additional tests of the 

compatible docking mechanisms and, after final separation, the Apollo spacecraft will conduct further 

independent activities before re-entry. 

The docking mechanisms to be used in the mission 

are separately developed and manufactured by the 

two nations but are based on a'single set of ageed 

design specifications for components which must be 

compatible. US and Soviet engineers are closely engaged in the solution of common problems. 

With design and development essentially complete, 

major progress in 1974 included joint compatibility 

tests of communications and docking systems and the 

' 

37 
start of intensive US/USSR joint flight crew and 

flight-controller training. During the year, the Soviet 

side conducted two unmanned flights of the Soyuz 

spacecraft to test new systems and equipment to be 

used in the joint mission and completed an additional test flight of a manned Soyuz modified to 

an ASTP configuration. Meanwhile, NASA and the 

Soviet Academy approved public information plans 

for both the pre-mission and flight phases of the 

project. Plans have been made for the conduct of 

pre-launch tests at the US and USSR launch sites, 

and a joint flight readiness review has been scheduled 

for May 1975. 

Space Science and Applications.--In the space 

science area, a joint NASA/Soviet Academy Conference on the Cosmochemistry of the Moon and the 

Planets was held in Moscow in June. During the 

Conference, a detailed Soviet briefing on the results 

of their recent missions to Mars was provided for a 

team of US specialists associated with the NASA Viking Project. US and Soviet specialists, who are preparing the joint experiment involving the correlation 

of geomagnetic data through ATS-6, met in the US 

in October for technical coordination. The Space 

Biology and Medicine Working Group met in the 

USSR in late October to exchange biomedical results of the Soyuz 13 and 14 and Skylab space flights. 

The Working Group also made recommendations, 

subsequently approved, which provide for NASA to 

prepare life science experiments for flight on the next 

available Soviet biological satellite. 

In the space applications area, the joint Working 

Group on the Natural Environment agreed to (1) 

continued analysis and exchange of Nimbus/Cosmos 

microwave data and (2) coordinated investigation 

of microwave methods to determine moisture. In addition, the Working Group agreed on actions looking 

to the definition of coordinated studies in (1) geology 

and geomorphology, (2) vegetation, soil, and land 

use, and (3) hydrology. In connection with the proposed coordinated studies of vegetation, soil, and 

land use, U.S. scientists visited the Kursk test site 

in the Soviet Union. Also, US. and U.S.S.R. experiment scientists met in Leningrad in May to present the results of the final analyses of the data obtained during the joint Bering Sea microwave sensing 

experiment. This was the first time two independent 

research groups have made microwave radiometry 

measurements of sea ice and the ocean surface under 

the same conditions of varying surface roughness and 

intervening atmospheric conditions with generally 

the same results. 

Spacelab 

Spacelab, to be carried in the Space Shuttle cargo 

bay, received considerable attention during the year. 

The objective of the Spacelab program is to provide the user community with a ground-type laboratory which can take advantage of the unique environment of space. 

The development of Spacelab, undertaken by 

agreement with NASA by the European Space Research organization (ESRO) , proceeded on schedule 

with award in June 1974 by ESRO of the development contract to a European consortium headed by 

ERN0 of Germany. Spacelab represents a major 

(approximately $420 million) contribution by ten 

participating European countries to the Shuttle-based 

Space Transportation System. Delivery of the first 

Spacelab flight unit is planned for mid 1979. 

Meanwhile NASA and ESRO continued and expanded their respective Spacelab-use planning efforts 

involving representatives of a broader variety of 

science and application disciplines including physics 

and astronomy, life sciences, communications and 

navigation, Earth observations, and space processing. 

A NASA/ESRO Joint User Requirements Group 

(JURG) met throughout the year to assure that 

European and US. communities’ user requirements 

are provided on a timely basis for Spacelab design. 

In addition, a Joint Planning Group (JPG) was 

established in mid-year to recommend the experimental objectives of the first Spacelab flight, which 

will be a joint NASA/ESRO mission. 

And looking further into the future, NASA, in 

coordination with ESRO, has initiated Spacelab niission-definition studies in three science disciplines : ( 1 ) 

atmospheric, magnetospheric, and plasmas-in-space 

(AMPS), (2) solar physics, and (3) ultraviolet 

astronomy. The AMPS Working Group, first to be 

established, includes 14 foreign scientists-from Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, and the 

United Kingdom. 

Cooperative Satellite and Probe Projects 

HELIOS-A, the first of two solar probes developed in cooperation with Germany, was launched 

on December 10 from the Eastern Test Range. This 

is the largest cooperative project yet flown by NASA 

and is designed to take scientific data closer to the 

sun than any spacecraft has previously flown. The 

second HELIOS is scheduled for launch in early 

1976. Each spacecraft will carry an array of 10 experiments (seven German and three US.) designed 

to measure magnetic fields, plasma and radio waves, 

cosmic rays, and other particle and radiation phenomenon in interplanetary space and near the sun. 

These are expected to yield new data on solar behavior which is important to understanding the Sun’s 

effects on the Earth. 

Netherlands Astronomy Satellite (ANS) was 

launched by NASA from the Western Test Range 

38 
(WTR) on August 27. It carried x-ray instruments 

and an ultraviolet telescope for the study of stars and 

stellar objects and was the first cooperative U.S./ 

Netherlands scientific satellite. 

San Marco C2, a joint Italian-U.S. cooperative 

spacecraft to measure upper atmosphere density in 

the equatorial region, was successfully launched 

aboard a Scout rocket from an Indian Ocean platform off the coast of Kenya, Africa, on February 18. 

UK-5, an astronomy satellite developed as a cooperative project between NASA and the British 

Science Research Council, was launched on October 

15 on a NASA Scout launch vehicle from the 

Italian San Marco Range on the equator off the 

coast of Kenya. The spacecraft, contributed by the 

U.K., is designed to continue the study of stellar 

X-ray sources and search for new X-ray emitters in 

the universe. 

INTASAT, a cooperative spacecraft designed and 

developed in Spain, was launched as a secondary 

payload with ITOS-G on a Thor-Delta vehicle on 

November 15 from WTR. The satellite is an ionospheric beacon designed to permit measurement on 

the ground of the total electron content of the 

ionosphere as a function of latitude and time. 

Work continues on other cooperative satellite missions : (a) the International Utraviolet Explorer 

(IUE) , being developed in cooperation with the U.K. 

and ESRO, is expected to provide in 1976 a telescope 

facility in synchronous orbit for high resolution ultraviolet stellar studies, and (b) the Communications 

Technology Satellite (CTS) , a Canadian-U.S. COoperative spacecraft to advance the state of the art 

in communications-satellite technology and demonstrate low-cost broadcast capability in the millimeter 

wave frequency band to remote areas, is planned for 

launch in 1975. 

Earth Resources 

ERTS investigations.-Investigators from 37 countries and two international organizations analyzed 

data obtained from the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1, now redesignated LANDSAT-1) and the Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) on Skylab. ERTS follow-on studies 

were approved to analyze remotely sensed data in the 

form of imagery or on magnetic tapes collected by 

ERTS spacecraft. This will involve investigators from 

42 countries and five international organizations. 

Ground facilities.-Under an agreement reached 

in May, the Italian organization Telespazio will build 

a ground station designed to receive data directly from 

NASA experimental earth resources satellites. Located at Fucino, the new installation will be linked 

to the growing network of earth resources data 

facilities. A data-processing facility for Brazil’s ERTS 

data-acquisition station, established in 1973, became 

operational in September of this year. There is also 

an operating ERTS ground station in Canada. 

Several other countries have expressed interest in 

establishing similar facilities. 

Reimbursable Luunchings 

AEROS-B, a German aeronomy satellite was 

launched by NASA from WTR on July 12. Four 

German and one U.S. experiment on board will 

investigate the varied particles and fields processes 

that take place in the upper layers of the Earth’s 

atmosphere. 

Syrnphonie, a French/German experimental communications satellite, was launched from ETR on 

December 18 aboard a Delta vehicle. 

UK-X4, an experimental technology satellite 

launched successfully on March 8, is the first costreimbursable launch by NASA for the United Kingdom. The five U.K. experiments on board the threeaxis stabilized spacecraft demonstrated some new 

approaches to small satellite subsystem design. 

Broadcast Satellite Experiment 

India.-With the launching of the NASA ATS-6 

satellite on May 30, 1974, an important milestone 

was passed in the preparation for the oneyear 

NASA/Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) 

cooperative Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE). SITE, which is planned to begin in 

mid-1975, involves the broadcast of educational television programs from a station in India via the ATS6 satellite to some 5000 remote Indian villages, more 

than 2000 of which will be equipped to receive the 

signal directly from the spacecraft on standard TV 

receivers augmented by a 10-foot antenna and associated equipment to convert the satellite signal into 

a TV picture. The remaining villages will receive 

the signals via conventional ground-relay systems. 

SITE will be the first large-scale experiment in 

satellite broadcasting to community receivers in an 

underdeveloped country. India, which is responsible 

for all ground equipment, is also producing all the 

necessary programs for the year-long experiment. 

NASA will provide the satellite time (four hours a 

day) and is providing technical assistance to the 

development of the ground hardware. 

Lulzar Samples 

37 Principal Investigators from outside the United 

States, representing participation by 1 1 countries, 

were selected to continue or begin new investigations 

under the NASA Lunar Sample Research Program. 

39 
Disseminating Technology and Benefits 

The prime objective of NASA’s Technology Utilization program is to stimulate and organize the transfer of technology from aeronautics and space programs to the non-aerospace public and private 

sectors. The Technology Utilization program uses 

many means for the dissemination of new technology 

resulting from NASA’s research and development 

efforts, when such technology is deemed to have 

commercial potential. Various publications issued include Tech Briefs-single-page summaries describing 

the technology; Technical Support Packages-indepth elaborations of the technical aspects of the 

Tech Brief; Compilations-briefs on techniques or 

processes relating to a single field; and other NASA 

Special Publications, Case Studies, Profiles etc. 

Other methods used in the Technology Utilization 

Program to disseminate NASA technology for secondary application include the sponsorship of six Industrial Application Centers and one Computer Software 

and Management Information Center (COSMIC). 

, These centers are geographically situated throughout 

the .Nation to serve as a network of technical assistance €or both small businesses and large fir&. In addition the Technology Utilization program sponsors 

. Patent .Licensing Conferences .in prime geographical 

lacations to encourage businessmen to make commer- 

.cia1 ‘use of NhSA-owned patents.’ To expand its. efforts towards assisting minbrity enterprises in utilizing NASA-gen’erated technology for commercial applications, a full time staff member was assigned 

to concentrate on this work. One outgrowth of this 

effort was the assistance given by the Technology 

Utilization program in a minority-business conference 

and exhibition jointly sponsored by the Office of 

Minority Business Enterprise and NASA. 

The successful Applications Evgineering Program 

was continued during 1974 with the addition of 

. 

new projects in the areas of Biomedicine, Urban 

Construction and Safety, Environmental Pollution, Fire Safety, Transportation, and Law Enforcement. Some of the significant accomplishments 

resulting from these projects during 1974 included: 

the installation of the NASA-developed Flat Conductor Cable in an Urban Development Corporation 

of New York demonstration structure in New York; 

the increase in the number of implants of the NASA 

sponsored Rechargable Cardiac Pacemaker to over 

600 and the development and demonstration of a 

pediatric unit; the field test and evaluation by three 

major U.S. City Fire Departments of the NASA 

Fireman’s Breathing System; the commercialization 

of Controi Systems for the Handicapped developed 

under projects sponsored by this Program; and many 

others. In all aspects of these efforts, the Technology 

Utilization program continued its emphasis in sharing 

the technology developed under this program with 

other Government agencies and State and local 

governments, as well as private industry. As a result 

of these efforts, the amount of joint funding with 

other agencies has increased, thus enabling the Technology Utilization program to sponsor more projects 

as well as reduce the time for disseminating the technology to the private ahd public sector. 

University Affairs 

Participation of the academic community in NASA 

programs continued during 1974. Some 1,632 projects totaling $101 million were funded in support 

of research and space flight experiments in 258 

universities. This represents an increase of 30 schools 

over last year, most of which are participating in a 

special effort to assure minority schools an opportunity of working with NASA. A total of 102 awards 

for $2.4 million was made to 44 minority schools. 

40 
111 Department of Defense 

Introduction 

Space and aeronautical activities play a central 

role in enabling the Department of Defense (DOD) 

to carry out its mission-space in a supportive defense role in such activities as communications, 

navigation, meterorology and space surveillance, 

aeronautics in an active defense role in terms of 

tactical and strategic aircraft, air mobility, ground 

surveillance and airborne early warning and command posts. This chapter reports the progress made 

by DOD in space and aeronautics during 1974 to 

enhance its defense capabilities. 

Significant actions were taken this past year to 

expand and improve the Defense Satellite Communications System better to serve the needs of the 

National Command Authorities and the World Wide 

Military Command and Control System. Existing 

earth terminals were upgraded to operate with the 

new generation communications satellites and new 

large terminals were placed in procurement action 

for use in the DSCS around the world. Two new 

Phase I1 satellites were readied for launch in early 

1975 and action was taken to procure six additional 

satellites to replenish the system on a periodic basis. 

New electronic components were ordered which will 

add to the efficiency and versatility of the system. 

Also, the Navy initiated operation of its shipboard 

terminals in the DSCS. 

The NAVSTAR global positioning satellite program advanced significantly during 1974. The joint 

program office was formed and manned by representatives of all military Services and the Defense 

Mapping Agency. Contracts were let for the Phase 

I satellites and for user equipment development. The 

first technology satellite for flight demonstration of 

the atomic clocks was successfully launched in July. 

In August a decision was made to expand the constellation to six satellites to provide precise tracking 

capabilities for test of important Department of 

Defense weapon platforms. If the objectives of cost 

and performance are met during the first phase of the 

NAVSTAR program then a decision may be made 

to expand the program to a world-wide twodimensional capability. Such a capability is not 

presently planned prior to 1981, although acceleration to 1979 is being kept as an option if it can be 

shown to provide cost benefits. The accuracy of the 

world-wide two-dimensional system will be approximately 50 meters. Expansion from two-dimension to 

three-dimension with accuracies of 10 meters in any 

direction is planned by 1984. 

Weather data from anywhere on the globe can be 

stored aboard the Defense Meteorological Satellite 

Program and transmitted to Air Force Global 

Weather Central in Nebraska. Real-time local area 

imagery can also be transmitted to mobile readout 

stations for on-the-spot use by U.S. forces in the area, 

and during the past two years has been made 

routinely available to the civil/scientific community 

through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. 

The Advanced Research Projects Agency and the 

Air Force are currently engaged in advancing the 

technology which would permit better surveillance 

of passive (“quiet”) satellites. Groundbased and 

space sensors will both be used to provide the best 

mix of capabilities. 

The Department of Defense is committed to support the NASA Space Shuttle program, providing 

an interim upper stage for use in 1980 until the 

NASA space tug is developed in the mid-1980’s. 

Certain military payloads would be flown from the 

Kennedy Space Center starting in 1980. 

Increased operational air mobility is being provided by the C-5A heavy logistics transport aircraft 

and SAC C-135 tanker. Approximately 50,000 hours 

of flying time have been logged during the past year. 

The B-1 strategic bomber prototype had a SUCcessful first flight on 23 December 1974. The flight, 

lasting over an hour, permitted an1 assessment of the 

aircraft’s low-speed flying qualities and of such subsystem operations as throttle transients and afterburner lights. 

The remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) concept has 

been advanced significantly during the past year 

through the use of very reliable and miniature electronic devices and more efficient configuration design. 

41 
The concept permits extended flight duration missions, releasing personnel not only from tedious 

flights but from highly dangerous missions. 

Space Activities 

Military space programs have had a significant 

impact on strategic and tactical forces with the 

evolution of communications, meteorological, navigation, and surveillance satellite systems. With the 

maturing of space technology and the success of 

space systems operations on a routine basis, we 

have proceeded with confidence toward the implementation of those programs which would greatly 

enhance our land, naval, and air forces. 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) 

The objective of the DSCS is to provide rapid, 

reliable and secure communications to satisfy the 

requirements of the National Command Authorities 

and the World Wide Military Command and Control System. During 1974, the Phase I communications satellites, which were launched in the period 

1966 through 1968, continued in use. However, by 

the end of the year the number of Phase I satellites 

still in operation was reduced to the extent that continuous service in the Phase I system was no longer 

possible. This concluded a highly successful program, 

albeit, one of limited capability. 

With the successful launch of the third and fourth 

Phase I1 communications satellites on 13 December 

1973, the DSCS was in position to renew operations 

in the Phase I1 system which had been interrupted 

by the failure of the first two Phase I1 satellites. 

after extensive testing these two new satellites were 

placed in operation in February 1974, one over the 

Atlantic Ocean and one over the Pacific Ocean. Dual 

launch of the fifth and sixth satellites by mid-1975 

will extend the coverage of the DSCS and will provide an on-orbit spare. 

The Air Force, as an agent for the DSCS, has 

contracted for procurement of six additional Phase 

I1 satellites which will be launched in pairs as needed 

to replenish the DSCS space segment. 

Also, during 1974, the modification of Phase I 

DSCS earth terminals to increase * their capability 

and reliability was completed for Phase I1 satellite 

use. The Army contracted for the procurement of 

new Phase I1 large earth terminals used in the 

DSCS and the Navy’s Fleet Satellite Communications System after extensive testing of the engineering 

model terminal in an operational environment at 

Palo Alto, California. The Air Force has contracted 

for the production of Time Division Multiplex 

equipment which will provide more efficient utilization of communications channels in the DSCS. In 

late 1974, the Army placed initial production contracts for digital modulation equipment for use in 

DSCS ground terminals which will make the system 

capable of accepting directly the inputs of digital 

computers and communications systems which 

operate in the digital mode. During 1974, also, the 

Navy activated its interim shipboard terminals for 

operation with the DSCS I1 satellites. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System 

The Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FLTSATCOM) objective is to develop and deploy 

a satellite communications system to satisfy the most 

urgent, worldwide near-term tactical communications requirements of the Navy and Air Force. Initial contracts were awarded in late 1972. Production 

has commenced for both shipboard terminal installations and the large Fleet Broadcast shore transmitters permitting installations to commence in 1975. 

Resolution of difficult technical problems in early 

1974 permitted final satellite design accomplishment 

in December. Production is expected to commence in 

mid- 1975. The shipboard terminal equipment will be 

operated on a leased “Gapfiller” capability in the 

MARISAT spacecraft until the FLTSATCOM system is operational in 1977. 

Air Force Satellite Communications System 

The Air Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) System will provide communications 

capability via satellite to satisfy high priority Air 

Force requirements for command and control of 

strategic forces. The AFSATCOM space segment is 

comprised of Air Force ultra high frequency (UHF) 

communications capability on the Navy Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) System and 

the Air Force Satellite Data Systems (SDS), and 

global backup capability on other Department of 

Defense satellites. The AFSATCOM terminal segment 

will consist of airborne, mobile and fixed terminals. 

The terminal development was continued and initial operational testing is scheduled to begin in early 

1975. 

Army Satellite Communications Activities 

The Army Satellite Communications Ground Environment includes the development of strategic and 

tactical satellite communications around terminals 

for use by all Services. Two major projects in this 

program element are the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) Phase I1 and the Tactical Satellite Communications (TACSATCOM) 

system. A third and smaller project in this program 

is devoted to the exploratory development required 

to support the two major projects. 

The U.S. Army has essentially completed modifying all existing DSCS ground terminals to upgrade their reliability and communications capacity. 

42 
New heavy transportable terminals have been installed at Palo Alto, California in support of the 

Air Force Satellite Control Facility and at Fort 

Detrick, Maryland in support of DSCS requirements. 

Additional heavy terminals have been contracted 

for to satisfy other area needs of the DSCS. A light 

transportable terminal is currently in engineering 

development for a mid-FY 75 delivery. 

The small terminal contract for test models of 

highly transportable satellite ground terminals was 

awarded in December 1972 and seven models are to 

be delivered by mid-FY 75 for extensive field testing. 

These terminals will provide mobile multichannel 

communications for the Army in the field utilizing 

the DSCS Phase I1 satellites. Engineering Development has begun on a UHF manpack terminal and 

a contract award is expected in mid-FY 1975 for 

engineering development of the UHF vehicular 

terminal. 

The interim operational capability continues to 

support various contingencies and field exercises. 

Operational testing through the year has assisted in 

further development of concepts for the utilization 

of this significant transmission medium in support of 

combat readiness operations. 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) 

This space program, formerly called the Defense 

Systems Application Program, provides timely, highquality visual and infrared weather data to our 

military forces. Two satellites are in orbit at all times, 

one providing data in the early morning and early 

evening, and the other near local noon and midnight. 

The orbit is circular, near-polar, at an altitude of 

450 nautical miles, and each satellite circles the 

earth every 102 minutes. Weather data from anywhere in the world can be stored aboard the satellites and transmitted to Air Force Global Weather 

Central in Nebraska. Real-time local area imagery 

can also be transmitted to mobile readout stations 

for on-the-spot use by US. forces in the area. Since 

December 1972, the data from this program have 

been made routinely available to the civil/scientific 

community through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . The Department of Defense is also cooperating with NASA 

and NOAA in the development of an operationally 

improved civil weather satellite, the TIROS-N. 

Space Surveillance 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(ARPA) will develop and demonstrate new optical techniques for Space Surveillance which will 

allow significant reductions in the costs of systems 

which will search for and automatically detect 

satellites. The program includes gathering data on 

satellites using the ARPA (Maui) Hawaiian Island 

Optical Station to form a target signatures catalog 

for detailed systems design. A new generation of 

sensors with very large formats employing advanced 

readout and data processing schemes is under development. The final phase of this multi-year program 

will be a series of verification experiments which 

demonstrate the capabilities of these advanced sensors for autonomous surveillance of space. Ground 

tests of these devices will be conducted at the Maui 

Optical Station. 

For the near-term capability, the MIT Lincoln 

Laboratory, under Air Force sponsorship, is developing a simplified version of an operational system to 

be operating in the White Sands Missile Range area 

in the spring of 1975. 

The Air Force is advancing technology critical to 

space-based systems that would be capable of providing long range real-time surveillance of satellites. 

Long-term requirements are expected to place 

heavy demands on surveillance systems and will require more sophisticated approaches. These satellites 

would have the advantages of eliminating the requirements for overseas ground stations. These systems are expected to be operating in the early 1980s. 

Space 0 b ject Zdentification 

Since 1972 ARPA has been involved in a broad 

research program to advance the technologies of 

space object identification. Both optical and radar 

techniques are being defined, developed, and demonstrated to measure the physical characteristics of 

space objects. Wideband microwave techniques have 

been developed and have demonstrated great utility 

for providing precise spatial information on space 

objects. Transfer of this technology to the Services 

is underway. Millimeter wave imaging techniques 

are approaching the point where a demonstration of 

their potential is possible. A development program 

which could lead to a wideband laser imaging radar 

is also underway. In the optical area, sensors are 

being developed to measure the effects of atmospheric turbulence on pictures of space objects taken 

by large ground-based telescopes. Removal of the 

atmospherically imposed distortions will greatly improve the present image quality. A verification test 

of an atmospheric correction imaging system is 

planned for the ARPA Maui Optical Station. Radar 

and optical techniques developed under ARPA 

sponsorship will not only be used to obtain diagnostic 

information on our own satellites, but also will serve 

as a prime source of technology for improvement of 

the Space Surveillance and Detection Tracking 

System (SPADATS) ability to obtain diagnostic data 

on space objects. 

Navigation Satellite Actizrity 

The Navy Navigation Satellite System, referred to 

as TRANSIT, will have achieved a decade of opera515-666 0 - 15 - 4 

43 
tion in 1975. The system has served the Department 

of Defense and the nation well in that time. The 

purpose of developing TRANSIT was to provide the 

Navy with a worldwide, two dimensional system for 

position fixing to an accuracy of better than one 

tenth of a mile-primarily in support of submarines. 

TRANSIT usage has been expanding both militarily 

and commercially. It has been adapted for use in 

such diverse activities as offshore oil exploration and 

for measurement of the drift of ice over the poles. 

The six satellites operating provide an opportunity at 

least every two hours, depending upon the latitude, 

for a user to take a position fix. 

Since the early 1970’s, a TRANSIT improvement 

program has been underway. The improved satellites will provide stationkeeping in their orbital plans, 

improved anti-jamming characteristics and radiation 

hardening. The first improved satellite was tested in 

1972. It is no longer operational; two more, now 

under development, will be launched within the next 

year or so. Eventually at least three of the improved 

satellites will be a part of the operational constellation. 

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System 

The objective of the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is to increase weapon system effectiveness, 

reduce positioning and navigation system proliferation, and promote cost avoidance. 

Approval was given in December 1973 for the 

validation of the NAVSTAR satellite navigation 

concept. In June 1974, the contract was awarded 

for satellite development. In August 1974, a decision 

was made to expand the initial set of orbiting satellites from four to six in order to support range 

tracking tests of priority Department of Defense 

systems. In October 1974, the contract for the 

satellite control segment and the user equipment 

was awarded. The first technology support satellite 

for the program was launched this summer. Its purpose is to confirm the design and operation of the 

rubidium atomic clocks and provide signal propagation information to confirm theoretical predictions for the system. 

In 1976, the user equipment sets are scheduled 

to begin tests at a pseudo satellite test range in 

Arizona. During 1976 and 1977, the six satellites 

are scheduled to be launched for use in concept validation. In early 1978, a decision is scheduled on 

system deployment. This decision on deployment 

depends on demonstration of system accuracy and 

upon achieving low life cycle costs for user equipment. An initial operational capability is planned 

for 1981 with a full operational capability by 1984. 

The system should provide three dimensional position 

data to an accuracy of less than ten meters; three 

dimensional velocity information to an accuracy of 

two or three centimeters per second, and time information to an accuracy of a few nanoseconds. This 

information will be continuously available worldwide. 

If the NAVSTAR system is deployed the DoD 

envisions discontinuing its use of most other externally referenced radio aids to navigation and position 

fixing, including such systems as OMEGA, LORAN 

and TRANSIT. Investigations have indicated a 

significant savings may be possible through cost 

avoidance. Proliferation and maintenance of a number of navigation and position fixing equipment will 

be halted by focusing on one basic system, NAVSTAR, for use by all. 

Space Boosters 

The Atlas and Titan I11 standard launch vehicles 

and the surplus IRBM SM-75 Thor and surplus 

ICBM Atlas E/F vehicles comprise the DoD family 

of space boosters. During 1974 there were a total 

of eight Titan I11 space launches including two 

launches of NASA payloads on Titan I11 E, and one 

launch of a NASA payload on Titan I11 C. The 

Titan I11 E carries a NASA Centaur upper stage. 

There were two SM-75 Thor launches this year, 

both successful, and one successful Atlas F space 

launch. 

Space Shuttle 

The DoD and NASA continued to work closely 

this past year in their respective roles, with NASA 

as the Shuttle developer and the DoD as an important future user of the Space Shuttle. The DoD 

strongly supports the development of this space 

vehicle. The DoD program goals are (1) to insure 

that NASA knows and understands DoD needs so 

that the Space Shuttle will be of maximum utility 

for military payloads; (2) to provide data to support decisions leading to future use of the Shuttle; 

and (3) to explore ways DoD can benefit most 

from the Shuttle’s unique capabilities. The DoD 

has agreed to develop a low cost Interim Upper 

Stage (IUS) for use with the Shuttle during the 

period starting in 1980 and continuing until the 

NASA upper stage (Space Tug) is developed in the 

mid-1980’s; to fly certain military payloads on the 

Shuttle beginning in 1980 at the Kennedy Space 

Center; and to plan a Shuttle launch and landing 

capability at Vandenberg AFB (VAFB) . Initial 

Operational Capability at VAFB is expected to be 

not earlier than December 1982. It is expected that 

transition from the current expendable space 

boosters such as Atlas and Titan to the Space 

Shuttle will be completed by the mid-1980’s. 

Aeronautics 

In air superiority, the challenge is to provide 

aircraft that can compete with a technically sophis44 
ticated opponent; to provide less costly and sophisticated tactical aircraft for use in quantity; and to 

provide the most efficient means of air mobility 

required in support of our forces. Air mobility is 

an essential element of both tactical and strategic 

movement of combat forces and supplies. 

C-5A Heavy Logistics Transport Aircraft 

The C-5 Force continued to perform a variety 

of logistics missions, logging approximately 50,000 

hours of flying time during the year. These missions 

included support of Operation NIMBUS STAR 

which was conducted to reopen the Suez Canal. In 

May, Military Airlift Command (MAC) began 

qualification of C-5 aircrews in aerial refueling operations and in August, a MAC C-5 flew nonstop from 

Dover AFB, Delaware, to Clark AFB, Philippines, a 

distance of over 10,000 miles, utilizing the fuel from 

two separate aerial refuelings. The flight demonstrated the increased operational flexibility and 

global mobility provided to the airlift force by the 

team of C-5 and SAC KC-135 tanker. 

Advanced Medium STOL Transport Prototypes 

The Advanced Medium Short Takeoff and Landing Transport (AMST) prototype program involves 

two contractors building two advanced technology 

prototypes each for test and evaluation as development options for tactical airlift modernization. An 

FY 74 Congressional funding reduction limited contractor efforts during the first half of the year. 

However, with Congressional approval of the full 

FY 75 request, the program is now proceeding at a 

more rapid pace. Both contractors have almost 

completed the engineering effort and are proceeding 

with major assembly. 

Flight test of one prototype is scheduled to begin 

in April 1976, and the other contractor will follow 

in August 1976. The Army, Marines, and NASA 

are participating with the Air Force and the two 

contractors in developing the flight test plan. 

A-10 Close Air Support Aircraft 

The development of the A-10 aircraft proceeded 

without major difficulty. The two prototype aircraft 

have had over 1000 hours of flight test, including a 

comparative flight evaluation with the A-7 in a 

combat scenario. In the evaluation which included 

an evaluation team and four combat-experienced 

tactical air command pilots who flew the missions. the 

A-10 was judged the more effective aircraft in the 

close air-support (CAS) role. 

The results from the flight tests and the comparative evaluation are being used to eliminate many 

of the problems associated with the start-up of 

manufacturing, and thus insure a smooth transition 

from development to production. 

The first of six preproduction aircraft, required 

for the extensive test and evaluation effort necessary 

to support a full production decision, is in final 

assembly and checkout for delivery in early 1975. 

Production of the initial increment of 22 aircraft 

was approved in December 1974, and the first of these 

aircraft is scheduled for delivery in November 1975. 

The full-production decision will be made in late 

1975. 

B-1 Bomber Program 

To maintain a viable manned bomber element 

of the strategic TRIAD in the 1980’s, the Air Force 

is developing the B-1 bomber. The B-1 has been 

under development since 1970. Roll-out occurred in 

October 1974 and first flight on 23 December 1974. 

The first phase of flight testing, utilizing the first 

of three Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) aircraft, began in December. A production decision is scheduled for November 1976. 

During 1974, major aircraft sections completed static 

testing and a second aircraft underwent proof load 

testing and a successful flight was concluded on 23 

December 1974. 

The B-1 engine completed its Preliminary Flight 

Readiness Tests (PFRT) in April 1974 and compatibility of the engine with the inlet was verified 

with full-scale inlet/engine wind tunnel testing. 

Because of cost and technical considerations, a 

decision was reached in October 1974 to eliminate 

the crew escape capsule from the fourth and subsequent aircraft in the B-1 program. Primary crew 

escape from these aircraft will be by ejection seat 

with a bailout capability for additional personnel. 

A-6E All- Weather Attack Aircraft 

The newest member of the Intruder series is the 

A-6E All-Weather Attack Aircraft-the only true allweather attack aircraft in the U.S. Navy and U.S. 

Marine Corps force structures. The A-6E has a new 

attack system and is capable of close air support, 

interdiction, and deep strike missions under adverse 

weather conditions, day or night. The A-6E’s in use 

today are significantly superior to the A-6A’s used 

in S.E. ASIA, and are achieving increased performance with decreased maintenance and improved 

reliability. The A-6E has deployed to the U.S. 

SIXTH FLEET, is currently in the Fleet Marine 

Force Atlantic, and it is ready for deployment to the 

U.S. SEVENTH FLEET. 

F-14 Carrier-Based Tactical Fighter 

In flight tests, as well as in the fleet training environment, the F-14A continues to demonstrate its 

multitrack, multishot Phoenix air-to-air missile 

capability, compiling an unprecedented (88 percent) 

45 
hit ratio. By October 1974, 100 F-14 aircraft had accumulated over 18,000 flight hours. The first two 

squadrons were deployed on USS ENTERPRISE in 

September 1974 and two additional squadrons are 

operating at the Naval Air Station Oceana on the 

East Coast. 

Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) 

The NACF is visualized as a fighter/attack airplane which will be superior to the bulk of threat 

fighters in air fighting capability and will contribute 

effectively to the air-to-ground missions through the 

use of precision guided munitions. A primary goal 

is to produce a combat aircraft that will have an 

associated life cycle cost of less than half that of 

the F-14 in an effort to provide an alternative that 

will permit us to arrest the decline of Navy and 

Marine Corps force structure. It is visualized that 

the NACF will replace the F-4 and A-7 in the Navy 

and Marine Corps. The final configuration and 

weapon suite of the airplane will be determined 

through trade-offs of capability versus cost. The 

Navy, by congressional direction is investigating the 

feasibility of using a variant of the USAF Air Combat Fighter (ACF) to satisfy NACF requirements. 

Fleet deliveries of the NACF are planned in the early 

1980’s. 

F-15 Advanced Tactical Fighter 

The F-15 Advanced Tactical Fighter program is 

proceeding on schedule. The first operational aircraft was delivered to Tactical Air Command in 

November 1974. At the end of 1974 the twenty 

aircraft in the Air Force flight test program had 

accumulated over 3000 flight hours while conducting F- 15 systems tests and evaluating aircraft performance. 

F-4 Wild Weasel ( WW) Anti-Radiation Auionics 

The objective of the Air Force’s Wild Weasel 

(WW) Research and Development program is to 

design, fabricate, and flight test a system which will 

provide designated strike aircraft the capability to 

search out and destroy hostile radar systems. This 

development program will greatly improve the 

combat effectiveness of our. tactical fdrces in the 

area of Defense Suppression. In 1974 a pilot Class 

V modification program was implemented by the 

Air Force. The WWII is being designed to be 

capable of controlling the Navy’s next generation 

anti-radiation mission-HARM. Plans are under way 

to modify a significant number of the newer F-4’s 

with the advanced Wild Weasel avionics system. 

Lightweight Fighter and 

Air Combat Fighter Program 

The Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program has 

explored the advantages of new aerodynamic and 

46 

propulsion technologies. Two contractors each have 

two prototype aircraft participating in a joint USAFcontractor flight test. Because of the performance 

gains to be realized by these designs, coupled with 

the potentially lower cost, the Department of Defense and the USAF will initiate full scale development of a mission version of the most promising 

candidate, to be known as the Air Combat Fighter. 

This development is scheduled to commence after 

source selection is made in January 1975. 

The objective of the ACF program is to develop 

an affordable, high performance air superiority 

fighter aircraft. This program uses the lightweight 

Fighter Prototype program as a base to evolve desired 

combinations of new technologies into a fighter version of one of the two LWF prototypes. The resulting 

ACF will be an airplane designed for “dogfighting” 

to the degree that it should have a significant air 

combat maneuvering advantage over the 1980-1990 

threat fighters. Further, it will provide a lower cost 

fighter choice to complement the F-15. The aircraft 

to be selected will also compete as a replacement for 

the F-104 aircraft now being used by European allies 

and for other sales to friendly countries. 

Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System 

(UTTAS) 

The Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System 

(UTTAS) will be the Army’s first assault helicopter 

capable of carrying a combat-equipped infantry 

squad. It is designed to lift 11 infantrymen in a tactical troop assault and other related missions now 

performed by the UH-1 series helicopter. Sizing and 

other design parameters were chosen with a view 

towards reducing life cycle costs. The UTTAS will 

have an increased payload, thus reducing the number of troop-carrying helicopters required. The 

UTTAS will exhibit substantially improved 

maintainability, reliability, survivability and performance. The Army awarded contracts in August 

1972 for the production of prototypes by two manufacturers. Prototypes will participate in a competitive fly-off during 1975-76. The UTTAS development is essentially on schedule. Both aircraft are currently undergoing flight test. 

Heavy Lift Helicopter (HLH) 

The original Heavy Lift Helicopter (HLH) program goal was to field a tandem rotor, three engine, 

crane-type helicopter designed to carry externally 

bulk cargo, to off-load containerships, and to move 

heavy tactical equipment. Development of advanced 

technology components for the HLH, such as the 

flight control system, rotor drive system, and cargo 

handling system, has been under way since 1971. 

The newly developed fly-by-wire flight control system has been successfully demonstrated in flight, 
and tests of the individual components will be completed in March 1975. A single austere prototype 

aircraft will be built to validate these advancements 

in the state-of-the-art and to verify the HLH technology. First flight of this prototype is planned for 

April 1976. 

CH-53E Helicopter 

This improved version of the H-53 series helicopter (currently in use by Navy, Marine Corps and 

Air Force) will be utilized by the Navy and Marines 

in a variety of missions ranging from amphibious 

assault to Vertical On-Board Delivery (VOD) of 

high priority fleet freight to both aircraft carriers 

and ships not accompanied by a carrier. The 53E 

features a third engine, seven main rotor blades with 

an increased rotor diameter, and a newly designed 

tail section. Payload performance will be more than 

double that of the CH-53D, increasing from 7.2 to 

over 16.1 tons, in either the internal or external mode 

of lift. This helo will retain full shipboard compatibility for basing and maintainability while requiring only a 10% increase in flight deck spot 

factor. Extensive commonality (over 60%) with the 

current CH/RH-53s in Navy service reduces development, training and logistic support costs. One of 

these aircraft was lost in a catastrophic failure of 

the rotor hub assembly. A new hub is being designed. 

COBRAITOW 

The Army COBRA/TOW program, a retrofit of 

a portion of existing AH-1G COBRA helicopters 

and a purchase of new aircraft with the highly 

effective Tube Launched Optical Tracked Wire 

Guided (TOW) Missile, continued in 1974. Developmental and operational testing was conducted in 

1973 and 1974 with prototype aircraft. Delivery of 

the COBRA/TOW begins in June of 1975. Testing 

to upgrade the engine, transmission and dynamic 

components to improve aircraft agility and maneuverability is continuing. A program has also been 

initiated to purchase additional quantities of the 

AH-1 J twin-engine SEACOBRA attack helicopter 

for the Marine Corps, with modifications to improve 

performance and ordnance load capability and to 

provide for installation of the TOW missile system. 

Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) 

The AAH is a two-phase development program. 

The first phase is being conducted competitively with 

Bell and Hughes as the prime contractors. This phase 

is aimed at obtaining the best airframe and culminates in a fly-off between the two designs. The 

development and integration of the full mission 

equipment (weapons, sensors and navigation) will 

be accomplished in the second phase with the winning contractor only. 

Design-to-cost is being stringently applied to the 

AAH program. The design-to-cost goal is $1.7M 

(flyaway unit cost in FY 72 dollars). Contractors 

have been given unusual flexibility in trading off 

performance, within certain limits, in order to hold 

production costs down. 

The. program is proceeding well technically. First 

flight is scheduled for the Spring of 1975. R&D 

costs for phase 1 have risen above earlier estimates 

due to both inflation and real cost increases including an unexpectedly heavy effort on cost-performance 

design tradeoffs. As a result of the increased phase 1 

costs, completion of this phase is expected to slip 

five to six months. 

E-2C Carrier-Based Airborne Warning ad 

Control System 

The Hawkeye has completed its development 

stage and is in production. Initial deployment of this 

new Airborne Early Warning/Command and Control 

(AEW/C&C) system began in September 1974. The 

E-2C will eventually replace the earlier version 

E-2B on all Cv's and CVA's. Initial indications are 

that the E-2C has significant performance benefits 

as well as greatly increased reliability over the E-2B. 

In conjunction with the F-14 and the S-3A, the 

E-2C will significantly upgrade fleet defense capabilities. 

E-3A Airborne Warning and Control System 

(A WACS) 

AWACS, officially designated E-3A, is a mobile, 

fast moving, survivable command, control and surveillance system mounted in a modified Boeing 

707-320B. Its distinguishing technical feature is the 

ability to detect and track targets at a11 altitudes 

over land and water. 

The System Integration Demonstration (SID) for 

evaluating a representative set of mission avionics 

(identification friend or foe, computer, displays, 

radar, navigation, communication) was conducted 

from March through October 1974. The results of 

this demonstration, which included development and 

operational testing, were used to support a December 

1974 decision on whether to produce the first six 

AWACS. NATO established a Special Task Group 

(STG) to study AWACS as a possible NATO funded 

airborne early warning and backup control system. 

A deployment of the SID prototype aircraft to 

Europe will occur during April-May 1975 to demonstrate the AWACS' capabilities to NATO officials. 

The STG is scheduled to submit a recommendation 

in April 1975. Fabrication continued on three development test and evaluation systems, two of which 

will be flown in 1975. 

47 
E-4AIB Advanced Airborne Command Post 

( AABNCP) 

The AABNCP will provide the National Command Authorities (NCA) and Strategic Air Command (SAC) with a significantly improved and 

highly survivable airborne command, control and 

communication (C3) center that will operate during 

all phases of a general war. At the end of 1974, 

three 747 aircraft had been accepted by the Air Force 

for modification as E-4A interim National Emergency Airborne Command Posts (NEACP) through 

transfer of C3 equipment from present EC-135 command post aircraft. The contract for development of 

the advanced C3 equipment was awarded in January 

1974 and Preliminary Design Review was completed 

in August 1974. The advanced C3 equipment will be 

installed in the fourth 747 aircraft (EdB), now being fabricated for use as a test bed aircraft. 

Air Traffic Management 

The objective of this project is to perform engineering development of an Air Traffic Management 

Automated Center and its associated Ground-AirGround Digital Data Link (DDL) . These subsystems 

of the Air Traffic Management System (ATMS) are 

designed to facilitate the safe and orderly flow of 

large numbers of Army aircraft under tactical conditions, and to provide an over-the-horizon digital 

radio communications link between cooperating aircraft and the Air Traffic Management Automated 

Center (ATMAC). The program will include a 

concept formulation and redefinition of the flight 

operations center for the Air Traffic Management 

System. A recent review of the ATMS by the Army 

indicates a need for reducing the requirement for 

automation in the orderly and expeditious movement of cooperative aircraft in the tactical area 

of operations. The concept formulation phase will 

provide this redirection. Testing of the engineering 

development model of the Position Location Reporting System will commence in January 1975. This is a 

joint USA/USMC operational evaluation program 

and tests will be completed in June 1975. If it is 

determined to proceed into Phase I1 of the program, 

a contract for service test models of the Position 

Location Reporting System will be awarded jointly 

with the USMC. 

Aircraft Research and Technology 

There are various facets of the research and development programs that support the aeronautics 

programs. These include outstanding advancements 

in engine development, aircraft structures, avionics, 

and rotor systems engineering for helicopters. In 

addition, there has been considerable effort in developing the use of recoverable remotely piloted 

vehicles as substitutes for manned systems in performing various missions. 

Aeronautical Propulsion Research and Technology 

A major success of the Army’s aeronautical propulsion research and exploratory development program has been the development of efficient analytical 

methods for the design of small high-temperature 

combustors. A combustor recently designed and 

fabricated on the basis of these new analytical techniques immediately achieved almost all its design 

performance parameters. The significant improvements in combustion efficiency and demonstrated 

compliance with 1975 proposed EPA regulations for 

this class of aircraft propulsion engines indicate tremendous potential for weight reduction and lower 

emissions. Comparable to the technological advance 

in combustor design, was the achievement of singlestage pressure-ratio of 10: 1 for the 3-5 lbs/sec class 

of compressors. 

Turbine Engine Development 

Engineering development of the 1500 shaft horsepower (SHP) UTTAS engine began in March 1972 

as a derivative of the Army demonstrator gas turbine engine program. The engine development is 

proceeding on schedule. The preliminary flight rating 

test was completed in August 1974 and met the 

design power requirements. Emphasis upon the 

human factors aspect of maintainability will sig 

nificantly reduce the maintenance man-hour costs 

over the life of this advanced technology engine. The 

modular aspect of this new engine is proving extremely helpful in test cell assembly and tear down. 

The small turbine advanced gas generator 

(STAGG) program was contracted for in November 1971 with four contractors competing in a 36- 

month core-engine development. The configuration 

design phase was completed in October 1972 and 

initial gas generator tests commenced in September 

1973. This advanced development will integrate the 

essential gas generator components for engine environment tests. The initial test results indicate that 

the increased power and reduced fuel consumption 

objectives of 35% and 20%, respectively, over current engines have been achieved. STAGG technology will support future Army aircraft and 

auxiliary power plants in the 200-1000 SHP range. 

Composite Aircraft Structures 

The successful design, fabrication and test of a 

group of graphite-epoxy composite components suitable for flight on existing Navy aircraft have confirmed weight savings and increased in projected 

production cost savings associated with composites 

use. Among the components which have been devel48 
oped are an S-3 spoiler, F-14 overwing fairing, 

F-14 main landing gear door and a wing for the 

BQM-34E supersonic target vehicle. The recent 

test flight of the graphite-epoxy wing on the BQM34E supersonic target marked the first flight of a 

composite aircraft wing. Advantages of the composite wing relative to the existing metal wing include 

a weight saving of 54% and estimated 40% lower 

production costs. Fabrication of additional numbers 

of these components followed by their carefully 

monitored placement on operational aircraft will 

provide long term Navy service experience with 

graphite composites. Critical technical and confidence factors governing an extensive production commitment to composite structures include: (a) development of confidence in the long term service 

durability of composites structures in an operational 

ship based environment; (b) extension of coinposite design and fabrication technology to large 

primary structures; (c) establishment of greater 

confidence in acquisition and life cycle cost projections for composite structures. 

Aircraft Structures and Material Technology 

The Army’s structures and materials program continues to demonstrate significant progress in the 

feasibility of composite applications in primary and 

secondary aircraft structures. Progress has permitted 

the design of a monocoque/sandwich aft fuselage 

for future tactical and utility helicopters. Design and 

fabrication of a composite rotor and tail boom for 

the AH-1 COBRA was initiated and testing is scheduled to commence in 1975. Indications are that 

composite rotor blades and airframe structures can 

provide significant system cost advantages in the 

1980’s. Specifically, a 7% increase in productivity 

and a 5% reduction in life-cycle cost are projected 

based on progress to date. It has also been demonstrated that the use of composites in rotor blades 

can be used to absorb acquisition radar signals thereby offering the potential of greatly reducing the 

radar cross section of helicopters. Progress has also 

been made in the development of composite materials for aircraft windshields. Included are the 

development of hard-surface coated polycarbonates, 

glass/polycarbonates and transparent crystallized 

glass. These advances will permit windshields that 

are more abrasion and impact resistant and that have 

improved ballistic properties. 

US Army Avionics 

The Proximity Warning System (PWS) will soon 

become a reality at four mqjor installations where 

the Army has its greatest concentration of aircraft. 

Fort Rucker, Fort Hood, Fwt Campbell, and Fort 

Bragg have undertaken a major aircraft retrofit 

program designed to reduce significantly aircraft 

collision hazard within the Amy. The PWS warns 

a pilot by visual and aural means whenever one or 

more aircraft are within a selectable range of 1,000, 

3,000, or 5,000 feet and within an altitude of 

& 300 feet of his aircraft. The system issues a visual 

warning to the pilot and informs him that an “intruder” is above, below or at the same altitude as his 

“protected” aircraft. An audio warning is also generated and injected into the intercommunications 

system of the aircraft whenever an intruder penetrates the protected volume of airspace. 

The Receiver-Transponder is designed to operate 

a second, remotely located light for application in 

tandem seat aircraft configurations. In addition 

to the “Confidence Test Switch” to verify operational readiness, each system has the provision 

of testing by means of a ground transponder test 

station. When the “Transponder Ground Test” 

switch is actuated, an unattended ground station is 

interrogated and responds with signals simulating 

an aircraft during changing altitudes. One ground 

station will serve the entire airfield. 

The Proximity Warning System is the first step 

toward eliminating the mid-air collision threat. 

Follow-on technology will be closely monitored to 

insure every available means is explored to provide 

the best possible solution to this long recognized 

problem. 

Helicopter Noise Reduction 

Acoustic detectability is a major factor in helicopter survivability. An investigation to explore potential methods of noise reduction for a tilt-rotar 

aircraft indicates the need to determine aircraft 

performance, weight, and far-field rotor acoustic 

signature as a function of selected design characteristics. The Army will be able to establish the cost 

in performance and dollars of further reducing the 

noise of the proposed tilt-rotor aircraft. A test 

facility is nearing completion, and once acoustic 

modifications are made, a unique facility will be 

available for research on basic mechanisms of rotary 

wing aerodynamic sound generation. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft 

The Army and the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA) entered formal agreement on 1 November 1971 jointly to develop and 

test a tilt rotor research aircraft. The research aircraft will be used to advance the state-of-the-art of 

the tilt rotor concept and to verify the technology 

base heretofore established by DoD/NASA and industry. Bell Helicopter Company was awarded the 

contract in July 1973 for fabrication and flight test 

of two research aircraft. The detail design was completed in December 1974 with aircraft rollout 
scheduled for October 1975. First flight of the tilt 

rotor is scheduled for July 1976. 

Helicopter Rotor Dynamics 

Improvements in the responsiveness, efficiency, 

and utility of Army helicopters are achieved through 

progress in the structural dynamics of rotor hlades. 

A sophisticated dynamics research model of a helicopter rotor system has been completed and is now 

available for research testing. By selecting different 

combinations of springs, rotor characteristics can be 

varied from those representative of stiff, hingeless 

rotors to those of fully articulated systems. Data 

obtained from use of this research model will allow, 

for the first time, comparison between theory and 

test data over a broad range of structural characteristics. 

Advancing Blade Concept ( ABC) 

Demonstrator Vehicle 

The ABC development program was initiated by 

the Army in December 1971. The program included 

fabrication and flight test of two aircraft equipped 

with the ABC rotor to verify and demonstrate the 

concept, The ABC incorporates two coaxial contrarotating rigid rotors, thereby allowing utilization of 

the full lift capability of the advancing blade. Flight 

tests were initiated in July 1973 but were temporarily 

halted in August when the first of the two aircraft 

was damaged during a test flight. Additional wind 

tunnel testing and redesign were completed in 1974. 

Flight tests are expected to resume in 1975 to investigate the low speed flight characteristics of the 

ABC rotor. The auxiliary thrust engines for high 

speed flight tests will be insta!led and tested after 

successful completion of the low speed tests. 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft ( RSRA ) 

This is a joint Army/NASA program initiated in 

1971 to design, fabricate and test two rotor systems 

research aircraft (RSRA) . The RSRA will provide 

the government with the capability to conduct flight 

research of new rotor concepts, rotorcraft components and subsystems, and to accurately verify 

performance of existing rotor systems on a common, 

fully instrumented test bed. Sikorsky Aircraft was 

awarded the contract in November 1973 and was 

nearing the final design review at the end of 1974. 

First flight and delivery are scheduled for 1976. 

Fluidic Stabilization System for Helicopters 

Flight tests of a three axis advanced hydrofluidic 

stabilization system were initiated in August 1973. 

The system is being tested on a UH-1M and OH-58 

aircraft. Hydrofluidic controls offer the potential of 

improved reliability, lower cost, reduced maintenance 

requirements, and decreased system vulnerability 

compared to electromechanical stabilization systems 

currently in use. Plans are to install ten systems on 

OH-58 training aircraft at Fort Rucker, Alabama, 

to verify improved reliability and reduced maintenance requirements. 

Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs) 

An RPV is an unmanned aircraft which is flown 

by a pilot from a remote location. The pilot may 

control the aircraft continuously or at intervals of 

his choosing. 

The Department of Defense’s current interest in 

RPVs is based essentially on two facts: First, modern air defenses could make many manned aircraft 

missions either impossible to accomplish or too expensive in trained manpower and resources; second, 

technological advances now permit the RPV concept 

to be developed through the use of very reliable and 

very small electronic devices as well as more efficient airframes and engines. 

The size of these unmanned aircraft now being 

developed, or under active consideration for development, range from relatively large to very small 

“model” airplane size. However, since a pilot’s size, 

weight, and life support systems do not have to be 

considered, the RPV is designed to be just large 

enough to carry the necessary mission-required devices and fuel. This fact allows the designer to 

drastically reduce or eliminate system characteristics that would aid an enemy to detect or attack the 

aircraft, and therefore increase the probability of 

accomplishing the mission while penetrating enemy 

defended airspace. In other instances, the RPV may 

be employed behind our own lines for safety and use 

long range sensors to watch enemy activity. This type 

of RPV could stay aloft for more than a day at a 

time and would release personnel from this type of 

tedious flying to other important combat operations. 

Missions being considered for RPVs include: 

Long range stand-off surveillance 

Deep penetration reconnaissance 

Shallow penetrations for target acquisition 

Laser designation for smart weapons 

Platforms for air-ground weapons 

Flying a warhead into a target 

Aerial communications relay 

Space Research and Technology 

Space research and technology must invariably 

consider the environment within which and against 

which satellites must function for years. Hence, not 

only must the space environment be better monitored 

and understood, but also the earth’s atmosphere 

and its impact on equipment basic to many of our 

space programs. 

50 
Solar Radiation (SOLRAD) Monitoring 

Satellite Program 

The objective of this program is to monitor the 

space environment from a satellite system and thus 

provide basis for identifying changes in solar activity 

and the subsequent effect of such events will have on 

communications systems and terrestrial environmental phenomena. Eventually, the system will provide the capability to anticipate changes in solar 

activity and predict subsequent impact in the nearearth space environment. The system consists of two 

sun-oriented satellites which are deployed in 70,000 

mile circular earth-orbits with attendant ground 

facilities for data acquisition processing and dissemination. Spacecraft construction is nearly cornplete with the total program on schedule for a launch 

date in November 1975. Both satellites will measure 

solar activity in the form of X-ray, ultra-violet and 

particle emissions. SOLRAD will be launched on a 

TITAN I11 missile along with several other multiservice experiments as part of the USAF-managed 

Space Test Program. 

Gamma Ray Spectrometer Experiments 

A high resolution gamma ray spectrometer and 

charged particle sensors were launched into orbit in 

October 1972 to survey the radiation background in 

the upper atmosphere and near space environment 

from a 400-nautical mile polar orbit. Preparations 

are in progress for the launch of a follow-on spectrometer to provide a long term monitoring capability for radiation sources in this regime. The space 

background measurements accomplished in the earlier program will permit improved precision in the 

location of radiation sources and the calculation and 

measurement of nuclear explosion effects on the environment, and is expected to form the basis for the 

design of sensors for operational space systems. Data 

from these experiments will permit the location of 

debris from nuclear tests at high altitudes, and will 

assist in the estimation of potential environmental 

damage from wide-scale nuclear explosions. 

Enwironmental Remote Sensing 

Environmental data from the remote ocean areas 

are essential to measuring accurately an initial state 

of the total environment as a function of time and 

space. Modern methods for predicting changes to 

that initial condition utilize computerized models of 

the earth’s atmosphere and interactive ocean surface which are critically limited by the initial 

measurement or observation. The Navy operates in 

the remote ocean areas of the world and thus has a 

continuing need for precise environmental information on a global basis. The Naval Weather Service 

provides a complete array of computer generated 

products which are used for direct fleet support 

such as : aircraft carrier operations, storm evasion, 

and submarine warfare and amphibious landings. 

The advent of satellite-borne sensors and supporting 

ground systems which automatically provide measurements over broad ocean areas is a major technological 

milestone for the environmental community. The 

Navy is establishing a Satellite Processing Center 

(SPC) which will be part of the existing Fleet 

Numerical Weather Central located at Monterey, 

California. The SPC objective is to obtain all available satellite data, and process it automatically into 

refined numerical global models. The unique Navy 

problem of measuring and forecasting sea surface 

temperature, sea state and wave spectrum will play 

a major role in the operation. Hardware and system 

specifications have been completed. An Initial Operating Capability is planned in FY 77. The SPC is 

designed to exploit data contributed from all present 

and planned environmental satellite systems (DoD, 

NOAA, NASA, experiments on NIMBUS series and 

GOES). 

Upper Atmospheric Research 

Army ballistic missile defense systems, long range 

Army communications systems, electronic warfare 

techniques and Army long range missile design and 

testing require an accurate knowledge of the physical 

and dynamic properties of the upper atmosphere. 

The objective of the Army upper atmosphere research and development program is to develop techniques, software, and equipment to increase the 

effectiveness of weapon systems which must traverse 

the upper atmosphere or whose success depends 

upon a knowledge of upper atmospheric effects on 

energy propagation. 

An extensive measurement program will continue 

in the 10 to 100 Km region whereby solar ultraviolet flux, composition, thermal and wind measurements will be made with balloon-borne, rocket-borne 

and ground based programs. 

Space Ground Support 

Department of Defense space activities are principally supported by the Air Force’s Eastern Test 

Range, Space and Missile Test Center, Satellite 

Control Facility, and Arnold Engineering Development Center and by the Army’s White Sands Missile 

Range and Kwajalein Missile Range. These facilities 

are available to other Government, industry and 

international agencies that may require their support. 

Eastern Test Range (ETR) 

In 1974 the ETR continued to support DoD space 

and missile operations, NASA space programs, and 

commercial and international satellites launched 
from the Cape Canaveral, Fla. area. This support 

included launch, range safety, and data acquisition 

functions. Support for commercial communications 

satellite launches under the overall sponsorship of 

NASA continued. Planning for FY 75/76 activities 

was initiated to support new DoD test programs and 

the NASA Appollo-Soyuz test program to be conducted in cooperation with the USSR. Instrumented 

aircraft and ships assigned to the ETR were heavily 

used in support of DoD requirements on both the 

Eastern and Western Test Ranges. Improvement and 

modernization of range instrumentation and associated supporting systems continued on schedule 

with emphasis being placed upon improvements in 

the radar tracking, range safety and real time data 

distribution systems. The second Advanced Range 

Instrumentation Ship (ARIS) completed a major 

modification program. Two ARIS (USNS Vandenberg and VSNS Arnold) are now available for 

worldwide support of missile and space programs. 

Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC) 

SAMTEC continued to operate the Western Test 

Range (WTR) in support of space and ballistic 

missile launches from Vandenberg Air Force Base, 

California. The last SAMTEC Range Instrumentation Ship (USNS Huntsville) was deactivated; 

future SAMTEC ship support will be provided by 

the ETR Advanced Range Instrumentation Ships 

(ARIS). SAMTEC has continued to improve range 

instrumentation to meet user requirements. An Unattended Scoring System (USS) was placed in operation, providing a scoring capability in broad ocean 

areas previously performed by an instrumentation 

ship. A new Telemetry Integrated Processing System 

is planned which will replace present systems and 

provide improved and more efficient support of new 

requirements. SAMTEC also became increasingly 

active in the advanced planning for Space Shuttle. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF) 

During 1974 the SCF workload remained relatively stable, consisting of support to R&D and 

operational satellites. This support included realtime telemetry, tracking and command/control, post 

pass and post flight data analysis, and payload recovery. Interim wideband communications links from 

the Guam and Hawaii Tracking Stations to the 

Satellite Test Center in California became operational. Actions continued to increase communications 

capability from the other remote stations. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center ( AEDC) 

AEDC provided environmental simuation testing 

for major aeronautical, missile, and space programs 

under development as well as existing operational 

systems. AEDC supported a wide variety of testing 

1 

ranging from basic R&D investigations to scale 

model testing to full scale flight hardware testing 

covering the general areas of Propulsion, Aerodynamics, Space Environment and ballistics. Programs 

supported include F-15, Advanced Ballistic Reentry 

Systems (ABRES), Minuteman, Trident, Light 

Weight Fighter, Conventional Munitions, Rocket 

Propulsion and Airspace Flight Dynamics. AEDC 

also supported NASA Propulsion, Aerodynamics and 

Shuttle testing. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) 

The Army WSMR continued to provide support 

to DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs. 

A full spectrum of launch, flight and recovery services was provided including ground and flight safety, 

surveillance, command and control, and data acquisition and analysis. NASA program support included 

the Skylab calibration rocket program, R&D and 

operational balloon and balloon payload programs, 

an upper atmospheric rocket sounding program using 

the Aerobee rocket vehicle, numerous smaller rocket 

systems, and a variety of astronomical test programs. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR ) 

The Army’s KMR continued to provide, maintain 

and operate a national range to support strategic 

offensive and defensive system test programs and to 

operate reentry radars to support all DoD reentry 

programs. On 27 March 1974, the U.S. agreed with 

Japan on the location at Kwajalein of a temporary 

down range tracking station to support two launches 

in the Japanese space program. 

International Cooperation 

The United States continued giving close support 

to the United Kingdom in their implementation of 

the military SKYNET I1 SATCOM Program. The 

cohmunications subsystems of the SKYNET I1 satellites were manufactured in the United States. On 18 

January 1974 the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration daunched the SKYNET IIA communications satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida; 

however, the second stage of the rocket misfired and, 

as a result, the satellite could not achieve its proper 

obit. Through use of its Satellite Control Facilities, 

the USAF was to have placed the satellite in stationary orbit over the Indian Ocean at which time 

the operational and communications control of the 

satellite would have been turned over to the U.K. 

The follow-on SKYNET IIB communications satellite was launched on 30 November 1974. 

In March 1973 NATO contracted with the 

United States to develop, procure, and launch two 

communications satellites in support of the NATO 

Phase I11 SATCOM Program. Production efforts on 

52 
these satellites continued in the United States during 

1974. The schedule is such that the first of the two 

communications satellites should be ready for launch 

in late 1975. Some manufacture of the NATO space 

vehicle has been subcontracted by the United States 

to the United Kingdom. In March 1974 NATO also 

made the decision to space-qualify the engineering 

model, thus making a third satellite available for 

the NATO Phase I11 SATCOM system. NASA will 

launch the NATO I11 satellite and the USAF will 

provide orbital services. The USAF has provided 

technical support to the NATO SATCOM Program 

since its inception. During 1974 several U.S., U.K. 

and NATO meetings were held to improve plans for 

more effective use of SATCOM systems in the event 

of contingencies involving failures of communications 

satellites and to improve the interoperability capabilities of the systems. The United States furnished 

technical expert assistance to NATO for development of specifications for the procurement of NATO 

Phase I11 satellite ground terminals (SGTs) and 

the improvement of Phase I1 STSs. Assistance was 

also provided for developing standards and specifications for interfacing the NATO SATCOM and 

terrestrial communications systems. 

An agreement was reached between the U.S.A. 

and the U.S.S.R. on 30 September 1971 to modify 

the 20 June 1963 Memorandum of Understanding 

(MOU) signed in Geneva, Switzerland, which called 

for the establishment of a Direct Communications 

Link (DCL) between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. 

The September 1971 agreement to improve the 

DCL specified the use of two parallel satellite communications circuits (via INTELSAT and Molniya 

2) to increase reliability and preclude third country 

intervention. Progress on the development of the 

improved DCL has been substantial during 1974. 

The U.S. has completed installation and testing at 

both earth stations, Ft. Detrick, Maryland and Etam, 

West Virginia, and at associated terrestrial facilities. 

Upon completion of work at the Soviet DCL facilities, U.S.A.-U.S.S.R. testing will begin, followed 

shortly by DCL system activation. 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) 

The AACB is the principal formal coordinating 

body between the Department of Defense and NASA 

in the aeronautics and space areas. The Board met 

three times over the past year. A National Aeronautical Facilities Program, consisting of large aeronautical facilities essential to future U.S. civil and 

military aeronautical preminence, has been developed; and, at the Board’s direction an advocacy 

briefing has been provided to interested Committees 

of Congress, various agencies in the Executive 

Branch, and to appropriate industry organization. 

The Board has also identified a number of high 

priority aeronautical R&D programs for inclusion in 

the budgets of the DoD and NASA. In the space 

area, the AACB concentrated largely on reviewing 

the Space Shuttle development, the DoD plans to 

provide the low cost interim upper stage for use 

with the Shuttle at Kennedy Space Center, and the 

minimum Shuttle launch facilities at Vandenberg 

Air Force Base necessary to support high inclination 

space launches and full Shuttle utilization in the 

1980’s. 

53 
Department of Transportation 

Introduction 

The Department of Transportation (DOT) has 

the general responsibility within the government to 

foster fast, safe, convenient and efficient transportation for all citizens. It accomplishes that mission 

through a series of modal administrations, one for 

each of several types of transportation. About half 

of the Department’s employees belong to the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA) which is responsible 

for assuring the safe and efficient use of the nation’s 

airspace by both military and civil aviation, for fostering civil aeronautics and air commerce in the United 

States and abroad, and for supporting the requirements of national defense. While FAA therefore is the 

major element of the DOT to be concerned with 

aeronautics and space, other elements, particularly 

the Office of the Secretary, also have a share in the 

work of fostering and regulating the activities of 

civilian aviation. This chapter begins with a series 

of discussions of programs that are supported by the 

Office of the Secretary and continues with discussions 

of programs sponsored by FAA. Applications of the 

technology generated by space research may be sponsored by any element of the Department; many of the 

Department’s research and development efforts are 

conducted by the Transportation Systems Center in 

Cambridge, Massachusetts. 

Office of the Secretary Programs 

Typical of the programs initiated or’ sponsored by 

the Office of the Secretary are the Climatic Impact 

Assessment Program (CIAP) , the jet noise program, 

the efforts in air transportation system evaluation, the 

advanced air traffic management system, the search 

and rescue electronics research program and others. 

Following are brief descriptions of the projects: 

The Climatic Impact Assessmelzt Program 

CIAP was established in the Office of the Secretary in 1971. It is a congressionally sponsored program that represents the first comprehensive effort to 

gather all the significant factors for a study of the 

effects of propulsion effluents which would derive 

from a world aircraft fleet operating in the stratosphere. The objective of the program is to determine 

a basis for regulatory constraints to assure that no 

adverse environmental effects would impact the world 

population. 

Accomplishments in 1974 

Achieved international collaboration and scientific data exchange with some ten countries in 

the area of stratospheric research. Included were 

United Kingdom, France, and USSR, which are 

now operating supersonic transports. 

Evaluated and integrated the scientific data from 

flight measurements and laboratory research effort into six scientific documents. 

The CIAP Report of Findings contains the analysis of the collected data and identifies some 

areas in which future actions will be required. 

The report was completed by the end of 1974 

as originally committed to the Congress. 

Initiated arrangements for publication of CIAP 

documents for public distribution. 

Initiated follow-on activity to monitor the atmospheric composition over an extended period 

to add further to the capability to regulate 

operations and protect the environment. 

Jet Noise Suppressiolz Program 

Noise is judged to be the most critical constraint 

to the future growth of civil aviation. Substantial 

progress has been made in noise abatement techniques 

for, approach and landing. Progress will continue, but, 

at the present time, aircraft noise during takeoff is 

dominated by jet exhaust. 

DOT initiated a program to study the fundamental 

mechanisms of jet noise generation and abatement. 

The objective is to investigate suppression concepts 

for the various jet engine cycles that will result in the 

greatest noise attenuation with the least degradation 

of performance. 

The investigation of the phenomena is directed 

toward the following program goals: 

1. Understanding of the aero-acoustic mechanisms 

of various jet noise suppressors, including scaling 

effects. 

55 
2. Development of analytical and experimental 

techniques to evaluate acoustic source distribution in suppressors. 

3. Understanding of the aero-acoustic performance 

of these suppressors in flight. 

Significant progress has been accomplished. Most 

significant is the further development of a laser velocimeter to measure the mean and turbulence velocity in 

high speed-high temperature flow. This development 

can also be used to study the flow around other 

aerodynamic machinery for purposes of improving 

the efficiency and energy consumption through these 

techniques. A large scale eddy structure of the jet was 

shown to exist. Results of this type give promise of 

new noise suppression devices. 

Air Transportation System Evaluation 

The past year produced several changes in the 

Department’s approach to long-range R&D planning 

for air transportation systems. The completion of the 

Civil Aviation Research and Development (CARD) 

Implementation Plan in 1973 had signaled a need 

to stimulate a number of joint DOT/NASA managed 

and funded system evaluation studies. Although the 

Quiet Short Haul Air Transportation Project Office 

of the FAA was dissolved at the beginning of the 

year, continued follow-up was effected through cooperative R&D activities for short haul studies as 

well as the evaluation of air cargo systems, lighterthan-air technology, and a comprehensive approach 

to technology assessment of comparative intercity 

transportation systems. A thorough evaluation of the 

air system development trends was incorporated in 

the program evaluation of the Upgraded Third Generation Air Traffic Control System. In these studies, 

the importance of augmenting the system performance by improved utilization of existing facilities was 

highlighted. 

Advanced Air Trafic Management System 

The completion of the Advanced Air Traffic Management System (AATMS) Study described in last 

year’s report provided a conceptual basis for identifying research needs and defining development plans for 

potential air traffic management applications in the 

long-term future. The study was conducted in multiyear phases and built upon the work of the DOT Air 

Traffic Control Advisory Committee in 1969 which 

highlighted the need for FAA work to upgrade the 

air traffic control system. The AATMS study defined 

potential means for further extending the planned 

Upgraded Third Generation Air Traffic Control System to meet long-range projections of aviation demands for service, safety and flexibility with cost consciousness. The results of the study indicate that high 

levels of automation and the application of satellite 

technology appear to be promising areas of development work for future air traffic control system applications. 

Search and Rescue Electronics 

A study sponsored by the Office of Safety Affairs of 

the Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety and 

Consumer Affairs and conducted by the Transportation Systems Center reviewed current search and rescue electronic equipment and the existing and proposed locator systems in order to develop a program 

plan for improving search and rescue techniques for 

distressed air and sea casualties. The study analyzed 

various satellite monitoring systems and proposed 

development plans which would make better use of 

space technology for future systems and avoid duplication among interested agencies of the government. 

Aviation Safety Research and Development 

During 1974, as in previous years, FAA conducted 

numerous research and development programs designed to make aviation safer. Broadly speaking, these 

efforts sought ways to reduce or eliminate hazards 

incident to takeoff and landing operations and those 

incident to en route operations. They also sought to 

deal with the problem of aircraft security. 

Airport and Vicinity 

Low Visibility Landing.-FAA continued research 

and development efforts designed to provide increased safety in terminal areas during low visibility 

conditions. Among these efforts was the initiation of 

Category I11 weather flights using an Air Force C-141 

aircraft. (Category 111 refers to weather conditions 

allowing no forward visibility.) These flights, conducted under actual weather conditions, will eventually provide engincering data that will enable FAA 

to evaluate operation concepts and functional characteristics of a totally integrated air-ground allweather landing system. 

The agency also initiated flight testing of a highresolution-radar independent landing monitor (ILM) . These tests will make it possible for FAA to deter, 

mine the capability and rolc of the ILM in enhancing 

safety during low visibility landing conditions. 

Microzelauc Landing System (MLS) .-A key element of the upgraded Third Generation Air Traffic 

Control (ATC) system, which is expected to come 

into use during the 1980’s, the microwave landing system will replace the current instrument landing system, which falls short of meeting urgent tactical needs 

and does not provide highly accurate signals under all 

siting conditions because of the inherent limitations 

of the VHF and UHF radio frequencies at which it 

operates. The microwave system, however, will be 

designed to meet the needs of all aircraft, both civil 

56 
and military, and will have the modularity and flexibility to serve sites that cannot be accommodated by 

the present ILS over the full range of weather conditions and traffic densities. 

The MLS development program, scheduled to end 

in 1977, is being conducted in three phases. Phase I, 

technique analysis and contract definition, was completed in 1973. Phase 11, feasibility demonstration, 

calling for the testing of four feasibility models at the 

National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center 

(NAFEC), in Atlantic City, N. J., and Wallops Island, 

Va., was completed in December 1974. Phase 111, 

prototype development and evaluation, is scheduled 

to begin in March 1975. 

Wake Vortex Auoidaucc.-These vortices form in 

the wake of all aircraft, but most severely in the wake 

of widebodied jets, and present a serious potential 

hazard-particularly on approach, landing, and takeoff-to close-trailing smaller aircraft. In consequence, 

they have forced FAA to provide increased longitudinal separation between aircraft. This practice has had 

the effect of restricting both airspace and airport 

capacity. 

Accordingly, FAA is attacking the problem on two 

fronts: (1) at the source, by studying airplane configurations and attempting to correct the problem by 

changes to the airframe; (2) by developing a wake 

vortex avoidance system (WVAS) that would detect 

and track vortices, based upon wind data measured 

near the touchdown area, and inform ATC controllers when separations imposed by the vortex 

phenomenon may be reduced. The first approach, 

which is being investigated by NASA, is for the long 

term. As to the WVAS development program-thc 

short-term solution--FAA has detected and tracked 

more than 20,000 vortices using new acoustic sensors 

at the John F. Kennedy International Airport in New 

York and Stapleton Airport in Denver. This is the 

first step in characterizing vortex behavior and permitting the development of a vortex avoidance system. A functional design of a wake vortex avoidance 

system will be tested in the near future. 

Aircraft Security.-In its continuing efforts to deter 

aircraft hijacking, sabotage, and other overt acts 

against aircraft, FAA engaged in the following activities, among others, during the calendar year : 

Completed an explosives taggant feasibility study 

that provided information on taggants and became the basis of the government-wide interagency explosive taggant program. 

(Taggants are substances which, when added to 

explosives or explosive detonating devices, facilitate the detection of explosives or detonating 

devices by dogs or other means.) 

Published a report on the performance and cost 

effectiveness of weapon detectors used by airport 

security personnel. 

Continued work on an automatic weapon and 

explosives detection system using each of two Xray spectrums. 

Other Terminal Area Safety Developments.-In 

addition to the foregoing, FAA pursued a variety of 

other programs designed to improve performance and 

enhance safety in and around airports. 

These efforts includede 

e 

e 

e 

e 

e 

e 

e 

e 

e 

Concluding an interagency agreement with the 

US. Navy to evaluate the shape and configuration of grooves on airport runways as a means 

of minimizing hydroplaning on wet surfaces. 

Issuing a technical report providing design and 

construction criteria for (1) fibrous reinforced 

pavement concrete, (2) free drainage runway 

surface courses, (3) prestressed concrete pavement, and (4) stabilized bases under airport 

pavements. 

Awarding a contract to study and develop techniques for the use of heated runways as a method 

of controlling snow and ice on airport pavements. 

Developing a Iow-impact absorbing support 

structure for approach lights that would collapse 

and do minimum damage to aircraft in the event 

of accidcntal impact. 

Designing a lighted wind cone for installation at 

the end of runways in an effort to provide better 

wind-cone visibility. 

Comp!eting a survey of the electrostatic charging 

tendency of fuel delivered at 10 major airports. 

This siirvry was part of an FAA-industry program to prevent explosions from electrostatic 

discharges during aircraft fueling. 

Testing high-capacity, long-range firefighting 

foam-dispensing systems to determine the effectiveness of the larger types of firefighting 

equipment and amass data useful in the development of Advisory Circulars and International 

Civil Aviation Organization recommended practices. 

Continuing the investigation of stall deterrent 

devices and flight characteristics criteria for 

avoidance of inadvertent stalls in terminal area 

maneuvers. 

Completing tests and data analysis documenting 

the feasibility of the proposed Concorde SST 

landing distance rule. 

Testing chemical glycerine as a warm fog-dispersal agent in a series of fog seedings that employed a small commercial helicopter as a fogseeding platform. The test revealed that while 

some favorable increases in surface visibility 

57 
could be attributed to the coabined effects of 

fog seeding and helicopter downwash, the overall results were not sufficient to warrant continued development of the technique. 

Continuing an in-house engineering study on the 

conceptual design of a thermal ground-based 

fog-dispersal system for use at a major US. airport that experiences a high frequency of fog. 

En Route and Post-Crash Safety 

FAA’s calendar year 1974 research and development efforts to improve safety during flight and increase the chances of survival in the event of an 

accident included- 

* 

58 

Continuing the investigation and development 

of means to reduce midair collisions. Flight tests 

are planned for completion by summer of 1975 

for three airborne Collision Avoidance System 

(CAS) devices. In the area of separation assurance, FAA is committed to the development of a 

well-reasoned and technically based recommendation on measures that provide the largest 

benefit for the cost, both to the aviation community and the Government. The activity specifically addresses the comparative performance, 

costs, and benefits of CAS devices and alternative means of achieving comparable separation 

capabilities. These include extensions of the 

manual ground-based ATC system as well as augmentation of the ground system by Intermittent 

Positive Control (IPC). 

Completing a series of feasibility studies on the 

on-board generation of nitrogen for use in fuel 

tank inerting. These studies looked to a more 

viable technology for meeting improved fuelsystem fire protection rules. 

Initiating toxic gas-emission tests of jet transport cabin materials in order to develop a data 

bank to support proposed rulemaking. 

Completing full-scale cabin studies of the effect 

on visual acuity of smoke emissions from burning 

material. 

Conducting tests to establish safe oxygen levels 

in fuel tanks for protection against explosions 

in ground fires. The tests sought to verify the 

requirements for improved fuel-system fire protection rules and obtain data for evaluating the 

Concorde fuel system. 

Continuing tests on the flash-fire propensities 

of cabin-interior materials. These tests are being 

conducted in cooperation with the National 

Bureau of Standards. 

Initiating a program to improve the fire safety 

characteristics of cabin flight attendant uniforms. 

Completing a program to determine the characteristics of flames from failed combustors in turbine engines. The data gathered by this program 

will be used to establish criteria for engine fire 

protection and detection. 

Undertaking with NASA analysis and test of the 

cashworthiness of light general aviation aircraft 

and human tolerance to crashes. This effort seeks 

to develop structural design criteria that wiIl lead 

to light aircraft with a significantly improved 

capability to withstand crashes. 

Developing data that establish the characteristics, capabilities, and effectiveness of ground 

trainers used in training pilots in specific 

maneuvers. 

Developing techniques of structural dynamic 

analysis for use in the certification of small general aviation aircraft subjected to survival crash 

impacts. This effort was concerned with securing 

data for updating the airworthiness standards of 

normal, utility, and acrobatic general aviation 

aircraft. 

Publishing a statistical summary of 8 years of 

general aviation accident data to be used in the 

identification of design features that may have 

been causal factors in fatal accidents. 

Continuing the study of psychosocial or “lifestyle” reconstructions as an aid in understanding 

the cause of aircraft accidents, especially accidents attributed to pilot error or poor judgment. 

Completing the testing of a propeller vibration 

measuring technique for general aviation aircraft 

to provide data for propeller certification standards. 

Completing the evaluation of a U.S. Air Force 

tnethod for detecting incipient turbine engine 

failure. 

Pursuing a program to confirm the values of 

Doppler radar techniques as a means of locating dangerous thunderstorms. 

Completing specifications for the procurement 

of a video system to monitor the visibility in remote mountain passes used by general aviation 

aircraft. 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation 

In addition to its responsibilities in maintaining 

safety in the air, FAA is also charged with insuring 

the efficient and equitable utilization of the nation’s 

airspace and maintaining a common ATC system for 

both civil and military aircraft. Performing these 

additional functions requires the application of the 

most promising developments of a rapidly evolving 

technology. 

National Airspace System Modernization 

The primary focus of FAA’s efforts to modernize 

the National Airspace System (NAS) has been con- 
centrated on the introduction of two semi-automated 

air traffic control systems-namely, NAS En Route 

Stage A at the 20 air route traffic control centers 

(ARTCC’s) in the contiguous 48 States and Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS) 111 at 61 

of the Nation’s busiest terminal areas. 

The enroute program is being implemented in two 

phases. Phase I provides automatic flight data processing and interfacility data transfer; phase 11, digital radar display and radar data processing. 

At the beginning of the calendar year, all 20 

ARTCC s possessed an operational capability in automatic flight data processing and interfacility data 

transfer. They were also using computer updating 

equipment, which facilitates communications between 

the controller and the automated system. At this 

writing, fourteen of the twenty ARTCC s are fully 

commissioned NAS En Route Stage A facilities, 

possessing digital radar display and radar data processing. Six others were in various stages of testing 

radar data processing. The second implementation 

phase is expected to be completed at the twentieth 

center by mid-1975. 

The terminal automation system reached a significant landmark during the reporting period when, in 

September 1974, the sixtieth ARTS I1 system became 

operational at San Francisco/Oakland. The Dallas 

/Ft. Worth system will be commissioned in February 

1975. With this development, all 61 ARTS I11 systems will have reached operational status. 

FAA plans to provide 30 of these 61 high density 

terminal facilities with primary tracking and continuous data recording. The research and development effort for these additions to the ARTS I11 

system was completed in August 1973. Procurement 

specifications were prepared, and a contract award 

is expected to be made August 1975. 

FAA also plans to introduce a less complex automation system-ARTS II-at 70 lower-density terminal radar control facilities. Delivery of this system will 

begin in mid-1975. 

In addition, a variation of the ARTS I11 system 

was purchased for installation at the Anchorage, 

Alaska, ARTCC. This system which will use long 

range radar inputs and en route plan view displays, 

will provide the area now served by the Fairbanks, 

Alaska, ARTCC, which is scheduled to close, with 

remote radar service. Delivery of the new system 

was made in late 1974. 

Upgraded Third Geaera:ioa ATC System 

In addition to improving the performance and reliability of the present ATC system, FAA is working 

toward an upgraded third generation ATC system 

capable of handling the ATC requirements of the 

1980’s and beyond. Significant calendar year developments in this effort follow. 

Aeronautical Satellite (AEROSAT) Program--On 

May 9, 1974, the United States signed a memorandum of understanding-signed later by Canada and 

the European Space Research Organization (ES 

RO) , representing nine European nations-establishing a joint Aeronautical Satellite (AEROSAT) program. The joint program will provide two satellites 

in geostationary orbit over the Atlantic Ocean to be 

used for experimentation and evaluation of improved 

oceanic air traffic control and communication systems 

characterized by high quality voice and data transmission as well as dependent and independent surveillance. The successful demonstration of a costeffective oceanic air traffic control system based on 

satellites could eventually lead to the international 

implementation of such a system to replace the 

current high frequency radio circuits which suffer 

from serious propagation and operating deficiences. 

In September 1974, the Communications Satellite 

Corp. (COMSAT) was selected to build and operate 

the satellite segment of the AEROSAT system. 

Discrete Address Beacon (DABS) .-This improved 

ATC beacon system is intended to allow ground 

equipment to uniquely interrogate specific aircraft of 

interest. At the same time, it could significantly reduce electronic interference in the beacon environment and provide an integral data link that can be 

used with a ground-based anti-collision systems called 

IPC. During the year, the technical feasibility of 

DABS was demonstrated and verified using an experimental facility at Hanscom Field, Massachusetts. 

With these results in hand, FAA expects to contract 

for three engineering-model ground sensors and approximately 30 airborne transponders in June 1975. 

Intermittent Positiue Control (IPC) .-This technique, initially developed by the DOT Air Traffic 

Control Advisory Committee, would provide an intermittent form of ground-based air traffic control advisory and separation service to aircraft flying under 

visual flight rules (VFR) . IPC, which would operate 

in conjunction with the Discrete Address Beacon 

System (DABS), would intervene whenever a VFR 

aircraft was on a collision course with another VFR 

or IFR aircraft. In 1974, FAA generated a plan for 

experimenting with the development of IPC service. 

The plan, which sets forth an effort in two phases, 

calls for the use of the DABS Experimental Facility 

for the initial testing phase and for the final testing 

phase in a multisite ATC environment. Phase I is 

scheduled for completion by April 1976; Phase 11, 

by November 1977. 

Other Developments.-In addition to the foregoing, FAA- 

@ Began testing the anti-mid-air collision capability of Synchro-DABS. This equipment used 

59 575-666 0 - 15 - 5 
in conjunction with the DABS/IPC system, 

could provide aircraft with an on-board capability for collision detection and warning at a 

minimum added cost. Aircraft equipped with 

Synchro-DABS would be able to detect and 

avoid all aircraft carrying a DABS transponder, 

even if DABS ground-system coverage was unavailable. Synchro-DABS experimental equipment was built by the Transportation System 

Center. Testing began at the Naval Weapons 

Center, China Lake, California, in late 1974. 

Designed and made available for installation on 

air traffic control radar beacon systems (ATC 

RBS) a field retrofit package of a National 

Facilities Experimental Center (NAFEC) Dipole Feed antenna. The retrofit package allows 

beacon interrogation to be transmitted and 

transponder replies received via the primary 

radar antenna. The significantly improved radiation pattern permits better target detection 

in cluttered environments, and reduces target 

fading due to vertical lobing. ATCRBS’s at 56 

en route sites had been provided with this 

modification by the end of the reporting period. 

Developed a field modification kit to improve 

the reliability and performance of the agency’s 

Airport Surface Detection Equipment ( ASDE 

11) radars. All the ASDE’s were to be modified 

with the aid of the kit to improve their performance. 

Developed and installed at the John F. Kennedy 

International Airport a new BRITE display for 

use with ASDE’s. The display made possible 

better viewing of targets, even under the brightest lighting. 

Incorporated the Service C teletypewriter 

weather system, the only remaining unautomated weather network, into the Weather Message 

Switching Center (WMSC) . This action completed the automation of the FAA’s three major 

weather network-Services A, C, and 0. 

Reduced the channel spacing of its VHFIUHF 

navaids by half, thereby doubling the number 

of channels available. FAA will continue assigning new facilities on 100 kHz spacing unless 

frequency congestion necessitates use of a 50 

kHz assignment. No existing facility channel 

assignments will be changed before January 

1976, which will minimize inconvenience to 

users with radio equipment incapable of receiving the split channel frequencies. 

Contracted for the installation of an inertial 

navigation system in its C-195 jet. The object, 

as announced in February 1974, was to demonstrate and test a satellite-supported oceanic ATC 

communications and surveillance system. The 

satellite to be used in the experiment was the 

NASA Applications Technology Satellite 6, an 

experimental unmanned spacecraft designed for 

the conduct of meteorological, communication, 

scientific, and technological experiments. 

Completed plans for conducting at the Kansas 

City ARTCC an operational evaluation of automated conflict alert for the en route system. The 

conflict alert software would operate initially for 

air traffic at high altitudes (24,000 feet and 

above). The computer would detect potential 

conflicts about two minutes in advance and signal the controller by flashing the alphanumeric 

data blocks of the aircraft involved directly on 

to the controller’s radarscope. An additional display, identifying the aircraft, would also appear 

on one side of the scope, thereby further facilitating controller analysis of the situation. 

Conducted cockpit display tests at NAFEC for 

Data Link, a communication system designed to 

reduce the need for live voice messages by substituting in their place message displays that 

would be read by the pilot in the cockpit. The 

tests were conducted in NAFEC’s cockpit simulator, and the messages-ATC and weather advisories-were displayed in the form of paper 

printouts and alphanumerics readout devices. 

Began work to define a system for integrating 

weather data into the National Airspace System. 

The objective was the automatic transmission 

and display of weather data at appropriate ATC 

facilities. 

60 
V Department of Cornrnerce 

Introduction 

Department of Commerce agencies that actively 

utilize or contribute to aeronautics and space activities in carrying out their missions are the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau of Standards, the Office of Telecommunications, the Maritime Administration, and the 

Bureau of the Census. 

The broad goals of these agencies require programs 

to assure that the environment and its resources are 

wisely used; to develop and operate systems to monitor and predict environmental conditions ; to explore 

the feasibility of beneficial environmental modification; to more rationally use and conserve our coastal 

zone areas; to strengthen and advance the Nation’s 

science and technology and to facilitate its effective 

application for the public benefit; to improve ship 

communications, navigation, safety, and management 

techniques; to provide specialized engineering, management, and advisory assistance to other federal 

agencies in telecommunications applications; and to 

provide information on population trends, urban 

growth, and internal structure of national land areas. 

These goals have been or are being accomplished 

by establishing and maintaining an operational satellite system; by continuing to implement effective marine resources monitoring, assessment, and prediction 

programs; by continuing to monitor our marine environment through improved and continued use of 

sensors installed on ships, aircraft, and satellites ; by 

improving our weather observations and forecasts 

through the establishment of automated observation 

stations, installation of improved radar systems, and 

continued atmospheric research programs such as the 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) 

Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) ; by conducting research in such areas as lightning suppression, hurricane and precipitation control, and instrumentation development; by improving data collection, processing, and dissemination techniques ; by 

providing basic measurement and calibration methods 

for operating technical systems and engineering data 

needed in the design and construction of sophisticated space and aeronautics equipment; by installing, 

testing, and evaluating shipboard satellite equipment; 

by conducting electromagnetic wave propagation 

studies for the improvement of space communications 

and collision avoidance systems; and applying satellite 

imagery to demographic studies. 

Use of Satellites in Environmental Monitoring 

and Prediction 

Environmental Satellite Operations 

At the begining of 1974, the National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS) of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

was operating three polar-orbiting satellites: ESSA 

8 of the older TIROS Operational Satellite (TOS) 

series and NOAA 2 and NOAA 3 of the Improved 

TOS (ITOS) series. NOAA 3 was used as the primary global data-gathering satellite during most of 

1974. However, from mid- July through mid-October 

NOAA 2 was returned to primary duty. Favorable 

spacecraft temperatures made it possible to use the 

NOAA 2 Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer 

(VTPR) for that period and thus to reserve the 

NOAA 3 instrument for future use. ITOS G was 

successfully launched on November 15, 1974, and 

named NOAA 4. Following the NASA post-launch 

systems checkout, NOAA 4 became the primary operational satellite on December 4, and NOAA 3 will 

serve as its “in-orbit” backup. NOAA 4 has an instrument complement identical to that of NOAA 3, except that the VTPR on NOAA 4 has been modified 

by the addition of baffles to prevent an off field-ofview light leak that was causing some contamination 

in data acquired by the NOAA 2 and NOAA 3 

instruments. 

On May 17, 1974, NASA launched the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite, SMS 1, the prototype 

spacecraft for the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system. This satellite 

is equipped with a Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan 

Radiometer (VISSR) for earth viewing, a Space 

Environment Monitor (SEM) for monitoring ener61 
getic particles and geomagnetism, a Data Collection 

System (DCS) for gathering environmental data 

from a variety of remote earth platforms, and a 

Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) broadcast system to 

relay processed satellite and conventional weather 

data to a variety of national and international users 

equipped with Automatic Picture Transmission 

(APT) receivers. SMS 1 was placed in geostationary 

orbit at 45" West longitude, 35,903 kilometers above 

the equator. Its primary mission from June 25 

through September 23 was to support the GATE. 

Between September 23 and November 15, the spacecraft was moved to its permanent operating station 

near 75" West longitude. At its permanent location, 

the SMS/GOES VISSR provides near-continuous 

viewing of a circular area extending from 70°N to 

70"s and from 5"W to 145OW. Full disc pictures are 

available at 30-minute intervals from the two VISSR 

sensors. The visible sensor provides daytime viewing 

with a resolution of one kilometer, and the infrared 

sensor provides both day and night viewing with a 

resolution of eight kilometers. The SEM monitors 

solar X-ray flux, solar proton flux, and variations in 

the Earth's magnetic field. The DCS permits the collection of environmental data from automatic sensors in remote areas. Among the platforms to be monitored by the DCS are river stage gauges, rainfall 

gauges, seismic and tsunami meters, automatic 

weather stations, buoys, and ships at sea. The spacecraft can accommodate data from 10,000 or more 

individual observing platforms every six hours. 

Evolving requirements and improved technology 

have led to the start of planning and development of a 

new operational polar-orbiting satellite series. TIROS 

N, the NASA prototype and subsequent operational 

spacecraft, will carry advanced versions of instruments now on the ITOS spacecraft and have a remote platform location and data collection capability. 

This satellite system will improve environmental predictions by providing atmospheric observations of increased accuracy and coverage. TIROS N is scheduled for launch sometime in 1978. 

Vertical Temperature and Wind Profiles 

VTPR soundings are used routinely in the numerical weather prediction program of the National 

Meteorological Center (NMC) . Approximately 1,000 

vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature are derived daily from VTPR radiance data by NESS and 

used by NMC in their upper-air analyses over the 

World's oceans. 

A data processing system that combines Nimbus 5 

experimental environmental satellite observations 

from the Infrared Temperature Profile Radiometer, 

the Temperature Humidity Infrared Radiometer, the 

Selective Chopper Radiometer, and the Nimbus E 

Microwave Spectrometer has been successfully developed. This system obtains the best possible set of 

sounding radiances which are then converted into 

temperature profiles from the surface to 50 kilometers 

and moisture profiles to 15 kilometers. An analysis 

of temperatures obtained with this system shows that 

these profiles are superior to those obtained from any 

of the individual sounders. 

SMS 1 images are being used to derive wind vectors from cloud motions. It now is possible to obtain 

winds both day and night because of the availability 

of infrared images. The infrared data also are used 

to determine cloud top temperatures. A new system, 

called the Man-Machine Interactive Processing System (MMIPS), has been developed for this purpose. 

MMIPS is a computer system used to display satellite 

imagery in static and animated forms. Using a relatively simple program, which incorporates existing 

theories of infrared radiation, the system computes 

the temperature of the observed cloud. From these 

temperatures it is possible to determine the cloud 

heights and thus assign wind vectors to their proper 

level in the atmosphere. This n2w procedure became 

operational August 19, 1974. NMC also uses these 

data as direct input to their numerical weather forecasts and these data are transmitted, together with 

VTPR data, to other nations via the Global Telecommunications System. These wind vector data also 

are an important part of the data base for research 

studies of atmospheric circulation. 

Environmental Warning Services 

SMS 1 became the primary warning service platform upon reaching its permanent position near 75" 

West longitude. However, since SMS 1 WEFAX 

operates on S-band frequencies, both ATS 1 and 

ATS 3 satellites will continue to provide WEFAX 

service on VHF frequencies for users who have not 

converted to S-band receivers. Photographic images 

from the VISSR, either full disc or sectors of the 

disc, are distributed to the Satellite Field Services 

Stations (SFSS) . Sectors of the full disc picture then 

are sent to 16 Weather Service Forecast Offices 

(WSFO), the first increment of a planned network 

of about 50 WSFO/GOES facilities. The WSFO's 

receiving these data use them routinely to improve 

short-term forecast and advisory service to the public, 

aviation and shipping. 

Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) Sectorizor Display Systems, which provide visible and 

infrared images with one kilometer resolution, have 

been installed at the Gilmore Creek, Alaska, and 

Wallops, Virginia, Command and Data Acquisition 

Stations and at the San Francisco SFSS. WSFO's in 

Alaska are equipped to receive and display the VHRK 

sectors from Gilmore Creek, and selected WSFO's in 
the Western United States can receive the VHRR 

sectors from San Francisco. These observations help 

provide better environmental forecast and warning 

services to public and commercial users. The Wallops 

data are relayed to Suitland for processing. 

D-uring July and August 1974, the National Weather 

Service (NWS) and NESS conducted a short-range 

forecasting experiment on northern Chesapeake Bay 

to determine if satellite data could be used to provide 

detailed and timely weather warning and forecast 

services to the boating public. SMS 1 high resolution 

images were correlated with special reports of wind 

conditions from many private boaters and marinas in 

the Upper Bay to better understand how the local 

wind fields were inferred from the cloud images. In 

addition, radar reports were obtained to correlate 

precipitation with cloud images. Experiments were 

conducted with various ways of wording the weather 

summaries and forecasts and displaying the data. The 

information was carried by the NWS VHF continuous 

weather broadcast from Baltimore. 

Determining Ocean Conditions 

NOAA 2 and 3 satellite images continued in use for 

developing improved methods of mapping oceanographic parameters. An experimental Gulf Stream 

area thermal boundaries chart developed by NESS 

and based on interpretation of VHRR infrared (IR) 

images is slated to become operational about the beginning of 1975. NWS will use this product to initiate 

a Gulf Stream information service to the public. A 

cloud-free sequence of VHRR IR images revealed a 

large cold eddy along the edge of the Sargasso Sea 

and Gulf Stream in March 1974. Use of satellite data 

enabled a research vessel to proceed directly to the 

eddy and implant a special buoy to carry out research 

work. Satellite tracking of the buoy indicated a slow 

counterclockwise circulation in the eddy. Information 

on the Gulf Stream is of special interest to the shipping and fishing industries. Ships using East Coast 

routes try to stay in the Gulf Stream northbound and 

avoid it southbound to minimize transit times and 

save fuel. Commercial fishermen use water mass 

boundary data to increase the effic.iency of their 

operations. The nutrients on which fish feed accumulate on boundaries between shelf, slope, and Gulf 

Stream waters, and large concentrations of fish are 

usually found in such areas. 

NESS continues to prepare experimental ice charts 

of Alaskan waters based on NOAA’s high resolution 

satellite images and disseminates them over NWS 

facsimile circuits. To plan sea transport in these areas, 

marine interests need to know of the existence and 

location of ice along sea routes, and whether the ice 

is forming or breaking up. Infrared sensing systems 

on the NOAA satellites permit the observation of 

major ice features throughout the year. Significant 

ice boundaries, openings, and thin areas can be detected in the visible images, and improved estimates 

can be made of thickness and the physical state of the 

ice from surface temperature information contained 

in the infrared images. Satellite observations permit 

more efficient ice surveillance, which results in 

economic savings and increased safety to shipping 

operations. 

Determining Lake Conditions 

The NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research 

Laboratory (GLERL) is using both NOAA 2 and 

ERTS 1 images in its studies. Snow extent maps, prepared from NOAA 2 VHRR images for the southern 

Ontario basin, have been compared with aircraftobserved gamma ray data as a part of the International Field Year of the Great Lakes (IFYGL) 

analysis program. This information is useful in determining how much snow will melt and affect lake 

levels. 

Determinations of surface water temperatures of 

the Great Lakes have been made using NOAA 2 data. 

These measurements show close agreement with similar data obtained from aircraft and ships. Upwelling 

of water along the shorelines of the Lakes also has 

been observed in both NOAA 2 and ERTS 1 satellite 

data. The ability to detect upwelling is important because it can cause rapid changes in surface water 

temperatures and mixing conditions. This action promotes algae growth which may clog municipal water 

intakes. 

Both VHRR and ERTS data have been used to 

determine ice formation, growth, movement, and 

breakup in the Lakes as a part of the study to improve 

the ice forecasts for shipping and for the program to 

extend the navigation season on the Great Lakes. 

This is part of a GLERL program to study the geographical extent and physical properties of Lake ice. 

Experimental charts of Great Lakes ice conditions, 

based on interpretation of VHRR images, were developed by NESS and disseminated twice weekly via 

the NWS facsimile network. This information, together with other efforts, has resulted in a favorable 

economic impact on the shipping industry permitting 

extension of the Great Lakes shipping season by at 

least 30 days annually. 

Determining Hydrological Conditions 

Quantitative estimates of snow cover derived from 

VHRR data were extended to include the Willamette 

River basin in the Pacific Northwest, increasing to 

four the number of river basins covered during the 

past year. The others are the Genesee River, the Red 

River of the North, and the American River. These 

estimates were sent to River Forecast Centers for use 

in river and Aood potential forecasting. River and 
rainfall gauges, equipped with radio transceivers to 

permit interrogation and data collection via the 

GOES DCS, are being installed at 44 remote locations in flood prone, Western river basins. Rainfall 

and river stage information from these remote observing sites will provide data to River Forecast Centers 

for early assessment of storm rainfall, an important 

factor in improving river forecasting and flood warning services, and in estimating potential water supplies. 

It has been established that VHRR IR data can 

be used to identify areas of flooding from large rivers. 

In the case of Mississippi River floods, a comparison 

of the flood extent using both NOAA 2 and ERTS 1 

data showed the NOAA 2 measurements differed 

from ERTS measurements by only 13 percent. This 

is surprisingly good considering that the resolution of 

the VHRR images is 1,000 meters compared to 80 

meters for ERTS. 

Pollution Monitoring 

Further analysis results based on the combined 

satellite, aircraft, and surface data collected in the 

New York Bight in April 1973 are now available. 

The ERTS 1 Multispectral Scanner data, together 

with aircraft remote sensing and shipboard measurements, have provided information which can be used 

to identify and to map major water masses and acid 

dumping sites within the New York Bight. The optical properties of the water masses in the visible 

spectrum result in spectral signatures sufficiently 

characteristic to form a basis for classification and 

mapping. Evidence also has been found that under 

sunglint conditions large oil slicks in the ocean can 

be detected by means of the multispectral imagery 

from the ERTS. 

Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys 

The NOAA Data Buoy Office (NDBO) is developing and testing environmental data buoy systems and 

components to measure oceanic and atmospheric 

parameters. Buoy data are telemetered via earth 

satellites and shore stations. The basic objective is 

the development of several types of instrumented, 

unattended buoys, either moored or drifting, on the 

high seas or in the coastal zone, to collect and relay 

marine environmental data for operational and research use. 

The NDBO developed and tested six prototype 

Buoy Transmit Terminals (BTT) and subsequently 

contracted for 75 production BTT units. These terminals are intended for use with the Nimbus F satellite 

data collection and location system. Five Data Collection Platform Radio Sets (DCPRS), for use with 

the GOES satellite system, were acquired for test and 

evaluation. Tests linking up several units with the 

G.OES satellite system were successful. 

64 

Fisheries 

The Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission 

used NOAA 2 and 3 remotely sensed infrared data to 

reveal the relationships of ocean thermal fronts to 

biological features, particularly to tuna fishing locations. 

Final results of the Skylab Gamefish Experiment, 

conducted by the National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico, demonstrated that satellite remote sensing may have potential for increasing the probability of gamefishing SUCcess. Using data acquired by private and professional 

sportsfishermen and NASA and NMFS elements, it 

was possible to identify white marlin fishing areas 

from significant oceanographic parameters. By correlating fish catch with oceanographic data, predictive 

models were developed to identify areas of high 

productive capacity thus offering potential for significantly reducing the fisherman’s search time. The four 

environmental parameters used in the models were 

chlorophyll-a, sea-surface temperature, water turbidity, and salinity which were determined from data 

obtained by aircraft remote sensors and shipboard 

oceanographic instrumentation. To date, excessive 

cloud cover has prevented meaningful use of Skylab 

data acquired during the study. 

Other continuing NMFS efforts include the application of aircraft remote sensing techniques to make 

population estimates of Atlantic bluefin tuna resources and to assess the populations of walrus, bowhead whales, grey whales, and northern fur seals in 

the Beaufort Sea, the Bering Sea, and the Bering 

Strait. 

Meteorological Data 

The NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory 

(NSSL) is participating in a joint program with 

NASA and some universities on the establishment of 

ground truth for satellites in the Atmospheric Variability Experiment. This experiment is designed to 

test procedures for assessing the accuracy of satellitederived meteorological data. 

Other Satellite and Space Applications 

Weather Modifications. 

The NOAA Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry 

Laboratory continued its experimental work in 

lightning suppression. For the first time, thunderstorms were seeded with aluminum coated chaff from 

two aircraft flying at two different levels. The effect 

of the seeding was an immediate release on the chaff 

of a corona discharge which was measured outside the 

storm by a special antenna on one of the aircraft. 

This work has special application in the reduction of 

lightning induced forest fires and the suppression of 
lightning at the Kennedy Space Center during spacecraft launches. 

The NOAA National Hurricane Research Laboratory (NHRL) made extensive use of visual and infrared satellite information in evaluating results of 

hurricane modification experiments and in studying 

the climatology of Pacific typhoons. In addition, the 

NHRL is conducting, on behalf of the NWS, NESS 

and the USAF Air Weather Service (AWS), a study 

to determine the accuracy of locations and intensities 

of tropical cyclones derived from satellite pictures. 

This study is to aid in decisions about the extent to 

which satellites can replace aircraft reconnaissance of 

tropical cyclones. 

Znternational Cooperation 

GATE, the largest and most complex international 

weather experiment in history, was conducted from 

June 15 to September 23, 1974. Dakar, Senegal, was 

the field headquarters for this experiment. The experimental area was located off the West African coast 

between 20° North and 10" South latitude and 

Oo and 50" West longitude. Some 4,000 people from 

72 nations participated, and 40 ships, 13 instrumented 

aircraft, 6 satellite systems, and other scientific equipment were used during this 100-day research program. Environmental satellites used were the United 

States' NOAA 2 and 3, ATS 3, SMS 1, Nimbus 5, 

and the Defense Meteorological Satellite and the 

USSR's Meteor 18. GATE was sponsored by the 

World Meteorological Organization ( WMO) and 

the International Council of Scientific Unions. The 

United States effort was coordinated by NOAA. 

The vast amount of data assembled will be used to 

improve weather forecasts and to expand man's 

understanding of the mechanisms which produce 

climate changes such as the drought now affecting 

Africa's Sahelian belt. 

October 1, 1974, marked the 10th anniversary of 

environmental satellite data exchange on the direct 

circuit connecting Moscow and Washington. These 

data included visible and infrared photographs from 

NOAA 2 and 3 and the USSR Meteor 13 through 

18. Meteor 16, 17, and 18 were launched between 

March and July 1974. Soviet satellites now are providing experimental APT service over eastern Europe 

and Soviet territories. 

Under the WMO Voluntary Assistance Program, 

the NWS installed APT ground stations in 19 countries and ordered stations for installation in 6 others. 

Demographic Studies 

The Bureau of the Census, using Agency for International Development funds, is studying the applicability of ERTS 1 images to demographic studies and 

other census operations in three developing countries. The countries involved, Afghanistan, Kenya and 

Bolivia, were deliberately selected for their variety of 

physical and cultural environments, and their disparate histories of census taking and statistical development. The willingness and ability of their 

governments to participate in such a project also was 

a determining factor. 

ERTS images are being used to develop new mapping processes, to plan the allocation of enumeration 

resources, to evaluate census results, to monitor the 

extent of urban development, and to form a basis for 

land use classification. Benefits to be derived from 

this effort are the production of better data on population numbers, trends, and locations and on urban 

growth in the three countries. 

The Bureau of the Census also is investigating the 

applicability of satellite images to domestic census 

programs. The major objective is to find a means of 

detecting and measuring the peripheral growth of the 

larger cities in the United States. The Bureau is 

responsible for designating urbanized areas for measurement after each decennial census. These measurements are for use in various Federal funding formulas 

and grant applications such as those used in the 

Revenue Sharing legislation. The Bureau has completed imagery-derived urbanized area definitions for 

the first group of a representative selection of cities. 

The results have been examined in detail and comparisons have been made with urbanized area measurements developed by conventional decennial census 

procedures and by Earth image procedures to determine their relationship in terms of population, the 

administrative status of component parts, land area, 

and geographic configuration; time and resources 

required for both methods of delineation also have 

been compared. 

Navigation1 Communications Satellite 

The Maritime Administration is continuing its 

program to apply satellite technology to ship navigation and radio-communication problems. Tests were 

conducted with merchant ships using NASA's ATS 5 

and ATS 6 satellite communications to evaluate 

equipment, techniques, and various frequency bands. 

The objective is to extend to shipping the communication services now provided between locations ashore 

and to make available continuous, accurate ship 

location information to both ships and shore stations. 

Such capabilities will permit the use of improved 

management techniques such as automation, more 

efficient operations, and better control of ship movemen ts. 

Determination of the Earth's Shape and Gravity 

Field 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS) plans to determine geoid and gravity conditions over the Earth's 

65 
ocean regions, utilizing radar altimeter measurements 

from the GEOS C satellite. Pre-launch tests are underway using a simulated set of altimetry measurements 

and a mathematical model to determine station positions and the Earth's gravitational field. This model 

is based on Doppler data, surface gravity anomalies, 

and geometrically obtained directions and distances. 

NOS surveyors are remeasuring the United States 

with almost pinpoint accuracy. Using a system known 

as Doppler geodesy, the National Geodetic Survey is 

making measurements at about 130 points in all 50 

states at points approximately 150 miles apart. So far, 

NOS has determined the exact position of 35 stations 

in the continental United States and 6 stations in 

Alaska. These determinations, based on Doppler 

measurements using geodetic receivers (Geoceiver) 

that receive signals from the Navy Transit Satellites, 

measure the Doppler shift and precise time of satellite signals with signals generated by the Geoceiver. 

The survey will result in the more accurate location 

of survey markers, providing an extremely accurate 

base for topographic mapping and navigational charting and for improving techniques for earthquake 

prediction. 

Satellite Communications 

The Office of Telecommunications (OT) has developed a model to predict the interference and noise 

that will be detected by the ATS 6 satellite during 

an experiment to monitor interference from terrestrial 

communication systems operating near 6 GHz. This 

model was used by NASA to design the experiment 

and to select areas on the Earth's surface to be monitored from the satellite. OT developed requirements 

for multiple, narrow beam satellite transmit and 

receive antenna patterns for the U. S. Postal Service 

proposed Electronic Mail System. In developing these 

requirements, it was necessary to consider geographical coverage and electronic isolation of various antenna patterns in terms of different geostationary 

orbital positions and receive/transmit frequencies. 

Lunar Ranging 

The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) developed the major components of a low-cost telescope 

of special design and high light gathering power for 

use in lunar ranging. The system has been assembled 

and preliminary tests performed. Recent calculations 

have led to an improved knowledge of the lunar mass 

distribution and location of reflectors with respect to 

the lunar center of mass 

Space Support Activities 

Skylab and ERTS Support 

NOAA support to the Skylab and ERTS programs 

included NWS forecasts of cloud cover for use in 

scheduling Earth-sensing experiments from Skylab, 

supporting aircraft, and ERTS 1. Forecasts also were 

made for the landing and recovery of the final Skylab flight. 

The Space Environment Laboratory (SEL) continued its support to the Skylab Apollo Telescope 

Mount (ATM) experiment. The Space Environment 

Services Center provided solar activity forecasts to 

the ATM principal investigators and to the mission 

flight controller during the manned and unmanned 

phases of Skylab. 

Space Environment Services 

A significant improvement was made in the quality 

of the space environment services provided by SEL 

following the launch of the SMS 1 satellite in May. 

The SEL receives solar X-ray, solar proton, and 

magnetic data at Boulder, Colorado, directly from 

the SMS 1 satellite. These data are used by the 

Space Environment Services Center forecasters and 

also are relayed to the USAF AWS for use in their 

operations. The SMS 1 satellite provided data that 

were critical for prompt and accurate evaluation of a 

series of major solar flares in July. A large geomagnetic storm, following the larger flares in this series, 

produced disturbances in long-line telephone circuits, 

electric power distribution systems, and the usual 

disruptions in ionospheric radio communications. 

Cryogenic Technology 

NBS is providing NASA with basic data and engineering information on very low temperature (cryogenic) fluids and systems for use in spacecraft application. Measurements of the compressibility of parahydrogen have been extended to higher pressures and 

temperatures. Work on cryogenic insulation and heat 

transfer in liquid oxygen systems also is being performed. An experimental radio frequency mass measuring facility has been completed for use in measuring fuel levels in the zero gravity of space. This effort 

is in direct support of the cryogenic life support and 

propellant systems of the Space Shuttle. 

Analysis of Apollo Lunar Samples 

NBS is determining the chemical and isotopic composition of lunar samples collected on the various 

Apollo missions. Recent work indicated that lunar 

soils show an isotopic abundance of potassium distinct from that of lunar rocks. Studies now in progress 

are analyzing additional lunar samples to determine 

if this condition is common to all parts of the lunar 

surface and to determine what additional data may 

be required to further understand this phenomenon. 

Space Shuttle Experiments 

NBS is assisting NASA in plans to utilize the 

Space Shuttle as an orbital workshop for materials 

66 
science and manufacturing in a zero gravity, vacuum 

environment. Projects involve research and development in crystal growth, purification of materials, 

physical processes in fluids, and composite materials 

preparation; these projects are expected to yield new 

and innovative materials processing methods of wide 

commercial importance. 

Meawrements and Calibrations 

NBS studies of Cassiopeia A, an astronomical 

electromagnetic source, now are providing a convenient means of routinely calibrating satellite communications systems antennas. NBS continues to provide new and improved radiometric standards and 

techniques for use in astrophysical observations of 

the sun and stars. Program accomplishments include 

use of the NASA Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 

(OAO 3) satellite for discovery of the first stellar 

corona and for spectroscopic observation of soIar 

winds. 

Time Services 

Precision space navigation demands accurate and 

dependable time-signal information. NBS provides 

very accurate time and frequency signals by radio 

broadcast. NBS stations broadcasted ATM observation program information and NOAA/NASA experiment plans for the Skylab Mission. Experiments 

using the NASA ATS 3 satellite for disseminating 

time signals have verified the advantages of a satellite system to provide better than ten microsecond 

accuracy using simple low-cost techniques. This past 

year, NBS began broadcasting time-of-day informa. 

tion through NASA’s recently launched SMS 1 satellite. The 468 MHz signal was receivable on relatively 

inexpensive equipment throughout most of North and 

South America and parts of Europe and Africa. The 

signal accuracy and wide availability will find many 

applications for communications and for monitoring 

seismic events at widely separated remote sites. 

Atmospheric and Space Physics 

Astrophysics 

The Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, a 

cooperative effort of the NBS and the University of 

Colorado for the study of highly ionized gases, has 

developed several models to explain chromospheric 

networks, supergrandle cells, and spots in the solar 

chromosphere. Experiments aboard OAO 3 are 

producing the first far ultraviolet data of cool stars 

with sufficient resolution to accurately model cool 

stellar atmospheres. 

Znterplanetary Physics 

SEL has developed a new theoretical threedimensional description of the solar wind, including 

non-radial flow from the sun, which produced surprising results in comparison with standard twodimensional solar wind models. Not only do the 

results explain the Pioneer 10 and 11 solar wind data 

at the planetary orbit distance of Jupiter better than 

older models, but they also modify predictions of 

astrophysical models of stellar winds which are based 

on solar wind modeling. 

Magnetospheric Physics 

The distribution of electrons and protons in the 

Earth‘s radiation belts, and their variation with time, 

are controlled by interactions between the particles 

and low frequency electromagnetic (radio) and 

electrostatic waves. Recent theoretical work on these 

interaction mechanisms by SEL has been able to 

account for the steady state character of the Earth’s 

radiation zones and has provided the first good explanation of the slot region between the inner and 

outer Van Allen radiation belts. 

Ionospheric Physics 

A major mystery of the northern lights has been 

the excessive number of low energy electrons which 

appear to enter the atmosphere, at times in numbers 

too large to be explained as coming from any source 

in outer space. A recent theory by SEL postulates 

that these apparently excess electrons have been backscattered from the Earth’s atmosphere below and then 

reflected downwards again by electric fields above the 

measuring instruments, to appear for the second time 

as if originating from outer space. 

The NOAA Aeronomy Laboratory is currently 

examining radar echoes from E-region irregularities 

in the auroral ionosphere that are closely related to 

the auroral electrojet current system. By obtaining 

data on the location, intensity, and drift direction of 

the irregularities it will be possible to monitor the 

location, intensity, and direction of the electrojet. 

Since data from a single radar cover a much greater 

range (approximately 1000 km) than a ground-based 

magnetometer, the information can eventually be 

used to supplement, or in some cases replace the 

magnetometer data. 

Atmospheric Photochemistry 

NBS is providing data essential to determining the 

photochemical process behavior of pollutants in the 

Earth’s atmosphere. A new technique involving modulated laser excitation of molecular vibrational levels 

is being applied to detection and measurement of 

various atmospheric pollutants. Studies have yielded 

valuable data on the reactions of ozone with nitric 

oxide, sulfur monoxide and molecular oxygen for use 

by the Department of Transportation (DOT) to 

assess the effect of supersonic aircraft effluents on 

the stratospheric ozone layer. 
The NOAA Air Resources Laboratories are continuing efforts to measure nitric oxide from balloon 

and aircraft platforms in the atmosphere and to 

develop instruments to measure nitrogen dioxide. 

NBS measurements of kinetic and photochemical 

processes including dissociation rates, ionization potentials, and collisional excitation rates of atmospheric 

species are important to the understanding of planetary atmospheres. Photochemistry studies of the reactivity of methane and ammonia have provided a 

better understanding of the atmospheres of Jupiter 

and Saturn. Measurements of the radiation extinction 

coefficients of nitrogen dioxide in the ultraviolet 

region as a function of temperature are being used 

in assessing the impact of high altitude aircraft on 

the Earth’s atmosphere and to determine atmospheric 

transmissivity of solar energy. 

The Aeronomy Laboratory, using night airglow 

emission measurements, finds that major fluctuations 

in atmospheric temperature in the 80 to 100 kilometer 

region are evidence of large scale compressional 

“gravity” waves propagated either from the troposphere or from auroral latitudes. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Safety Services for Aeronautics 

The NOAA Wave Propagation Laboratory installed and operated an acoustic Doppler wind measuring system at Stapleton International Airport in 

Denver, Colorado. The system array covered the entire height range from 30 to 500 meters using a 

bistatic or angular scattering approach. Comparisons 

of acoustic wind profiles with those obtained by 

radiosondes showed good agreement. The experiment 

demonstrated that acoustic sounders can operate successfully in an airport noise environment, and that 

it should be possible to measure wind profiles by this 

remote sensor system to a height of 700 meters, with 

accuracies that meet airport operational requirements. 

NSSL continued its experimental work with thunderstorms and tornadoes in an effort to more accurately 

predict the development, intensity, and location of 

these hazards to aircraft operations. An experiment 

was conducted from April to June 1974 utilizing dual 

Doppler and conventional weather radars, and experimental electronic tornado detectors, radiosondes, 

instrumented aircraft, and ground cameras. Researchers have been able to identify characteristic Doppler 

radar signatures of tornado producing thunderstorms. In the two tornadic storms observed, the 

parent circulation above the tornadoes extend to at 

least nine kilometers, which indicates that tornadoes 

are not just low level, surface phenomena. The experiment also included the sowing of metallized chaff 

in clear air to determine a three-dimensional wind 

field by Doppler radar measurements. This work may 

contribute much toward improving warning to aviation interests of mechanical and clear air turbulence. 

Doppler radar has played a vital role in identifying 

various species of birds in flight. The size, shape, 

wing span, frequency of wingbeat, and body motion 

combine to form Doppler fingerprints of specific 

birds. So far Aeronomy Laboratory scientists, using 

this technique, can distinguish between ducks and 

geese. These echoes can be plotted graphically or 

broadcast through a loudspeaker. The results of this 

work may help air traffic controllers prevent dangerous collisions between birds and aircraft. 

The OT continued work on a model to predict 

interference among collision avoidance, radar altimeter, navigation and aeronautical/maritime satellite 

systems. The model includes the effects of rain attenuation and ducting on transmissions in the frequency 

spectrum from 100 MHz to 20 GHz. It is designed 

to meet requirements for maximum frequency 

utilization in air-to-air, air-to-satellite and satellite-toearth systems. 

Aeronautical Charts 

NOS published a flight case size planning chart in 

response to a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

requirement. This chart is designed for preflight and 

enroute planning for flights under Visual Flight 

Rules (VFR). It contains basically the same information as the VFR/IFR Wall Size Planning Chart 

with the addition of lists of selected Flight Service 

Stations and Weather Service Offices located at airport sites, a tabulation of Special Use Airspace, a 

mileage table listing distances, and a city/aerodrome 

location index. 

The first edition of the Alaska Terminal Publication (ATP), a joint civil/military aviation publication, was issued. The publication, to be produced 

every 56 days, includes Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP), Standard Instrument Departures 

(SID) , Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STAR), 

Taxi Charts, and other supplemental data. The 

Alaska SID and the Alaska IAP Charts were discontinued as separate publications. In May 1974, the 

Alaska Enroute Charts and the Alaska Chart Supplement revision cycle was changed from 28 days to 

56 days. 

A study of the application of ERTS images showed 

that hydrographic features could be extracted efficiently and effectively for use as update source data 

in the maintenance of aeronautical charts. This study 

is continuing with investigations of other applications 

to the aeronautical chart product and production 

process. 
Environmental Data Programs 

Satellite Data Service 

The Environmental Data Service (EDS) and 

NESS have established a Satellite Data Services 

Branch at NESS Headquarters in Suitland, Md., to 

manage distribution of most environmental satellite 

data after operational utilization is completed. This 

new unit also provides Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite data to marine and meteorological users. 

Ground-Based and Skylab Solar Data 

The World Data Center A for Solar-Terrestrial 

Physics collected reports on the times and the nature 

of observations of the sun made by ground-based 

worldwide solar observatories that coincide with the 

Skylab solar observations of May 28, 1973 through 

February 8, 1974. This information has been combined into a Catalog of Observation Times of 

Ground-Based Skylab Coordinated Solar Observing 

Programs; the catalog will permit investigators and 

others to identify the collateral observations available 

at the times interesting phenomena were noted by 

Skylab. 

Solar and Earth Space Data 

SEM data from the SMS 1 satellite include changes 

in the Earth’s magnetic field and the flux of protons, 

electrons, alpha particles, and solar X-rays on standard monitoring time scales. These data, available 

through the National Geophysical and Solar Terrestrial Data Center (NGSDC), serve as an important 

space environment monitoring data base for space 

science studies and for solar-terrestrial research and 

applications. 

NGSDC now has derived the auroral electrojet 

magnetic activity quantitative indices for 1966 

through 1972 and is making the data available on 

magnetic tapes. Summaries have been published by 

World Data Center A. The indices, which chart the 

onset time and development of magnetic substorms, 

are used to study communication satellite failures, 

telecommunications problems during magnetic disturbances, and power failures. Their use for modeling 

the complex interactions between the solar wind and 

the Earth’s magnetosphere is being compared with 

the use of interplanetary field data for the same 

purpose. 

lnternational Sea-Surface Temperature Data 

The National Oceanographic Data Center and 

NESS have undertaken a joint, two-phase pilot study 

on the international exchange of sea-surface temperatures derived from satellite data. The purpose of the 

study is to better identify specific user needs for the 

satellite data and for data exchange and archiving. 

During Phase 1, sea-surface temperature data, derived from the NOAA 2 and 3 VHRR instruments, 

were made available to interested participants of the 

1974 field season of the Cooperative Investigation of 

the Northern Part of the Eastern Central Atlantic 

(CINECA) in the form of unenhanced and enhanced 

IR images and in digital form. The data were used 

by the CINECA investigators in conjunction with 

oceanographic and fisheries data collected from research vessels and aircraft. The field test portion of 

the pilot study has been completed and the evaluation phase is now underway. 

69 
VI 

Introduction 

The Department of the Interior seeks to use the 

most cost effective operational systems available to 

inventory, develop, manage, and conserve these resources to the public benefit. The diversity of resources accounts for the breadth of interests of the 

department for information with which to make 

meaningful decisions. The needs of man for energy 

and power, food, water, mineral resources, recreational sites and activities, and a congenial environment must all be balanced. However, nature is 

dynamic and its changes, be they subtle, catastrophic, manmade, or natural must be monitored 

to provide continuing accurate, up-to-date information needed by the manager to make decisions and 

to see the effects of his decisions. The uses made of 

aircraft and spacecraft, and the data acquired from 

these platforms then contribute to these information 

needs. 

Department of the Interior 

Space 

Operations 

Earth Resources Observation Systems.-A primary 

objective of the Interior Department’s Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) program is to 

develop remote-sensing techniques and products and 

encourage their incorporation into operational aspects 

of departmental activities. Major strides have been 

made in this effort during 1974. 

The EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota, is in its third year of operation as the primary 

public sales outlet for spacecraft- and aircraft-acquired 

remote-sensing data. These data include NASA 

aircraft remote-sensing data, aerial mapping 

photography obtained by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) , and satellite data from ERTS-1 and Skylab. 

Data sales to Federal agencies, State and local governments, universities, private industry, and the general public totaled $885,000 in FY 1974 and are 

projected at $1,750,000 for FY 1975. 

The EROS Data Center also conducts formal 

training courses and provides professional assistance, 

particularly in techniques for extraction of information from reniote-sensing data, to users. Approximately 200 individual scientists visited the Data Center 

during the year to receive such assistance. EROS 

Applications Assistance Facilities are operated by the 

Data Center in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, Denver, 

Colorado, Phoenix, Arizona, Menlo Park, California, 

and Reston, Virginia, to meet the local needs for 

remote-sensing technology transfer. At the Mississippi 

facility, for example, more than 830 requests for satellite and aircraft data were filled, more than 200 

people attended 16 different remote-sensing training 

classes, and the staff completed uncontrolled ERTS 

mosaics of Mississippi and Louisiana. 

The Alaska Power Administration is now using 

satellite imagery in their planning studies. 

A Bureau of Indian Affairs project to assist Alaska 

Natives in their land selection program, used ERTS 

imagery as an interpretative base at a scale of 

1 : 250,000 to depict vegetation, landforms, hydrology, 

and indications of mineralization. A township and 

range grid was added to the imagery to aid in the 

land selection. 

Natural Resources Information System.-The Bureau of Indian Affairs is implementing the Natural 

Resources Information System (NRIS) that was 

developed for the resource-oriented bureaus in the 

Department of the Interior. The NRIS manipulates 

digitized graphics derived from satellite, aircraft, and 

ground data, with most of the interesting operations 

centered around “area” maps, Le., maps that can be 

specified as a set of closed regions with a single 

attribute per region. Functions performed include 

scaling, translation, rectification to common base, 

extraction by area or attribute criteria, extraction by 

geographic limits (windowing), inquiry of a point’s 

attribute, area calculations, and compositing (logical 

union) of two or more maps. The program is running 

on the Washington State University and Arizona 

State Highways computers for the benefit of tribes 

in those states. 

71 
Use of Remote-Sensing Techniques for Planetary 

Exploration.-USGS provided NASA with guidance 

on application of remote-sensing techniques to planetary exploration, support on mission planning including the Viking Lander, and post-mission analysis. Geologic analyses and mapping of lunar data from Apollo 

15, 16, and 17 were completed. Analysis of the Mariner data and production of Mars maps continued. 

Mosaicking of images and mapping data from the 

Venus-Mercury flyby is proceeding. 

Satellite Navigation Aids.-Satellite navigation aids 

are being used in marine geology investigations and 

cooperative activities including the International 

Phase of Drilling cruise in the North Atlantic Ocean 

the the Institut FranGais du PCtrole research program on the Blake Plateau, Gulf of Alaska, and Beaufort Sea. It will become increasingly important as 

coastal and oceanographic studies are accelerated, 

especially in the assessment and the development of 

energy resources of the Outer Continental Shelf. 

Research on Application of Remote Sensing 

from Space 

Geological Studies.-The USGS utilizes data from 

manned and unmanned spacecraft to improve remotesensing techniques as a supplement to conventional 

and airborne research methods. Objectives include : 

determination of variations of physical properties 

which can be used to discriminate materials or conditions, such as spectral reflectance or thermal inertia; 

evaluation of the broad view supplied by satellite 

imagery to analysis of geomorphic and tectonic relationships of regional or larger scope; identification 

and repetitive observation of features whose physical 

condition or detectibility vary with time, season, or 

circumstance by use of satellite imagery or by ground 

monitoring through relay by satellite telemetry. 

Some significant results of investigations include : 

near-infrared reflectance anomalies associated with 

some young volcanic rocks of southwestern US., 

which are at least as mafic as andesites, have been 

observed in the multispectral data from Skylab. 

Thermal-inertia maps obtained from Nimbus satellite 

data have been used in conjunctiop with ERTS 

images to resolve ambiguous rock-type identification 

in the Arabian Peninsula. A theoretical model of the 

effects of volume scatterers on microwave emission 

has been used to explain the discrimination of older 

from new snow on Nimbus 5 (1.55 cm) images. 

Visual and photographic observations from Skylab 4 

show that the primary eruption cloud of the Sakurazima volcano, Japan, did not penetrate the tropopause. Quality of the data from the Skylab multispectral photographic camera and especially the Earth 

Terrain Camera was adequate to map at 1 :250,000- 

scale geologic terrain, geomorphology, and surface 

geology and to use the results to make environmental 

geologic and engineering interpretations. Details less 

than 3 m in size of arroyos and gullies in Arizona 

were identifiable on S190B photographs. The ERTS 

Data Collection System (DCS) has demonstrated 

that a global volcano surveillance system is now technologically and economically possible and that DCS 

has excellent potential for near real time water management purposes. 

Analysis of POGO satellite data has resulted in a 

global magnetic anomaly map. Verification of several 

distinct anomalies was obtained by examining individual satellite profiles of Project Magnet data. The 

utility of satellite magnetometry for geologic and 

geophysical mapping has been demonstrated. Computer processing of digital tapes (CCT’s) of ERTS 

data has resulted in considerably improved imagery 

which can be enhanced or ratioed for specific geologic studies. 

Discovering Resources.-Preliminary examination 

of space images in the Uniiat and Yukon-Tanana 

Upland areas of Alaska reveals short and intermediate 

linear patterns which have a direct correlation with 

subsurface geology and/ or geophysics and suggest 

concealed structures of possible potential for oil or 

gas accumulation. Norteast- and northwest-trending 

giant hears may have guided the localization of 

mineralized belts in Alaska; this hypothesis has been 

substantiated by the independent location of porphyry 

copper-molybdenum deposits at the intersection of 

northwest- and northeast-trending faults in an area 

predictable by the hypothesis, but not by the conventional localization of mineralization concept. 

Discovery of Active Faults.-Field examination of 

faults on the Coastal Plain of eastern Maryland and 

Delaware, originally observed on ERTS-1 images, 

has revealed that some of these faults are active. 

This faulting is thought to be due in part to compaction of the Coastal Plain sediments, and as such 

probably would not cause anything more than minor 

earthquakes. However, the potential seismic activity 

is important in planning sites for nuclear powerplants 

which must be designed to withstand any anticipated 

ground movements. 

Control of Water Resources.-Using a combination of satellite images and ground sensed data relayed by satellite, an ecological predictive model has 

been developed and used in Florida to enhance wood 

stork rookery formation in the Everglades National 

Park by properly regulating water levels. The wood 

stork is an endangered wildlife species. 

SMS/GOES satellite, launched in May 1974, has 

the potential to provide more continuous radio relay 

of messages from data collection sites than ERTS, and 

testing has begun using six hydrologic platforms. 

72 
Data from ERTS, Skylab, and aircraft were used 

as testimony in a court case to identify and summarize important hydrologic features. Portrayal of the 

salient features on the imagery, acquired over the 

Green Swamp, Florida, resulted in an out-of-court 

settlement between the consortium of developers and 

the State of Florida. 

In collaboration with NASA, NOAA, and U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, a seriei of related floodapplications analyses employing ERTS, NOAA 2 and 

aircraft data were compiled and published as a compendium by the American Water Resources Association. 

Mapping.-The USGS has continued to examine 

cartographic applications of both ERTS-1 and Skylab images. A color mosaic of Florida and a monochromatic mosaic of Arizona were prepared for 

lithographic printing. The publication of satellite 

image maps has stimulated the development of new 

procedures combining expertise in computational 

photogrammetry, image geometric control, photomechanical mosaicking, and color lithography. 

Following a technique developed by William Evans 

of Stanford Research Institute, ,the USGS is conducting experiments with reflectors to explore the 

capability of the ERTS system to locate ground control points smaller than a resolution element of an 

ERTS image. The control extension capability of 

ERTS is also being investigated by testing the accuracy of ground positions derived from a strip of 

ERTS images. Enhancement of ERTS imagery by 

correlation of successive images of the same scene 

using digital processing is being investigated. 

Parameters for printing ERTS images have been 

redefined in cooperation with NASA, and ERTS-B 

images will be printed out on the Space Oblique 

Mercator projection as defined by the Geological 

Survey. The USGS has contracted for a study and 

demonstration of a promising automated register 

system for ERTS and other remote sensor images, 

which will provide the technology to convert ERTS 

to an automated mapping system. 

Land Use Studies.-Demonstrations by the USGS 

of the use of remote sensing to various land use 

evaluation problems continues; in the Central Atlantic Regional Ecological Test Site where cost factors 

are presented along wbth land use products produced 

from different remote sensor source materials, SO 

that potential users may determine appropriateness 

of mapping level and scale versus cost and benefits; 

in the Census Cities project where correlations of 

census data and aerial and satellite data are being 

made 'to construct an urban spatial growth model; 

and in the project directed toward direct computer 

recognition of land use patterns from ERTS digital 

data, where maps utilizing level I1 and I11 classification detail at a scale of 1 : 24,000 are being produced 

for direct comparison with existing line maps. Because the land use data are already digitized, the 

land areas are counted and measured almost immediately and reported by jurisdictional areas. 

Pollution Studies.-ERTS imagery of selected areas 

of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio was examined by the Bureau of Mines to evaluate its potential for detecting air pollution effects in the environment resulting from smoke plumes emanating from 

coal-fired electric powerplants and coke ovens. Detection of specific point sources of pollution is POSsiblc if the plume emitted is of sufficient size, and 

more importantly, if the plume of condensed water 

vapor or solid material can be contrasted with its 

background. Detection of specific vegetation damage 

from air pollutants was not accomplished. Though 

the area of primary interest did show variances in 

spectral reflectance, these areas did not form a 

unique pattern over the different dates investigated. 

Evaluating Wildlife Habitats.-Evaluation of 

ERTS-1 imagery by the Fish and Wildlife Service 

for determining numbers, distribution and quality of 

wetlands in North Dakota indicated that ponds and 

lakes larger than 1.6 hectares can be accurately 

mapped from a single near-infrared band of data. 

The perimeter and the shape of water bodies also 

could be determined, thus providing valuable information regarding the quality of nesting habitat for 

waterfowl. The synoptic and temporal aspects of 

ERTS data and supporting aerial photpgraphy also 

show promise in providing quantitative habitat data 

for determining the effects of water development 

projects on estuarine, riparian, and upland habitats. 

Digital processing of ERTS-1 data in combination 

with analysis of high-altitude aerial photography are 

being evaluated for use in a standardized habitat 

evaluation system of the Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Management Data for Indian Reservations.-The 

Burcau of Indian Affairs has coordinated an evaluation by the State of Washington and the Northwest 

Indian Tribes of the use of high-altitude aircraft 

photography and ERTS-1 imagery as monitoring tools 

in the high-quality forest of the Pacific Northwest. 

The repetitive coverage of ERTS imagery makes it 

potentially the tool needed by the manager; however, 

the study showed that better interpretative information is needed either by automated interpretation of 

the original digital data or better imagery resolution. 

Review of a comparative analysis of ERTS interpretations of land use with conventional aerial photo 

interpretations of the Crow-Northern Cheyenne 

Reservations, Montana, led the Colville Tribe to use 

ERTS imagery and the same land use classification 

scheme for overall reservation resources delineations. 
Weather Modification.-The Bureau of Reclamation is continuing to use experimental ERTS-1 data 

in Project Skywater’s Colorado River Basin Pilot 

Project (CRBPP) , the largest winter orographic 

cloud-seeding experiment in the United States. The 

use of precipitation data transmitted via ERTS-1 

DCS has improved the quality of information available for control of the CRBPP by helping to identify 

periods of heavy snowfall during which project operations must be curtailed to avoid contributing to 

the avalanche hazard. The use of satellite data is being initiated for the Project Skywater High Plains 

Cooperative Program involving weather modification 

experimentation to better meet long-range water 

problems in the semi-arid High Plains of the United 

States. Preliminary testing of the system which will 

include 64 precipitation gages was conducted during 

the 1974 summer season. 

Regional Planning.-ERTS- 1 data are also being 

used on the Rio Grande Regional Environmental 

Project, New Mexico-Texas, to provide information 

for regional planning decisions. Under a Bureau contract: ERTS-1 digital data are being processed by 

computer to determine the time-varying spectral 

signatures of area crop species, thus providing spectral norms against which individual crop signatures 

may be compared to identify automatically species, 

type, distribution, and plant vigor conditions. In 

addition, these techniques help to depict urban, 

suburban, and agricultural land use; mineral and 

water resources; and cultural features required to 

make more effective water-use projections for the 

area. A similar activity involves computer processing 

of ERTS-1 digital data to produce land use maps to 

monitor changes along portions of the Colorado River. 

A major lineation identified on an ERTS mosaic 

of the Lower Colorado River may be significant to 

the Bureau of Reclamation in relation to salinity 

control problems and the geothermal resources development potential in the area. 

The Bureau of Reclamation’s Upper Missouri Region is using ERTS-1 data in its planning programs, 

and to estimate various land uses for preparation of 

the Garrison Diversion Unit Environmental Impact 

Statement. 

ERTS imagery of the Western Dakotas is also 

being used to study several alternative pipeline routes 

for delivering industrial water to coal fields. ERTS 

imagery is also being used to investigate major geological features in and around construction sites 

(dams, canals, etc. ) . The resolution limitation, however, restricts its use primarily to preliminary observation with large-scale aerial photographs required 

for more detailed engineering geological investigations. 

Aeronautics 

Aircraft Operations 

The Office of Aircraft Services (OAS) completed 

its first full year of operation this past June 30. The 

Boise Headquarters is now fully staffed with a Division of Management Services and a Division of 

Technical Services, The regional office in Anchorage, 

Alaska, consolidated departmental aircraft operations 

personnel and equipment into one entity in January, 

and has coordinated aircraft use in Alaska among all 

Bureaus and Offices since that time. Plans for the 

role of OAS in the conterminous 48 States are being 

formulated based on the evaluation report of the 

pilot operation in Alaska. Some positive results have 

been obtained in all three purposes of OAS: raising 

safety standards, increasing efficiency, and promoting 

economical operation of departmental aircraft 

activities. 

The Southwestern, Bonneville, and Alaska Power 

Administrations, and the Bureau of Reclamation use 

contract aircraft for various purposes, including 

transport of personnel to remote project sites, transmission line and water resource project maintenance 

and inspection, and snow surveys. The Bureau of 

Land Management primarily uses aircraft to meet 

the logistical requirements of wildland fire control, 

and to obtain color, color infrared, and black and 

white aerial photography, and infrared scanner and 

radar imagery to locate and map fires. Bonneville 

Power Administration also performs for the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service aerotriangulation and photogrammetric mapping for the determination of tidal 

boundaries, property ownerships, and contour maps 

for construction site grading. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs’ agreements with 

NASA and the USGS to obtain high-altitude photography over all reservations continued in effect. Resulting orthophoto base maps and natural resource 

overlays are used to develop and implement comprehensive reservation planning, The maps project will 

be completed for all reservations in FY 1976. As part 

of the continuing operational comprehensive planning 

and environmental monitoring remote-sensing project 

on the Salt River Indian Reservation, an amplification 

of the Anderson Land Use Classification was developed for Indian lands in Arizona. 

This year, the USGS contracted for a record high 

volume of over 391,000 square miles of aerial photography for its national topographic mapping program, 

of which almost 60% was high-altitude quadcentered photography used in support of an accelerated orthophotoquad program. 

The USGS also utilized contract and other Federal 

aircraft to acquire photographic, other remote sensor 

and geophysical data for the support of geological 

74 
and geophysical investigations. These include reconnaissance and detailed geologic mapping, exploration 

for and evaluation of mineral and energy sources, 

monitoring volcanic activities, appraisal of resources 

in wildlife area, and environmental, engineering, and 

land-use studies. Airborne sensors were used to acquire 

data for the compilation of aeromagnetic, gravity, 

radioactivity, gamma-ray, INPUT, VLF (Very Low 

Frequency), and geochemical maps. A high sensitivity 

aeromagnetic survey of a 300,000 square mile area 

of the continental shelf off the east coast of the 

United States is underway, with a completion date 

of fall 1975. The objectives are to assess the economic, 

especially fuel, potential of the continental margin 

and also to obtain new knowledge of its geologic 

structure and tectonic relationships. 

High-altitude aerial photography covering the 

State of Arizona has been obtained by NASA aircraft 

in support of the Arizona Land Use Experiment 

( ALUE) being conducted jointly by NASA/USDI/ 

State of Arizona. The ALUE photography and the 

USGS-prepared orthophotoquads have been used 

extensively in regional planning projects and environmental studies for proposed electric generating 

plant and transmission line facilities throughout Arizona, to update county maps, for geologic, soils, and 

vegetation mapping, and in water resources and wildlife studies. Other energy related applications by 

private and commercial users include photogeologic 

studies in connection with uranium and petroleum 

exploration in northern Arizona. 

The Bureau of Reclamation used aerial photography and scanner imagery for a woody vegetation 

identification and control study on reservoirs in 

Kansas, and for planning, development and management of multipurpose water resource projects. 

The Fish and Wildlife Service continued to conduct aerial surveys over large portions of the 50 

States, Canada and Mexico to collect data for research and management purposes. Assessment of the 

status of waterfowl habitat and the detection of 

illegal dredge and fill operations along the Atlantic 

and Gulf Coasts were dependent on remote sensing 

aircraft data. 

Overflights of flood refuse dumps, begun in 1973 

by the Bureau of Mines, were completed in 1974. 

Early detection and determination of the aerial 

extent of two fires allowed prompt extinguishment 

at a much lower cost than would have been the case 

had the fires spread undetected into the nearby coal 

deposits. Based on the success of this project and 

earlier aerial infrared monitoring research, the 

Bureau contracted to have the entire Anthracite 

Region of Pennsylvania mapped with aerial infrared 

radiometry and aerial photography. Aerial data were 

gathered in 1974, and the contractor is analyzing the 

data, preparing a thermatic atlas of the Anthracite 

Region, preparing a report on potential areas for 

future strip mining in the region, and investigating 

and mapping entry/exit areas of ground water into 

mines in the Southern Field. This information will 

be used in the Bureau’s environmental programs in 

the region. 

Research Using Aerial Data 

Mineral and Geothermal Source Prospecting.- 

The USGS continued to apply the interdisciplinary 

approach of physics and geology to the development 

and improvement of remote-sensing techniques by 

identifying the parameters by which rocks, soil, and 

moisture can be remotely discriminated and developing models and methods to analyze and display 

remote-sensor data. A thermal and reflectance image 

of the Raft River, Idaho, area, acquired at a time 

selected using a theoretical model, shows the presence of warm geothermal anomalies which were 

confirmed by ground probe measurements. Highaltitude thermal infrared images over the Colorado 

Front Range display a previously unobserved circular 

feature that encompasses most of the area of gold 

mineralization at the Central City-Idaho Springs, 

Colorado, mineral district. An aerial infrared survey of 

the Mount Baker volcano, Washington, shows that the 

present activity is consolidated within and peripheral 

to the crater south of the main summit. An engineering model Fraunhofer Line Discriminator (FLD) 

performed successfully from a helicopter and measured luminescence differences of pine trees growing 

on copper-rich and normal soils. Prospecting for 

mineral deposits through the determination of geochemical stress in plants is also continuing using 

spectral reflectance data and analysis of multibavd 

photography. Feasibility studies using the VLF system for bedrock mapping in hard rock areas and 

for detecting geothermal anomalies are proceeding. 

Water Resources.-The Office of Water Research 

and Technology is supporting research on the optimum aerial remote sensor for mapping fracture 

traces in the Piedmont region of South Carolina to 

identify areas of high ground-water potential. At 

Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota, four Hasselblad 

cameras for multispectral photography and specific 

spectral analysis are being used in lake overflights to 

assess water quality trends. Aerial photographic 

studies are continuing in Colorado on the determination of snow depth and water-equivalent volume in 

the San Juan Mountains. Other supported research 

are the application of multispectral photography in 

the planning and management of North Carolina’s 

water resources, and the use of low-altitude remote 

sensing for detection of water distribution and movement in subsoils of Missouri. 

Aerial data are being used in rangeland research 

575-666 0 - 15 - 6 
studies and in applications for property boundary 

surveys by the Bureau of Land Management. 

Mining.-An analysis of the geologic structure of 

the Buchanan County, Virginia, coal mining area 

was made by the Bureau of Mines to evaluate airborne side-looking radar (SLAR) imagery for delineating structural features that may cause mining 

problems. The fault and joint systems, identified 

through lineament analysis of the imagery and confirmed by surface and in-mine observations, are 

known to affect gas migration and accumulation and 

to weaken roof rock in mining workings. The investigation demonstrated that SLAR surveys can be 

useful in locating the best sites for drill holes to drain 

off gas in advance of mining or for commercial gas 

production. 

The Bureau of Mines acquired 12 bands of aerial 

multispectral scanner imagery and four types of 

aerial photography at two altitudes of an experimental underground coal gasification site in Princetown, 

West Virginia. The imagery and photography will 

be used along with ERTS-1 imagery to map potential 

vent zones for gas and to determine the usefulness 

of overflights in preparing environmental impact 

statements for such projects. 

Hydrology and Other.-The Bureau of Reclamation used black and white, color, and color infrared 

aerial photography in a variety of research projects, 

including monitoring flood conditions on the Trinity 

River, California, and the Yellowstone River, Montana, where a 100-year flood occurred; to map flood 

plain vegetation on the James River in North and 

South Dakota; to assess fish and wildlife habitat; in 

a cooperative program with the Bureau of Land 

Management, to study reclamation and rehabilitation 

of strip mining sites; and to identify lands being irrigated in violation of water rights on the TruckeeCarson Irrigation District, Nevada. Multispectral 

photography and optical-mechanical scanner imagery 

are being used in demonstrating a relationship between crop reflectance or emission and the depth to 

near-surface ground water in irrigated agriculture. 

The Fish and Wildlife Service applied color infrared aerial photography to solving problems of waterfowl census techniques. Preliminary findings indicate 

that digital processing and computer analysis of 

photography may be a useful tool in the census and 

inventory of specific waterfowl populations. In Minnesota, multispectral photography was utilized to 

identify wetlands as small as 6 m in diameter and to 

map them according to the type of emergent vegetation appearing in l : 16,000-scale photography. 

Bonneville Power Administration has contracted 

for low-altitude infrared photography of some reservoirs in the Pacific Northwest as an aid to the determination of locations and magnitudes of hydraulic 

bank storage. This is in addition to the continuing 

investigation of the suitability of infrared photog 

raphy for providing resources and land use data 

utilized in facility location and environmental impact 

evaluations. 

International Cooperation 

The USGS effort in international remote sensing 

included courses conducted in several countries and 

at the EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota; international seminars and workshops; special projects and pilot studies in various countries; 

and feasible programs for warning, assessment, and 

monitoring natural disasters. 

Training in the Use of Remote Sensing Data 

Fifty-eight scientists and resource managers from 

35 foreign countries completed training courses at 

the EROS Data Center in 1974. The basic theme for 

the two international workshop-seminars held in June 

and September was to apply ERTS data for monitoring and inventorying resources of each participant’s 

country. Disciplines covered included geology, agriculture, forestry and rangeland, hydrology, geography, 

land use, and cartography. 

An East African seminar and workshop was held 

in Nairobi, Kenya, during March-April. The seminar’s goals were to provide a background of fundamental concepts in the application of remote-sensing 

technology to resource development and environmental protection using ERTS data; to familiarize participants with optical data processing techniques 

that could be performed in their own locales; and to 

provide a basis for planning use of ERTS and 

accessory remote-sensing systems for national resources 

and environmental agency functions. The workshop 

sessions involvrd 33 participants from 10 African 

countries. 

A short course in remote sensing for scientists from 

Indonesia was conducted on the island of Bali in 

January-February. The course served to train 22 

Indonesian students, and to develop and commence 

the study of multispectral aerial photography for 

selected sites in Bali. The project in research of applications of remote sensing that began with the training 

course is continuing. 

In the first year of the Thailand Remote Sensing 

Training Project 72 participants, 60 from Thailand 

and 12 from Economic Commission for Asia and the 

Far East and Mekong Secretariat countries, received 

6 weeks of intensive classroom instruction in fundamentals of remote sensing and applications of ERTS 

data to problems in agriculture, forestry, land development, hydrology, geology, and oceangraphy. Consequent to the training program, at least six Thailand 

76 
Government departments have established programs 

in which ERTS and aerial remote-sensor data are 

being applied experimentally in research and management subject areas. 

Resource Development and Mapping 

Feasibility studies relating to use of ERTS imagery 

in mapping and evaluating selected environmental 

features of Mali, Upper Volta, and Niger were performed by USGS hydrologists. ERTS imagery was 

found to be a valuable source of information for 

mapping certain geohydrologic features, for the study 

of problems of water resources, range utilization, 

tsetse fly infestation, and the occurrence of river 

blindness. 

Under a binational, multidisciplinary research project between the USGS and several Icelandic scientific organizations, a number of significant findings 

were made in the study of the varied dynamic, environmental phenomena of Iceland using imagery from 

ERTS- 1. Some areas of high-temperature geothermal 

activity have been delineated on the basis of altered 

ground or snowmelt patterns. New lava flows and 

depositional patterns of volcanic ash are mappable. 

ERTS imagery has recorded short-term glaciological 

changes, such as surging glaciers, and permitted 

planimetric revision of glaciological features on maps, 

and mapping of subglacial volcanic and structural 

features. Of particular value to Iceland has been the 

small-scale mapping of regional vegetative cover, including areas where active soil reclamation is being 

carried out. 

USGS completed a 1-month advisory and guidance 

mission to Companhia de Pesquisas de Recursos 

Minerais, which is initiating research demonstration 

projects in remote sensing in Bahia and southern 

Brazil, and is working with the geological and resources agencies of South Vietnam and Bangladesh 

to develop remote-sensing programs applicable to 

resource development and mapping. 

A USGS project to demonstrate the application of 

ERTS-1 data to geologic analysis in Afghanistan in 

collaboration with Afghanistan Government scientists was conducted in 1974. The project investigated 

relationships between structural and other geologic 

features as presently mapped and described, and 

features and conditions as depicted by ERTS-1 data. 

The ERTS data provided new information that is 

immediately valuable for the review and editing of 

geologic maps being compiled by the Government of 

Afghanistan. 

The USGS is cooperating with the Government 

of Yemen in a study of their mineral and water 

resources problems. ERTS imagery will be applied 

where possible in the study. 

Evaluating Natural Disasters 

A project conducted through the Office of Foreign 

Disaster Relief Coordination, called for a USGS 

study of potential applications of ERTS and other 

satellite data to determine the nature and extent of 

natural disasters, to planning of relief measures, and 

to the development of warning procedures. The 

evaluation concluded that floods and fires can readily 

be monitored and analyzed and that suitable data 

analysis techniques are available at present. The 

ERTS DCS is also highly usable for flood warning 

and for warning of volcanic eruptions if ground 

sensors are properly emplaced and DCS reception 

stations are available. The techniques for assessment 

of earthquake damage, drought, crop disasters, glacier 

movement, and water quality are in varied states of 

development. 

Flooding along approximately 300 river miles of 

the Indus and Jhelum Rivers in Pakistan were delineated in a matter of hours using techniques developed by the Mississippi River flood experiment, 

prompting the U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization to request technical assistance in evaluating 

flood-related disasters. The USGS analysis of ERTS 

imagery, in addition to delineating the extent of 

flooding, also revealed leakage under a dam, water 

loss from irrigation canals, areas of ponded waters 

following the flood, locations of ground-water discharge, and correlative hydrologic information. 

77 
VI1 

Introduction 

Growth of international space cooperation efforts 

in support of foreign policy objectives and the goals 

included in the National Aeronautics and Space Act 

were a matter of high priority to the Department of 

State during 1974. Attention continued to be focused 

both on cooperation with individual countries and on 

space endeavors with multilateral and international 

organizations. 

Particular progress was obtained in the support 

of efforts toward a European community by the 

cooperation of NASA with nine countries in their 

developing a large space laboratory for use with the 

US. Space Shuttle system. Support of bilateral relations with the USSR continued through the Joint 

Apollo/Soyuz Test Project and scientific exchanges. 

International cooperation for peaceful uses of space 

by all mankind was advanced in the communications 

satellite programs, the emerging maritime and aeronautical satellite programs and the continued interest 

in space matters in the United Nations. The United 

Nations, through its Outer Space Committee and 

various working groups, has continued to be a prime 

forum for the formalization of multinational viewpoints and programs to advance cooperation in the 

uses of outer space. 

Department of State 

Activities Within the United Nations 

Outer Space Committee 

Meeting in New York from July 1 to 12, the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space adopted 

and decided to submit to the General Assembly the 

draft convention on the registration of manmade 

objects in outer space forwarded to it by the Legal 

Subcommittee. The draft registration convention fully 

met US. objectives. 

For the future work of the Legal Subcommittee, 

the Committee agreed that priority should be accorded to a draft treaty relating to the moon, the 

elaboration of principles governing the use of satellites for direct television broadcasting, and the legal 

implications of remote sensing of the earth from 

space. 

Reviewing the work of the Scientific and Technical 

Subcommittee, the Committee endorsed four studies it 

had recommended on organizational and financial 

aspects of alternative systems for dissemination of 

remote sensing data. The Committee’s approval of 

these studies was in line with the US. position that 

organizational and financial aspects should be examined together with legal questions. 

The Committee noted and endorsed the other 

recommendations of its sub-groups, but was unable to 

reach agreement on the question of possibly reconvening the Working Group on Direct Broadcast 

Satellites. Consideration of a proposal to hold all 

meetings of the Legal Subcommittee in Geneva 

rather than alternating between New York and 

Geneva was deferred until a comparative cost analysis could be prepared. 

General Assembly 

The agenda of the 29th General Assembly had two 

items on outer space: a draft convention on the registration of objects launched into outer space, and 

the report of the Outer Space Committee. The 

United States joined in cosponsoring a resolution 

commending the text of the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space and 

requesting the UN Secretary-General to open the 

Convention for signature and ratification at the 

carliest possible date. This was passed unanimously 

by the First Committee in October and by the General Assembly in November. The Outer Space Committee report was approved by an omnibus resolution, also adopted unanimously by the First Committee and the General Assembly, which recommended 

inter alia that the Legal Subcommittee consider with 

equal high priority at its next session (a) a draft 

treaty relating to the Moon, (b) elaboration of principles governing the use by States of artificial Earth 

satellites for direct television broadcasting, and (c) 

the legal implications of remote sensing of the Earth 

from space. 

79 
Legal Subcommittee 

Meeting in Geneva from May 6 to 31, the Legal 

Subcommittee completed work on a draft convention 

on the registration of objects launched into outer 

space for the exploration or use of outer space. The 

convention converts the existing system of voluntary 

registration submissions by launching states to the 

U.N. Secretary-General into a mandatory regime. 

The United States played an active role in the drafting and negotiation of the convention. The final 

negotiations resolved the question of requiring 

launching states to mark all space objects with an 

international designator or registration number. The 

US. maintained that such a requirement was unfeasible on both technical and economic grounds. A 

compromise forniulation provides that if a space 

object is so marked, this fact shall be reported in the 

registration submission ; however, the marking is not 

compulsory. 

The Subcommittee again considered the subject of 

a draft treaty relating to the moon but was unable 

to resolve the main outstanding issues: the scope of 

the treaty (whether, as advocated by the United 

States, it should cover all bodies of the solar system), 

furnishing of information on missions (whether certain information should be provided before launch), 

and provisions concerning exploitation of natural resources of the celestial bodies to be covered by the 

treaty. Discussion of these issues will therefore be 

continued at the Subcommittee’s next session in 1975. 

The Legal Subcommittee considered the report of 

the Working Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites, 

including proposed principles on direct broadcasting 

submitted by the United States and other countries. 

A working group of the Subcommittee began drafting 

a composite group of principles based on areas of 

agreement reflected in the Working Group’s report, 

but was unable to reach consensus on any draft text. 

Broad areas of disagreement persisted regarding possible approaches to controls over international satellite direct broadcasting. The Subcommittee agreed 

that in view of the amount of work yet to be done 

the subject should be a priority item at its next 

session. 

The Subcommittee also considered the report of 

the Working Group on Remote Sensing, which had 

requested it to take up the legal implications of such 

activities. Certain countries had submitted draft 

agreements or principles. However, the Legal Subcommittee did not have the time to take the matter 

up in any depth, and therefore decided to continue 

work on this problem at its next session. In general 

discussion of the subject, a number of countries 

advocated some form of control by a sensed state 

over dissemination of data concerning its territory. 

The United States has maintained a policy of open 

80 

availability of data obtained by remote sensing satellites in its experimental program. The United States 

has also consistently upheld the right of unrestricted 

overflight by satellites for peaceful use of outer space 

in conformity with the Outer Space Treaty. 

Working Group on Remote Sensing 

The deliberations of the Working Group denionstrated growing awareness of the possible uses and 

benefits of remote sensing from satellites of natural 

resources and the environment. Meeting in New 

York in February and March, the Working Group 

noted that in three years the number of countries 

with coordinating bodies for activities in the remote 

sensing field had increased from six to 20, and that 

imagery for maps of natural features was now available for all major parts of the world’s land areas. 

It noted that the United States, Brazil and France 

had offered various training programs in this field. 

A number of Working Group members accepted 

the US. invitation to visit the Earth Resources Observation System (EROS) Data Center in Sioux 

Falls, South Dakota. 

The Working Group devoted a great deal of attention to possible future organizational schemes for 

the reception, storage and dissemination of remote 

sensing data, examining the possibilties of national, 

regional and international systems. For practical and 

other reasons, regional and national centers seemed 

to hold more promise than a universal system with 

all states participating in a single organization. 

The Working Group noted that the most experience from remote sensing had been obtained in the 

meteorological field, and wclcomed the launching in 

1974 of the NOAA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), which will be coordinated with satellites from countries as part of the 

Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP) to 

be initiated in 1977. The Working Group expected 

that there would be growing emphasis on the use of 

remote sensing to study pollution, and noted that in 

this area, as well as that of sensing earth resources, 

only experimental projects have been conducted to 

date. Those projects have included the U.S. Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) and the 

Skylab Earth Resources Experimental Package 

(EREP) , and will include a second ERTS satellite 

in 1975. 

A number of countries have submitted draft 

agreements or principles on the legal aspects of remote sensing. The Working Group recognized that, 

in view of the different approaches to the legal 

questions that have been suggested, there is a need 

for further consideration of legal aspects and recommended that the Legal Subcommittee give high 

priority to this question. 
Working Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites 

(DBS) 

The DBS Working Group held its fifth session 

from March 11 to 22 at Geneva, continuing its consideration of political-legal as well as technical and 

economic aspects of this developing experimental 

technology. The Working Group’s attention again 

centered on the question of drafting principles to 

govern the use of direct broadcast satellites. The 

United States has maintained that adoption of binding principles would be unwise and premature. However, taking into account the strong desire of many 

other countries to move in this direction, the United 

States submitted a set of draft voluntary guidelines 

or principles which reflect common interests and the 

most widely shared areas of understanding and 

agreement on this subject. The United States’ draft 

was well received, and considerable attention has 

been paid by the Working Group and by the Outer 

Space Legal Subcommittee to the US. proposals. 

Other proposals have been put before the Working 

Group by the Soviet Union, by Canada and Sweden 

jointly, and by Argentina. 

While tabling its own draft, the United States 

argued that the controversial question lies at the 

heart of restrictive proposals-whether or not each 

state should have the right to prohibit, through withholding its prior consent, direct television broadcasts 

to its territory-should be carefully examined in all 

its implications before any action is taken. 

The United States also reviewed the progress of 

DBS experimentation, including in particular the 

launch of the Applications Technology Satellite 

( ATS-6) for a period of experimental broadcasting 

to community receivers in remote areas of the United 

States, to be followed by a year-long exprriment of 

the same kind over India beginning in 1975. 

Scientific and Technical Subcommittee 

The Subcommittee gave priority in its proceedings 

to the report of the Working Group on Remote 

Sensing of the Earth by Satellites and to the U.N. 

space applications program. The United States has 

played a major role in both of these fields and was 

able to cite many examples of cooperation with 

other countries in various fields of space research and 

application. 

During the Subcommittee meetings, consideration 

was given to possible modes of international dissemination of data obtained by satellite remote sensing. 

The United States suggested possible advantages in n 

system of regional centers for distributing such data. 

The Subcommittee recommended that its parent 

Committee request a series of studies under the 

auspices of the U.N. Secretary-General on the subject, 

including a summary of cost-effectiveness studies; 

analyses of organizational and financial requirements 

for the establishment of an international center, or 

of regional centers, for the storage and dissemination 

of remote sensing data; and the possible establishment 

of educational and training facilities. 

International Cooperation 

Cooperation with Europe 

Continued efforts on the European Space Research 

Organization project to develop the Space Laboratory 

for use with NASA’s Space Shuttle have been fruitful 

in improving our abilities in international cooperation 

on major space projects. This project, which will cost 

between $300 and $400 million makes it one of the 

most important cooperative programs in which the 

U.S. has become involved. 

In June agreements were signed with West Germany and France for the reimbursable launch by 

NASA of the Symphonie satellite. This is a communications experiment to be conducted by the two 

countries. Under the agreement NASA will furnish 

launches and launch services for the satellite on a 

fully reimbursable basis. 

Cooperation with Japan 

Space cooperation between the United States and 

Japan during 1974 was dominated by a continued 

flow of space hardware and technology to Japan, 

as authorized under terms of the 1969 United States/ 

Japanese Space Cooperation Agreement. These exports arc being transferred under United States/ 

Japan industry arrangements subject to the approval 

of the Dcpartiiient of State’s Office of Munitions 

Control and are to be used in Japanese efforts to 

develop a space launch vehicle and a number of 

scientific and practical applications satellites for 

launching starting in 1975. 

Negotiations were completed on an agreement for 

NASA to furnish reimbursable launches to synchronous orbit of three Japanese satellites. The first is a 

meteorological satellite to participate in the international GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Program) to study wcather. The second is an experimental communications satellite and the third is an experimental broadcast satellite. 

Cooperation with the Soviet Union 

Joint NASA/Soviet Academy of Sciences Working 

Groups continued to implement the May 24, 1972 

US/USSR. Agreement Concerning Cooperation 

in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space. This 

agreement provides for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, a joint experimental flight in 1975 to test compatible rendezvous and docking systems, and for 

cooperation in space sciences and applications. 

81 
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)-ASTP is the 

joint US/USSR manned space flight provided for by 

the US/USSR Agreement Concerning Cooperation 

in Space which President Nixon and Chairman 

Kosygin signed at the Moscow Summit in May 1972. 

This experimental flight, on schedule for July 1975, 

is to test compatible rendezvous and docking systems 

being developed for future US and USSR manned 

spacecraft. A successful mission will contribute to a 

rescue capability for future manned space flights and 

broaden opportunities for US and USSR space 

cooperation in the years ahead. 

The ASTP mission plan calls for the Soyuz to be 

launched first from the Soviet launch site at 

Baikonur. The first Apollo launch opportunity will 

occur about 7% hours after Soyuz liftoff. Once in 

orbit, the Apollo will perform the necessary rendezvous maneuvers and then dock with the Soyuz. For 

about two days, the astronauts and the cosmonauts 

will exchange visits between vehicles and carry out 

joint activities, including experiments in space science 

and applications. There will be additional tests of 

the compatible docking mechanisms, and after final 

separation, the Apollo spacecraft will conduct further 

independent activities before re-entry. 

The docking mechanisms to be used in the mission 

are separately developed by the two nations but are 

based on a single set of agreed design specifications 

for components which must be compatible. Thus, 

while there is no transfer of manufacturing knowhow, US and Soviet engineers are closely engaged in 

the solution of common problems. 

With design and development essentially complete, 

major progress in 1974 included joint compatibility 

tests of communications and docking systems and the 

start of intensive joint flight crew and flight controller 

training. During the year, the Soviet side conducted 

two unmanned flights of the Soyuz spacecraft to test 

new systems and equipment to be used in the joint 

mission and announced plans for an additional test 

flight of a manned Soyuz modified to an ASTP con. 

figuration. Meanwhile, NASA and the Soviet Academy of Sciences approved flight information plans for 

both the pre-mission and flight phases of the project. 

Plans have been made for the conduot of pre-launch 

tests at the US and USSR launch sites, and a joint 

flight readiness review has been scheduled for May 

1975. 

Space Science and Applications.-In the space 

science area, a joint NASA/Soviet Academy Conference on the Cosmochemistry of the Moon and the 

Planets was held in Moscow in June. During the 

Conference, a detailed Soviet briefing on the results 

of their recent missions to Mars was provided for a 

team of US specialists associated with the NASA 

Viking Project. US and Soviet specialists who are 

82 

preparing the joint experiment involving the correlation of geomagnetic data through ATS-6 met in 

the US in October for testing of breadboard equipment and technical coordination. The Space Biology 

and Medicine Working Group met in the USSR 

last October to exchange biomedical rcsults of the 

Soyuz 13 and 14 and Skylab space flights. 

In the space applications area, the joint Working 

Group on the Natural Environment agreed to (1) 

continued analysis and exchange of ERTS/Cosmos 

microwave methods to determine moisture. In addition, the Working Group agreed on actions looking 

to the definition of coordinated studies in (1) geology 

and geomorphology, (2) vegetation, soil, and land 

use, and (3) hydrology. In connection with the proposed coordinated studies of vegetation, soil and 

land use, US scientists visited the Kursk test site 

in the Soviet Union. Also, US and USSR experimental scientists met in Leningrad in May to present 

the results of the final analyses of the data obtained 

during the joint Bering Sea Microwave sensing ex. 

periment. This was the first time two independent 

research groups have made microwave radiometry 

measurements of sea ice and the ocean surface under 

the same conditions of varying surface roughness and 

intervening atmospheric conditions with generally 

the same results. 

Technology Transfer 

In 1974 the bulk of license requests for export of 

space-related hardware and technology processed by 

the Department of State’s Office of Munitions Control involved transfer under the United States/ 

Japanese Space Cooperation Agreement and exports 

to the European area. The Department continued to 

emphasize the export of hardware rather than the 

technology necessary to produce the hardware. 

Satellite Services 

Communications Satellites 

The definitive agreements establishing the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 

(INTELSAT) entered into force February 12, 1973 

and membership in INTELSAT reached 88 as of 

December 31, 1974 with the completion of membership requirements during 1974 by Cyprus, Lebanon, 

Haiti and Bolivia. The definitive agreements consist 

of an Inter-governmental Agreement and an Operating Agreement. The U.S. Government is a party to 

the former, and designated the Communications 

Satellite Corporation (ComSat), a U.S. company, to 

be its Signatory to the latter. INTELSAT has a 

structure consisting of an Assembly of Parties, a Meeting of Signatories, a Board of Governors and an 

Executive Organ under the direction of a Secretary 
General responsible to the Board of Governors. The 

first meeting of the Assembly of Parties took place 

February 4-8, 1974, and dealt generally with matters 

primarily of interest to the Parties as sovereign states, 

including consideration of the establishment by the 

U.S. of space segment facilities separate from the 

INTELSAT space segment, the selection of a Panel 

of Experts from which Presidents of Arbitral Tribunals will be selected, and consideration of the 

establishment of formal relations with several international organizations. ComSat participated in the 

second meeting of the Meeting of Signatories in April 

1974 and represented the United States at the bimonthly meetings of the Board of Governors. The 

Secretary-General made progress in organizing the 

Executive Organ which will provide financial, legal 

and administrative support. ComSat will provide 

certain technical and operational management services to INTELSAT under contract until 1979. 

As of December 31, 1974 there were 81 INTELSAT earth stations operating in 59 countries. In 

November 1974 the sixth satellite in the INTELSAT 

IV series was launched and the seventh satellite in 

the series will be launched in early 1975 thus adding 

substantial capacity to the global communications 

coverage. These satellites enable INTELSAT to provide circuits for voice, data, teletype and facsimile as 

well as television channels. Communications capability will be further augmented by the launch during 

1975 of the first of two INTELSAT IV-A satellites. 

Whereas the INTELSAT IV satellites each have a 

design capacity of 4,000 circuits, the IV-A’s will each 

have a design capacity of 7,500 circuits. During 1974 

design work was advanced on the next generation of 

satellites, the INTELSAT V series. 

Aeronautical Setellites 

Negotiations regarding the establishment of an 

experimental aeronautical communications satellite 

system (AEROSAT) culminated with the entry into 

force on August 2, 1974 of a Memorandum of Understanding between the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) and the Government of Canada. 

The program to be undertaken is designed to test the 

use of communications satellites for air traffic control 

and civil aviation purposes. ESRO has selected the 

Communications Satellite Corporation (ComSat), a 

United States corporation, to be co-owner with it and 

Canada of the space segment to be provided; ComSat, 

in turn, will lease communications capabilities to the 

FAA. It is planned to launch two satellites in the late 

1970’s. These will be placed in geostationary orbit 

over the Atlantic Ocean. It is thought that an operational system could be in place by the mid-1980’s. 

Maritime Satellites 

For a number of years the world’s maritime nations 

have realized that a communications satellite system 

might be the solution to the inadequacies of the 

present system of communications with and between 

ships at sea. To this end the United States participated during 1974 in the efforts of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) 

to examine how a maritime communications satellite 

capabilitity might be developed and implemented. 

Under IMCO sponsorship an international conference 

will be convened in 1975 to examine the establishment 

of an international maritime satellite system. 

Support to Federal Agencies 

NASA Spaceflight Support 

The Department and its posts overseas continued 

in 1974 to support NASA manned space flight missions, by arranging for the basing of recovery, tracking and other mobile support forces at foreign installations. 

Cooperatiow with the Department of Defense 

During 1974 the Department of State continued to 

work closely with the Department of Defense on 

various military space issues having international 

implications. 

83 
VIII 

Introduction 

The National Science Foundation, established to 

promote the progress of science, supports research and 

educational activities in many fields of science. Research activities carried out with NSF support are 

directed to improving our understanding of natural 

phenomena from which stem new opportunities for 

further accomplishments in basic and applied science. 

Programs in the Foundation related to aeronautics 

and space science are found in areas of astronomy, 

atmospheric sciences, engineering, materials, chemistry, polar studies, and applied research. Many NSF 

investigators use facilities at the National Research 

Centers, administered under contract with the Foundation. Educational support includes grant funds for 

institutional programs and individuals. 

Astronomy 

General 

The comet Kohoutek, the most thoroughly observed comet in history, was detected late last year 

in the radio range, and molecules of methyl cyanide, 

hydrogen cyanide, and other compounds were found. 

Detection of the water molecule, long suspected to be 

present in comets, confirmed the icy model of comets. 

In September, what is believed to be a thirteenth 

satellite of the planet Jupiter was discovered. Further 

observations are being made to confirm the orbit. 

From its retrograde motion, it is theorized that it 

could have been an asteroid that passed near the 

giant planet and was captured. 

Among the several new pulsar discoveries supported 

by the Foundation, one pulsar was found to be also a 

member of a double star system. In this double system, 

the two stars revolve about each other in 7.75 hours. 

From the period of pulsation and its constancy, the 

age of the neutron star is estimated to be several 

thousand years. 

With X-ray detectors mounted on a balloon, MIT 

astronomers used the Moon as a shutter as it made 

one of its rare passes last August in front of the Crab 

Nebula, source of visible light and X-rays. In spite 

P National Science Foundation 

of technical difficulties, blind pointing and on-board 

data recording showed the entire disappearance and 

reappearance of the nebula. The size and shape were 

observed to be somewhat different than expected. 

From X-rays of energy between 20 and 150 kilovolts, 

the size of the nebula was three times larger as it reappeared at a different angle from behind the moving 

Moon than when it disappeared. The size is smaller 

than that measured during the last occultation in 

1964, and its extension in shape is at a right angle to 

the visual extension direction. Observations at this 

and other occultations will allow construction of a 

map of the sources which will help in understanding 

the physical makeup of this supernova remnant, still 

in a very energetic state after 920 years. 

During the year there was increased ground-based 

support of NASA space missions through coordinated 

observations by scientists using optical, infrared, and 

radio telescopes at university and National Center 

observatories. Of special interest was the support to 

Skylab by solar astronomers, and to the Pioneer 10 

and 11 missions to Jupiter and the Mariner VenusMercury flight by planetary scientists. The groundbased observations help ensure the maximum return 

in the effort to better understand the physics of the 

solar system. 

Kitt Peak National Observatory 

The primary mission of the Kitt Peak National 

Observatory (KPNO) is to provide facilities for 

research in solar, planetary, stellar, and galactic astronomy. Major ground-based telescopes, auxiliary 

instrumentation, and related support facilities are 

available to observatory staff and visiting astronomers 

from research and educational institutions throughout 

the United States and abroad. 

The principal observing facilities of KPNO are 

located on Kitt Peak, 40 miles southwest of Tucson, 

Ariz. These facilities include nine stellar telescopes. 

The most recent addition is the 4-meter Maya11 Telescope, which was brought into full operation in August 1974. This powerful instrument with its fast 

prime focus opens new fields of galactic and extraa5 
galactic astronomy. The new Solar Vacuum Telescope and Magnetograph provides full-disk, high resolution maps of the magnetic fields and gas motions 

on the Sun. It provided solar magnetograms as part 

of the ground-based support for the NASA-Skylab 

Apollo Telescope Mount solar experiments. 

In 1974, astronomers using the 1.5-meter McMath 

Solar Telescope reported the discovery of two new 

organic molecules in the atmosphere of Jupiter: 

ethane and acetylene. While the discovery of simple 

organic molecules is not indicative of life on Jupiter, 

evidence of their presence is important to understanding steps in the chemical evolution of that planet. 

Excellent data have been obtained in far larger 

amounts than originally expected from the ultraviolet 

spectrometer designed and built by KPNO and placed 

on board the NASA Mariner 10 spacecraft. Data 

from the Venus flyby indicate the presence of significant concentrations of hydrogen, helium, carbon, and 

oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere and indicate 

an exospheric temperature of 400” K. (260’ F.) Data 

from the Mercury encounter indicate the presence of 

an atmosphere consisting largely of the gases argon 

and neon, with some evidence of hydrogen and 

helium. 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) 

The National Radio Astronomy Observatory 

(NRAO) , with headquarters in Charlottesville, Va., 

provides advanced facilities for research in radio 

astronomy. The major observatory instruments, located at Green Bank, w. Va., include a 300-foot 

meridian transit telescope, a 140-foot fully steerable 

telescope, a three-element interferometer consisting of 

85-foot telescopes that can operate in conjunction with 

a remote portable 45-foot antenna, and a 36-foot millimeter wave telescope. Observations at decimeter and 

meter wavelengths are made with the 300-foot and 

140-foot telescopes, and studies of the angular structure of radio sources are made with the interferometer. Extremely short wavelength observations required for interstellar molecular spectroscopy are 

made with a 36-foot radio telescope located on Kitt 

Peak, near Tucson, Ariz. 

An important new observing facility, the Very 

Large Array (VLA) , is under construction on the 

Plains of San Augustin near Socorro, New Mexico. 

When completed in 1981, the VLA will have both 

radio image formation and spectral line analysis 

capabilities. Partial operation is scheduled to begin 

in November 1976. 

Scientific programs in progress using the NRAO 

major telescope systems include galactic studies, investigations of discrete radio sources, and tests of 

general relativity. Observations of interstellar gas and 

dust clouds are providing details of the large-scale 

structure of our own Milky Way galaxy as well as 

delineating processes involved in star formation. TWO 

new inteIstellar molecules have been discovereddimethyl ether, the largest molecule yet detected in 

space, and silicon monosulphide, the first interstellar 

molecule composed only of elements with atomic 

weight greater than 20. Very long baseline (VLB) 

observations, in cooperation with other radio astronomy observatories, have been providing details of 

the size and shape of the emitting regions of compact 

radio sources, including quasars and pulsars. Radio 

measurements of the relativistic bending of electromagnetic radiation in the presence of strong gravitational fields are providing important new checks of 

general relativity theory. 

National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center 

( NAZC ) 

In 1974, the major upgrading of the 1,000-footdiameter radio/radar telescope was completed at the 

NAIC observing site near Arecibo, P.R. This upgrading will provide the world‘s most advanced research 

instrumentation for radio and radar astronomy and 

ionospheric research. When final surveys and alignments are complete in early 1975, the new aluminum 

panels of the telescope will form a precision spherical 

surface accurate to within 1/8 inch. This new surface 

broadens the frequency range available for scientific 

observations by a factor of 12. A 450-kilowatt 5-band 

planetary radar transmitter, sponsored by the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration and completed 

in October 1974, increases the planetary ranging and 

surface mapping capabilities of the Arecibo telescope 

by a thousandfold. 

One of many fruitful scientific programs at. NAIC 

involves a search for new pulsars in the galactic plane. 

With a newly installed ultrasensitive receiver system, 

21 new pulsars were soon discovered. Examination of 

the radiation coming from these pulsars enables radio 

astronomers to make more accurate estimates of pulsar 

distances and to better understand the structure, 

origin, and evolution of our galaxy. 

Cerro Tololo Znter-American Observatory ( CTZO ) 

The Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, 

providing ground-based telescopes, auxiliary instrumentation, and support facilities for studies of astronomical objects in the Southern Hemisphere, offers 

what has been judged to be the best atmospheric 

“seeing” conditions for astronomical research available anywhere in the world. The observing facilities 

on Cerro Tololo include eight major telescopes. A 

major new 4-meter telescope, installed in late 1974, 

is scheduled to become fully operational in 1975. Operation of the two similar 4-meter telescopes at CTIO 

and KPNO is an unprecedented step for optical 

astronomy, providing the first opportunity for a 

86 
coordinated attack on “limit” problems in astronomy 

using advanced instruments that are located in both 

the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Astronomers at CTIO have accomplished outstanding results. In studies of the clouds of hot ionized interstellar hydrogen gas in the Magellanic Clouds, measurements of Doppler shifts in the spectral line profiles confirmed that the Large Magellanic Cloud is a 

thin rotating disk viewed face on, and that the clouds 

surrounding some of the hot luminous stars exhibit 

violent internal motions. 

Astronomers at CTIO have also pursued extensive studies of infrared sources associated with very 

young stars in dark clouds within our own galaxy. 

Astronomers have been conducting searches for the 

youngest known astronomical objects, using an image 

intensifier sensitive to infrared wavelengths that makes 

it possible to look through the shrouds of gas and 

dust surrounding the youngest stars. A number of 

objects were found that appear very bright in the 

sky at infrared wavelengths of 1 micron but are invisible in the optical range. It is likely that many of 

these are young stars still deriving their energy from 

the collapse of the clouds of dust and gas out of 

which they were formed. 

A new computer-based data system, successfully 

tested in 1974, forms an integral unit that makes it 

possible for astronomers to secure a quick look at 

large quantities of processed data on nearly a realtime basis. Expansion of the CTIO data system has 

made possible heavy use of new pieces of equipment 

that are greatly increasing the operational efficiency 

and sensitivity of existing telescopes. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

Solar-Terrestrial Research 

The space physics of the Earth’s environment and 

the interaction of this environment with the Earth’s 

atmosphere are concerns of NSF’s Solar-Terrestrial 

program. The Sun continuously forces out from its 

surface a flow of charged particles-the solar wind. 

Intermittently and by mechanisms not yet understood, much smaller numbers of particles in disturbed 

solar regions are accelerated to high energies and are 

hurled into space. A large part of NSF’s program is 

devoted to a study of these particles and their interactions. Optical and radio studies of the dynamics 

of the atmosphere are supported, as well as investigations using cosmic rays as a probing tool to study 

the solar wind. Studies on the outer reaches of the 

solar atmosphere, the interplanetary plasma, and the 

Earth‘s magnetosphere are included ; also observational and theoretical research on the interaction of 

the solar wind with the Earth’s magnetosphere and 

the atmosphere of other planets. Major attention is 

devoted to the Earth’s magnetosphere and particles 

and fields in it. Trapping and release of particles, 

wave-particle interactions, and currents and magnetic fields are all associated with spectacular aurora, 

magnetic storms, interferences with radio, long-line 

telephonic communication, and with surges on large 

power networks. During the year progress continued 

to be made in several research areas. For instance, 

analysis has been continuing on the fact that the 

North American electric power grid is depositing 

small amounts of the electromagnetic energy in the 

near-Earth magnetosphere-a phenomenon that was 

unexpectedly discovered in a study of radio waves 

transmitted from the Antarctic through the magnetosphere and received in Canada. 

Aeronomy 

The atmosphere of the Earth at high altitudes is 

generally taken as the domain of aeronomy. The 

Foundation supports theoretical and field studies of 

phenomena that occur in this region and laboratory 

investigations to provide insight into the atomic and 

molecular processes taking place there. Phenomena 

investigated include light of the night sky, aurora, 

ionospheric instabilities, and the dynamics of the 

normal ionosphere at all latitudes. The most intensive 

investigations, important to the International Mag 

netospheric Study, involve the auroral zone in Alaska. 

Some aeronomy research is being devoted to studies 

of the chemistry of the atmosphere in the hope that 

the constitution of the “normal” stratosphere and 

mesosphere (which extends beyond the stratosphere) 

can be determined. This work is particularly important in order to have a reference against which 

to measure possible future alterations due to human 

activity. 

Meteorology 

NSF supports a broad range of investigations into 

the dynamical and physical behavior of the atmosphere, including field observations, laboratory experiments, and theoretical and numerical analysis 

of the data together with the development of techniques for remote sensing. Techniques are being developed for remote sensing of atmospheric motions, 

and of particulate and gaseous species. A variety of 

studies on radar is supported, along with other investigations attempting to monitor the build-up of 

carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere and changes 

in concentrations of atmospheric particulates. Over 

the past several years there has been an expanded 

program of stratospheric research, supported in part 

by transfers of funds from the Department of Transportation. Balloon and aircraft measurements of trace 

constituents such as water vapor and nitric acid and 

numerical modeling of stratospheric dynamics are 

included. 

87 
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR ) 

The National Center for Atmospheric Research 

has two major objectives: to plan and conduct or 

participate in selected atmospheric programs, and to 

develop and operate major research facilities and 

services most needed by atmospheric scientists. 

During the summer of 1974, NCAR scientists, 

ground measurement teams, and aircraft assisted with 

the Global Atmospheric Research Program-Atlantic 

Tropical Experiment (GATE). This experiment 

produced the most extensive data ever gathered on 

tropical meteorological processes and their interaction with global atmospheric circulations. These 

data gathered are of critical importance in developing and testing models of intermediate-scale tropical 

weather and climate systems, as well as of worldwide 

systems. 

In NCAR’s continuing research on hailstorms, detailed analyses of the airflow and moisture budget of 

a typical hailstorm are conducted. This work has 

advanced the understanding required to improve the 

predictions of hailstorm severity, and to determine 

the best approach for suppressing hail. 

Scientists at NCAR’s High Altitude Observatory 

obtained about 35,000 photographs of the solar 

corona over a 7-month period with equipment 

aboard the NASA manned spacecraft SKYAB. 

These reveal both persistent and many transient 

phenomena in the corona during seven rotations of 

the Sun. Such photos were previously available only 

during the rare and brief total eclipses of the Sun. 

U.S. Antarctic Research Program 

Most of the upper atmosphere physics studies of 

the multidisciplinary U.S. Antarctic Research Program are done at Siple Station near the base of the 

Antarctic Peninsula. Instrumentation includes a 

unique 2 1.4-kilometer-long Very Low Frequency 

(VLF) dipole antenna, which serves as both a receiver and a transmitter, and will be of importance 

in the International Magnetospheric Study, planned 

for 1976-1979. Instrumented balloons are sent aloft 

every other year to detect particles precipitated from 

trapped radiation through interaction with electromagnetic waves; in situ VLF acti6ity is measured on 

some flights. Measurements from these instruments 

contribute to investigation of how solar energy 

crosses the boundaries separating the various magnetic regimes and affects the terrestrial environment. 

Especially useful is the ability to compare particle 

measurements with wave measurements, allowing 

investigation of wave-particle interactions as a function of frequency. Many measurements are made 

simultaneously in Quebec, at the Northern Hemisphere conjugate of Siple Station. Other upper at. 

mosphere research in Antarctica takes place at MCMurdo Station (cosmic ray observatory) and at the 

geographic south pole (aurora studies). 

Engineering 

Many NSF-funded research activities dealing with 

fluid dynamic problems are directly applicable to 

space and aeronautical problems. Some current areas 

of support include unsteady viscous flows, near wake 

studies, large-scale organized structure in turbulentfree shear flows, and gaseous separation processes. In 

all cases, research is focused on quantification of the 

physical phenomena and provision of necessary data 

base for future designs. Research on stability as well 

as the mechanics of laminar-turbulent transition receives continuous support. Other aeronautics-related 

investigations include work in numerical fluid mechanics and vortex dynamics. 

Materials Research 

Research areas of significance to aerospace applications include processing, structural aspects, and electronic properties of technological materials. In the 

area of processing, cutting materials and machining 

metals and alloys to yield desirable products are enormously expensive, from both materials resource and 

energy consumption perspectives. Research on materials for carbide tools and on oxide and diamond 

abrasive grains for grinding wheels has extensive 

support, as well as the study of basic mechanisms of 

chip removal during cutting and grinding. Through 

periodic meetings of university grantees with members from the metal cutting industry, close correlation 

of effort is maintained between university research 

and industrial demands on cutting materials. In the 

area of composite materials, requirements of increased 

performance of materials used in aircraft engines 

and air frames tax to the limit many conventional 

alloys and ceramic materials. Basic studies are supported involving solidification and fabrication of materials that yield controlled composite structures having desirable properties for particular applications. In 

the semiconducting materials area, research topics 

receiving significant support include basic studies of 

compound semiconductors, including multi-component systems, of potential use in new heterojunction 

devices. Such devices include light-emitting diodes, 

heterojunction lasers, picosecond infrared detectors, 

and materials and junctions for solar voltaic conversion. 

Materials research in the solid state sciences is 

active in a number of areas which will affect future 

aeronautic and space technologies. Investigations of 

the fundamental mechanisms for defect formation 

and migration in metals, insulators, and seniiconduct- 
ors have an obvious bearing on the future development of materials with structural, electronic, and 

thermal properties suited to the extreme thermal and 

radiation environments encountered in space. Related 

research on ionic diffusion in nonstochiometric solids 

bears on the development of solid state batteries and 

fuel cells for possible use in space vehicles. Research 

in low temperature physics, on high temperature 

superconductors, and cryogenic coolers now in progress point to possible future use of superconductors in 

space applications as sensors and microwave components. Other research on new materials with unusual 

electronic and optical properties such as amorphous 

semiconductors, organic charge transfer salts, and 

liquid crystals may develop ways of using these materials in electronic and electro-optical components for 

space applications. 

Chemistry 

Although terrestrially based and aimed largely at 

solving Earthbound problems, NSF-supported research in modern chemistry creates knowledge that is 

essential for progress in the aeronautics and space 

sciences. For example, the research in spectroscopy, 

reaction dynamics, and photochemistry provide significant input to the body of information required for 

modeling of the atmospheres that surround celestial 

bodies, including the atmospheric pollution modeling 

problems on Earth. This research also contributes to 

the development of lasers. Research in chemical synthesis, structure, and reaction dynamics provides a significant component of background information from 

which potential propellant systems can be evaluated. 

Research in chemical analysis and spectroscopy leads 

to improved methods for characterizing and understanding matter, ranging from new materials for space 

vehicles to determining the chemical composition of 

interstellar space. The information gained from fundamental studies in chemistry is essential to the elucidation of how molecules are formed in space. 

Research Applied to National Needs .. . 

Solar Thermal Conversion 

Two types of selective coatings with high absorption 

and low emission characteristics are being developed 

for use in solar collector systems. These coatings will 

efficiently convert solar energy to heat and minimize 

subsequent heat loss. Since spacecraft require thermal 

management systems to insure that no difficulties arise 

from incident solar energy, from internally generated 

heat, and from excessive radiation of thermal energy 

to deep space, the two coatings may have important 

applications in spacecraft design. 

Wind Energy Conversion 

The objective of NSF’s Wind Energy Conversion 

Systems program is to advance the technical and 

economic performance of wind energy systems as a 

viable alternative source of energy. The advances in 

aeronautical technology, in recent years are being 

applied with the help of NASA to the design of 

advanced wind energy systems. Aerodynamic research 

is being undertaken in, or as part of, several projects 

to increase the performance and capability of wind 

energy systems. 

Photovoltaic Conversion 

The Photovoltaic Energy Conversion program is 

designed primarily to develop economically viable 

photovoltaic electric power systems capable of prov.iding a significant amount of the Nation’s energy requirements by the year 2000. While this program is 

geared for terrestrial applications of solar cells, many 

of its achievements should readily find applications in 

the Nation’s space program. This program is being 

carried through close collaboration with numerous 

Government laboratories, such as the NASA-Lewis Research Center, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the 

Goddard Space Flight Center. Examples of recent 

program achievements include successful experiments 

which have produced ribbons of crystalline silicon 

with sufficient quality to be made into solar cells with 

efficiencies as high as 10 percent. Cadmium sulfide/ 

copper sulfide solar cells have been prepared with up 

to 6 percent efficiency. Other experiments have shown 

the possibility of producing extremely low-cost solar 

cells based on a semiconducting glass-silicon heterojunction. There are strong indications that such cells 

will have efficiencies up to 16 percent for single 

crystal silicon, and up to 8 percent for polycrystalline 

silicon cells. 

Education Activities 

In fiscal year 1974 the Foundation’s Education 

Directorate placed $740,392 in support of 47 awards 

for activities related to the aeronautic and space 

sciences. The greatest proportion of these funds supported the training of 27 graduate students in NSF’s 

Graduate Fellowship program. Funds also helped upgrade the aeronautic and space sciences subject matter 

background of seven college and university faculty 

members through the Faculty Research Participation 

program. Also, projects helped 141 superior secondary 

school students and 28 undergraduate students obtain 

unusual independent study and research experiences 

related to the aeronautic and space sciences. Eleven 

projects designed to improve instructional programs 

in these disciplines were supported at the undergraduate level of education. 
IX 

Introduction 

Modern science and technology are sufficiently 

complex and interwoven that continuing analysis of 

their directions, problems, and interactions is necessary to assure that they will properly serve society at 

appropriate cost. 

The charter of the National Academy of Sciences 

(NAS) , a Congressional Act of Incorporation signed 

by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, calls upon it to serve as 

an official adviser, upon request and without fee, to 

the Federal Government on any question of science or 

technology. The National Academy of Engineering 

(NAE) was established in 1964, under the charter of 

the NAS, as a parallel organization of distinguished 

engineers, sharing with the NAS its Federal advisory 

responsibilities. Most of the activities undertaken by 

the two Academies are carried out through the 

National Research Council (NRC) , which is representative of the major scientific and technical societies, and whose members are derived from universities, industry, and the scientific agencies of the 

Federal Government. 

The advisory work of the Academies-Research 

Council is normally carried out by individual committees or through special studies. That related to 

aeronautics and space in 1974 is briefly described 

below. 

National Academy of Sciences 

National Academy of Engineering 

National Research Council 

Aerospace Science 

SQace Science Priorities 

The Space Science Board-(NRC) adopted as its 

principal work in 1974 a study of priorities in space 

science. The study involved the year-long collaboration between the Board and three of its major committees, Space Astronomy, Space Physics, and Planetary and Lunar Exploration, in a critical examination 

of space mission strategies on the basis of scientific 

merit. Preliminary reports containing mission models 

for the disciplines involved were prepared by the committees and mailed to a representative segment of the 

scientific community for criticism and comment. The 

reports were revised to accommodate the comments 

received and submitted to the Board for cross-ranking 

of priorities among the various disciplines. The 

Board’s findings and recommendations will be issued 

early in 1975. As a part of this exercise, a special 

study on strategies for the exploration of Mars was 

carried out during the summer. Some 20 scientists 

participated in the 8-day study. 

The Board‘s Exobiology Panel participated in the 

priorities study by proposing strategies for the biological exploration of Mars and other solar system 

objects. In addition, the Panel addressed itself to the 

issue of the possible hazard to the earth of a sample 

returned from Mars (back contamination) and the 

possibility that earth organisms brought by spacecraft 

might contaminate other planets (planetary quarantine), 

The Committee on Space Biology and Medicine 

proposed directions for future life sciences research in 

the space shuttle era based on an evaluation of experience to date. The Committee on International Relations assisted the Board in carrying out its commitments as Academy representatives to the Committee 

on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International 

Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) . 

Solar-Terrestrial Research 

The Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research- 

(CSTR; NRC) reviews and makes recommendations 

on the national program in solar-terrestrial physics 

and, through international bodies, participates in the 

organization and planning of international research 

in solar physics, interplanetary medium, planetary 

atmospheres, and the magnetosphere. In April 1974, 

the President’s Science Adviser announced that the 

U.S. will participate in the International Magnetospheric Study (IMS) , an international cooperative 

enterprise to be conducted in 1976-1978. This was a 

result of recommendations of a joint study by CSTR 

and the Space Science Board in 1973 and a report 

by a panel of CSTR in 1974 outlining a specific plan 

for U.S. participation in the IMS. The chief objective 

of the IMS is to obtain a comprehensive quantitative 

understanding of the dynamical processes operating 

on plasmas in the geomagnetic field. The operational 

91 

575-666 0 - 75 - 7 
basis of the IMS is an international plan of coordinated observations from spacecraft, ground-based 

facilities, aircraft, balloons, and research rockets. 

The Interdepartmental Committee on Atmospheric 

Sciences of the Federal Council for Science and Technology in consultation with the CSTR panel is preparing to coordinate technical and procedural aspects 

of the US. participation. To this end a program 

office to coordinate U.S. activities in IMS has been 

established in the National Science Foundation. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

The Committee on Atmospheric Sciences-( NRC) 

encourages research and development that will provide a balanced national program in the atmospheric 

sciences. Recent studies in weather modification, atmospheric chemistry, air quality, and weather dangers 

have focused on the necessity to develop a system of 

regional and global observations to cope with national 

needs for improved short- and long-term weather 

predictions, improved understanding of the complex 

chemical and photochemical processes occurring in 

the atmosphere, a greater understanding of the smalland large-scale interaction of the atmosphere with underlying surfaces-oceans, snow and ice fields, and 

mountains. Many of the needed observations for these 

studies must be obtained by remote sensing devices, 

through an integrated system of ground-based, satellite, and aircraft-borne sensors. Current studies by the 

Academy, the government, and research centers are 

converging on the potential contributions that experimental and field studies in severe weather conditions 

can provide to the safety and welfare of our citizens. 

Scientists, administrators, and public officials, now 

more than ever before, recognize the need for the 

prompt application of observational measurement 

capabilities available to the nation for working on 

these problems. Such programs also require the utilization of advanced computers to allow theoretical and 

experimental analyses and diagnoses to be carried out 

in prompt and effective ways. 

The Global Atmospheric Research Program- 

(GARP) is an international research effort to develop an understanding of the atmosphere and oceans 

in order to understand and to predict the transient 

behavior of weather and the statistical characteristics 

of climate. The program stems from resolutions of 

the United Nations and is vigorously supported by 

the nations of the world. An international Joint Organizing Committee sets overall scientific objectives 

and defines subprograms of observation and research. 

These are expanded and implemented within each 

participating country by groups in the scientific community and the government. In the United States, 

the US. Committee for GARP-((USC-GARP) and 

its panels are the principal mechanism for defining 

and expressing U.S. inputs to international planning and for assisting the government relative to U.S. 

participation in the program. 

The first major GARP field observational programs 

were executed during 1974. In the spring, the AirMass Transformation Experiment ( AMTEX) was 

conducted in the South China Sea to study air-sea 

interactions between the warm Kurochio current and 

cold Asian air masses. Although principally led by the 

Japanese, a number of U.S. groups contributed. In 

the summer of 1974, the GARP Atlantic Tropical 

Experiment was conducted off the coast of Africa. 

This field program, the largest such effort undertaken, 

was designed to study the interaction between various 

scales of dynamic weather stystems in the tropics with 

a view to realistically incorporating these processes 

in numerical models of the global atmosphere. Ships, 

aircraft, and over four thousand people from ten contributing nations took part in the program. Geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites were indispensible 

elements in both GATE and AMTEX, providing 

cloud imagery, wind estimates from cloud motions, 

sea-surface temperature measurements, and vertical 

atmospheric temperature profiles. These experiments 

were precursors to the First GARP Global Experiment now scheduled for 1978-79. This will be a 12- 

month period of intensive observation of the global 

atmosphere and oceans by surface-based systems, satellites, and special observing systems. Planning and 

preparation for U.S. participation in this program 

will be a major concern of the USC-GARP for the 

next several years. 

The Climatic Impact Committee-(CIC; NASNAE) is a multi-disciplinary group concerned with 

inadvertent climate modification that might result 

from those activities of man that affect the upper atmosphere and particularly the stratosphere. The Committee has been advisory to the Department of Transportation (DOT) and other federal agencies on research priorities in this area. It is now preparing a 

report to assess the state of knowledge developed by 

DOT’S Climatic Impact Assessment Program (CIAP) 

and related studies around the world on possible 

effects of stratospheric pollutants on the earth’s climate, and the biological, social, and economic ramifications. The scope of problems considered by the 

CIC include possible hemispheric changes in ultraviolet light at the earth’s surface due to ozone depletion from natural and man-made pollutants (e.g., 

volcanoes, aircraft, space shuttle, atmospheric nuclear 

testing, and chlorofluoromethanes used as aerosol propellants and in refrigeration systems) in the stratosphere and troposphere. Also considered are problems 

of possible climate changes in temperature and precipitation due to oxides of Nitrogen and particulates 

introduced into the stratosphere, corresponding bio- 
logical effects, and the economic and social costs of 

such changes. The study’s tasks include uncertainty 

analyses for various climatic and agricultural models 

and consideration of possible international regulatory 

constraints on high-altitude aircraft coupled with a 

geophysical and biological monitoring program to 

measure harmful effects. The conclusions of the 1974 

study will be published as an NAS-NAE report in 

early 1975. 

L;f e Sciences 

The Advisory Center on Toxicology-(NRC) 

serves as a central source of information and technical 

staff to enable the Committee on Toxicology to answer the specific questions of a toxicologic nature 

presented by its ten sponsoring agencies, one of which 

is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Committee is continuing its study of the 

potential environmental health effects associated with 

the use of a mercury ion engine in the Solar Electric 

Propulsion System. Attention is being focused on 

the consequences of a remotely possible on-pad or 

early-launch abort. The study should be completed 

around the first of the year and is intended for use 

in preparing the environmental impact statement. 

The Committee has recently undertaken an evaluation of the health hazards from fires involving various 

materials of construction (plastics) for aircraft, to 

serve as a basis for material selection. Following last 

year’s study of the health effects of ozone on flight 

crews of high altitude aircraft, the Committee is now 

directing its attention to the effects on the general 

public, including aircraft passengers, of short exposures to ozone. This report, to be completed in 

1974, will indicate the extent, if any, of public health 

hazards. The Director of the Center will discuss the 

health hazards of hydrazine type rocket fuels at the 

Annual Conference of NASA Clinical Directors, Environmental Health Officials, and Medical Program 

Advisors. 

The Committee on Vision-(NRC) has written 

reports on the following aerospace-related problems : 

visual elements in flight simulation, air-to-air visual 

detection, visual problems in head-;p and elementmounted displays, loss of distant vision in pilots, 

misleading visual information in night landings, 

visual evaluation of light-emitting diode displays, and 

visual problems in certification of pilots. In addition, 

a report is in progress on procedures for testing color 

vision. A symposium was held during the year on 

psychological aspects of eye movements. 

The Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics, and Biomechanics-(NRC) is working on the following 

aerospace-related problems : evaluation of environmental impact of noise, guidelines for pure-tone, airconduction, audiometric testing, longitudinal studies 

of hearing, development of a test for speech reception of aviators, principles for testing speech reception, retirement standards based on speech reception 

in noise, transportation noise, military problems in 

ear disease and hearing, criteria for hazardous exposures to impulse and continuous noise, permissible 

noise for vibration levels in aircraft cabins and cockpits, adoption of a single noise scale, airport noise 

survey instruments, and speech reception as affected 

by aging. The Committee has published the following aerospace-related report. Research Facilities in 

Audition within the Armed Forces. 

Space Applications 

The Space Applications Board-( NAE-NRC) 

provides advice and recommendations to the Federal 

Government on applications of space techniques and 

capabilities and stimulates collaboration among the 

pertinent components of the government and industry. The Board’s membership is extremely broad, encompassing natural and social sciences, public affairs 

and communications. During 1974, the Board continued to investigate institutional inhibitions to 

achieving widespread benefits from space applications. In addition, the Board interviewed a number 

of government and private organizations to gain an 

understanding of the implications of the phase-down 

of NASA’s activities in satellites communications 

research and development. 

During the summer of 1974, the Board conducted 

a two-week study of space applications. The study 

was organized around use-oriented panels whose assignments included reviewing progress in space applications and defining user needs capable of being 

met by the application of space systems. Potential 

users drawn from federal, state, and local governments and from business and industry were impanelled in the fields of weather and climate, uses 

of communications, land use, agricultural resources, water resources, extractable resources, environmental quality, maritime activities, and materials 

processing in space. The user panelists were unanimous in their conclusion that practical uses of space 

systems ofer significant potential benefits and that 

these benefits could be very large. A summary report 

and reports of the summer study panels are expected 

to be released by the NRC early in 1975. 

The Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for 

Earth Resource Surveys-(CORSPERS; NRC) is 

an advisory committee on the use of remote sensing 

from spacecraft and aircraft to survey earth resources 

and to monitor the environment. The Departments 

of Interior (USGS) , Commerce (NOAA) , Agriculture, Navy, and Army (Civil Works, US Army 

93 
Corps of Engineers), the Environmental Protection 

Agency, the Agency for International Development, 

and the National Science Foundation are sponsors 

for the Committee. CORSPERS has completed an 

18-month study of the results obtained by the Earth 

Resources Technology Satellites, ERTS-1. The Committee was impressed by the significant resource and 

environmental information that the investigators were 

able to extract from the ERTS data. This was in 

spite of the fact that the ERTS sensors and the 

data handling facilities now in use are not representative of what could be done with current technology. The Committee concluded that the technology used in the ERTS program is readily extendable to optimized operational systems that can satisfy 

major data requirements of many difierent categories 

of resource managers and environmental monitors. 

During the course of this review it became evident 

to the Committee that the operational user community was quite often reluctant to commit itself 

to using the ERTS data. There were two basic reasons for this. First, there is no assurance that the 

program will be continued beyond the technology 

demonstration phase. Any major investment in personnel training, specialized equipment, decision 

model changes, etc., needed to shift to the use of 

space imagery must be viewed as speculative until 

there is assurance of continuity of data. The second 

reason is that the strength of repetitive synoptic space 

imagery, with selective spectral range and resolution 

but with relatively low spatial resolution, does not 

readily fit into the information process and decision 

models currently used by many operational managers. 

A joint effort by the user community and remote sensing technologists is needed to bridge this gap. The 

Committee endorses the recent efforts by the user 

agencies and NASA to initiate joint quasi-operational 

or demonstration projects. 

The Committee on Radio Frequencies-(CORF; 

NRC) and its Subcommittees on Space Science, 

Radio Astronomy, and Earth and Life Sciences, coordinate the views of the U.S. scientific and engineering communities regarding the radio frequencies 

needed for research. CORF worked closely with 

Study Group 2 of the U.S. National Committee for 

the International Radio Consultative Committee 

(CCIR) in preparing documents on space research 

and radio astronomy for the CCIR Study Group 2 

meeting held in Geneva in March 1974. 

Upon CORF’s recommendations, tests were conducted by several radio astronomy observatories to 

study the interference to the observatories by transmissions from ATS-6 and determine what measures 

can be taken to protect radio astronomy from broadcast satellites. CORF and its subcommittees are reviewing the international radio regulations and are 

preparing recommendations on allocations of frequencies for space research and radio astronomy for 

submission to the Federal Communication Cornmission for use in preparing the U.S. position for the 

1979 World Administrative Radio Conference. 

The Panel on the Geochemical Environment in 

Relation to Health and Disease-is aware of a possible usefulness of remote sensing technology in studying trace elements distribution in plants and as a 

consequence in man’s food chain. The ERTS program is making it possible for hydrologists around 

the world to realize the usefulness of remote sensing 

imagery and provide new insights into how it can 

be used in water resources studies. Remote sensing 

information continues to be useful for geodetic work 

and offers possible techniques that will be useful in 

earthquake hazard studies. 

Aerospace Engi.neering 

The Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board- 

(ASEB; NAE) in 1974 concentrated its efforts on 

NASA’s proposed aeronautical research and development programs and systems. An ASEB ad hoc Committee on Alternative Aircraft Fuels was established 

to consider possible alternatives to current jet fuels 

now in common use by commercial and military aircraft. A great amount of effort has been expended 

also in the Board’s consideration of V/STOL technology, advanced transport technology, and the longrange practicability of hydrogen as a future fuel for 

aircraft. In space engineering, Board efforts have 

been focused on NASA’s progress in engineering and 

management of the space shuttle program. An ad 

hoc committee was established to review one of the 

important planetary programs under way in NASA 

in an effort to determine how cost effectiveness in 

this and similar programs could be improved. 

To ensure optimum utilization of funds allocated 

by Congress to the nation’s space research, engineering, and applications activities, the Chairman and 

staff of the ASEB expend continuing effort to coordinate activities with the NRC’s Space Science 

and Space Applications Boards. As an example of 

this cooperation, the Chairman of the ASEB served 

as Deputy Director of Systems Implications during 

the Space Applications Board’s two-week Summer 

Study of Space Applications (see above). The Board 

will continue its emphasis on research and development activities critical to the achievement of national aeronautical and space engineering programs 

oriented well into the future. 

The National Materials Advisory Board- 

(NMAB; NRC) is concerned with the advancement 

of materials science and engineering in the national 

94 
interest. The scope of the activity covers the entire 

life-cycle from raw material through finished product 

and the recycle of the spent product into the processing system. A significant portion of the Board’s activities pertains to aerospace materials. The NMAB 

completed several studies in 1974 which address specific problems in aerospace materials technology and 

propose potential solutions. In February a two-day 

workshop was conducted on Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) of Composites. The objective was to 

identify technology gaps, problems, and opportunities 

in the NDE of composites. The problems associated 

with inspecting advanced composites were placed in 

perspective by the invited presentations. In the proceedings of the workshop (NMAB-3 16) the committee made four principal recommendations concerning flaw detection, measurement of strength, 

standardization, and further research. 

The report of the ad hoc Committee on Materials for Radiation Detection (NMAB-287) surveyed the available information on detectors for the 

electromagnetic radiation spectrum in four wavelength groups: x and gamma rays; ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared ; infrared radiation from 2 

to 200 micrometers; and far-infrared and millimeter 

wavelength radiation. Recommendations included the 

need for fundamental studies and further research 

on selected materials for specific applications. Another NMAB ad hoc committee completed its study 

of metal matrix composites (NMAB-313). The objective was to review all aspects in the design and 

production of advanced composite parts with the 

view of making them cost-competitive so that the 

full advantage of their superior performance can 

be realized. 

NMAB has a long-term study to address multiagency interests in the fire safety aspects of polymeric 

materials. The first volume of the committee’s report 

(NMAB-318) was published this year. It addresses 

the fire safety aspects of polymeric materials in the 

furnishings of aircraft (civil and military) . Late in 

the year, the ad hoc Committee on Structural Adhesives for Aerospace Use completed its report 

(NMAB-300) in which consideration was given to 

the state of the art and future needs in the synthesis 

and formulation of adhesives. Recommendations included the need for an improved data base, the extension of research in the application of fracture 

mechanics, development of nondestructive test methods, and better techniques for design and analysis 

of adhesive-bonded joints. 

Education 

The Commission on Human Resources-(NRC), 

formerly the Office of Scientific Personnel, administers on behalf of NASA the NRC-NASA Resident 

Research Associateship program of postdoctoral and 

senior postdoctoral awards. In this program, 

awardees conduct scientific or engineering research 

in NASA laboratories as visiting investigators. The 

activity of the postdoctoral Associates contributes to 

the research effort of the NASA Centers. Publication of the results of the Associates’ research is encouraged, and thus research results from NASA are 

made available to the general scientific and technical communities of the United States. On August 

31, 1974, there were 179 Associates on tenure. 

575-666 0 - 15 - 8 95 
Office of Telecommunications 

Policy 

X 

Introduction 

The Office of Telecommunications Policy (OTP) 

is an independent agency within the Executive Office 

of the President. As establised by Reorganization 

Plan No. 1 of 1970 and further specified by Executive Order 11556, OTP has three major functions: 

(1) to serve as the President’s principal adviser on 

communications policy; (2) to establish policies and 

provide coordination for the Federal Government’s 

communication systems; and (3) to serve as spokesman for the Executive Branch on communication 

matters, enabling the President to act as a more 

effective partner in discussions of communications 

policy with the Congress, the Federal Communication Commission and the public at large. In furtherance of its charter, OTP develops plans, policies, and programs with respect to communications 

that are designed to promote the public interest, support national security, contribute to the economy 

and world trade, promote the interests of the 

United States in its relations with foreign nations, 

and foster effective and innovative communication 

technology. 

During 1974, OTP was active with a range of 

communication matters involving the application of 

space technology. International discussion on mobile satellite communication services continued to 

focus on aeronautical and maritime programs. In 

accord with OTP policy guidance, a Memorandum 

of Understanding was signed by the US. Federal 

Aviation Administration, the European Space Research organization (ESRO) and the Government 

of Canada for an experimental aeronautical satellite system to serve international civil aviation 

flights over the Atlantic. 

Talks continued during the year, primarily within 

the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) Panel of Experts, regarding the 

need for establishing an international maritime satellite service designed to improve communication to 

ships at sea. The Office also forwarded to Congress 

proposed amendments to the Communications Satellite Act of 1962 to reflect changes that have occured since the time the original legislation was 

enacted into law. 

The potential future use of communication satellites to broadcast television transmissions directly 

to home receivers is a subject which has continued 

to generate debate within the United Nations. At 

the Fifth Session of the U.N. Working Group on 

Direct Broadcast Satellites held in Geneva in March 

of 1974, the United States tabled draft principles 

on direct broadcast satellites in the interest of identifying and building on areas of common agreement. 

Although some progress was made in this regard, 

there nevertheless continues to be wide differences 

of opinion on the principles which should govern 

the use of direct broadcast satellites. 

An integral6 part of OTP‘s mandate is the 

continuing review of the space telecommunications demands for use of the radio spectrum which 

is a limited natural resource. This goal is accomplished through the frequency management program 

within the office. During 1974, the Office participated in the World Maritime Administrative Radio 

Conference of the International Telecommunication 

Union held in Geneva. OTP, along with the Federal 

Communications Commission and the Department 

of State, is involved with the preparation of the 

US. position for the 1977 Broadcast Satellite Conference of the International Telecommunication 

Union for the use of the frequency band 11.7- 

12.2GHz. Also during the year, the Office, continued 

to monitor development on the question of insurance 

coverage for the launch of communications satellites. 

Aeronautical Satellite Experiment 

Policy guidelines were issued by OTP in early 

1971 for the development of a national program 

on satellite communications for international civil 

aviation operations. Operating within the OTP policy framework, extensive negotiation with foreign 

authorities have been carried out by the Department 

of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration 

(DOT/FAA) and the Department of State. After 

three years of negotiation, a Memorandum of Under97 
standing was signed in 1974 by the DOT/FAA and 

Canada concerning a joint program to test the use of 

satellites for improving air traffic control. The experimental AEROSAT program will explore ways of 

using satellite capabilities to improve the cost effectiveness of oceanic en route services, including the 

possibility of combining or reducing air traffic control facilities The planned experimental system will 

consist of two geosynchronous satellites over the Atlantic Ocean and two ground stations in Europe and 

North America. Each satellite will contain five L 

Band communication channels, and two VHF channels. The space segment will be jointly owned by 

ESRO and Comsat (the US. private sector participant) each owning 47 percent, and Canada owning 

6 percent. Consistent with U.S. policy guidelines, 

the space segment will not be government owned 

and the FAA as a systems user will lease circuits 

from COMSAT, a private commercial carrier. The 

first satellite is scheduled for launching in the 

1977-78 time period and the second will follow at 

a later date. 

Maritime Mobile Satellite Service 

The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative 

Organization (IMCO) continues to be the principal 

international forum for discussions concerning the 

provision of international satellite telecommunications to merchant ships at sea. The Panel of Experts of IMCO met again in London in September 

1974 to review the economic, technical, and institutional issues that the creation of such a system 

raises. The U.S. continues to analyze user requirements in relation to the establishment of maritime 

satellite telecommunications services while at the 

same time reserving judgment on the institutional 

means of providing such service. A world conference 

initiated by IMCO is scheduled for April 1975 to 

consider the desirability of creating a new international organizational structure to provide maritime 

satellite services. OTP is coordinating the development of the U.S. Government’s position for this conference and, in concert with other interested parties, 

is formulating the Administration’s maritime communications satellite policy. 

As a related matter, the development of a mantime satellite system (MARISAT), designed to meet 

the needs of the U.S. Navy between 1974-76, continues to be an area of policy review by OTP. The 

MARISAT program which has a five year design 

lifetime, will also provide limited commercial services for maritime users during the initial years of 

use. Later when Navy use is terminated, the entire 

satellite will be capable of providing commercial 

maritime service. 

Proposed Amendment to Communications 

Satellite Act of 1962 

OTP submitted legislation to Congress that would 

amend the Communications Satellite Act of 1962. 

The 1962 Act called for the creation of a commercial 

communications satellite system as part of an improved global communication network, and it created the Communications Satellite Corporation 

(COMSAT) as the chosen instrument of the United 

States for accomplishing the purposes of the Act. 

The amendments are designed to update the Act 

to reflect current conditions in international communications but do not change the basic policy 

premises underlying the original legislation. In 1962 

there were a number of technical and operational 

uncertainties regarding the creation of COMSAT 

to serve as the chosen instrument of the United 

States in a global system. These uncertainties gave 

rise to the inclusion of several provisions in the Act 

relating to COMSAT’s ownership and the conduct 

of its affairs, provisions not normally associated with 

a private communications common carrier enterprise. 

With the successful establishment of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization’s 

(INTELSAT) global communications satellite system and the emergence of COMSAT as an established and mature corporation, it is appropriate to 

remove a number of these special provisions. Such 

changes would : 

( 1 ) Eliminate the requirement that COMSAT 

(2) Repeal the provision calling for Presidentially 

(3) Eliminate the special class of common car- 

(4) Reduce permissible common carrier share- 

(5) Permit COMSAT to issue par value stock. 

(6) Repeal the requirement for COMSAT to 

obtain FCC approval prior to obtaining additional 

capital. 

In addition, the possible emergence of specialized 

international satellite systems that would be separate 

from the INTELSAT system is also recognized. One 

amendment would make explicit that COMSAT 

could participate in such new international systems, 

on a non-exclusive basis, thus legislatively affirming 

an FCC rule-making decision to the same effect in 

the context of domestic satellite systems. Another 

amendment clarifies the Executive Branch role in 

the planing, implementation, and operation of new 

international satellite systems that are developed 

pursuant to international agreement in which the 

United States is a party. 

incorporate in the District of Columbia. 

appointed and common carrier elected directors. 

rier stock. 

holdings to five percent. 

98 
Direct Broadcast Satellites 

The possibility of the use of telecommunications 

satellites for broadcast of television programs directly 

into home receivers continues to generate interest, 

particularly in the United Nations. The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space and its two subcommittees have been studying this question for a number of years. 

Although there are international legal instruments 

which impact on the question of direct broadcast 

satellites already, for example, the United Nations 

Charter, the Outer Space Treaty, applicable provisions of the International Telecommunications Convention and Regulations, certain relevant principles 

expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human 

Rights and Resolutions of the General Assembly, 

the desirability of a particular convention to govern 

this type of direct broadcast has been expressed. 

The United Nations General Assembly has called 

for the elaboration of principles to govern states 

using satellites for direct television broadcasting. 

Among the many problems involved in creating 

such an agreement, the most crucial one is related 

to the principle of freedom of information. Two 

opposing views emerged in the debates on this issue. 

One view, shared by the United States, stresses the 

concept of the free flow of information; the other 

view stresses the concept of prior consent, that is, 

the notion that no state should be allowed to engage 

in such broadcasting without the prior approval of 

the state which may be the intentional or unintentional recipient. The United States voted against the 

resolution calling for creation of a Convention to 

govern states using satellites for direct television 

broadcasting, and is fundamentally opposed to any 

legal regime inhibiting the free flow of information. 

The United States, however, has been receptive 

to discussing general principles that could appropriately apply to the use of direct broadcast satellites. The United States tabled a set of voluntary 

principles in March 1974 at the fifth session of the 

U.N. working group on Direct Broadcast Satellites 

in Geneva. While some support for US. views was 

evidenced, there nevertheless continues to be wide 

differences of opinion over the formulation and application of appropriate principles to govern the use 

of this technology. These differences continued to 

be apparent when the Legal Subcommittee failed to 

achieve agreement on principles at a subsequent 

meeting in May 1974. Debate continues on this issue, 

and the matter is unresolved. 

OTP participated in the deliberations of both the 

U.N. working group of Direct Broadcast Satellites 

and the Legal Subcommittee, and will continue to 

work with other interested US. agencies in formulating and presenting US. policy views on this issue. 

Frequency Management 

The radio spectrum consists of that portion of the 

electro-magnetic spectrum by which radio communications are conducted. This resource, shared by all 

countries of the world, requires coordination, not 

only on a national basis but also on an international 

basis to ensure mutual compatibility of radio frequency usage. 

National spectrum planning, known as frequency 

management, is carried out by the staffs of the 

OTP and the Federal Communications Commission 

(FCC) with assistance from the Interdepartment 

Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC) , the latter being 

made up of representatives of major Federal Government departments and agencies using radio. International spectrum planning is done under the 

auspices of the International Telecommunication 

Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United 

Nations located in Geneva, Switzerland, and composed of 148 member Administrations. 

Satellite systems are dependent upon access to 

radio frequencies for their successful operation. 

Spectrum management procedures referred to in the 

paragraph above have been refined to accommodate 

the unique requirements of satellite and space services. The system review procedure established over 

a year ago is proving itself as the number of satellite 

systems increase, each competing for spectrum in 

which to operate. Considerable experience has now 

been gained with this review procedure whereby each 

new proposed satellite system is studied to ensure 

the availability of spectrum prior to the expenditure 

of funds for development and procurement. This 

same review procedure is used to assess the conipatibility of satellite systems proposed by other countries with those of the U.S.A. 

Under OTP guidance, the IRAC, including a 

liaison representative of the FCC, completed the 

development of US. proposals for the ITU World 

Maritime Administrative Radio Conference that was 

held in Geneva, Switzerland, from April 22 to June 

9, 1974. Also proposed were position papers for 

use by the US. Delegation to that Conference in 

considering the proposals of other countries. The 

Final Acts of the Conference included several additions to the International Radio Regulations to 

permit the orderly introduction of maritime satellite 

communications. 

Satellite Launch Insurance 

The financial costs associated with the launch of 

communication satellites is a significant factor in the 

development of operational systems. Experience has 

shown that the possibility of launch failure poses 

considerable business risks to private communications 
companies interested in deploying commercial systems. In 1974, OTP surveyed both prospective system operators and the insurance industry to determine whether the availability of commercial insurance against launch failure is a significant barrier 

to entry by potential suppliers of service. Limited 

experience to date indicates that insurance coverage, 

at reasonable rates, is commercially available from 

the private sector. Recent experience has been exceptionally encouraging, with insurance coverage being initiated in 1974 for the first launch of a multilaunch program. Consequently, it appears that alternative arrangements for providing suitable insurance 

coverage will not be necessary. 

100 
XI Federal Communications Commission 

Introduction 

The objective to provide the new and expanded 

telecommunications services offered by the global 

satellite system to all countries and areas of ,the world 

is continually being furthered with the increase of 

membership in INTELSAT. An addition of three 

countries in 1974 has brought the total membership 

of this international organization to 86. Three of 

the five domestic satellite systems authorized by the 

Commission under the domestic satellite policies 

adopted during 1972 were placed into commercial 

operation during 1974. Arrangements were made to 

establish an experimental satellite system in the 

North Atlantic Area for the provision of an aeronautical mobile satellite service. The first of three 

maritime satellites ordered in 1973 is scheduled for 

a late 1974 delivery for launch early in 1975. 

Communications Satellites 

INTELSAT. 

The INTELSAT system presently consists 

of three INTELSAT IV satellites (two operational and one spare) in the Atlantic Ocean Region, 

two INTELSAT IV satellites (one operational and 

one spare) in the Pacific Ocean Region and one INTELSAT IV satellite in the Indian Ocean Region. A 

spare INTELSAT IV satellite in both the Pacific and 

Indian Ocean Regions is scheduled to be launched in 

early 1975. The “Follow-on” program to the IV series 

is planned for use in the Atlantic Ocean Region and 

is scheduled for operation in 1975. 

The worldwide network of earth stations has 

grown to 94 antennas at 74 station sites in 55 countries. Additional stations are planned for completion by end-1974 for a total of 108 antennas at 86 

station sites in 62 countries. Additional earth station antennas were authorized in 1973 and are under 

construction at two earth station sites (Etam, West 

Virginia and Andover, Maine) on the east coast of 

the United States. The continued construction of 

earth station facilities around the world indicate the 

growing reliance on satellites for international communications. 

Domestic Satellites 

The interim domestic satellite system of RCA 

Global Communications, Inc. and RCA Alaska Communications, Inc., using Telesat Canada Anik satellites on a temporary basis until RCA’s domestic 

satellites are placed in orbit during 1975, was placed 

into service in late December 1973. By the end of 

1974, the RCA companies plan to have six earth 

stations operational in Alaska and three earth stations operational in the lower 48 states. Additionally, 

in a comprehensive Alaska service plan filed this 

year, RCA Alaska Communications indicates its intention to construct a total of 38 major (10-meter) 

and 38 minor (5-meter) earth stations by 1980 to 

provide message telephone service and television 

service to 284 communities in Alaska with populations greater than 25 persons. 

The first United States domestic satellite, the 

Westar I of the Western Union Telegraph Company, 

was successfully launched into the geostationary 

satellite orbit on April 13, 1974 2nd commercial 

service using this satellite was begun by Western 

Union on July 26, 1974. The second Western Union 

satellite, Westar 11, was launched October 10, 1974. 

Five earth stations, with nominal 50-foot diameter 

antennas, are now in operation serving the New 

York, Texas, California, Chicago and Atlanta areas. 

The third domestic satellite system placed into 

commercial operation during this year was the American Satellite Corporation’s system using the Western 

Union’s Westar satellite. Commercial service was 

begun in early August 1974, between earth stations 

in California, New York and Texas, with another 

earth station in the Chicago area planned to be 

placed into service later in the year. In addition, 

another five earth stations will be in operation by 

the end of 1974 to provide digital, high-speed channel service to the Defense Communications Agency. 

The American Telephone & Telegraph Company 

(AT&T) domestic satellite system authorized in 

101 
1973 using satellites owned by Comsat General Corporation is under construction and should be placed 

into service by late 1975 or 1976. In addition, a 

proposal filed in 1974 by GTE Satellite Corporation 

to use these satellites together with AT&T instead 

of the system using satellites authorized in 1973 to 

National Satellite Services (a subsidiary of Hughes 

Aircraft Company) was set for hearing. 

Although no new domestic satellite systems were 

proposed to the Commission during 1974, a proposal 

for a major restructuring of the CML Satellite Corporation, who has domestic satellite applications 

pending before the Commission, was received. The 

proposal, if approved by the Commission, would 

result in an ownership of CML by Comsat General of 45% and by IBM of 55%. 

Another major issue before the Commission is the 

use of small earth terminals, i.e., earth stations with 

antennas of diameters less than about 10 meters, and 

the impact on orbit utilization. Proposals with regard to two specific types of applications of such 

terminals, on offshore drilling platforms in the Gulf 

of Mexico and in small communities in Alaska, were 

pending before the Commission at the end of 1974. 

Studies on orbit spacing requirements for the presently authorized domestic satellite systems should be 

completed during the first half of 1975, with definite 

orbital location assignments made soon thereafter. 

Specialized Satellite Services 

Maritime Mobile Satellite Service 

The Commission is continuing to work both nationally and internationally to further the development of a maritime mobile satellite service. Such a 

service will significantly improve maritime communications in terms of accuracy, reliability, speed and 

variety of transmission modes, which will, in turn, 

enhance maritime safety and management. 

Internationally, the Intergovernmental Maritime 

Consultative Organization (IMCO) , through the 

Panel of Experts on Maritime Satellites, completed 

its final meeting in September 1974, looking toward 

the establishment of an international maritime mobile satellite service. Operational requirements have 

been stated and initial economical, technical and 

financial studies have been completed. An initial 

meeting of the governments is planned early in 1975 

to consider the report of the Panel of Experts. In 

preparation for this meeting, the Commission instituted in December 1974 an inquiry to help formulate 

the U.S. position on the establishment of an international maritime satellite system. 

In April 1973, the Commission issued waivers allowing the construction of three satellites that will be 

part of a five-year system intended to provide service 

to the Navy as well as to maritime users beginning in 

early 1975. One satellite is planned for deployment 

over the Atlantic and another over the Pacific with 

the third held as a spare on the ground. In August, 

the Commission authorized a consortium of four carriers to participate in this Navy/Maritime system. 

The Navy communications services will be provided in the UHF band on a lease basis for a period 

of years beginning in 1975. The satellite capacity 

used by the Navy will be under its control and will 

be used to provide fleet communications. The satellite design is such that during the period of the Navy 

service, most of the satellite power will be required 

to meet the Navy service requirements; only limited 

power will be available for commercial maritime use. 

When the Navy service is completed, however, the 

entire satellite power can be utilized to provide commercial maritime service. 

Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service 

In the fall of 1974, a memorandum of understanding was signed by the Department of Transportation/Federal Aviation Administration, the 

European Space Research Organization (ESRO) , and the Canadian Government on the basic arrangements for the establishment of an experimental satel. 

lite system in the North Atlantic Area. Comsat 

General Corporation has been chosen as the US. 

partner in the joint system which is expected to be 

operational in early 1978. 

The objectives of the program are to gain experience and to evaluate and experiment with the use of 

satellite capacity in providing voice and data communications between aircraft and land stations. 

The system will use frequencies at C-band for 

comm.unications between ground stations and satellites. Between satellite and aircraft, it is anticipated 

that this initial system will provide limited VHF 

capability (the frequencies now used by aircraft over 

land) in addition to an L-band capability. 

International Telecommunications Union 

During 1974, Commission personnel served as 

members of the U.S. Delegation to the World Administrative Radio Conference on Maritime matters 

convened in Geneva, Switzerland. That Conference 

continued to provide the necessary guidance and 

planning, building on that which was already in 

progresss for an international maritime mobile satellite service along many of the lines proposed by the 

United States. 

The Administrative Council of the International 

Telecommunication Union, which met during the 

summer of 1974, agreed to the convening of a General World Administrative Radio Conference be- 
tween 1979 and 1980. This major conference will 

deal with overall revisions to the current international Radio Regulations governing all radio services, 

including the aeronautical and space services. 

The last such conference was held in Geneva in 

1959, lasting over four months. ITU World Administrative Radio Conferences held since that date have 

been limited to considerations involving only one 

radio service. 

Because of the wide scope of the forthcoming 

General Radio Conference, the very extensive preparatory work required is already under way, taking 

into account the frequency requirements of all radio 

services and the many other international technical 

and operating regulations which will be involved. 

The Commission expects to initiate a proceeding to 

obtain public comments on the various US. proposals as they are developed. 

Preparatory work was initiated for the 1977 Broadcasting World Administrative Radio Conference 

scheduled to plan for the use of the frequency band 

11.7-12.2 GHz now allocated for use by terrestrial 

radio services and direct satellite broadcasting. 

Frequency Allocation and Coordination 

The Federal Communications Commission, 

through an informal working group of technical personnel from government and industry, sponsored the 

development of computer programs for calculating 

the coordination areas, and for determining the likelihood of precipitation scatter interference between 

proposed earth stations for satellites and conventional 

microwave terrestrial stations using the same frequencies. Employment of these computer programs 

will enhance the ability to share the crowded radio 

frequency spectrum between space and terrestrial 

radio services. 

In response to the radio astronomy community’s 

concern of possible harmful interference from adjacent band space-operations, a new US. footnote to 

the Table of Frequency Allocations has been proposed in a Notice of Proposed Rule Making released 

August 30, 1974. The new footnote would urge the 

radio astronomy community and planners to minimize potential interference to the radio astronomy 

operations. 

103 
XII 

Introduction 

The Smithsonian Institution continued its unique 

support of national aeronautics and space goals 

through basic research in diverse fields of modern 

astronomy combined with far-reaching programs of 

education and information designed to heighten public awareness and understanding of the role of space 

science and exploration in the advancement and 

betterment of human life. 

During the past year, Smithsonian observing stations gathered astrophysical and geophysical data 

to describe the Earth as a planet and to define the 

space environment in which it exists. Laboratory 

analyses of extraterrestrial materials continued in 

the search for clues to the origin of the Earth and 

the evolution of the solar system. Experiments aboard 

satellites, balloons, and rockets observed celestial 

sources unattainable from the ground in an attempt 

to understand the basic physical processes underlying the generation of energy and the creation of 

matter, including life itself. 

The complex story of life’s emergence on Earth 

and the search for its possible existence elsewhere in 

the universe was presented in a new museum exhibit 

prepared for general audiences. 

The Srnithsonian Institution 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

(SAO), in cooperation with the Harvard College 

Observatory, continued to pursue a broad program 

of investigations designed to increase man’s understanding of the universe. Specifically, this program 

included participation in international studies of 

earth dynamics, the analyses of extraterrestrial materials, and active participation in space flight 

missions. 

Geoastronomy. 

Smithsonian’s research in Earth dynamics is an 

integral part of NASA’s Earth and Ocean Physics 

Applications Program (EOPAP) , and has as its primary objective the definition of an operational 

earthquake Hazard Assessment and Alleviation 

(EHA) model and system by 1983. Necessarily, a 

basic goal of this program is to create the vast data 

base required to define the kinematics, bulk dynamics, and mass distribution of the Earth. 

Observational data is provided by laser ranging on 

satellites, as well as from photographic and visual 

observations of satellite motion, and other precision 

tracking techniques. SAO’s own globaI network of 

satellite tracking stations supports the geophysical 

investigations and analyses, as well as related research on the physics of the upper atmosphere. For 

example, detailed studies of satellite motion are used 

to investigate the density and temperature of the 

upper atmosphere, leading to an improvement in 

mathematical models for predicting atmospheric conditions based on solar and geomagnetic parameters 

observed on the ground. 

Mapping of major structures of the African rift 

system based on ERTS-1 imagery is essentially completed. Features such as faults, lineaments, volcanic 

craters, and lithological boundaries for an area including Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen are shown on 

a composition map of 1 :5 million scale. The studies 

have revealed both unsuspected crustal features and 

new geological activity that may provide clues to the 

region’s formation. 

Extraterrestrial Materials 

Various investigations continued on lunar rock 

and soil samples returned from Apollo and Luna 

sites. Techniques employed included optical microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and isotopic measurements. 

One important goal was the detection and identification of the composition and textural relationships of the minerals and glasses of lunar crustal 

rocks as an aid to eventual deductions about the 

original and subsequent history of these materials. 

To this same end, a special investigation of an 

Apollo 17 breccia boulder is being carried out by 

a large consortium of scientists led by a Smithsonian 

geologist. A second aim of the consortium is to learn 

more about the large-scale processes involved in the 

1 05 
generation of these breccias (rocks consisting of 

sharp fragments embedded in a fine-grained matrix). 

Similar investigations were begun on 46 selected 

particles from the Allende Meteorite, recovered from 

northern Mexico, in an attempt to understand better the distribution of elements in the early solar 

system. 

During the early months of the past year, SA0 

served as a major clearinghouse for information related to the international program to observe and 

study Comet Kohoutek. Ground-based radio observations conducted by a Smithsonian-Harvard team 

detected the presence of organic molecules in the 

tail of this comet. 

Space Flight Experiments 

In February, a balloon-borne 40-inch lens diameter 

telescope constructed by SA0 in collaboration with 

Harvard College Observatory and the University of 

Arizona was successfully flown from Palestine, Texas. 

It was carried to an altitude of 90,000 feet, where, 

by remote command, it mapped the intensity of farinfrared radiation of selected regions of the Milky 

Way, including NGC 7538, Mars, Orion A, and 

W3. The observations represent the highest resolution (0.5 arcmin) ever obtained at these wavelengths. 

Smithsonian scientists were involved in observations from the Harvard-designed Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer on Skylab to study physical conditions in the solar chromosphere and corona. Analysis 

of the resultant data has led to the discovery of 

coronal holes as well as contributing to a better 

understanding of sunspots, prominences, flares and 

the Sun’s basic energy-generation processes. 

Solar studies also continued with the analysis of 

far-ultraviolet spectrum data obtained by a series of 

rocket-borne Ebert spectrometers. The fifth successful flight in May 1974, aboard an Aerobee 200 

rocket, yielded very high spectral resolution at the 

center of the disk and near the solar limb. 

High-Energy Astrophysics 

The field of x-ray astronomy continues its rapid 

development as one of the most promising areas for 

potential understanding of basic physical processes. 

SA0 programs in this field represent major contributions to understanding the extraordinary cosmic 

sources of energy that appear to be greater than 

nuclear. Analysis of data obtained by the UHURU 

satellite continued in an effort to complete an indepth survey of the x-ray sky. Studies of the time 

variation, size, and spectrum of x-ray sources, as 

well as their luminosity and spatial distributions and 

correlation with other astrophysical phenomena, led 

to the detection of Circinus X-1, a second possible 

“black hole” (a collapsed star of such overpowering 

density that its gravity field will not allow light to 

escape). 

SA0 prepared the United States experiment 

aboard the Astronomy Netherlands Satellite 

launched August 30, 1974, to measure energy spectra of the stronger x-ray sources, to detect the silicon 

line emission, to observe the time variability of 

stronger sources, to improve the position measurements of selected intermediate strength sources, to 

observe the surface brightness of extended sources, 

and to observe x-ray sources simultaneously with 

ground-based radio and optical instruments. 

SA0 experiments now being prepared for the 

NASA HEAO-A and B missions, are designed as the 

first precision x-ray observatories in space. The first 

experiment will locate x-ray sources to a precision 

of 5 arsec as an aid in their identification with optical and radio sources. The experiment will also 

measure the size and spatial structure of the sources 

in three x-ray energy bands. 

The second experiment (HEAO-B, scheduled for 

launch in June 1978) will produce high-resolution 

spatial, spectral, and temporal observations of galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources, as well as of 

the diffuse x-ray background. That experiment will 

be a collaborative effort among five research institutions including SAO. 

Smithsonian is also conducting x-ray studies from 

rockets. One experiment has observed the structure 

of the Vela-Puppis region in x-rays, another observed the Perseus Cluster and determined the location of a high-galactic-latitude source so far unidentified. 

A second rocket experiment carrying a high-resolution x-ray telescope with an x-ray image intensifier 

will be flown in mid-1975 to observe the x-ray source 

Cas A, a supernova remnant. 

National Museum of Natural History 

Research on extraterrestrial materials, particularly 

the relationship between recovered meteorites and 

returned lunar soil samples, continued in the Museum’s Department of Mineral Sciences. Analysis of 

lunar material concentrated on Apollo 17 samples, 

while meteoritical research concerned the analysis and 

description of several recently fallen objects. 

Center for Short-Lived Phenomena 

The Smithsonian Center for Short-Lived Phenomena receives and rapidly disseminates news of 

transient geophysical, biological, and astrophysical 

events of major scientific importance. The Center 

106 
is a facility of the Office of International and Environmental Programs. 

The Center’s participation in astrophysical and 

space activities in 1974 included the reporting of 

six fireballs observed in Austria, Germany, Ireland, 

Minnesota, Ohio, and Wales; and three meteorite 

falls in Connecticut, Iran, and the U.S.S.R. The 

Center assisted in efforts to recover the meteoritical 

material and to distribute samples to the scientific 

community. 

During the flight of SKYLAB 4, the Center coordinated a “Short-Lived Event Alert Program’’ by 

which the orbiting astronauts were notified of major, 

on-going, natural earth events with potential visibility from the spacecraft. Among the events reported 

by the program were volcanic eruptions, insect irruptions, oil spills, earthquakes, and forest fires. 

National Air and Space Museum 

In addition to serving as both the repository and 

display center for this country’s artifacts on space exploration, the National Air and Space Museum 

(NASM) supports programs of active research 

through its Center for Earth and Planetary Studies. 

A major part of the Center’s research this year 

concerned Earth-oriented studies in support of the 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) . The Center 

will coordinate the visual and photographic observations from space designed to yield basic information 

in the fields of geology (mineral resources), oceanography, hydrology (including deserts and drought 

areas), and meteoroIogy. Activities included planning and execution of a training program for the 

American astronauts, establishment of observational 

requirements, and selection of potential sites for observation and photography based on a review of all 

available data from the Skylab and the ERTS programs. 

Lunar research focused on the geological mapping 

of the Moon using Apollo photographs. In cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, a geological 

map of the east side of the Moon was completed 

and mapping was begun of ridges and arches in the 

Angstrom region, sinuous rilles in the Prinz region, 

and unique multi-ringed craters in Mare Smythii. 

An atlas of Apollo photography, to be published in 

cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey and 

NASA, is in preparation. 

In a related project, global stratigraphic units of 

the Moon were correlated with results of the orbital 

geochemical sensors and geophysical experiments, including the Lunar Sounder. 

Center personnel participated in a joint US-USSR 

meeting in Moscow to study possible cooperation between NASA and the USSR Academy of Sciences 

in lunar cartography. Subsequent to this meeting, 

materials were prepared for the exchange of technical opinions regarding: 

a) the basic principles for compiling lunar maps; 

b) establishment of a unified selenodetic control 

system; and c) a joint production of a map of the 

Moon at 1 : 5,000,000 scale. 

In cooperation with the International Astronomical Union, a revision of the lunar nomenclature 

system was undertaken. Names were assigned to 

craters and other lunar features on lunar maps at 

1 : 250,000 and larger scales that serve as a base for 

geological studies of the Moon. 

Construction on the new Air and Space Museum 

facility proceeded on schedule. In preparation for its 

opening July 4, 1976, a new exhibit entitled “Life 

in the Universe”, describing the origin of life on 

this planet and the search for its existence elsewhere 

in the universe, was completed. Among other diverse 

education and information activities, the Director of 

the Earth and Planetary Center conducted a lecture 

tour of five Arab nations in cooperation with the 

USIA. 

1 07 
Introduction 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is 

involved in an extensive program to identify critical 

monitoring requirements and the aerospace technology which can fulfill these requests. A comprehensive series of plans and programs have been undertaken in 1974 which will cause proven technology 

to be focused on the problems at hand and provide 

environmental decision makers with data and information which represents the practical state-of-theart in overhead remote sensing monitoring systems. 

The goals and requirements of the EPA program 

to provide Regions, States and local agencies with a 

comprehensive monitoring program are : 

Goals- 

. Provision of information and records for definition and establishment of an environmental quality 

data base; 

0 Provision of data to support enforcement standards; 

Fulfillment of other statutory requirements, including examination and substantiation of environmental impact statements; 

Alerting the public, the academic community, 

and industry to environmental hazards; 

Assuming the role of a reliable source for cornprehensive environmental data; 

Providing point source and non-point source 

data to demonstrate and evaluate the results of EPA 

programs ; 

Requirements0 Identification of pollutants and categorization 

of important components and interactions of selected 

subsystems within the study areas; 

Conduct of pilot investigations at representative 

locations within critical study areas to establish 

"ground truth" to verify remote sensing data; 

Plans for area wide collection of environmental 

data; 

Initiation of a system for acquisition and storage of environmental data related to individual ecosystems or large geographical areas. 

Recognizing that it is presently impossible for remote sensors to quantify pollution levels sufficiently 

for enforcement actions, the EPA is involved in exhaustive tests on photographic systems, lasers, multispectral scanners and spectrometers to identify 

trends, quantify specific pollutants and evaluate compliance to standards, in air, water and land environments for the environmental decision maker. It is 

anticipated that the program will lead to a full 

appreciation of the technology required to monitor 

the 3.5 million square mile area of the United States. 

Organization of Remote Sensing Activities 

The direction and management of the EPA airborne and satellite monitoring program is provided 

by the Office of Research and Development 

(OR&D) , EPA. The primary organization conducting monitoring research and applications for OR&D 

is the National Environmental Research Center 

(NERC) in Las Vegas, Nevada. The facility, along 

with the Environmental Photographic Interpretation 

Center (EPIC), Warrenton, Virginia, is responsible 

for the test and demonstration of new sensors and 

for the demonstration of applications to the EPA 

Regions and State and local environmental organizations. During 1974 the two organizations were involved in more than 40 projects: 

Examples include : 

Test and development of multi-spectral scanner, laser and camera systems to detect and monitor 

point and non-point pollution sources; 

0 Emergency oil spill response to locate oil spills 

and other hazardous spill materials; 

0 Test and evaluate techniques, methods and 

sensors required to support enforcement of Regions; 

0 Identify, locate and track and identify pollution from landfills, mine drainage and thermal power 

plants; 

Perform inventories of water discharge sites 

and other industrial and urban pollution sources; 

0 Monitor land degradation and land use activities of energy related extractive and processing industries. 

109 
The resources within EPA to demonstrate new 

sensors and applications are limited. Therefore, EPA 

has undertaken a series of interagency agreements 

with mutually interested Federal agencies. The objective of this program is for EPA to gain an accelerated position by realizing some of the scientific 

and technological achievements of the participating 

organizations. This approach is derived from Federal statutes which direct the Administrator to pursue coordinated activities with other agencies that 

will improve the development of techniques for monitoring environmental quality. 

Formal agreements have been established with the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), the Departments of Interior and Army, 

the Air Force Systems Command, Naval Ordnance 

Laboratory and the Corps of Engineers. In addition, 

programs with several universities and with the Iowa 

Geological Survey have been undertaken to expand 

the Agency scope. 

An interagency program of specific interest is now 

being formulated between EPA and NASA. The purpose of the project is to encourage NASA to demonstrate its developed remote sensing and data management technology and capabilities which may significantly assist Region V, Chicago, in its mission to 

monitor the water quality of the Great Lakes. The 

pilot project will enable EPA and NASA to demonstrate, by project application, the type of support 

capability that could be derived by interagency 

agreements. It is envisioned that the project will 

assist in the refinement of management and interagency cordination and enable the two agencies to 

expand the plan to aid other EPA Regions. 

Aircraft Oriented Research and Applications 

During 1974 a number of significant programs 

were undertaken and important advances were 

made. A summary of the most important aircraft 

oriented projects follows: 

1. The NERC at Las Vegas is involved in a major 

research program to utilize new and existing data 

to detect, locate and analyze the significant spectral 

signatures of the major pollution sources in the 

United States. It is expected that the program will 

result in the development of an operational data 

collection, processing and analysis capability at the 

NERC at Las Vegas and at the EPIC. The facilities 

will be available to EPA Regions for special requirements, Le., enforcement documentation and emergency response where outside contracts are not feasible. The other major result of this program will be the 

formulation of a set of procedures and a system of 

technology transfer to private industrial organizations for their application to EPA operations as a 

contractual service. 

2. Aerial surveillance by EPA was utilized by the 

State of Illinois to show how heated water spread 

into Lake Michigan from Indiana Harbor. Through 

the use of camera systems, infrared scanner data 

and skylab imagery, EPA scientists identified and 

traced a heated plume of polluted water into an 

area of Lake Michigan where the city of Chicago 

draws its drinking water supplies. The case is significant because it is the first use of infrared data in 

an enforcement action by EPA. 

3. A 2,500 square mile area of southwestern LOUisiana was studied and a series of thematic overlays 

were keyed to topographic maps to depict potential 

pollution sources associated with industrial complexes, solid and liquid waste dumps, petroleum 

fields, urban landfills, car dumps and industrial 

landfill areas. 

The data utilized were taken from existing files 

of other government agencies and analyzed from 

the EPA viewpoint and needs. In addition, aerial 

photography of selected areas was obtained and the 

data incorporated into the final product. 

It is envisoned that products similar in scope and 

size can be prepared for all Regions on a priority 

basis to meet water and air discharge permit requirements. Such programs can be prepared on an 

emergency basis by EPA or routinely by private 

firms under contract. 

4. NERC/Las Vegas, EPIC and Region VIII, 

Denver, are participating in a major program to 

obtain photographic records of 30 mining sites and 

the majority of the oil shale lease lands of the Western United States. The objective of the program 

is, to provide, for public review, data that allows 

for visual evaluation of disturbed areas and the 

environmental conditions involved with the strip 

mine areas in the northern Great Plains. The program will provide color and color infrared photography of all sites and termal imagery of selected 

power plant sites. The Region envisions that the 

existing data base and newly acquired data will be 

invaluable in its enforcement and discharge permit 

programs and for planning and monitoring purposes. 

In conjunction with the High Plains Project, the 

NERC at Corvallis, Oregon and EPIC are involved 

in a project to monitor, over a period of four years, 

a major coal mine and an associated power plant 

to ascertain. what effects development and expansion have on the environment. The task involves detailed analysis and ambient monitoring of vegetation, water and air and an analysis of effects on 

groundwater. 

5. EPIC, Region VII, Kansas City, and the Iowa 

110 
Geological Survey are involved in a joint program 

to inventory an eleven county area of south central 

Iowa. The inventory was specifically designed to 

identify feedlot operations, all existing waste disposal 

sites and all surface water resources. The data will 

be presented on overlays keyed to uncontrolled photo 

mosaics. 

The results of this cooperative effort will be utilized by the Region for its outfall permit program, 

by the State for its inventory of surface and subsurface water resources and by the Office of Research 

and Development in its research program for monitoring of groundwater pollution and the direct effects that land use has on the quality of groundwater. 

6. EPIC, Cornell University, the New York Department of Conservation and the New York EPA 

Regional Office are participating in a joint program 

to determine the application of camera systems and 

infrared sensors to detect, and track effluents from 

landfills. The project is comprised of 16 sites located 

in central New York. The program will take six 

months to complete and require 14 flights at varying 

altitudes in three seasons with a series of film-filter 

combinations. 

7. Other programs of interest include two surveys 

of thermal power plants in New England and Iowa 

and a project to determine to what extent aircraft 

acquired data can be utilized to establish evidence 

for enforcement cases. 

Space Programs and Applications 

The EPA has an active program to establish the 

use of Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) 

and Skylab data in its research and applications 

programs. A number of EPA scentists have been active in the program since its inception. In particular, 

the Director of EPIC acts as a principle investigator 

for both the ERTS and Skylab programs in EPA. 

Under his guidance a number of applications have 

been made available to the Regional EPA user organizations and data have been provided to researchers at the NERC at Corvallis and EPIC. The most 

significant programs of 1974 are: 

1. The EPA Region V, acting as coordinator for 

the Great Lakes Commission, contracted with the 

Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing, Purdue University, to map 133,000 square miles of the 

Great Lakes drainage basin. The project calls for 

the mapping, through digital processing, of seven 

categories of land use. The data will be ground 

checked and correlated with aircraft acquired data. 

The program was undertaken after feasibility was 

shown in a pilot project produced by the EPA Office of Research and Development and the NASA 

University Affairs Office. 

2. The EPA has been involved in a three year 

program to ascertain and monitor the physical stat: 

of 1000 lakes in the United States. During the past 

year, the NERC at Corvallis, has performed intensive research with ERTS computer compatible tapes 

to determine possible monitoring applications. The 

program is attempting to determine if ERTS data 

are useful in locating and estimating lake surface 

area and determining if correlation exists between 

the red band data and chlorphyll A; the IR bands 

and chlorphyll A, and the green band and the clarity 

of the water. In addition, regression models are being 

developed for estimating the physical state of a number of lakes and attempts have been made to map 

major occurrences of surface and sub-surface microorganisms. 

3. In the summer of 1974, EPA scientists and 

managers participated in the “Summer Study of 

Space Applications” originating from a request by 

Dr. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, and sponsored by 

the Space Applications Board of the National 

Academy of Engineering. The EPA personnel were 

not formal members of the various panels, but were 

consultants to the following: 

a. Environmental Quality Panel 

b. Marine/Maritime Panel 

c. Land Use Planning Panel 

d. Inland Water Resources Panel 

The needs and requirements of the EPA were 

stressed in particular the timely organization and 

delivery of data and the concern for higher resolution. Topics of concern to the EPA were land use 

planning as a critical tool in environmental enhancement; the monitoring of pollutants in surface and 

groundwater resources ; the agricultural impact 

(pesticides, fertilizers, feedlot wastes, irrigation) on 

surface and groundwater; the development of suitable means to measure, monitor and record environmental effects from space; and a means to monitor 

ocean dumping and its effects on the dynamic ocean 

environment. 

111 

515-666 0 - 15 - 9 
XIV Atomic Energy Commission 

Introduction 

With termination of the nuclear propulsion program in 1973, the AEC’s space nuclear program 

has been concentrated on the development of nuclear 

space electric power generators. These nuclear power 

generators have made possible many of the past 

major United States scientific accomplishments in 

lunar and interplanetary exploration and they will 

be essential elements in enabling the future exploration of the solar system to be accomplished. The 

Apollo lunar surface and Pioneer Jupiter missions 

of the recent past are notable examples of nuclear 

electric power as a major and critical element of the 

success of space programs. In the next few years 

nuclear electric power will make possible the first 

scientific exploration of the surface of Mars, the 

first spacecraft journey to the planet Saturn and 

beyond, and the testing of a defense satellite where 

compact and reliable power is a principal determining factor in mission viability. Additional highly 

sophisticated missions are anticipated in the 

1970’s and 1980’s and higher performance, lowercost technology is being pursued to prepare for the 

increased performance demands of these missions. 

In each of these applications, it is the unique 

characteristic of nuclear energy to operate for long 

periods of time without relying on the sun, along 

with related attributes such as small size, low weight 

and long lifetime, which has resulted in the need 

for nuclear power sources. It is these characteristics 

which will make possible the exploration of the outer 

planets. Without nuclear power, exploration of these 

planets cannot take place as solar power is inadequate at such distances. Likewise, nuclear power 

sources will make possible and economically practical many high powered missions in Earth orbit 

which require minimum size but maximum freedom from any sun orientation restrictions. 

Specifically, fourteen spacecraft powered totally or 

in part with nuclear power have been successfully 

launched in the past, and six more spacecraft are 

scheduled for launch during the next three years. 

During 1974, significant progress was made on the 

development of the generators for these six spacecraft and on the technology for future, more sophissticated applications. Progress was also made towards 

expanding and applying the technology base generated in the space program to terrestrial energy 

related applications. 

Jupiter Spacecraft 

On 3 December 1974, the Pioneer 10 isotopically 

(nuclear heat source) powered spacecraft completed 

its 18 month journey and passed by the planet 

Jupiter. It followed its predecessor, Pioneer 10, in 

providing close range scientific observations of the 

largest planet in our solar system. Unlike Pioneer 

10, however, the trajectory of Pioneer 11 has been 

targeted to carry it close by the planet Saturn, as the 

spacecraft continues on its celestial journey out into 

interstellar space. The Pioneer 10 and 11 missions 

have been important milestones in the continuous 

search for knowledge concerning the history and 

origin of our solar system. 

Both the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft are powered by four plutonium 238 isotopically fueled thermoelectric generators. Each generator was designed 

to provide a minimum of 30 watts or a total of 120 

watts per spacecraft during the nearly 2-year journey to the planet Jupiter. All of the generators have 

exceeded this design goal by several watts and are 

continuing to operate in excess of the 30 watt minimum. At the end of 1974 the Pioneer 10 spacecraft 

was about 700 million miles from earth and the 

Pioneer 11 spacecraft was well on its way to its 

extended journey by the planet Saturn. 

Lincoln Experimental Satellite 

As a part of its program to develop a survivable 

defense communications network, the DOD will 

launch in late 1975 two experimental satellites powered by thermoelectric radioisotope generators 

(RTG’s). These satellites, designated LES 8 and 

LES 9, will each be powered by two multi-hundred 

watt (MHW) generators providing a minimum total 

113 
power reqiurement of 250 watts, or 125 watts per 

generator, after five years. 

Thermoelectric degradation problems were encountered during tests in late 1973 and a major effort 

during the first half of 1974 was directed towards understanding the degradation mechanisms and 

towards design changes to alleviate the problem. 

The basic problem was a continual decrease in the 

shunt resistance between the thermoelectric couples and the surrounding insulation foils. Based on 

accelerated module tests, the selected design fix 

was to coat the thermoelectric couples with a silicon 

nitride coating. Fabrication of flight hardware was 

reinitiated during the early part of the summer on 

the thermoelectric couples for the four flight and 

one spare RTG’s. Thermocouple fabrication for all 

of the generators was nearing completion by the end 

of the year and assembly of the first three RTG’s 

was also nearly complete. 

Viking Mars Lander 

During the late summer of 1975, NASA will 

launch two Viking spacecraft with the goal of 

travelling to Mars, orbiting the planet and descending for a soft landing on the Martian surface. The 

lander vehicles will each be powered by two Pioneertype isotopicaly fueled thermoelectric generators. 

Each generator will provide a minimum of 35 watts 

or a total of 70 watts after 90 days on the Martian 

surface. The ability of these isotopicaly fueled generators to operate in the harsh environments postulated for the surface of Mars will enable the extended 

operation of scientific experiments aimed at understanding the composition and history of our closest 

planetary neighbor. A major goal is to try to answer 

questions concerning the presence of life. 

The modified Pioneer-type generators are being 

developed by the AEC laboratory and industrial 

contractors organizations. Three electrically heated 

test generators were delivered to NASA for systems 

testing during the year. Effort was also completed 

on the Final Safety Analysis Report; on the final 

design freeze of the flight generators; and on fabrication of the flight units except for final assembly 

and system testing. 

MarinerIJupiter Saturn (MJS) 

The next major program to extend man’s exploration out into the solar system will involve launching 

two Mariner spacecraft in the late summer of 1977 

to fly past the planets Jupiter and Saturn. These 

spacecraft will be relatively sophisticated in comparison to the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft and 

will enable scientists to gain a much more complete understanding of the atmospheres, surface features and physical properties of these two large 

planets. 

Each spacecraft will be powered by three MHW 

isotopic generators providing a minimum of 385 

watts at the time the spacecraft reaches Saturn approximately four years after launch. The 1974 effort was directed towards analytical and design 

studies to optimize the basic MHW/LES design for 

the MJS mission. The principal changes involved 

removal of the heat source can in order to reduce 

weight and the substitution of a different graphite 

to improve reentry protection. With the incorporation of the required design modifications and the 

freezing of the design, fabrication of test hardware 

was initiated. 

Generator Technology 

Projected missions of the late 1970’s and 1980’s 

will impose increased performance requirements on 

the nuclear power sources. Weight and overall system unit cost will become extremely important, particularly on repetitive DOD missions. Also, power 

levels on several missions are anticipated to increase 

into the low kilowatt range where dynamic conversion systems rather than static (no moving parts) 

systems are most applicable. Current emphasis is 

directed towards the Selenide thermoelectric materials for the lower power static systems and towards 

the Brayton or Organic Rankine cycles for the higher 

power dynamic systems. 

As with all thermoelectric conversion systems, the 

Selenide technology involves the development of two 

thermoelectric legs (parallel heatflow path for converting heat to electricity). One of these has been 

under development for several years and significant 

progress was made during 1974 on the development of 

the other leg. Several thermo-couples using both legs 

were placed on test early in the year. A 20-watt 

module will be tested during 1975 to help identify 

and understand any technology problems which 

might exist in flight system applications. Related 

effort was also carried out on a heat source which 

would be compatible with this Selenide module. 

Effort on the dynamic technologies will be initiated early in 1975. Procurement actions for system 

contractors for dynamic conversion system technologies were nearing completion at the end of the 

year. 

Terrestrial Power 

Wherever possible, technology is being applied or 

considered for terrestrial energy related applications. 

114 
The following two examples are illustrative of the 

effort in this area. 

gram to terrestrial energy-related applications. The 

space technology was optimized for weight and otheiJ 

parameters rather than- efficiency so that efficiencies 

of 10-15% were adequate. However, for terrestrial 

applications, efficiency is a primary criteria. The ultimate goal is thermionic efficiencies in the range of 

3040% which, if achieved, could provide the techcentral station electric power plant efficiencies up to 

the range of 50%. The 1974 effort has made signiwhich control efficiency. Parameters associated with 

20 % efficient thermionic devices were experimently 

The Department Of Defense has requested 

support of a lower power (< I watt) Pu-238 isotopic generator which would involve multiple units 

in an operational system. The generator is being devide the heat source-including the isotopic fuel. 

Several prototype heat sources were fabricated durfor generator system evaluation testing. Additional 

heat sources will be fabricated in 1975. 

signed by contractors and the pro- nological basis for topping cycles to increase the 

ing the year and be provided to the u’s* Navy ficant progress in improving the diode parameters 

A concerted effort is being pursued to apply the 

thermionic technology developed in the space prodemonstrated during the year and actual efficiency 

tests will be conducted during 1975. 

115 
I I 

Department of Agriculture 

Introduction 

During 1974 the U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA) continued its efforts in the development 

and evaluation of aerospace remote sensing technology for the improvement of its agricultural and 

forestry programs concomitant with national priorities. This involved additional research on the feasibility and operational utility of utilizing aerospaceacquired data to accomplish more accurate quantitative predictions of food and fiber resources, along 

with better evaluations of land productivity; and to 

further monitor changes affecting the total production 

and quality of our natural resources and environment, including man-environment interactions. 

Remote Sensing Activity 

Remote sensing is viewed by the USDA as basically a potential tool that may further assist in addressing its agriculture, forestry, wildlife, and other requirements mandated by Federal charter. The Department also has a substantial interest in the ultimate operational use of remote sensing data for better resource and inventory management, environmental controls, and crop, forest, and range protection. The current state-of-the-art, with respect to 

USDA mission responsibilities, is presently limited 

to research and development. A large part of the research is continually being devoted to a better understanding of the interaction of radiant energy with 

plant tissue, soil, and water parameters. This research is in continued collaboration with NASA and 

other Federal and State agencies. 

Research and Development 

An experimental feasibility, long-range study to 

develop automated techniques for estimating 

wheat acreages, yield, and crop vigor from ERTS 

data, is being conducted by a joint effort with the 

Canadian Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service of 

USDA. 

A related study over the Great Plains wheat-producing region, will utilize spacecraft-acquired data 

in a statistical sampling experiment. This Large Area 

Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) , involving 

the joint efforts of NASA, NOAA, and the USDA, 

will determine whether computer-analyzed satellite 

data can improve the accuracy and timeliness of 

crop forecasts. Initially, wheat will be the test crop, 

and if the results prove successful the experiment 

will be extended to other regional crops. 

The results of these investigations may eventually 

prove the feasibility of utilizing remote sensing technology for more accurate and timely inventories of 

worldwide crop acreages and yield estimations, a POtential development of considerable import in light 

of the world food problem. 

Another investigative study is being conducted by 

the Forest Service to test the feasibility of utilizing 

multispectral data with multistage sampling and 

computer processing. This may result in the ability 

to generate useful thematic overlays for such problems as urban encroachment, agricultural inventory, 

recreation impact, water pollution, geologic hazards, 

and natural resource location. 

In cooperation with NASA, a Forestry Applications Project (FAP) is investigating the application 

of remote sensing technology for the inventory of 

forest resources. The project addresses data collection 

and interpretation in the categories of timber, soils, 

and range. 

ERTS Follow-on-Investigations by USDA will involve studies on: (1) the spectral measurement of 

watershed runoff coefficients in the southern Great 

Plains, (2) soil, water, and vegetation condition in 

south Texas, (3) monitoring forest and range resources in Georgia, and (4) development of an area 

sampling technique for an agricultural information 

system in Nicaragua. 

Significant work is continuing in establishing the 

capability of using small and large scale color infrared photography to detect and correctly identify 

incipient crop, forest, and wildland vegetation infestations due to diseases, insects, and other pests. 

117 
AQQlicatiom 

The compilation of a cloud-free ERTS mosaic of 

conterminous United States and Alaska, at a scale 

of 1 : 1,000,000, by the Soil Conservation Service 

(SCS) in collaboration with NASA, has generated 

considerable interest and sales from Federal and 

State agencies, academia, and numerous private concerns. Over 970 orders, totalling more than $90,000 

have been received. The SCS in collaboration with 

the Department of the Interior will soon make available inexpensive lithographs of these mosaics. 

Ground surveys made in conjunction with ERTS 

data provided a replicated sample that permitted 

calculation of Hidalgo County, Texas, acreage estimates, and standard errors of estimate, for 18 vegetable crops produced in that county. Utilizing 

remote sensing techniques, a first classification map 

of the county with significant land use discrimination capability has been produced. 

The results of a study have shown that ERTS resolution is sufficient for practical applications in the 

detection of chlorotic sorghum in otherwise uniform 

fields at least 1.1 hectares (2.8 acrcs) in size. 

Providing Expertise to Other Nations 

The potential of agricultural aerospace remote 

sensing techniques has been recognized internationally and the USDA continued to provide expertise 

to the international community. In addition to participating in various symposia and workshops, briefings were provided to visitors from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Gambia, Germany, Indonesia, Israel, 

Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Peru, South Africa, 

Thailand, and Turkey. Briefings were also given to 

numerous students at a two-day international workshop sponsored by the Bureau of the Census. 

118 
Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency XVI 

The interest and involvement of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in space activities is 

threefold. First, and foremost is ACDA’s interest in 

maintaining space as an environment in which no 

weapons and military forces are emplaced. Second, 

ACDA is interested and involved in preserving the 

free use of space for purposes related to peacekeeping, crisis defuzing and treaty monitoring. Third, 

ACDA seeks to discourage other countries from utilizing space technology and equipment to develop 

strategic offensive weapons and to improve weaponry. In each of these areas ACDA participates 

in the formulation of US policy, in the negotiations 

required to reach international agreement, and in 

monitoring the effects of such policies and agreements on arms control and disarmament issues. 

The Outer Space Treaty bans the emplacement of 

“weapons of mass destruction” in space, on celestial 

bodies, or in earth orbit and bans military bases, 

forces, maneuvers, and weapons testing on celestial 

bodies. The Treaty was opened for signature in 

1967. As of the end of 1974 69 countries have 

ratified it and 34 have signed but not yet ratified. 

Preserving and protecting the use of space for 

peace-keeping activities such as crisis defuzing and 

treaty monitoring are ACDA interests embodied in 

several international agreements. The “Hotline” 

modernization agreement and the technical activities 

associated with this agreement provide the secure, 

direct communication link between the US and 

Soviet governments so important for peacekeeping 

and crisis defuzing. ACDA is interested and involved 

in this utilization of space for the transmission of 

urgent information, notifications and requests for 

information in situations requiring prompt clarification. The secure, spacebased communications link 

between the two governments exploits the capabilities of the Intelsat and Molniya communication 

satellite systems. ACDA’s interest in utilizing space 

for monitoring compliance with Treaty obligations 

is based on the provisions of the strategic arms limitation agreements with the USSR. These provisions 

specify that neither country will interfere with the 

national technical means of verification of the other. 

ACDA is active in the formulation of U.S. policy 

on bilateral and multilateral international programs 

for the peaceful use of space. ACDA seeks to discourage other countries from utilizing space technology and hardware for the development of strategic offensive weaponry. ACDA participates in the 

reviews which precede the export of U.S. space 

technology and hardware as well as those concerned 

with the export of U.S. avionics systems. In the iatter case, ACDA is particularly concerned with systems such as inertial navigation systems which could 

be used in strategic weapons. ACDA seeks to institute and maintain safeguards which will minimize 

the possible exploitation of such technology and 

hardware for undesirable military applications but 

will not curtail legitimate trade or discourage international cooperation. 

119 
XVII 

Introduction 

The United States Information Agency (USIA) 

took advantage of the continued high level of interest 

abroad to review and assess recent U.S. space projects 

and to preview and analyze those for which preparations were underway during the year. 

Every indicator showed that the appetite remained nearly undiminished abroad for media materials explaining and interpreting U.S. space activities and objectives. For many foreign audiences 

US. space projects continued to symbolize both the 

potential and the excellence of U.S. science and 

technology. Thus information about U.S. space operations continued to exert a strong influence on the 

image the United States projects abroad. 

As in earlier years, USIA used speakers, exhibits, 

films, radio, television, photos and the printed word 

to reach target audiences with the U.S. space story. 

This story began for USIA with its interpretation 

of the final operations of Skylab, the U.S. space station, which were already underway when 1974 arrived. The story continued with the analysis of visits 

by automated Mariner-10 spacecraft to the vicinity 

of Venus and Mercury, and the launching and early 

operation in orbit of new types of advanced satellites. 

These new satellites were of particular interest to 

USIA because they are potentially very powerful 

tools for the economic and social advancement of 

hundreds of millions of persons. One of these was 

the Applications Technology Satellite-6 (ATS-6) , which could well be the forerunner of communication satellite systems offering health care and education in regions where opportunities for these services are scarce or absent. 

Another such system was the first stationary weather observation satellite-the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) -which almost at once 

commenced around-the-clock observations of the 

Western hemisphere and surrounding areas. 

Most of the year’s USIA space output was devoted 

to analytical summaries of past accomplishments and 

of others in the making. 

United States Information Agency 

Press and Publications 

Space as a new resource for man’s welfare and 

advancement was the theme of much of the output 

of the Press and Publications Service. 

In words and pictures, the Agency dramatically 

depicted the technical sophistication and human ingenuity involved in space exploration, and the growing impact of space developments upon everyday 

life. 

After the return to earth of the last Skylab crew, 

a 5,000-word, 16-page illustrated color pamphlet 

entitled “Skylab: What It Did and What It Means,” 

was sent to the field. The pamphlet described the 

U.S. space station as a highly instrumented modern 

research laboratory in orbit, and called the mission 

“by far the most comprehensive project for finding 

what uses man can and cannot make of outer space 

in the foreseeable future.” 

Skylab, it was pointed out, “confirmed and extended two key findings of earlier space exporations: 

1) That the resources of space may indeed offer new 

approaches to some of mankind’s most pressing problems and 2) that living conditions on the earth can 

be improved through space operations.” The pamphlet, which explained in detail the potential benefits 

from Skylab’s pioneering experiments, was distributed in English, Spanish, French and Arabic. 

Another pamphlet on major aspects of the space 

program was prepared from the wrap-around fourcolor cover and five articles on space which had 

appeared in A1 Majal, the Agency’s Arabic magazine. 

This pamphlet was distributed at the Damascus 

Trade Fair (78,000 copies). 

Two major feature articles mailed to posts focused 

on significant contributions to non-space activities of 

the space program. “The Great Invisible Legacy 

of the U.S. Manned Space Program” explained the 

successful use of new management techniques developed in Apollo moon-landing preparations in 

managing large scale business and social projects. 

The second article, “What We Learned: Science 

and the Manned Space Program,” analyzed the “explosion” of scientific information that has resulted 

121 
from space exploration. In three articles entitled 

“A People’s Satellite,” the experience and potential 

of the ATS-6 for bringing educational and medical 

services to underprivileged regions was emphasized. 

Much of the space output was carried on the wireless file, the Agency’s radioteletype system that connects USIA’s headquarters in Washington with its 

189 USIS (United States Information Service) 

posts in 110 countries. The file transmitted interpretive articles on all major U.S. space events for reproduction in foreign newspapers and magazines or 

Agency-produced publications. 

These headlines from the file indicate the range 

and treatment of subjects: 

“New U.S. Satellite Promises Social Changes in 

Developing Nations” (for an article on ATS-6’s educational and medical-care potential) . “Satellite Users Assess the ‘Teacher-in-the-Sky,’ ” 

(also on ATS-6). 

“New U.S. Satellite to Expand Commercial Use 

of Space” (on Westar, the first domestic U.S. communications satellite) . 

“Second Look at Mercury and a New Moon for 

Jupiter” (on scientific discoveries resulting from the 

first close visit by spacecraft to these planets). 

“A Pause to Remember: Five Years Ago Man 

First Stepped on the Moon” (an anniversary story 

on one of the great events of all time), and “The 

Moonmen: Where Are They Now” (a look at yesterday’s astronauts). 

The wireless file transmitted a total of 18 articles 

on space. The Pictures Branch supplied posts with 

20 pictures of the Skylab mission and sent 129 terrain views photographed in color by Skylab crews 

to 64 countries. The Pictures Branch shipped more 

than 250 views, selected from the many thousands 

radioed to earth by the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS-1). These were distributed to 21 

countries requesting photos showing their territories. 

The Branch magnified ERTS-1 views to 30-by-30 

inches for presentation by US ambassadors to chiefs 

of state of host countries. 

Horizons, the Agency’s bimonthly general magazine appearing in English and 16 other languages, 

published “Countdown .for the 1980’s”, an article 

outlining the Space Shuttle program. 

Economic Impact, an Agency quarterly published 

in English and Spanish, ran an article on ERTS-1, 

“Exploring World Resources From Space.” Dialogue, 

the Agency’s quarterly journal of opinion, published 

two articles, “The Ultimate Speed Limit,” by the 

distinguished science writer, Isaac Asimov, speculating on how fast a body can move through space, 

and “News About the Universe,” by Edward Edelson, award-winning science journalist, on recent astronomical discoveries that throw new light on the 

origin and probable fate of the universe. 

The Magazine Reprint unit obtained reprint rights 

for posts of three articles: Cornel1 University Astronomer Carl Sagan’s “Space Exploration as a Human 

Enterprise,” predicting a wealth of practical benefits 

from space; Edward Edelson’s “The Outer Limits 

of Space” on how the most distant reaches of space 

permit astronomers and cosmologists to look back 

to the beginning and ahead to the end of the universe, and “Space Garden,” an interview with space 

pioneer and theoretician Dr. Kraft A. Ehricke, who 

sees space exploration as preserving the planet Earth 

for a future garden of the solar system. 

Radio 

The Agency’s Voice of America broadcasted fully 

1,151 different reports and feature programs on 

space subjects. Space received a total of 374 hours 

of air time, providing an estimated 50 million weekly 

listeners a comprehensive understanding of the activities, plans and purposes of the U.S. space community. 

These reports and features were broadcast in 

addition to news accounts on current space developments, such as newscasts during space missions. 

A large portion of the VOA broadcasts were devoted to covering the final Skylab mission. There was 

also heavy concentration on the Mariner mission to 

Venus and Mercury, international cooperation in 

space science, and preparations for the joint U.S.- 

Soviet manned spaceflight : the “Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project” (ASTP), planned for July 1975. 

The variety of the coverage is indicated by these 

sample broadcast titles: “Project Viking” (on the 

automated craft which is to land on Mars and search 

for life there in 1976), “Rendezvous With Venus,” 

“Envoy to Mercury,” “Skylab Situation Report,” 

“Highlights of Skylab,” “Skylab I11 Crew the 

Healthiest Yet,” “Space Plans Through the Year 

2000,” “Discovery Supports Life-on- Jupiter Theory,” 

“NASA’s New Flying Observatory,” “Women as 

Shuttle Passengers,” U.S. Space Team at Soviet 

Center,” “Space Shuttle Progress Report,” “Space 

Technology Aids Heart Research,” and “Space and 

the American Spirit.” 

Employing the realism, intimacy and immediacy 

that are unique to radio, the Voice transmitted live 

and recorded interviews with key space officials and 

with astronauts on Earth and in space. Also transmitted were live broadcasts from launch sites, and 

from spacecraft in flight. 

Voices of astronauts were heard by listeners in 

“Skylab Crew Reports”, “Skylab News Conference,” 

and “Interview with Skylab Pilot Bill Pogue.” 

122 
Among interviews aired was one with Dr. George M. 

Low, NASA deputy administrator, and another with 

Dr. James Dunne, chief scientist for Mariner 10. 

Motion Pictures and Television 

Films, television programs and TV news clips, acquired from outside sources or made by the Agency’s 

Motion Pictures and Television Service, were used 

in a wide variety of ways. 

A 17-minute color documentary film, “Skylab 

Outpost in Space,” was produced by the Service 

and distributed to 116 countries for use by local 

TV stations immediately after the return to Earth 

of the third Skylab crew. The film focused chiefly 

on research performed by the astronauts in orbit, 

particularly their experiments in medicine, metallurgy, and solar physics. A 30-minute color documentary film, “Apollo Decade,” reviewing highlights 

of the U.S. Apollo moon-landing program and the 

meaning of the program for mankind, was produced 

by the Agency for world-wide distribution. 

The Agency-produced TV series, “Science Report,” devoted seven of its twice-monthly 15-minute 

segments to space subjects. “Science Report,” is released by the Agency in over 100 countries and is 

broadcast in 22 languages from over 600 television 

stations abroad. 

Among its productions related to space were 

“Man’s Longest Journey Into Space” (on the third 

Skylab mission), “The First Mission to Investigate 

the Planet Mercury,” “Medical Spinoffs From 

Space,” “The Space Shuttle and the European 

Space Lab,” and “U.S. and USSR Move Closer to 

Historic Cooperation in Manned Spaceflight.” 

The monthly TV series, “Realidades,” in which 

Brazilian correspondents interview American specialists, included four programs on space. The series 

is specially produced for the 22-station Tupi network which has outlets in all major Brazilian cities 

and reaches 1,500,000 viewers. Featured were two 

programs on communications satellites, a third on 

Skylab’s observations of the comet Kohoutek, and 

a final program commemorating the first landing 

by men on the moon. 

“Now,” the Arabic version of the highly popular 

Spanish-language “Ahora” TV series, used “Windfall From Space,” a half-hour production on the 

practical benefits of space exploration, and “Crusade 

Against Cancer,” a documentary on the contributions of space exploration to the fight against the 

disease. “Now” is distributed to 15 USIS posts where 

Arabic is spoken. 

“Vision,” a monthly pictorial review of American 

personalities and events, offered segments featuring 

Earth resources technology satellites, and space-developed miniaturization techniques that have helped 

make possible quartz wrist-watches and improved 

electronic heart-pacemakers. 

In response to post requests for space film materials fitting their local needs, the Motion Pictures 

and Television Service produced or obtained nine 

films on space subjects. Three of them were halfhour interviews in color with leading space figures: 

science-fiction writer Isaac Asimov on “Science Fiction and Space;” astronaut-geologist Harrison 

Schmitt on “What We Have Learned from the 

Moon,” and NASA Associate Administrator Rocco 

Petrone on “The Future of Space.” The films were 

shown in conection with the opening of a new 

United States Consulate at Cracow, Poland, where 

NASA’s “Eyewitness to Space” exhibit of space art 

was also shown. 

All USIS posts with television outlets were supplied with six sets of 85 space-feature slides. The 

sets told the story of the Space Shuttle, Space Station, Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Man on the Moon, 

Johnson Space Center, and Cape Kennedy. 

The Agency also provided posts with TV news 

clips on events of special interest to posts. Thus, news 

clips of the Indian ambassador inspecting the ATS-6 

satellite and viewing its launch were sent to India 

which in mid-1975 will use the satellite for a year 

of extensive educational broadcasting to Indian villages. News clips on the visit of Soviet cosmonauts 

to Washington, D.C. were sent to Moscow. News 

clips on Skylab and on the fifth-anniversary observance at Cape Kennedy of the first manned moon 

landing were distributed to practically all posts. 

Twenty-three USIS posts received, on their request, a 43-minute videotaped interview with experts 

on the use of space photography in developing and 

conserving Earth resources. Two films made for the 

Damascus Fair--one containing scenes of Apollo astronauts on the moon, the other on the organization 

of the Apollo program-were reduced to 8mm cassettes for continuous showings at the fair. 

The Agency itself participated in the telecasting 

via satellite of 14 programs to countries abroad. 

Among them was a 12-minute program reporting 

the visit of Ivory Coast President Felix HouphouetBoigny to Washington that was transmitted to the 

Ivory Coast, and a 30-minute program to Romania 

showing the welcoming ceremonies in Washington 

for the Romanian President, Nicholae Ceausescu. 

Through the U.S. Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, three NASA films were offered to European and Aisan television networks. 

Agency facilities were used to transmit the remarks 

by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher to a 

regional seminar on use of the Earth Resources 

Technology satellite by Southeast Asian countries, 

1 23 
sponsored by USIS in Bangkok. The Washington 

studios were also used by foreign newsmen and commentators for telecasts and production of various 

documentaries on space subjects. 

The Agency selected and entered 11 U.S. films 

on space subjects in 30 international exhibits and 

film festivals. Thus, USIA’s “Skylab-Outpost in 

Space” was seen at film festivals in Australia, New 

Zealand, Milan, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Rome, and 

Trieste. 

Information Centers and Exhibits 

U.S. astronauts continued to enjoy overwhelniing 

popularity abroad. So did exhibits built around space 

accomplishments. 

Astronaut Russell L. Schweickart quickly became 

the principal presence at a regional fair at Marseille, 

France. He was seen at the fair by several hundred 

thousand persons, and over a million Frenchmen 

were aware of his presence through press coverage. 

His appearance added luster to the exhibit of Skylab hardware and a model of the Lunar Rover at the 

Fair. 

Two almost identical exhibits of important space 

artifacts, traveling under the title of “Treasures of 

Space,” were bolstered at science and trade fairs 

in North Africa, the Near East and Latin America 

by the appearance of prominent space personalities. 

The exhibit items, all on loan from the National 

Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, consisted of a space suit, a lunar rock, lunar 

hand-tools, a reproduction of the Pioneer-10 plaque 

addressed to inhabitants of other planets, and models 

of ERTS-1, Skylab, the Space Shuttle, and the 

Apollo-Soyuz in docked configuration. One set of 

these artifacts was shown at the Damascus Fair, the 

Cairo Student Fair, and in Jidda, Kuwait, Tunis, 

and Algiers, while the other was exhibited at the 

Bogota Fair, the Asuncion Trade Fair, and in Buenos 

Aires, Lima and Quito. 

A series of seminars on “ERTS-1 and Southeast 

Asia” brought together scientists from five nations in 

that region and two NASA experts, Dr. Nicholas 

Short, NASA’s senior geologist, and Mr. John 

Boeckel, Assistant Director for Operations in the 

Applications Directorate of the Goddard Space 

Flight Center. 

At the first of the seminars, in Bangkok, the two 

NASA representatives met with 60 delegates from 

Thailand and 11 from Laos, Singapore, Malaysia 

and Indonesia. The three-day seminar was jointly 

sponsored by the USIS Bangkok, the Thai National 

Research Council and the Applied Scientific Research Corporation of Thailand. 

The NASA experts used numerous color slides to 

explain the many aspects of ERTS applications. Delegates from Thailand and Indonesia, which have 

extensive ERTS programs, also used space photos 

to report on the benefits derived and expected from 

ERTS. These include include measurements of insect infestations, and cartographic interpretations 

that have already led to important revisions in 

regional maps. 

The Bangkok seminar was followed up by a twoday syposium on ERTS in Jakarta in which 150 

officials participated. In addition to the two NASA 

representatives, speakers included three Indonesians 

who showed how ERTS data could help in that 

country’s current efforts to inventory national resources. At a one-day seminar in Kuala Lumpur, the 

two NASA representatives addressed 70 scientists, 

technicians, government administrators and business 

executives on the use and potential of ERTS. 

Ten titles on space subjects were carried in the 

monthly “Current Books” lists which recommend 

acquisition for USIS libraries. 

“Dividends From Space” by Frederick I. Ordway 

and his associates was published by the Agency in 

English for Malagasy and Kannada. John Noble 

Wilford’s “We Reach the Moon” was published in 

the Lao language. A variety of NASA publications 

were distributed by USIA to posts, libraries, and 

target audiences. 

1 24 
Appendixes 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Year 

Success Failure Success Failure 

APPENDIX A-1 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Year 

Success Failure Success Failure 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

1957 .................... 0 1 0 

1958 .................... 5 8 0 

1959 .................... 9. 9 1 

1960 .................... 16 12 1 

1961 .................... 35 12 0 

1962 .................... 54 12 4 

1963 .................... 60 

1964 .................... 69 

1965 .................... 94 

11 

8 

8 

0 

4 

3 

0 1966 .................... 95 

4 I 1967 .................... 78 

2 1968 .................... 61 

2 1969 .................... 58 

0 I 1970 .................... 36 

1 I 1971 .................... 45 

12 5 

4 10 ~. 15 3 

1 8 

1 3 

2 8 

0 1972 .................... 33 2 8 

0 1973 .................... 23 2 3 

0 I 1974 .................... 29 2 1 

'1 

0 

0 

i 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 I Total ........ 800 122 62 12 

'This earth escape failure did attain earth orbit and thereNOTES: The criterion of success or failure used is the attainment of earth orbit or earth escape rather than a judgment of mission success. 

This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating coun- tries which were launched by U.S. launch vehicles. 

fore is included in the earth-orbit success totals. 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

United 

Year States U.S.S.R. France Italy Tauai 

Chinese 

Republic Australia 

. I- 1 Peoples United 

Kingdom 

1957 .................................... 2 .. ................................................................................... 1958 1 .............................................................. ...... 1959 ............... 1960 3 .. ........................................................................................ 1961 

1962 ......................... 

n 

6 .~. ...................................................... En nn 

......... IU 0 ...................................................................................................................................... 

JL LU ........ ........................................ ....... 1963 ............... ......... 38 17 .......................................................................................... ....... 1964 ........................ 1965 ........................ 1966 ........................ 1967 ........................ 1968 ........................ 1969 ........................ 1970 ........................ 1971 ............... 1972 ........................ 1973 ........................ 

1974 ........................ 

Total ...... 

57 30 ........................ ............................................................................. 63 48 ............................................................................. 73 44 1 .................................. 57 66 

45 74 ............................................................................................. 40 70 .................... ........................................................................................ 28 81 2 '1 1 1 .................................................... 

23 86 ..................................................................................................................................... 22 81 .................... '2 1 ............................................................................ .......... 618 789 ................... 7 7 7 2 1 1 

Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple NOTE: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft. 

1 25 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches4974 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

kilometers) - 

Cospar designation Inclination to 

Launch vehicle equator 

(degrees) 

Launch date (G.m.t.) Period 

Spacecraft name Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks 

Jan. 19 

Skynet IIA 

2A 

Thorad-Delta 

Feb. 13 

Defense 

7A 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Feb. 18 

San Marco 4 

9A 

scout 

Mar. 9 

UK X-4 (Miranda) 

13A 

scout 

Mar. 16 

Defense 

15A 

Thor-Burner I1 

Apr. 10 

Defense 

20A 

Titan IIID 

Apr. 10 

Defense 

20B 

Titan IIID 

Objective: To be placed in geostationary equatorial orbit over the Indian Ocean to provide 

in orbit x-band military communications for 

British forces. 

SDacecraft : Drum-shaDed satellite 209-cm high 

'and 190-cm in dianieter; 6 solar panels cover fiberglass outer shell; two batteries. Contains Sband circular array antenna; 17-watt communications transponder and horn antenna system ; 

attitude and orbit control subsystem; thermal 

control system ; monopropellant hydrazine re- action control unit; apogee boost TE-M-604-1 

solid fuel motor. Weight at liftoff: 435 kg. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To obtain measurements of the diurnal 

variations of the equatorial neutral atmosphere 

density, composition, and temperature. 

Spacecraft: Sphere 70 cm in diameter with 4 

canted 48.5 monopole antennas for telemetry 

and command. Series of mica windows is provided on the equator of the outer shell for solar 

cells; 2 nickel-cadmium batteries. Spacecraft 

structure forms an integral part of the air density 

balance. Contains 3 experiments: neutral mass spectrometer, omegatron mass spectrometer, and 

atmospheric drag density accelerometer. Weight: 

170 kg. 

Objective: To test the development of a three-axis 

gas stabilization system ; to measure the perform- ance of silicon type solar cells. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular structure 83.5 cm high 

and 66.5 cm wide; two deployable solar array 

panels extend from the main body sides and increase spacecraft span to 250 cm. Floor and side 

panels of the rectangular body are made of 

aluminum honeycomb sandwich construction. 

Solar array contains 1800 solar cells and consists 

of four panels stowed in a folded accordian form 

during launch and deployed by nitrogen gasoperated telescopic booms. Four antennas, each 

46.5 cm long, fold out at the comers of the 

satellite facing earth. Contains five experiments: 

attitude control system, infrared horizon sensor, 

single-axis star sensor, albedo horizon sensor, 

and silicon solar cells. Weight: 93 kg. 

Objective: Practical applications of space-based 

technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

3,406 

95 

121.6 

37.6 

404 

128 

89.8 

110.4 

917 

244 

96.3 

2.9 

918 

712 

101.1 

97.8 

878 

78 1 

101.4 

98.9 

288 

152 

88.0 

94.0 

Still in orbit. 

First of two U.K. second generation operational communications 

satellites. Launched into ex- tremely low eccentric orbit by 

NASA. Failure in Delta second 

stage electronics package placed 

spacecraft in deteriorating low 

orbit. A second firing of third 

stage on Jan. 24 failed to boost 

spacecraft into higher orbit and 

it decayed over the southwestern 

Pacific Jan. 25, 1974. 

Decayed March 17, 1974. 

Fourth spacecraft in joint ItalianU.S. cooperative space program. 

Italian-built satellite launched 

successfully with NASA Scout 

vehicle by an Italian launch 

crew from Indian Ocean platform off coast of Kenya. Two 

U.S. experiments korking properly;. Italian atmospheric drag 

density experiment malfunctioned. 

U.K.-built satellite launched suc- cessfully by NASA. Spacecraft 

performing satisfactorily except 

for malfunctioning regulator in 

the propane gas control system. 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed July 28, 1974. 

829 

783 

loll0 

94.0 

126 
APPENDIX A-3--Continued 

Successful U.S. Lau nches-1974 

Launch date (G.rn.t.1 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

kilometers) - 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Apr. 10 

Defense and technology. 

20c Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIID 

Apr. 13 Objective: To provide transmission of television, 

Westar 1 voice, and other data throughout the United 

22A States. 

Thorad-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.8- diameter and 3.7-m 

high including 1.5-m optically transparent antenna affixed to top of spacecraft; spin stabilized. 

Provides 12 color TV channels or up to 14 

400 one-way telephone circuits; 20,500 solar 

cells, Weight at launch: 572 kg.; weight in 

orbit: 300 kg. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

May 17 

SMS 1 

33A 

Thorad-Delta 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into a synchronous 

orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable the spacecraft to accomplish its operational mission re- quirements, conduct an in-orbit evaluation and 

checkout of the spacecraft and, upon completion 

of this evaluation, turn the operational control 

of the spacecraft over to NOAA/NESS, to provide regular and useful daytime and nighttime 

meteorological observations in support of the national operational meteorological satellite system. 

Spacecraft: Cylindricai 190.5 cm in diameter and 

344 cm long from the top of the magnetometer 

to the bottom of the apogee boost motor. Thrust 

tube located in center supports radiometer/telescope instrument. Scanning mirror looks out 

through an opening in cylindrical solar array 

whose panels cover outer walls of spacecraft. 

Instrumentation consists of a visible infrared 

spin-scan radiometer (VISSR) to provide high 

quality day/night cloud cover data and to meas- ure radiance temperatures of the earth/atmosphere system, a meteorological data collection 

and transmission system, and a space environmental monitor (SEM) system to measure proton, electron, and solar x-ray fluxes and magnetic 

fields. Spin stabilized. Weight at launch: 628 kg; 

weight in orbit: 272 kg. 

528 

502 

94.0 

94.0 

35,950 

35,553 

1,434.3 

0.0 

35,5 19 

35,455 

1,420.8 

2.0 

Still in orbit. 

Launched by NASA for Western 

Union Telegraph Company into 

transfer orbit. Apogee kick motor 

fired April 16 and spacecraft 

placed in stationary equatorial 

synchronous orbit just west of 

Galapagos Islands in Pacific 

(99" west longitude). First in a series of three; spacecraft be- came first U.S. commercial domestic communications satellite. 

Commercial operations began 

July 16, 1974. Made first U.S. 

mail delivery via satellite Sept. 

5, 1974. 

First meteorological satellite to be 

placed in synchronous prbit. Will 

provide continuous images of 

cloud cover over the U.S. and 

Atlantic Ocean both day and 

night for the first time. After 

launch into transfer orbit by 

NASA, apogee boost motor fired 

and spacecraft placed in stationary equatorial synchronous orbit 

off coast of Brazil (45" west Iongitude) . Spacecraft remained at 

45" until September to participate in GARP's (Global Atmospheric Research Program) 

Atlantic Tropical Experiment; 

moved to 75" west longitude by mid-November to become part 

of NOAA system. Has produced 

most highly resolved weather 

pictures ever taken from space. 

127 575-666 0 - 75 - 10 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1974 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

May 30 

ATS 6 

39A 

Titan IIIC 

June 3 

Hawkeye 1 

(Explorer 52) 

40A 

scout 

June 6 

Defense 

42A 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

July 14 

NTS 1 

54A 

Atlas F 

Spacecraft data 

Objective: To inject the spacecraft into a near geostationary orbit; to erect a large antenna 

structure (nominally 9.14 m) in orbit which, 

with its associated communications system is 

capable of providing a good quality TV signal 

to small, inexpensive ground receivers, and to measure and evaluate the performance of such a system; to stabilize the spacecraft using a three axis control system, with a slewing capability in roll and pitch, permitting antenna pointing with an accuracy commensurate with the antenna characteristics ; to support and demonstrate user oriented applications experiments utilizing the spacecraft capabilities. 

Spacecraft: Consists of a rectangular Earth Viewing Module (EVM) 137 cm wide and 160 cm 

high connected by a 4 m long tubular truss 

support to a 9 m diameter deployable parabolic 

reflector. Two structural booms each supporting 

a solar array are mounted horizontally on the 

top of the parabolic reflector and measure 16 m end to end. The spacecraft, in its orbital con- figuration, is 8.5 m high from the top of the 

magnetometer boom to the bottom of the EVM. 

The communications system is a multi-frequency 

transponder, a redundant transmitting/receiving 

device containing six receivers and nine transmitters. Attitude control system uses hydrazine 

monopropellant thrusters. Two solar panels contain 21,600 solar cells covering a total area of 

20 sq m. Carries more than 20 technological and 

scientific experiments. Weight: 1402 kg. 

Objective: To study the plasma properties of the 

magnetosphere in the vicinity of the magnetic 

neutral point over the earth’s north polar cap. 

Spacecraft: Eight-sided truncated cone with 75-cm 

dia base, 25-cm dia top, and 75-cm high con- tains solar cells mounted on sides and bottom 

of outer shell. Spin stabilized spacecraft contains 

a magnetometer boom which extends 1.6 m from 

the spacecraft’s center line; two electric field an- tenna booms, each extendable to 23 m, through 

which VLF-ELF receivers will measure frequencies; and a search coil mounted on a 1.6-m 

boom. Orbiting configuration is 46-m tip-to-tip 

of the electric field antennas and 3.2-m tip-to-tip 

of the telescopic booms. Orbital weight: 27 kg. 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

kilometers) - 

Period 

(minutes) Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

35,818 Most complex, versatile, and pow35,763 erful of ATS series. High power 

1,436.3 receiver/transmitter can relay 

1.8 color TV and other signals to a 

large number of small inexpensive stations over a large area. Placed in synchronous orbit by 

NASA at 94” west longitude 

over Galapagos Islands. Began 

beaming educational programs 

to eight Appalachian states July 

1974. Also broadcast educational 

and medical programs to Alaska 

and Rocky Mountain states. 

Spacecraft will finish domestic 

program by end of school year 

(May 1975) and will be moved 

eastward to second station 35” 

east longitude over Lake Victoria, Kenya to beam programs 

to 5000 villages in northern 

India. Move will take about 45 

days. Spacecraft will be on sec- ond station about beginning of 

July 1975; will also support 

ASTP mission. 

126,793 

638 

3,078.1 

89.8 

Sixth in “Injun” Explorer series, 

satellite was designed and built 

by the University of Iowa which 

tracks and controls the spacecraft during flight. Launched by 

NASA into highly elliptical orbit 

using first five-stage Scout ve- hicle. All spacecraft booms and 

antennas deployed in orbit and 

all experiments turned on and 

operating satisfactorily. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 120 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.8 

110.4 

Objective: Practical applications of space-based 13,762 Navigation Technology Satellite 

technology. 13,440 originally was known as TimaSpacecraft: Not announced. 468.4 tion 3. Still in orbit. 

410 Decayed July 23, 1974. 

125.1 

1 28 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1974 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

kilometers)- 

Period 

(minutes) Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

July 16 

Aeros 2 

55A 

Objective: To measure the main aeronomic parameters of the upper atmosphere and the solar 

ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength band of 

853 West G e r m an - b u i 1 t satellite 

_.~~ 

scout 

Aua. 9 

Defense 

63A 

Thor-Burner I1 

Aug. 14 

Defense 

65A 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Aug. 30 

ANS 

7 OA 

scout 

Oct. 10 

Westar 2 

75A 

Thorad-Delta 

Oct. 15 

Ariel 5 

77A 

scout 

- main absorption. 

Spacecraft: Circular cylindrical shell welded to a 

bottom conical shell to form a structural unit 

916 cm in diameter and 710 cm high. Flat 

honeycomb solar cell arrav lid is attached to 

spacecraft cylinder top. Carries five scientific 

instruments: Mass Spectrometer (MS) , Retarding Potential Analyzer (RPA), Impedence Probe 

(IP) , EUV-Spectrometer (EUV), and Neutral 

Atmosphere Temperature Experiment (NATE) . Spin stabilized; four telemetry antennas; two 

batteries. Weight: 127 kg. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To increase the scientific knowledge of 

stellar ultraviolet (UV) and x-ray sources. 

Spacecraft : Rectangular double bar configuration 

123 cm high and 61 cm wide; measures 144 cm 

wide with wing-like solar paddles deployed. Co? 

tains three scientific experiments: a cassegrain 

type telescope with a spectrometer and five UVsensitive photomultipliers for a range of 1500 

to 3000 Angstroms; a two detector soft x-ray 

instrument for the spectral range of 0.2 to 5 kev; 

and a two detector hard x-ray instrument sensitive in the spectral range of 2 to 15 kev and a Bragg Crystal spectrometer sensitive for x-ray 

live radiation around 2 kev. Three-axis stabilized 

satellite contains 2,050 solar cells, one nickelcadmium battery, and four antennas. Weight: 

130 kg. 

Objective: To provide transmission of television, 

voice, and other data throughout the United 

States. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.8-m diameter and 3.7-m 

high including 1.5-m optically transparent an- tenna affixed to top of spacecraft; spin stabilized. 

Provides 12 color TV channels or up to 14, 

400 one-way telephone circuits ; 20,500 solar 

cells. Weight at launch: 572 kg.; weight in 

orbit: 300 kg. 

and technology. 

Objective: To investigate the galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. 

Spacecraft: 16-sided cylinder 86.4 cm high and 

95.8 cm in diameter consists of an assembly of 

aluminum honeycomb panels which house ex- periments and control instruments. Spin stabilized spacecraft has four 54.4-cm long telemetry 

antennas; 4536 silicon solar cells are mounted on the outside panels which cover 14 of 16 sides. 

Carries six x-ray experiments, four designed for 

pointing and two for scanning information. 

Weight: 130 kg. 

220 

95.3 

97.4 

875 

805 

101.6 

407 

123 

89.8 

110.4 

1,167 

254 

99.0 

98.1 

98.8 

35,766 

35,244 

1,42 1.7 

0.5 

557 

512 

95.3 

2.9 

launched by NASA into nearly 

polar orbit. All experiments 

turned on but spacecraft operating in real-time mode only be- cause of tape recorder failure. 

Returning; good data. 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed Sept. 29, 1974. 

First Netherlands/U.S. cooperative 

satellite launched by NASA 

Scout vehicle into polar orbit. 

Scout guidance package anomaly 

placed spacecraft into highly 

elliptical rather than near-circular orbit. All experiments turned on and returning data. 

Launched by NASA for Western 

Union Telegraph Company into 

transfer orbit. Apogee kick mo- tor fired Oct. 13 and placed 

spacecraft in stationary equatorial synchronous orbit over Pacific Ocean (90" west longitude). Second in a series of 

three satellites in U.S. commer- cial domestic communications 

satellite system. 

Fifth satellite in cooperative US./ 

U.K. series. Mission involved 

three nations-U.K.-built satellite carrying five U.K. experiments and one U.S. experiment was launched by an Italian crew from the San Marco platform off 

the coast of Kenya using a NASA Scout launch vehicle. All 

experiments are operating and 

spacecraft is performing well in 

near-circular orbit. 

129 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful US. Launches-1974 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

kilometers)- 

Period 

(minutes) Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Oct. 29 

Defense 

85A 

Titan IIID 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Oct. 29 

Defense 

85C 

Titan IIID 

Oct. 29 

Defense 

85D 

Titan IIID 

Nov. 15 

NOAA 4 (ITOS G) 

89A 

Thorad-Delta 

Nov. 15 

OSCAR 7 

89B 

Thorad-Delta 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in a Sun-synchron- ous orbit having a local equator crossing time of 

approximately 8: 40 am, descending to permit 

regular and dependable daytime and nighttime 

meteorological observations in both direct readout and stored modes of operation. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular, box-shaped spacecraft 

with a deployable 3-panel solar array: The base 

of the main body is about 102 cm by 102 cm and 

the overall height is about 122 cm. The total area of the array is 4.5 sq m with each of the 3 

panels measuring 93 cm by 162 cm. 3-axis stabilized, Earth-oriented satellite carries primary 

sensor complement of 2 Very High Resolution 

Radiometer (VHRR) instruments and 2 Scanning Radiometer (SR) sensors for daytime and 

nighttime coverage, 2 Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometers (VTPR) which permit determination of the Earth’s vertical temperature profile 

over every part of the Earth’s surface at least 

twice daily, and 1 secondary sensor, the Solar 

Proton Monitor (SPM) which provides continu- ous measurements of proton and electron flux 

activity near the Earth. Thermal control system; 

4 antennas. Weight: 345 kg. 

Objective : To provide noncommercial public serv- ice and educational use by the amateur radio 

community; to conduct an experimental program 

of multiple-access communications techniques 

using a large number of relatively low-powered 

earth terminals. 

Spacecraft: 8-sided cylindrical configuration with 

solar cells covering the exterior; 42.4 cm in diameter and 43.4 cm high. Carries a 2-to 10- 

meter repeater with input frequency between 

145.85 and 145.95 MHz and output frequency 

between 29.40 and 29.50 MHz; also carries a 

second repeater with input frequency between 

432.125 and 432.175 MHz and output frequency 

between 145.975 and 145.925 MHz. Each re- peater operational on alternate days. Weight: 

29.5 kg. 

279 

152 

88.8 

96.7 

542 

540 

95.3 

96.1 

3,711 

147 

125.4 

97.0 

1,457 

1,443 

114.9 

101.7 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Fourth operational satellite of a series of second generation me- teorological satellites launched 

by NASA. Part of NOAA global 

weather watch program. Spacecraft functioning normally and 

turned over to NOAA on Dec. 

4 for operational use. 

1,459 Built by American, Australian, 

1,445 Canadian, and German amateur 

114.9 groups working through the 

101.7 Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation (AMSAT). Launched by 

NASA as secondary payload. 

Spacecraft functioning normally 

and used heavily by amateurs 

around the world. 

130 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

S u c cessf u I U .S , La u n c h es-1974 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

kilometers)- 

Period 

(minutes) Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Nov. 15 Objective : To obtain measurements of ionospheric 1,457 

Intasat total electron content, ionospheric irregularities, 1,440 

89C and ionospheric scintillations. 114.9 

Thorad-Delta Spacecraft: 12-sided cylindrical body measures 41 101.7 cm high and 44.2 cm in diameter; antenna array consists of 4 monopoles (49 cm each) mounted on spacecraft bottom; beacon antenna goes 

through center of spacecraft and measures 4 m 

from end-to-end. 660 solar cells are mounted on 

the spacecraft's 12 side panels; nickel-cadmium 

battery. Magnet stabilized. Weight: 15 kg. 

Nov. 21 Objective: To provide equivalent of 3,000 to 9,000 35,780 

Intelsat IV F-8 telephone circuits simultaneously or 12 color TV 35,630 

93A 1,43 1.9 

A tlas-Centaur other forms of communications traffic. 1.8 

channels or a combination of telephone, TV, and 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 2.38-meter diameter and 

5.28-meter high ; spin stabilized; 12 communications repeaters (transponders) ; 6 antennas (2 

global transmit antennas, 2 global receive an- tennas, and 2 steerable spot-beam antennas) ; 

45,012 solar cells. Weight at liftoff: 1387 kg. 

Weight after apogee motor fire: 700 kg. 

Nov. 3 Objective: To be placed in geostationary equatorial 36,5,, 

Skynet IIB 35,896 

94A x-band military communications for British 1,459.4 

Thorad-Delta forces. 2.2 

orbit over the Indian Ocean to provide in orbit 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped satellite 209-cm high 

and 190-cm in diameter; 6 solar panels cover fiberglass outer shell ; two batteries. Contains 

S-band circular array antenna; 17-watt commu- nications transponder and horn antenna system ; 

attitude and orbit control subsystem; thermal 

control system ; monopropellant hydrazine reac- tion control unit; apogee boost TE-M-604-1 solid 

fuel motor. Weight at liftoff: 435 kg. 

First Spanish satellite, carries bea- con experiment for ionospheric 

study. Launched by NASA as secondary payload, magnetically 

stabilized spacecraft is functioning normally. 

Launched by NASA for Comsat 

Corp., manager of Intelsat. 6th 

satellite in improved Intelsat IV 

series. Apogee motor fired by 

Comsat on Nov. 23 and satellite 

stationed at 174" east longitude 

over Pacific Ocean. Commercial 

operations began Dec. 18, 1974. 

Second of two U.K. second generation operational comunications 

satellites. Launched by NASA 

for U.K. Apogee motor fired 

Nov. 24 and satellite stationed 

in synchronous orbit above the 

Indian Ocean. 

131 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successf u I U .S. Lau nc hes-1974 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

~ 

Apogee and 

perigee (in 

kilometers)- 

Period 

(minutes) Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Dec. 10 Objective: To investigate the fundamental solar 

Helios 1 processes and solar terrestrial relationships by the 

97A study of phenomena such as solar wind, magTitan IIIE- netic and electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic 

Centaur-TE- dust. The basic mission extends from launch to 

M-364-4 the first perihelion (approximately 0.31 A.U. 

and 90 days after launch). 

Spacecraft : Spool-shaped satellite formed by two 

conical solar arrays attached to a 16-sided cylindrical central body; the central compartment is 

1.75 m in diameter and 0.55 m high. Largest 

diameter of the solar arrays is 2.77 m and satellite height without antenna mast is 2.12 m; with 

the antenna mast protruding above the solar 

array, spacecraft height is 4.20 m. Two deployable booms attached to the central body measure 32 m tip-to-tip when extended and are used as 

antennas for a radiowave experiment; two other 

deployable booms, attached to the central body 

and perpendicular to the antenna booms, carry 

three magnetometer experiments. Solar cells located on the solar arrays above and below spacecraft body; second surface mirrors are interspersed among the solar cells to radiate excess heat; silver zinc batteries. Active and passive 

thermal control subsystem; attitude control subsystem; three antennas for communications and 

telemetry; carries 12 experiments. Weight: 370 

kg. 

Dec. 19 

Symphonie 1 

IOlA 

Thorad-Delta 

Objective: To test and demonstrate communications equipment for TV, radio, telephone, telegraph, and data transmission ; to provide equivalent of 2 color TV channels and 8 voice channels, or 1.200 teleuhone circuits between EuroDe. Africa,’ and Soith America. 

Payload: Flat hexagonal cylinder 1.85 m in diameter and 0.5 m hish. Three solar Dane1 winas 

folded against satellite body are deployed rn geosynchronous orbit and extend 2.5 m from 

spacecraft. Apogee motor engine and nozzle, 

super high frequency antenna feed and reflectors, 

reception horn, and solar sensors are mounted 

on spacecraft top; VHF antennas are on underside. Three axis stabilized by cold gas system; 

2 nickel-cadmium batteries. Weight: 402 kg. 

Helio- First operational use by NASA of 

centric Titan - Centaur configuration. 

orbit West German-built satellite successfully launched by NASA into 

elliptical solar orbit. spacecraft 

orbit will take it closer to Sun 

than any man-made object has 

achieved to date (45 million 

km). Results will contribute ma- jor new information on the dynamics of the solar corona and 

physical processes active on the 

Sun. 

! 

40,918 

38,705 

1,646.6 

1.2 

First of two experimental commu- nications satellites developed by 

France and Germany. Launched 

successfully by NASA into transfer orbit. Apogee motor was fired 

by Germany on Dec. 21 and 

placed spacecraft in synchronous 

equatorial orbit over the Atlantic 

off the west coast of Africa. 

132 
APPENDIX B-1 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1970-1974 

Date Name 

Jan. 15, 1970 

Jan. 23, 1970 

Intelsat I11 (F-6) 

Oscar V (Australis) 

Mar. 20,1970 NATOSAT-I 

Apr. 23, 1970 

(NATO-A) 

Intelsat I11 (F-7) 

Jul. 23, 1970 Intelsat I11 (F-8) 

Aug. 22,1970 Skynet I1 

(IDCSP-B) 

Jan. 26, 1971 Intelsat IV (F-2) 

Feb. 3, 1971 NATOSAT-I1 

(NATO-B) 

NOV. 3,1971 DSCS 2-1,2 

Dec. 19, 1971 Intelsat IV (F-3) 

Jan. 22, 1972 Intelsat IV (F-4) 

June 13,1972 Intelsat IV (F-5) 

Oct. 15, 1972 Oscar VI 

Nov. 9, 1972 

Apr. 20, 1973 

Aug. 24, 1973 

Dec. 13,1973 DSCS 2-3,4 

Jan. 19, 1974 Skynet 2A 

Anik 1 (Telesat 1) 

Anik 2 (Telesat 2) 

Intelsat IV (F-7) 

Apr. 13, 1974 Westar 1 

May 30,1974 ATS-6 

Oct. 10, 1974 Westar 2 

Nov. 21, 1974 

Nov. 23,1974 Skynet 2B 

Intelsat IV (F-8) 

Dec. 19,1974 Symphonie 1 

Launch Vehicle Remarks 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the 

United States, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. 

Ham radio satellite built by amateur radio operators at Melbourne University, Melbourne, Australia. 

First NATO satellite, stationed over Atlantic to carry military 

traffic between the United States and other NATO countries. 

Stationed over Atlantic to carry commercial traffic between the 

United States, Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. 

Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Not usable. Last 

launch of Intelsat I11 series. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the IDCSP program. Spacecraft failed to achieve 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas Centaur 

Atlas Centaur 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta f TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

the proper orbit. 

First in Intelsat IV series of spacecraft; 3-9,000, 2-way voice 

circuits or 12-color TV channels. Positioned over the Atlantic. 

Second NATO satellite, stationed over the Atlantic to carry 

military traffic. 

Operational defense communications satellites launched as a pair to 24-hour synchronous orbits to provide high capacity 

voice, digital, and secure voice communications for military 

networks. 

Second in new high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. 

Third in new high capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Fourth in new high capacity series. Positioned over Indian 

Amateur radio relay. 

Launched for Canada. 

Launched for Canada. 

Fifth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. 

Follow-on to DSCS 2-1, 2. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft failed to achieve 

Ocean. 

the proper orbit. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the Western Union Co. to establish a domestic 

communications link. 

gional services in North America and later India. 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Multipurpose experimental satellite especially designed for reLaunched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic 

communications links. 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Sixth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft positioned over 

Indian Ocean. 

First of two experimental satellites for France and West Germany. Spacecraft positioned over Atlantic. 

133 
APPENDIX El-Continued 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1970-1974 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Jan. 23, 1970 

Apr. 8,1970 Nimbus IV 

Dec. 11.1970 NOAA-1 

ITOS I (Tiros M) 

(ITOS-A) 

Aug. 16,1971 Eole (CAS-1) 

Oct. 15,1972 NOAA-2 

Dec. 11,1972 Nimbus V 

NOV. 6.1973 NOAA-3 

ITOS D) 

ITOS F) 

May 17,1974 SMS 1 

NOV. 15,1974 NOAA-4 (ITOS G) 

July 23,1972 ERTS-1 

Apr. 8,1970 Top0 I 

Aug. 27,1970 NavSat 0-19 

Sept. 2,1972 Triad 01-1 

Oct. 30,1973 NavSat 0-20 

Jul. 14,1974 NTS 1 

WEATHER OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena Fifth in a series of 7 advanced research and development 

Thor-Del ta 

scout 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

French satellite to gather data from constant density surface 

balloons relaying meteorological data for the study of the 

characteristics and movements of air masses. New balloons are released daily from 3 sites in Argentina, for this cooperative French/United States project. 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta Provided the first atmospheric vertical temperature profile 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

weather satellites. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

measurements through clouds. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

First full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry 

resources, mineral and land resources, land use, water re- sources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and the 

environment. 

GEODESY 

Thor-Agena D 

NAVIGATION 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Atlas F Navigation techno1o.w satellite. 

First experimental station keeping Transit navigation satellite. 

- -. 

Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identified by launch. 

134 
APPENDIX E2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1970-1974 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks . 

Nov. 9,1970 

Nov. 9,1970 

Nov. 30,1970 

Dec. 11,1970 

Dec. 12, 1970 

Mar. 13, 1971 

Apr. 1, 1971 

June 8, 1971 

June 8,1971 

Aug. 7,197 1 

Aug. 7,1971 

Aug. 7,1971 

Sen. 29. 1971 

dit. i7: 1971 

Nov. 15,1971 

Dec. 11,1971 

Jan. 31,1972 

Mar. 12, 1972 

Aug. 13,1972 

AUE. 21.1972 

SeG 23,'1972 

Oct. 2, 1972 

Oct. 2, 1972 

Nov. 15,1972 

Nov. 22,1972 

Dec. 16,1972 

June 10,1973 

Oct. 26, 1973 

Dec. 16,1973 

Feb. 18,1974 

Mar. 9, 1974 

June 3,1974 

July 16, 1974 

Aug. 30,1974 

Oct. 15, 1974 

Nov. 15. 1974 

OF0 1 

RMS 

OAO 

CEPE 

SAS (Explorer 42 ) 

IMP 8 (Explorer 43) 

ISIS 2 

SESP 1 

Solrad 10 

ov 1-20 

(Explorer 44) -. - -~ ov 1-21 

AVL 802 os0 7 

STP (SESP 71-2) 

SSS (Explorer 45) 

Ariel 4 

HEOS A-2 

Radcat ' 

Radsat 

SAS B (Explorer 48) 

ESRO 4 

Aeros 1 

Radio Astronomy 2 

(Explorer 49) 

IMP 10 (Explorer 50) 

Atmosphere 

San Marco 4 

UK X-4 (Miranda) 

Hawkeye 

Aeros 2 

ANS 

Ariel 5 

INTASAT 

(Explorer 5 1 ) 

(Explorer 52) 

scout 

scout 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor Delta 

scout 

Thor Delta 

Thor Delta 

Thor Burner I1 

scout 

Atlas Satar 

Atlas Satar 

Atlas Satar 

Thor Delta 

Thor Agena 

scout 

scout 

Thor Delta 

Thor Delta 

scout 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor Delta 

Atlas Burner I1 

Atlas Burner I1 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Thor Delta 

Thor Delta 

Thor Delta 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Thor Delta 

Measure vestibular nerve activity of two frogs, otolith system. 

Radiation meteoroid measurements, pickaback to OF0 1. 

Orbiting astronomical observatory Shroud did not separate, 

Cylindrical Electrostatic Probe Experiment, pickaback to 

Study of celestial x-ray sources. (Italian launched.) 

Study of solar-lunar-terrestrial relationships in the radiation environment of the interplanetary magnetic field. 

Electron production and loss, and large scale transport of ionization. (Canadian payload.) 

Defense scientific experiments. 

Monitor sun's x-ray and UV emissions. 

Defense scientific experiment. 

Defense scientific experiment. 

Defense scientific experiment. 

Observe active physical processes on the sun. Defense scientific experiments. 

Investigate ring current and magnetic storms, acceleration of 

charged particles (Italian launched.) 

Investigate interactions among the plasma, charged particle 

streams, electromagnetic waves. (United Kingdom payload.) 

Investigate interplanetary space and high latitude magnetosphere. (International cooperative payload.) 

Seven ESRO experiments. 

Meteoroid penetration rate study. 

Precise astronomical observation from above the atmosphere. 

Study cislunar space radiation environment, plus magnetic data. 

Defense scientific experiment. 

Defense scientific experiment. 

Survey of high energy gamma radiation including point sources. 

Polar ionosphere studies. (ESRO payload.) 

Study of upper atmosphere and ionospheric F region. (German 

Measure galactic and solar radio noise shielded from earth by 

Study of interplanetary environment particle and field interPhotochemical processes in absorption of solar UV. 

Diurnal variations in equatorial neutral atmosphere. (Italian 

payload and launch.) 

Measure density of sun reflecting particles near the spacecraft, 

and test engineering systems. (United Kingdom payload.) 

Plasma properties of the magnetosphere over the nortlf polar cap. 

Measure aeronomic parameters of upper atmosphere and solar 

Study steller UV and x-ray sources. (Netherlands payload.) Study galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. (United Kingfailed to reach orbit. 

NOAA 1. 

(Italian launched.) 

payload. ) 

the moon, by use of lunar orbit. 

actions in the distant magneto tail. 

UV. (German payload.) 

dom payload.) 

larities and scintillation. Spanish payload. 

Measure ionospheric total electron content, ionospheric irregu1 35 
APPENDIX EL3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1970-1974 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

May 8,1971 Mariner 8 Atlas Centaur Mars orbital photographic mission. Launch failure. 

May 30, 1971 Mariner 9 

Mar. 3, 1972 Pioneer 10 

Atlas Centaur Mars orbital photographic mission. Entered orbit of Mars Nov. 

13, 1971. Returned 6,876 pictures and data on temperatures, 

elevations, and water vapor. 

Jupiter flyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 3, 1973, returned 

color pictures and data on radiation, temperatures, and magnetic fields. Accelerated toward solar system escape. 

Apr. 6, 1973 Pioneer 11 Jupiter fiyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 2, 1974, returning 

pictures and data and headed for a similar pass by Saturn 

before accelerating out of the solar system. 

Nov. 3, 1973 Mariner 10 Atlas Centaur Venus and Mercury flyby mission. Passed Venus on Feb. 5, 

1974, returning 3,7 12 pictures in several wavelengths. Passed 

Mercury on Mar. 29, 1974 returning good quality pictures. 

Passed Mercury again on Sep. 21, 1974, returning 500-600 

good quality pictures. Will pass Mercury again on Mar. 16, 

1975. Other data were also returned. 

Investigate properties of interstellar space close to Sun. W. 

German payload. 

Atlas Centaur 

Atlas Centaur 

Dec. 10, 1974 Helios 1 Titan IIIE-Centaur 

136 
APPENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok 1 

Mercury- Redstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

MercuryAtlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 

7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 

Mercury- Atlas 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

8 

9 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovsky 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Tohn W. Young 

1 h 48 min. 

15 min. 

16 min. 

25 h 18 min. 

4 h 55 min. 

4 h 56 min. 

First nianned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing. 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 250 mi from target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 4 mi of Vostok 3. 

Landed 5 mi from target. 

First long U.S. flight. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 3 mi of Vostok 

First 3-man crew. 

5. 

94 h 22 min. 

70 h 57 min. 

9 h 13 min. 

34 h 20 min. 

119 h 6 min. 

70 h 50 min. 

24 h 17 min. 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

26 h 2 min. 

4 h 53 min. 

97 h 56 min. 

190 h 55 min. 

330 h 35 min. 

25 h 51 min. 

10 h 41 min. 

72 h 21 min. 

70 h 47 min. 

71 h 17 min. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual ma21-min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 1 ft of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket). 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

First initial-orbit rendezvous ; first tethered 

flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (853 

mi). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 h 37 min). 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

min) . 

.. neuvers in orbit. - 

James A. McDYvitt 

Edward H. White, 2d 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

94 h 35 min. 

26 h 37 min. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 260 h 9 min. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgi Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Boris Volynov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Euqene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

94 h 51 min. 

147 h 1 min. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit (s) of Moon ; first manned 

departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned 

flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 

Cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

71 h 23 min. 

72 h 56 min. 

Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 241 h 1 min. Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of lunar module to landing and takeoff from lunar surface and rejoining with 

command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar midule descent to 47,000 

ft from the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock 

and soil samples to Earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 192 h 3 min. 

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 195 h 19 min. 

137 
APPENDXX CLContinued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Nov. 

Apr. 

June 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

4, 1969 

1, 1970 

1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6, 1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Vladislav Volkov 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Timofeyevich 

Vladislov Nikolavevich 

Dobrovolskiy 

Volkov 

Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James Bensen Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charls M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly, 11 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr Klimuk 

Valentin Lebedev 

Pave1 Popovich 

Yuriy Artyukhin 

Gennadiy Sarafanov 

Lev Demin 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

118 h 42 min. 

118 h 41 min. 

118 h 50 min. 

244 hr 36 min. 

142 h 55 min. 

424 h 59 min. 

216 h 2 min. 

47 h 46 min. 

570 h 22 min. 

295 h 12 min. 

265 h 51 min. 

301 hr 52 min. 

672 h 50 min. 

1,427 h 9 min. 

47 h 16 min. 

2,017 h 16 min. 

188 h 55 min. 

377 h 30 min. 

48 h 12 min. 

142 h 24 min. 

Soyuz 6, 7 and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial observations. 

Second manned lunar landing. Continued 

manned exploration and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor I11 spacecraft which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted due to explosion in the 

service module. Ship circled Moon, with 

crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just 

prior to reentry. 

Longest manned space flight to date, lasting 

17 days 16 h 59 min. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pin-point landing capability and 

continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not 

board space station launched Apr. 19. 

Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first 

Apollo “J” series mission which carry the 

Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight 

EVA of 38 rnin 12 s was performed during 

return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landDocked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired 

Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. 

ing, with roving vehicle. 

damaged station. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in continuing long 

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources experiments. 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied space station for over 14 days. 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

duration mission. 

138 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Thrust Max. Max. Payload (Ib) ~ 

(in thou- dia. Height ~ 

Vehicle Stages Propellant ' sandsof (ft) (ft) 300NM Escape First 

Scout.. ..1. AlgolIIIA .............. Solid ....................... 108.3 3.67 72.0 '410 '85 '1972(60) 

2. Castor IIA .............. Solid ....................... 63.2 

28.5 

5.9 

series. nine TX 354-5 Solid 99 

10.3 

15 

Thor:Delta 2900 1. Thor plus 205 8 116 '3,900 '1,050 1973(60) ... ................ 

Atlas-Agena ................. 1. Atlas booster and LOX/RP-1 ............ 503 10 133 '7,700 '1,430 1968(60) 

sustainer 

(SLV/JA). 

2. Agena ..................... IRFNA/UDMH .... 

2. LR-91 .................... NnOl/Aerozine ....... 3. Agena ...................... IRFN/UDMH. ...... 

16 

102 

16 

Titan IIIB-Agena ....... 1. LR-87 ................... NzO'/Aerozine ....... 464 10 159 '7,200 '1,500 1966 

Titan IIIC ................... 1. Two 5-segment Solid 2,400 ....................... 10x30 133 '27,700 ' 6,900 1965 

120-in diameter. 

LR-87 ................... NzO,/Aerozine ...... 520 

LR-91 ................... NzOJAerozine ........ 102 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Titan IIID ................... 1. 

2. 

3. 

Titan IIIE-Centaur .... 1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Atlas-Centaur .............. 1. 

2. 

Saturn IB ..................... 1. 

2. 

Transtage ............... NpO4;Aerozine ...... 

Two 5-segment Solid ....................... 

LR-87 ................... NDJAerozine.. ...... LR-91 .................... N~O'/Aerozine ........ 

120-in diameter.. 

Two 5-segment Solid ....................... 

LR-87 .................... NpOl/Aerozine ........ LR-9 1 ................... .NzO4/Aerozine.. ...... 

Centaur (Two LOX/LH ................ 

Atlas booster and LOX/RP ................. 

120-in diameter.. 

RL-IO). 

sustainer. 

RL-10). 

Centaur (Two LOX/LH ................. 

S-IB (eight H-1 ) ... LOX/RP ................. S-IVB (one 1-21 ... LOX/LH ................. 

15.7 

2,400 10x30 154 10,500 ........... 1971 

520 

102 

2,400 10x30 160 ........... ' 11,300 1974 

520 

102 

30 

503 10 131 '10,300 '2,500 1967(62) 

30 

1,640 21.6 181 ' 34,000 ............ 1966 

230 

'The date of first launch applies to this latest modification Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Diwith a date in parentheses for the initial version. methylhydrazine-IRFN/UDMH ; Nitrogen Tetroxide and 

'Set of 3. UDMH/NzH&-NzOJAerozine ; Liquid Oxygen and Liquid 

Propellant abbreviations used are as follows : Liquid Oxy- Hydrogen-LOX/LH. 

gen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP; Solid propellant 'Due east launch. 

combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid; Polar launch. 

139 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

18-YEAR BUDGET SUMMARY-NEW FISCAL YEAR OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY 

[Irrmillions of dollars (may not add due to rounding)] 

NASA Department Total 

Total Space' of Defense AEC Commerce Interior Aariculture NSF mace 

1959 ................................ 305.4 235.4 489.5 34.3 ................................................................. 

1960 ....................... .... 523.6 461.5 560.9 

1961 ....................... .... 964.0 926.0 813.9 

1962 ................................ 1,824.9 1,796.8 1,298.2 147.8 

1963 ................................ 3,673.0 3,626.0 1,549.9 213.9 43.2 .................................. 

1964 ................................ 5,099.7 5,046.3 1,599.3 210.0 2.8 .................................... 

1965 _.._ ......... 5.249.7 5.167.6 1.573.9 228.6 12.2 ................................. 

............. 759.2 

.1 1,065.8 

.6 1.808.2 

1.3 3i294.8 

3.0 6,861.4 

3.2 6.985.5 

1.5 5,434.5 

1966 ................................ 5;174.9 5i094.5 1i688.8 186.8 26.5 ..................................... 3.2 6:999.8 

.... 4,588.8 4,452.5 1,921.8 145.1 28.1 0.2 0.5 3.2 6.55 1.4 

.._ 4,967.6 4,862.2 1,663.6 183.6 29.3 ................................... 2.8 6,741.5 

1969 ................................ 3,990.9 3,822.0 2,013.0 118.0 20.0 0.2 0.7 

1970 ......... 3,745.8 3,547.0 1,678.4. 102.8 8.0 1.1 0.8 

1971 ................................ 3,311.2 3,101.3 1,512.3 94.8 27.4 1.9 0.8 

1972 ................................ 31306.6 3:071.0 11407.0 55.2 31.3 5.8 1.6 

1973 ................................ 31406.2 3i093.2 1,623.0 54.2 39.7 10.3 1.9 

1974 ............... I ................ 3,036.9 2,758.5 1,766.0 41.7 60.2 9.0 3.1 

1975Est. ........................ 3.228.8 2.920.3 2.011.0 40.2 64.6 8.3 3.9 

1976 Est. ........................ 3i536.6 3i222.4 2i191.0 43.8 73.7 8.3 5.8 

1.9 5i975.8 

2.4 5,340.5 

2.4 4,7 4 0.9 

2.6 4,824.8 

1.8 4,640.3 

2.0 5,050.3 

2.8 4,5 74.7 

2.4 5,547.4 

Excludes amounts for air transportation. Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

U.S. Space Budget-New Obligational Authority-1964-1976 

BILLIONS OF DOLLARS 

V." 

7.0 

6.0 - 

5.0 - 

4.0 - 

3.0 - 

2.0 - 

1.0 - 

- 

FISCAL YEAR 

'EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AVIATION TECHNOLOGY 

SOURCE OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 

EST. 

5.5 

1976 

EST. 

= OTHER 

.............. .............. 

.............. .............. 

.............. 

............................ .............. DEFENSE .............. .............. 

I1 NASA' 

140 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

New obligational authority Outlays 

1974 1975 1976 1974 1975 1976 

actual estimate estimate actual estimate estimate 

Federal space programs : NASA ' ............................................................. 2,758.5 2,920.3 3,222.4 2,960.4 2,903.1 3,181.7 

Commerce ......................................................... 60.2 64.6 73.7 64.0 67.3 68.9 

Interior ...................................... ... 9.0 8.3 8.3 9.3 7.8 8.2 

Defense ............................................................ 1,766.0 2,011.0 2,191.0 1,777.0 1,904.0 2,133.0 

AEC ................................................................... 41.7 40.2 43.8 38.8 43.6 46.8 

NSF ..................................................................... 1.8 2.0 2.4 1.3 1.7 1.8 

Total ......................................................... 4.640.3 5.050.3 5,547.4 4,853.9 4,931.4 5,446.2 

Agriculture ..................................................... 3.1 3.9 5.8 3.1 3.9 5.8 

NASA: 

Manned space flight ......................................... 1,408.9 1,505.8 1,781.5 1,473.1 1,537.6 1,705.4 

Space science, applications and technology ... 1,020.6 1,084.2 1,118.8 1,168.1 1,040.5 1,127.3 

Air tranmortaion ................... ........... 278.4 308.5 314.2 291.9 304.4 316.3 

Supporting operations .......................... 334.3 334.2 325.0 324.6 328.6 351.9 

Less receipts ................................................. -5.3 -3.9 -2.9 -5.3 -3.9 -2.9 

Total NASA ' ..................................... 3.036.9 3.228.8 3.536.6 3.252.3 3,207.2 3,498.0 

* Excludes amounts for Air transportation. 

'The detail shown for NASA reflects a change in the budget 

functional classification used in previous years, and is con- sistent with NASA's FY 1976 budget documents. 

Source: Office of Management and Budget 

Aeronautics Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

New obligational authority 

1974 1975 1976 

actual estimate estimate 

NASA .......................................................................................................... 278.4 308.5 314.2 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

Department of Defense ' ................................................................. 1,677.5 1,615.5 2,123.3 

Department of Transportation ....................................................... 73.6 70.4 97.9 

Total .................................................................................................... 2,029.5 1,994.4 2,535.4 

' Rrsearch and Development, Construction of Facilities, Re- Office of Secretary of Transportation and Federal Aviation 

' Research, Development, Testing, and Equipment of airsearch and Program Management. 

craft and related equipment. 

Administration Research and Development. 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

141 

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