Moon to Mars 

Architecture

Executive Overview

2023 Architecture Concept Review
contents

1

index &

introduction

2

architecture

process

4

objectives 

overview

6

architecture

segments

7

subarchitectures

8

architecture

elements

9

white

papers

10

forward 

work

Introduction

NASA is leading a campaign of human 

exploration, science, and discovery that 

begins in lunar space and journeys on 

to Mars. This document summarizes the 

agency’s recent body of planning, focusing 

on work performed during the 2023 

Architecture Concept Review cycle. 

NASA established its Moon to Mars 

Objectives in 2022 with input from U.S. 

industry, academia, international space 

agencies, and its workforce to guide deep 

space exploration. NASA’s Moon to Mars 

Architecture serves as a roadmap to 

accomplish those objectives, identifying 

the technologies and capabilities needed to 

return to the lunar surface and venture on 

to the Red Planet. Every year, NASA updates 

its Architecture Definition Document to 

reflect the latest architectural development 

work. 

Why Explore?

NASA anchors its vision for exploration in 

the value it provides humanity. Three pillars 

form the foundation: science, national 

posture, and inspiration.

Science: Investigations in deep space, 

on the Moon, and on Mars will enhance 

our understanding of the universe and 

our place in it.

National Posture: What is done, how 

it's accomplished, and who participates 

affect our world, quality of life, and 

humanity’s future.

Inspiration: Accepting audacious 

challenges motivates current and future 

generations to contribute to our voyage 

deeper into space. 

1

Figure 1

The three pillars of 

exploration for NASA’s 

Moon to Mars effort. 

Crewed exploration of the Moon and Mars will strengthen these three pillars, leading 

to a new era of science and discovery. The Moon to Mars Objectives define NASA's 

ambitions; the Moon to Mars Architecture shows how to realize them. 
The Architecture 

Process

When most think of architecture, they envision skyscrapers, cantilevered 

homes, or marbled museums. In this case, architecture is not limited to the 

built environment. It isn’t a mission, a manifest, or a set of requirements. 

Instead, NASA’s Moon to Mars Architecture defines the systems needed for 

long-term, human-led scientific discovery in deep space and the relationships 

between them.

NASA’s architecture approach distills agency-developed objectives into 

operational systems and elements that support science and exploration 

goals. Working with experts across the agency, industry, academia, and 

the international community, NASA continuously evolves that blueprint for 

crewed exploration, setting humanity on a path to the Moon, Mars, and 

beyond.

In collaboration with other NASA mission directorates — Space Operations, 

Science, Space Technology, and Aeronautics Research—NASA’s Exploration 

Systems Development Mission Directorate establishes systems for Moon 

to Mars exploration. Within the mission directorate, NASA’s Strategy and 

Architecture Office leads definition, documentation, and disposition of the 

overarching Moon to Mars architecture in consultation with stakeholders.

NASA begins with the broadest goals — far in the future on the timeline. 

From there, each objective is traced to relevant architectural needs and 

systems. This methodology — called “architecting from the right” — 

identifies technology and capability gaps that NASA must address to achieve 

the Moon to Mars Objectives. This process empowers decision-makers to 

select the right tools for the job.

NASA develops and invests in solutions that fulfill Moon to Mars Objectives 

based on their decomposition into needed use cases and functions. The 

agency catalogs these solutions in the Architecture Definition Document, a 

living record of NASA’s overarching plan for crewed deep space exploration.

Each year, NASA conducts a strategic analysis cycle that culminates in the 

Architectural Concept Review and the releases of an updated Architecture 

Definition Document. Additional Architecture Concept Review cycle activities 

and products include workshops, webinars, white papers, and other 

resources that explain or expand upon concepts.

key terms

Architecture

The unified structure that 

defines a system, providing 

rules, guidelines, and 

constraints for constituent 

parts and establishing how 

they fit and work together.

Characteristics & Needs

Features, activities, and 

capabilities necessary to 

satisfy goals and objectives.

Use Case

An operation that would be 

executed to meet desired 

characteristics and needs. 

Function

One of the actions 

necessary to satisfy a use 

case.

Element

A notional exploration 

system that enables a set of 

functions.

Sub-architecture

A group of tightly coupled 

elements, functions, and 

capabilities that work 

together to accomplish one 

or more objectives. 

Segment

A portion of the 

architecture that integrates 

sub-architectures and 

progressively increases in 

complexity and objective 

satisfaction.

2

Architecture Concept Review attendees listen to welcome remarks from 

NASA leadership on Nov. 14, 2023, at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in 

Florida. Attendees included representatives from all of NASA’s centers, 

leaders from all of NASA’s mission directorates, various technical authorities, 

and other stakeholders across the agency. (Credit: NASA/Kim Shifflet) 
Architecting from the right means developing the capabilities and 

technologies needed to achieve specific long-term goals, not just 

making decisions arbitrarily or out of short-term convenience. 

For example, if one needs to write something down, the instinct might 

be to choose a yellow #2 pencil, but what is the essential function 

needed? Writing is the use case, being erasable is an operational 

constraint, and being yellow is a design feature. The #2 pencil meets 

the need, but a pen, marker, or paint might be just as well suited to 

the task. Ensuring a full understanding of the needs, constraints, and 

long-term applications is essential to the decision. 

In the same way, NASA must consider its objectives and then build the 

systems to accomplish them, not simply select tools that may already 

exist. The architecture process enables methodical deliberation to 

avoid bias, and instead favors the most effective tools.

selecting the right tools

3

Detailed explanations of the architecture effort and concepts 

simplified for this overview can be found on our website:

https://www.nasa.gov/architecture

Figure 2

Illustration of NASA’s 

evolutionary architecture 

decomposition process.
4

Moon to Mars Objectives

NASA’s Moon to Mars Objectives seek to expand humanity’s frontiers in space science and 

exploration. The objectives fall into the overarching goals below:

Lunar and Planetary Science

Answer questions about the formation of our 

solar system, the geology and chemistry of 

planetary bodies, and the origins of life. 

Heliophysics

Advance our study of the Sun and our 

ability to observe, model, and predict space 

weather. 

Human and Biological Science

Grow our understanding of how the lunar, 

Martian, and deep space environments affect 

living things. 

Physics and Physical Sciences 

Investigate space, time, and matter in the unique 

environments of the Moon, Mars, and deep 

space.

Science Enabling

Develop integrated human and robotic techniques 

that address high-priority scientific questions 

around and on the Moon and Mars.

Applied Science

Conduct science utilizing integrated human 

and robotic techniques to inform the design of 

exploration systems.

Lunar Infrastructure

Create an framework for government, industry, 

academia, and international partners to participate 

in a robust lunar economy and facilitate science. 

Mars Infrastructure

Develop the power, communications, navigation, 

and resource utilization capabilities to support 

initial human Mars exploration. 

Transportation and Habitation

Create the systems necessary for humans to 

travel to the Moon and Mars, live and work there, 

and return to Earth safely. 

Operations

Conduct crewed missions to gradually build 

technologies and capabilities to live and work on 

planetary surfaces other than Earth.

Figure 3

Example decomposition of two 

characteristics and needs into their 

associated use cases and functions.
Human Lunar Return

Includes the inaugural Artemis missions which will 

return humanity to the Moon for the first time since the 

Apollo missions of the 1960s and 70s. This segment will 

demonstrate and validate core systems and capabilities 

for the Moon to Mars effort. 

This segment will test crew and cargo transportation 

systems, deploy lunar communications relays, 

demonstrate technologies, and land the first woman 

and first person of color on the lunar surface. Missions 

pursued in this segment will lay the groundwork to 

achieve the Moon to Mars Objectives. 

Sustained Lunar Evolution

Will aim to build future economic opportunity and 

greater participation in lunar science and exploration. 

The segment will increase our science capability, mission 

duration, and the production of goods and services 

derived from lunar resources. 

This segment is an “open canvas,” embracing new ideas, 

systems, and partners to realize a long-term presence on 

the Moon and grow the lunar economy. This sustained 

architecture could achieve existing science objectives 

and address new science objectives identified through 

discoveries in previous segments. 

Foundational Exploration

Will prepare for future segments by expanding operations, 

capabilities, and systems supporting crewed missions to 

lunar orbit and the Moon’s surface. It will build on initial 

Human Lunar Return capabilities and validate exploration 

systems for future Mars missions. 

Surface missions in this segment will feature increased 

duration, expanded mobility, and regional exploration of 

the lunar South Pole. Orbital operations will also increase 

in duration. The needs of future missions will influence this 

segment’s activities, which may include reconnaissance, 

Mars risk reduction, and initial infrastructure for longterm lunar evolution. 

Humans to Mars

Will establish a human presence on Mars and empower 

new science on its surface. Since the earliest days of 

spaceflight, the Red Planet has captivated humanity. The 

Moon to Mars Architecture sets a course to finally step 

foot on a planet beyond humanity’s own. 

Building on previous segments, this segment will include 

the initial capabilities and systems necessary to safely 

travel to Mars, land on its surface, and return safely to 

Earth. Following this initial journey to Mars, NASA will 

prepare for progressively longer and more complex 

missions there. 

5

Architecture Segments

The architecture segments below capture the evolutionary nature of NASA’s Moon to Mars exploration 

strategy, growing in complexity over time to meet more of NASA’s Moon to Mars Objectives.

1

4

2

3
6

Communications, Navigation, 

Positioning, and Timing Systems 

Enable transmission and reception of data, 

determination of location and orientation, 

and acquisition of precise time. Habitation Systems 

Ensure the health and performance of 

astronauts in controlled environments.

Human Systems 

Execute human and robotic missions; this 

includes crew, ground personnel, and 

supporting systems.

Logistics Systems 

Package, handle, transport, stage, store, 

track, and transfer items and cargo.

Mobility Systems 

Move crew and cargo around the lunar and 

Martian surfaces. 

Power Systems 

Generate, store, condition, and distribute 

electricity for architectural elements.

Transportation Systems 

Convey crew and cargo to and from Earth 

to the Moon and Mars.

Utilization Systems 

Enable science and technology 

demonstrations.

Data Systems and Management

Transfer, distribute, receive, validate, 

secure, decode, format, compile, and 

process data and commands. In-situ Resource 

Utilization (ISRU) Systems

Extract resources in space or on the Moon 

or Mars to generate products. Infrastructure Support

Includes facilities, systems, operations 

planning and control, equipment, and 

services needed on Earth, in space, and on 

planetary surfaces. Autonomous Systems 

and Robotics

Employ software and hardware to assist 

the crew and operate during uncrewed 

periods.

Sub-Architectures

Each sub-architecture represents a task, technology, or process 

that NASA must master to achieve the Moon to Mars objectives. 

The first eight of the sub-architectures listed below were included 

in the first edition of the Architecture Definition Document, with 

the last four added as part of the 2023 Architecture Concept 

Review process. 

New for 2023

New for 2023
7

White Papers written in response to 

suggestions at 2023 Moon to Mars 

Architecture workshops.

Analytical Capabilities 

In-situ vs. Returned

Samples collected on the lunar surface may 

be analyzed by science instruments launched 

to the Moon or at laboratories on Earth. Insitu analysis is limited by the capabilities 

of instruments that can be launched to the 

Moon, whereas samples returned to Earth can 

benefit from more refined analyses. However, 

returning pristine samples — those kept in the 

environment in which they were collected — 

to Earth presents technological challenges.

Safe and Precise Landing

at Lunar Sites

Precision lunar landings will become 

increasingly important as space agencies 

and private companies explore more of the 

Moon. More precise landings enhance crew 

safety, minimize site contamination risks, and 

enable missions to reach specific, scientifically 

significant sites.

Surface Extravehicular Activity 

Architectural Drivers

When humans return to the Moon, they won’t 

simply land — they’ll explore the lunar surface 

during extravehicular activities, or spacewalks. 

NASA and its partners will need to address the 

unique challenges of walking on the Moon. 

The lessons learned on the lunar surface 

will directly influence plans for crewed Mars 

missions.

Lunar Communications and

Navigation Architecture

NASA’s return to the Moon will require reliable 

communications services and accurate 

navigation data. A network of ground stations, 

space relay satellites, and surface-to-surface 

communications equipment provided by 

NASA, industry, and international partners 

will keep Artemis astronauts connected with 

Earth. 

Lunar Logistics 

Drivers and Needs

To support crewed missions, the missions 

need numerous logistics items — the 

equipment and supplies necessary to sustain 

life, maintain systems, and conduct science — 

supplied to the lunar surface. The composition 

and amount of these items vary significantly 

based on mission requirements. 

Lunar Site Selection

Exactly where Artemis missions land when 

humans return to the Moon will depend on 

a wide variety of factors. Surface conditions, 

science objectives, the lighting environment, 

communications availability, system 

capabilities, and more can affect landing site 

selection. 

2023 White Papers
8

Read the white papers here:

https://go.nasa.gov/3TM8c9y

Exploration Lessons Learned 

from the Space Station

The International Space Station is 

humanity’s testbed in low-Earth orbit. The 

orbiting laboratory is advancing capabilities 

in life support, navigation, extravehicular 

activities, and human health. Lessons 

learned on the space station are enabling 

deep space exploration.

Round Trip Mars Mission

Mass Challenges

Round-trip Mars missions are much more 

difficult than one-way trips. Mars “gear ratios” are 

multipliers of the mass required to launch any 

given payload from Earth’s gravity well to Mars’ 

and then return it home. The mass requirements 

for each leg of a round-trip mission will affect 

mission cost, schedule, and complexity.

Human Health and Performance

For Mars Missions

Astronauts on missions to Mars will face a 

series of interrelated risks to their health and 

performance, including radiation exposure, 

changing gravity, isolation, distance from 

Earth, and environmental factors on the 

surface. Mission architecture and equipment 

design should consider these risks and 

minimize them wherever possible.

Mars Communications 

Disruption and Delay

Communications blackouts and delays are 

unavoidable for crewed Mars missions, 

though blackouts can be mitigated through 

thoughtful design. Crewed Mars exploration 

must respond to the unique constraints of 

the Red Planet; to account for disruption and 

delays, system and crew autonomy must be a 

significant focus in mission planning. 

Mars Mission 

Abort Considerations

Crewed Mars missions have more challenging 

abort factors than lunar missions due to the 

sheer distance from Earth. An abort in transit 

to Mars will take months, not days. Early Mars 

missions will have limited abort options from 

the surface. This paradigm shift will require 

fundamental changes in mission planning.

Mars Surface 

Power Generation

The first human explorers on Mars will need 

energy to power the systems they use to live and 

work on the surface and ascend back to orbit. The 

Martian environment poses unique challenges 

for generating power and power requirements 

will vary significantly based on mission profile. 

In January 2024, alongside the release of an update to the Architecture Definition Document, NASA published 13 

new white papers on select Moon to Mars Architecture topics as part of the annual Architecture Concept Review 

cycle. Experts from across the agency authored the papers; some topics arose from suggestions at workshops 

for industry, academia, and international space agencies. The white papers explore the challenges of crewed 

missions to deep space and raise questions that need to be answered to build a future among the stars. 

Key Mars 

Architecture Decisions

NASA has developed analysis tools to better 

understand the relationships between the 

many decisions it will need to make to begin 

planning initial crewed missions to Mars. 

Using these tools, seven key Mars architecture 

decisions have been identified. They are not 

the only questions to answer, but their answers 

will affect the many decisions that follow.
9

element

initiation

In 2023, NASA’s Exploration 

Systems Development Mission 

Directorate introduced a new 

integration milestone for 

formulating Moon to Mars 

architecture elements: element 

initiation. 

During element initiation, the 

directorate reviews whether 

a potential concept provides 

a solution to needs or gaps 

identified in the Moon to Mars 

Architecture. The element 

initiation process will ensure 

that NASA invests in the most 

effective technologies and 

capabilities to meet the Moon to 

Mars objectives, and that those 

technologies and capabilities 

demonstrate sufficient maturity 

and contribute to the needs of 

the architecture. 

NASA initiated two new elements 

through the element initiation 

process in 2023: a lunar surface 

habitation element, which may 

provide an initial home for 

astronauts on the Moon, and 

a lunar surface cargo lander 

element, which may deliver 

supplies and equipment to the 

Moon. 

New Architecture 

Elements for 2023

Gateway Extravehicular Robotic System 

Canadian Space Agency

The next-generation Canadarm3 will install 

science experiments on the outside of 

Gateway, assist astronauts in spacewalks, and 

perform external surveys.

Gateway ESPIRIT Refueling Module 

European Space Agency

This habitable module will contain refueling 

tanks, cargo space, and large windows to 

allow astronauts aboard Gateway to view 

outside the station.

Gateway Airlock Module

The airlock is the access point between 

Gateway’s pressurized cabin and the vacuum 

of space. It will enable astronauts aboard 

Gateway to conduct spacewalks and can also 

be used as an additional docking port.

Human-class Delivery Lander

This lander will transport cargo for human 

lunar missions. Crew members will arrive 

aboard the Human Landing System, and 

additional cargo will arrive aboard the 

Human-class Delivery Lander.

Pressurized Rover

This rover will allow astronauts to live and 

work at a variety of locations on the lunar 

surface. It will carry scientific equipment and 

function as a mobile laboratory and can be 

remotely repositioned between missions.

Lunar Terrain Vehicle 

This unpressurized vehicle will transport crew 

and equipment across the lunar surface. It 

can also be operated remotely.

Elements include hardware that has already launched, like the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System rocket, 

but also include in-development systems, like the Human Landing System, the Gateway lunar space station, and the 

spacesuits astronauts will wear on the lunar and Martian surfaces.

In the first edition of the Architecture Definition Document, NASA established nine elements for the Human Lunar 

Return segment. In 2023, NASA added six new elements to the segment: 
As NASA prepares for the Artemis II mission, which will return humans to cislunar space for the first time since the 

Apollo missions of the 1960s and 70s, the agency continues to refine its Moon to Mars Architecture. Preparations are 

underway for the 2024 strategic analysis cycle. NASA will hold workshops for industry, academia, and international 

partners in February 2024, prompting discussions about how to help achieve the Moon to Mars Objectives. 

During the 2024 strategic analysis cycle, NASA will begin to:

• Address gaps in the Human Lunar Return and Foundational Exploration segments, introducing elements that 

provide key capabilities such as returning cargo to Earth, offloading and relocating assets on the surface of the 

Moon, and other important lunar logistics functions. 

• Perform strategic analysis for sub-architectures, developing strategies for services like surface communications, 

mobility, power, and in-situ resource utilization, which would allow missions to harness local resources at mission 

destinations. 

• Conduct studies and begin to develop recommendations for the priority decisions identified for an initial campaign 

of crewed Mars exploration. These decisions will allow NASA to take an informed and tactical approach to mission 

development, optimize lunar demonstrations and analogs to prepare for Mars, and set humanity on a course for 

the Red Planet.

The results of these efforts will be reviewed at the next Architecture Concept Review in the fall of 2024. NASA will 

release revision B of the Architecture Definition Document shortly thereafter, plus a new suite of white papers on 

relevant topics and other architecture tools, products, and documents. 

This will be the first full-year cadence of the Architecture Concept Review cycle, normalizing the processes outlined in 

this document. As this process becomes routine, shared language and expectations across the agency will empower 

all of NASA’s mission directorates to actively contribute to our bold ambitions in deep space. 

Our voyage to the Moon, Mars, and beyond has only just begun. 

10

Forward Work

Figure 4

Illustration of the annual cadence of the Architecture 

Concept Review process.

www.nasa.gov/moontomarsarchitecture
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