Aeronautics 

and 

Space Report 

of the 

President 

1989-1 990 

Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics 

and Space Report 

of the President 

1989-1990 

Activities 

1991 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 
Contents 

Summary ................ .............. 

Department of Defense ........ 

National Ae 

............................... 4 

Department of Commerce .. 

Department of Energy ................................................... 5 

Department of the Interior ............................................ 5 

Department of Agriculture ............................................. 6 

Federal Communications Commission 

Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration ............................... 7 

Commercial Space Transportation ......... 

Environmental Protection Agency ................... 

National Science Foundation ......................................... 8 

Smithsonian Institution ........... 

Department of State .......... ............... 

United States Information Agency 9 

Arms Control and Disarma ncy ...................... 8 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 10 

Space Science and Applications .................................. 10 

Space Transportation ........................................ 

Space Station Freedom ................................................ 34 

Safety and Mission Quality .............. 

Commercial Programs ...................... 

Space Operations ......................................................... 39 

Aeronautics Research and Technology ..... 

Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars ................ 57 

Space Research and Technology ........ 

Department of Defense ........................................... 61 

Space Activities ............................................................ 61 

Aeronautical Activities ................................................. 66 

Department of Commerce ..................................... 72 

Space Systems .............................................................. 72 

Commercial Space Support ......................................... 79 

Research Applications .................................................. 80 

International Activities ................................................. 86 

Department of Energy ............................................ 89 

Space Nuclear Power Systems ..................................... 89 

Nuclear Detonation Detection .................................... 93 

ii 
Department of the Interior .................................... 9 4 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition, Processing, and 

Production .............................................................. 94 

Remote Sensing Research and Applications .............. .95 

International Activities ............................................... 102 

Department of Agriculture .................................. 104 

Federal Communications Commission ............. 107 

Communications Satellites ......................................... 107 

International Conference Activities .......................... .110 

Department of Transportation ........................... 11 1 

Federal Aviation Administration ............................... ,111 

Aviation Safety ............................................................ 11 1 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control ...................... 116 

Commercial Space Transportation ........................... .I19 

Environmental Protection Agency .................... ,122 

National Science Foundation ............................... 125 

Smithsonian Institution ........................................ 127 

Department of State ............................................... 130 

Appendixes 

A4 U.S. Spacecraft Record ...................................... 139 

A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful 

A-3 Successful U.S. Launches-January 1, 1989- 

B-1 U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 

B-2 U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

B-3 US-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1990 

C 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond .............. 140 

September 30, 1990 ....................................... 141 

1984-1990 ....................................... 148 

1984-1990 ........ ...................................... 150 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

1961-1990. ......................................... 152 

D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles .... .... 160 

E-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

Historical Budget Summary-Budget 

Authority ................................................ 

Chart: U.S. Space BudgetBudget Authority FY 1971-1990 ....................... 162 

E-2 Space Activities Budget ..................................... 163 

E-3 Aeronautics Budget ........................................... 163 

F-1 Executive Order 12675, Establishing the National 

Space Council ............................... 164 

F-3 Commercial Space Launch Policy ................... 173 

F-2 U.S. National Space Policy .................... 166 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency .......... 133 

United States Information Agency ...................... 136 

... 

111 
Executive Summary 

Note: only this volume reports on combined calendaryear 

1989 and fiscal year 1990 activities. Reports published 

hereajter in this series will be based on annual fiscalyear 

activities. 

This executive summary briefly describes the aeronautics and space accomplishments of each of the 14 

participating Government organizations for calendar year 

(CY) 1989 and fiscal year (FYI 1990. The remaining 

chapters, then, will provide more detail on each 

organization’s aeronautics and space activities for these 

years. 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration 

Human Space Flight 

Major efforts in the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration’s (NASA) human space flight program 

focused on developing space transportation capabilities, 

carrying out space flight operations, and sending people 

to work in space. NASA successfully completed eight 

shuttle missions in CY 1989 and FY 1990. These missions 

involved deploying a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, 

the Magellan Venus probe, the Galileo Jupiter probe, 

Syncom IV (a Navy communications satellite), the Hubble 

Space Telescope, the retrieval of the Long Duration 

Exposure Facility, and three classified Department of 

Defense missions. 

Another significant activity of 1989 was the naming 

of the new shuttle orbiter. The name “Endeavour,” 

submitted by school children in the orbiter-naming contest, was selected for Orbiter Vehicle 105. Endeavour is 

scheduled to be completed and delivered to NASA in 

1991. 

A major reassessment of the space station budget 

occurred in 1989, prompted by a shortfall in the Congressional appropriation for FY 1990. During this review, 

some managcrnent and budget changes were implemented, and some capabilities were deferred until later in 

the program. However, the goal for the launch of the first 

element of the station continued to be March 1995. 

In FY 1990 the Space Station program made considerable headway on preliminary design of hardware 

elements such as the habitation module, the U.S. laboratory, the truss structure, the mobile transporter, power 

and propulsion systems, and the Attached Payloads 

Accommodation Equipment. NASA extensively tested 

hardware for the environmental control system and 

selected technologies for use in the air and water recovery 

loops. The program also refined the requirements for 

building and implementing all the ground infrastructure 

essential to operate, use, and support the station over its 

projected 30-year life. Other major program accomplishments included reducing weight, power, and extravehicular activity requirements associated with the current design. 

In addition, NASA continued to work closely with its 

international space station partners in Europe, Canada, 

and Japan. Several coordinated studies and reviews were 

completed, and NASA and the partners continued to work 

together on the program-level Integrated System Preliminary Design Review expected to conclude near the end 

of 1990. All four partners agreed on an International 

Standard Payload Rack that would facilitate commonality 

and payload interchangeability. 

Finally, NASA conducted advanced systems studies 

and planning efforts to identify preliminary reference 

configurations for potential evolution of the station. This 

included analysis of possible requirements to support the 

Space Exploration Initiative (SEI). 

The SEI was approved by President Bush on February 16, 1990 as a far-reaching program to return to the 

moon and press on toward exploration of Mars. On May 

11, 1990, the President established a goal for human 

beings on Mars by 2019. In response to this challenge, on 

May 31,1990,NASA established theSEIOutreachProgram. 

Unmanned Expendable Launch Vehicles 

There were 28 unmanned expendable launch vehicle (ELV) launches during the nearly two-year period of 

this report. Four spacecraft, originally assigned for launch 

from the shuttle, were reassigned to ELVs as a part of the 

mixed fleet strategy developed to assure access to space. 

All four of these spacecraft-the Roentgen satellite, the 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects satellite, the 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, and the Mars Observerwere launched or were under contract to launch on ELVs. 

Also, NASA, in its role as “service provider,” allowed 

access to NASA facilities at direct cost to the commercial 

launch industry. 

1 
The Syncom IV-5 Navy communications satellite leaving the cargo bay of STM2, Columbia, 

January 10,1990. 

NASA also sought to expand cooperative efforts 

with U.S. industry to develop space and accelerate the 

commercial application of space technologies. During 

1989 and FY 1990, NASA made special progress in 

defining an overall program of commercial space development. To this end, its Office of Commercial Programs’ 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space engaged 

significant numbers of U.S. firms in commercial space 

development. New technologies, products, supporting 

transportation and infrastructure systems, and business 

enterprises have emerged as a result of these cooperative 

efforts. The challenge to produce a program that develops 

commercial space markets, low-cost commercial space 

transportation systems, and commercial space infrastructure that strengthens U.S. industrial competitiveness is 

being addressed through these efforts. 

Space Science and Applications 

NASA has continued its ongoing efforts to support 

future space science missions 

in the solar system. Calendar 

year 1989 heralded the beginning of a burst of new 

activity. In May, the shuttle 

deployed the Magellan Venus probe, where it arrived 

in August 1990 and began a 

multi-year mission mapping 

its surface. In August 1989, 

after traveling 4.4 billion miles 

for 12 years, Voyager 2 flew 

past the planet Neptune exciting the world with its many 

discoveries, such as active 

volcanoes on its moonTriton. 

In September 1989, the importance of a small mission 

was demonstrated when an 

instrument aboard a sounding rocket captured the most 

detailed series of solar flare 

images ever obtained. In 

October 1989, the Galileo 

space probe began its circuitous journey to Jupiter 

after launch from the shuttle. Finally,.in November 1989, 

the Cosmic Background Explorer was launched carrying 

instruments to measure the radiation from the “Big Bang,” 

the primordial explosion thought to have marked the 

creation of the universe. 

NASA also cooperated in search-and-rescue and 

disaster medical aid in 1989. COSPAS-SARSAT, a satellitebased search-and-rescue system, has saved more than 

1,400 lives in total, and the Telemedicine Spacebridge has 

provided medical advice to earthquake victims of Soviet 

Armenia and later to victims of other Soviet disasters. 

The ambitious achievements of 1989 were continued through FY 1990 with a full range of scientific 

disciplines that included the launches of various satellites 

including the Pegsat, the Hubble Space Telescope, the 

Roentgen satellite, and the Combined Release and Radiation Effects satellite. A new start was approved for CRAFCassini, a program that will provide unprecedented 

information on the origin of our solar system. CKAF (the 

Comet Rendezvous/Asteroid Flyby) will analyze for the 

2 
first time the solid material of which a comet is made. 

Cassini, after a four-year study of Saturn, will measure the 

atmosphere of its largest moon, Titan. 

Space Communications Operations 

In 1989, the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

System (TDRSS) became fully operational in geosynchronous orbit, providing communications support to spacecraft in low-Earth-orbit. This network provides communication and tracking for over 85 percent of each spacecraft 

orbit around Earth, a major advancement in space communications. With the previous ground-tracking network, 

coverage was limited to only about 15 percent of a 

spacecraft orbit. This event brought to reality the longawaited transition from a ground-based tracking network 

to a space-based tracking capability for low-Earth-orbit 

missions. The operational Space Network allowed NASA 

to close or transfer to other agencies the four ground 

stations. In January 1990, the Second TDRSS Ground 

Terminal was dedicated in New Mexico. The new facility 

provides backup to the first ground terminal and adds the 

capability to operate future TDRSS satellites when demand increases. 

The Ground Networks of NASA included the 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network, the Deep Space 

Network, the Aeronautics, Balloon, and Sounding Rocket 

programs. All were effectively utilized in 1989 and 1990. 

They provided tracking and data acquisition support 

services to all NASA missions for vehicles in high-Earth 

orbit, in deep space, and for sub-orbital flights. In August 

1989, for example, the Deep Space Network performed a 

nearly flawless operation during the Voyager 2 encounter 

with Neptune, which was the culmination of a 12-year 

mission. The Deep Space Network was augmented by 

non-NASA facilities in Australia, Japan, and New Mexico 

for this encounter. In 1990, the Ground Networks also 

provided launch and landing support for shuttle missions 

and tracking and data acquisition support for Magellan, 

Galileo, and Ulysses. Foreign missions were also supported 

to collect data from Earth and the moon. 

Space Research and Technology 

The primary goal of the Space Research and Technology program is to develop technologies that enhance 

or enable our space missions and thereby support U.S. 

leadership in space through a broad-based research 

program. This program has continued in a quiet but 

efficient manner for many years. It serves to advance 

technology at the concept, subsystem, and system level; 

to develop technical strengths in the engineering disciplines within NASA, industry, and academia; and to 

perform critical flight experiments where testing in space 

is necessary. 

The Space Research and Technology program is 

structured into five technology thrusts related to Space 

Science, Space Transportation, Space Station, Exploration, and Breakthrough Technologies. In addition, a key 

element of the Space Research and Technology program 

is developing and sustaining a strong partnership with the 

university community through the University Space Research program. This is an integral part of the strategy to 

strengthen the space research and technology capabilities 

of the Nation. In 1989 and 1990, significant progress was 

accomplished in many key disciplines such as propulsion, power, information and controls, materials and 

structures, aerothermodynamics, and space flight experiments. This progress will contribute to achieving our 

future objectives in space science, space transportation, 

space station, and exploration. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

NASA's aeronautics program implementation, in 

close coordination with industry, the Federal Aviation 

Administration, the Department of Defense, and other 

Government agencies, continued to be accomplished 

during 1989 and 1990 through pursuit of six key thrusts. 

The first thrust, subsonic transport, is focused on developing technology that will increase the productivity, 

affordability, and competitiveness of U.S. commercial 

transport aircraft. The second thrust, high-speed transportation, is based on resolving critical environmental 

issues and establishing the technology for economical, 

high-speed air transportation. The research program's 

goals focus on resolving problems with atmospheric 

effects, airport community noise, and sonic booms. The 

third of these, the high-performance aircraft research 

program, is structured to develop technologies having 

important military applications. The fourth, the hypersonics 

and transatmospheric research program, is an integrated 

3 
multi-disciplinary effort aimed at building fundamental 

technical understanding of the controlling physical phenomena of airbreathing hypersonic vehicles. Research 

has been focused on development of technologies required for hypersonic cruise in the atmosphere, singlestage-to-orbit using airbreathing primary propulsion, and 

horizontal takeoff and landing. The fifth, the fundamental 

technology base thrust, has been pursuing revolutionary 

advances in the basic sciences necessary for the design 

and operation of next-generation aeronautical systems. 

And finally, NASA has embarked on a sixth key thrust, a 

five-year revitalization program for the unique, highvalue experimental wind tunnels, some now more than 30 

years old. 

major experiments and tests. 

In the aeronautics area, flight tests of the B-2 

Advanced Technology Bomber began in July 1989 and it 

flew 16 test missions for a total of over 67 hours with no 

major problems. Additional acquisition efforts for the C17 transport, the advanced tactical fighter, the small 

intercontinental ballistic missile, and several other programs 

continued during the two-year period. 

Of critical importance, the National Aero-Space 

Plane program proceeded and, after review by the 

National Space Council, was reaffirmed by the President 

in July 1989. The X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator 

testing also continued successfully, as did flight testing of 

the F-15 Short-Takeoff and-LandindManeuver Technology Demonstrator. 

Department of Defense 

Department of Commerce 

Calendar year 1989 and fiscal year 1990 could best 

be characterized as a period of sustained emphasis for the 

Department of Defense (DOD) in the space area. Notable 

space achievements for the agency included the Defense 

Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) sponsored, 

commercially developed programs culminating in the first 

Pegasus launch on April 5, 1990 and the first Titan IV 

successful launch in June 1990. 

DOD space launches for the two-year period revolved around orbiting a number of communications and 

navigation satellites, including the Fleet Satellite Communication System (FLTSATCOM) FLTSAT 8, and the Defense 

Satellite Communication System (DSCS) I1 and 111. In 

addition, DAKPA launched its first-generation LightSat 

communication satellite aboard a Scout booster in May 

1990. The first five operational Global Positioning System 

(GPS) Block IIR satellites were launched during the same 

year and by December approximately 4,000 DOD GPS 

receivers were in use or on order to provide real-time 

flight-following capability for DOD aircraft and ships. 

Furthermore, during 1989 the Under Secretary of 

Defense for Acquisition elected to proceed with an interService program to develop a ground-based kinetic 

energy anti-satellite capability. The Army was named as 

the lead Service in this effort. One of the critical DOD 

space-oriented activities of 1989 and FY 1990 was the 

development of new technologies for assured defense 

from nuclear attack. The Strategic Defense Initiative 

program proceeded with a record number of successful 

The Department of Commerce (DOC) has four 

components involved in space activities. As the Earth 

systems agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA), through it5 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, is the 

largest space arm of DOC. NOAA is responsible for both 

the operational polar orbiting and geostationary satellites 

and will have several instruments on NASA’s Earth 

Observing System. As operational satellite-derived products 

are refined and developed, they are used by the country’s 

weather and climate services-Government, academic, 

and private. Satellite data were used in operational 

forecasting and in studies of severe weather and tropical 

storms. Expansion continued in the distribution of satellite 

information-from the Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer, from the Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan 

Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder, and by using GOESTap (a program enabling users to acquire high-quality 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite imagery 

over telephone data circuits). Studies continued on ozone, 

cloud occurrence, and snow cover-factors critical to our 

study of climate change. A new operational program was 

Coastwatch-NOAA’s coastal land and water program 

which obtains environmental information on coastal 

physical oceanography and meteorology and provides 

environmental alerts to coastal communities. NOAA initiated projects to acquire, archive, and disseminate data 

packages needed in monitoring the global climate and its 

4 
change. In international activities, two operational programs continued-COSPAS/SARSAT and a revitalized 

PEACESAT (Pan-Pacific Educational and Cultural Experiments by Satellite). 

The newest space activities component of DOC is 

the Office of Space Commerce, which was formally 

established in 1988. It is the Department’s principal unit 

for the coordination of commercial space-related issues, 

programs, and initiatives. 

Commerce’s National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) continued its presence 

on international committees and working groups, as well 

as working with foreign satellite consortia. NTIA continued 

in the World Administrative Radio Conference in 1989, 

participating in an assessment of the 1988 U.S. position 

paper of importance to U.S. space interests. Planning 

continued for the experiments to be conducted for the 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite-under 

development by NASA. The deployment of mobile millimeter wave measurement systems continued for use in 

Earth-spacecraft communications. 

Finally, Commerce’s National Institute of Standards 

and Technology, formerly the National Bureau of Standards, participated in space programs support including 

the spectrograph calibration on the Hubble Space Telescope, resolution of unexpectcd satellite technical development problems, and numerous other calibration 

and standardization studies. Certain high-performance 

aerospace materials, that is, metallic substances, heat 

exchangers, and advanced ceramics were under study. In 

space science research, several spectroscopic studies and 

analyses of stellar features continue. Research in gravitational and tectonic areas also is going on. In atmospheric 

research, the following are under study: ozone depletion, 

the greenhouse effect of other gases, and methods of 

investigating other chemical atmospheric constituents. 

The Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) 

program develops and builds devices that directly convert 

heat from the fuel Plutonium-238 into electricity. Progress 

included the successful launch of the RTG-powered 

Galileo and Ulysses spacecraft; continued life testing of 

over 49,000 hours of a qualification RTG unit; and various 

actions intended to upgrade and maintain RTG production facilities. In the Turbine Energy Conversion System 

program, designed to achieve 18 to 25 percent energy 

conversion efficiencies from Plutonium-238 fuel, progress 

included the following: selection of the optimized design 

parameter; completion of a preliminary turbine alternator 

compressor design; testing of various subcomponents; 

and examination of potential missions. 

The purpose of the SP-100 Space Reactor program 

is to develop, demonstrate, and make available to NASA 

and DOD space reactor power in the tens to hundreds of 

kilowatts-electric power range. Progress included 

completion of major system design activities; manufacturing 

of 75 percent of the ground-test reactor fuel; an increase 

in power density of nearly tenfold over present thermoelectric technology; a demonstration that the reactor 

vessel and internal structures could be fabricated; and 

fabrication of a more prototypic thermoelectric cell. 

The Thermionic Fuel Element Verification program 

is intended to resolve issues enabling thermionics to be 

a viable technology for future space reactor systems. 

Activities consisted of lifetime component testing in 

accelerated and real-time environments. 

An additional DOE responsibility is providing satellite equipment for continuous monitoring of nuclear 

detonations anywhere within Earth’s atmosphere or 

neighboring interplanetary space. This program supports 

treaty verification, intelligence gathering, and military 

goals. 

Department of the Interior 

Department of Energy 

The Department of the Interior uses data acquired 

by satellite and aircraft sensors to inventory natural 

resources and monitor changes on lands under its management and maintains an active program of research and 

technique development in remote sensing. In 1989 and 

1990, the Department continued to archive, process, and 

distribute Landsat and Advanced Very High Resolution 

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) provides 

nuclear power sources for NASA space missions. Such 

power units have enabled spectacular missions like the 

Voyager flyby of Neptune and the Apollo lunar-surface 

scientific work. A summary of 1989 and 1990 progress 

follows. 

5 
Radiometer satellite data. The National Aerial Photography and Side-Looking Airborne Radar programs acquired 

data over priority U.S. areas. Major land-management 

applications of remote sensing included land-use and 

land-cover mapping (especially in Alaska), vegetation 

mapping, wildfire mapping and monitoring, irrigated 

lands inventory, and wetlands mapping and inventory. 

Hydrologic applications included snow-cover mapping 

and monitoring and modeling of reservoir surface-water 

parameters. Oceanographic applications included monitoring of marine-mammal migration. Geologic applications 

included digital image processing for geologic mapping 

and mineral resource assessment in semiarid terrains, 

surface coal-mine monitoring, landslide hazard assessment, 

and volcano monitoring. Planetary studies included data 

archiving, the Voyager flyby of Neptune’s moon, Triton, 

and observation of Earth-approaching asteroids. Cartographic applications included satellite image mapping, 

digital image-processing research, and studies using Global 

Positioning Systems. Global change research included 

studies of sea ice, snow, ice sheets, and glaciers, and 

studies of detailed coastal morphology related to sea-level 

change. Work began to develop information systems to 

improve access to land-related, remotely sensed, and 

Earth-science data for global-change research, and development of techniques to produce and distribute regional, continental, and global land data sets. International 

programs were carried out in Africa, the Middle East, Latin 

America, Iceland, and Antarctica. 

Department of Agriculture 

In 1989, space-related activities of the U.S. Department of Agriculture included basic research on development of plant-growing systems that could be adapted to 

manned space vehicles and remote-sensing applications 

research. Although focused on finding optimum growing 

conditions given certain environmental stress factors, the 

basic research on development of plant-growing systems 

can be directly related to plant growth and productivity in 

the closed environment of a spacecraft. Remote-sensing 

applications research included demonstrations of the use 

of digital Landsat data for monitoring sediment in lakes 

and reservoirs and for monitoring the destruction of 

defoliated cotton stalks for bollworm control. An airborne 

laser profiler was used to determine soil loss caused by 

erosion. 

Federal Communications Commission 

Communications Satellites 

The Federal Communications Commission granted 

authority to the Communications Satellite Corporation 

(Comsat) to participate in the launch of the final INTELSAT 

V series satellite and the first three INTELSAT VI series 

satellites. The International Telecommunications Satellites 

Organization’s second INTELSAT VI launch failed to 

achieve geostationary orbit. The United States and the 

United Kingdom completed Article XIV(d) consultation 

with INTELSAT for two more U.S. international satellites 

to be used by the Orion Satellite Corporation for service 

between the United States and the United Kingdom. 

In 1989, the Commission decided that the public 

interest requires that the International Maritime Satellite 

Organization (INMARSAT) aeronautical mobile-satellite 

services be made available to users in the United States 

and that these services are best suited for aircraft that are 

in international flight. The Commission also permitted 

Comsat to be the U.S. provider of INMARSAT aeronautical 

space segment capacity. INMARSAT issued a Request for 

Proposals for a third-generation satellite system. The 

specifications for this system include spot beams and the 

capability to operate within the full maritime and aeronautical mobile-satellite spectrum. In mid-1990, the 

INMARSAT Council authorized the Director General to 

negotiate and award a contract by the end of 1990 for the 

purchase of three or four INMARSAT 111 satellites. 

In 1989, the Commission authorized the American 

Mobile Satellite Corporation to construct, launch, and 

operate three satellites in the mobile satellite service, 

which is expected to be implemented in 1993 and 1994, 

to provide a variety of domestic land, aeronautical, and 

maritime mobile-satellite services. 

Geostar Positioning Corporation commenced twoway start-up radiodetermination satellite service in the 

United States in 1989. The Commission also authorized 

Qualcomm Corporation to construct and operate a twoway mobile data communications network to provide a 

variety of data services between a customer’s operation 

center and its mobile users. 

6 
Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration 

Pursuing its mission to promote the efficiency and 

safety of civil aviation, Transportation’s Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) engaged in a broad range of research 

and development. One major objective was the continued 

modernization of the Nation’s system of air navigation 

and air traffic control. For example, production began for 

the first segment of the Advanced Automation System, 

which will eventually provide air traffic controllers with 

new workstations and greatly expanded capabilities. 

Another noteworthy milestone was the New York Terminal 

Approach Control facility’s attainment of the ability to 

track 1,700 aircraft simultaneously as part of an ongoing 

upgrade. To supplement such improvements to its ground 

facilities, the FAA pressed ahead with the airborne Traffic 

Alert and Collision Avoidance System. 

The agency’s efforts to enhance airport capacity 

included operational demonstrations of Precision Runway 

Monitor prototypes using radar with high update rates. 

Aeronautical Data Link applications played an important 

role in airport demonstrations of an innovative clearance 

procedure for speeding departing flights, and work 

proceeded on new automated techniques for managing 

aircraft in the air and on runways and taxiways. Among 

its many weather-related programs, the agency conducted 

operational evaluations of two Terminal Doppler Weather 

Radars and placed its first Automated Weather Observing 

System in service. 

FAA published a National Aging Aircraft Research 

Program Plan, began work on a new system to rapidly 

collect and disseminate airworthiness data to worldwide 

users of U.S. aircraft, and pursued a vigorous program of 

human factors research. Steps to strengthen aviation 

security included deployment of the advanced Thermal 

Neutron Analysis system for detecting explosives in 

baggage. Other safety projects yielded useful data on such 

varied issues as crashworthiness, alternative fuels, bird 

ingestion by jet engines, and evacuation of smoke from 

in-flight fires. FAA also engaged in research activities to 

foster civil use of rotorcraft and tiltrotors. 

Commercial Space Transportation 

This period marked a turning point for the Department of Transportation’s Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation and the U.S. commercial launch industry. 

The first suborbital and orbital U.S. commercial launches 

licensed under the Commercial Space Launch Act took 

place. On March 29, 1989, Space Services Inc. of America 

conducted a suborbital launch from the White Sands 

Missile Range in New Mexico. On August 27, 1989, a 

McDonnell Douglas Delta rocket lifted off from Cape 

Canaveral carrying a British communications satellite. A 

total of 10 successful launches took place during fiscal 

years 1989-1990. 

Other important highlights for the year include the 

issuance of 14 launch licenses, completion of a study of 

the scheduling practices and launch operations at existing 

U.S. ranges, and completion of a preliminary safety 

review of two proposed commercial launch sites in 

Hawaii. In addition, the Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation continues to monitor developments in the 

world commercial market and advocates U.S. policies to 

strengthen the competitive position of U.S. launch firms 

in the world market. The Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation also issued six Commercial Launch 

Manifests. The latest launch manifest, issued in July 1990, 

lists a total of 35 commercial launch contracts. 

Environmental Protection Agency 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

through its Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory 

in Las Vegas, NV, routinely conducts research and technical support using remote sensing as part of an overall 

environmental monitoring program. Large-scale aerial 

photography is collected and interpreted to support the 

provisions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery 

Act and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, 

Compensation, and Liability Act; medium-scale photography is collected and interpreted to support non-pointsource pollution studies, wetlands protection, coastal 

zone studies, and forest-ecosystem decline caused by 

acid deposition; and high altitude photography is interpreted for broad area studies in the coastal zone and to 

contribute land-use and land-cover information in riskassessment studies. Airborne and satellite multispectral 

scanner data are collected and interpreted to support 

water-quality, non-pointsource pollution, hazardouswaste, and critical-habitat investigations. Airborne laser 
systems are developed which contribute to air and water 

monitoring, and a geographic information system is used 

to integrate multiple data sets in support of all EPA 

programs. 

National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is the principal supporter of academic research in atmospheric 

sciences and ground-based astronomy. Major events in 

the astronomical sciences during 1989 included the use of 

the Very Large Array radio telescope, in conjunction with 

NASA’s Deep Space Network, to acquire data relayed by 

the Voyager 2 spacecraft during its encounter with 

Neptune. During 1989, astronomers mapped the galaxy 

distribution in the nearby universe, revealing an 

inhomogeneous distribution of matter, challenging current theories of cosmology. Astronomers also reported 

the discovery of a population of faint blue galaxies, 

perhaps the first in the universe to be formed. A combination 

of measurements by cosmologists at the South Pole and 

a NASA satellite allowed the cosmic microwave background radiation spectrum to be measured over a wider 

wavelength range than possible from elsewhere on Earth 

or space. 

In atmospheric sciences, the MAX’91 program, 

designed to study solar disturbances during the current 

period of high solar activity, was launched. During 1989, 

scientists reported that studying solar-like stars can assist 

in predicting our own sun’s activity cycles, thus increasing 

our ability to project future trends in global climate 

change. In Antarctica, measurements were taken of verylow-frequency radio waves transmitted by the Soviet 

satellite AKTIVNY. Also in Antarctica, NSF’s ultravioletradiation monitoring system was upgraded to provide a 

data center with high standards of quality assurance. 

Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution conducts space science 

research at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

(SAO) in Cambridge, MA, and at the Center for Earth and 

Planetary Studies and the Laboratory for Astrophysics at 

the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. 

The Museum’s exhibits, lectures, and education programs 

contribute significantly to public understanding of space 

research. SA0 also conducts programs designed to improve pre-college science instruction and serves as North 

American gateway for SIMBAD, the international astronomical computer database. The Roentgen satellite 

launched June 1, 1990, carries a High-Resolution Imager 

built by SA0 to make detailed studies of cosmic x-ray 

sources. X-ray data on thousands of objects produced 

earlier by the Einstein (HEAO-2) satellite was converted to 

CDROM (compact disc-read only memory) format and 

made available to all qualified scholars at no cost. 

Additional observations obtained during the slew mode 

of the Einstein survey, long believed to be unusable, were 

retrieved by SA0 scientists and converted into a new sky 

catalog. A rocket-borne SAO-IBM telescope made the 

highest resolution x-ray images ever of the sun’s corona; 

another instrument carried by a NASA balloon over 

Australia observed a host of x-ray objects, including the 

Crab Nebula and Supernova 1987a. And, nearly two 

decades after ApolIo astronauts returned samples of lunar 

soil, an SA0 researcher identified a completely new rock 

type amidst the lunar material. 

Department of State 

The Department of State, through its Bureau of 

Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific 

Affairs, works with NASA on all international and foreign 

policy aspects of American space programs. Department 

of State activities during this period have included hosting 

a Government-level review of international space station 

cooperation and negotiation of arrangements for space 

shuttle emergency-landing facilities in countries around 

the globe. The State Department’s Bureau of International 

Communications and Information Policy has taken the 

lead in representing U.S. interests in INTELSAT (the 

International Telecommunications Satellite Organizations) 

and INMARSAT (the International Maritime Satellite Organization), two international organizations involved in 

space issues. 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

The United States Arms Control and Disarmament 

Agency (ACDA) has a role in space policy and research 

because of its arms control mandate. During FY 1990, 

ACDA served as a principal support agency in US. 

negotiations with the Soviet Union in the Defense and 

Space Talks in Geneva. Furthermore, during FY 1990, 

8 
ACDA was the lead U.S. agency at multilateral discussions 

on space arms control at the United Nations General 

Assembly and at the Conference on Disarmament in 

Geneva. ACDA is represented at National Space Council 

meetings when issues related to arms control are discussed. ACDA is a member of the Arms Control Policy 

Coordinating Committee, whose charter includes arms 

control issues related to space, and the Nonproliferation 

Policy Coordinating Committee, whose charter includes 

certain space-related issues in the context of missile 

nonproliferation policy. 

United States Information Agency 

During the 20th anniversary of the Apollo lunar 

landing, the United States Information Agency (USIA) 

highlighted NASA’s historic role in space exploration and 

increasingly important scientific missions to help protect 

Earth’s environment. The Hubble Space Telescope and 

prospects for enhanced international cooperation in 

space exploration, as well as the President’s call for the 

establishment of a manned scientific outpost on the 

moon, insured continuing overseas interest in USIA’s 

coverage of NASA’s many activities. With a wide variety 

of means at its disposal to publicize NASA initiatives to 

foreign audiences, ranging from WOKLDNET (USIAs 

international satellite television network) TV interviews, 

international teleconferences and Voice of America 

broadcasts to Wirefile File articles, and American experts 

traveling overseas, USIA remains uniquely equipped to 

continue to tell the world about U.S. progress in space 

sciences and exploration. 

9 
National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), established in 1958, is responsible for planning, 

conducting, and managing civilian research and 

development activities in aeronautics and space. Other 

Federal agencies, State, local, and foreign governments, 

as well as educational institutions and private industry, 

also share in NASA's programs. 

NASA's mission continues to reflect the intent of 

Congress in creating the agency: that is, to explore space 

for peaceful purposes with international cooperation, for 

the benefit of all humankind. Technological advances 

have resulted in significant economic and social benefits 

for the United States and other nations and remain the 

catalyst for national pride, progress, and achievement. 

The continued success of NASA's programs will allow the 

United States to maintain its leadership status in aeronautics and space. 

Space Science and Applications 

NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications 

plans, directs, executes, and evaluates NASA programs 

directed towards the space environment; conducts a 

scientific study of the universe to solve practical problems 

on Earth; and provides the scientific research foundation 

for expanding the human presence beyond Earth into the 

solar system. Kesearch and program activities involve the 

characterization of Earth and its environment, the exploration of the solar system and near universe, and the 

observation of the distant universe. Disciplines within the 

Office of Space Science and Applications include astrophysics, solar system exploration, space physics, Earth 

science and applications, life sciences, microgravity science and applications, and communications and information systems. 

Retrieval of the Long Duration Exposure Facility by the Space 

Shuttle Columbia fsTs32)Y January ur 1990, USiWi? the 

Canadim-built manipulator systemAstrophysics 

The NASA Astrophysics program has as its objective 

the study of the origin and evolution of the universe, the 

fundamental physical laws of nature, and the birth of 

stars, planets, and ultimately life. Research in these areas 

requires observations at wavelengths absorbed by Earth's 

atmosphere, and therefore must be conducted from 

space-borne observatories. The program is centered 

around a series of space observatories, supported by a 

Artist's renditionofthe Cosmic BackgroundExplorer, launched 

Novemberx989. 

10 
Near-infrared image showing a new view of the Milky Way 

obtained by the Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment on 

the Cosmic Background Explorer. 

The Hubble Space Telescope before its release from STS-31 

Discovery's remote manipulator system, with the solar panels 

extended but the antennae not yet deployed. 

research base of instrument developments, sub-orbital 

research activities, data analyses, and theoretical studies. 

The four Great Observatories-the Hubble Space 

Telescope, the Gamma-Ray Observatory, the Advanced 

X-ray Astrophysics Facility, and the proposed Space 

Infrared Telescope Facility-will provide significantly 

improved sensitivity and resolution over their respective 

regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Smaller spacecraft in the Explorer series are used for exploration, all-sky 

surveys, specific studies, or unique investigations inappropriate for the Great Observatories. As part of the suborbital program, rockets, balloons, and aircraft provide 

the means to make preliminary observations, conduct 

selected low-cost investigations, test instrumental concepts, and to train groups capable of developing instruments for future space missions. 

Cosmic Background Explorer. The Cosmic 

Background Explorer (COBE) was successfully launched 

on November 18, 1989 and carries three highly sensitive 

instruments which have been focused on unlocking the 

mysteries of the early epochs of the universe. Two of 

these instruments were designed to examine radiation 

(millimeter and submillimeter radio waves) from the Big 

Bang, the primordial explosion thought to have marked 

the creation of the universe. The third instrument maps 

the sky in the far-infrared wavelengths, searching for 

emissions that may originate from the earliest stars and 

galaxies. On June 16, 1990, COBE completed its first allsky survey. COBE's supply of liquid helium, used to 

maintain the extremely low temperatures required for its 

observations, was fully depleted on September 21, 1990, 

as COBE entered a new phase of operations. 

Hubble Space Telescope. During 1989, NASA 

completed final preparations for the launch of the Hubble 

Space Telescope (HST). On April 24, 1990, HST was 

launched aboard the orbiter Discovery as part of the STS31 mission. Initial on-orbit observations revealed that 

HSTs primary mirror was improperly fabricated, producing spherical aberration, and resulting in an inability to 

focus light in a single, precise point. Despite this error, 

early results from HST include impressive images that are 

providing important scientific information. Preparations 

are under way to alter the optics of the second generation 

instruments to fully alleviate the effect? of the spherical 

aberration. Preparations are also continuing for the previously planned servicing mission in 1993. 

Gamma-Ray Observatory. As an integral part of 

NASA's Great Observatories program, the Gamma-Ray 

Observatory (GRO) will make possible a better understanding of the structure and dynamics of our Milky Way 

galaxy, the formation of elements, and the origins and 

11 
evolution of the universe. GRO includes four large, 

sophisticated instruments designed to study a broad 

range of gamma rays. These advanced instruments can 

detect gamma-ray photons, measure their energies, and 

determine their origin with unprecedented resolution and 

sensitivity. GRO will be deployed from the space shuttle 

as part of the STS-37 mission during 1991. Initially, GRO 

will conduct a more detailed survey of the gamma-ray 

universe than previously obtained. Later, GRO will observe in greater depth intriguing objects that were identified during the initial survey. 

AdvancedX-ray Astrophysics Facility. The third 

of the Great Observatories, the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) will observe celestial sources in 

the x-ray part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Many of 

the most fundamental and exciting objects in the universe 

radiate in x rays, permitting AXAF to address some of the 

most fundamental questions in astronomy and astrophysics. During 1989, NASA initiated the development of the 

first and largest pair of AXAF's mirrors, which are scheduled for completion in 1991. During 1990, the development of AXAF's science instruments was initiated and 

significant progress was made on the mirror development 

effort. AXAF is being designed for a 1997 launch aboard 

the space shuttle. 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility. The fourth 

Great Observatory, the proposed Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) will observe in the critical infrared 

wavelengths, completing coverage by the Great Observatories of each of the four major regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. SIRTF, a 1-meter-class, cryogenically-cooled observatory, will be used to study the birth 

and death processes of stars and distant galaxies, and the 

origins and evolution of comets, asteroids, and the cold 

planets of our solar system. Studies completed during 

1989-90 concluded that SIRTF should be placed in highEarth orbit at an altitude of approximately 100,000 kilometers. In addition, these studies provided significant 

insight into the primary and secondary mirror mechanisms, as well as the detector materials that will used in 

SIRTF's scientific instruments. 

Roentgen Satellite. A cooperative flight project 

with the Federal Republic of Germany and the United 

Kingdom, the Roentgen satellite (ROSAT) will provide an 

On the right is the clearest picture ever of the planet Pluto, 

and its huge companion "moon" Charon, using ESA's Faint 

Object Camera on the Hubble Space Telescope, October 

1990. On the let& for comparison, is the best ground-based 

image ever taken using the Canada-FranceHawaii telescope 

in Hawaii. 

all-sky, x-ray survey of unprecedented sensitivity. During 

1989, the Germans completed all remaining structural and 

environmental testing, and completed integration of the 

scientific instruments into the spacecraft. KOSAT was 

delivered in late 1989 to the Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station, where it was launched on June 1, 1990, aboard a 

Delta-I1 expendable launch vehicle supplied by the 

United States. ROSAT has completed its planned on-orbit 

check-out period and has initiated its all-sky survey, 

which is planned for completion in early 1991. The 

pointed phase of ROSAT's operations will commence 

upon completion of the all-sky survey. During this phase, 

which includes U.S. Guest Observer participation, ROSAT 

will point at selected regions of the sky for more detailed 

studies of various x-ray sources. 

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared 

Astronomy. The proposed Stratospheric Observatory for 

Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is a joint project being 

studied by NASA with the Federal Republic of Germany. 

12 
Mysterious gaseous ring seen with unprecedented detail 

aroundSupernova 1987a, with the tightly knotted debris from 

the stellar explosion at the center of the ring, taken with 

ESA’s Faint Object Camera on the Hubble Space Telescope, 

August 23,1990. 

Image of Saturn taken with the Hubble Wide Field/Planetary 

Camera, showing greater detail in the planet’s ring system 

and cloud belts than can be achieved with ground-based 

telescopes, August 26,1990. 

This project consists of a 2.5-meter-diameter infrared 

telescope mounted in an airborne observatory. An open 

port in the upper side of a modified Boeing 747 aircraft 

provides viewing. With a planned 20-year lifetime, SOFIA 

will provide a foundation for research, instrument development, and the training of young scientists. Its excellent 

spatial and spectral resolution will assure complimentary 

support of the Great Observatories. NASA will supply a 

major part of the telescope system and participate in the 

flight program. During 1989, concept definition studies 

on the aircraft and the telescope were completed. Technology demonstration studies were initiated on critical 

telescope issues, as well as wind tunnel tests to verify the 

aircraft opening design concept. During 1990, a NonAdvocate Review (NAR) of the SOFIA program was 

completed with the NAR team endorsing, without major 

revision, SOFIA’S continued development. 

Explorer Platform Missions. During 1989, the 

development of the scientific instruments for the Extreme 

Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), the first payload to use the 

reusable explorer platform spacecraft, was completed 

and calibration was begun. The instruments were delivered to the Goddard Space Flight Center in early 1990 for 

integration into the payload module. The explorer platform is currently under development and will be delivered to Goddard in late 1990 for integration with the EUVE 

payload module. EUVE is scheduled for launch in 1991, 

aboard a Delta I1 expendable launch vehicle. The X-ray 

Timing Explorer (XTE), the second payload scheduled for 

use on the explorer platform, completed its definition 

phase and initiated its development phase during 1989. 

The XTE payload will replace the ELM5 payload during 

an on-orbit changeout performed by a space shuttle crew, 

scheduled for early 1995. 

SmaUExplorerProgram During April 1989, three 

missions were selected for development under the Small 

Explorer program: the Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX); the Fast Auroral 

Snapshot Explorer (FAST); and the Submillimeter Wave 

Astronomy Satellite (SWAS). SAMPEX is scheduled for 

launch on a Scout expendable launch vehicle in mid-1992 

and will determine the origin of various contributions to 

the energetic, charged particles arriving at Earth from the 

sun and interstellar space. FAST will examine physical 

processes high above Earth that result in aurora, while 

SWAS will determine the presence of water and other 
important molecules in interstellar space. By the end of 

1989, the development of SAMPEX was well under way. 

During 1990, NASA completed concept studies and 

initiated a review of the proposed launch dates for FAST 

and SWAS (originally 1993 and 1994, respectively). 

Astro-D. The Astro-D mission is a cooperative flight 

project with Japan, which is scheduled for launch in 

February 1993, from the Kagoshima Space Center in 

Japan. Astro-D will conduct x-ray astronomy and spectroscopy; NASA’s contribution will include lightweight xray mirror assemblies and spectroscopic x-ray detectors, 

which will be delivered to Japan in 1991. During 1989-90, 

work continued on the design and development of the 

scientific instruments and the fabrication of breadboards. 

X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission. During 1989-90, the 

European Space Agency (ESA) continued moving forward with this approved “cornerstone” mission. The Xray Multi-Mirror Mission (XMM) is devoted to high 

throughput x-ray spectroscopy of celestial objects such as 

stellar coronae, binary star systems, supernova remnants, 

and active galactic nuclei. XMM will be launched into an 

eccentric high-Earth orbit in 1998. NASA has agreed that 

U.S. science teams will provide key components of two 

scientific instruments on XMM and two mission scientists, 

which will secure optimal scientific return from the 

mission. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories. Analysis 

of data from the three missions in the High Energy 

Astronomy Observatories (HEAOs) series of x-ray and 

gamma-ray astronomy project continued in 1989-90, with 

emphasis on archiving the most essential data products. 

A source catalog of several thousand valuable sources 

detected by HEAO-2 (Einstein) has been produced on 

compact disk and distributed to the scientific user community. Data from the HEAO missions are now part of the 

Astrophysics Data Program archives and remained in 

active use by the astrophysics community during 1989-90. 

International lJtraviolet Explorer. During 1990, 

the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) entered its 

13th operational year and continued to contribute thousands of astronomical spectra observations of such objects as comets, planets, all manner of stars, and even 

distant extragalactic objects such as quasars. In August 

1989, IUE provided contemporaneous ultraviolet spectra 

of Neptune and Triton at the time of the Voyager flyby. 

Also, development of a single-gyro control system for IUE 

(initially designed for three gyros) brightens the prospects 

for continued operations of this geosynchronous satellite 

observatory. 

Infrared Astronomical Satellite. Scientific interest remains high in the Infrared Astronomical Satellite 

(IRAS) data nearly 7 years after the end of satellite 

operations. Significant discoveries continue using IRAS 

data, including evidence that distant galaxies go through 

explosive episodes of stellar formation much more often 

than galaxies in the immediate proximity to Earth and that 

all sun-like stars are surrounded by material that may 

condense into planetary systems. IRAS data have been 

collected in a new catalog of infrared sources containing 

over 100,000 previously unknown galaxies and another 

100,000 previously unknown stars. 

Solar System Exploration 

NASA’s Solar System Exploration program includes 

scientific exploration of the various bodies in the solar 

system-other planets, their moons, comets, and asteroids-and of the interplanetary medium around them. 

The objectives of solar system exploration are the following: 1) to determine the nature of planets, moons, and 

small bodies (comets and asteroids) in order to understand the origin, present condition, and evolution of the 

solar system; 2) to understand Earth better through 

comparative studies of other planets and the processes 

that shape them; 3) to understand how the physical and 

chemical characteristics of the solar system contributed to 

the origin and development of life; and 4) to provide 

scientific assessments of potential resources available in 

near-Earth space. 

Achieving these goals involves a balanced and 

progressive program to study all solar system objects: the 

terrestrial (Earth-like) inner planets, the giant (Jupiterlike) outer planets, and the small bodies (comets and 

asteroids). Spacecraft missions to these objects are carried 

out in an evolutionary series, beginning with relatively 

simple flyby reconnaissance missions. These missions are 

followed by more complex ones (orbiters, landed stations, and sample returns) that provide increasingly 

detailed and specialized information. The spacecraft 

14 
expected to have enough power to continue operating 

until late 1996, while Pioneer 11 will run out of power in 

late 1992. 

Photomosaic taken by Voyager2 of Neptune’s largest satellite, 

Triton, assembled from 14 individual frames, showing the 

great variety of its surface features, including the “cantaloupe” 

terrain in the upper left. Note the dark volcanic plumes visible 

in the lower center. 

missions are supported by an essential foundation of 

diverse ground-based activities-mission operations and 

data analysis, scientific research and analysis, and advanced programs studies. 

Pioneer Missions. Pioneers 10 and 11 (as well as 

Pioneers 6, 7, and 8) continue to collect valuable data 

about the fields, particles, and plasma waves of the outer 

solar system. In flight for nearly two decades, and 

operating beyond their qualification limits, Pioneers 10 

and 11 remain in working order, with most of their 

scientific instruments functioning well. In 1990, Pioneer 

10, the furthest manmade object from Earth, had traveled 

more than 50 astronomical units (the distance of Earth 

from the sun) away from Earth, toward the heliosphere. 

Having passed beyond the farthest planets, the Pioneers 

will continue to explore the far edges of the solar 

heliosphere as they leave the sun in opposite directions. 

They will investigate the boundary of the sun’s magnetic 

and plasma environment, the interaction of the solar fields 

with interstellar space, and, if possible, measure the 

properties of interstellar space itself beyond the sun’s 

influence. Both spacecraft are powered by radioactive 

thermal generators (KTGs) whose power has been reduced by about one half since launch. Pioneer 10 is 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter. The Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) continues to collect important scientific data 

from its orbit around Venus after more than a decade of 

operations. Electrical power available from the solar cells 

has slowly declined because of damage by the intense 

solar radiation, but the spacecraft battery continues to 

operate and the instruments continue to function. The 

PVO studies the chemical and physical processes of 

Venus’ upper atmosphere, particularly through its interaction with the solar wind. Before PVO enters the 

Venusian atmosphere and burns up in 1992, the remaining spacecraft fuel will be used to control the orbit’s 

orientation and altitude to maximize the data obtained 

about the planet’s atmosphere. 

Voyager. In August 1989, the Voyager 2 spacecraft 

made its fourth planetary flyby, this time past the mysterious 

blue planet Neptune, more than 4.43 billion kilometers 

(2.75 billion miles) from Earth. In this encounter, the first 

time Neptune has ever been observed close up, Voyager 

2 provided exciting new information about Neptune’s 

atmosphere, magnetic field, rings, and moons, sending 

the data to Earth in radio signals that, even at the speed 

of light, took over 4 hours to arrive. The Voyager 2 

spacecraft performed flawlessly despite its tremendous 

distance from Earth, which forced substantial new modifications in both the operation of the spacecraft and its 

instruments and in the reception and processing systems 

on Earth. The images returned of Neptune and its largest 

satellite, Triton, were of remarkable quality and the initial 

scientific reports, published in Science, indicated that the 

scientific data collected will prove to be significant. 

Voyagers 1 and 2 are now leaving the solar system, in 

approximately the same direction as Pioneer 11. As the 

Pioneers cease to operate, the Voyagers will continue to 

explore the outer heliosphere. 

New Age for Solar System Exploration During 

1989 and 1990, several near-term solar system exploration 

goals were spectacularly achieved. In 1989, the Magellan 

and Galileo missions were successfully launched by the 

space shuttle toward Venus and Jupiter, respectively, the 

first planetary missions to be launched in more than a 

15 
As Voyager1 left the solarsystem it captured, on Februaryll, 

1990, this first ever “portrait” of our solar system as seen 

from the outside. These blown-up images are of six of the 

planets: Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 

decade. And a major step in exploration of the outer solar 

system was taken with the 1990 launch of the Ulysses 

spacecraft, also to Jupiter, and the approval of the dual 

CKAF-Cassini mission, which will be launched in the mid1990s to explore an asteroid, a comet, Saturn, and its large 

moon. Titan. 

Magellan. On May 4, 1989, the Magellan mission 

was launched toward Venus by the space shuttle to 

completely map the planet’s surface landforms. It was the 

first planetary mission launched by the space shuttle, and 

the first shuttle-launched spacecraft to leave near-Earth 

orbit for interplanetary space. Magellan arrived at Venus 

on August 10,1990. The spacecraft began radar mapping 

operations in late FY 1990, after early radar test images 

were released in August. Magellan is exploring the surface 

topography and interior structure of Venus through the 

use of high resolution radar mapping, altimetry, microwave radiometry, and through the precise measurement 

of Venus’ gravitational field. The Magellan mission will 

add to our knowledge of Venus gained from previous 

missions like the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, Arecibo, and the 

Soviet Venera investigations. Magellan’s scientists include 

participants from each of these earlier investigations. 

Galileo. On October 18, 1989, the Galileo spacecraft was launched toward Jupiter. The second planetary 

This drawing shows the 60 frames taken by Voyager 1 to 

obtain the portrait of six of the planets. 

mission to be launched by the space shuttle, Galileo is 

heading back toward Earth from Venus, having made the 

first of three planetary gravity-assist swingbys (one at 

Venus and two at Earth) needed to carry it out to Jupiter 

in December 1995. There, the Galileo mission will be the 

first to make direct measurements from an instrumented 

probe within Jupiter’s atmosphere and the first to conduct 

long-term observations of the planet, its magnetosphere, 

and satellites from orbit. Galileo’s probe will be the first 

atmospheric probe for any of the outer planets. Along the 

way, Galileo will use its flybys to explore several other 

worlds: Venus, Earth, the moon, and two asteroids. 

Ulysses. The Ulysses mission, launched aboard the 

shuttle and an inertial upper stage on October 6, 1990, is 

an international cooperative mission developed by NASA 

and the European Space Agency (ESA). The mission will 

explore the sun and the heliosphere at previously unexplored high solar latitudes, collecting scientific data in the 

solar pole regions. To view the solar poles, the spacecraft 

must leave the ecliptic plane, the plane in which Earth 

orbits the sun. The spacecraft will make detailed measurements of the sun’s corona, the origin and acceleration of 

the solar wind into space, and the composition and 

acceleration of energetic atoms from the sun in solar flares 

and violent solar events. Ulysses is traveling towards 

Jupiter, where it will be projected out of the ecliptic plane 

16 
Magellan as it leaves the cargo bay of the Space Shuffle 

Atlantis (STS-30), in orbit over the city of New Orleans. 

A fvll-resolution mosaic ofdata collected by Magellan between 

September1518,1990 during the first orbits of Venus. View 

shows three large impact craters. 

toward the sun’s southern pole. It will begin investigation 

of the higher latitudes of the sun’s south pole in May 1994 

and conclude its investigation in September 1995 at the 

sun’s north pole. 

Mars Obsewer. The Mars Observer mission will 

expand the pioneering discoveries of Mariner 9 and 

Viking by making a 2-year global scientific survey of the 

red planet, including the mineral and chemical composition of its surface, the composition and dynamics of its 

atmosphere and volatiles, and the nature of its magnetic 

and gravitational fields. The Mars Observer mission is 

planned for launch in 1992 on a Titan-3/transfer orbit 

stage expendable launch vehicle combination. Arriving at 

Mars in 1993, the spacecraft will be inserted into a polar 

orbit. Mapping will start in December 1993 and will 

continue for a full Martian year (about 2 Earth years). 

Critical design reviews for the spacecraft and many of the 

instrument5 were completed in 1989, with hardware 

development continuing in 1990. 

evolution of life were formed. A joint program with the 

European Space Agency, the CRAF-Cassini program, the 

missions will utilize a common Mariner Mark I1 spacecraft 

and common elements of design, Fabrication, test, and 

integration. CRAF (the Comet RendezvoudAsteroid Flyby) 

will be launched in 1995 to fly closely by the asteroid 

Hamburga in 1998 and then to rendezvous with comet 

Kopff in the year 2000 for a 3-year period of intensive 

study. During this period, CRAF will implant a penetrator 

in the comet’s nucleus to analyze for the first time the solid 

material of which a comet is made. Cassini will be 

launched in 1996. It will fly past the asteroid Maja in 1997, 

execute a gravity-assist flyby past Jupiter in 2000, and 

arrive at Saturn in 2002 for a 4-year study of the Saturnian 

system. After entering orbit around Saturn, Cassini will 

deploy a probe to pass through the thick, orange atmosphere of Saturn’s largest moon Titan and measure its 

atmospheric composition. The orbiting spacecraft will 

observe Saturn and its moons, using its radar to map 

Titan’s hidden surface. 

CRAF-Cassini The CRAF-Cassini program was 

approved in 1989 as a new start for FY 1990. Building on 

Pioneer and Voyager discoveries, these two missions will 

provide unprecedented information on the origin and 

evolution of our solar system and will help us understand 

how the chemical building blocks necessary for the 

Research and Analysis. In 1989 and 1990, the 

Research andhalysis program supported active research 

in several important disciplines-planetary astronomy, 

planetary atmospheres, planetary materials and geochemistry, and planetary geology and geophysics. These 

activities, most ofwhich focus on university-based research 

17 
groups and on training new scientists, support the Solar 

System Exploration program by developing the research 

base and instrumentation needed for future missions, by 

providing effective analysis and long-term use of mission 

data, and by generating exciting research results that 

cannot be obtained from flight missions. 

Mission Operation and Data Analysis. Mission 

Operation and Data Analysis (MO&DA) supported the 

operations of currently active missions-Pioneers 6-8,10, 

and 11; Pioneer Venus; and Voyager 1 and 2-and 

analyzed their data. The MO&DA program also continued 

its activities in support of launch operations for Ulysses 

and the upcoming Mars Observer launch. 

Advanced Programs. Advanced programs support essential studies for planning future planetary missions. In 1989, significant progress was made on advanced 

studies, including work on the Lunar Observer mission, 

which will make a global scientific exploration of the 

moon. Advanced studies also continued for Mars missions, 

particularly a Mars Rover sample return. In addition to the 

moon and Mars studies, two important payloads are 

under study for possible inclusion in the initial phase of 

Space Station Freedom in the mid- to late 1990s: the 

Cosmic Dust Collection Facility, which will capture small 

dust particles that may have come from comets or from 

interstellar space, and the Astrometric Telescope Facility, 

which will initiate a long-term search for planets around 

other stars. 

Space Physics 

The NASA Space Physics program focuses on: 1) the 

sun, both as a star and as the dominant source of energy, 

plasma, and energetic particles in the solar system; 2) the 

interactions between the solar wind and solar-system 

bodies including Earth and other planets; 3) the nature of 

the heliosphere both in its steady state and in its dynamic 

configuration; and 4) the origin, acceleration, and transport of solar and galactic cosmic rays. In 1989, a new 

period of maximum solar activity occurred, with its 

attendant increase in radiation associated with solar 

flares. As planning for the manned exploration of the 

moon and Mars proceeds, under the aegis of the Space 

Exploration Initiative, it becomes even more important to 

possess an accurate understanding of these phenomena. 

Worken at the Kennedy Space Center prepare the joint 

NASA/DOD Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

for encapsulation in the nose fairing of an Atlas Centaur 

rocket. 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite Program The NASA objectives of the Combined 

Release and Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES) program 

are to study the ionospheric and magnetospheric plasma, 

and Earth’s magnetic field through chemical releases. 

Three elements of the CRRES program were accomplished 

in 1990. In April, the Pegsat spacecraft was launched on 

the first Pegasus vehicle and conducted two chemical 

releases over northern Canada. In July 1990, the CRRES 

spacecraft, a joint NASMDOD mission, was launched. In 

September 1990, the first 4 of 20 chemical releases 

planned for the CRKES spacecraft were successfully 

completed. 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program In 1989 and 1990, NASA continued to participate 

in the development of a coordinated program to measure 

the sun-Earth space environment in the 1990s. The 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program 

comprises two major subprograms: the Global Geospace 

Science (GGS) program and the Solar-Terrestrial Science 

Programme. NASA participates jointly in this effort with 

the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japanese 

Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences (ISAS). The 

GGS program explores global mass, energy, and momen18 
tum transfer mechanisms in and between key regions of 

Earth’s magnetosphere. Several missions are slated to 

accomplish this: Wind (NASA), scheduled for launch in 

December 1992; Polar (NASA), scheduled for launch in 

July 1993; and the joint Japanese/NASA Geotail mission 

scheduled for launch in June 1992. Wind will provide data 

on the solar wind. Polar will provide data on energy input 

to the polar ionosphere. The two missions will operate in 

tandcm and in conjunction with Geotail and CRRES, 

which will investigate the energy-storage region both in 

the deep magnetotail and in the Van Allen radiation belts. 

The ESA/NASA Solar-Terrestrial Science Programme 

comprises two missions: the four-spacecraft Cluster mission and the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO). 

Cluster will conduct a three-dimensional microphysics 

investigation of the polar magnetosphere and the SOHO 

will investigate the sun’s interior structure, the solar 

corona, and the solar wind. In 1989, NASA’s Global 

Geospace Science missions, Wind and Polar, completed 

preliminary design review of the spacecraft systems. 

Work on the critical design review occurred in 1990. Also 

in 1989, the Memorandum of Understanding between the 

ISAS and NASA concerning Geotail was signed. Geotail, 

under development by the Nippon Electronics Corporation, moved toward a flight system critical design review 

in 1990. 

Orbiting Solar Xaboratory. Studies continued on 

the proposed Orbiting Solar Laboratory (OSL). The OSL 

is a free-flying satellite in a sun-synchronous polar orbit. 

Under consideration as a candidate new start mission, the 

mission will produce continuous solar observational data 

of unprecedented detail in white-light, ultraviolet, and 

extreme-ultraviolet images and spectra simultaneously. 

The net result will be virtual movies of solar processes as 

they emerge from the sun’s interior and are transformed 

and/or evolve through the upper layers of the sun’s 

atmosphere. Knowledge derived from the OSL will contribute seminally to our understanding of the spectacular 

eruptions of solar flares, which may improve our solar 

cycle prediction abilities, and prove valuable during times 

of high activity when astronauts risk prolonged exposure 

to harmful radiation. In 1989 and 1990, the phase B 

science and instrumentation work on the OSL proceeded. 

Solar-A Program NASA is providing one of the 

four instruments for the Japanese Solar-A mission, which 

will generate images of soft and hard solar x rays during 

the current period of maximum solar activity. The joint 

mission progressed satisfactorily in 1989 toward its scheduled launch in 1991. 

Tethered Satellite System The Tethered Satellite 

System (TSS), sponsored jointly with Italy, will examine 

the electrodynamic effects of large, conducting space 

systems as they interact with ambient plasma and Earth’s 

magnetic field. The spacecraft is to be tethered at a 

distance of 20 km (approximately 12 miles) from the 

space shuttle. In 1989, fabrication of the spacecraft and 

the machinery that will be used to deploy it was completed. The NASA flight instrument, Research on Orbital 

Plasma Electrodynamics (ROPE), was also completed and 

delivered. In 1990, fabrication and development work 

continued on four other U.S. and five Italian flight 

instruments. Three Italian payload specialists were also 

selected and began training for a flight scheduled in 1991. 

Solar Maximum Mission. On December 2,1989, 

the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) spacecraft re-entered 

Earth’s atmosphere over the Indian Ocean and disintegrated, ending nearly 10 years of productive observation. 

SMM was launched on February 14,1980 at the height of 

the last solar cycle. With the successful 1984 SMM on-orbit 

repair mission by the space shuttle crew, the mission’s 

scientifically productive life was extended to study the 

current maximum of the solar cycle that began in 1986. 

SMM observations provided a better understanding of the 

pre-impulsive phase that precedes the first large energy 

release in a solar flare. SMM also provided the first 

measurement of sunspots in three dimensions, as well as 

discoveries unrelated to solar-maximum activity, for example, detection of emissions from Supernova 1987a, 10 

collisions of comets with the sun, and small increases in 

high-altitude ozone levels in Earth’s atmosphere that may 

be associated with global warming. 

Explorer Program The International Cometary 

Explorer (ICE) continued to operate in 1989 and 1990 in 

a heliocentric orbit at Earth’s distance from the sun, but far 

from Earth itself. ICE data sets from comet GiacobiniZinner and Earth’s geotail region continued to be studied. 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform-8 investigations included studies of solar modulation of cosmic rays, solarwind/magnetosphere coupling, solar-wind dynamics, and 

19 
magnetospheric dynamics. IMP-8 remains critical to the 

support of deep-space missions such as Ulysses, Pioneer, 

and Voyager and has become the primary monitor of solar 

activity as it builds to a new maximum. Dynamics 

Explorer continued to provide data for investigations of 

the coupling of energy, electric currents, electric fields, 

mass, and waves between the magnetosphere, the ionosphere, and the atmosphere. 

Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer/Charge Composition Explorer. The Active 

Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer/Charge Composition Explorer (AMPTE/CCE) spacecraft ceased useful 

operations in 1989 after more than 4 productive years. 

During the mission’s lifetime, AMPTE/CCE investigators 

conducted numerous studies of the contributions of 

ionospheric matter and solar wind to Earth’s radiation 

zones, of the interaction between an artificially injected 

cold plasma and the natural, flowing space plasmas; and 

of the chemical composition, electrical charge state, 

temperature, and temporal changes of natural-particle 

populations in the Van Allen radiation belt region of the 

magnetosphere. 

Suborbital Program. Scientific experiments in 

space can often be performed inexpensively through the 

use of sounding rockets or balloons, allowing project 

teams to design, build, and fly experiments within a 

period of 1 to 2 years. The quick turnaround time not only 

allows for major scientific results, but also serves very 

effectively as a means of training graduate students and 

young scientists for advanced experimental research. 

NASA can support 30-40 sounding rocket launches annually. In September 1989, a NASA Black Brant X sounding 

rocket carried a new x-ray imaging instrument created by 

the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and IBM. 

Using a multilayer mirror-coating technique developed 

by IBM, the instrument was able to form precisely focused 

optical images of the sun as revealed in soft x-ray 

emissions at the exact moment of a solar flare. The result 

was the most abundantly detailed series of solar flare 

images in soft x-rays ever obtained. The technology used 

may have applications in projects planned for the 1990s 

as it registers a significant step toward our development 

of the ability to anticipate and respond to solar flares. 

NASA continues to maintain the capacity to launch 

40-50 scientific balloons annually. A successful test in 

November 1989 involved a 40-million-cubic-foot balloon 

that proved capable of carrying a 5,600-pound suspended 

weight to an altitude of about 123,000 feet. The Australian 

campaign continued the investigation of Supernova 1987a. 

Preparations were completed in 1989 for a series of test 

flights in a newly established NASA/NSF program to 

develop the capability for long-duration balloon flights in 

Antarctica. 

Advanced Studies. During 1989 and 1990, advanced studies continued on both major and moderate 

missions. Emphasis continued to be given to the Solar 

Probe, which is designed to measure small-scale solar 

plasma phenomena, especially particles and fields, directly from within three solar radii of the sun’s surface. 

Results of this project promise to be revolutionary, since 

the portion of the solar atmosphere to be studied (the 

inner corona) is presently accessible only to remote 

sensing devices. Launch may be possible by 1999. In June 

1989, three investigations were selected for the Astromag 

facility being planned jointly by the United States and Italy 

for Space Station Freedom. This facility will use a superconducting magnet attached to the space station to 

analyze very-high-energy cosmic rays in order to investigate the origin and evolution of matter in the galaxy and 

search for antimatter. Seven proposals to use the Earth 

Observing System polar platform were also selected. 

Studies continued on systems such as the Neutral Environment with Plasma Interactions Monitoring System, 

which would allow monitoring of many plasma, gas, and 

optical processes that affect Space Station Freedom payloads and operations. Further definition continued on a 

multiwavelength, x-ray/ultraviolet, high-resolution payload for solar physics. 

Earth Sciences 

The NASA Earth Science and Applications program 

is responsible for broad, space-based scientific studies of 

Earth as an integrated whole, and the processes comprising Earth system science. The U.S. Global Change Research 

program, coordinated by the Committee on Earth and 

Environmental Sciences under the Office of Science and 

Technology Policy, is a guiding force in setting priorities 

for the NASA Earth Science and Applications program. 

20 
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite. The 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) is the spearhead of a long-term, international program of space 

research concerning global atmospheric change. The 

UARS program will conduct the first systematic, detailed 

satellite study of Earth’s stratosphere, mesosphere, and 

lower thermosphere and establish the comprehensive 

database needed to understand stratospheric ozone 

depletion and to assess the role of human activities in 

atmospheric change. Scheduled for launch in 1991, the 

UAKS mission will also lay the foundation for a broader 

study of upper atmosphere influence on climate and 

climate variations. The UARS observatory instrument 

module structure completed qualification testing in 1989, 

with all 10 of the instruments delivered by January 1990. 

Full integration and testing of the spacecraft and instruments was completed in summer of 1990. 

TOPEX/POSEfDON. TOPEWPOSEIDON is a joint 

U.S. (NASA) and French (CNES) mission designed to 

make substantial contributions to the understanding of 

global ocean dynamics. Radar altimeters on a welltracked satellite will make accurate observations of the 

oceanic sea-surface topography. These data will enable 

the study and modeling of oceanic circulation and heat 

transport and its interaction with the atmosphere. The 

TOPEWPoseidon mission is a precursor to the altimetry 

instruments included in EOS. TOPEWPOSEIDON is 

scheduled for a mid-1992 launch aboard an Ariane IV 

rocket. During 1989, significant progress was made in the 

satellite’s design with the critical design review being 

successfully conducted in May 1989. Hardware fabrication for both the satellite system and instruments began 

in 1989 and continued through 1990, with integration of 

the satellite beginning in the spring of 1991. 

NASA Scatterometer. When the U.S. Navy Remote 

Ocean Sensing System satellite was canceled in 1988, 

NASA submitted a proposal to NASDA, the Japanese 

space agency, to include the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) 

as part of the Japanese Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (ADEOS) payload. During 1990, NSCAT was confirmed 

for flight on ADEOS and is developing into an international cooperative effort. NSCAT will contribute systematic high-resolution wind observations over the ocean, 

serving as a precursor to the scatterometry elements of the 

Earth Observing System program. These data are critical 

to understanding processes in which the oceans and 

atmosphere play a role in moderating Earth’s climate. 

NSCAT will be a key contributor to international ocean 

research. NSCAT is planned to be incorporated into the 

new Earth Probes program, proposed for a new start in Ey 

1991. 

Earth Observing System The Earth Observing 

System (EOSI is a comprehensive program of Earth 

system science, which will obtain and analyze long-term 

comprehensive observations from space. EOS is a critical 

element of NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth program and 

the major NASA contribution to the interagency U.S. 

Global Change Research Program (USGCRP). EOS science will benefit from an extensive data and information 

system, supported by a series of polar-orbiting platforms 

carrying a suite of internationally provided instrumentation. The Earth Observing System is proposed as a new 

start for FY 1991. In 1989, a non-advocacy budget review 

was conducted in preparation for the submission of the 

FY 1991 EOS initiative. During 1990, the National Academy of Sciences conducted and released their review of 

the USGCRP and the important contribution of EOS to that 

program. 

The interdisciplinary research investigations selected in 1988 continued to provide the scientific foundation for EOS. Definition and preliminary design phase 

studies for the EOS instruments continued in 1989 and 

1990, leading to final confirmation of the payload for the 

first platform expected in October 1990. Planning for the 

EOS Data and Information System (EOSDIS) also made 

significant progress in 1989 and 1990, with planned 

release of the Request for Information for EOSDIS scheduled for October 1990. 

International cooperation continued through the 

Earth Observations International Coordination Working 

Group (EO-ICWG), which met twice in 1989 in Ottawa, 

Canada (April), and Washington, DC (November), and 

once in 1990 in Paris (June). EO-ICWG is coordinating the 

payload planning for the NASA, European Space Agency 

(ESA), and Japanese polar platforms, as well as addressing 

common instrument interfaces and developing agreements on various aspects of the polar Earth observation 

program which could be formalized in the future. 

21 
Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor. The Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor (SeaWiFS) is a global ocean color 

mission designed to deliver worldwide observations of 

ocean radiance for research in biogeochemical processes, 

climate change, and oceanography. SeaWiFS is planned 

for launch as a precursor to the EOS and is a follow-on 

ocean color sensor to the Coastal Zone Color Scanner, the 

first and only ocean color satellite instrument to date, 

which flew on Nimbus 7. During 1989 and 1990, NASA 

worked to define the mission requirements to develop the 

SeaWiFS as a commercial satellite mission. In this scenario, NASA would procure the data stream from a 

commercial entity which would build, own, and operate 

the instrument and retain rights to sell the data stream to 

other potential clients. 

Operational Meteorological Satellites. NASA 

continues to support the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) operational polar and 

geostationary weather satellite program by acting as 

NOAA’s agent to procure the needed satellites and 

instruments and to arrange for launch and on-orbit 

checkouts prior to transferring control of them over to 

NOAA for routine operations. The polar-orbiting NOAA10 (launched in September 1986) has far exceeded its 2- 

year design life; its intended replacement, NOM-D, is 

currently in storage to be launched no earlier than the 

spring of 1991. Integration and test of NOAA-I, the 

intended replacement for NOAA-11, is proceeding 

smoothly and the spacecraft is scheduled to be delivered 

by late 1991. Since the failure of the geostationary GOES6 in January 1989 (9 months beyond its 5-year design life), 

U.S. coverage has been provided by a single satellite, 

GOES-7, which is moved seasonally to provide optimal 

hurricane and winter storm coverage. GOES-I, scheduled 

for launch no earlier than early 1992, will replace GOES6. A preliminary definition study of the next generation of 

geostationary weather satellites began in June 1989 and 

was completed in 1990. 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition. 

NASA and NOAA jointly coordinated the 6-week Airborne 

Arctic Stratospheric Expedition to study stratospheric 

chemistry and meteorology over the Arctic. This expedition was a follow-on to a similar aircraft study in 1987 of 

ozone loss over Antarctica. The Arctic expedition took 

place during early winter when polar stratospheric clouds 

are most likely to form. During early 1989, NASA EK-2 and 

DC-8 aircraft carrying many instruments of the same type 

used in the Antarctic, flew 28 missions over the Arctic as 

far as the North Pole to investigate the chemical and 

dynamical processes controlling ozone in the Arctic polar 

stratosphere. Preliminary results from this study indicate 

that the chemical composition of the Arctic polar stratosphere is highly perturbed and that these perturbations 

occur over a wide range of altitudes in the stratosphere. 

While no large ozone losses have been observed in the 

Arctic, strong perturbations in active chlorine were observed. 

OzoneMeasurements. The Total Ozone Mapping 

Spectrometer (TOMS) instrument provides high-resolution global mapping of total ozone on a daily basis. NASA 

reached final agreement with the Soviet Union in the 

summer of 1990 to fly a TOMS instrument on the Soviet 

Meteor-3 spacecraft in the fall of 1991; initial delivery of 

a TOMS flight unit delivery to the Soviet Union was 

expected in October 1990. In addition, TOMS missions in 

1993, aboard a U.S. Scout spacecraft, and 1995, aboard the 

Japanese ADEOS spacecraft, are being prepared for 

submission as part of the Earth Probes initiative in the FY 

1991 budget. A Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SBUV) 

instrument flew on the shuttle in October 1989 to gather 

on-orbit data needed to calibrate direct ozone measurements by TOMS and other NASA and NOAA satellite 

instruments. Preliminary analysis of the 1989 flight was 

conducted in the summer of 1990, with a second SSBUV 

mission planned for October 1990. 

International Climate Assessments. Article 6 of 

the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the 

Ozone Layer requires that its international ozone control 

measures be reviewed in 1990 and every 4 years thereafter 

on the basis of currently available scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information. NASA scientists 

participated on panels of experts organized by the United 

Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) to review 

relevant information. Preliminary conclusions include the 

prediction that total chlorine and bromine loadings of the 

atmosphere will approximately triple by the year 2050 

and lead to continued ozone depletion. Antarctic and 

Arctic ozone loss would likely worsen, and the Antarctic 

ozone hole would not disappear until levels of atmospheric 

chlorine were reduced to the levels of the early 1970s. 

22 
NASA researchers also participated in the working group 

that prepared the Scientific Assessment of Climate Change 

for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

(IPCC). 

Climate Research. Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (EKBE) research and operations continued in 

1989 and 1990 with published research discussing the 

cooling effect of global cloudiness and the nature of 

energy transfer. In addition, two scientists at Marshall 

Space Flight Center released the results of satellite measuremen& of global atmospheric temperature over the 

last 10 years. Their research validated the use of satellite 

observations by showing the close correlation between 

such measurements and ground and balloon measurements of the same areas. The International Satellite Cloud 

Climatology Project (ISCCP) is part of the World Climate 

Research Program which aims to produce a global, 

calibrated radiance data set, together with other basic 

information on the radiative properties of the atmosphere 

and surface from which cloud properties can be derived. 

A validated global cloud climatology will serve as an 

important component for a comprehensive understanding of global change. ISCCP data collection and processing is planned to continue through 1995. 

First International Satellite Land Surface 

Climatology Project Field Experiment (FIFE-89). 

This activity was an extension of the successful 1987 

activity in Kansas known as FIFE. Over 150 investigators 

in 30 teams reoccupied the Konza Prairie near Manhattan, 

KS for 21 days in August. Supported by six aircraft bearing 

state-of-the-art remote sensing systems and data from 

Landsat, SPOT (the French Satellitepour I’Obseruation de 

la Terre), NOM-10, NOM-11, and GOES, the team 

studied the late summer dry-down of the prairie vegetation. The study relates remote sensing measurements to 

biological productivity and evapotranspiration, laying the 

groundwork for future climatic and ecological studies 

including problems of global warming and desertification. The 1989 experiment also provided an opportunity 

to enlarge the international participation in the experiment 

to include nine investigators from the Soviet Union. 

Global Backscatter Experiment. The Global 

Backscatter Experiment (GLOBE) aircraft expedition of 

November 1989 measured the number and size distribution of atmospheric particles, called aerosols, over remote 

areas of the tropical Pacific and the northern and southern 

hemispheres. This was accomplished using lidar (“light 

detection and ranging” laser radar) instruments mounted 

on a NASA DC-8 research aircraft from Ames Research 

Center, coordinated with measurements from research 

aircraft from Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. GLOBE 

baseline data are contributing to development of NASA’s 

Laser Atmosphere Wind Sounder (LAWS) instrument, 

scheduled for flight in the EOS program. A second 

campaign (GLOBE-2) was conducted in May 1990 to 

conduct similar measurements during a different season. 

Loma Prieta Earthquake. NASA’s Geodynamics 

program responded quickly to the Loma Prieta earthquake of October 17, 1989, with fault motion measurements coordinated with the National Geodetic Survey at 

three mobile very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) 

sites and with the U.S. Geological Survey at a network of 

Global Positioning System sites in the region of the San 

Andreas Fault. Since 1983, the VLBI sites have been 

monitored at a deformation rate of about 1 millimeter per 

year. Measurements in the days after the earthquake were 

designed to monitor immediate post-seismic slip in the 

epicentral region of the earthquake. 

Amazon Deforestation. In 1989, studies of deforestation in the Amazon basin using the vegetation index 

and thermal data from the NOM Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) were expanded to include the tropical forest regions of Africa and Asia. The 

goal is to generate coarse-resolution, global-scale estimates of tropical deforestation. AVHRR thermal data are 

also being used to better understand the role of fire in the 

deforestation process and to assess its effect on the 

atmosphere. 

MesoscaleAtmospheric Research. During 1989, 

work progressed on WetNet, a 5-year pilot program 

examining the role of a remote interactive computer 

network in an Earth science research environment. WetNet 

is an important precursor to the EOS Data and Information 

System (EOSDIS). The primary data source is the Special 

Sensor Microwave/Imager and is of interest to the atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and land process 

communities. The research and data network is designed 

to enhance scientific analysis and encourage an interdis- 
ciplinary approach to the study of the global hydrologic 

cycle. WetNet entered its operational phase in the summer of 1990. 

Publication of Global Data Sets. NASA is in the 

process of improving archiving and distribution of existing Earth science data sets to the research community. 

Notable among these efforts was the analysis, archiving, 

and distribution of Coastal Zone Color Scanner data on 

optical disks. Other efforts focused on making Earth 

science data sets more accessible, including conversion to 

CD-ROM (compact disk-read only memory) and optical 

disk formats. 

Life Sciences 

Life Sciences research encompasses basic research and clinical practice, focusing on the development 

of countermeasures and life support systems for human 

spaceflight. It also includes the study of exobiology, space 

medicine, space biology, biospheric research, and controlled ecological life support systems. Ground-based 

research is conducted in parallel with space flight investigations on space shuttle missions and on Soviet biosatellites. Future flight activities will also occur on extended 

duration orbiter missions, a recoverable reentry satellite 

(Lifesat), the Soviet Union’s Mir Space Station, and Space 

Station Freedom. 

Spacelab Life Sciences-I. In 1989, preparations 

were completed for Spacelab Life Sciences-1 (SLS-I), 

which will be the first space shuttle mission dedicated to 

life sciences research. It is scheduled to fly in 1991. The 

20 flight investigations selected for SLS-1 comprise an 

integrated package that will address some important 

questions about how living systems adapt to the 

microgravity environment of space and how they readapt 

to Earth’s gravity. Full-time crew training began in the 

spring of 1989 and continued through 1990. 

Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program 

Most space shuttle missions flown in 1989 and 1990 

carried biomedical investigations that were part of the 

Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) Medical Program, a 3- 

year program intended to ensure the health, safety, and 

productivity of crew members on ED0 space shuttle 

missions of 16-28 days, especially during landing and 

egress. Continuing this practice, the International 

Microgravity Laboratory 1 (IML-11, to be launched in 1991, 

will fly life sciences experiments from NASA, the European Space Agency, Japan, Canada, and Israel. 

Centrifuge Facility. In 1989, Phase B studies were 

initiated for the Centrifuge Facility, the major life sciences 

research facility on Space Station Freedom. The centrifuge 

will enable a wide variety of variable gravity investigations on the station. This program has continued in 1990, 

with a Phase C/D expected to begin in 1991. 

Cosntos. More than 70 NASA-sponsored researchers from 19 States and three foreign countries participated 

in 31 cooperative life science investigations that were 

flown on the Soviet Cosmos 2044 biosatellite mission 

launched in September 1989. Cosmos is an unpiloted 

recoverable spacecraft that accommodates plant and 

animal experiments. In 1989, NASA also initiated design 

studies for Lifesat, a biosatellite that will enable further 

studies on biological responses to cosmic radiation exposure and microgravity. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELSS) is a 

program to produce biogenerative life support systems 

capable of providing food and clean air for space crews. 

In 1989, a CELSS flight program plan was prepared that 

will include payloads on the shuttle and Space Station 

Freedom. In 1990, work progressed on a CELSS breadboard facility at Kennedy Space Center. The large-scale, 

closed, plant-growth facility became operational and 

successfully grew wheat, soybeans, and lettuce. At Ames 

Research Center, a prototype of the “salad machine” for 

Space Station Freedom was developed and successfully 

tested. 

Space Medicine. NASA’s operational medicine 

program provides medical care to the crew during space 

missions. This care includes pre- and post-flight medical 

evaluations, inflight health care, and the maintenance of 

a database to identify how crews adapt to spaceflight. In 

1989, NASA scientists developed a medical toxicology 

database of information on potential toxins during shuttle 

24 
missions, including medical treatment options in case of 

contamination. In the area of countermeasures to space 

adaptation, a lower body negative pressure device designed to condition crew members against orthostatic 

intolerance was flown for the first time on STS-32 in 1989. 

In the field of human factors and performance 

research, SI biomechanics integrated measurement system, developed at Johnson Space Center, became operational in 1989. In addition, a new laser-based 

anthropometric mapping system (LAMS) was set up in 

1989. The IAMS will be used to design individual seat size 

and position and location of restraints on shuttle seats. 

Telemedicine Spacebridge. One of the most significant life sciences activities in 1989 was the operation 

of a Telemedicine Spacebridge to Soviet Armenia after the 

December 1988 earthquake. Via satellite, physicians at 

NASA and other U.S. organizations provided medical 

advice anti assistance to doctors treating earthquake 

victims. The Spacebridge was so successful that it was 

extended t'o assist in another disaster, the Ufa gas explosion in May. 

Space Biology. During March 1989, STS-29 carried 

a chromosome and plant cell division experiment, called 

CHROMEX. This dual-purpose experiment tested biotechnology capabilities by growing plants from cloned 

cell cultures rather than seeds and evaluated the effects of 

microgravi1:y on cells crucial to the normal development 

of plant root tips. 

Exobiology. The exobiology program concentrates on the pathways of the biogenic elements from the 

origin of thle universe to the evolution of living systems. 

In 1989 anti 1990, work on a space station experiment to 

collect cosmic dust was begun. This experiment will 

enable better understanding of biogenic compounds 

necessary for the origin of life. Exobiology also includes 

the study of prospects for extraterrestrial life, including 

intelligent life. The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 

Microwave Observing Project, to be initiated in 1992, will 

use ground-based radio telescopes to search for radio 

signals of extraterrestrial origin. In 1989 and 1990, prototypes of a inultichannel spectrum analyzer and a prototype radio surveillance subsystem were installed and 

tested at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, one of 

the sites that will be used for the project. 

Microgravity Science and Applications 

The Microgravity Science and Applications program 

sponsors basic and applied research requiring low gravity 

conditions. In space, the absence of gravity-induced 

phenomena, such as buoyancy-driven convection, sedimentation, and hydrostatic pressure, provides a unique 

opportunity to study many physical processes and materials. Disciplines studied include fluid phenomena, combustion, materials science, and protein crystal growth. In 

1989 and 1990, most of the microgravity payloads flown 

involved protein crystal growth experiments. Work continued on the development of experiments, in other 

disciplines, which will be flown on upcoming Spacelab 

flights. 

Protein Crystal Growth. The Protein Crystal 

Growth (PCG) facility was flown aboard STS-29, STS-30, 

and STS-32 in 1989 and 1990, each completing 60 different 

experiments using 19 different proteins. The PCG apparatus is planned for several other flights. This experiment 

will supply information on the scientific methods and 

commercial potential for growing high quality crystals in 

microgravity. Protein crystals grown in microgravity are 

generally larger and more defect-free than crystals grown 

on Earth. These crystals may be used to help determine 

the three-dimensional molecular structure of proteins. 

Such knowledge may yield important insights into biological processes and could potentially be used in applications such as the development of new pharmaceuticals 

and products that enhance the disease resistance of 

agricultural crops. 

Ground-Based Research. Ground-based research 

facilities, such as drop towers and aircraft, play an 

important role in microgravity science investigations. 

Extensive testing is performed in these facilities before 

committing to costly space experimentation. In 1989 and 

1990, numerous investigations in fluids phenomena, 

combustion, and materials science were carried out at 

Lewis Research Center. Studies at Marshall Space Flight 

Center focused on materials science and containerless 

processing. 

Space Flight Facility Development. In 1989 and 

1990, NASA continued to support the development of 

over 30 experiments to be flown on the shuttle. The 

25 
hardware being developed includes both investigatorspecific and multi-user apparatus. Several of the multiuser facilities are precursors to the six facilities that are 

planned for the Space Station Freedom. These are the 

Space Station Furnace Facility, the Modular Containerless 

Processing Facility, the Advanced Protein Crystal Growth 

Facility, the Biotechnology Facility, the Modular Combustion Facility, and the Fluid Physics/Dynamics Facility. This 

is an evolutionary approach to space station utilization 

which will allow NASA to benefit from the on-orbit 

experience gained on shuttle flights. 

Communications and Information Systems 

The communications and information systems program identifies and applies advanced communications 

and information systems technologies for NASA space 

science needs, the satellite communications industry, and 

the public sector. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite. During 1989 and 1990, NASA continued Advanced 

Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) development activities. ACTS is scheduled for a 1992 launch. 

Delivery of all engineering models and several flight 

model subsystems and the completion of the ACTS system 

critical design review occurred. Flight model manufacturing began. Significant progress was also made in working 

with industry to develop a wide-ranging set of applications-oriented experiments and demonstrations for ACTS. 

Mobile SateUite. The mobile satellite program, 

which is a joint Government/industry endeavor, will 

provide two-way satellite-assisted communication with 

cars, trucks, trains, boats, and aircraft within the next 3 to 

4 years. During 1989 and 1990, L-band technologies were 

successfully tested in land/aeronautical mobile applications. American Mobile Satellite Corporation has adopted 

the concepts developed in the program as its baseline 

digital service approach. Internationally, the program 

significantly influenced mobile system design and Canada 

and Australia have shown interest in the developed 

mobile equipment. NASA played a lead role in the 

regulatory activities that led to the securing of the L-band 

frequency allocation and to the formation of the provider, 

American Mobile Satellite Corp. Search and Rescue. 

NASA's Search and Rescue program is part of COSPASSARSAT, an international satellite-based search and rescue system that locates distress beacons from endangered 

ships and aircraft. The program is a joint venture between 

the United States, the Soviet Union, Canada, and France. 

U.S. participation includes efforts by NASA, the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Coast Guard, 

and the Air Force. As of the end of 1990, the COSPASSAKSAT system was credited with saving a total of more 

than 1,450 lives. In 1990, NASA also began to focus on 

plans for the next spaceborne search and rescue system, 

which will offer new services and improved response 

times. 

Advanced Technology and Systems Development. In 1989-1990, NASA continued development of key 

technology and systems to address future space communications needs and the increasing demand for communication bandwidths. Technologies and systems under 

study include the following: optical communications for 

wide bandwidth, data transmission techniques, robotics, 

and space-based antennas. The latter will be tested and 

calibrated on the space station. 

Information Systems. The information systems 

program provides NASA science divisions with access to 

data archives and directories through the National Space 

Science Data Center (NSSDC) and, in the future, through 

the NASA Master Directory. It also provides networking 

services to the NASA science community through the 

NASA Internet system and access to high-performance 

computing facilities. In 1989, NASA initiated work on the 

NASA Master Directory, a directory with brief, high-level 

information about available data sets on Earth and space 

science. This directory provides a starting point for 

computer-aided searches of data sets. Also in 1989, NASA 

awarded a contract to Cray Research, Inc. to provide 

advanced supercomputing facilities to Goddard Space 

Flight Center and Lewis Research Center. The 

supercomputers will support the scientific computing 

needs of Goddard, Lewis, other NASA centers, and NASAsponsored university research programs. During 1989 

and 1990, work also continued on defining the Applied 

Information Systems Research program. This program is 

being conducted to apply new information systems 

26 
research and technology in support of NASA’s space 

science programs. Technologies under study include 

graphics and visualization, algorithms, data storage, and 

access methods. 

of the Earth Observing System (EOS) program. In 1990, 

planning for space station utilization continued, with 

studies focusing on both attached payloads and on life 

and microgravity science investigations. 

Flight Systems 

Space Transportation 

The flight systems program provides support to the 

Office of Space Science and Applications through the 

management of Spacelab missions and planning for 

science utilization of Space Station Freedom. 

Spacelab FlightProgram During 1989 and 1990, 

extensive preparations were made for several Spacelab 

flights. Three flights were scheduled for 1990, but were 

delayed because of a hydrogen leak in the space shuttle. 

The Astro-1 mission, composed of one x-ray and three 

ultraviolet telescopes, will make complementary measurements of a variety of stars and galaxies. Astro-l is 

scheduled to fly in early FY 1991. Spacelab Life Sciences1 (SLS-I), a mission dedicated solely to life sciences 

research, is scheduled to fly in mid 1991. Later in the year, 

the International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-1) will be 

flown. IML-1 includes life and microgravity sciences 

payloads from the United States, Europe, Canada, and 

Japan. Both SLS-1 and IML-1 are undergoing physical 

integration at Kennedy Space Center. Preparations are 

also under way for a 1991 microgravity mission with the 

Japanese, called Spacelab-J. Also in work are preparations 

for the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and 

Science (ATLAS) missions, the first of which is scheduled 

to be flown in 1992. The ATLAS missions will measure the 

sun’s radiation over the 1 1-year solar cycle, its effect on 

Earth’s upper atmosphere, and the global distribution of 

key molecular species in the middle atmosphere. Also in 

1992, a series of missions dedicated to microgravity 

research will be initiated with the first flight of the U.S. 

Microgravity Laboratory (USML). 

Space Station Activities. In June 1989, NASA announced the selection of the space station attached 

payloads. The selections included four investigations in 

cosmic ray physics, two in astrophysics, one in solar 

physics, one in communications research, three cosmic 

dust collection experiments in life sciences and solar 

system exploration, and three instruments which are part 

As part of NASA’s mission, derived from the 

President’s National Space Policy, the Office of Space 

Flight is responsible for developing space transportation 

capabilities, carrying out space flight operations, and 

planning for men and women to work in space. In 

addition, the Office continues to support future science 

and human exploration missions in the solar system and 

the permanent presence of human beings in space. It has 

also assisted in the commercialization of space and the 

privatization of space transportation systems. 

The Space Shuttle 

Orbiter. The space shuttle’s primary purpose is to 

transport people and cargo into low-Earth orbit (100 to 

350 nautical miles altitude). There are presently three 

active orbiters: Columbia, Discovery and Atlantis. Each 

orbiter’s cargo bay is 15 feet in diameter, 60 feet long and 

has the baseline capability to carry up to 55,000 pounds. 

The orbiter can accommodate a flight crew of up to 8 and 

has a basic mission of 7 days in space. Typical missions 

range from 4 to 9 days duration, with crews numbering 

from 5 to 7. 

In May 1989, the name “Endeavour”-submitted by 

school children in NASA’s “Name the New Orbiter” 

contest-was selected for Orbiter Vehicle-105, which is in 

production. The assembly of the major structural components and integration of systems of OV-105 continued to 

progress through FY 90. By the end of September 1990 

many of the structural components of Endeavour had 

been mated. Yet to be mated were the forward Reaction 

Control System, the Orbital Maneuvering System pods, 

and one payload bay door. Some of the changes made for 

the new orbiter include a drag chute, a regenerative 

carbon dioxide removal system, a new waste collection 

system, and an improved star tracker. The vehicle had 

begun a full check-out of all of its systems, including 

power-on testing. Endeavour is scheduled to be delivered 

27 
to the Kennedy Space Center in May 1991, and to make 

its first flight in early 1992. 

In addition to work on Endeavour, 25 modifications 

were installed on Columbia (OV-102), 106 installed on 

Discovery (OV-103), and 47 installed on Atlantis (OV-104) 

in FY 1990. This was in addition to nearly 300 total 

improvements incorporated into the three-shuttle fleet in 

CY 1989. The most significant orbiter improvement in FY 

1990 was the initial installation of carbon brakes. 

Work also continued in 1989 and 1990 on the 

Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) program, which will 

provide a 16-day mission capability. NASA plans to 

modify Columbia for this capability and to construct 

Endeavour such that the option will exist to go beyond a 

16-day mission. Modifications that enable extended flight 

include the addition of a new cryogenic pallet containing 

four tank sets of oxygen and hydrogen for additional 

power generation, a regenerative carbon dioxide removal 

system, an improved waste management system, and 

increased stowage. Extended missions will be approached 

incrementally with 10- and 13-day flights prior to STS-63, 

the first 16-day ED0 flight. The 10-day STS-32 mission, 

which flew from January 9 to January 20, 1990, was the 

first in a series of flight tests leading to ED0 testing. 

Space Shuttle Main Engine. The Space Shuttle 

Main Engine (SSME) program continued its very active 

test program in 1989 and 1990. Eighty-three ground tests 

for 35,318 seconds were conducted in support of the 

development, certification, and flight programs during 

1989. During the first 9 calendar months of 1990, 102 tests 

were conducted for a total of 39,855 seconds. This 

increased the total since January 1986 to 412 tests for just 

over 165,000 seconds with a renewed emphasis on 

reliability, safety, and life enhancements. 

The Technology Test Bed Program, which furnishes 

NASA with critical basic propulsion research and technology capability, was initiated in 1989 at Marshall Space 

Flight Center in Huntsville, AL. Eleven tests for 800 

seconds were successfully conducted on advanced SSME 

designs. During the first 9 months of 1990, 11 tests were 

conducted for a total of 1,120 seconds on the advanced 

SSME designs. 

Solid Rocket Booster. The redesigned solid rocket 

motor (RSRM) is the propulsive element of the solid 

rocket booster (SRB), which, along with the SSME, 

powers the space shuttle into space. The RSKM has been 

operational since completion of a rigorous qualification 

program. The last qualification static test firing was 

accomplished in January 1989 and qualified the RSRM for 

the low-temperature specification limits. A limited development effort continued for improvement of the 

design, elimination of waivers to flight requirements, and 

improvements to launch preparation procedures. 

AduancedSoUdRocketMotor. In May 1990, NASA 

awarded contracts to Lockheed Missiles and Space Company for the design, development, test, and evaluation of 

the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor, as well as for the design 

and construction of the facility at the abandoned Yellow 

Creek nuclear facility at Iuka, MS. The new motor will 

increase safety and reliability, improve the performance 

of the booster, and increase overall efficiency. The motor 

design consists of three segments: bolted field joints, 

welded factory joints, and a carbon integral throat entrance nozzle. 

Static testing of the motor will be accomplished at 

the Stennis Space Center, Bay Saint Louis, MS, while 

nozzle manufacturing will be conducted at the Michoud 

Assembly Facility, Slidell, LA and subscale motor testing 

will take place at the Marshall Space Flight Center, 

Huntsville, AL. The first flight utilizing the new rocket is 

targeted for 1996. 

1989 and FY 90 Shuttle Missions. NASA successfully completed five space shuttle missions in 1989 

and three during the first 9 months of 1990. The missions 

included STS-29, STS-30, STS-28, STS-34, STS-33, STS-32, 

STS-36, and STS-31. 

STS-29 (Discovery) was a 5-day mission that was 

launched on March 13,1989, from Kennedy Space Center, 

Florida. The primary objective of the flight was to deploy 

a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-D), which was 

successfully accomplished on the first day. TDRS-D 

replaced TDRS-A over the Atlantic Ocean and joined 

TDRS-C (in geosynchronous orbit over the Pacific Ocean) 

in completing the constellation of on-orbit satellites for 

NASA’s advanced space communications system. TDRSA is used as a spare. The TDRS satellites provide communication and data links between Earth and spacecraft such 

as the space shuttle. The orbiter landed safely at Edwards 

Air Force Base in California on March 18, 1989. 

The second launch of 1989 occurred on May 4, 

28 
The Syncom iV-5 communications is seen in orbit over Zaire. 

it was put into space from Space Shuttie Columbia (STS-32). 

aboard Atlantis (STS-30). The primary objective of the 4- 

day mission was the deployment of the Magellan satellite, 

which was accomplished successfully about 6 hours after 

lift-off. Magellan will map up to 90 percent of the surface 

of Venus with a high degree of resolution. Insertion of 

Magellan into Venus’ orbit was accomplished in August 

1990. The landing of Atlantis occurred on May 8, 1989. 

The next launch, STS-28, was on August 8, 1989, 

aboard Columbia. The 5-day flight was a classified DOD 

mission. After a successful mission, Columbia landed 

safely at Edwards Air Force Base on August 13. 

The STS-28 mission was followed by STS-34 (Atlantis), 

which was launched on October 18, 1989. The main 

objective of the STS-34 mission was the deployment of the 

Galileo satellite, which occurred on Flight Day 1. Galileo 

is now on its journey to Jupiter to study the planet’s 

atmosphere, satellites, and surrounding magnetosphere. 

On its 6-year trip to Jupiter, Galileo’s trajectory swings 

around Venus, the sun, and Earth to acquire additional 

energy from Earth’s gravitational forces. The Venus flyby 

was successfully accomplished in February 1990. The 

Orbiter’s crew ended another successful mission when 

Atlantis landed on October 23, 1989. 

The fifth and last shuttle flight in 1989 was aboard 

Discovery (STS-33). Discovery lifted off on November 22 

and was a classified DOD mission. The mission ended on 

November 27 with a safe landing at Edwards. 

On January 9, 1990, Columbia was launched on a 

nearly 11-day flight that was highlighted by the deployment of a Navy synchronous communication satellite, 

Syncom IV-5, for Hughes Communications, and the 

retrieval of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF). 

LDEF is an open-grid structure containing 57 scientific 

experiments which was launched and deployed aboard 

Challenger on Mission STS41C in April 1984. This flight 

also represented the first in a series of flights leading to 

extended duration orbiter testing. After successful 

completion of its mission objectives, Columbia landed 

safely at Edwards on January 20, 1990. 

Shuttle Mission STS-36, a classified DOD payload 

carried on the orbiter Atlantis, was launched from Kennedy 

Space Center on February 28,1990. Atlantis landed safely 

at Edwards on March 4, 1990. 

The 35th flight of the space shuttle, STS-31, was 

highlighted by the deployment in Earth orbit of the 

Hubble Space Telescope using the orbiter Discovery. 

Discovery was launched from Kennedy Space Center on 

April 24, 1990, with the mission being was completed 

successfully when Discovery landed safely at Edwards on 

April 29, 1990. 

Hydrogen Leaks. During the launch attempt for 

the STS-35 (Columbia) mission on May 29, 1990, a 

hydrogen leak was detected, in excess of limits established to maintain safe operating conditions, scrubbing 

the mission. Subsequently, during a tanking test of the 

STS-38 (Atlantis) Shuttle Vehicle, a hydrogen leak was 

discovered, similar to the temperature and flow ratedependent leak that grounded STS-35. While investigating the sources of the leaks aboard Columbia and Atlantis, 

NASA elected to ground the shuttle fleet in the interest of 

safety. Investigations and repairs lasted throughout the 

summer of 1990. 

In September, NASA was twice again forced to scrub 

the launch of STS-35 because of recurring hydrogen leaks, 

which, although not serious enough to cause an explosion, were high enough to exceed NASA’s self-imposed 

29 
limits. At the end of the fiscal year, Columbia was 

undergoing repairs on Pad A at the Kennedy Space Center 

while preparations were under way for the October 6 

launch of STS-41 (Discovery), carrying the Ulysses interplanetary probe, and STS-38 (Atlantis) was being prepared 

for a classified DOD payload scheduled for a November 

1990 launch. 

Future Flights. The NASA “Mixed Fleet Manifest of 

Shuttle and ELV Flights” was published in January 1990. 

This publication depicted planned launch dates for the 

space shuttle and expendable launch vehicles (ELV) that 

support NASA and NASA-related payloads projected 

through FY 1996. This schedule called for 8 shuttle flights 

in 1990, 10 in 1991, 11 in 1992 and 1993, and 12 in each 

of the remaining years. Unfortunately, the hydrogen leaks 

resulted in the loss of three scheduled flights in FY 1990. 

The future shuttle schedule is currently under review. 

There were 37 ELV launches projected for this period. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

1989 Launches. NASA completed its 30-year management of the Atlas-Centaur and Delta Launch Vehicle 

programs in 1989 with the successful launch of the Navy 

FltSatCom satellite on an Atlas-Centaur in September and 

the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) on a Delta in 

November. NASA also moved into its new role as service 

provider to the commercial expendable launch vehicle 

industry by providing NASA facilities and services on a 

direct cost basis to the commercial launch vehicle industry. 

Following the Challenger accident, NASA established a policy of reliance on a mixed fleet of launch 

vehicles, utilizing both the human-piloted space shuttle 

and unmanned expendable launch vehicles (ELV) for its 

space transportation needs. To formalize its decision 

process on payload flight assignment between the human-piloted shuttle and unmanned ELVs, NASA established the Flight Assignment Board on September 7, 1989. 

The guiding premise used by the Board is that payloads 

would be assigned for launch on an ELV unless they 

required the presence of a human being, another unique 

capability of the shuttle, or another clearly specified and 

compelling reason, such as the unavailability of a suitable 

ELV. 

The membership of the Flight Assignment Board 

includes both Office of Space Flight representatives and 

the Associate or Deputy Associate Administrators from 

the NASA community. The Board is chaired by the 

Associate Administrator for Space Flight. The Board’s 

recommendations are forwarded to the NASA Administrator for review and approval. The Board has met three 

times, on September 19 and November 14, 1989 and on 

July 23, 1990. Its significant accomplishments in 1989 

included the development and approval of payload 

assignment criteria and the review of each payload on the 

June 1989 shuttle manifest against that payload criteria. 

Implementation of the strategy resulted in the reassignment of four spacecraft from the shuttle to ELVs. All four 

of the spacecraft-the Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT), the 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES), 

the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) and the Mars 

Observer-have been launched or are under contract to 

be launched on ELVs. 

The ROSAT mission was launched June 1,1990 on 

a Delta I1 vehicle procured from DOD. The CRRES 

mission was launched July 25 on a commercial Atlas 

purchased from General Dynamics. When the EUVE 

mission is launched in August 1991, it also is scheduled 

to be aboard a DOD Delta, while the Mars Observer is 

manifested to fly on a Martin Marietta Commercial Titan, 

Inc. ELV in 1992. Martin Marietta Commercial Titan, Inc. 

was awarded a firm fixed-price contract to provide the 

Titan 111 launch services for Mars Observer in November 

1989. The development of a new Delta 10-foot fairing for 

the ROSAT mission was completed in 1990 and was 

utilized for the ROSAT mission. 

At its July 23, 1990 meeting, the Flight Assignment 

Board assigned seven payloads to ELVs, and one, the 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), to the 

shuttle. 

Upper Stages 

Inertial Upper Stage. The inertial upper stage 

(IUS) is a USAF-developed vehicle that can transport 

payloads from low- to high-Earth orbit (geosynchronous) 

as well as to planetary trajectories. The IUS is launched 

into space on the space shuttle or a Titan IIIAV expendable launch vehicle. During 1989, the shuttle/IUS successfully launched NASA’s Magellan, Galileo, and Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) D missions. Current plans 

target shuttle/IUS launches for the Ulysses spacecraft in 

30 
First launch of the commercial Titan from Cape Canaveral Air 

Force Station on December 31, 1989, carrying two 

communications satellites: Japan’s JCSAT 2 and the United 

Kingdom’s Skynet 4A. 

October 1990 and a series of additional TDKS missions 

throughout the early 1990s. 

Transfer Orbit Stage. The transfer orbit stage (TOS), 

developed commercially by Orbital Sciences Corporation, is designed to place payloads into geosynchronous 

transfer orbit or other high-energy trajectories. It can be 

carried into space by either the space shuttle or the 

commercial Titan 111. Development, qualification, and 

mission integration activities continued during 1989 and 

1990 for two TOS vehicles to support launch of the 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) 

with a shuttle/TOS in mid-1992, followed by a launch later 

in 1992 on a Titan III/TOS for the Mars Observer 

spacecraft. 

Spacelab Carrier System 

Spacelab, a reusable science ObservatoryAaboratory flown in the shuttle payload bay, was developed by 

the European Space Agency. It includes a pressurized 

module that provides a shirtsleeve environment for the 

crew, as well as a number of unique unpressurized 

platform pallets for unmanned research activities. NASA 

has added a number of different experiment carrier 

systems to complement the original Spacelab hardware. 

These carrier systems can provide scientists with an inbay capability to support small experiments up to a fullup life science or micro-gravity module mission. 

The NASA mixed fleet manifest shows an extensive 

use of Spacelab carrier system hardware starting in 1990 

and continuing through 1996. Mission planning and 

integration of flight experiments with Spacelab hardware 

has been completed for the Astro-l/BBXRT mission. 

Integration of the flight experiments with the Spacelab 

hardware for the Spacelab Life Sciences-1, International 

Microgravity Laboratory-1, Atlas-1, and TSS-1 missions 

continued throughout FY 1990. The Starlab mission was 

removed from the shuttle manifest. 

In addition, the enhanced pallet successfully completed checkout and acceptance testing in 1990 and flight 

equipment was received in time to support the Tethered 

Satellite System (TSS) mission processing activities. The 

Hitchhiker program continues to play an important role 

in the flights of Spacelab carrier equipment. As many as 

14 Hitchhiker missions are listed on the latest shuttle 

manifest. 

Tethered Satellite System 

The Tethered Satellite System (TSS) is a shuttlebased facility for deploying a satellite connected by a 

tether to the shuttle for distances up to 62 miles. The TSS 

allows satellites to be deployed into areas previously 

unreachable and perform unique “in situ” science. The 

TSS is a cooperative program between NASA and the 

Italian Space Agency. 

In 1990, the deployer and satellite completed system qualification at which time the deployer was delivered to Kennedy Space Center to begin the ground 

operations phase of shuttle integration. The satellite was 

placed in storage until it is needed at Kennedy in early FY 

1991. Acceptance testing of deployer-based scientific 

instruments was nearing completion at the end of FY 1990 

and is scheduled for delivery early in FY 1991. Shuttle 

31 
integration activities remained on schedule in support of 

the planned launch dates. 

The 1991 schedule calls for completion of ground 

processing activities and finalization of mission planning. 

Shuttle processing will occur consistent with the planned 

launch date. The first TSS mission is expected to be 

manifested for flight in 1992. 

Advanced Program Development 

Advanced Programs activities focus on future space 

transportation concepts and related operations and onorbit servicing systems. The scope of Advanced Programs 

includes concept definition (Phase A), systems definition 

(Phase B), and advanced development efforts to demonstrate emerging technology for application in existing as 

well as future transportation systems. The Civil Needs 

Data Base (CNDB)-a compilation of civil space-mission 

needs from 1990 to 2010-is a key tool for advanced 

program planning. Following are some of the studies 

currently under way in Advanced Program Development: 

Shuttle-C. The Shuttle-C is a space shuttle-derived, 

unmanned, heavy-lift cargo vehicle concept which would 

have the capability to lift 75-ton payloads into low-Earth 

orbit. Shuttle-C would utilize existing space shuttle hardware and facilities. 

Advanced Launch System The Advanced Launch 

System (ALS) program is a joint DOD/NASA program to 

work toward providing a flexible, robust, reliable, responsive launch system to meet future national launch 

needs at significantly lower cost than existing systems. 

The program is responsive to the January 1988 report to 

Congress signed by President Reagan. While DOD has 

overall program management responsibility, NASA has 

specific management responsibility for the advanced 

development phases and liquid engine development 

programs. 

Next Manned Transportation System Studies are 

continuing for the upgrade or eventual replacement of the 

space shuttle system. The primary focus of the Next 

Manned Transportation System activity has been on the 

Shuttle Evolution and Personnel Launch System concepts 

with only minor activity on the Advanced Manned Launch 

System concept. The Shuttle Evolution effort investigated 

a wide range of activities from countering obsolescence, 

which requires only minor interference to implement, to 

major modifications requiring block upgrades. 

The Space Shuttle Program Office, through its 

Assured Shuttle Availability Program, initiated activities 

on near-term problem areas identified by the Shuttle 

Evolution studies. Hence the Shuttle Evolution program 

will focus on the far-term improvements and modifications. Personnel Launch System studies addressed both 

the biconic (low lift/drag) configurations and the lifting 

body (medium lift/drag) configurations. Contracts were 

recently initiated to augment the in-house analysis performed over the last year. 

Assured Crew Return Vehicle. NASA is continuing studies of an Assured Crew Return Vehicle (ACRV) 

which would be based at Space Station Freedom to return 

the crew in case of 1) crew illness or injury; 2) Space 

Station Freedom catastrophic failure; or 3) space shuttle 

unavailability to return crew. During 1990, requirements 

validation and preliminary design studies were completed. 

Advanced Upper Stages. The National Space 

Policy recognizes the need for “in-space transportation 

systems.” The Space Transfer Vehicle (STV) concept, in 

response to this need, is a high-performance, advanced 

upper stage to support future science and human exploration missions beyond low-Earth orbit. In 1989 upperstage concepts and requirements became a focal point of 

interest and activity because of the President’s stated July 

20 objectives that included a return to the lunar surface 

and placing human beings on the planet Mars. 

Two parallel 18-month Phase A conceptual design 

studies were initiated in 1989 to define a STV to meet the 

needs of the late 1990s and beyond. The STV would have 

the capability to deliver payloads to geosynchronous 

Earth orbit, to the moon, and other planetary missions. 

The STV would thus extend beyond low-Earth orbit the 

cost effectiveness and operational flexibility provided by 

the national launch vehicle fleet. 

Advanced Space Systems. Formerly Satellite Servicing, the branch name was changed in 1990 to better 

32 
reflect on-going activities. These activities include advanced hardware development, flight demonstrations, 

satellite servicing, tether applications, and orbital debris. 

Advanced development projects apply existing 

technology to flight hardware for use on the shuttle, other 

NASA spacecraft, and satellite servicing. In 1990, work 

continued on the flight support structure hydrazine 

coupling and servicing aid, the protoflight superfluid 

helium coupler, and low force connectors. Flight demonstrations of the Voice Command System and Optical 

Communications Through the Window were completed 

for flights on STS-41 and STS-43, respectively. These 

demonstrations will provide on-orbit experience with 

voice command of the closed circuit cabin television 

cameras and of high-data-rate, fiber-optic communications through the aft flight-deck window. The Dexterous 

End Effector Flight Demonstration will demonstrate the 

on-orbit use of a force-torque sensor and magnetic end 

effector. Operational application of this technology could 

potentially provide significant cost and weight savings for 

on-orbit assembly and servicing operations. The Superfluid Helium On-Orbit Transfer demonstration planned in 

late 1992 has already yielded many cryogenic management techniques which are being used on the Advanced 

X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), the Space Infrared 

Telescope Facility (SIKTF), and other spacecraft. The 

Satellite Servicer System Flight Demonstration Phase B 

procurement documentation was completed. 

Planning has continued for several tether applications flight demonstrations scheduled to fly on Delta 

launch vehicles in 1992. The Small Expcndable Deployer 

System (SEDS) is a low-cost test bed designed to demonstrate the feasibility of tether operational concepts using 

existing technology. SEDS I, approved for flight in June 

1992, will address severed tether dynamics, confirm basic 

tether principles, and validate existing models. The mission design for SEDS I1 will focus on the feasibility of 

tether-initiated rapid sample return and waste disposal 

alternatives for possible future space station application. 

Another tether applications flight demonstration, the 

Plasma Motor Generator (PMG), is an electrodynamic 

mission planned for flight in mid-summer 1992. The PMG 

is designed to demonstrate that a hollow cathode attached 

to the end of a conductive tether (wire) passing through 

space plasma will generate electric power. 

Orbital Debris. The population density of manmade orbital debris in space at both low-Earth orbits and 

geostationary-Earth orbits is growing as a direct result of 

an expanding space launch rate. In recent years spacefaring 

nations have been increasingly concerned that orbital 

debris could pose a hazard to future space missionspossibly to unacceptable risk levels early in the 21st 

century. NASA has devoted a considerable effort over the 

years toward understanding the orbital debris environment and its trends. Using up-to-date models of the debris 

environment, hazard analyses have been performed for 

space programs and appropriate protection measures 

have been instituted to assure a high probability of safe 

and reliable space operations. 

The NASA space debris population density model 

was formally reviewed by the NASA Technical Coordination Committee and the Orbital Debris Steering Group. 

Upon endorsement, the model was accepted as a baseline 

for the Space Station Freedom design and hazard analyses. The model will be updated periodically as new data 

from debris measurements and hypervelocity testing 

become available. 

During 1989, NASA held meetings with ESA representatives to share information on the debris issue and 

discussed the issues with the space agencies of Japan, 

Canada, and the Soviet Union. ESA has established an 

Orbital Debris Working Group and an agreement has 

been enacted between NASA and ESA to exchange 

technical data and study results. Additionally, in 1989, a 

cooperative agreement was established between NASA 

and BMFT, the West German government research and 

technology agency. 

In an attempt to expand the communication network to more than bilateral, one-on-one discussions, 

NASA organized an AIAA-administered international orbital debris conference in April 1990. There was strong 

participation by both the United States and the international members of the debris community with a good 

exchange of the latest and planned research programs. 

The conference conclusions highlighted the need for 

better communications and data exchanges, the need for 

improved models of debris population density, and an 

endorsement of the position that it is premature to 

consider establishing regulatory guidelines until further 

studies and tests have been completed. 

33 
Space Station Freedom 

In President Bush’s first budget, submitted to Congress in February 1989, he affirmed the importance of 

space and the space station to our Nation’s future: 

“Our commitment to space is important to our 

national security, continued economic growth, and our 

quality of life here on Earth. Space is where important 

scientific and commercial breakthroughs of the future 

may be made, where medicines of the future may be 

manufactured, where some of our descendants may even 

make their living. . . . Space Station Freedom, planned for 

operation in the mid-l990s, is a keystone of the Nation’s 

space policy.” 

The space station is now 1 year closer to the first 

element launch, scheduled for March 1995. Significant 

progress was made in the development of all space station 

systems and elements. This progress is reflected not only 

in more complete designs of space station components 

and assemblies but also by the fabrication of hundreds of 

pieces of pre-flight development hardware including 

breadboards, testbeds, technology demonstration hardware, and other pre-flight development test articles. 

The Space Station program continues to move 

forward with the design and development activities. 

Review of the integrated program preliminary design is 

planned for December 1990. Following this review, engineers at each Work Package will continue detailed 

design based on the approved preliminary design. These 

final, detailed designs will be used for manufacture of the 

various flight hardware elements of the space station. 

Thus, completing the preliminary designs is a crucial and 

significant milestone in the Space Station program. 

The next milestone for design and development 

efforts will be the critical design review planned for 1992. 

This will begin the program’s transition to large-scale 

fabrication of flight hardware. 

With respect to management, the Level I organization at NASA Headquarters has been modified as a result 

of merging the Office of Space Station with the Office of 

Space Flight. This merger was undertaken to ensure that 

NASA’s human space flight programs are completely 

coordinated. The program management has been 

strengthened by the addition of some of NASA’s most 

experienced managers from the Space Shuttle program. 

An artist’s concept of a typical work day onboard Space 

Station Freedom, with five of the international crew of eight 

at work in the U.S. laboratory module. 

Program Accomplishments 

The contractors’ design efforts were complemented 

by the fabrication and test of various pieces of development hardware to supply data needed to support design 

efforts for space station systems and elements. Considerable progress was made on such elements as the habitation module, the truss structure, mobile transporter, 

power and propulsion systems, and Attached Payloads 

Accommodation Equipment. Engineering hardware for 

the environmental control system has been tested, and 

technologies have been selected for use in the air and 

water recovery loops. In addition, NASA began to design 

ground facilities to support space station operations, 

awarded hardware contracts for the Flight Telerobotics 

System and core electronics, and initiated long-lead 

procurements of some elements. 

In addition to hardware progress, major program 

accomplishments include the progress that the Preliminary Design Review Kesources Board has made toward 

reducing space station weight and power requirements. 

EVA requirements have also been addressed, and significant reductions in projected EVA requirements have been 

made. 

34 
An artist’s concept of an exterior view of the underside of 

Space Station Freedom which will serve as a platform for 

several Earth-viewingexperiments. Alsoshown is an astronaut 

in the foreground being moved on the end of Canada’s Mobile 

Servicing Center manipulator arm, the Japanese Experiment 

Module on the right, and the space shuttle on the left. 

International 

NASA continued to work closely with space station’s 

international partners-Europe, Canada, and Japan. Several coordinated studies and reviews were completed, 

and all the partners are participating in the Space Station 

program level Integrated Systems Preliminary Design 

Review. Other multilateral activities included the first 

government-level Space Station Cooperation Review, 

held at the State Department in the summer of 1989. The 

Canadian Space Agency completed its preliminary design 

review as well as an interim design review, and the 

European Space Agency and the Science and Technology 

Agency of Japan are working toward their preliminary 

design reviews in the next 2 years. ESA also initiated a 

study of Man-Tended Free Flyer servicing requirements 

and selected a polar platform design. 

An agreement was made among all four partners on 

an International Standard Payload Rack that will facilitate 

commonality and payload interchangeability. This agreement is indicative of the progress that the partners have 

made toward the design of integrated, common systems. 

Several joint program reviews were held between 

NASA and each of the partners for issue resolution and to 

discuss major program milestones. 

Operations and Utilization 

During FY 1990, major progress was made in 

defining the OperationsAJtilization Capability Development requirements. Program activities associated with 

Operations/Utilitation Capability Development include 

building and implementing all ground infrastructure 

essential to operate, use, and support the manned base 

over its 30-year or more lifetime. 

Tactical- and execution-level Function Control 

Documents, which define the functions required of the 

ground systems of each NASA center and international 

partner ground systems, have undergone two multilateral 

reviews. Baselining these documents will be part of the 

Integrated Systems Preliminary Design Review. A major 

operations support contract was awarded and ground 

was broken for the Johnson Space Center Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, a facility to enable development and 

verification of space station assembly concepts. 

In the area of utilization, significant progress was 

made in assisting user communities, including Government, academic, and commercial, to understand the 

unique capabilities of Space Station Freedom. Several 

utilization documents are nearing completion including 

“A Space Station Freedom Users Guide,” “An Introduction 

to Space Station Freedom,” and a brochure describing the 

utilization disciplines on the space station. Two major 

workshops were also held with potential commercial 

users to highlight Space Station Freedom’s utilization 

potential and receive feedback from the commercial 

community on interests and needs. 

A mechanism to collect and integrate user requirements for manifesting was identified. The first multilateral 

utilization study was completed, which provided an 

assessment of the user accommodations of the Freedom 

design. A follow-on activity of the multilateral utilization 

study has been initiated, which is simulating the strategic 

and tactical integration planning process. A prototype 

user-requirements database was developed which can 

electronically transfer information between the partner’s 

database and the United States. 

35 
We have begun consulting with the partners on 

space station crew selection requirements. Working groups 

have been established with participation from the partners to finalize the Space Station Freedom Astronaut 

Selection Criteria. 

ration of space. By building Space Station Freedom, the 

United States will affirm its preeminent role as the leader 

in space exploration and achievement. 

Safety and Mission Quality 

Evolution 

Advanced system studies in FY 1990 identified 

preliminary reference configurations for evolution of the 

baseline space station, and also recommended associated 

design provisions (“hooks and scars”) and technology 

requirements to protect options for future evolution. The 

Evolution Engineering Data Book has been completed 

and will guide designers as they make near-term decisions with long-term implications. Other major activities 

included the analysis of proposed revisions to the baseline 

space station configuration and a study of space station 

accommodation requirements for the Space Exploration 

Initiative. 

Space Station Freedom might perform several functions to support the Space Exploration Initiative. First, 

Space Station Freedom can enable some research and 

technology activities required to support this initiative, 

many of which need to be conducted in the space 

environment. Second, it could serve as a transportation 

node for assembling, testing, launching, and recovering 

lunar and Mars vehicles. Space Station Freedom could 

also supply some crew support, data management and 

communication systems, and logistics services to accomplish these activities. 

Conclusion 

Space Station Freedom is an investment in the future 

and an important step toward advancing American leadership in space. In the words of President Bush, it will 

serve as “a new bridge between the worlds, and an 

investment in the growth, prosperity, and technological 

superiority of our Nation.” 

The Space Station program has made substantial 

progress in FY 1990. Preliminary designs will soon be 

replaced by detailed designs, to be followed by construction of component hardware. 

Space Station Freedom is a cornerstone of our civil 

space policy and a symbol of our commitment to international leadership and cooperation in the peaceful exploWith more than 85 percent of NASA’s budget 

funding various industry contracts, the Quality and Productivity Improvements Program Office, established in 

1982, has implemented new plans and increased ongoing efforts to ensure continuous improvements 

throughout the NASMcontractor team. 

The Sixth Annual NASMContractors Conference, 

held in Huntsville, AL, in October 1989 drew over 800 

people representing more than 200 organizatiordbusiness units from Government and the aerospace industry. 

The conference covered a broad range of topics including 

service industry techniques, ideas to improve the quality 

of the workplace, exploring Government initiatives regarding quality improvement, customer satisfaction, and 

improving technology management. 

During the Sixth Annual NASMContractors Conference, NASA announced the Lockheed Engineering and 

Sciences Company, Houston, TX, was the recipient of the 

1989 NASA Excellence Award for Quality and Productivity. Lockheed was selected from among eight highly 

qualified finalists. The administrator added a small business category for its NASA Excellence Award for 1990 to 

further encourage its contractors to use quality principles 

and tools. . NASA has put in practice the principles and philosophy of “total quality management” with NASA employee 

teams, suggestion programs, conferences, and awards. 

NASA’s total quality management initiatives are designed 

to foster improved quality and productivity among both 

the civil servant and contractor workforces. NASA’s Lewis 

Research Center, in Cleveland, OH, and Johnson Space 

Center, in Houston, TX, were named quality improvement prototypes by the Office of Management and 

Budget-as such, they are models for other Federal 

agencies. 

Office of Commercial Programs 

As 1989 marked the 20th anniversary of the first 

36 
lunar landing, it also reminded us that our Nation’s 

investment in space enterprise has rendered countless 

benefits to its citizens. Technological advances have 

improved the quality of our lives and have had positive 

impacts on our national economy. Through cooperative 

efforts with U.S. industry to commercially develop space 

and accelerate the commercial application of space 

technologies, NASA continues to seck expanded economic returns from our public investment. 

Significant progress was made in defining an overall 

program for the commercial development of space. 

NASA’s Office of Commercial Programs categorized and 

scoped the different types of commercial space activities, 

assessed the unique requirements and issues affecting the 

growth of each, and developed mechanisms to carry out 

a comprehensive program. 

Establishing a Strategic Vision 

Space harbors valuable resources that represent an 

underdeveloped economic frontier. With strong foreign 

competition in space-related industries, a strategic plan 

for U.S. commercial space development is clearly needed. 

In 1989, several key initiatives were carried out by NASA 

that will culminate in a strategic plan founded in national 

space policy goals. 

Both the Commercial Programs Advisory Committee, in its formal report entitled “Charting the Course: U.S. 

Space Enterprise and Space Industrial Competitiveness,” 

and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, in a study document entitled “Issues in Strategic 

Planning for Commercial Space Growth,” addressed critical policy issues affecting commercial space development 

and the roles of Government, industry, and academia in 

space commerce. 

Based upon these major efforts, NASA is developing 

a strategic plan based on three key goals: 1) actively 

fostering the development of space-related markets; 2) 

improving availability of and access to transportation and 

infrastructure to support emerging markets and new 

ventures; and 3) using NASA resources to support the 

development and growth of successful commercial space 

ventures. 

In August 1990, NASA announced its intentions to 

establish a Space Commerce Steering Group, composed 

of senior NASA officials, to provide a high-level overview 

of commercial applications of space technology. The 

group will draw on expertise and support from the 

Commercial Programs Advisory Committee in directing 

future coherent, consistent NASA policies related to space 

commerce. 

Industrial Research and Development in Space 

The return to flight of the space shuttle triggered a 

resurgence of industrial research and development activity in FY 1989. Most of the commercial interest was 

directed toward focused or applied research in the 

behavior and processing of materials in the microgravity 

environment of space. 

NASA’s 16 Centers for the Commercial Development of Space (CCDS) are consortia of university, industry, and Government conducting early research and 

testing of potential commercial products or services. An 

important goal of the program is to encourage the active 

involvement of U.S. firms in commercial space development. Over the last year, the number of corporations 

affiliated with the CCDSs has grown to 175, and their share 

of financial contributions has continued to increase. The 

ratio of private-to-Government support of the CCDS is 

now approximately 3-to-1. 

In the last year the CCDS have made significant 

accomplishments in materials processing in space. 

Microgravity processing has resulted in superior protein 

crystal formations that can advance medical research in 

cancer, AIDS, and other serious diseases; well-ordered, 

porous, thin, film membranes that can be used in filtration, dialysis, and other separations-industry applications; 

and high-purity indium for use in the production of 

advanced electronic devices. Thus far, the CCDSs have 

been awarded 18 patents for their research work and have 

many more pending approval. 

In 1989, the first CCDS technology and corporate 

spinoffs took place. Maxwell Laboratories, of San Diego, 

CA, in collaboration with the Center for Commercial 

Development of Space Power, developed a stronger, 

more efficient power supply. And BioCryst, a pharmaceutical firm in Birmingham, AL, was incorporated to commercially market the technologies being developed by 

the Center for Macromolecular Crystallography. 

In an effort to match space transportation and 

support capabilities with the anticipated growth in materials processing requirement.., NASA initiated grant funding for a commercial sounding rocket program. The 

37 
March 29, 1989, launch of materials processing experiments developed by a NASA CCDS aboard Space Services 

Incorporated’s Starfire rocket represented the first Federally licensed commercial launch. Two subsequent launches 

of the Starfire rocket took place in November 1989 and 

May 1990. 

NASA recently announced support for plans to 

develop the Commercial Experiment Transporter 

(COMET), a system for launching and recovering 

spaceborne experiments. The CCDS, which initiated the 

program, will be totally responsible for system design, 

fabrication, tat, and operations. Industry will provide key 

hardware and services for each segment of the COMET 

development and operations. 

As part of the CCDS goal of providing cost-effective 

hardware for conducting experiments in space, the Wake 

Shield Facility is being developed by the Space Vacuum 

Epitaxy Center in Houston, TX, to permit research in a 

high, ultra-pure vacuum during space shuttle flights. 

Cooperative Agreements 

In 1989 and FY 1990, NASA expanded its partnership with U.S. industry through the signing of cooperative 

agreements providing technical assistance and access to 

launch facilities and services to support industrial space 

research, commercial space transportation, and the private development of space infrastructure and services. 

NASA uses these and other innovative agreements to help 

reduce the risks associated with commercial development 

of space. 

The Coca-Cola Company signed a Memorandum of 

Understanding (MOU) with NASA in June 1989, to support the firm’s investigation of fluid dynamics, gas-liquid 

separation, and metering technologies in space. More 

recently, in September 1990, NASA signed an MOU with 

Technology and Administrative Services Corporation for 

the exchange of information on closed-environment 

system technology. 

NASA signed agreements with Conatec Incorporated, in May 1989, and Orbital Sciences Corporation, in 

July 1990, to support the development of the commercial 

expendable launch vehicle industry. In February 1990, 

Global Outpost Incorporated and the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research independently negotiated 

agreements with NASA for use of the space shuttle’s 

expended external tanks in suborbital experiments. 

Building US. Competitiveness Through 

Technology Transfer 

During 1989, NASA continued to open new avenues 

for the transfer of NASA-developed technologies to the 

public and private sectors. By participating in a number 

of new cooperative ventures and implementing new 

initiatives, NASA’s nationwide technology transfer network has been further strengthened and expanded. With 

the addition of eight new affiliates, the network now 

extends into 41 States across the country. 

Major agreements have been signed by NASA and 

individual States to enhance technology transfer efforts 

and to have a favorable impact on the States’ economies. 

One such cooperative venture between NASA and the 

State of California is expected to help advance research in 

superconductivity. An agreement with the Center for New 

West, a nonprofit policy research organization, will link 

members and affiliates in 18 western States with the NASA 

technology network. 

NASA is also working closely with the Department 

of the Navy to assist in developing a Navy Technology 

Transfer Center. The Navy is interested in identifying 

state-of-the-art technology available in industry, academia, 

and other Government agencies and bringing it into Navy 

repair and maintenance facilities to solve critical problems. 

NASA’s direct support of technology application 

efforts in 1989 helped to advance a range of industries 

from medicine to transportation. There are 73 jointsponsored application projects currently being conducted 

at nine NASA field installations. 

Application projects are geared toward the solution 

of public- and private-sector problems that have been 

identified by user organizations. The projects are cooperative efforts, with partial funding and complete marketing of the resulting technology provided by the industrial 

partner. 

One technology resulting from an applications 

project has led to major advances in diabetes control. 

Known as the Rechargeable Physiologic Sensor, the 

implantable device monitors glucose levels for insulindependent diabetics. 

Two new technological developments have also 

emerged from the research activities of NASA’s Industrial 

Application Centers: a combination worklight/generalpurpose flashlight called TANDEM, and a “fail safe” 

38 
screen pop-out system designed to protect the structural 

elements of screened enclosures used in hurricane-prone 

regions. 

In 1989, the economic impact of NASA technology 

transfer was assessed by the Chapman Research Group 

Incorporated, in a report entitled “An Exploration of 

Benefits from NASA ‘Spinoffs.”’ The study found that 

technology applications have generated $2 1.3 billion in 

sales of new or improved products and nearly $356 

million in Federal income tax revenues. Additionally, 

352,000 jobs were projected to have been created or 

retained because of the increased revenues attributed to 

these spinoffs. 

Small Business Innovation Research Program 

Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program objectives include stimulating technological innovation in the private sector, strengthening the role of small 

businesses in Federal research and development (H&D) 

programs, fostering and encouraging greater participation of minority and disadvantaged persons in technological innovation, and increasing private-sector commercial 

development of innovations derived from Federal R&D. 

A 1989 survey conducted by NASA, with which the 

General Accounting Office concurred, indicated that the 

program had become a highly regarded element of 

NASA’s overall K&D activities. The survey found that the 

quality of research conducted in SBlK projects was as high 

or higher than comparable research funded through other 

R&D means. The results of more than half the SBIK 

projects reviewed have already been incorporated, or will 

soon be incorporated, into NASA mission programs. 

NASA’s assessment also found that at least onefourth of the projects had already resulted in commercial 

products or enterprises by the small businesses, and that 

a substantial number of minority and disadvantaged firms 

had won SBIR contracts for high-technology projects. 

In an effort to anticipate and encourage winning 

companies to develop the commercial potential of SBIR 

results, the SBIK Office has initiated a program to follow 

and report on projects as they proceed. 

NASA’s Office of Commercial Programs has provided a focus for action to stimulate and assist an 

expanded involvement by the US. private sector in civil 

space activities. Strengthened by a rich tradition of NASA 

cooperation with industry, the program has supported 

high-technology commercial space ventures, the commercial application of existing aeronautics and space 

technology, and greater access by commercial firms to 

NASA capabilities and services. 

The challenge remaining has been to organize these 

efforts into a program that develops commercial space 

markets, low-cost commercial space transportation systems, and commercial space infrastructure to strengthen 

US. industrial competitiveness. 

Space Operations 

The Space Operations program continues to provide spacecraft operations and control centers; ground 

and space communications; data acquisition and processing; flight dynamics and trajectory analyses; spacecraft 

tracking and applied research; and development of new 

technology. 

Space Network 

In 1989, a key milestone was achieved in the 

evolution of NASA’s Space Network when the Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) became fully 

operational in geosynchronous orbit, providing support 

to low-Earth-orbit missions. This represented a major 

advancement in space communications. The operational 

space network provided communication and tracking for 

over 85 percent of each spacecraft orbit around Earth. 

With the previous ground tracking network, coverage 

was limited to about 15 percent of a spacecraft orbit. This 

event brought to reality the long-awaited transition from 

a ground-based tracking network to a space-based tracking capability for low-Earth orbital missions. The operational Space Network allowed NASA to execute its plans 

to close or transfer to other agencies the four ground 

stations located at Ascension Island, Guam, Hawaii, and 

Santiago, Chile. Many stations were closed earlier in 

anticipation of the Space Network becoming operational. 

The Second TDKSS Ground Terminal (STGT) was 

dedicated in January 1990. This new facility at White 

Sands, NM will eliminate a critical single point of failure 

and add the necessary capability to operate additional 

TDRS in the future when user spacecraft demand increases. The completion of this building, together with 

the construction of the associated antenna foundations, 

39 
made the facility ready for the introduction of the new 

ground communications equipment. Contractors were 

selected and have initiated preliminary design (Phase B) 

studies for the AdvancedTracking and Data Relay Satellite 

System (ATDKSS) program. The purpose of the ATDRSS 

program is to maintain and augment the current TDRS 

system when available satellite resources are expended in 

the latter part of the decade, meet evolving needs for 

satellite tracking and communications through the year 

2012, and introduce new technology to reduce system 

life-cycle cost. 

Ground Networks 

The Ground Network is comprised of the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network, the Deep Space 

Network (DSN), and the Aeronautics, Balloon, and 

Sounding Rocket programs. They have continued to 

provide tracking and data acquisition support services to 

all NASA science and engineering missions for vehicles in 

high-Earth orbit, in deep space, and for sub-orbital flights. 

In August 1989 the DSN performed a nearly flawless 

operation in the Voyager 2 encounter with Neptune, 

which was a culmination of a 12-year mission to tour the 

four giant outer planets. The DSN was augmented by nonNASA facilities in Australia, Japan, and New Mexico for 

this encounter, Because of the need to overcome the great 

distance involved, more receiving capability was created 

for the Voyager 2 Neptune encounter during the summer 

of 1989 in order to increase the number of pictures to be 

equivalent to that taken at Uranus in 1988. The Australian 

government provided the Parkes Radio Telescope to be 

used in combination with the DSN site at Canberra. The 

Japanese Deep Space Station at Usuda was used during 

the closest approach to Neptune on August 25 to provide 

radio science data as Voyager 2 passed behind Neptune 

and its moon, Triton. The National Science Foundation’s 

Very Large Array (VLA) in Socorro, NM, was also employed for the encounter. The VLA consists of twentyseven 25-meter antennas, whose signals were combined 

into one and then further combined with those at the DSN 

site in Goldstone. Also, in 1989, the DSN successfully 

supported the launches of Magellan and Galileo spacecraft. Magellan will study the planet Venus, and Galileo 

will probe the atmosphere of Jupiter and tour its family of 

satellites. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS). 

In 1990, the Ground Networks provided launch and 

landing support for the shuttle missions and tracking and 

data acquisition support was provided to the Magellan 

spacecraft on its mission to map the surface of Venus; to 

Galileo on its journey to Jupiter and Titan; and to Ulysses 

on its mission to the sun. Data acquisition and communications support was also provided to flight research 

projects and atmospheric research activities. Telecommunications support was successfully provided to NASA’s 

interplanetary and planetary spaceflight missions. These 

missions are gathering considerable data on Venus and 

the outer reaches of the solar system. Foreign missions, 

some of which were cooperative, were also supported to 

collect data from Earth and the moon. 

The Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network comprises three operational ground stations, their primary 

function is to provide launch and landing services for both 

human-piloted and unmanned spacecraft. In 1989 the 

STDN was further reduced from a worldwide network of 

seven stations which were primarily used to provide 

tracking and data acquisition for low-Earth-orbit spacecraft. The successful implementation and operation of the 

TDRSS Space Network permitted the closure or transfer to 

other agencies of the four ground stations at Hawaii, 

Guam, Ascension Island, and Santiago, Chile. Merritt 

Island, FL and Bermuda have been retained to provide 

essential launch and landing support. The Dakar, Senegal 

station is used as a TDKS back-up for emergency communications during shuttle launches. 

40 
Communications and Data Systems 

The elcments of the Communications and Data 

Systems program form the vital link between the data 

acquisition stations and the scientific users and project 

facilities. The basic elements are the following: two 

communication systems, spacecraft mission control centers, and data processing facilities. The program also 

includes national and international coordination of the 

electromagnetic-frequency spectrum allocation process 

and usage. 

The Communications Program continued to provide two agency-wide communications systems, NASA 

Communications Network (NASCOM) and Program Support Communications Network. These global systems 

interconnect NASA’s foreign and domestic tracking and 

data acquisition stations; NASA’s launch complexes, mission and network control centers; and NASA’s field 

centers, major contractors, investigator sites, and international partners. 

The Mission Control program continued to provide 

the control and performance analyses of NASA’s unmanned Earth-orbiting spacecraft. These control facilities 

generatc the instructions for the spacecraft to make 

observations and measurements, monitor spacecraft status, and maneuver the spacecraft. In 1990, the mission 

control and data processing facilities supported the launch 

and early orbit checkout of Cosmic Background Explorer 

and Hubble Space Telescope. These facilities also provided routine mission operations for six on-orbit spacecraft. The productive Solar Maximum Mission operations 

were concluded. Also two major data processing facilities 

were completed: the Generic Time Division Multiplexer 

Facility, which will provide support to satellites that use 

time-division telemetry, and the Packet Processing 

(PACOR) Facility, which will support packet telemetry 

satellites. The Spacelab Data Processing Facility is ready 

to support the Astro/Broadband X-ray Telescope (BBXRT) 

mission in 1991. 

Definition studies and preliminary design for the 

Customer and Data Operations System (CDOS) were 

completed in June 1990 by two independent contractors. 

These studies provide the basis for a preliminary system 

architecture. CDOS will provide the data handling, processing, and distribution functions for the Space Station 

Freedom and Earth Observing System era. 

Advanced Systems 

The Advanced Systems Program continued to focus 

on assessing and employing technological advances in 

telecommunications, electronic micro-circuitry, and computer sciences. These efforts are essential for the costeffective application of new technology to meet future 

mission requirements. The work on low-cost, highelectron-mobility transistor amplifiers allowed use in 

1989 for the full capability of the National Science 

Foundation’s Very Large Array for receiving telemetry 

during the Voyager encounter with Neptune. Without this 

capability, cost and reliability issues would have prevented the use of the full array and significantly reduced 

the data obtained in the Neptune encounter. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

Within NASA, the Office of Aeronautics, Exploration, and Technology is responsible for the planning, 

advocacy, direction, execution, and evaluation of projects 

and research activities concerned with aeronautics research and technology. NASA’s strategy for aeronautics 

research and technology represents a response to the 

challenges to the Nation’s aviation leadership and the 

opportunities for technological advances identified by the 

Executive Office of the White House, Office of Science 

and Technology Policy’s 1985 and 1987 reports. Together 

these reports outlined national goals in the transatmospheric, supersonic, and subsonic flight regimes to 

focus high-leverage technology developments and concluded with a broad strategy for revitalizing the Nation’s 

capacities for innovation in aeronautical research and 

technology. To implement this strategy NASA is pursuing 

the following six key thrusts: 

Subsonic transports-develop high-leverage 

technologies to ensure future competitiveness of U.S. 

subsonic aircraft and to enhance the safety and productivity of the National Airspace System; 

High-speed civil transport-resolve the critical 

environmental issues and establish the technology foundation for future decisions on economical, high-speed air 

transportation; 

High-performance aircraft-provide technology 

options for revolutionary new capabilities in future highperformance fixed and rotary wing aircraft; 

41 
Hypersonics/transatmospherics-develop critical technologies to support development of future hypersonic and transatmospheric vehicles; 

Fundamental technology base-pioneer the development of the fundamental knowledge base for the 

design and operation of advanced aerospace systems; 

and 

Critical national facilities-develop, maintain, 

and operate critical national facilities for aeronautical 

research and for support of industry, DOD, and other 

NASA programs. 

The NASA aeronautics program itself is conducted 

at NASA research centers located in California, Ohio, and 

Virginia. Each center has unique fac 

staff expertise that provide a significant national resource 

for the pursuit of new advancements in aeronautical 

technology. All three centers conduct extensive in-house 

research utilizing special Facilities and equipment. In 

addition, each center conducts research in close coordination with other Government agencies, universities, and 

industry. 

The Ames Research Center, in Moffett Field, CA, 

utilizes its unique capabilities in computational fluid 

dynamics and computer science applications to focus on 

the development of new analytical methods. The Center 

also has advanced aerodynamic testing and flight simulation facilities for validating analytical methods and conducting research investigations of both small- and largescale aeronautical vehicle configurations. Ames also conducts human factors, aircraft and air traffic control automation, flight dynamics, and guidance and digital controls 

research. The extensive flight test research capability of 

the Ames/Dryden Flight Research Facility complements 

Ames’ ground-test capability. Key systems-technology 

areas include propulsion/airframe integration, powered 

lift technology, and rotorcraft aeromechanics. 

Propulsion is the primary focus of the Lewis Research Center, located in Cleveland, OH. The Center’s 

research and technology expertise has been divided into 

four main thrusts for strategic planning purposes: 

aeropropulsion, space propulsion, space power, and 

space science and applications. The objective of the 

aeropropulsion thrust is to advance and strengthen 

aeropropulsion technology that will contribute significantly to the development of U.S. civil and military 

aircraft. 

The Langley Research Center, in Hampton, VA, 

pursues research in fundamental aerodynamics and fluid 

mechanics, computer science, unsteady aerodynamics, 

human factors, and aeroelasticity. Aerodynamic testing to 

support the research in each of these areas is a major focus 

of the Center. In addition, the Center is a leader in 

structures and materials research, with a primary focus on 

the development and validation of structural analysis 

methods and research in airframe metallic and composite 

materials. Langley also conducts fundamental research on 

fault-tolerant electronic systems and flight control. Other 

research areas include simulation and evaluation of 

advanced operational aircraft systems, acoustics and 

noise reduction, and propulsion/airframe integration. 

Disciplinary Research and Technology 

NASA’s disciplinary research is aimed at establishing and maintaining a solid foundation of technology in 

the traditional areas of aerodynamics, propulsion, materials and structures, information sciences and human 

factors, and flight systems and safety. Kesearch objectives 

include development and validation of computational 

methods for analysis and prediction of complex external 

and internal flows, structural mechanics, control theories 

and their interactions; development of design and validation methods for highly reliable, integrated, and interactive control of aerodynamics, structures, and propulsion 

systems; development of human-error-tolerant, computeraided piloting systems; development of design methodologies and life prediction modeling techniques for 

advanced high-temperature materials; and development 

of a solid research base to enable new innovative 

concepts. 

Aerodynamics 

The NASA aerodynamics effort provides the technology base upon which vehicle advancements can be 

made throughout all speed regimes and aerospacc vehicle classes. Disciplinary research in aerodynamics is 

structured in a program of closely integrated efforts in 

theoretical analyses, numerical simulation, wind-tunnel 

testing, instrumentation development, and selected flightresearch projects. 

42 
Computational Fluid Dynamics. A major research emphasis in aerodynamics is development of 

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methods and codes 

to advance understanding and prediction of complex 

aerodynamic phenomena. Research includes flow diagnostics using Navier-Stokes and Euler computations to 

improve the understanding of detailed mechanisms associated with induced drag. CFD is continuing to provide 

powerful analytical, simulation, and predictive tools to 

describe the complex physics of aerodynamic flow. 

Recent accomplishments using CFD to study aerodynamic flow include the use of Reynolds-averaged, NavierStokes codes and a high-resolution grid to analyze vortex 

breakdown over a double delta wing. In addition, the 

Navier-Stokes solution for a flat-plate delta wing with two 

simulated jets issuing from the underside of the wing has 

compared favorably with experimental results. In other 

studies, direct numerical simulation of flow in a channel 

has produced valuable insights into the physical mechanisms which lead to the development of turbulent flows. 

Supersonic Ribbts. Modification of aerodynamic 

surfaces with streamwise grooves, called riblets, has been 

shown to reduce turbulent skin friction. At subsonic 

speeds riblets produce up to a 10-percent reduction in 

drag across the Reynolds number range. This past year an 

F-104 aircraft with a flight-test fixture mounted on the 

underside was used to test riblets at supersonic speeds. A 

5- to 10-percent reduction in skin friction was observed 

at Mach numbers up to 1.8 and altitudes up to 45,000 feet. 

The data suggest that passive concepts such as riblets 

could provide reduced fuel consumption and increased 

range for a number of commercial and military aircraft 

types. 

Unsteady Aerodynamic Simulation. This type of 

computational tool uses the capability of CFD to simulate 

flows about realistic aerodynamic bodies in relative 

motion. The computation is done using a time-dependent 

Navier-Stokes solver and a dynamic overlapping grid 

scheme and is applied to a wide range of problems, 

including space shuttle and Shuttle-C solid-rocket-booster 

and external-tank separation sequences, separation of 

payloads and spent external fuel tanks from high-performance aircraft, staging sequences of multistage launch 

vehicles, ground/aircraft interaction during takeoff and 

landing of short-take-off-and-vertical-landing (STOVL) 

aircraft, and release sequence of the Pegasus satellite 

launch vehicle. 

Hybrid Laminar Flow Control Flight Experiment. Hybrid Laminar Flow Control (HLFC) is a recently 

developed technique for maintaining low-drag flow on an 

aircraft wing by air suction near the leading edge and 

special wing-surface contouring. Research has suggested 

that 8- to 10-percent reductions in aircraft drag can be 

realized. In 1990 an HLFC section was developed for a B757 transport aircraft wing and flight tested in a cooperative research program with Boeing and the U.S. Air Force. 

The experiment established that HLFC operation for the 

wing mid-span is plausible. Laminar flow was observed 

back to 65 percent chord. 

STOVL E-7A Tests. The E-7A program is part of an 

overall NASA effort in the development of short-take-offand-vertical-landing (STOVL) technology. In 1989 the 

full-scale powered model of an E-7A aircraft was tested in 

both the 40-x-80-foot and the 80-x-120-foot test sections 

of the National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex at the 

Ames Research Center. The primary objectives of these 

tests were to determine augmentation ratios and accelerating and decelerating performance margins. Tests of the 

model at simulated forward flight velocities ranging from 

25 to 120 knots demonstrated that the aircraft has adequate acceleration and deceleration performance, enabling it to transition from hover to forward flight and 

back to hover in level flight. These efforts are expected to 

lead to a STOVL flight demonstration program enabling 

the development and deployment of a new class of 

supersonic STOVL combat aircraft in the United States. 

Propulsion 

Advanced propulsion technology is the key to 

realizing major improvements in many new aeronautical 

vehicle concepts. Propulsion system technology is built 

upon a solid base of focused discipline research in areas 

of Internal Fluid Mechanics (IFM), high-temperature 

materials, advanced control concepts, and new instrumentation techniques. Discipline research in IFM provides analytical tools necessary for describing complex 

flows in turbomachinery, high-speed inlets, exhaust nozzles 

43 
Model of the E- 7A Short-Takeoff-and-Vertical-LandingAircraft 

in a Wind Tunnel at Ames Research Center. 

and ducts, and chemically reacting flows in combustors. 

The ability to analyze three-dimensional chemically reacting flows in converging-diverging ducts for ramjets and 

scramjets was recently demonstrated by the Lewis Research Center. Significant progress had been made during 

1989 in the development of high-temperature instrumentation technology. Silicon carbide semiconductor devices 

were demonstrated to retain diode characteristics up to 

550 degrees Celsius. 

Turboprop Flight Testing. During 1989 the Propfan 

Test Assessment aircraft was used to obtain a unique 

database for en route noise in cooperation with the 

Federal Aviation Administration. Ground-noise measurements, taken in conjunction with in-flight measurements 

during typical cruise operation, provide the basis for 

understanding source-noise propagation to ground level 

and its variation caused by atmospheric conditions. 

Propeller-blade-surface steady and unsteady pressure 

measurements were acquired to augment the fundamental coupling of aerodynamics and acoustics. During 1990 

these data were analyzed to help develop and verify 

advanced multidisciplinary analytical noise prediction 

codes that include the aerodynamics, structures, and 

acoustics of rotating propeller blades for future design 

application. 

Turbomachinery Multistage Flow Analysis. A 

multistage, average-passage turbomachinery analytical 

code was developed that provides the first adequate 

three-dimensional description of complex flow fields, 

including secondary vortices caused by viscous effects. 

Application of this code to four full compressor stages 

predicted the same flow choking phenomena seen in 

experiments but previously uncaptured by analytical 

techniques. Ongoing large, low-speed centrifugal 

turbomachinery experiments have provided the basic 

secondary flow and separation validation database for 

advanced three-dimensional codes that properly capture 

the complex flow physics. 

Transport Propulsion Integration. Using Euler 

codes based on analytical capability developed in the 

Turboprop program, an advanced wing was designed to 

account for local interference of the propulsion pylon. 

This activity represented the first attempt to design an 

integrated wing-pylon-nacelle system and subsequent 

testing confirmed the absence of pylon interference. 

Materials and Structures 

Advancements in materials and structures technology enable introduction of new civil and military aeronautical vehicles with improved performance, durability, and 

economy. New materials and structural concepts are 

being investigated that withstand high aerothermal loading cycles in complex, lightweight airframe configurations. 

In 1989 progress was achieved in development of 

enhanced diffusion bonding (EDB) for fabrication of 

titanium aluminide honeycomb-core sandwich panels. 

EDB has been shown to offer considerable potential for 

fabricating lightweight, high-temperature structures. Panels as light as 0.5 pounds per square foot have been 

successfully fabricated. 

Research in superplastic forming has resulted in 

demonstration of compression panels with superplasticformed aluminum stiffeners capable of sustaining loads 

50 percent higher than the load capacity of panels having 

conventionally formed stiffeners. Material-research engineers have also established superplastic-forming parameters which permit unique shapes and configurations 

desired by the aircraft designer to achieve improved 

structural efficiency, 

44 
NASA has sponsored a program to develop low-cost 

fabrication processes for complex airframe structures. 

The geodesic-stiffened spar web developed as a result of 

this effort has proven to be a cost-effective and damagetolerant airframe design approach. The objective of this 

effort was to achieve significant cost reductions in fabrication of composite structures by utilizing automated 

filament winding techniques, which reduce costs by 50 

percent compared to conventional hand lay-up methods. 

Accomplishments to date include development of a 

method to filament wind composite spars in pairs using 

a one-step, fully automated process. 

NASA’s Advanced High-Temperature Engine Materials Technology program focuses on providing revolutionary composite materials and structures techniques for 

2 1st-century transport engines. Emphasis is on polymericmatrix composites, metal/intermetallic-matrix composites, and ceramic-matrix composites. Composites have 

been fabricated which maintain strength and toughness 

after thermal cycling from room temperature to 1,100 

degrees Celsius for over 500 cycles without failure. 

Research on supersonic flutter has been initiated 

using the Langley 16-foot Transonic Dynamics Tunnel at 

speeds to Mach 1.2. The wind-tunnel tests examined 

structural relationships between the supersonic-flutter 

problem and the weight of fuel carried in internal, wing 

fuel tanks. Researchers have developed capability to 

computationally predict unsteady transonic aerodynamic 

loads on realistic aircraft configurations. The new code 

can predict both the steady and unsteady pressure 

distributions over the entire aircraft surface. Shock-wave 

location and strength as well as aerodynamic interference 

between bodies can also be predicted. The capability has 

been verified by comparison with wind-tunnel data. 

Information Sciences and Human Factors 

New missions that stretch piloting capability and 

integrated systems that demand high-speed computational processing are the challenges confronting NASA’s 

information sciences and human factors program. The 

technologies emerging from this rapidly expanding field 

of science provide the key to understanding, controlling, 

and optimizing a new family of aeronautical vehicles. 

Controls and Guidance. Controls and guidance 

research is providing advanced technology to exploit 

concepts which dramatically improve the operational 

capabilities of civil and military aircraft. Major advances in 

aircraft control methodologies, reliability and validation 

techniques, and guidance and display concepts are taking 

place which greatly increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the next generation of fixed-wing aircraft and 

rotorcraft. The Advanced Transport Operating System B737, used for in-flight applications of artificial intelligence 

to flight-control system software, has been returned to 

flight status following a modernization upgrade. 

Human Factors. Human factors research endeavors to develop information display concepts that increase 

the pilot’s understanding of an aircraft’s performance 

while simultaneously reducing the pilot workload and 

error. NASA has developed an Engine Monitoring and 

Control System that allows the pilot to quickly assess the 

performance and status of the aircraft engines, crucial in 

high workload situations like takeoff and landing. Tests 

with a variety of pilots have indicated a high level of 

engine fault or abnormality detection that were missed 

about half of the time by the pilots using traditional 

displays. 

The NASA rotorcraft, automated, nap-of-Earth (NOE), 

flight-research program is a cooperative activity with the 

U.S. Army, aimed at developing and demonstrating control, guidance, and sensing technologies for enhancing 

low-altitude/NOE flight. During 1989, pilots representing 

NASA, the Army, and the Air Force evaluated a computeraided, low-altitude, flight-path guidance system for helicopters via simulation. 

Computer Science. Fundamental studies of new 

architectures and algorithms for exploiting the full power 

of computers are being conducted at the Research Institute for Advanced Computer Science established at the 

Ames Research Center. The results will make significant 

contributions to computational fluid dynamics, computational chemistry, and other disciplines. The Sparse Distributed Memory project is investigating theory and 

applications of a massively parallel computing architecture that will support storage and retrieval of sensor and 

motor patterns required by autonomous systems. 

Flight Systems 

In each discipline area such as aerodynamics, 

45 
structures, flight controls, and propulsion, there exists a 

need to validate research through actual flight testing of 

new components and systems. In some instances, aeronautical research can only be performed or validated in 

flight. This in-flight validation is frequently accomplished 

using high-performance aircraft as test platforms. 

Heavy Rain. Heavy-rain effects on aerodynamic 

performance of aircraft in flight came under suspicion as 

a result of a DC-9 accident that occurred in heavy rain. 

NASA initiated small-scale, wind-tunnel tests to obtain a 

preliminary evaluation of heavy-rain effects. These tests 

showed a marked reduction (approximately 15 percent) 

in the maximum lift a wing can generate when it is 

operating in heavy rain (15 to 40 inches per hour). 

Though seemingly high, rain rates of these magnitudes 

have been measured for short durations of time. 

The Aircraft Landing Dynamics Facility (ALDF) at 

the Langley Research Center was modified to incorporate 

an overhead sprinkling system capable of generating 

simulated heavy rainfalls. An airfoil was installed on the 

ALDF sled and a series of tests were performed to measure 

lift loss on a full-scale airfoil with a leading-edge slat and 

a double-slotted flap. The tests verified subscale data for 

the largest level of rainfall (that is, 40 inches per hour). 

Data from these tests will enable simulation of heavy rain 

effects on operational aircraft. 

Icing Research. NASA has conducted a joint windtunnel investigation with Boeing on the effects of aircraft 

deicing fluids on aircraft aerodynamics. The investigation 

covered transport and commuter aircraft. It was determined that hold-over times critically affect fluid effectiveness. Typical hold-over times for fluids used in the United 

States average 5 minutes or less. While newer (thickened) 

deicing fluids increase this time by a factor of 4 to 6, these 

thickened fluids may not completely dissipate during 

takeoff roll for commuter aircraft, thereby causing aerodynamic penalties similar to those experienced by heavy 

rain. 

Vortex Flap. Aerodynamic and performance flight 

tests of the vortex flap fitted to the NASA F-lO6B research 

aircraft has expanded the flight envelope to 4 g’s. The 

wing/flap pressures, handling qualities, and the stability 

and control characteristics are being documented. Flighttest data are confirming and exceeding predicted performance improvements. A review of test results and flight 

experiment status have been presented to both the 

Boeing and the Douglas Aircraft companies. 

HighAngle-of-Attack Technology Program This 

NASA program is a comprehensive aerodynamics, flight 

dynamics, and control research program that contains 

analytical, computational, wind-tunnel, and flight research elements. Emphasis is placed on the acquisition of 

detailed, flight-validated databases in high angle-of-attack 

environments (that is, to 70 degrees and beyond). A thrust 

vectoring control system has been installed that will 

enable extended pitch-and-yaw control on the test aircraft. The system is currently completing preflight tests 

and the first flight is scheduled for early October 1990. 

Vortex generators which will enable yaw control from the 

forebody of the aircraft are also being designed, developed, and tested. These devices will provide yawing 

moment forces by manipulating vortices shed from the 

forebody during high angle-of-attack flight. 

A detailed database has been developed for the 

conventionally controlled F/A-18 aircraft. Data have been 

obtained enabling comparisons between predicted and 

flight-measured, aerodynamic flow characteristics. Advances in computational capabilities and in-flight flow 

visualization techniques have enabled comparisons of the 

flow characteristics within the boundary layer on the 

surface of the airplane, and in the vortices shed by the 

forebody. 

Flight Research of F-15 Aircrafi. NASA and the 

USAF successfully completed the first phase of the SelfRepairing Flight Control System (SRFCS) program. This 

program provided flight evaluation of a system designed 

to detect and isolate flight-control system failures, provide 

alert status to the pilot, provide onboard maintenance 

diagnostics, and assist in a reconfiguration strategy. Flight 

research for this program began in December 1989 at the 

NASA Ames-Dryden Flight Research Facility, in Edwards, 

CA, using the NASA F-15 Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control (HIDEC) aircraft and was completed in 

June 1990. Flight research results confirm that SRFCS can 

detect and compensate for a simulated 80-percent loss of 

a horizontal stabilizer, for a fixed and locked stabilizer, 

and can perform maintenance diagnostics. SRFCS com46 
pensates for failures by movement of the remaining 

rudder, ailerons, and horizontal stabilizer surfaces to 

control pitch, roll, and airspeed. 

The NASA Performance Seeking Control (PSC) 

program is also undergoing testing on the F-15 HIDEC 

aircraft. This program’s objective is to increase overall 

aircraft thrust (defined as net propulsive force) and range 

performance by real-time-optimized control of the engine, nozzle, inlet, and horizontal stabilizers. A performance-seeking algorithm is designed to minimize fuel 

consumption during aircraft cruise; maximize excess 

thrust during climbs and dashes; and extend engine life 

by reducing fan turbine inlet temperature. PSC will 

optimize control of five engine variables, three aircraft 

inlet parameters, and the horizontal stabilizer position. 

Aircraft thrust increase in the subsonic flight envelope is 

predicted to range between 10 and 15 percent. Maximum 

power thrust in the supersonic flight regime is predicted 

to increase between 4 to 6 percent. 

Systems Research and Technology 

Systems technology programs carry new and innovative technology from the laboratory experiment into 

experimental and verification systems testing. These 

programs also provide for the design, fabrication, and 

testing of multidisciplinary aeronautical systems in order 

to greatly reduce technical risks associated with ultimate 

application. 

Subsonic Transports 

A major goal of the subsonic transport program is to 

establish technology that will enable the doubling of fuel 

efficiency of today’s best subsonic transport aircraft, while 

substantially increasing productivity and affordability. 

Representative of efforts in drag reduction for subsonic 

aircraft is the cooperative program conducted with Boeing 

to obtain high-Reynolds-number data on advanced technology wings for computational fluid dynamics code 

development. Research efforts on the Takeoff Performance Monitoring System have completed full-task simulations with 41 experienced multi-engine pilots. The 

technology developed will enable a pilot to monitor not 

only the aircraft systems but the outside ambient environment as well. Payoff from this research is the potential 

reduction in takeoff-and-landing accident rates. 

Rotorcraft 

Rotorcraft research is focused on those barrier 

technologies which lead to development and validation 

for cost-effective design of highly efficient, low-noiseand-vibration rotorcraft. Overall program goals are to 

conduct systems studies to define configurations and 

technology requirements; focus research and technology 

efforts on high-performance rotorcraft; assess needed 

contributions from basic disciplines; and define a program of supporting technology for a high-speed rotorcraft. Recent emphasis in rotorcraft research has been 

focused on acquisition of an extensive rotor-airloads 

database, high-speed rotorcraft technology, and tiltrotor 

research in noise and performance enhancement. Joint 

programs with the DOD, the Federal Aviation Administration, and the U.S. helicopter industry result in constructive 

and closely coordinated national research efforts for 

rotorcraft technology. 

Tiltrotor Technology. Tiltrotor research continued to support the U.S. Navy V-22 Osprey development 

by conducting a test of a 2/3-scale rotor in the 40-x-80-foot 

wind tunnel at Ames Research Center to measure rotor 

performance in forward flight. Testing also investigated 

download on the tiltrotor wing in hover. Measurements of 

the download were acquired for a wide range of rotorthrust conditions and wing-flap angles. The effects of 

rotor rotation direction and rotor nacelle angle were also 

assessed. In cooperation with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), NASA is conducting a Tiltrotor Applications Study to investigate factors relating to an environmentally compatible and economically viable civil tiltrotor 

operating in the National Transportation System. The 

study is intended to identify areas of highest research 

payoff for best commercial vehicle configuration based 

on estimates of maximum market size. It is also intended 

to develop a better understanding of economic factors 

that influence successful commercial operation; identify 

changes for improved commercialization; conduct an 

operational analysis of design criteria and certification 

guidelines; and develop a comprehensive flight validation plan. NASA also conducted steep-approach simulations for the FAA that show promise for reducing noise 

and other siting restrictions. 

Advanced Rotorcracft Technology. A compre47 
hensive rotor airloads program is under way to provide a 

database of airloads, blade dynamics, vibrations, and 

acoustics on a modern four-bladed helicopter. This cooperative effort with the U.S. Army conducts small- and 

large-scale wind-tunnel experiments and flight research 

with highly instrumented rotors. A UH-60 Blackhawk 

helicopter is being used in the flight research program. 

Pre-flight theoretical predictions using several rotorcraft 

analytical computer programs have been completed. The 

first phase of the flight investigation focused on rotor 

structural limits at high speed. In aeroacoustics, NASA is 

supporting innovative industry concepts for noise reduction. Validation of global-noise analysis was performed 

on two helicopters and the Xv-15 and will continue on the 

UH-60 and the V-22 tiltrotor. Prediction methodologies 

for vibration analysis have been developed to assess rotor 

and fuselage structural dynamics. Mass tuning of the rotor 

and active vibration control techniques are being investigated to reduce vibratory loads. Active control is also 

being assessed for improved maneuverability through the 

use of rotor state control and individual blade control. 

High-Performance Aircraft 

NASA’s high-performance aircraft research program 

is an integral and critical part of the overall aeronautics 

program. The program is structured to develop and 

mature technologies that have important military and civil 

applications. The technology programs are carefully 

selected to demonstrate significant improvement in performance or to show new capability that has high payoff, 

Supermaneuverability. Achieving stable and 

controllable flight at extreme angles-of-attack approaching 90 degrees to the free stream airflow offers dramatic 

payoffs in military effectiveness. Collectively the technology is referred to as “supermaneuverability.” Unprecedented high angle-of-attack capabilities utilizing propulsive control concepts were demonstrated with free-flying 

wind-tunnel models and simulation studies. Emphasis is 

placed on analysis and control of the flow in the high 

angle-of-attack environment (70 degrees and beyond). 

X-29 Program Status. The X-29 program is a joint 

venture by NASA, the Air Force, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency to investigate perforV-22 Tiltrotor 2/3 Scale Rotor Pehrmance Test in the Ames 

Research Center 4l)-x-8l)-foot Wind Tunnel. 

mance advantages and new options in configuration 

integration of forward-swept-wing, fighter-class aircraft. 

Concurrently, the opportunity was seized to test several 

other emerging technologies of high potential. These 

include relaxed static stability; three-surface longitudinal 

control; aeroelastic-tailored, composite, thin, supercritical 

wing; and digital flight-control systems. 

The second X-29 aircraft, which is configured to 

expand the angle-of-attack envelope, first flew in May 

1989. Functional-check flights and spin-chute-system 

flights were completed in July 1989. As of January 18, 

1990, the second aircraft had completed 15 flights and 

cleared the 1-g flight envelope up to 43 degrees angle-ofattack. The aircraft has exhibited excellent roll-and-yaw 

characteristics, outperforming predictions. Currently, a 

military utility evaluation at high angle-of-attack is under 

way and is scheduled to be completed by the end of 

calendar year 1990. 

Short Take-off and Vertical Landing Aircrafi. 

The United States and the United Kingdom are nearing the 

end of a five-year program to develop advanced short 

take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) technologies aimed 

at reducing technological risk associated with the development of a next generation STOVL aircraft. One technology thrust was to develop airframe configurations that 

minimize hot-gas ingestion from the propulsion system 

48 
recirculating back into the engine inlets, resulting in 

hover-performance degradation. An experimental activity was initiated at the Lewis Research Center’s 9-x-15- 

foot, low-speed, wind tunnel to develop the analytical 

capability to predict when reingestion will occur and to 

provide for newly developed computational fluid dynamics codes. 

Supersonic Cruise 

U.S. trade with the Pacific community has increased 

dramatically, accelerating well beyond the volume of 

trade with Europe. Passenger aircraft that feature 350- 

passenger capacity, transpacific range, and cruise speeds 

in excess of two times the speed of sound will link the 

farthest reaches of the Pacific Rim area. A major technological challenge is the development of propulsion systems that will meet acceptable emission and noise standards and provide substantial reduction in fuel consumption while offering extended engine life at high, sustained 

operating temperatures. Other challenges include reducing airframe structural weight fractions, increasing cruise 

lift-to-drag ratio via supersonic laminar-flow control, and 

developing technologies to alleviate the impact of sonic 

boom for overland flight. 

Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas have reported their 

findings from initial studies of market and technical 

viability of a high-speed civil transport. The studies 

identified barrier technologies arising from airport noise, 

sonic boom, and propulsion systems emissions that must 

be overcome in order to successfully implement a nextgeneration supersonic transport. NASA has subsequently 

defined a High-speed Research program to address the 

barrier issues. 

The engine emissions of primary concern are nitrogen oxides which, through a series of catalytic reactions, 

could have an adverse impact on Earth’s protective ozone 

layer. Kecent tests at the Lewis Kesearch Center have 

demonstrated a six-fold reduction in nitrogen oxide 

production in a lean, premixed, prevaporized combustion rig. 

Aircraft noise and its propagation in airport vicinities is a subject of significant concern. Technology development for supersonic transport noise reduction will 

combine both propulsion-system advances and the effect 

of improved lift-to-drag ratios on aircraft operation into an 

integrated role for reduction in overall noise levels near 

airports. Progress in cooperative efforts with industry 

include a 12-decibel reduction for mixer-ejector-type 

nozzles that retain the weight and performance characteristics required for operational systems. 

Sonic boom is the result of a pressure disturbance 

caused by an aircraft flying at supersonic speeds. The 

goals for sonic-boom reduction research are to establish 

acceptability criteria for overland cruise; to develop 

predictive methodology for minimum boom concepts; 

and to verify prediction capability, particularly for atmospheric propagation. Analysis has shown that low-boom 

levels at high altitudes have significantly less “startle” 

effects on the ground. 

Generic Hypersonics 

The Generic Hypersonic program is an integrated, 

multi-disciplinary program aimed at continuing 

airbreathing hypersonic vehicle database development. 

The program focuses on key issues in hypersonics and 

emphasizes the establishment of hypersonic “know-how” 

independent of specific applications. The program stresses 

fundamental technical understanding of the controlling 

physical phenomena as well as innovation and provides 

capability to respond to both NASA and DOD future 

mission and application needs. 

Ames Research Center has conducted investigations 

in aeroheating, control concepts, lightweight ceramicmatrix composites, and improvements to an arc-jet facility 

used to test and evaluate high-temperature insulation 

concepts. Langley efforts consisted of the development of 

three-dimensional, non-equilibrium, computational-fluiddynamics flow field code; characterization of thin-gauge, 

metallic-substrate material formed by deposition; evaluation of high-L/D waverider configurations; investigations 

of the effects of contaminants on scramjet combustion; 

and analysis of actively cooled structural concepts. Lewis 

efforts focus on advanced high-speed propulsion inlet 

configurations, fundamental fuel/air mixing, and development of high-temperature reinforced composites. 

NASA’s expertise in hypersonic technology is being 

fully applied to the National Aero-Space Plane with the 

realization that its extremely broad range of technological 

needs challenges all disciplines. Future hypersonic vehicle concepts will be designed with the database devel49 
oped from the multidisciplinary technology of the Generic Hypersonic program. 

Wind-Tunnel Revitalization 

In the conduct of aeronautical research and technology programs, NASA utilizes a unique complement of 

experimental wind-tunnel facilities. These facilities, valued at several billions of dollars, play a key role in 

supporting American industry in developing the Nation’s 

civil and military aircraft. Unfortunately, many of these 

wind tunnels are now more than 30 years old. 

A team of independent experts had conducted a 

critical assessment of the physical condition and productivity of the wind tunnels and projected demands for their 

use. The assessment indicated a serious need for modernization or refurbishment of many of the tunnels and their 

instrumentation, support equipment, and data systems. 

These findings were confirmed in separate reviews by 

NASA’s Aeronautics Advisory Committee and the National 

Kesearch Council’s Aeronautics and Space Engineering 

Board. 

NASA is in the process of carrying out a major 5- 

year, wind-tunnel revitalization program, scheduled to be 

completed in 1993. Current activity involves design work 

on three of the most urgent projects: replacement of the 

structural shell and refurbishment of the test section and 

equipment for the Ames Kesearch Center’s 12-foot pressure wind tunnel; rehabilitation of motors and critical 

equipment for the Lewis Kesearch Center’s 10-x-10-foot 

supersonic tunnel; and modernization of nozzles, heaters, 

and controls for the hypersonic facilities complex at the 

Langley Kesearch Center. Construction on the Lewis 

tunnel and the Langley facilities began early in 1989. 

National AeroSpace Plane 

The National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program 

was initiated in 1986 as a joint effort of NASA and the 

Department of Defense (DOD) to develop technologies 

for a new generation of aerospace vehicles for hypersonic 

cruise in the atmosphere or single-stage-to-orbit using 

airbreathing primary propulsion and horizontal takeoff 

and landing. NASP research and development is shared 

with NASA and DOD by a team of five major contractors. 

Pratt and Whitney and Kocketdyne are conducting work 

on propulsion; General Dynamics, McDonnell Douglas, 

and Kockwell are executing tasks related to the airframe 

and total vehicle integration. The program is defined to 

culminate with flight tests by an experimental vehicle, the 

The National Space Council reviewed the NASP 

program in 1989. It reaffirmed the program objectives and 

recommended stretching the schedule by two and a half 

years to reduce technical risk. The decision to proceed 

with building and flight testing the X-30 is now projected 

to be made in the spring of 1993. 

Wind-tunnel tests of scaled-model, X-30 configurations have significantly increased the experimental database from takeoff to hypersonic speeds. NASA’s Numerical Aerodynamic Simulator has allowed analyses of highly 

complex flows through application of computational 

fluid dynamics. One example is the flow about a representative x-30 configuration at Mach 25 in which the air 

is chemically altered by the extreme heat of both friction 

and compression from shock waves. 

Structures and materials technology continues to 

focus on high strength, light weight, and resistance to 

extreme heat loads. Material development has produced 

a substantial database on titanium aluminides, metalmatrix composites, and refractory composites. Theoretical chemistry and laboratory experiments are answering 

questions concerning compatibility of materials with 

hydrogen fuel. Structures work has demonstrated production techniques for fuselage panels and control surfaces developed from metal-matrix composites. Coated 

carbon-carbon specimens have survived combined mechanical and thermal loads simulating over 300 cycles of 

flight. 

Propulsion research was highlighted by wind-tunne1 tests at Mach 4 to 8 with scale models of four types of 

engines. Computational fluid dynamics and other analytical methods explored details of such phenomena as fuel/ 

air mixing and combustion within the supersonic combustion ramjet at flight speeds above Mach 6. Work has 

included calculations at the molecular chemistry and 

physics level for combustion in ultra-hot, high-speed 

flows. Techniques for production and handling of slush 

hydrogen, kept at -423 degrees Fahrenheit, have been 

demonstrated. This denser fuel permits reductions in 

vehicle size and weight. 

X-30. 

50 
technology for these thrusts, the Space Hesearch and 

Technology program is composed of two complementary 

parts: the research and technology (R&?‘) base program 

and the focused technology programs. 

The K&T base serves as the seed bed for new 

technologies and capability enhancement. Through the 

HPrT base program, usually at a sub-scale level, scientists 

and engineers develop forecasts regarding the potential 

applicability, usefulness, and overall benefit associated 

with new technologies. Once the potential applicability of 

a new capability is documented, decisions are made to 

carry selective discoveries into focused technology. A ke). 

element of the Space Kesearch and Technology program 

is developing and sustaining a strong partnership with the 

university community. The goal of the IIBT base IJniversity Space Kesearch program is to enhance and broaden 

- . *. .~. ._ 

I) 

New design for the X-30 National Aero-Space Plane based on 

the best features of the individual designs of the five prime 

contractors. 

Space Research and Technology 

The primary goal of the Space Research and Technology program is to develop advanced technologies that 

enhance or enable our Nation’s future space missions 

and, thereby, continue to ensure U.S. preeminence in 

space and space-related activities. To achieve this goal, a 

broad-based research activity program is conducted to 

advance the state-of-the-art in technology at the concept, 

subsystem, and system level; to develop technical strengths 

in the engineering disciplines within NASA, industry, and 

academia; and to perform critical flight experiments in 

areas where testing in the space environment is necessary 

for technology development. 

Under the President’s direction, the Nation will 

embark upon a bold new vision of space exploration for 

the 21st century. In this effort, NASA will develop the 

technology, capability, and infrastructure to monitor and 

study our own “spaceship” Earth, to return to the moon, 

and to go onward to Mars. In addition to manned 

exploration, a vigorous program to explore the solar 

system with robotic explorers will be pursued. 

The Space Research and Technology program is 

structured into five technology thrusts related to Space 

Science, Space Transportation, Space Station, Exploration, and Breakthrough Technologies. To accomplish the 

.- -- the capabilities of the Nation’s engineering community 

through active research participation in the U.S. civil 

space program. The program is an integral part of the 

strategy to strengthen the space research and technology 

capabilities of the Nation. 

Focused development is initiated based on the 

identified and projected needs of both current and future 

missions. Three focused programs have been initiated 

since 1988: the Civil Space Technology Initiative, the 

Exploration Technology (formerly called Pathfinder) program, and the In-Space Technology Experiments program. In the focused programs, technologies are developed for specific applications and products are delivered 

in the form of large-scale, hardware-technology demonstrations, software, and design techniques and methods. 

This technology development is the vital first step in 

providing the capability to move out from Earth and 

expand our presence into the solar system. Significant 

progress was made in 1989 and 1990 in each of the 

principal thrusts and continuing efforts promise to show 

even greater results. Recent examples are described in the 

following sections. 

Space Science Technology Thrust 

NASA’s Space Science and Applications program is 

divided into six major areas: Earth Science, Solar System 

Science, Astrophysics, Space Physics, Space Communications, and Microgravity. The Space Science Technology 

thrust supports technology efforts to expand capability 

51 
Advanced Photovoltaic Solar Array deployment tests. 

and reduce costs through disciplinary advances, which 

increase science information return and spacecraft performance and enable the next generation of space science 

missions in these program areas. Missions such as the 

Earth Observing System will benefit from major technology advances in sensors, data storage, and onboard 

processors. Larger and inherently more flexible spacecraft 

will require that interactions between the control systems 

and the structure be better understood such that the total 

structure can be controlled to high levels of precision. 

Technology developments in advanced detectors can 

result in dramatic increases in Earth science data return 

because of increased detector sensitivity and resolution. 

Improvements in cooler technology can produce costeffective results by extending mission duration and by 

increasing the effectiveness of detectors. 

Advancements in thermoelectric materials, photovoltaic cells, and photovoltaic arrays could provide lighter 

weight, more efficient, nuclear- and solar-power sources 

for future planetary science missions and for solar electric 

propulsion systems for orbit transfer and interplanetary 

exploration. Technology development for in-space assembly and precision control of large multi-panel reflectors will enable large astrophysical telescopes to be 

assembled and used in space. The demonstration of 

submillimeter sensors and components will enable the 

study of galactic and stellar origins as well as atmospheric 

constituents. 

Significant accomplishments were achieved in 1990 

in several science-oriented technology programs. Advances were made in real-time data systems, propulsion, 

sensors and controls, and power systems. An example in 

real-time data systems is the Spacecraft Health Automated 

Reasoning Prototype (SHARP), an expert system designed to monitor the condition of interplanetary spacecraft and ground operations. SHARP demonstrated a 

significant leap in automation technology during the 

tough operational environment of Voyager mission operations during the encounter with the planet Neptune. 

The SHARP system automatically confirmed that a problem existed in attempting to recover and process data 

from the Voyager transmissions from Neptune. It then 

defined the magnitude and aided in the determination of 

the cause of the malfunction to a specific failed electronic 

unit on the ground which was replaced. Using traditional 

methods, this process of problem identification and 

isolation would have been both laborious and timeconsuming. 

In 1990, a submillimeter-wavelength, backwardwave oscillator (BWO) prototype was demonstrated. This 

enables the design of a high-frequency oscillator that is 

capable of significant power while being continuously 

tunable at submillimeter wavelengths. As a result, sensors 

can be developed in the use of very high-frequency 

submillimeter wavelengths for the space spectroscopy 

required for space astrophysics, upper atmosphere remote sensing, and solar system exploration. 

The development of a high-efficiency, lightweight, 

rugged, radiation-resistant solar cell is an essential element of the NASA goals to achieve 300 watts per kilogram 

for a deployable planar array and 300 watts per square 

meter at 100 watts per kilogram in concentrator arrays. To 

achieve this development, researchers at NASA’s Lewis 

Research Center are focusing on indium phosphide and 

gallium arsenide solar cells. Building upon last year’s 

achievement of a record 22 percent efficiency in a prismcovered gallium arsenide cell operating in a simulated 

space solar intensity, Lewis researchers have developed 

a domed Fresnel lens which provides a working concentration ratio of 1OO:l. The use of this plastic lens means 

that it will be possible to build cheaper, lighter weight 

concentrator arrays for high-efficiency operation. 

At the same time, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

(JPL) has been working to develop an ultra-lightweight, 

52 
high-performance, advanced, deployable, photovoltaicarray design that will be suitable for a broad range of longterm NASA space applications for the period beyond 

1990. The goal of the effort is to achieve a specific power 

of 130 watts per kilogram, which is about six times higher 

than most arrays and twice as high as the high-performance experimental Solar Array Flight Experiment (SAFE) 

that NASA flew on the space shuttle in 1984. Analysis 

based on the components built and the detailed engineering drawings indicates that TKW, under contract to JPL, 

has achieved the 130-watts-per-kilogram goal. 

Space Transportation Technology Thrust 

The Space Transportation Technology thrust addresses the technologies that will provide safer and more 

efficient access to space while reducing the overall costs 

associated with space launch. Although, in some cases, 

these technologies will also provide additional capability 

for existing launch vehicles, these efforts are focused on 

providing the technology for the design of a new fleet of 

space vehicles, including new expendable and partially 

reusable cargo launch vehicles, fully reusable manned 

vehicles, and expendable and reusable space transfer 

vehicles. The thrust has been organized to address the 

pressing technology needs in the areas of Earth-to-orbit 

propulsion and transfer vehicle technology. 

In order to significantly reduce the cost of access to 

space, transportation vehicles will have to be robust, 

operationally simple, and flexible. Technology advancements are required for more efficient vehicle structures, 

lightweight and more durable thermal protection materials, and lightweight and long-life cryogenic tankage. 

Approaches to lower manufacturing cost and improved 

productivity; autonomous systems; improved aerodynamic and aerothermodynamic prediction capability to 

increase vehicle margins; and adaptive guidance, navigation, and control systems for reduced sensitivity to 

changes in launch conditions are needed to reduce cost 

of both ground- and space-based operations. 

Benefit studies indicate that significant weight and 

cost savings can be realized from a recent technology 

accomplishment in the materials and structures technology area. Panels of aluminum alloy were superplastically 

formed into stiffeners and spot-welded to aluminum skin 

structures. Tests of these structural components indicate 

their usefulness in the fabrication of cryogenic tanks for 

space transportation vehicles. Current research is focused 

on developing optimum cryotank structures through 

superplastic forming and resistance spot-welding of aluminum-lithium alloys. Weight reduction of 20 percent and 

cost reduction of 25 percent appear attainable. 

Space propulsion technology accomplishments in 

1989 and 1990 included the demonstration of a hightemperature, oxidation-resistant coating for uncooled bipropellant thrusters. The advanced thrust chambers increase life 10 times and specific impulse by at least 10 

percent over existing thruster capability. This is made 

possible because the oxidation-resistant iridium coating 

enables the use of rhenium which is capable of operating 

at temperatures up to 4,000 degrees Fahrenheit, approximately twice that of conventional materials, but cannot 

withstand the effects of oxidation. The coatings are 

applied using a chemical vapor deposition technique. 

The program investigated the feasibility of extending the 

operating life of the shuttle’s reaction-control-system 

vernier engines, by replacing the silicide-coated niobium 

chambers with those made of iridium-coated rhenium. 

The results of this investigation clearly showed that 

iridium/rhenium technology could eliminate or significantly reduce vernier chamber replacements. 

As an element of a future onboard ascent-guidance 

system, the potential range of five different laser sensors 

was evaluated for use in lidar (“light detection and 

ranging” laser radar) wind sensors on launch vehicles. 

These laser sensors would provide data on the velocity of 

winds aloft and ahead of the vehicle. Using this information, adaptive guidance algorithms would compute structural-load alleviation trajectories for safe passage of the 

vehicle to orbit. This approach expands the wind velocity 

envelope into which a vehicle could be launched, providing operations savings and better on-time launch capability. 

Also, during 1989 and 1990, a lifting-body design for 

an Assured Crew Return Vehicle for Space Station Freedom was analyzed. The lifting body, one of several 

options being studied, has the capability to provide largeentry cross-range, low-entry accelerations, and runway 

landing. The assessment of the lifting-body concept 

involved wind-tunnel studies and trajectory, performance, 

structural, and subsystems analyses. Additional research 

is continuing in entry and landing simulations and defini53 
tion of structural concepts that offer ease of manufacture 

and access for maintenance. 

One of the challenges of hypersonic flow-field 

simulation is the proper modeling of nonequilibrium 

processes within a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 

code. A second challenge of hypersonic flow-field simulation, which is shared by simulations over all speed 

ranges, is the development of an algorithm which can 

effectively utilize the most advanced supercomputers to 

decrease the computational time required for a solution. 

The Aerothermodynamic Upwind Kelaxation Algorithm, 

an advanced CFD code, has been developed to address 

these issues. This code, which provides numerical solutions to the governing equations for three-dimensional, 

viscous, hypersonic flows, has been implemented on a 

CRAY-2 computer. It can also effectively utilize both 

synchronous parallel and asynchronous parallel 

supercomputer architecture. The present capability represents the most comprehensive and generally available 

code for the study of thermochemical nonequilibrium 

effects in three-dimensional, continuum, hypersonic flows 

around advanced aerospace vehicles such as the 

aeroassisted space transfer vehicle. 

Space Station Technology Thrust 

The Space Station Technology thrust addresses the 

technologies that will increase safety and human productivity on the initial space station, enhance its productivity 

and efficiency as a laboratory and testbed for science and 

technology, and enable future growth. 

Automation and robotics are areas receiving specific emphasis. Several technologies, such as the development of artificial intelligence applications to enable 

systems autonomy for routine operations and fault detection and telerobotics to reduce the astronaut EVA time for 

maintenance and payload operations, are being pursued. 

Significant accomplishments include the laboratory demonstration of the first dual-arm telerobotic manipulator. 

The arms have seven degrees of manipulative freedom 

and can be used both in the teleoperator and robotic 

mode to perform external maintenance tasks. An additional important achievement during the past year was the 

development of a high-fidelity graphics phantom robot 

that uses the latest graphics display techniques to simulate 

the dual-arm robotic action in response to teleoperator 

commands and thus enable the precise planning of the 

telerobotic tasks. 

The data collected on space environmental effects 

from the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) are 

playing a significant role in the space station design. The 

LDEF, which was retrieved by the shuttle in January 1990 

after five and a half years in low-Earth orbit, carried 57 

technology experiments contributed by NASA centers, 

other Federal laboratories, U.S. industries, and universities, as well as space agencies and universities of foreign 

countries. Over 10,000 specimens of construction, thermal protection, and solar-cell materials are now being 

evaluated for their resistance to the corrosive effects of 

atomic oxygen and radiation. Because of the extended 

time the spacecraft spent in space, it is also providing 

extremely valuable data on the number and size of 

meteoroid and space-debris impacts. The LDEF data will 

enable the characterization of the environment that the 

space station will encounter during its planned 30-year 

lifetime and aid in decisionmaking on the choice of 

materials for construction, debris shielding, and other 

important factors. 

A new space construction technique recently developed by the Langley Kesearch Center and demonstrated 

in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility at the Marshall Space 

Flight Center could enable astronauts to construct large 

structures such as the space station truss seven times faster 

than the fully manual method presently planned. This 

technique utilizes an astronaut mobility platform on either 

side of a general-purpose mobile transporter. The platforms are suspended from the transporter by arms that 

allow the astronauts fully controlled planar motion (backforth, up-down) along the truss bay. The transporter holds 

magazines that automatically dispense each truss element 

as needed. After constructing a section, the transporter 

would crawl along the recently constructed structure and 

become a platform for the construction of a new segment. 

In preparation for increasing the power capability of 

the space station via solar dynamic power, a new material 

for thermal energy storage has been identified and tested. 

Germanium metal has high thermal-storage capacity on 

melting and lacks the disadvantage of the low thermal 

conductivity in the solid state that the salts (which are 

presently the thermal-storage materials of choice) exhibit. 

The major drawback of germanium, its highly corrosive 

action on common container materials, has been over54 
Exploration Technology program ‘s multi-chassis, six-wheeled 

planetary rover being tested in rugged terrain at the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory. 

come by using graphite. Germanium specimens in graphite capsules have been cycled 600 times at the appropriate 

temperatures without measurable corrosion on the container. New design techniques and materials could enable 

the construction of lightweight concentrators, heat receivers, and thermal energy storage for the solar dynamic 

modules now under development for Space Station 

Freedom. 

Exploration Technology Thrust 

The objective of the Exploration Technology thrust 

is to develop the critical technologies required for future 

solar system exploration missions including establishment of a base on the moon and manned exploration of 

the planet Mars. This effort will develop a broad set of 

technologies that will enable new and innovative capabilities, increase reliability and reduce risk for human 

missions beyond low-Earth orbit, reduce development 

and operations costs for long-term exploration efforts, 

and enhance performance for human and robotic missions. 

The Exploration Technology program, which was 

started in the fall of 1988 as the Pathfinder program, 

supports the President’s National Space Policy directing 

that we begin to plan for future solar system exploration 

missions. On July 20, 1989, President Bush challenged the 

Nation to set forth with a renewed commitment to 

exploration: 

“First, for the coming decade, for the 1990’s, Space 

Station Freedom, our critical next step in all our space 

endeavors. And next, for the new century, back to the 

Moon. Back to the future. And this time, back to stay. And 

then a journey into tomorrow, a journey to another planet: 

a manned mission to Mars.” 

The Exploration Technology program is a critical 

step supporting that Presidential directive by establishing 

a foundation of technology for these future missions of 

cxploration. The Exploration Technology program, as a 

partnership between NASA, industry, and academia, will 

enhance our Nation’s “cutting edge” in the highly competitive arena of aerospace technology. The Exploration 

Technology program is developing new technologies in 

several broad areas to enable future robotic and piloted 

solar system exploration: surface exploration, in-space 

operations, human support, space transportation, lunar 

and Mars science, information systems and automation, 

and nuclear propulsion. 

During 1989 and 1990, the first 2 years of the 

Exploration Technology program, progress was made in 

a number of key areas. The Exploration Technology 

program supports NASA’s contribution to the ongoing 

U.S. space nuclear power research and development 

program, the SP-100 program. The SP-100 program, 

which is a joint NASA, Department of Defense, and 

Department of Energy endeavor, successfully completed 

key accelerated life testing of reactor fuel pin elements. 

With no appreciable swelling of the fuel pins even after 

5 percent fuel burn-up, the testing demonstrated that 

lifetimes of 7 years should be achievable with SP-100 

technology, a critical step toward bringing this important 

technology to maturity for application at a lunar outpost 

early in the next century. 

Also in 1990, preliminary technology development 

in the sensors areas of the Sample Acquisition, Analysis, 

and Preservation program was made. In particular, a 

spectrometer breadboard for visible and near-infrared 

sensing was completed and demonstrated, which could 

be applied to sensor systems for early robotic Mars 

sampling missions. Also, testing was conducted on rockcoring techniques and parameters using a research robotics arm and drill fixture in a laboratory environment. In 

55 
addition, in 1990, the Exploration Technology Program 

Planetary Rover effort completed fabrication and began 

testing of two experimental mobile robot concepts: a 

multi-chassis, six-wheeled rover concept and a six-legged 

walking rover concept. Both rovers traveled over benign 

and rugged terrain as part of this testing phase. These 

experimental robots will form the foundation for continuing development of mobile robotics software and navigation technologies which will support future exploration of 

challenging-but scientifically intriguing-areas of both 

the moon and Mars. 

In the area of human support in space, an innovative 

exercise facility was completed at the NASA Ames Research Center which will be used to study the human 

metabolic response to orbital extravehicular activity (EVA) 

work. The facility incorporates a controlled atmosphere 

chamber, an EVA work exercise device which duplicates 

upper body movements in zero-gravity conditions, human metabolic instrumentation to monitor blood pressure, body temperature, respiration rates, carbon dioxide 

and water expiration, and oxygen intake. Human metabolic responses to simulated EVA work will be obtained 

so that thermo-regulatory control methods may be designed to more accurately reflect the EVA work requirements resulting in increased astronaut comfort within a 

space suit, particularly for increased EVA missions approaching 8 hours. 

In space transportation, the first successful operation of a compact, high-speed, liquid-oxygen turbopump 

with a gaseous oxygen drive was achieved. This type of 

turbine, pumping liquid but driven by gas, is crucial to the 

development of a future high-performance expander 

cycle engine critical to deep-space exploration. In addition, a major contracted effort was initiated to fabricate an 

advanced engine testbed which will enable integrated 

component testing. 

Breakthrough Technologies Thrust 

Within the Space Research and Technology program, the purpose of the activities supported by the 

Breakthrough Technologies thrust is to advance high 

payoff, highly innovative technology concepts that could 

provide revolutionary advances in the approach to future 

space missions and programs. These efforts, which are 

often referred to as a technology “push” as compared to 

a requirements-driven ‘‘pull,’’ stimulate and nurture innovative and creative ideas and support fundamental research in space technology at the NASA centers and 

national laboratories, in universities, and with industry. 

Breakthrough technologies may produce a significant jump in the performance level of a space system 

above the extrapolated performance that would result 

from just the normal, expected growth in the technology 

state-of-the-art. They may provide new instruments, tools, 

and techniques that permit solutions to problems that 

have been previously conceived as not solvable. Breakthroughs may also allow space operations to occur in 

performance regimes that were previously technically 

impossible. 

As an illustration, breakthrough technologies in 

advanced propulsion concepts range from high energy/ 

density propellants, advanced fission/fusion, remotely 

energized (beamed) propulsion, and anti-matter. Advanced power concepts include fuel cells using in-situ 

materials as reactants and laser-power beaming which 

involves beaming power from a solar-collecting satellite 

to a planetary surface. Advanced materials include longduration space lubricants and advanced composites. 

During 1989 and 1990, two breakthrough activities 

reached fruition and provided excellent examples of 

revolutionary advances in space technology. One activity 

was the demonstration of a computer program called 

AUTOCLASS which uses artificial intelligence techniques 

to automatically classify data. The benefit of AUTOCLASS 

is that it can provide for the automatic discovery of 

patterns in very large data sets. Dramatic results were 

achieved in the analysis of results from the Infrared 

Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) through the automatic discovery of several unexpected patterns of data, which are now 

being investigated. Many applications for this technology 

are being examined, including pattern discovery in weather 

and medical data. 

A second example is the Sparse Distributed Memory 

program which was successfully completed with shape, 

speech, and text translators demonstrated. This associative memory with massively parallel architecture provides 

an extremely large address space and enables information 

to be structured, filtered, and linked to other stored 

information in the process of storing data. Based on an 

effort to understand human long-term memory, it is 

capable of abstraction and generalization and provides 

the basis for future autonomous systems that can learn 

from experience. This could provide artificial intelligent 

56 
The VLSl (Very Large Scale Integrated) chip developed for 

operational use as part of the Hubble Space Telescope ground 

data system by the University of Idaho Center for Space 

Engineering Research, shown here on a penny to indicate 

scale. 

behavior capability for tasks too remote, too hostile, or 

too tedious for humans. 

University Space Research 

Nine university centers, selected in 1988 to participate in the University Space Engineering Research Center 

program, completed their first year and have already 

shown significant technical and educational benefits. For 

example, the Mars Mission Research Center at North 

Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T University 

are pursuing a joint research activity with the McDonnell 

Douglas Company for an in-space Mars aerobrake assembly. They will fabricate a mock aerobrake structure and 

assemble this structure in a neutral-buoyancy tank. The 

University of Idaho Center for Space Engineering Research for Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) System 

Design is developing a compression/decompression VLSI 

chip for operational use as part of the Hubble Space 

Telescope ground data system. 

This program has begun to offer valuable educational benefits as well as attracting more graduate and 

undergraduate students to pursue aerospace careers, 

supporting new graduate level classes and introducing 

new material into undergraduate courses, and supporting 

cross-discipline and department thesis topics. This effort 

is an important contribution to broadening the Nation’s 

engineering capability to meet the critical needs of the 

civil space program. 

Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars 

During 1989 and 1990 the Office of Exploration 

(now the Space Exploration Directorate in the Office of 

Aeronautics, Exploration, and Technology) continued to 

lay the foundation for human exploration of the moon 

and Mars. Previous years of study provided a basis for 

President Bush’s historic announcement on July 20, 1989 

of the Space Exploration Initiative, a long-term commitment to expand human presence beyond the confines of 

Earth. The initiative’s goals include the establishment of 

a lunar outpost early in the 21st century and human arrival 

on Mars by 2019. A near-term plan was developed in 1990 

for acquiring the knowledge and capabilities this Nation 

needs to pursue its exploration goals. The plan will be 

modified based on results from the outreach and synthesis process, an activity developed by NASA and the 

National Space Council to search the Nation for new and 

innovative ideas and technologies on how best to accomplish the Space Exploration Initiative. 

1989 Case Studies 

During the first several months of 1989, the Office 

of Exploration continued the analysis begun in 1988 of 

three exploration case studies: 1) Lunar Evolution; 2) Mars 

Evolution; and 3) Mars Expedition. These studies, which 

follow up four case studies conducted in 1988, were 

framed to provide information on the requirements for 

human exploration of the moon and Mars. The studies 

evaluated requirements in such areas as Earth-to-orbit 

transportation, planetary transfer, and planetary surface 

57 
operations. The Lunar Evolution case study examined 

ways to gradually consolidate a permanent lunar outpost 

where we could perform life sciences research as well as 

take advantage of unique scientific opportunities in 

astronomy, geology, physics, and other fields and where 

human beings could learn to become self-sufficient away 

from Earth. Similarly, the Mars Evolution case emphasized 

a flexible and gradual outpost buildup employing advanced technologies. The Mars Expedition case emphasized a quick, visible, non-permanent effort to realize the 

first human exploration of Mars using current technologies and knowledge. Together with the 1988 case studies, 

these studies provided NASA with preliminary conceptions of key mission requirements. 

Announcement of the Space Exploration Initiative 

On July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 

11 moon landing, President Bush articulated a vision for 

the U.S. future in space including the establishment of the 

space station, a lunar base, and a manned mission to Mars. 

This vision, known as the Space Exploration Initiative, 

sets the course for the Nation to fulfill the National Space 

Policy goal of “expanding human presence beyond Earth 

orbit into the solar system.” 

90-Day Study 

In response to the President’s announcement of a 

long-term commitment to human space exploration, the 

NASA Administrator created a task force to conduct a 

study to validate that the Nation could accomplish the 

goals laid out by the President. The “Report of the 90-Day 

Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars,” the 

task force’s product, drew from much of NASA’s exploration work conducted over the past several years. By 

examining five reference approaches to human exploration of the moon and Mars, the report provides reference 

material on potential requirements in technology and 

other areas, as well as an examination of the scientific 

opportunities and other potential benefits. The report 

contains no specific recommendations, but does point out 

some prerequisite activities for any human exploration 

program: 

exploration technologies; 

robotic missions; 

heavy-lift launch vehicle; 

Space Station Freedom; 

life sciences research. 

After completing the 90-Day Study, NASA continued 

studying various mission architectures and developed a 

near-term plan consistent with the needs identified in 

these studies and the direction contained in subsequent 

Presidential policy directions. 

Presidential Policy Directions 

On February 16,1990, President Bush approved the 

following policy for the Space Exploration Initiative: 

The initiative will include both lunar and Mars 

program elements; 

It will include robotic science missions as well as 

human missions; 

The near-term focus will be on technology development, with an emphasis on new or innovative approaches and technology with the potential to make a 

major impact on cost, schedule, and/or performance; 

Mission, concept, and system analysis studies 

will be conducted in parallel with technology development; 

Selection of a baseline program architecture will 

occur after several years of defining two or more reference architectures while developing and demonstrating 

broad technologies; and 

NASA will be the principal implementing agency, 

while the Department of Defense and the Department of 

Energy also will have major roles in technology development and concept definition. 

On May 11, 1990, the President provided a specific 

goal for the first human landing on Mars. He said ‘‘I believe 

that before Apollo celebrates the 50th anniversary of its 

landing on the moon-the American flag should be 

planted on Mars.” 

Outreach and Synthesis 

In accordance with Presidential policy, and at the 

request of Vice President Quayle, in the summer of 1990 

NASA began a nationwide outreach effort to search for 

new and innovative concepts and technologies for the 

Space Exploration Initiative “to ensure that all reasonable 

space exploration alternatives have been evaluated” prior 

to embarking on this ambitious effort. Developed by 

NASA in coordination with the National Space Council, 

58 
where needed to respond to the Synthesis Group’s 

recommendations. 

Science Studies 

Artist’s rendition of an expeditionary outpost on Mars. 

the outreach program solicited inputs in three major 

ways: 1) a direct solicitation from universities, industry, 

research associations, and the general public, evaluated 

by the HAND Corporation; 2) an assessment by the 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics of 

ideas from the aerospace community; and 3) inputs from 

other Government agencies and national laboratories. 

These inputs and others are being evaluated by a highlevel Synthesis Group composed of individuals from 

NASA, other Government agencies, industry, and academia. 

By early 1991 this group will provide a report to the NASA 

Administrator which will include several mission architecture options, technology priorities, and possible early 

milestones for the Space Exploration Initiative. The NASA 

Administrator will report to Vice President Quayle and the 

National Space Council. Results of the outreach and 

synthesis process will be the basis for mission studies and 

technology development to be conducted over the next 

several years, leading to a Presidential decision on a 

specific architecture. NASA will modify its near-term plan 

Together with the Office of Space Science and 

Applications, the Office of Exploration conducted a 

number of science workshops and studies in 1989 and 

1990 to understand more clearly the scientific opportunities presented by a program of human exploration and 

how best to take advantage of those opportunities. Both 

robotic science missions and human interactive science 

will be conducted as part of the Space Exploration 

Initiative and the opportunities cover a number of scientific disciplines: solar physics, geology, biology, astrophysics, chemistry, and space physics. A number of 

fundamental science themes for the Initiative were identified in the 90-Day Study: 

How were Earth and the moon born and what 

was their shared early history? 

Did life ever start on Mars? 

What is the relationship between the sun, planAre there worlds around other stars? 

What is the fate of the universe? 

An Exploration Science Working Group was established in 1990 to refine science goals for the moon and 

Mars and to oversee planning for science in the Space 

Exploration Initiative. 

etary atmospheres, and climate? 

International Cooperation 

When he announced the Space Exploration Initiative, President Bush asked Vice President Quayle and the 

National Space Council to determine, among other things, 

the feasibility of international cooperation. The National 

Space Council concluded that “international cooperation 

in this endeavor is feasible and could offer significant 

benefits to the United States, subject to the satisfaction of 

national security, foreign policy, scientific, and economic 

interests.” 

On March 30, 1990, the White House announced 

that the United States would seek an exploratory dialogue 

with other nations on international cooperation in the 

Space Exploration Initiative. The dialogue will focus on 

conceptual possibilities for cooperation with Europe, 

Canada, Japan, the Soviet Union, and other nations as 

59 
Artist’s depiction of an observatory on the far side of the 

moon. 

appropriate. Guidelines for the dialogue were prepared 

by the National Space Council. The initial discussions are 

tentatively scheduled for 1991. 

Interagency Coordination 

The Space Exploration Initiative involves several 

Government agencies. To facilitate coordination, NASA 

signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Department of Energy in June 1990. An agreement with the 

Department of Defense is under discussion. In addition, 

NASA invited other agencies, including the Departments 

of Commerce, Education, the Interior, and Transportation, the National Institutes of Health, and the National 

Science Foundation to provide ideas through the outreach and synthesis process. 

Near-Term Plan 

A near-term plan for fiscal years 1992-1996 was 

developed to respond to the Space Exploration Initiative 

strategy as defined in the President’s policy directive. ’The 

plan will be modified to incorporate the Synthesis Group’s 

findings. Key activities of the plan now include: 

Perform mission and system implementation 

studies of synthesis architectures; 

Initiate critical technology development to enable promising implementation options; 

Initiate other enabling research activities; and 

Begin critical long-lead development programs. 

60 
Department of Defense 

dual pads on each coast could provide a launch capacity 

of up to 10 per year. Five Delta IIs, carrying Navstar Global 

Positioning System (GPS) satellites, were launched in 

1989, in addition to three commercial Delta I launches. In 

FY 1990, eight Delta boosters were launched carrying 

three GPS, one Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, 

one NASA, and three commercial payloads. The Atlas I1 

launch system, which is being developed to meet the 

needs of the Defense Satellite Communication System 

beginning in 1991, continued in development. The Titan 

I1 is operational for launch of Defense Meteorological 

Satellites, as well as other payloads, into unique polar 

orbits. In addition, the Air Force will provide near-term 

expendable launch vehicle launches on a cost-reimbursement basis to support NASA’s mixed fleet launch requirements. 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

initiated a program in Ey 1989 to conduct the initial test 

launches of the Pegasus Air-Launched Space Booster. The 

Pegasus booster is a three-stage, solid-propellant, inertially guided winged launch vehicle. It is carried aloft by 

a conventional transport or bomber-class aircraft to an 

altitude of about 40,000 feet where ignition of its first stage 

motor is initiated. Pegasus currently has the capability of 

placing a 500-pound spacecraft into a 250-nautical mile 

circular polar orbit. The first launch of Pegasus occurred 

on April 5, 1990, successfully carrying a three-function 

payload (PEGSAT) into orbit. A second Pegasus launch is 

planned for the spring of 1991. 

In the near term, increasing requirements for onorbit satellite services will exceed DOD’s launch capability. This projection points to requirements for higher 

reliability, lower cost, assured access to space. To meet 

these future requirements, the Air Force continued concept definition started in 1988 to address a new mixed 

fleet of launch vehicles. As a first step in this process, 

Pegasus Air-Launched Space Booster being carried to 

altitude by a E52 aircraft for launch on April 5,1990. 

initial concept definition studies were completed for an 

Advanced Launch Development program. This effort is 

addressing methods to significantly reduce launch costs, 

improve operational responsiveness, and meet future 

demands for assured access to space. NASA and DOD are 

partners in this effort. System design will continue in 

support of the pacesetter development of a 580,000- 

pound thrust engine that could lead to a family of 

versatile, responsive launch vehicles for the next century. 

The Navy has also been addressing the problems of 

launch cost and responsiveness with a concept called 

SEALAR, for Sea Launch and Recovery. SEALAR is a 

modern version of an 1960s concept which used simple 

pressure-fed rocket motors to launch a floating rocket 

directly from the sea. By allowing the lower stages to fall 

back into the sea without elaborate recovery methods, 

these simple devices offer potential for reuse. Additional 

potential benefits are the use of environmentally safe 

liquid fuels and the flexibility to select the launch-site 

latitude for maximum efficiency. Although the effort 

continues in the research stage, drop tests, above- and 

below-water test firings of the rocket motors, and fullduration/full-thrust static tests of the suborbital vehicle 

have been successfully conducted. 

Commercial Launch Activities. The Department 

of Defense continues to support the fledgling American 

commercial space launch industry in a number of ways. 

61 
The Air Force space launch centers at Patrick and 

Vandenberg Air Force Bases have supported commercial 

programs with Government-supplied services, facilities, 

and expertise provided on a direct-cost basis. Commercial 

space launch services have been selected for the Navy’s 

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) follow-on program. The 

Navy has entered into a Memorandum of Agreement 

(MOA) with Space Science Incorporated of America to 

conduct four sounding rocket flights at the Naval Ordnance Test Station, White Sands, NM. Through 1989, one 

successful launch under a previous MOA and one successful launch under the current MOA have been accomplished. 

Satellite Systems. Satellite on-orbit mission capability improved, and data distribution to military users 

grew in volume and quality in 1989 and 1990. This 

measure of merit for responsive DOD space operations 

has become increasingly relevant as research and development efforts in satellite survivability, mobile ground 

processing centers, and secure information distribution 

are integrated into the operational inventory. Following is 

the status of the various Defense satellite programs. 

Communications 

Fleet Satellite Communication System. The Fleet 

Satellite Communication System (FLTSATCOM) FLTSAT 8 

satellite, the last of a series of Navy UHF communications 

satellites, was successfully launched in September 1989. 

The second FLTSAT Extremely High Frequency package 

to be used for testing Milstar terminals was aboard. 

Authorization has been received to acquire the full 10 

satellite UHF Follow-on constellation which will replace 

the FLTSATCOM program. In addition, an Extremely High 

Frequency (EHF) package has been authorized for satellites 4 through 9. Hughes Aircraft Corporation, builder of 

the system, has signed a contract with General Dynamics 

for commercial launch services to place the 10-satellite 

constellation into orbit beginning in 1992. 

Air Force Satellite Communications/SinglChannel Transponder. The Air Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) is a satellite communications 

capability providing reliable global communications among 

the National Command Authorities and the nuclearcapable forces via FLTSATCOM, the Defense Satellite 

Communication System/Single Channel Transponder 

(DSCS/SCT), and other host satellites. The primary missions support dissemination of emergency action and 

force-directing messages to deployed forces, including 

associated report-back communications. The system terminal segment consists of fixed and transportable ground 

terminals as well as airborne terminals via a transponder 

control system. During 1990, the Single Channel Transponder (SCT) on the DSCS 111 entered the service. These 

measures will provide more survivable Super High Frequency (SHF) service for strategic users. The Milstar 

system will begin to replace these missions with assured 

EHF communications in the early 1990s. 

Defense Satellite Communications System. The 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) is the 

long-haul, high-capacity communications system supporting worldwide command and control of our forces. In 

addition, DSCS supports the transfer of wide-band data 

and users of the Diplomatic Telecommunications System. 

The space segment of DSCS is planned for five operational satellites and two on-orbit reserves. The current 

space segment consists of three DSCS 111s and two DSCS 

IIs, as well as two limited-capability DSCS 11s and one 

DSCS 111 reserve. The launch of a DSCS 111 and a DSCS I1 

satellite in 1989 helped alleviate the marginal status of the 

constellation. When the 10 DSCS I11 satellites now in 

production or storage are launched, we will be capable of 

supporting the critical user community through 2000. 

Concept work continues for a DSCS 111 follow-on upgrade 

program, and on the development of a common, interoperable, anti-jam SHF modem for DSCS terminals. 

The DSCS control segment provides real-time monitoring and control for optimum use of resources, thereby 

maximizing user support. Efforts continued to consolidate 

all DSCS operations centers under the Army Space 

Command. Contracts are also in place to move toward a 

contingency control capability during 1991 through 1994. 

The ground segment consists of a family of large, 

medium, and small Earth terminals with associated communications equipment supporting both the strategic and 

tactical user communities. All 39 new AN/GSC-52 fixed 

terminals have been accepted for activation through 1991. 

With these activations, the total terminal population using 

the DSCS exceeds 500. In addition, actions were continued to define the next-generation Earth terminal needed 

to support the expanded requirements of the late 1990s, 

62 
and to plan for replacing or upgrading the aging terminals 

currently within the networks. 

Milstar. Milstar is a multichannel, Extremely High 

FrequencyAlltra High Frequency (EHF/UHF) satellite 

communications system that will provide survivable, 

enduring, jam-resistent, and secure voice/data communications for the President, the Secretary of Defense, and the 

Commanders in Chief of the Unified and Specified 

Commands, tactical and strategic forces, and other users. 

It will be used for the worldwide command and control 

of U.S. strategic and tactical forces during all levels of 

conflict. Milstar satellites will be launched into high- and 

low-inclination orbits to provide full Earth coverage. The 

first satellite is now entering a period of intensive ground 

testing prior to an early 1990s launch. Fabrication of the 

second and third satellites also continues. The Air Force 

is the lead service for the procurement of Milstar satellites, 

the dispersed mission control network, and the airborne 

terminals. The Army and Navy also have terminal development and procurement programs. 

The Milstar multi-Service terminal segment operational test and evaluation has been successfully completed through Phase I11 of interoperability testing. Testing on the Navy’s terminals was completed in September 

1990. The results validated the frequency-hopping waveform and other terminal technical characteristics, as well 

as demonstrating operations in some field environments. 

In a proof-of-concept testing, the three Service terminals 

communicated among each other via a Milstar emulator 

orbiting on a FLTSATCOM satellite. Each Service terminal 

also completed Phase I testing with a breadboard version 

of the Milstar satellite payload. The field tests of land, sea, 

and airborne terminals included a destroyer, a submarine, 

and a transport aircraft. A plan identified the minimum 

number of communications nets, satellites, and terminals 

to provide an Initial Operational Capability. Low-rate 

initial procurement contracts for Air Force terminals was 

awarded in CY 1989, and in FY 1990 for the Navy 

terminals. The first terminals are well into fabrication. 

Satellite Laser Communications. In 1989, a joint 

technology demonstration effort between the Navy and 

the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DAWA) 

was conducted to provide the capability to communicate 

via the Satellite Laser Communication system from a 

spacecraft to a submerged submarine using a laser beam 

as the transmitting medium. 

LightSats. DARPA launched its first generation 

LightSats aboard a Scout booster on May 9, 1990. The two 

150-pound UHF-band communications satellites, known 

as MACSATs, provide store-and-forward message relay 

(analogous to electronic mail between connected user 

terminals) in support of tactical operations and other 

defense missions. The spacecraft can additionally operate 

with unattended remote sensors to recover stared data, 

and to relay commands from a central control facility. 

DARPA’s LightSat initiative will continue to develop the 

key enabling technologies to improve the performance 

and capabilities of future “microspace” defense satellites, 

as well as to enhance the cost-effectiveness of major large 

satellite systems. 

Navigation 

Navstar GbbalPositioning System The Navstar 

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system to satisfy requirements for worldwide, accurate, common-grid, three-dimensional positioning/navigation, and precise time transfer for military aircraft, ships, 

and ground personnel. The system is composed of three 

segments: user equipment, satellites, and the control 

network. 

In 1989, approximately 4,000 DOD receiver terminals were on order or in use. The first five operational GPS 

(Block IIR) satellites were launched during the year on 

new Delta boosters. The control segment updates the 

satellite broadcasts which provide positional accuracies 

for military users to within 16 meters and for civil users to 

100 meters. 

Initial deliveries of user equipment to all three 

Services began in 1989. Installations are well along on 

many different ships and aircraft. The current mix of 

developmental and operational satellites provides worldwide, two-dimensional coverage at least 15 hours a day; 

the completed constellation of 21 satellites will provide 

full-time, three-dimensional navigational information. 

Meteorology 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program In 

1989, the two-satellite Defense Meteorological Satellite 

Program (DMSP) constellation provided timely, high63 
quality, worldwide visible and infrared cloud imagery, 

and other specialized meteorological, oceanographic, 

and solar geophysical data to support DOD strategic 

missions. DMSP also provided real-time direct readout of 

local weather to ground- and ship-based tactical terminals 

supporting DOD forces worldwide. This was particularly 

important during “Operation Just Cause” in Panama. 

DMSP weather data provided real-time support to the onscene Commander and gave advance warning of aircraft 

icing conditions at key continental U.S. staging bases. As 

a result, preventive measures were implemented and 

missions proceeded on schedule. 

Surveillance and Warning 

Defense Support Program. An upgraded Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite (DSP-l) was 

launched in 1989 on the first Titan-IV space launch 

vehicle. DSP-1 will provide DOD with enhanced missile 

warning and surveillance capabilities and will include a 

second-color focal plane and mission data message 

broadcast. The program’s endurability/survivability is 

provided by its mobile ground processing system, geosynchronous orbit, and satellite characteristics. Air Force 

planning is now under way for a DSP follow-on system, 

the Advanced Warning System. 

Space Control 

Kinetic Energy Antt-Satellite Weapon System 

The Kinetic Energy Anti-Satellite Weapon System (KE 

ASAT) Program is an effort to develop a near-term, 

surface-launched weapon system capable of non-explosive neutralization of satellites. The KE ASAT program is 

part of a national ASAT capability to include surveillance 

sensors, Battle Managemendcommand, Control, and 

Communications elements, and both Kinetic and, ultimately, Directed Energy Weapons. 

The KE ASAT Joint Program Office GPO) was 

established on February 27, 1989, within the U.S. Army 

Strategic Defense Command, Huntsville, AL, with the 

Army as interim lead Service of the jointservice effort. 

Since then, the JPO performed a Cost and Operational Effectiveness Analysis Study establishing the national security need and military utility of a U.S. ASAT 

capability; validated program costs before the DOD Cost 

Analysis Improvement Group; and selected a best technical approach for a missile design. 

Based upon a Defense Acquisition Board recommendation, the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition selected a land-based system to meet the U.S. 

Commander in Chief of the Space Command’s highest 

priority near-term ASAT mission needs and retained the 

Army as the lead Service for the KE joint program office. 

The Air Force retains responsibility for ASAT battle 

management and command, control, and communications, as well as overall system integration. 

Strategic Defense Initiative. The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program is in its seventh full year of 

research to determine the feasibility of effective defenses 

against ballistic missiles, and it continues to make excellent progress across a broad range of technologies. 

During 1989 and 1990 we conducted a record number of 

major experiments and tests crucial to program success. 

To intercept a missile or reentry vehicles, defenses 

first must detect (see, discriminate, and identify), acquire, 

and track the targets under a variety of conditions. SDI 

continues to operate a broad-based program to collect 

target signatures. This data collection program includes 

numerous sounding rockets to put up sensors to view 

targets and decoys against different Earth and space 

backgrounds. It also includes various airborne, shipborne, 

and ground-based sensors to collect signature data. The 

airborne platforms include an NC-135A equipped with 

sensors that operate in the visible- through long-wavelength infrared bands and a Learjet equipped with ultraviolet- through medium-wavelength infrared sensors. In 

addition, SDI has an aggressive program to explore and 

develop multiple technologies to discriminate decoys 

from reentry vehicles by passive, active, and interactive 

means. This program is supported by activities which 

build and test various decoys to see what will stress a 

strategic defense system. 

Specific 1989 and 1990 accomplishments include 

the Janus flight experiment in which a high-resolution 

infrared imager was used to collect target signatures of 

post-boost vehicles. The Delta Star satellite detected and 

tracked numerous launches and provided extensive data 

on rocket plume signatures. The Airborne Surveillance 

Testbed, a modified 767 to be used to validate airborne 

long wavelength infrared (LWIR) surveillance sensor 

functional performance and to provide a test bed for 

advanced surveillance technology, started flight tests. The 

64 
technology advancements to be tested include LWIR 

sensor components, real-time onboard signal and data 

processing, target signature measurements, and aerooptic effects and controls. The Excede I11 experiment was 

launched with two payload modules. An electron beam 

module excited the upper atmosphere while a sensor 

module measured atmospheric response emissions in the 

ultraviolet through the infrared wavebands. Data will be 

used to validate predictions of the effects of nuclear 

detonations on the upper atmosphere. Other experiments 

were launched to collect ultraviolet data on the rocket 

plumes of solid- and liquid-fueled rockets and on the bow 

shock of an ascending rocket. Ultraviolet background 

data were also obtained. After attacking missiles or 

reentry vehicles are detected, they would be engaged and 

destroyed by interceptors. A series of space-based interceptor hover tests demonstrated the ability to track rocket 

plumes and handover to the missile hardbody. Even more 

importantly, this series of tests demonstrated SDI’s miniaturization of electronics, propulsion systems, and navigation systems, and development of high-strength, lightweight structures. The first integrated technology flight 

experiment from the ground-based High-Endoatmospheric 

Defense Interceptor demonstrated the ability to effectively 

cool the forebody and sensor window of an interceptor 

intended to intercept a reentry vehicle in the atmosphere 

during the terminal phase of a ballistic missile’s flight. This 

demonstration showed that the sensors would not be 

disabled by heat from atmospheric friction. The Brilliant 

Pebbles space-based interceptor technology experiment 

series was initiated. The initial flight, first of a series of 12 

experiments scheduled over the next three years, successfully exercised the launch operations, launch vehicle, 

and experimental set-up. Launch vehicle motors performed 

adequately. However, the launch vehicle did not successfully deploy the probe. Hence, specific Brilliant Pebbles 

propulsion and sensor systems were not tested. The test 

data are being reviewed to determine the source of the 

problem and to identify corrective action. In addition, 

several Brilliant Pebbles key components, such as sensor, 

navigation, and communication systems have been tested 

“piggyback” fashion aboard the Delta Star space experiment. 

Much progress has also been made in ensuring that 

strategic defenses can be integrated and managed, always 

with man-in-the-loop control. The National Test Bed is 

being established to develop, test, and validate strategic 

defense concepts and software. High-fidelity end-to-end 

simulations are being built that allow defense concepts to 

be tested against a variety of realistic threat models. This 

effort provides a basis for the development of command 

and control concepts and permits early-user involvement. 

An early version of a command center was successfully 

demonstrated at the Army Advanced Research Center. 

This demonstration showed that, with man-in-the-loop, 

there is sufficient time to assess, react to, and engage 

attacking missiles throughout the battlespace. A system 

software program has been established to address the 

large-scale integration of software for a defense system. 

During 1990 the National Test Facility hosted three 

command-and-control games bringing the total to five. 

Game 90-1 involved players from U.S. Space Command 

and Strategic Air Command. It was built on a space-based 

interceptor architecture and modeled interface with 

strategic offensive forces. Game 90-A was an early Brilliant Pebbles architecture. The final game of the year 

provided an initial Brilliant Pebbles capability. Throughout the year games were tailored to specific commandand-control objectives based on lessons learned, new 

user requirements, changes in strategic defense architecture, and increased simulation fidelity. 

Ensuring that a strategic defense system will be 

survivable was furthered as a result of underground 

nuclear tests conducted to validate the survivability of 

systems components such as electronics, optics, and 

structures in a nuclear environment. Red/Blue team 

analyses also were conducted to examine the ways in 

which an attacker might try to defeat the defenses and to 

establish effective measures to offset those attempts. 

Results were fed back into the efforts to design both the 

systems and their operational concepts. 

Significant progress in advanced technologies, such 

as directed energy, has also been made. The key issues 

being examined are target acquisition, pointing and 

tracking, and beam lethality. During a 1989 ground test, 

the Alpha chemical laser demonstrated the capability to 

produce a high-power beam. This milestone in the spacebased laser program was a vital step in scaling such 

devices to power levels required for strategic defense. 

The Beam Experiment Aboard Rockets was the first test 

of a neutral particle beam in space. The experiment 

employed a relatively lightweight power supply that can 

be packaged for space operation. The test demonstrated 

that complex directed energy weapons could be reliably 

65 
operated in space. In 1990, the two long-term directed 

energy space experiments were launched from Cape 

Canaveral: the 2 1/2-year Low Power Atmospheric distortion effects on laser beams; and the 1-year Relay Mirror 

Experiment that will demonstrate the relay element of a 

ground-based laser. The two experiments were launched 

together aboard a commercial Delta I1 launch vehicle. 

Also aboard the LACE (low-power atmospheric compensation experiment) satellite is an experiment package to 

gather neutron background data to support development 

of neutral particle beams for interactive discrimination. 

Tremendous technical progress has been made in 

areas such as reduced manufacturing costs and lightweight structures. SDI is supporting various means to 

manufacture large-scale staring and scanning infrared 

detector arrays. Research in detector materials, fabrication, and testing has reduced the cost of imaging sensors 

from hundreds of dollars per picture element (pixel) to a 

few dollars per pixel. The SDI also supports programs to 

fdbricate lightweight, high-strength space structures from 

advanced composite materials. These and other advances 

are being used to reduce costs and enhance the performance of prospective components of the Strategic Defense System. 

Also worthy of note is the wealth of spin-off 

applications of SDI technology development to other 

Department of Defense missions, Government agencies, 

and the commercial sector. SDI technology may have 

other defense uses such as reducing the weight and cost 

of air-to-air missiles. The space station and the National 

Aero-Space Plane should benefit from SDI advances in 

computing, signal processing, and lightweight structures. 

Optical technologies development could lead to a new 

generation of very high-speed, low-cost supercomputers. 

Neutral-particle-beam technology may have applications 

in areas such as airport bomb detection, cancer therapy, 

and non-destructive inspection of manufactured items 

such as rocket-motor components. SDI research is creating commercial opportunities in superconductivity, diamond crystal coatings, communications, industrial manufacturing processes, electronics, and microwave technology. 

Hardened Space Electronics Program. The 

Defense Nuclear Agency's (DNA) radiation-hardened 

electronics program has successfully demonstrated the 

design, fabrication, and technology transfer of very-largescale integrated (VLSI) circuits. During 1990, significant 

progress in this advanced VLSI technology was made by 

the demonstration of a 256-kilo-bit static random access 

memory (SRAM) fabricated on advanced silicon-on-insulator material. These SRAM devices, used in all spacebased computer systems, are immune to the degrading 

effects of trapped high-energy charged particles and 

random erroneous computer states caused by cosmic 

rays. The use of hardened electronics eliminates the need 

to remove power from space systems as they pass through 

the radiation belts. 

In addition, hardened power integrated circuits are 

considered essential components in advanced space 

systems. During 1990, high-power integrated circuits 

were demonstrated that are immune to circuit burnout 

and gate rupture from high-energy particles and cosmic 

rays. Hard fiber-optic links to these power circuits were 

also evaluated. 

Progress has also been made in the transfer of 

immune-electronics technology to space systems through 

the joint DNMNASA hardness assurance working group. 

The development of radiation test facilities, uniform test 

methods, and radiation test standards has increased the 

application of advanced electronics in space systems 

during 1989 and 1990. For example, hardened electronic 

circuits have been used in space systems such as Galileo, 

GPS, DMSP, and Mars Probe. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Advanced Technology Tactical Transport. 

Flight testing of a 62-percent scale Advanced Technology 

Tactical Transport (AT3) proof-of-concept (POC) demonstrator aircraft was completed by the Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in July 1989. An 

impressive volume of actual flight-test data were obtained 

on a unique tandem-wing design with both long-range 

and significant short-takeoff-and-landing (STOL) capabilities. After the highly successful completion of the 

flight-test program, the POC airplane was delivered to the 

Air Force flight test museum at Edwards Air Force Base. 

The demonstrator was designed, built, modified, 

and tested by Scaled Composites, Inc., of Mojave, CA, 

under an innovative fixed-price contract with specific 

payment milestones and no Government acceptance 

66 
specifications. The contractor retained responsibility for 

all construction, flight testing, configuration control, and 

safety, with minimal Government intervention. 

After an initial series of tests ended in November 

1988, the aircraft was extensively modified by cutting off 

the entire cruciform tail section and adding tail booms as 

extensions of the two engine nacelles. The resulting twintail configuration greatly improved the directional stability and engine-out minimum control speed and enhanced 

the cargo loading characteristics. Design performance 

goals for a full-scale AT3 include an unrefueled range of 

2,400 nautical miles, with a midpoint landing-and-takeoff 

roll of 1,000 feet with a 12,000-pound payload. Flight 

testing indicated that performance very close to this is 

achievable. 

The AT3 POC established a different approach to the 

development of a new aircraft configuration by replacing 

conventional wind-tunnel testing with a subscale flight 

article. The POC aircraft enabled configuration development normally accomplished with a wind-tunnel model, 

while simultaneously obtaining test data in flight environments not possible in wind tunnels. 

The objectives of the overall DARPA AT3 program 

were to identify alternative prototyping and acquisition 

approaches and to document the AT3 as one example of 

a prototype program. 

Pilot’s Associate Program. The Pilot’s Associate 

program is applying many of the technologies being 

developed under the DARPA Strategic Computing Program to the problem of real-time, combat-pilot decision 

aiding. The Pilot’s Associate is being designed as a 

knowledge-based system to be embedded in future 

avionics systems, both for new production and for retrofit 

to existing aircraft. The specific technologies being developed and applied include artificial intelligence, automated planning, advanced man-machine interface, and 

the supporting computer technology necessary for their 

implementation. The program seeks to demonstrate the 

technological feasibility of airborne mission replanning 

and execution in response to either command redirection 

or drastic differences between the expected and the 

encountered situation. A mature Pilot’s Associate will 

provide the pilot of a single-seat fighter aircraft with 

expert assistance in the highly dynamic and demanding 

environment of aerial warfare. The Pilot’s Associate will 

support tactical decisions and system management in an 

integrated environment of computer-aided situational 

awareness. The program includes increasingly challenging demonstrations in advanced flight simulators representative of the fighter aircraft of the mid-1990s. 

In early 1989, the Pilot’s Associate program demonstrated a distributed, artificially intelligent mission 

replanning system which performed route planning and 

threat-avoidance planning during a simulated air-toground attack mission. This system performed in real time 

on a network of computer workstations which drive an 

advanced panoramic cockpit display in a full-mission 

flight simulator. 

In late 1989, the Pilot’s Associate program demonstrated a relatively robust system which performed complex 

intercept-and-maneuver planning during a simulated strike 

escort mission. This system showed the complexity of 

defending a flight of strike aircraft from enemy attack by 

coordinating the actions of four escort aircraft against a 

concerted attack by four enemy interceptors. The interface to the pilot was controlled by an artificially intelligent 

system which modeled pilot behavior in order to determine pilot display requirements and compensate for pilot 

errors and inattention. The distributed system was implemented on a network of advanced laboratory processors 

which formed the link between the flight-simulation 

facility and an experimental cockpit. The system dramatically demonstrated intercept planning, route replanning, 

observable signature management, threat avoidance, attack planning, sensor management, display management, 

and aircraft system management at levels of performance 

which were considered beyond the capability of the 

unaided pilot. Future demonstrations planned for late FY 

1991 and early FY 1992, will demonstrate real-time, manin-the-loop capability with an ultimate demonstration of 

the application of ADA software to real-time artificial 

intelligence software. 

The program is now identifying the best match 

between the possible computer hardware architectures 

and the software requirements which have been derived 

thus far. Application studies are currently ongoing for 

both the F-16 and F/A-18, and a future application 

committee made up of industry and service leaders has 

been formed to provide guidance for further application 

of this technology. Every effort is being made to ensure 

that future Pilot’s Associate systems will be compatible 

with the emerging aircraft avionics standards for hardware and software. 

67 
National Aero-Space Plane. The National AeroSpace Plane (NASP) is a joint Department of Defense (Air 

Force, Navy, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, 

and Strategic Defense Initiative Organization) and National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration program. The 

objective is to develop and demonstrate the enabling 

technologies for an entirely new generation of hypersonic 

flight vehicles including space launch vehicles capable of 

single-stage-to-orbit with horizontal takeoff and landing, 

and hypersonic aircraft capable of long-range hypersonic 

cruise within the atmosphere. The requisite technologies 

can be integrated into the design and fabrication of an 

experimental research aircraft, the X-30, for flight test and 

demonstration. These demonstrated technologies could 

then provide the basis for follow-on military and civil 

vehicles capable of: global unrefueled operation, reaching any point on Earth in less than two hours; providing 

routine “on demand” access to space; reducing payloadto-orbit costs by at least an order of magnitude; and 

flexibly based, rapid response space launch. Such NASPderived aerospace systems would provide a revolutionary 

increase in civil and military capability. 

While the X-30 design is not yet firm, some characteristics can be specified. The X-30 is envisioned to be a 

manned aerospacecraft powered by ramjet/scramjet engines that will be fueled by liquid or slush hydrogen. It 

will have auxiliary rocket engines for final orbit insertion 

and on-orbit maneuvering. The vehicle structure will be 

manufactured from advanced, high strength, lightweight, 

heat-resistant materials and critical portions of the structure 

will be actively cooled with the super-cold hydrogen fuel 

before it is burned in the engine. 

The NASP program is making solid progress. The 

airframe and engine designs meet the program goals, and 

component hardware fabrication and ground tests are 

producing impressive results. Among recent accomplishments of the program are the following: 

Major structural demonstration components including cryogenic tankage and wing/fuselage attachment 

structures were fabricated. 

X-30 designs which meet program goals were 

refined based on extensive test and computational data. 

Scale-up of durable, high-temperature materials 

(such as titanium aluminides, titanium metal matrix 

composites, oxidation-resistent coated carbon-carbon) 

was begun. 

Computational-fluid-dynamics codes were updated and validated with wind-tunnel data. Effects of 

chemical reactions have been included in the codes. 

Tests on leading edges, nose caps, and actively 

cooled surfaces were successfully completed. 

Mach-8 engine test facilities were checked out 

and high-speed, ramjet/scramjet engines (component 

and subscale engines) were tested. 

During the current technology development phase 

of the program the NASP contractors are contributing over 

$700 million of their own resources to the program. 

B-ZB Several Air Force and DOD reviews highlighted 

the fact that the B-1B has, for the most part, achieved its 

baseline requirements. Progress has been made in solving 

the defensive system shortfalls. In July 1989, the ALQ161~ “Core” contract was awarded and established an 

achievable baseline for the defensive system which will 

provide effective countermeasures against the most critical 

threats to the B-1B. In September 1990, on schedule, the 

Air Force began the critical laboratory testing of this “core” 

system. When combined with the B-1B’s low-altitude, 

high-speed ingress capability, these defensive measures 

will result in excellent penetration capability for the 

aircraft. 

The B-1B’s ability as a bombing platform was 

superbly demonstrated in the Strategic Air Command’s 

1989 bombing and navigation competition (Bomb Comp). 

The B-1B placed first and third in the overall competition, 

winning the coveted Fairchild trophy. A B-IB unit was 

awarded the Crumm trophy for the best bomber unit. For 

the second year in a row, B-1B units swept the Dougherty 

static random access memory (SRAM) competition, winning first, second, and third places. In a 1989 Operational 

Keadiness Inspection, a B-1B aircraft and crew scored the 

best bomb scores in the Strategic Air Command’s history. 

B-2 Advanced Technology Bomber. Flight testing 

of the B-2 began on July 17, 1989, with a l-hour-and-53- 

minute flight from Palmdale, CA, to Edwards AFB, CA. 

The B-2 design is an highly aerodynamic, efficient, flying 

wing which produces a high-payload and long-range 

capability and employs low observable or stealth technology. Northrop is the prime contractor with Boeing, LTV, 

and General Electric Aircraft Engine Group being some of 

the major subcontractors. The unique capabilities of the 

B-2 will allow it to fly through enemy airspace virtually 

unchallenged by air defense weapons now and well into 

68 
the 21st century. 

Since July 17, 1989, the B-2 has flown 16 flights for 

a total of 67.1 hours with no major problems. Flight testing 

will continue in late October 1990, following completion 

of a planned stand-down period. The B-2 has undergone 

extensive testing prior to its first flight including over 

24,000 hours of wind-tunnel tests, over 44,000 hours of 

avionics test and evaluation, and 6,000 hours of flightcontrol test and evaluation. There are 16 aircraft in various 

stages of manufacture, with six in the final assembly stage. 

The B-2 test aircraft, to include the first vehicle, are 

manufactured using production processes, greatly simplifying the transition to production. 

The program buy was adjusted from 132 to 75 

aircraft as a result of a DOD major aircraft review 

completed in April 1990. 

C-17. The Air Force's C-17 is a new design, intercontinental range, air refuelable, airlift aircraft capable of 

routine operations onto 3,000-foot runways and austere 

airfields, and airland/airdrop delivery of outsize cargo. 

The program is now in its fifth year of full-scale development, and second year of production of test aircraft, under 

contract with Douglas Aircraft Company. Low-rate initial 

production approval was granted on January 18, 1989. 

Concerns over schedule slippage and cost escalation 

resulted in a number of management actions during 1989. 

In July 1989, Douglas Aircraft Company selected General 

Electric Control Systems as the new electronic flight 

controls system subcontractor. Douglas also signed an 

agreement with DELCO, the mission computer subcontractor, making Douglas responsible for mission computer software management. DELCO continues to perform software development/integration with Douglas as 

the overall manager. 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration. The 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTVF-16) 

program continues evaluation of advanced technology 

integration in support of the Close Air Support/Battlefield 

Air Interdiction mission. This Air Force/Balanced Technology Initiative program culminated in a joint tactical 

experiment with the Army at Fort Hood, TX, in December 

1989. Equipped with a laser spot tracker, the AFTI/F-16 

acquired a target designated by an Army field unit, 

digitally transmitted the target information to a second F16, and acquired another target. The F-16s then performed a coordinated two-ship attack. All this was done 

without voice communication. The test demonstrated 

increased acquisition range, improved identification of 

targets, and two-ship first pass attack. The AFTI/F-I~ will 

next demonstrate a night-attack capability using headsteered forward-looking infrared sensors, helmet-mounted 

sight integrated with night-vision goggles, and automatic 

digital terrain-driven terrain following. 

X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator. This 

unique aircraft has demonstrated the viability of forwardswept, aero-elastically tailored composite wings, successful digital control of a 35-percent statically unstable 

aircraft, and excellent stability and longitudinal control 

derived from coupled canards. Flight testing is continuing 

at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards 

AFB, CA, where the X-29 number two aircraft is evaluating 

agility at high angles of attack. This testing will assess 

tactics, explore envelope fringes, and identify aircraft 

performance limitations. The aircraft has been flown at 30 

degrees angle of attack and will be tested to maximum 

controllable angle of attack, probably around 70 degrees. 

So far, the aircraft has flown better than wind-tunnel 

predictions. 

A-12 Avenger. During the 1989-1990 period, the 

A-12 Avenger was under development by the Navy to 

replace the 30-year old A-6E Intruder for the long range, 

day/night all-weather strike mission. Its design incorporates low-observable technology, greater speed and advanced weapon and survivability systems to enable it to 

penetrate sophisticated defenses and deliver greater 

quantities of ordnance-with greater precision and at less 

risk to the flight crew-than any previous naval aircraft. 

The A-12 would provide the carrier battle group commander greater mission flexibility with its ability to 

covertly penetrate deep into enemy territory, without 

having to be refueled, to strike targets well beyond the 

reach of current sea-based strike aircraft. Its automated 

electronic cockpit would provide the crew with a variety 

of systems to aid in detection and avoidance of enemy air 

defense threats. The A-12's low-observable materials and 

composite construction were designed to withstand the 

corrosive rigors of the carrier environment and its greatly 

improved reliability and maintainability would mean 

higher aircraft readiness rates with lower life-cycle support costs. 

69 
At the end of FY 1990, the A-12 program was in its 

32nd month of full-scale development. The contract for 

the first lot of six production aircraft in the total buy of 620 

A-12s had been executed. 

F-140 Super Tomcat Fighter. The F-14D Super 

Tomcat Fighter will complete Operational Evaluation in 

November 1990. It provides significant technological 

improvements over the F-14A which has been in service 

for the Navy since 1973. Using the proven airframe design 

of the F-14A, the F-14D incorporates the 30-percent more 

powerful F110-GE-400 General Electric engine, and the 

new Hughes digital APG-71 radar to provide better 

targeting for the Phoenix (AIM-54C) missile, and a digital 

data bus which links two new computers with the 

improved avionics suite and all weapons. The capability 

to carry and accurately deliver air-to-ground weapons is 

currently being tested and should reach the fleet in mid1991. 

F-I5 Short Takeoff and Landing/Maneuuer 

Technology Demonstrator. The Air Force’s F-15 Short 

Takeoff and Landing/Maneuver Technology Demonstrator (STOL/MTD) is a highly modified F-15B design with 

enhanced maneuver capability and STOL performance. 

Aircraft modifications include: pitch-axis thrust-vectoring/thrust-reversing engine exhaust nozzles, full-authority canards, integrated flight and propulsion controls, and 

rough-field landing gear. The result is an aircraft with 

additional control in the pitch axis and improved up-andaway maneuver and deceleration performance. It is 

designed to take off and land on a 50-x-1,500-foot icy 

runway during 30-knot crosswinds with no external, 

ground-based landing aids. The first flight with all modifications (including the two-dimensional nozzles) was 

conducted on May 10, 1989. The integrated flight and 

propulsion control system, using the vectoring capability 

of the nozzles, is yielding improved performance. The 

rough-field landing gear has been tested by taxiing over 

a simulated bomb-damaged runway, and night landings 

have been accomplished using only onboard radar and 

infrared sensors. 

F/A-18C and F/A-I8D Night Attack Aircrafl. 

The F/A 18C (single seat) and the F/A 18D (dual seat) 

Night Attack aircraft began delivery to Navy and Marine 

Corps squadrons in October 1989. New sensors and 

displays in these aircraft allow aircrews to fly low-altitude 

night strikes with the same accuracy and situational 

awareness as is possible during daylight. The new components consist of a navigation forward-looking infrared 

pod, night-vision goggles, a raster heads-up display, 

special cockpit lighting compatible with the night-vision 

goggles, a digital color moving map, and independent 

front and aft seat multipurpose color displays. 

Advanced Tactical Fighter. The Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program is developing the next-generation Air Force fighter to counter the Soviet threat projected 

for the late 1990s and beyond. As a follow-on to the F-15, 

the ATF is being designed to penetrate high-threat enemy 

airspace and support the air-land-sea battle forces with 

“first-look, first-kill’’ capability against a technologically 

advanced, numerically superior enemy. The ATF’s improved capabilities will be made possible by significant 

technological advances in the areas of signature reduction, aerodynamic design, flight controls, materials, propulsion, sensors, and integrated avionics. It will reach 

operational capability in the next decade. 

In April 1986, the ATF program was restructured to 

include flying prototypes and ground-based avionics 

prototypes in the demonstration/validation phase of the 

program. The restructured program implements Packard 

Commission recommendations; emphasizes “fly-beforeyou-buy” and competitive contracting; and provides the 

means to reduce technical and cost risks before entering 

full-scale development. 

The Defense major aircraft review delayed the start 

of ATF production from FY 1994 to FY 1996; reduced peak 

production from 72 aircraft per year to 59 aircraft per year; 

and delayed peak production from 1999 to 2002. These 

results reflect fiscal constraints and a delay in the anticipated threat. The ATF program remains carefully structured to reduce technical risk and cost, while maintaining 

qualitative air superiority enjoyed by the United States 

since World War 11. 

Light Helicopter. The Light Helicopter (LH) program is developing the next-generation Army aerial 

scout/attack helicopter to counter worldwide threats in 

70 
the late 1990s and beyond. The LH exploits advances in 

propulsion, materials, electronics, and sensor technologies to provide day and night target-acquisition capability 

and a helicopter capable of operating in high-altitude and 

hot-temperature environments with a full design payload, 

a capability not now widely available to the Army. The LH 

will reach operational capability in the late 1990s and will 

replace the AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters and the OH58AK aerial scout helicopter, both of which have been in 

the inventory since the 1960s and are becoming tactically 

obsolescent. 

Concept exploration for LH began in 1983. Initial 

program goal was to replace the old scout/attack helicopters (AH1 and OH-58MC) as well as the old utility 

helicopters (UH-I). Because of affordability, the LH 

program was restructured in 1988 and focused on replacing only the scout/attack portion of the fleet. In 1990, 

taking advantage of the reduced threat posed by the 

Warsaw Pact, the system deployment was slowed by two 

years to add a prototype demonstration phase before 

proceeding into full-scale development. Full-scale developmcnt for the fuel efficient T-800 engine began in 1985 

and the engine is currently undergoing final qualification 

tests. Full-scale development for the entire LH system is 

planned to start in late 1994. 

X-31A Enhanced Fighter Maneuuerability. The 

X-31A Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability program is a 

joint DARPMNavy effort with the West Germans to 

develop an experimental aircraft to explore and understand the technical requirements and tactical advantage of 

supermaneuverability. Aircraft number one rolled out in 

the spring of 1990, at Rockwell International's Palmdale, 

CA, facility. Aircraft number two is nearing completion. A 

novel, low-cost prototyping technique, that substantially 

reduced tooling costs, proved to be extremely successful 

in keeping costs low while conforming to a very ambitious schedule. Development and validation of the X-31A 

flight software continues as a joint effort between U.S. and 

German technical and pilot teams through the coming 

year as a parallel effort with ongoing taxi testing and the 

following flight-envelope expansion of the aircraft. Upon 

completion of a series of medium- and high-speed taxi 

tests, successful testing of all aircraft systems, and subsequent flight certification by the Navy, the aircraft is 

expected to make its first flight. 

71 
Department of Commerce 

Space Systems 

Satellite Systems 

The Department of Commerce’s (DOC) has four 

components involved with space activities. One of these, 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), through its National Environmental Satellite, 

Data, and Information Service (NESDIS), continued to 

operate its polar-orbiting and geostationary spacecraft for 

remote sensing of Earth’s environment, collection and 

relay of data from in situ observing platforms, search and 

rescue, and sensing of the space environment. In full 

operation, the polar-orbiting system consisted of two 

NOAA spacecraft, one each in sun-synchronous morning 

and afternoon orbits at a nominal height of 850 kilometers. The geostationary system, called GOES for Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, lost the older 

of its two satellites, GOES-West, in January 1989. The 

remaining GOES spacecraft was subsequently moved to 

a more centralized geographic position and continues to 

function normally. 

Instruments carried by the polar-orbiting spacecraft 

included an Advanced Very Iligh Kesolution Kadiometer 

(AVHKK) to obtain visible and infrared imagery; a Television-and-Infrared-Operational-Satellite Operational 

Vertical Sounder (TOVS) for profiling atmospheric temperature and moisture from Earth’s surface to the top of 

the atmosphere; an Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

(EKBE); a Solar Background Ultra-Violet (SBUV) sensor 

for measuring ozone distribution and concentration; a 

Space Environment Monitor for observing near-Earth, 

charged-particle spectra; a Canada/France-provided 

Search-and-Rescue package to detect and locate emergency distress signals; and a France-provided Data Collection System (DCS) to collect, relay, and pinpoint 

observations sensed by moving and stationary platforms 

such as buoys, balloons, and wildlife. 

The instrument complement on the GOES satellite 

included a Visible-and-Infrared-Spin-Scan-Radiometer 

Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) for visible and infrared 

imaging and sounding; a Space Environment Monitor; a 

Search-and-Rescue package; and a DCS to collect and 

relay observations from fixed stations such as river 

gauges, tide gauges, and anchored and drifting buoys. 

The communications systems onboard the GOES were 

also used to broadcast a weather facsimile (WEFAX) 

service, consisting of satellite pictures, weather charts, 

and other environmental information to properly equipped 

ground stations in the Western Hemisphere. 

NOAA Series. The NOM-9, NOM-10, and NOAA11 satellites provided the polar-orbiting service. NOM-10 

and NOM-1 1 are the primary operational satellites providing a full complement of data. NOM-9 operates in a 

standby mode, providing limited ERBE and SBUV data. 

The next polar satellite, NOM-D, is scheduled for 

launch in 1991. The satellite completed its spacecraft 

qualifications tests in December 1989. 

The next generation of polar satellites, NOM-K/M, 

completed the Critical Design Review in August 1989. 

This new generation of polar satellites will carry improved 

instrumentation for all weather atmospheric soundings. 

GOES Series. GOES-East provided double duty, 

making up for the loss of GOES-West, by being positioned 

at 108 degrees West longitude for observing winter storms 

in the Pacific and at 98 degrees West longitude for 

observing Atlantic hurricanes during the summer months. 

NOAA will continue this operation until the launch of 

GOES-I, expected in 1992. The GOES-West satellite 

stopped transmitting images in January 1989. After generating more than 1,300,000 pictures, the satellite’s imaging 

system (VAS or the Visible-and-Infrared-Spin-Scan-Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder) failed. The spacecraft was 

launched on April 28, 1983, with a design life expectancy 

of five years. NOM engineers extended its life to almost 

six years by careful management of its instruments. This 

made GOES-West the longest-lived GOES spacecraft in 

the series. 

The Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation continued the development and fabrication of the 

next-generation GOES spacecraft, GOES-I/M, and associated ground equipment. The GOES-I prototype imager 

instrument began its initial system integration testing in 

December 1989. GOES-I is scheduled to be launched in 

mid-1992. 

Planning for a new generation of geostationary 

weather satellites, to follow GOES-I/M, began in January 

1989. A GOES requirements workshop was conducted by 

NOAA to collect information from the currcnt users of 

geostationary satellite data. In August 1989, NASA started 

72 
Example of the global vegetation index data produced at the EROS Data Center. Depicted are the annual normalized difference 

days for 1987. This black-and-white photograph was produced from the original falsecolor composited photograph. 

a Phase-A study to assess technology feasibility, science 

requirements, and the cost of this next proposed series of 

geostationary satellites. 

The new DCS completed its first full year of service 

in 1990. The new system increased the number of remote 

data collection platforms which NOM can support from 

8,000 to 100,000 and provides a real-time broadcast of all 

data collected by the system. Rather than installing a 

costly GOES receiving system or using telephone lines for 

accessing data, users may install low- cost Ku band 

receivers and connect them to personal computers to 

receive and process data. Utilizing only one imaging 

satellite, the DCS has continued its international coverage 

(Eastern Atlantic to Western Pacific) using transponders 

from other non-imaging GOES. 

Landsat Series. Pursuant to the Land RemoteSensing Commercialization Act of 1984, the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT) operated both the 

Landsat 4 and 5 remote-sensing satellite systems for 

NOAA in 1989. During this time, these systems acquired 

37,000 images for domestic use, while providing 320,000 

images to foreign ground stations. In 1990 345,000 images 

were acquired by foreign ground stations and 25,000 

images for domestic use; domestic images decreased 

because of the aging spacecraft. 

The National Space Council undertook a policy 

review of the Landsat program during 1989. The Council 

recommended and the President approved a policy of 

ensuring continuity of Landsat-type data. EOSAT continues to manage the design and development of Landsat 6 

which is scheduled to be launched in 1991. 

In 1989,15 foreign ground stations received Landsat 

data. Pakistan became officially operational in 1989, and 

EOSAT negotiations with the Government of Ecuador for 

a ground receiving station were also concluded. 

Search-and-Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking. 

During 1989 and 1990, the international search-andrescue satellite-aided tracking service, COSPAS/SAKSAT, 

provided by Canada, France, the IJnited States, and the 

Soviet Union, was responsible for saving over 400 lives, 

bringing the total number of lives saved through this 

program to over 1,600. International participation in 

73 
COSPAS/SAKSAT continues to grow. At least 23 nations 

are currentljr participating or ha\,e declared their intention 

to participate. 

Pan-Paciyic Educational and CuUural Experiments hj? Satellite. In a coopcrativc agreement with 

NASA and Commerce’s fourth component involved with 

space acti\,ities, the National Telecommunications and 

Information Administration (NTIA), NOAA has loaned its 

spare GOEs-3 satellite for use by hcific island nations 

tlirough the Pan-Pacific Educational and Cultural Experiments by Satellite (ITACESAT) project to reestablish 

satcllite communic:itions senficc to the Pacific areas. 

I3egun in 1971, PEACESA’I‘ used Lt retired NASA experiment:il satellite to provide two-nray, voice-and-data ser- 

\,ices accessed I))! small, afforcl;tble, Earth stations in the 

Pacific Basin region. These services provided otherwise 

unavailable educational, medical, cultural, and emergency 

communications to more than 100 sites in 22 countries. 

NOAA moved GOES-3 to 176 degrees West longitude from 129.9 degrees West longitude in June 1990. 

PEACESAT is controlled for NOAA by NASA from the 

Kokee Park Geophysical Observatory on Kauai, HI. NTIA 

will coordinate user operation of the satellite. 

Argos. Service Argos Inc., which operates the 

processing centers for the Argos Data Collection and 

Platform Location System, focused its activities on expanding services. 

Argos is provided by the French Space Agency for 

flight on NOAA polar orbiting satellites. Improvement of 

user services included upgraded software that enables the 

user to interact more closely with the processing centers. 

A new data link was also established between the U.S. and 

French processing centers that increased transfer speed 

and added full redundancy. The 1990 North American 

IJsers Conference provided users an opportunity to 

exchange information on many environmental applications. In 1990, more than 1,500 Argos platforms were 

deployed by more than 25 countries. The Argos system is 

used by NOAA to track the drift net fishing vessels of 

Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea as part of the Drift Net 

Act of 1990. Using Argos, several vessels were found to be 

outside legal areas and were intercepted by the U.S. Coast 

Guard. 

Hurricane Hugo as the eye approached the South Carolina 

coast in September 1989. This photograph was produced 

from GOES-West satellite data. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite. NTIA continued the planning of and preparation for 

experiments that will use the Advanced Communications 

Technology Satellite (ACTS). NASA is developing ACTS, 

which is to be launched in 1992, as a testbed for advanced 

communications technology studies. This technology will 

put a high-speed digital switch in the sky with the 

capability of establishing megabit channels to hundreds 

of Earth stations within microseconds. This will allow the 

integration of satellite communication technology with 

other advancing communication system technologies 

such as optical fiber transmission, Integrated Services 

Digital Networks, and mobile services. This technology 

could mitigate users’ vulnerabilities to terrestrial telecommunications system failures and outages. 

Satellite Operations and Support 

Atmospheric Temperature and Moisttire 

Soundings. The years 1989 and 1990 mark the 10th and 

11 th years of operational atmospheric sounding production 

from NOAA’s polar-orbiting satellite system. These 

soundings are used by both the military and civilian 

74 
meteorological communities as input to numerical weather 

forecast models. Numerous requests for sounding data 

and science softwarehechniques, from both military and 

civilian researchers were honored during this period. 

Preparations are under way for the development of the 

next-generation operational sounding system which will 

implement new science needed for the NOAA-K satellite 

instrumentation, which includes an advanced microwave 

sounder. Like the NOAA satellite series, the data from the 

Special Sensor Microwave/Temperature (SSM/T) instrument onboard the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) polar-orbiter were operationally processed 

into soundings. The use of data from the Special Sensor 

Microwave/Imager (SSMA), also onboard the DMSP 

spacecraft, combined with the SSM/T data is being 

explored to improve the soundings. Upgrading of the 

DMSP sounding science to be consistent with that developed for NOAA satellites is in progress. Products from the 

DMSP satellites are operationally archived and distributed 

under the Shared Processing agreement between NOAA 

and the Department of Defense (DOD). Development of 

the next-generation geostationary satellite series (GOESI/M) sounding product processing system is currently 

under way. This system will provide temperature and 

moisture sounding information for the NOAA National 

Meteorological Center (NMC) Regional Forecast Model 

and images of atmospheric stability and moisture to the 

NOAA National Severe Storms Forecast Center (NSSFC) 

and the NOAA National Hurricane Center (NHC). 

VASApplications. VAS (Visible-and-Infrared-SpinScan-Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder) data were used 

operationally by all of the NOAA National Weather 

Service National Centers (the National Meteorological, 

National Severe Storms Forecast, and National Hurricane 

Centers). Imagery of VAS-derived atmospheric stability 

and moisture parameters were used by NSSFC in defining 

outlooks and watch areas for severe weather. Imagery 

and a special VAS-derived Deep Layer Mean (steering 

current) analysis were used by the National Hurricane 

Center in the monitoring and forecasting of hurricanes 

(including Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Basin 

storms) which affect the United States. Imagery, satellitederived wind fields, and moisture analyses were used by 

National Meteorological Center in both the global forecast 

models and national forecasting programs. 

GOES-Tap. GOES-Tap, a program enabling users to 

acquire high-quality satellite imagery over telephone data 

circuits, continued to expand. Presently, there are approximately 350 primary users and over 500 secondary 

users of GOES-Tap data. These users consist primarily of 

National Weather Service (NWS) field forecast offices, but 

also include the Department of Transportation’s Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA), other civilian agencies 

(both State and Federal), DOD, private companies, universities, and the media. A significant number of high 

schools have also started receiving NOAA satellite images 

via GOES-Tap. GOES-Tap data consists of visible and 

infrared facsimile images from the GOES and NOAA 

satellites, Geostationary Meteorology Satellite (Japanese), 

and Meteosat (European) spacecraft. During 1990, NOAA 

expanded its suite of available NOAA polar satellite 

products accessible to NWS field offices. In addition, 

high-resolution polar imagery is now gridded and contains a machine-readable identification code. 

Hurricane Operations. GOES continues to carry 

the major load in positioning and estimating the strength 

of tropical cyclones outside of the aircraft reconnaissance 

areas for the western Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of 

Mexico, and the eastern Pacific. Meteosat was used to 

supplement GOES in the far eastern Atlantic Ocean. 

Within the aircraft range, satellites still play a major 

complementary role to the aircraft. The satellite provides 

continuous monitoring for early detection of change 

while the aircraft provides precise spot observations. 

In the Eastern Hemisphere (that is, the western 

Pacific and Indian oceans), the NOAA polar orbiters 

provide the essential coverage for tropical cyclone monitoring. The NOAA data are used in providing position and 

intensity estimates for the U.S. Joint Typhoon Warning 

Center in Guam and for foreign meteorological services, 

as part of the World Weather Watch program of the World 

Meteorological Organizations (WMO). 

Development continued on the DMSP SSM/I (the 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Special Sensor 

Microwave/Imager) to extract usable peripheral wind and 

precipitation measurements. The SSM/I radar-like presentation could be critical in a few cases, not only for 

superior positioning of weak systems, but also to detect 

wall cloud changes concealed from GOES by the cirrus 

canopy. 

75 
Satellite-based Fire Alarms. The National Geophysical Data Center of NESDIS (the NOAA National 

Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service), 

in partnership with the Department of the Interior’s 

National Park Service and Bureau of Land Management, 

has contracted with NASA to develop a prototype operational system for using the NOAA Advanced Very High 

Kesolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for automated early 

detection of wildfires. 

Wildfires caused great damage in 1988 and 1989. 

AVHKK thermal data can be used to detect fires during the 

day and night. The satellite data will be used to complement existing programs to help improve early detection 

of such fires. The techniques are scheduled to be tested 

during the 1990-91 fire seasons, for possible later operational implementation. 

Besides providing a service to managers of public 

lands, these techniques have possible commercial applications and can be used to help monitor the global 

environment. For example, the Food and Agriculture 

Organization of the United Nations is interested in implementing the technology, once it becomes operational. 

Volcano Hazards Alert Plan The NOAA Volcano 

Hazards Implementation Plan became effective in 1989. 

This plan is designed to use NOAA satellite data and 

trajectory models to monitor volcanic ash clouds and 

forecast their movement in air space controlled by the 

FAA. 

GOES and NOAA data are used to define the 

horizontal and vertical extent of ash, as well as its 

direction and speed of movement. Multispectral techniques are under development and evaluation, to monitor 

ash plumes which are semi-transparent to the visible or 

infrared spectrum. The Alaskan Mt. Redoubt volcanic 

eruptions in late 1989 and 1990 have provided excellent 

data for improving these ash plume forecasts. 

Coast Watch. In 1989, NOAA’s Coastwatch support 

was upgraded to operational status. The Ocean Product 

Center is a multi-line office NOAA facility supporting 

NOAA’s operational, oceanographic, and marine meteorological needs. The Ocean Product Center serves as a 

focal point for delivering high-resolution, satellite-derived, 

sea-surface temperature imagery, meteorological fields, 

and ocean feature information electronically in near realtime to NOAA facilities located in U.S. coastal areas. 

Research and development for the Great Lakes and the 

Chesapeake Bay was initiated in 1990. An automated 

NOAA AVHRR Image Mapping System was completed 

and a prototype was used to automatically map AVHRR 

sea-surface temperatures for use by the National Marine 

Fisheries Laboratory at Beaufort, NC. 

Scientists used Government-developed, tailored 

software on a low-cost, personal-computer-based workstation to interactively extract environmental information 

to support Federal and State decisionmakers and researchers responsible for managing coastal living resources and ecosystems. Coastwatch is a project managed within NOAA’s Coastal Ocean program, which will 

eventually cover all marine areas within the U.S. exclusive 

economic zone. In 1990, prototype Coastwatch activities 

were brought together into a comprehensive program 

focused on the southeastern U.S. coastal waters. The 

Interactive Marine Analysis and Forecast System and the 

NOAA Ocean Communications Network were components 

of the program. 

The Center for Ocean Analysis and Prediction was 

formed in 1989 to serve as a NOAA facility for developing 

and disseminating oceanographic products and services 

in support of NOAA’s mission. 

The National Ocean Service operates three national 

ocean centers: the Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center, the 

Ocean Product Center, and the Center for Ocean Analysis 

and Prediction. In the case of the Joint Ice Center, satellite 

imagery represents the primary data source used to meet 

this Nation’s requirements for Arctic, Great Lakes, and 

Antarctic analyses of sea/lake ice conditions, for both civil 

and military users. 

Strategic Assessment Program This program 

used NOAA and NASA satellite data to produce analyses 

which describe the physical and biological conditions 

within estuaries, adjacent coastal waters, and the continental shelf. Satellite images were acquired and analyzed 

to determine the following: the location and movement of 

estuarine plumes and shelf/slope fronts; the interactions 

and exchanges of water between estuaries and coastal 

oceans; and the distribution and concentration of primary 

productivity zones. The analyses produced by this pro76 
gram are used by coastal managers to help monitor and 

assess the environment within which living marine resources must survive. 

Fisheries Enforcement. In cooperation with the 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the National 

Ocean Service began providing satellite imagery and 

other environmental data to the NMFS Enforcement 

Offices in Sitka and Juneau, AK. These offices used the 

information to determine the most likely location of illegal 

foreign fishing activity. U.S. Coast Guard surveillance 

aircraft and ships were guided to these locations and 

reported an increase in the number of at-sea apprehensions. 

Aviation Applications. Research continues at 

NESDIS on the detection of aviation hazards such as 

thunderstorm downbursts, fog, and clear-air turbulence. 

Case study analyses have shown that several parameters 

obtainable from GOES soundings can help to isolate areas 

where a high risk of downbursts is present. The use of two 

infrared channels from GOES was found useful in the 

detection of fog and stratus at night, when other techniques often fail. The quantitative brightness difference 

between these channels appears to be related to the 

thickness and subsequent clearing or dissipation of fog. 

Satellite image analysis techniques, organized into a 

“decision tree” methodology, are being used to detect and 

forecast areas of clear-air turbulence. A forecast product, 

the Turbulence Index, was developed and is being used 

in NOM, by the U.S. Air Force, and by the Canadian 

Meteorological Service. 

Rapidly Developing Storms. Investigation of 

weather patterns, including satellite and surface observations, associated with storms that intensify or develop 

rapidly was the focus of a special observational program, 

Experiment on Rapidly Intensifying Cyclones in the 

Atlantic (ERICA), conducted by NOM, Department of the 

Navy, and academic meteorologists. Most of these storms 

occur along the East Coast of the United States where 

observations are ordinarily limited. Satellite observations 

appear to be the key to better forecasting of these events 

that are of great concern to the coastal and marine 

community. 

NESDIS also began developing a procedure for 

classifying mid-latitude winter cyclones in the Atlantic 

Ocean. Preliminary results show significant improvement 

over existing techniques for estimating the central pressure of systems. 

Precipitatioon Improvements to the operational 

satellite rainfall estimation technique continued. A study 

of rain events, where rainfall estimates were either overor underestimated, showed that large convective storm 

clusters are not as dependent on the environmental 

moisture amounts as are smaller storms. Further work 

looked at the movement of convective systems that 

produce flash floods, showing most move toward the 

west or southwest. Long tropical moisture plumes that can 

be seen in GOES water vapor data are being examined as 

another diagnostic tool for heavy precipitation forecasting. An objective, automated method to produce convective storm precipitation estimates, developed by NASA, 

was tested. This technique will assist in simultaneously 

monitoring the whole United States, instead of only one 

or two areas. This will help insure that no potential heavy 

precipitation event would be missed, and will allow the 

meteorologists to concentrate on estimating precipitation 

and localizing forecasts. Heavy snowfall associated with 

mid-latitude storms was also under study. These events 

are usually convective and appear to have many of the 

same developmental characteristics that are displayed by 

the summertime, flash-flood producing convective systems. 

Aerosols Optical Thickness. In January 1990, 

NESDIS made its experimental aerosol optical thickness 

product operational. The experimental production began 

in July 1987. Contour charts and digital tapes have been 

archived at the National Climate Data Center since the 

summer of 1989. The aerosol optical thickness is derived 

from reflected solar radiation measured by channel 1 of 

AVHRR. The observed “cloud-free” radiances are compared with radiances computed from a radiative transfer 

model of the atmosphere/ocean system. The accompanying figure shows a portion of the global contour map for 

the 4-week period ending July 26, 1990. The largest 

concentrations of aerosols are from dust blown off the 

deserts of Africa and Saudi Arabia and from haze emanating from the eastern United States and western tropical 

77 
South America. The air over the oceans of the Southern 

Hemisphere appears to be much “cleaner” than over the 

Northern Hemisphere, consistent with more land surface 

area and industry in the latter. 

Satellite Applications Training. With increasing 

domestic and international awareness of the value of 

satellite information in weather and oceanographic analysis and forecasting, demand for training in satellite 

applications soared. Almost 100 courses and workshops 

taught or coordinated by NESDIS, training almost 2,000 

forecasters and others in the National Weather Service, 

DOD, and overseas weather services and in weatherdependent agencies. Training topics included synoptic 

and mesoscale analysis, heavy rainfall, water-vapor imagery interpretation, numerical-model initial analysis, and 

tropical meteorology, oceanography, and agroclimatic 

applications. 

NESDIS has completed self-study training modules. 

Two script-slide programs (basic polar interpretation and 

local winds) and the first volume of a tropical-cloud-andweather-system workshop were completed. Work has 

begun on additional slide programs, several videotapes, 

and at least two training interactive video-disc learning 

programs. 

Procedures for publishing Satellite Applications 

Information Notes were reestablished. At least six Notes, 

designed to disseminate new satellite techniques to 

National Weather Service operations staff in a timely 

manner, were published. 

Millimeter Wave Frequencies. The National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA), another of the four components of the Department of Commerce involved with space activities, continued to study propagation effects at millimeter-wave 

frequencies on Earth-space paths. Measurement of these 

millimeter-wave characteristics, employing satellite 

propagation beacons, will allow NTIA to more effectively 

analyze higher level atmospheric effects on millimeterwave system performance. The geographical and seasonal dependence of propagation effects, important for 

Earth-space communications, continue to be studied. 

Space Programs Support. Precisely synchronized Earth stations are extremely important to NASA’s 

Deep Space Network used for space navigation. 

Commerce’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) assisted the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

in synchronization of NASA stations in the United States, 

Australia, and Spain. 

The Hubble Space Telescope’s High Resolution 

Spectrograph will have onboard calibration from a platinum spectrum. Measurements using this spectrum were 

incorporated into the calibration codes for the spectrograph and used in the data reduction obtained with the 

International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite. 

Synchrotron radiation at the NIST Synchrotron U1- 

traviolet Radiation Facility is being used to calibrate 

spectrometer sensitivity over a wide range of wavelengths. Users of this calibration service included scientists from Government laboratories and academic institutions. Detector calibrations were also provided and used 

by space scientists during flight preparation. 

Astronomers at NIST are participating in the scientific 

and technical design of several future NASA scientific 

satellites including the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics 

Facility, the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer, and 

the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph. 

NIST is involved in the National Aero-Space Plane 

program as a member of the instrumentation team. There 

are many measurements required by this program which 

are unprecedented and will need substantial development 

and testing. 

Design and construction of a new leak calibration 

system for NASA continues. The retention or exclusion of 

gases and fluids is important for the operation of many 

space systems and critical for manned systems because 

many of the gases are toxic. 

NIST is working on the control system for NASA’s 

Flight Telerobotic Servicer (FTS). The FTS is a two-armed 

robot which will be used to build and maintain Space 

Station Freedom. The sensory interactive capabilities 

being developed will allow the FTS to evolve from 

teleoperation toward autonomous operation which is 

necessary for docking, assembly, and inspection tasks. 

NIST developed the capability of executing, in a 

matter of minutes, enormous mathematical codes for 

correcting short period fluctuations in a satellite trajectory 

which are caused by the irregularities in the gravity field 

of Earth. Such calculations are used to predict the extra 

amount of fuel needed to maintain the designed trajectory. 

Cryogenic flowmeters are being developed and 

78 
tested for use in the fuel supply system of the space shuttle 

and liquids-handling systems of satellites. Work on regenerators for pulse-tube refrigeration devices capable of 

operating below 30 degrees kelvin continues. Research, 

calibration services, and standards are provided to allow 

quantification of mixtures of gases used in space shuttle 

ground support systems. 

Commercial Space Support 

Office of Space Commerce. The Office of Space 

Commerce (OSC), the newest of four components of the 

Department of Commerce involved with space activities, 

was formally established in 1988. It is the Department’s 

principal unit for the coordination of commercial spacerelated issues, programs, and initiatives. In this capacity, 

OSC promotes private sector investment in space activities by collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information on space markets and conducting workshops and 

seminars to increase awareness of commercial space 

opportunities. OSC also assists commercial space companies in improving their understanding of how to do 

business with the U.S. Government and foreign organizations, and promotes the export of space-related goods 

and services. The Office represents the Department in the 

development of U.S. policies within the National Space 

Council and in negotiations with foreign countries to 

ensure free and fair trade internationally in the area of 

space commerce. Finally, OSC works within the U.S. 

Government to seek the removal of legal, policy, and 

institutional impediments to space commerce. 

In the area of information analysis and dissemination, OSC recently completed a report on financing 

commercial space ventures called Commercial Space 

Ventures: A Financial Perspective. This document addressed the major hurdles faced by private entrepreneurial firms as they attempt to obtain financing for their 

ventures. OSC, in cooperation with the Department’s 

Office of Economic Affairs, also prepared a compendium 

of space business statistics called Space Business Indicators, which provides important business information such 

as the annual revenues generated by the commercial 

satellite or expendable launch vehicle industry. 

OSC also assisted commercial space companies in 

doing busincss with foreign governments and companies. 

In response to requests from both established and entrepreneurial aerospace companies, OSC worked to ensure 

fair treatment in major international satellite and launch 

vehicle contracts. OSC, working with the U.S. and Foreign 

Commercial Service, helped numerous U.S. firms to 

obtain important market information and establish business relationships with foreign governments. OSC also 

initiated a seminar series designed to introduce U.S. 

businessmen and women to their counterparts in foreign 

countries. These seminars have resulted in new and 

expanded business opportunities for U.S. participation. In 

addition, OSC hosted several meetings of government 

officials and private sector telecommunications representatives to discuss the technical and commercial viability of 

a new concept for digital audio broadcasting from satellites. This support resulted in an increased interest in both 

the technology and its potential business applications. 

OSC played a key role in negotiating an international trade agreement in commercial launch services 

with the People’s Kepublic of China. OSC prepared key 

U.S. position papers and participated actively in negotiations with Japan on satellite procurement. In addition, 

OSC is negotiating with the European Space Agency to 

establish “rules of the road” for worldwide commercial 

launch services and pricing. Also, OSC represented DOC 

in the Japanese Space Cooperation talks. 

OSC worked with the National Space Council to 

revise and update the National Space Policy in 1989. In 

1990, OSC represented the views of the Department in 

National Space Council reviews of commercial space 

launch policy, national space launch strategy, and commercial space policy implementation. The commercial 

space launch policy provided the framework for a Presidential decision allowing a U.S. firm to participate in the 

design of a commercial spaceport on the Cape York 

Peninsula of Australia that proposes to use Soviet manufactured launch vehicles. 

Commercial Space Support and Technology 

Transfer. Members of the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology (NIST), Commerce’s fourth component 

involved with space activities, participated in a number of 

Governmental and private groups related to the commercial development of space. These included the Secretary 

of Commerce’s Commercial Space Advisory Committee, 

the National Security Council Space Policy Working 

Group, the National Academy of‘ Sciences Micro-gravity 

Facilities Study, and the American Institute of Aeronautics 

79 
and Astronautics-NASA Commercial Programs Strategic 

Plan Working Group. 

NIST is developing measurement methods and 

techniques for materials processing in the microgravity 

environment. In order to test these techniques, NET 

participated in the first NASA Centers for the Commercial 

Development of Space sub-orbital flight. This work was 

performed in association with the Micro-Gravity Materials 

Processing Center of the University of Alabama-Huntsville. 

In order to assist future private sector utilization of 

the shuttle external tank, a numerical method to determine the aerodynamic drag and torque in low-Earth orbit 

was developed. The object of the investigation was to 

determine the minimum thrust and fuel requirements for 

an exterior propulsion package used to avoid re-entry on 

the critical first orbit and to place the tank in a short-term 

stable orbit. 

Research Applications 

The Climate and Global Change Program. Used 

at first to locate and track weather phenomena by 

providing images of clouds and storms, the operational 

satellites have developed into sophisticated remote sensing platforms for both operational and research purposes. 

While designed primarily for weather observations, the 

versatile instruments onboard provide quantitative information on a number of climate variables. They are 

providing an unparalleled set of continuous environmental observations for researchers studying global climate 

change. 

Examples of some of these observations include the 

following: 

Since 1969, global atmospheric soundings of 

temperature and moisture. Significant improvements in 

these soundings occurred in 1979 with the introduction of 

the TOVS (Television-and-Infrared-Operational-Satellite 

Operational Vertical Sounder). 

Since 1970, global sea surface temperature. High 

quality observations began in 1981 with the launch of a 

five-channel AVHRR. 

Since 1966, maps of snow cover, showing for 

example that the summer snow cover over the Northern 

Hemisphere this past summer was the lowest of the entire 

25-year satellite record. 

Example of the total ozone amount, showing the “ozone hole, ” 

over the Antarctic for October 1987. This black-and-white 

photograph was converted from the original falsecolor 

photograph. 

Since 1972, maps of sea-ice cover on the oceans. 

Since 1982, weekly global maps of vegetation 

index, a measure of the vigor and density of green 

vegetation. 

Since 1974, quantitative estimates of the global 

distribution of Earth’s albedo and emitted longwave 

radiation, the two major components of Earth’s radiation 

budget. 

Since 1985, the global distribution of the total 

amount and vertical profile of atmospheric ozone. 

Because they must meet the operational requirements for continuous data, the NOAA satellites have no 

gaps in the long-term monitoring record so critical for 

measuring global change. 

While the NOAA satellite products can be applied to 

a number of problems in climate research, much remains 

to be done to produce research quality data sets. In 

particular, major reprocessing efforts are necessary from 

time to time. As improvements were made in the science 

algorithms, the data processing system was changed. 

Because the satellite’s visible radiation sensors tend to 

degrade in orbit and there is no onboard calibration, the 

record of the changes can only be estimated from special 

analyses. NASA and NOAA are currently cooperating on 

a major effort to reprocess the entire long-term archive of 

three major instruments: the Advanced Very High Reso80 
lution Radiometer (AVHRR), the TOVS, and the GOES 

Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer. 

Ozone. A new physical processing procedure for 

determining total ozone from the TOVS polar sounders 

provided a potentially invaluable source of new data on 

the ozone field. Real-time operational TOVS information 

on the 1990 Antarctic ozone hole was made available to 

interested parties by NOM. These data indicated that the 

1990 ozone hole developed from as early as mid-August 

into what appears to be a major ozone depletion. Earlier 

this year, record low ozone amounts over the Arctic 

region were recorded by TOVS. Low north and south 

polar ozone values contributed to an overall downward 

trend of global ozone since 1979 which, as determined 

from the new TOVS procedure, is estimated to be on the 

order of 4 percent. This has to be evaluated with respect 

to natural variability. 

Glo&al Vegetation Index. The experimental Global Vegetation Index (GVI) product of NOM provided a 

one-per-week view of Earth’s vegetation since May 1982. 

The GVI is derived from daily data acquired by the AVHRK 

onboard the NOAA polar-orbiting series of satellites with 

local orbit times in the early afternoon. A weekly composite 

is produced that uses daily visible and near-infrared data 

to screen the data of each map cell such that the “greenest” 

or most “cloud-free” data of each week are retained for 

each map cell. The Normalized Difference Vegetation 

Index (NDVI) is also computed for each map cell, based 

on the composited visible and near-infrared data, and is 

included in the weekly product that is available in several 

map projections. An experimental, quality-controlled, biweekly NDVI product has been produced from the GVI 

data for 1985 through 1989 in a cooperative research effort 

with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Resources 

Observation System Data Center. The experimental NDVI 

product was distributed to several scientists for evaluation 

of its potential use in Global Climatic Models. Research 

efforts continue to improve the quality and use of the 

NDVI data in Global Circulation Models and as direct 

indicators of year-to-year and regional variations in climatic conditions. 

Snow-Cover Observations. NESDIS continues to 

support its operational snow-cover mapping program. 

Weekly analyses, using GOES, Meteosat, and NOAA 

polar-orbiting satellite data, were prepared for the Northern Hemisphere showing the boundary between snowcovered and clear ground. Techniques are being evaluated to blend microwave data (from the DMSP SSM/I) into 

the operational snow-cover mapping program. These 

weekly charts were provided to the National Weather 

Service for use in their global forecast models and stream 

flow models, and also to university researchers and 

private companies. These data, produced since 1966, 

comprise a valuable climatic monitoring resource. 

Generic Cloud Algorithms. Under development 

is a multichannel algorithm for cloud detection. The 

objectives are to provide a method for detecting clear 

pixels for remote sensing of surface parameters, and to 

provide a means of estimating cloud amount and other 

cloud properties useful for diagnosis and initialization of 

climate and weather prediction models. The technique 

uses all five channels of Global Area Coverage resolution 

AVHRR data. Cloud distributions from initial test results 

look realistic. 

Sea-Surface Temperature Measurements. Since 

1981, sea-surface temperature (SST) measurements have 

been provided in real time on a global basis at a resolution 

of 4 kilometers using the multichannel digital data (visible, reflective-, and thermal-infrared) obtained from the 

AVHRR instrument. A correction must be made for 

atmospheric attenuation by water vapor which is both 

highly variable and temperature dependent. Until 1990, a 

linear model was applied that assumed this correction 

was a constant multiplied by the radiative temperature 

difference. A non-linear model was implemented in 

March 1990 in which the constant became an explicit 

function of the scene temperature and the radiative 

temperature difference. Results show that the non-linear 

SSTs are more accurate than the linear SSTs both under 

very dry atmospheric conditions when the radiative 

temperature difference is quite small and under very 

moist conditions. 

The National Ocean Service (NOS) is using satellite 

imagery to monitor SST as part of the 106-Mile Deepwater 

Municipal Sludge Dump Site project, which is carried out 

jointly with Environmental Protection Agency and the 

U.S. Coast Guard. SST imagery is used for the identification of surface water masses, as an aid in the interpretation 

of the tracks of drifters released at the site, and for 

81 
monitoring significant physical features such as the Gulf 

Stream and warm-core rings. 

Mesoscale and Severe Storm Research. NESDIS 

has a research project under way to improve the use of 

satellite-derived soundings for forecasting convection 

and severe thunderstorms. A technique has been developed to enhance infrared satellite sounding measurements to probe the precursor conditions needed for 

convective storms to form. These infrared measurements 

are used to detect temperature and water vapor variations 

that define small-scale airmass characteristics, better depicting these characteristics and their inter-relationships 

as producers of intense thunderstorms. 

Tropical Storm Research. At NESDIS a research 

project is under way to understand and forecast tropical 

cyclone genesis and intensity using geostationary satellite 

data. Digital satellite data have been used to study the 

distribution, intensity, and time evolution of deep convective cloudiness associated with this genesis process. 

Results show a convective maximum, followed by one or 

two days of decreased but more organized convective 

activity, preceding the tropical-storm stage. 

Nalional Marine Fisheries Service Research. 

Satellite oceanic remote sensing continues to play an 

important role in National Marine Fisheries Service research. 

Satellite observations provide synoptic information needed 

for studying the effects of the ocean environment on the 

abundance and distribution of fish populations. 

The Alaska Fisheries Science Center, in collaboration with the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory 

and various academic institutions, is conducting a Fisheries Oceanography Coordinated Investigation of the Gulf 

of Alaska. One objective is to determine the effects of the 

ocean environment on the walleye pollock. Satellite 

measurements of ocean environmental parameters are 

used in conjunction with data collected by ships and 

aircraft to describe and eventually predict the distribution 

of the parameters that may adversely affect the survival of 

the pollock. 

The Alaska Fisheries Service Laboratory completed 

testing of a prototype satellite tracking system that is used 

to monitor the movement of several hundred radiotagged salmon in remote Alaskan waterways. The data 

received through the satellite allow fisheries scientists to 

determine the migration patterns and distribution of the 

salmon. This information will be used for management of 

salmon stocks in transboundary rivers as required by the 

Pacific Salmon Treaty between the United States and 

Canada. 

Scientists from the National Marine Mammal Laboratory also are using a satellite tracking system to monitor 

the movement of marine mammals tagged with radio 

transmitters. These data are used to study diving habits, 

to locate feeding grounds, and to obtain information on 

the environmental conditions in the grounds. The satellite 

platform used in this study is the NOM polar orbiter with 

data transmission provided by the Service ARGOS Inc. 

Two projects in 1989 were conducted in collaboration 

with Soviet and Japanese scientists. 

The Southwest Fisheries Center is using satellite 

infrared imagery and ocean color data to determine the 

distribution and migration patterns of albacore tuna and 

Pacific mackerel in coastal waters. Results of these studies 

show that the availability and migration of albacore tuna 

is related to the strength and structure of the plume of 

cool, turbid water flowing off Point Conception in California. Studies also show that the Pacific mackerel during 

autumn months live in the part of the plume that extends 

into the Santa Barbara Channel. The location of the 

plume, which can be determined easily with satellite 

imagery, assists commercial fishermen in locating concentrations of tuna and mackerel. The Center also provided technical assistance for developing fisheries satellite remote sensing programs in Canada, Portugal, and 

Taiwan. 

Northeast Fisheries Center scientists are using satellite data along with more traditional data to describe near 

real-time and long-term variations in marine environmental conditions affecting the fisheries in their area. The 

Northeast Area Remote Sensing System, an association of 

Government (including the Center), academic, and private institutions, provides a means of information exchange and a support base for meeting regional satellite 

and aircraft remote sensing data needs. The system also 

helps maintain a communication network between users 

of remote sensing data and its source. 

In the Southeast Fisheries Center, NOM polar 

orbiter satellite data were used to direct a research vessel 

to a region of cold-water upwelling near the Yucatan 

Peninsula. The cruise was a joint effort of the United States 

and Mexico to sample Mexican coastal waters for 

82 
ichthyoplankton with target species of Spanish and king 

mackerel. Satellite images were processed in Mississippi, 

compressed, and sent digitally through the International 

Maritime Satellite Organization’s communications network directly to a personal computer onboard the ship, 

where software allowed shipboard users to display the 

image in color and to select areas of interest. This 

technique was also used to send compressed satellite 

thermal images to vessels with different research objectives in other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. 

High-Performance Aerospace Materials. The 

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is 

studying the physics and chemistry of the combustion of 

metallic materials in high-pressure/high-temperature 

oxygen environments which occur in the space shuttle 

main engine. Frictional generation of oxides is being used 

to estimate actual temperatures experienced by components. 

The performance characteristics of state-of-the-art 

heat exchangers for use in high-mach aircraft are being 

determined. Fuel used in these high-performance aircraft 

is preheated before injection into the engines by absorbing through these exchangers the heat developed by 

aerodynamic friction; this absorption also helps cool the 

skin of the vehicle. Development of predictive models is 

an important component of this research. 

Methods of generating slush hydrogen and measuring its flow and storage characteristics are being studied. 

Slush hydrogen provides increased energy density and 

cooling capacity for use in high-performance aircraft and 

rockets. 

A unique capability to study the thermal conductivity of insulating materials for application in advanced 

aircraft and rockets was developed. This facility includes 

systems needed to study classical thermal conductivity as 

well as heat flow with extremely large temperature 

differences imposed. 

Research is being conducted under Air Force sponsorship on the use of composite materials containing solid 

lubricants in mechanical components for space satellites. 

The aim is to develop a fundamental understanding of 

self-lubricating composites and to recommend materials 

for actual systems. Recommendations have been made on 

hardware design and production procedures. 

Research is being directed toward the development 

of techniques for synthesis of finely divided gold catalysts 

on conductive ceramic supports for alkaline fuel cells 

used in aerospace applications requiring long life-time 

and high efficiencies. Results to date have demonstrated 

properties superior to conventional Teflon supports. 

Work is currently under way to establish the feasibility of using high-temperature ceramic superconductors 

as radiant heat instruments for measuring temperature on 

missions to distant planets. NIST’s unique high-temperature X-ray diffraction capability was used to study a series 

of high-temperature superconducting ceramic film-onsubstrate samples. 

Theoretical studies and numerical calculations have 

been carried out to provide guidance and interpretation 

for a series of planned space experiments on directional 

solidification of metal alloys in microgravity. The objective is to make quantitative measurements of coarsening 

which are not disturbed by the density-driven fluid flows 

in normal gravity. Several studies have focussed on topics 

relevant to crystal growth experiments that are to be 

performed onboard the space shuttle. 

NIST’s unique synchrotron-based X-ray capabilities 

for nondestructively imaging atomic scale defects has 

been used to study single crystal materials of interest to 

the national space effort. The results are providing insight 

into ways in which these materials can be processed (in 

space as well as on Earth) to increase their performance. 

Space Sciences Research. A comprehensive database of evaluated atomic spectroscopy data, covering 

all atoms and ions of astrophysical interest, is under 

development for general use of space research groups. 

The database will be compatible with the NASA astrophysics data system and will be incorporated into appropriate existing NASA databases. 

The photoabsorption spectrum of nitrogen was 

measured with a new ultrahigh resolution spectrometer at 

the NIST Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility. NIST 

measurements resolved long-standing discrepancies between plasma density measurements of the F2 region of 

the ionosphere by various remote-sensing techniques. 

Scientists at NIST and Oxford University have for 

some years been doing very accurate spectroscopic 

measurements of infrared and far-infrared spectral frequencies of upper atmospheric and interstellar molecules. These frequency measurements provide the basis 

for searches for such molecules thus benefitting NASA 

programs in both radio astronomy and aeronomy. Tables 

83 
of spectral frequencies generated by this program also 

serve as calibration standards for the various spectrometers used to study the upper atmosphere. 

NIST continues assisting NASA investigators in determining accurate atmospheric parameters and elemental abundances of hot stars by providing the results of 

sophisticated model calculations of stellar atmospheres. A 

stellar parameter is being developed which provides 

sufficiently accurate constraints on the theory of stellar 

evolution that the effect of the physical uncertainties can 

be evaluated and eventually removed. 

NIST and the Goddard Space Flight Center have 

several projects under way to measure microwave radiation from stars. They have completed a survey of stars in 

close binary systems and are studying nearby stars less 

massive than the sun. 

NIST astronomers are pursuing a program to measure surface magnetic Fields on stars cooler than the sun. 

This work interprets absorption lines with a radiative 

transfer code that includes optically thick absorption and 

a detailed model for the atmosphere of the star. Surface 

magnetic fields have been measured in 50 stars. 

. NIST astronomers have developed a Doppler imaging 

technique to determine the location and sizes of bright 

and dark regions on the surfaces of rapidly rotating stars. 

Conventional imaging cannot provide such information 

because the regions are smaller than the diffraction 

limitation of existing telescopes. The work is based on the 

analysis obtained with the International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite. 

NIST performed analytical procedures on biological 

samples collected from separation experiments onboard 

the space shuttle and prepared reviews of separation 

science in the low-gravity context. NIST also performed 

modeling studies in gravitational and space biology and 

provided leadership in the physical analysis for low 

gravity and simulated low gravity. 

Under the NASA Crustal Dynamics Project, NIST is 

working to determine worldwide tectonic plate motions 

and Earth’s rotation. The model calibrates the atmospheric transmission delay caused by water vapor so that 

the accuracy of geophysical and astronomical studies 

based on microwave distance measurements through the 

atmosphere can be improved. A more accurate determination of the displacement rate across the San Andreas 

fault system in California was made from satellite laser 

range data. 

A spectral irradiance intercomparison and instrument evaluation was conducted with NASA, the Naval 

Research Laboratory, NOM, and two members of the 

European Space Agency. The main purpose was to put 

future radiometric space measurements on a common 

base. This project was useful in solving major measurement problems before the instruments were launched; 

the measurement evaluation maximized the success of 

the mission. 

Models are being developed to predict the dynamic 

structure of flames in reduced gravity. Results indicate that 

experiments at low pressures and normal gravity can 

provide information on combustion phenomena at reduced gravity. A theoretical model for predicting flame 

and smoldering of a cellulosic (for example, paper) 

material in a microgravity environment using factors 

experimentally measured in normal gravity was developed. NIST is comparing NASA’s and NIST’s materialflammability screening tests and studying the relationship 

between them and flammability in microgravity. 

Atmospheric Sciences Research. NIST has several projects related to the problem of ozone depletion of 

the upper atmosphere and the greenhouse effect. Molecular spectroscopy is used to provide the data for 

monitoring molecular species present in trace amounts in 

Earth’s atmosphere. NIST and NOM are collaborating on 

measurements of concentrations of hydroxyl, water, 

ozone, chlorine, oxygen, and some nitrogen oxygen 

compounds. Data from these and other measurements are 

being compiled into database tables which will enable 

atmospheric modelers to predict equilibrium conditions 

for the atmosphere and its chlorine pollutants. 

The spectra of carbon dioxide, chlorine dioxide, 

and cyanogen were investigated under high resolution. 

Subtle perturbations such as temperature- and pressuredependent mixing of spectral lines have a strong effect on 

the interpretation of the observed spectra in terms of 

appropriate theoretical models. 

In a joint program with the Smithsonian Astrophysics Observatory, NIST scientists are making laboratory 

determinations of the effect of pressure on the spectroscopic linewidths of upper atmospheric molecules. These 

laboratory measurements are needed to interpret NASA’s 

satellite and balloon measurements of atmospheric constituents. 

NIST scientists continue their data evaluations and 

84 
laboratory measurements in support of the NASA Upper 

Atmosphere Research program. They participated in 

meetings of the NASA panel for data evaluation to prepare 

a new evaluation of chemical kinetics and photochemical 

data for use in modeling the chemistry of the stratosphere. 

They measured the rates of the chemical reactions controlling the atmospheric lifetimes of replacement compounds for the fully halogenated fluorocarbons. 

NIST is engaged in extensive calculations of electron precipitation events in Earth’s atmosphere (auroras, 

substorms, magnetic storms) which are important in 

magnetospheric processes and interactions with the upper and middle atmosphere. Because direct measurements of the precipitating electrons are difficult, much 

experimental evidence is based on indirect measurement 

from which initial electron distribution and the ionization 

profiles in the atmosphere are deduced. 

Geosat. During the past five years, the U.S. Navy 

altimeter satellite Geosat has provided nearly continuous 

measurements of global sea level, wind speed, and sea 

state. Under agreement with the US. Navy, the NOAA 

Geosat project prepares and distributes raw data and 

products from this mission. Several hundred scientists in 

more than 40 institutions and countries receive geophysical data records on a regular basis. 

Though the Geosat satellite failed in January 1990, 

ending a long-standing flow of altimetric data, the interest 

in geophysical applications of the data continued to grow 

steadily. Launched in March 1985, Geosat substantially 

exceeded its expected three-year life span. The NESDIS 

National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) continued, 

along with the NESDIS National Oceanographic Data 

Center, to provide this community of users with publicly 

available Geosat data. 

The Geosat project is a key element of the NOAA 

Climate and Global Change program, in particular, the 

NOS sea level portion. Satellite altimetry is the only way 

to obtain global and detailed determinations of sea-level 

variations such as those associated with El Niiio. In 

addition to providing data for oceanographic research, 

the Geosat mission has enabled the first operational 

monitoring of sea level over entire ocean basins. NOAA 

presently publishes sea-level maps of both the Pacific and 

Indian oceans in near-real time. 

The Geosat altimeter is also being used to procure 

improved models of the geoid and of the gravity field of 

Earth’s oceans. This information is fundamental to improving our understanding of Earth processes. 

Global Positioning System. The National Geodetic Survey of NOS continues development of the Global 

Positioning System (GPS) techniques whereby moving 

instrumentation platforms, including ground vehicles, 

ships, and aircraft, were positioned by satellite to within 

five centimeters. This technique has been used by Texas 

and Washington for more rapid and economical photogrammetry. Also, the technique has been demonstrated to 

support airborne gravity measurements. 

The computation of precise GPS orbits requires a 

continuously operating GPS tracking network. NGS continues use of its Cooperative International GPS Network 

(CIGNET) which is a global GPS tracking network. The 

participating stations include those in the United States, 

Canada, Norway, Sweden, Germany, Japan, Tasmania, 

New Zealand, and Australia. These data are delivered to 

NGS each week where they are archived, reformatted, 

and distributed upon request. 

Solar Geophysical Data. In 1989, solar activity 

reached record levels and had important effects at Earth, 

in near-Earth space, and in deep space. The NESDIS 

NGDC staff collected information about the solar flares, 

charged particles (plasma) arriving at Earth’s magnetosphere, the geomagnetic and ionospheric disturbances 

which resulted, and their effects on technological systems 

and people. During March 1989, one of the largest 

magnetic storms ever recorded occurred and many operational spacecraft and ground-based systems were adversely affected. During several periods of solar activity in 

1989, astronauts were in orbit on the space shuttle and the 

Soviet space station. Also, high-altitude aircraft recorded 

unusually high radiation levels. NGDC is collecting data 

about the solar activity and its consequences and NGDC 

staff have taken part in scientific meetings and published 

papers about these events. 

NGDC developed new graphical displays of satellite 

space environment data, ground-based correlative data, 

and locations of satellite anomalies. These clearly show 

inter-related links between anomalies and the disturbed 

environment. 

NationalOceanographicData Center CD-ROM. 

The National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) prea5 
pared a CD-ROM compact disk, “NODC Experimental 

CD-ROM NODC-01 : Pacific Ocean Temperature and 

Salinity Profiles.” The disk contains over 1.3 million 

temperature-depth and salinity-depth profiles taken in 

the Pacific Ocean between 1900 and 1988. This is the first 

in a planned series of ocean-data compact disks which 

will hold major portions of NODC’s global data archives. 

Global Monitoring. The NESDIS National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) began its Global Change 

Database program, a cooperative effort with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and others aimed 

at compilation and integration of improved databases for 

global environmental monitoring. Its first pilot effort, the 

Global Change Diskette Project, completed a prototype 

database for Africa in 1990, which was used to increase 

discussion on design and implementation of improved 

databases. 

The program has successfully increased national 

and international activity in this area, bringing to NOM 

and the Nation a cost-effective collection of data. A large 

volume of these data is derived from NOAA and other 

satellite technology. The database and associated software are being used by U.N. organizations in workshop 

and training activities relating to remote sensing and 

environmental data. 

Earth Sjrstem Data Directory. In 1990, NOAA 

installed the prototype NOAA Earth System Data Directory, and an on-line computer directory of NOAA data 

sets. The system is part of the national and international 

Global Change Master Directory network of data directories, that includes the directories at European, Japanese, 

and Canadian space agencies. The NOAA Directory 

contains over 100 descriptions of satellite data held in 

NOAA data centers and is the keystone for the NOAA 

Earth Observing System Data and Information System and 

NOAA Data Management efforts. 

National Climatic Data Center Data Holdings. 

The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is responsible 

for the archive and distribution of much of the Nation’s 

environmental satellite data. NCDC satellite data archives 

consist of data originating from NOAA operational polar 

and geostationary satellites, the DMSP, and certain NASA 

satellites. Data management, quality control, storage, 

retrieval, and distribution are performed at the NCDC 

facilities in Suitland, MD, and Asheville, NC, and also at 

the University of Wisconsin Space Sciences and Engineering Center. Data holdings at all locations are primarily in 

digital format; however, a film library which primarily 

contains AVHKR imagery is maintained at the NCDC 

Satellite Data Services Division at Camp Springs, MD. This 

library serve as a browse facility to support digital data 

selection. 

International Activities 

World Meteorological Organization Panel of 

Experts on Satellites. In November 1989, NOAA participated in the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 

Eighth Session of its Executive Council Panel of Experts 

on Satellites. This is an advisory panel which reviews 

WMO satellite activities and makes recommendations 

pertaining to coordination of meteorological satellite 

programs of member states and plans to ensure continuity 

of observational capabilities from space. 

The Panel reaffirmed the practice of free and open 

exchange of data for operational meteorology and climate 

research. The Panel encouraged satellite operators to 

ensure the compatibility of national satellite systems to 

assure continuity of coverage. The Panel recommended 

that the definition of operational system continuity be 

expanded to include maintenance. The Panel also recommended that national and international space research 

organizations be encouraged to accept requirements 

from the meteorological community stated through WMO 

and to give these requirements priority. 

The WMO Commission for Marine Meteorology, 

jointly with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, reestablished the Working Group on Technical 

Problems to prepare an annual report on the development of the main remote sensing programs relevant to 

marine meteorology and physical oceanography. The 

group consists of an ad hoc group on oceanic satellites 

and remote sensing, presently chaired by NOMNESDIS 

with members from the United Kingdom, Netherlands, 

France, and the Soviet Union. 

International Forum on Earth Observations 

Using Space Station Elements. In April 1989, the International Forum on Earth Observations Using Space Sta86 
tion Elements (IFEOS) met in Ottawa, Canada. IFEOS was 

created to examine technical and operational aspects of 

using the polar platforms of the international space station 

for Earth observations. As a result of a joint NOMNASA 

resolution, IFEOS was disbanded by unanimous consent. 

The rationale for dissolution of the group was as follows: 

1) IFEOS had been successful in achieving its goals as 

evident in the space station partners’ efforts to establish 

a global Earth observation system based on the polar 

platforms of the international space station; and 2) other 

international groups, primarily the Committee on Earth 

Observation Satellites, can effectively carry on the work 

of international coordination of Earth observation activities of member agencies and countries. 

Coordination of Geostationary Meteorological Satellites. In November 1989, the Coordination of 

Geostationary Meteorological Satellites group, which serves 

as an informal technical forum through which independent national meteorological programs can be harmonized in order to achieve common meteorological mission objectives, met in Geneva. The group members, 

which include European Meteorological Satellite program, 

India, Japan, the United States, the Soviet Union, the 

Peoples Republic of China (who became a full member at 

this meeting), and WMO, continued theirwork in allocating 

radio frequencies for the data collection system and in 

standardizing formats for WEFAX (weather facsimile 

service) computer codes. 

Committee on Earth Observations Satellites. 

The Committee on Earth Observations Satellites (CEOS), 

formed in 1984 as an outgrowth of the international 

Economic Summit of Industrialized Nations, serves as a 

coordinating forum for the overall Earth observations 

space community. At its April 1989 meeting, the CEOS 

stressed the coordinated planning required for Polar 

Platforms and future missions. 

For the benefit of members and the international 

user community, the CEOS Working Group on Data 

defines areas for increased coordination and standardization of data management for space-borne Earth observations. Its data product subgroup coordinates standardization of user product formats. Member countries have 

agreed to incorporate endorsed sensor formats into 

ongoing data management planning. The Catalog Subgroup, chaired by NESDIS, is working on developing and 

promoting an approach for achieving an interoperable 

international catalog system. WMO is addressing a proposal by Japan on a worldwide Network for Global 

Environmental Monitoring from Space. Other projects 

include a data dictionary, networks, and distribution 

media coordination. The CEOS Working Group on sensor 

calibration and performance validation, chaired by the 

European Space Agency, fosters technical coordination 

and cooperation for space and ground segments in terms 

of mission parameters and sensor calibration and performance validation. 

International Polar Orbiting Meteorological 

Satellite Group. The 1984 Economic Summit of Industrialized Nations endorsed the creation of the International 

Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite Group (IPOMS) to 

explore mechanisms for increased international cooperation in support of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites 

and to ensure continuity of these satellites. 

In 1989, letters of intent concerning potential contributions to the next series of polar-orbiters were received from all IPOMS members. Notable is the European 

plan to provide instruments and spacecraft for morning 

polar orbit and instruments for afternoon polar orbit. At 

its September 1990 meeting in Venice, Italy, contributors 

were encouraged to pursue formal agreements and to 

plan for data access and continuity. 

World Administrative Radio Conference. The 

Consultative Committee International Radio (CCIR), part 

of the International Telecommunication Union, performs 

technical studies that are used in the deliberations and 

decisions of that Union. CCIR Study Group 4 has responsibility for studies pertaining to Fixed Satellite Service, in 

which NTIA participates. Our participation included submission of technical material pertaining to the sidelobe 

characteristics of antennas used for Earth stations, participation in the final meeting of CCIR Study Group 4 for the 

1986-1990 study period, and recent studies on implementing Integrated Services Digital Networks over satellite links. 

Pan-Pacific Education and Communication 

Experiment by Satellite. The Pan-Pacific Education and 

Communication Experiment by Satellite (PEACESAT) 

program was founded by the University of Hawaii in 1971 

and provided a satellite telecommunication network for 

87 
exchange of social, environmental, health, and educational information between the countries of the Pacific 

Basin region using NASA’s ATS-1 satellite. In 1985, fuel 

was exhausted and the satellite drifted away from a 

location useful for communications throughout the Pacific Basin. 

In December NTIA was authorized to assist the 

University of Hawaii in the reestablishment of PEACESAT 

service. NTIA’s responsibilities have included supporting 

PEACESAT activities at the University of Hawaii, providing technical consultation there and to the PEACESAT 

Users’ Group, funding a study of PEACESAT satellite 

options, and obtaining satellite capacity for use by the 

PEACESAT system. 

NTIA activities regarding PEACESAT in 1990 focused on developing the telecommunications required to 

reestablish PEACESAT satellite communications. The use 

of NOAA’s GOES3 satellite for the period 1990-1994 was 

obtained. Agreement was also reached with NASA to 

operate the satellite from Hawaii. Low-cost user Earth 

terminals have been developed and tested to work with 

the satellite. 

International Training. NESDIS increased its international training activity support in collaboration with 

WMO and NWS. The first in a series of regional training 

courses was held in April 1989 at the WMO Regional 

Meteorological Training Center in Barbados. This Basic 

Meteorological Satellite Interpretation Course was aimed 

at those countries where the United States has provided 

APT/WEFAX equipment through the Voluntary Cooperation Program. 

NESDIS participated in a US.-WMO training course 

in aeronautical meteorology emphasizing satellite applications at Florida State University. 

NESDIS conducted training in climate computing in 

the Caribbean, Europe, and Africa. This training assists in 

the use of the climate computing system and in the 

applications of climate analyses. 

NESDIS continues to develop training aids which 

are geared to the international community (WMO members). Examples include a script-slide set on basic polarorbiter satellite interpretation, a script-slide set entitled 

“Localized Winds of the World,” and a workbook on 

satellite imagery interpretation of tropical clouds and 

weather systems. 

Along with USGS and NASA, NOAA/NESDIS is 

participating in the planning of a training course as part 

of a United Nations-International Space Year initiative. 

NESDIS presented a two-week workshop at the 

Taiwan Central Weather Bureau in the application of 

satellite data for analyzing and forecasting heavy rainfall. 

NESDIS NGDC participated in two training workshops sponsored by the U.N. Institute for Training and 

Research held in Accra, Ghana (November 1989) and 

Dakar, Senegal (September 1990). The workshops covered applications of integrated databases (including satellite and ground-based data) for environmental assessment. 

The 2nd International AVHRR Workshop was held 

in Bariloche, Argentina. The AVHRR system, acclaimed 

“the poor-man’s satellite system,” provides invaluable, 

affordable satellite technology to scientists and users. 

Ideas on low-cost methods for improving the usefulness 

of the system were exchanged. 

88 
Department of Energy 

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) provides nuclear 

power sources for highly specialized applications for the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

and the Department of Defense (DOD). Such power units 

have enabled spectacular events, such as the Voyager 

flyby of the planet Neptune and the Apollo scientific 

investigations on the lunar surface. These missions have 

provided us with detailed photographs and data on a 

variety of planetary bodies including Jupiter, Saturn, 

Uranus, Neptune, and their moons, and the discovery of 

the first extraterrestrial volcanos on the Jovian moon Io. 

The majority of the power sources used on these 

missions have been Kadioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (KTGs), capable of producing between 2 and 300 

watts of electricity. However, since some planned missions will require even higher power levels, a more 

efficient dynamic energy conversion process has also 

been under development for isotopic power systems, in 

the 1 to 10 kilowatt range. For higher power levels, 

nuclear reactors are being developed and tested. Programs 

of this type include the SP-100 space reactor technology 

that is applicable over the electrical power range of tens 

to hundreds of kilowatts (kw). Also included is the 

Multimegawatt (MMW) Space Nuclear Reactor System, 

which can eventually extend the electrical power range to 

tens to hundreds of megawatts. Both SP-100 and MMW 

power systems can be applied to nuclear electric propulsion, but MMW systems can also be applied to nuclear 

thermal propulsion. 

Space Nuclear Power Systems 

Thus far, radioisotope power units have used 

thermoelectric energy converters to provide electrical 

power for spacecraft operations. Over time, the amount 

of power capable of being provided by these devices has 

increased from the 3 watts provided by the SNAP-3 for the 

TKANSIT program in 1970, to the 150 watts for NASA’s 

Voyager program in 1976 using the multihundred watt 

unit, to the 285 Watt General Purpose Heat Source 

(GPHS) unit for NASA’s Galileo (launched in October 

1989), and a similar GPHS unit for the Ulysses flight 

successfully launched in October 1990. 

Nuclear reactors offer a higher power source capability for space operations purposes than is available 

from radioisotope power sources. One 500 watt reactor 

Artist’s concept of Galileo spacecraft to Jupiter using General 

Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thennoelectric Generators. 

power unit, the SNAP-lOA, was flown in 1965 and 

development was started on other units of up to about 300 

kw, but was discontinued in the 1970s. In the early 1980s, 

because of increasing power needs of both NASA and 

DOD, well beyond those obtainable from radioisotopes 

or solar power, space reactor development was reinstated through the cooperation of NASA, DOD, and 

DOE. The principal space reactor program currently in 

development is the SP-100. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators 

The United States has successfully used 36 Radioisotope Thermoelectic Generators (KTGs) on over 20 

spacecraft launches covering a variety of different space 

applications. An KTG is a static device (that is, it has no 

moving parts) which directly converts the heat from the 

decay of the radioisotope Plutonium-238 (Pu-238) to 

electricity. Pu-238, a non-weapons material, was selected 

because of its relatively long half-life (about 87.6 years) 

and ease of containing the alpha particles (helium atoms 

emitted during normal decay) plus the fact that no special 

shielding is required for these heat sources. 

Research and development has increased the conversion efficiencies of radioisotope power systems from 

less than 5 percent to almost 7 percent, which increases 

the power output or reduces the weight of the power 

supply, both of which are critical design factors. RTGs 

89 
have demonstrated the long lifetimes, self-sufficiency, 

environmental independence, and operational flexibility 

demanded by a variety of space missions, including the 

capability to operate well beyond specified mission 

lifetimes and above design power levels. For example, the 

Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft that were launched 

in March 1972 and April 1973 used RTGs to successfully 

power the spacecraft for their encounters with Jupiter and 

Saturn. In a similar demonstration, the multihundred watt 

KTG on the Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in August 

1977, continues to operate after its encounters with 

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune and as it continues 

on into space. 

A new model RTG with a more efficient fuel design, 

called the General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) is the 

latest in a series of nuclear power sources developed for 

space applications by DOE. The GPHS qualification RTG 

unit has been operated successfully for a period of over 

49,000 hours. The first two GPI-IS flight RTGs are providing 

the electrical power for the Galileo spacecraft to Jupiter 

launched from the Kennedy Space Center, FL on the 

space shuttle in October 1989. A third GPHS generator is 

powering the joint NASNEuropean Space Agency, Ulysses 

spacecraft to study the polar regions of the sun, which was 

successfully launched in October 1990. Planning has been 

initiated to utilize the GPHS RTG design for the Comet 

Kendezvous/Asteroid Flyby spacecraft and the Cassini 

spacecraft to Saturn, scheduled for launch in 1995 and 

1996, respectively. 

Significant program activities in 1989 and 1990 

included issuance of the Galileo and Ulysses Final Safety 

Analysis Reports, launch of RTGs aboard the Galileo 

Spacecraft and delivery of the Ulysses KTG to the Kennedy 

Space Center in July 1990. In order to obtain the Office of 

the President's approval for launches, independent reviews and analyses of the Final Safety Analysis Keports 

and related safety tests were conducted by the Interagency 

Nuclear Safety Review Panel, made up of representatives 

from DOE, DOD, and NASA. After the reviews, the Panel 

issued Safety Evaluation Reports which were used by the 

Office of Science and Technology Policy in approving the 

launches of the nuclear powered spacecrafts. 

In 1989 and 1990 the modular radioisotope thermoelectric generator program (MOD-KTG) focused on the 

design, development, manufacture, and test of improved 

niulticouples in an electrically heated engineering module test unit. Over 6,000 hours of module test data have 

I 

AUXIUIRV 

COOUNG 

GENEWPURWSE SVSTEY 

ALUMMUM OLmR WELL ASSEMBLY 

HEAT SOURQ I "MPC 

COOUNG TUBES 

General Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric 

Generator. 

been collected. The MOD-KTG design will provide a 

significant advance in RTG specific power (watts/kilograms) and improved efficiency for use in NASA's lunar, 

Martian, and solar system exploration and DOD missions 

during the next decade. 

Other activities in 1989 and 1990 included the 

following: refurbishment of fuel production and handling 

facilities; selection of a contractor to design and build a 

new KTG shipping cask; completion of a conceptual 

design of a new radioisotope power system assembly and 

testing facility; and selection of a contractor to produce 

the thermoelectric converter hardware for NASA's CRAF 

and Cassini missions. 

Dynamic Conversion/Turbine Energy 

Conversion System 

Dynamic energy conversion systems which employ 

a rotating turbine/alternator conversion system (TECS) 

offer efficiencies approaching 18-25 percent. For higher 

power requirements than can be achieved by RTGs (for 

example, greater than 1 kw), this improved efficiency 

could translate into higher specific power and lower perunit power costs, because a smaller amount of radioisotope fuel would be needed per unit of power output. 

Thus, the survivability, reliability, and compactness of a 

nuclear power system can be extended into the 1 to 10 kW 

range, below the power level generally considered for 

90 
6-UNIT 

ISOTOPE HEAT SOURCE 

Dynamic isotope power system: turbine energy conversion 

system (TECS) integrated with a generic spacecraft. 

reactor applications. The following figure shows a typical 

integration of a dynamic conversion system on a generic 

spacecraft. More likely near-term application would be 

for the Space Exploration Initiative. A prime TECS contractor and two subcontractors were selected in 1988. 

After selection of the Brayton conversion system and 

completion of the top-level specifications in 1988, system 

design work continued in 1989 with a design point 

established and a preliminary turbine alternator compressor design completed. In 1990, various subcomponents 

were tested and mission studies were conducted. 

SP-100 Space Reactor Program 

The purpose of the SP-100 program is to develop, 

demonstrate, and make available to NASA, DOD, and 

other potential users space nuclear reactor technology 

which can provide electric power in the range of tens to 

hundreds of kilowatts. This program was initiated in 1983 

and is sponsored by NASA, DOD, and DOE. 

The SP-100 program is in the fifth year of engineering and design of its ground test reactor, with nuclear fuel, 

materials, and component tests well under way. During 

the past two years, the program has completed major 

system design activities and manufactured three-quarters 

of the nuclear fuel for the ground test reactor. The project 

is presently proceeding with procurement, fabrication, 

testing, and demonstration of prototypic system components. 

Artist’s concept of the SP-100 space reactor. 

A reference space reactor design to provide 2.5 

megawatts of thermal energy has been established and 

the preliminary design review of the ground test reactor 

was completed in 1989. Critical experiments to verify 

certain reactor functions and safety were completed. In 

conjunction with the reactor design effort, site facility 

preparation activities have taken place to allow initiation 

of construction modification to the existing containment 

facility in which the reactor will be tested. An Environmental Assessment of the test site has been completed, 

and a Finding of No Significant Impact was issued. A 

Preliminary Safety Analysis Report and an associated 

Safety Evaluation Report were completed in FY 1990. The 

accompanying figure shows the layout of the Nuclear 

Assembly Test site at Hanford near Kichland, WA. 

Los Alamos National Laboratory is producing the 

fuel for the SP-100 Nuclear Assembly Test. The attached 

picture shows work being performed in a portion of the 

fuel element production facilities. In the lifetime testing 

program, fuel and structural materials for the reactor have 

been exposed to simulated space reactor operating environments. Accelerated testing of SP-100 fuel samples has 

demonstrated the SP-100 lifetime burnup goal can be 

achieved. The irradiation of materials test capsules has 

also been completed and the initial samples are undergoing post irradiation testing. 

Significant progress continues to be made in the SP100 power converter development program. In 1989 the 

first SP-100 thermoelectric converter cell was fabricated 
mw %”$.p% WM”, 

SP-100 Ground Engineering System Test Site. 

and it produced an increase in power density of nearly 

tenfold as compared to present thermoelectric technology, such as used on the recently launched RTG-powered 

Galileo mission. In 1990 a more prototypical thermoelectric cell was fabricated for testing in early FY 1991. Also 

in 1991, a fully prototypic thermoelectric cell, qualified at 

high temperatures, will be placed on test. Successful 

testing of this cell will lead to fabrication of a thermoelectric array, the configuration in which the thermoelectric 

cells will be used in flight. The SP-100 has transitioned 

from a program of primarily design and analyses to a 

hardware program of fabrication and test. Fabrication of 

the reactor vessel and internal structures has been demonstrated. Other hardware which has been placed on test 

includes control rod actuators, thermoelectric cells, and 

the thermoelectric pump magnet, to name a few. 

Multimegawatt Space Reactor Program 

The MMW Space Reactor program was initiated in 

late 1985 as a joint Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 

Organization and DOE program to meet the SDI power 

needs in the range of a few megawatts to hundreds of 

megawatts. The primary purpose of the MMW program 

was to establish the feasibility of at least one reactor 

power system concept and the associated technology 

which could fulfill the very high power needs of future 

advanced SDI applications. 

The development approach for the MMW program 

has involved a sequential, phased narrowing down of 

Preparation for testing SP-100 fuel pins in the Fast Flux Test 

Facility at Hanford, WA, for the Los Alamos Nationalbhratory. 

potential concepts. In early 1988, six industrial contractors were selected to conduct Phase I system concept 

assessments and basic feasibility evaluations for the Phase 

I power systems. In mid-1989, the Phase I concepts were 

narrowed to three; however, for reasons given below, the 

program is being terminated. During FY 1990, there was 

no activity because the user, the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization did not provide funds and DOE did not 

apply its own funds without a sponsor. 

During FY 1990, NASA identified various technologies developed under the MMW program as having use in 

the President’s Space Exploration Initiative. These technologies include the use of MMW reactors to reduce trip 

times or to provide large amounts of power for advanced 

space settlements. There were no user funds in FY 1990 

for propulsion or space settlements. 

Thermionic Fuel Element Verification Program 

The Thermionic Fuel Element (TFE) program is a 

component development effort which was established to 

resolve outstanding issues associated with the use of TFEs 

in continuous space reactor systems, so thermionics could 

be a viable technology choice for future space reactor 

systems. Thermionics, like thermoelectrics, is a means of 

converting heat directly to electricity without moving 

parts and offers the potential of conversion efficiencies 

which are higher than thermoelectric. The primary emphasis of the program is directed at demonstrating a 

seven- to 10-year operational lifetime of TFE components 

92 
through accelerated and real-time testing in appropriate 

radiation environments. 

The development effort includes a series of tests in 

irradiation facilities involving insulators, fueled emitters, 

collectors, and single cell thermionic converters. Results 

from the initial series of irradiation testing of these 

components have been encouraging and will guide the 

design and selection of materials for later tests in the 

program. The program will culminate in FY 1995 with a 

prototypical test of a TFE in a fast reactor environment. 

Nuclear Detonation Detection 

Another important DOE responsibility in the space 

arena is providing the specialized sensors needed to 

satisfy national requirements for detection, identification, 

location, and characterization of nuclear detonations 

anywhere within Earth’s atmosphere or in neighboring 

interplanetary space. The concept of satellite-borne nuclear 

explosion surveillance came about during interagency 

discussions from 1959 to 1962 and led to the Vela Hotel 

(later called the Vela Satellite) Program. Six pairs of Vela 

satellites were launched from 1963 to 1970. The last Vela 

operated reliably until it was intentionally turned off in 

September 1984. Other newer satellite systems have since 

taken over this mission. From the beginning, this program 

has been a joint effort of DOD and DOE. Development, 

design, and production of the nuclear explosion detection instrumentation were responsibilities of DOE; while 

the rest of the satellite hardware, launch, telemetry, and 

day-today operations were responsibilities of DOD, 

which also had the overall coordination and scheduling 

role. Both DOE and DOE have shared in special operations and tests and in data interpretation and use. 

The program today has three primary objectives: 

Verification of compliance with the Limited Test 

Ban treaty (1963) and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation 

Treaty (1968) wherein nuclear testing was banned in the 

atmosphere, under water, and in space and the nonweapons states pledged not to manufacture or otherwise 

acquire nuclear weapons or explosive devices. 

Provision of intelligence information on nuclear 

tests that occur outside the jurisdiction of the treaties or 

clandestinely in violation thereof. 

Detection and location of multiple atmospheric 

and near-Earth nuclear bursts for strategic battle management in time of war. 

The information required for each of these objectives is similar and, thus, DOE has developed detector 

suites to simultaneously address all three. 

DOE laboratories maintain continuous technology 

development efforts for improving the underlying technologies. The goals of these efforts include better energy 

resolution, faster response times, wider spectra coverage, 

greater reliability, and the development of advanced 

sensor concepts. In FYs 1989-1990 emphasis was placed 

on improved radiation hardening and miniaturization of 

the spaceborne electronic systems, on data compression 

logic to minimize communication channel demands, on 

the development of new detector concepts for the 

monitoring of x-rays, and on studying the effects of the 

space radiation environment on spacecraft systems. Many 

such developmental experiments are flown aboard NASA 

satellites and several are conducted in cooperation with 

the space programs of other countries. 

93 
Department of the Interior 

As the Nation's overseer of nationally owned public 

lands, the U.S. Department of the Interior's (DOI) 

responsibility includes the management, conservation, 

and development of land and water resources. To fulfill 

this mandate, the Department often uses remote-sensing 

technology. The Department supports an active program 

of basic and applied research in remote sensing, spatial 

data handling, and technique development. During 1989 

and 1990, remote-sensing activities involved all nine DO1 

bureaus: the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau of Land 

Management, the Bureau of Mines, the Bureau of 

Reclamation, the Minerals Management Service, the 

National Park Service, the Office of Surface Mining 

Reclamation and Enforcement, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and the U.S. Geological Survey. 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition, 

Processing, and Production 

Satellite Data 

Landsat. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) received, processed, and cataloged over 15,000 scenes of 

multispectral scanner (MSS) 

data and 500 scenes of thematic mapper (TM) data 

for the Landsat archive in 

fiscal years (FYs) 1989 and 

1990. The U.S. Landsat 

archive now totals approximately 950,000 

scenes. In addition, periodic updates were made to 

the on-line catalog system 

that references the U.S. 

archive and the nearly two 

million Landsat scenes held 

by the Landsat receiving 

stations in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Italy, 

Japan, Spain, South Africa, 

and Sweden. Over 25,000 

customer products resulted 

from the Landsat program 

in FYs 1989 and 1990. 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. 

The USGS receives and archives Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data for the conterminous United States and portions of Canada and Mexico 

directly from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellites and processes the data for 

DO1 land-science applications and other Federal agency 

research projects. The capability to receive and process 

tape-recorded AVHRR data of foreign areas was added in 

FY 1990. Approximately 30 to 40 scenes of foreign data 

are acquired daily and used for vegetation mapping and 

monitoring programs in Africa, agricultural assessment 

programs, and global change research. 

Aircraft Data 

National Aerial Photography Program. The 

goal of the National Aerial Photography Program is to 

acquire complete aerial photographic coverage of the 

United States (except Alaska) every five years for applications in agriculture, forestry, soils, land and resource 

management, mapping, and Earth science studies. Federal agency participants include the USGS (which manages the program), Bureau of Land Management, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, Soil ConserCONTERMINOUS US VEGETATION CONDITION - 06/03 - 08/16/1990 

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Eslla Umn" 

7% 0.1. IU CLIUITO 26 m'm u rYl.,a yo ex m "1Ln - %*l 

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Vegetation greenness map (original in color) of the conterminous United States produced from 

AVHRR data acquired between August 3 and 16,1990. Maps were produced every two weeks 

during the 1990 growingseason to show changes in the vegetation greenness due to normal 

vegetation growth patterns as well as other factors such as drought. 

94 
Remote Sensing Research and Applications 

Renewable Resources 

Resource Invenfory and Assessment. The Burcau of Indian Afpairs (BIA) conducted severd resource 

inventory and assessment projects that support thc UIA 

Indian Integrated Kesourcc Information Program. Landsat 

Thl (thematic mapper) data ivcrc uscd to digitally classify 

land use and land covcr on the White Earth (MinncsotLi) 

and Ihthcad (Washington) Indian Keserv:rtions, and 

riparian vcgctation on the Fort Peck (Montanzi) Kcscrvation. The French Satellite pour I'Obsenlation de la Tewe 

(SPOT) panchromatic and mcrgcd SPOT 'Landsat TI1 

images were visually intcrprctcd to update existing road 

USGS side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) image mosaic 

showing Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Lake is at 

center right. The low angle of the radar beam's west-look 

illumination enhances terrain features. The area shown cove6 

approximately 7,000 square miles (4,200 square kilometers) 

in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. 

vation Service, National Agricultural Statistics Service, 

U.S. Forest Service, and Tennessee Valley Authority. 

Contracts were awarded in FYs 1989 and 1990 for 

acquisition of aerial photographs covering all or parts of 

Arizona, California, Connecticut, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, 

Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, Nevada, &ode Island, 

South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming. Several States that were covered also contributed 

funds to these contracts. 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar Data. The USGS 

acquires side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) data to 

support research in energy and mineral exploration, 

hydrologic studies, Earth hazards investigations, and 

glacier and ice sheet mapping. Since 1980, these data have 

been acquired for more than one-third of the country. 

During FYs 1989 and 1990, SLAR data were acquired of 

approximately 90,000 square kilometers in the States of 

Alaska, Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Michigan, 

Missouri, Mississippi, Montana, New Mexico, Nevada, 

New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Washington. 

Selected data for many areas of interest are now being 

distributed inexpensively on compact disc-read only 

memory (CD-KOM). 

networks and map vegetation on the Colville (Washington) Reservation. Maps of non-irrigated croplands and 

surface geology were produced by visual interpretation of 

Landsat TM images of the Fort Peck (Montana) Reservation. 

Aerial photographs and SPOT and Landsat data were 

interpreted for rangeland assessment and prairie-dog 

control programs on the Fort Belknap and Crow Keservations (Montana). Historical aerial photographs were obtained for use by Indian tribes in litigation involving 

reservation boundaries and water-quality assessments. 

Kesults of these projects are permanently archived as part 

of the BIA National Data Base. Landsat TM and SPOT data 

were used by the BIA to develop image maps for several 

reservations at different scales, as determined by reservation size. 

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) used a 

variety of remote sensing tools for inventories and monitoring on public lands. Aerial photographs were acquired 

for almost 50,000 square kilometers of portions of Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas for 

applications involving rangeland, forest land, and wildlife 

management. Land-cover mapping was conducted for the 

Snake River Birds of Prey Area, Idaho; in Oregon for elkhabitat classification; and for a wilderness area in New 

Mexico and other sites in Washington and Wyoming. A 

new application of low-altitude aerial photographs was 

developed to evaluate and monitor critical riparian vegetation conditions in Colorado, Idaho, and New Mexico. 

The Bureau of Reclamation (BOK) continues to use 

remote sensing and geographic information systems 

(CIS) to monitor irrigated lands to support water-rights 

litigation. Irrigation status (irrigated or not irrigated) was 

95 
determined using Landsat TM data for all agricultural 

fields within the Newlands irrigation project in Nevada 

and combined with highly accurate field area measurements from other map sources to provide reliable estimates of the total irrigated area. Because of the success of 

the Newlands program, a similar database is being 

developed for the entire Upper Colorado Kiver Basin. 

The BOK is building a large digital geographic 

database of the entire Colorado River corridor in the 

Grand Canyon to aid in assessing environmental changes 

caused by Glen Canyon Dam, and to help develop future 

operation criteria for the dam. This database will contain 

2-foot (0.6-meter) topographic contours derived using 

photogrammetric techniques; river morphology; land-use 

and land-cover data derived from current and historic 

aerial photographs; and other field-collected information. 

The National Park Service (NPS) uses an integrated 

approach to remote sensing and CIS. GIS techniques are 

used to improve digital image classifications, while results 

of digital classifications are used in GIS analyses. Aircraft 

scanner data, Landsat MSS (multispectral scanner) and TM 

data, and SPOT MSS and panchromatic data are being 

used for all parks in Alaska and many medium to large 

parks in the conterminous United States. In smaller parks 

or where the type or level of information cannot be 

extracted from digital data, photointerpretation is used 

and the results are digitized. Satellite data are being used 

to develop cost-effective vegetation and land-cover information for approximately three-fourths of the National 

Park area. 

Resource Mapping in Alaska. During the past 10 

years, the USGS has worked cooperatively with Federal 

and State resource management agencies in Alaska to 

produce land-cover and terrain maps and corresponding 

digital databases for over 810,000 square kilometers. 

Land-cover databases from these projects were standardized and reformatted for twelve 1:250,000-scale USGS 

quadrangles by the end of FY 1990 as part of the USGS 

Interim Land Cover Mapping Program for Alaska. 

Cooperative projects were initiated between the 

USGS and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to 

remap portions of the Arctic and Yukon Flats National 

Wildlife Refuges through digital analysis of Landsat TM 

data. Research also continued with the USFWS to evaluate 

SPOT MSS data for wetlands and waterfowl habitat 

assessment on the Central Arctic Coastal Plain. The USGS 

and the Alaska Department of Natural Resources successfully compared SPOT data with existing topographic 

maps to locate and determine the extent of erosion on the 

coast of the Beaufort Sea. 

Wetlands Mapping and Inventory. The USFWS 

continues to use high-altitude aerial photographs to 

conduct the National Wetlands Inventory, which must be 

completed for the remainder of the conterminous United 

States by 1998 and, as soon as practicable, for Alaska and 

noncontiguous portions of the United States. This database is used to foster wise use of the Nation’s wetlands 

and to expedite decisions that may affect this important 

resource. These data were used to update the information 

contained in the report “Status and Trends of Wetlands 

and Deepwater Habitats in the Conterminous United 

States, 1950’s to 1970’s.” A current report was delivered to 

Congress at the end of Ey 1990, and it will be updated 

every 10 years. 

The BOR is monitoring four wetland areas in North 

and South Dakota by producing yearly maps of submergent 

and emergent wetland vegetation from large-scale aerial 

photographs. These maps are digitized and a GIS is used 

to monitor vegetation changes. 

WiUfire Mapping and Monitoring. The USGS 

and NPS used Landsat TM data to measure the severity 

and extent of the fires that burned in and near Yellowstone 

National Park during the summer of 1988. A Landsat TM 

image, acquired after most fires were extinguished, was 

used to classify burn severity. When combined with 

existing NPS vegetative cover classes, the burn severity 

classes provide a more complete characterization of the 

burned area than was previously available. Tabular 

summaries and maps were also produced. Satellite data 

are also being used to monitor the effects of and recovery 

from fire and other natural and human impacts in 

Everglades, Yellowstone, Yosemite, and Mesa Verde 

National Parks. 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA) has funded a cooperative project among the NPS, 

BLM, and NOM to determine the potential of AVHRR 

data for early detection of wildland fires. Computer 

programs to locate fires are being developed. Once this 

process has been refined, it will be tested using historic 

data about fire occurrence. If the technique is successful, 

options will be evaluated for operational use. 

96 
The BLM uses AVHRR data in conjunction with 

maps and aerial photographs for fire fuels mapping. This 

information is used to assess fire hazard and to assist in 

fire suppression once fires have been detected. 

Hydrology 

Accurate estimates of snow-covered areas are critical to accurate runoff estimates. The BOR and USGS are 

cooperating with the National Weather Service to develop 

new methods for snow-cover mapping using AVMKK data 

as part of the National Remote Sensing Hydrology Program. Techniques developed by the BOK to distinguish 

clouds from snow on the basis of scene brightness were 

refined. False signals from warm soils were eliminated, 

and a change detection technique was developed to 

distinguish snow from bright mineral surfaces and to 

identify snow partially obscured by conifers. Aerial 

photographs were acquired for comparison with snowcover analyses made using AVHRK data acquired on the 

same day. USGS activities included the development of 

algorithms for 1) atmospheric correction of AVHRR data, 

and 2) adjusting for the effects of varying sun angle caused 

by the wide AVHRR field of view. 

As part of the joint USGS/NASA/Department of 

Agriculture study of the snowpack in the Upper Colorado 

River Basin, the Ice and Climate Project continued to 

collect data on snowpack properties, including vertical 

profiles of grain size, density, and temperature at key sites 

across the Upper Colorado River Basin. This unique sixyear data set contains the only synoptic information on 

both the within- and between-year variations of grain 

size, one of the two fundamental parameters that determine the passive microwave characteristics of a snowpack. Data concerning the other parameter, water 

equivalent, are obtained from the Soil Conservation 

Service; the combination of these two data sets is now 

being used to develop and verify models of the evolution 

of snowpack properties. 

The BOK continues to develop models to predict 

reservoir surface temperature, turbidity, and Chlorophylla concentrations from Landsat TM and MSS images. These 

models reduce the amount of costly field sampling that 

must be done to determine the level of certain lake 

nutrients and are used to produce maps of lake parameters that cannot be obtained from any other source. 

Oceanography 

The Minerals Management Service sponsored research at Oregon State University to develop tags equipped 

with Argos satellite radio transmitters to monitor the 

migration of individual Kight whales (along the Atlantic 

Coast) and Bowhead whales (in the Arctic Ocean). One 

Right whale was tagged off Nova Scotia during the 1989 

summer field season and tracked for about 1,500 kilometers over a 22-day period. Additional field tests were 

conducted with Right whales off Nova Scotia in 1990. 

Information about marine mammal migration will be used 

to plan offshore oil-and-gas leasing, to limit the impact of 

oil-and-gas extraction on marine mammals. 

Geology 

MuUispectralData Analysis. The USGS and NASA 

are assessing the utility of Airborne Visible and Infrared 

Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data as a geologic mapping tool in semiarid terrains. New AVIRIS data (220 

bands), airborne scanner data (64 bands), and airborne 

MSS data (24 bands) are being evaluated to discriminate 

rock types and identify constituent minerals over a test 

site in Utah. Current research emphasizes spectral data 

visualization and development of procedures and products that will enhance the use of data from the HighResolution Imaging Spectrometer and other Earth Observing System instruments to be launched in the late 

1990s. 

Mineral and Energy Resource Assessment. The 

USGS has discovered that Landsat TM data can be used to 

map a particular mineral that is indicative of organic 

material in igneous rocks. Rocks containing this indicator 

mineral, buddingtonite, were first observed through 

analysis of a Landsat TM image of the Cedar Mountains in 

Nevada and later confirmed by field studies and highresolution aircraft data. Buddingtonite had been found to 

occur with mercury- and gold-bearing hot springs deposits in California and Nevada and may be a useful indicator 

for mineral exploration. 

The USGS recently acquired 12 airborne geophysical and remotely sensed data sets over portions of the 

Osgood Mountains, Nevada, an area that includes a string 

of gold deposits. The data have provided much new 

information on geologic structures beneath the sedimen97 
tary cover, such as documenting the presence of potentially mineralized faults beyond their previously known 

extent, and locating a deeply buried fault that may have 

controlled mineralization at a newly discovered gold 

deposit. 

USGS geologists developed a new method for 

mapping temperature differences in organic-rich sedimentary rocks. The method uses Landsat TM data to 

detect reflectance differences that are related to thermally 

induced chemical changes in the organic matter in the 

rocks. The technique was used to detect a shallowly 

buried mineralized pluton in Spain, where the initial work 

was done in a cooperative study with the Instituto 

Tecnologico Geominero de Espana. Information about 

the thermal history of sedimentary rocks is critical to 

energy resource studies. 

SLAK images of the central and southern Appalachians have been used by the USGS to identify zones 

where the folded mountains become abruptly narrower, 

or plunge out along their trend (strike direction). These 

zones are believed to be areas where major flat-lying 

faults, deep in the subsurface, are deflected upward or 

downward along strike direction to form features called 

lateral ramps. Proprietary seismic data confirm this hypothesis. Lateral ramp zones would be poor prospects for 

oil and gas, but may contain mineral deposits. 

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is using 

both SPOT and Landsat TM data to assess and monitor 

mineral development activities on public lands. Applications included mapping of coal, oil, and gas developments in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming) and monitoring of lease compliance at hardrock mineral extraction 

sites in California and Nevada. 

Underground and Surface Mining Applications. Kesearch by the Bureau of Mines (BOM) has 

revealed that lineament analysis could reliably identify a 

significant portion of unstable geologic structures in both 

eastern and western U.S. coal mines. During 1990 a 

demonstration study was initiated at a mine in northern 

Colorado to better define the interrelationships of lineaments with the stability of the overburden rock. Several 

rock-mechanics instruments were installed in the mine 

and on the surface to allow a direct comparison of 

quantitative measures of rock-mechanics parameters and 

stress distributions with the locations and subsurface 

extensions of lineaments. The results of this research will 

SLAR images have been used to understand the geologic 

structure of the Appalachian Mountains. Zones known as 

lateral ramps have been identified on this SLAR mosaic of 

Pennsylvania, shown here between the two black lines. The 

position of the ramp appears on the SUR mosaic as a change 

in the size of the folds east and west of the ramp. The 

relationship of a lateral ramp to faulting in the deep crustal 

rocks is shown in the inset diagram. The arrow shows the 

direction of crustal movement. 

be useful for exploration, site characterization, and general mine planning. 

The BOM has also integrated GIS technology with 

remote-sensing techniques to identify areas of underground coal mines that have potential for ground-control 

problems such as roof falls and water inflows. This 

involves combining and comparing diverse data sets such 

as lineaments interpreted from Landsat images, landsubsidence data, locations of past ground-control problems, geologic and topographic maps, data from in-mine, 

rock-mechanics instruments, and other data such as roofcontrol plans from a BOM engineering information system. 

The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and 

Enforcement (OSM) continues to use aerial photographs 

as part of its program with coal mining companies and 

State regulatory agencies in designing, monitoring, and 

reclaiming surface coal mines. Aerial photographs were 

used as the base for topographic maps to help plan mines 

and calculate earthwork volumes. Other design uses 

include evaluating the soil resources of areas to be mined 

and identifying the location of pre-mining drill hole sites 

used to map the stratigraphy of mining sites. 

Aerial photographs were used by the OSM to 

determine regulatory compliance by identifying and 

98 
Mt. Redoubt, AK, which has been erupting periodically since 

December 16, 1989, is portrayed here in a digital oblique 

perspective view derived from 1:250,000-scale OEM data. 

This view, projected from a point due north of the volcano, 

shows both the active crater (A) which occurs in the basin 

between the two peaks, and the debris chute (B), down which 

numerous mud flows have moved. The mud flows have caused 

flooding in the Drift River valley which flows to the left into 

Cook Inlet. 

monitoring areas under construction, areas to be reclaimed, wildcat-mining sites and two-acre mining sites 

where the mining boundaries had been exceeded, spoil 

ridges, and acid mine drainage. In other cases, 35- 

millimeter and 70-millimeter aerial photographs and 

videotape were used in inaccessible areas to detect large 

surface cracks created by underground mining and to 

assess the danger posed by abandoned surface mines. 

Pre- and post-mining aerial photographs were used in a 

court case to document the extent of illegal mining and 

to calculate the amount of coal removed by the operation. 

Landslide HarardAssessment. The USGS, NASA, 

and the U.S. Forest Service are developing techniques for 

using Landsat TM and other remotely sensed data for 

assessing landslide potential in California and Oregon. 

Initial research indicates that general vegetation classes 

can be used in models to predict the occurrence of debris 

flows, which are fast-moving, sometimes lethal landslides. Examination of forest-canopy architecture with 

remote sensing is a useful technique for finding the 

relatively slow-moving but disruptive earth flows that 

hamper logging operations. 

Alaska Volcano Monitoring. Mt. Redoubt 

erupted several times during December 1989, disrupting 

air traffic and spreading ash over south-central Alaska. 

The USGS prepared a digital oblique perspective image of 

Mt. Redoubt from a combination of Landsat MSS data and 

USGS digital elevation data to support the Alaska Volcano 

Observatory’s monitoring effort. 

Planetary Studies 

Archiving of Planetary Data. A large, diverse 

collection of planetary data is threatened with permanent 

loss because of its storage on deteriorating tapes and the 

lack of personnel who have special knowledge of the 

original data. The USGS is cooperating with the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory to record these data onto CDKOMs for long-term protection. Processing is complete 

for Voyager images taken during the Neptune and Uranus 

encounters, and the best of the Saturn and Jupiter 

encounters. The entire Viking Orbiter data set, consisting 

of over 50,000 radiometrically corrected images of Mars, 

is being transferred. The USGS is also advising on the 

procedures to archive the huge data sets from the new 

missions such as Galileo, Mars Observer, and Magellan. 

Mars Digital Cartographic Database. The 

USGS has completed a global mosaic of Mars using nearly 

5,000 individual Viking Orbiter images. It is the largest 

known digital-image mapping project undertaken by any 

agency, providing the first complete view of Mars -at 

relatively high resolution (231 meters per mosaic pixel). 

Voyager Flyby ofNeptune’s Moon Triton. Images 

of Triton’s complex surface became the highlight of the 

Voyager Neptune encounter, revealing a dense concentration of pits crisscrossed by ridges, caldera-like structures possibly containing frozen lakes, and at least two 

active geyser-like plumes. Computer processing techniques were developed to produce high-resolution, geometrically controlled mosaics from 50 individual digital 

multispectral images in fewer than three days; in the past, 

months or years have been required to produce such 

high-quality mosaics. 

Earth-Approaching Asteroids. Observers around 

the world, including USGS scientists, continue to discover 

new Earth-approaching asteroids. Five such asteroids 

were found in a single dark-of-the-moon observing 

period in late 1989, and USGS scientists independently 

99 
discovered three more asteroids and confirmed the existence of an another one in early 1990. There are estimated 

to be about 1,000 Earth-approaching asteroids larger than 

one kilometer in diameter. Asteroids or comets that can 

be detected early are of a size that is expected to modify 

the global climate of Earth for at least a short time. After 

an impact, another one might not be expected to occur for 

100,000 years. 

Cartography 

Satellite Image Mapping. The USGS continued to 

produce image maps from satellite data. Noteworthy 

examples include: 1:250,000-scale Landsat TM image 

maps of the San Francisco Bay area, California, with 

selected type printed in opaque silver ink on the image 

side to provide unobtrusive presentation of feature names; 

a black-and-white 1:250,000-scale Landsat band 7 image 

map of the Great Salt Lake area showing the Newfoundland Evaporation Basin, which was created by pumping 

water from the Lake to reduce flooding during a period 

of unusually high runoff from surrounding mountains; 

and a 1:7,500,000-scale false-color image map of the 

conterminous United States produced from AVHRR data. 

The BLM continued its image mapping work by 

applying techniques for combining image data sets with 

different spatial and spectral characteristics. Landsat TM 

data and SPOT data were combined digitally to produce 

an image that has the spectral quality of the Landsat TM 

multispectral data and the 10-meter resolution of the 

SPOT panchromatic data. More than 250 7.5-minuteequivalent map quadrangles were produced using these 

procedures. 

Global Positioning System Global Positioning 

System technology now provides most of the positioning 

required for mapping control, revision, and accuracy 

testing within DOL New systems capable of two-meter 

positional accuracy have enhanced production. The USGS 

completed two major surveys in California to support 

land-subsidence studies and is also using this technology 

for ground-water well locations and for stream-gauging 

site locations. USGS is using Global Positioning Systems 

in the analysis of the Loma Prieta (California) earthquake. 

Prior to the earthquake, USGS geophysicists had identified this area as a potential earthquake zone and had 

This computergenerated perspective view of one of the 

calderalike depressions on Neptune’s moon, Triton, was 

produced from a high-resolution Voyager image. The caldera 

floor, approximately 200 kilometers in diameter, is extremely 

flat and probably was formed by the volcanic eruption of ice 

lavas of very low viscosity. The topography was vertically 

exaggerated 20 times to produce this perspective view. 

established a network in the area to monitor movement. 

Remeasurements of the network commenced two days 

after the earthquake and will be extremely useful for postseismic studies. 

Global Change Research 

Global Ice Monitoring. Landsat and AVHRR images acquired during the past 18 years have been used by 

USGS glaciologists to measure changes along the coastal 

margin of the Antarctic ice sheet. During 1989 and 1990, 

velocity measurements were made of 20 outlet glaciers or 

ice streams from sequential paired Landsat images. Determination of the mass balance of the Antarctic ice sheet, 

which contains 91 percent of Earth’s glacier ice, is 

important in ascertaining whether the ice sheet is gaining 

or losing mass. Even a slight change in the volume of ice 

in Antarctica would result in a rise or fall of sea level. 

Changes in the Antarctic coast are being mapped under 

a five-year cooperative program involving the USGS, 

NASA, the United Kingdom, Norway, and the Soviet 

Union. More than 300 new Landsat images and Soviet 

100 
Soyuzkarta photographs are being compared with earlier 

Landsat images of Antarctica, acquired between 1972 and 

1977. 

In 1978, the USGS began to prepare a “Satellite 

Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World,” a long-term project 

involving more than 55 scientists from the United States 

and 29 other countries to study the glaciated regions of 

Earth from Landsat MSS images and ancillary data. The 

distribution of glaciers in each geographic area is compared, wherever possible, with historical information 

about their past extent. The second of 11 planned 

chapters, covering the glaciers of Irian Jaya, Indonesia, 

and New Zealand, was published in 1989. 

Ice and CZimate Project. The USGS actively participates in the international Ice and Climate Project. The 

goal of the project is to understand the variations of the 

cryosphere-sea ice, snow, ice sheets, and glaciers-in 

the global hydrologic cycle. These variations strongly 

affect the world’s water resources through the complex 

interactions between the cryosphere, the atmosphere, 

and the ocean at time scales that range from days to 

decades and longer. Project investigators are performing 

pre-launch experiments, developing algorithms, and organizing post-launch experiments for the first European 

Research Satellite (ERS-1) of the European Space Agency 

and the Franco-American Topex-Poseidon Satellite 

(TOPEX). As part of an ERS-1 pre-launch experiment, a 

Seasonal Ice Zone Experiment (SIZEX) expedition was 

conducted in 1989 to study the complicated atmosphereice-ocean interactions in the Barents and Greenland seas. 

Polar and subpolar water and air masses in this region 

exchange heat, water vapor, and momentum, which 

strongly influences global weather and climate. 

Micromorphology of Coastal Areas. Rising sea 

level, severe storms, and coastal engineering projects 

cause changes in low-relief coastal features such as spits, 

barrier islands, wetlands, and deltas. However, existing 

maps of U.S. coastal areas do not have sufficient topographic contours to accurately delineate these areas. To 

obtain more detailed coastal information, the USGS 

initiated a cooperative research project with the NASA 

Goddard Space Flight Center and the Coastal Research 

Center of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to use 

airborne laser altimeter data to measure the 

micromorphology of coastal features on outer Cape Cod, 

MA. Several airborne laser altimeter profiles, with vertical 

elevation and horizontal position accuracies of less than 

one meter, were acquired over portions of the Cape. 

Preliminary results indicate that these data will permit 

contour intervals of 1 meter to be delineated, providing 

an important new capability to rapidly and accurately 

determine changes in low-relief areas. 

Earth Observing System. The USGS is cooperating with NASA to use the USGS EROS Data Center for 

processing, archiving, and distribution of land-related 

data from the Earth Observing System (EOS) polarorbiting platforms beginning in the late 1990s. During 

1989 and 1990, USGS participated with NASA in the 

conceptual design of the EOS Data and Information 

System (EOSDIS). The USGS is working with NASA and 

other elements of EOSDIS to develop capabilities to 

process, archive, and distribute EOS precursor data sets in 

preparation for development of the operational system. 

Gbbal Land Information System The USGS is 

developing the Global Land Information System, an online land data directory, catalog, and inventory system, to 

provide an interactive source for information about, and 

access to, data pertaining to Earth’s land surface. It will 

provide an on-line, interactive, geographic- and discipline-oriented data query and product-request capabilities. The system will serve as one of the principal nodes 

of the national Global Change Data and Information 

System being developed by the Interagency Working 

Group on Data Management for Global Change. As a 

demonstration of information system interoperability, 

directory interchange format records describing data 

holdings of the Global Land Information System have 

been submitted to the Global Change Master Directory. In 

addition, an interim network link between the Global 

Change Master Directory and the USGS EROS Data Center 

allows Master Directory users to place requests electronically for additional information or to search the 

inventory of a particular data set. 

Prototype Land Data Sets. The USGS has begun 

a major initiative to organize, produce, and distribute land 

data sets consisting of satellite image data integrated with 

other related land data. These data sets will enable global101 
change scientists to quantify fundamental land-surface 

attributes needed to model land-surface processes, detect 

and monitor land-surface change, and map land cover for 

regional, continental, and global-land areas. Major areas 

of activity are associated with 1) developing the logistics 

for acquiring satellite image data of Earth’s land area; 2) 

developing consistent, standardized processing procedures; 3) developing or refining related land data to 

provide an improved base of land-surface data for integrated evaluation with satellite data; and 4) integrating 

satellite data with other land data for distribution to the 

global-change science community. Periodic data sets of 

the conterminous United States are being produced from 

AVHKK data to provide biweekly calibrated and registered spectral data and a vegetation-greenness index at 

one-kilometer resolution. Additional derivative data sets, 

such as biweekly albedo and vegetation greenness change 

maps, will be published annually on CD-ROM. 

The BOK is working with the USGS and Utah State 

University to produce maps of agricultural crops and 

natural vegetation for five river basins in California, 

Colorado, Nevada, and Utah using Landsat TM and MSS 

data. These maps, as well as other data such as soils, 

elevation, slope angle, and slope aspect, are put into 

hydrologic and water-use models that provide estimates 

of the effects of various climate change scenarios on water 

quality, availability, and use. 

International Activities 

Africa 

The USGS provides technical and logistical support 

to the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)- 

sponsored Agricultural-Hydrological-Meteorological 

(AGKHYMET) program in West Africa. This program, 

established in the 1970s, is designed to provide timely 

meteorologic and hydrologic data to decisionmakers in 

nine West African countries and the World Meteorological 

Organization for their use in agricultural forecasting. The 

program has facilities at an AGRHYMET Regional Center 

in Niamey, Niger, and at National AGRHYMET Centers in 

each of the member countries (Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, 

Chad, Guinea Bisseau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, 

and The Gambia). USGS staff are transferring USGS 

remote-sensing and GIS technologies to African specialists at the Regional and National Centers. The Regional 

Center now receives, processes, and distributes AVHRR 

satellite data and produces vegetation condition maps for 

the nine member nations. 

with USAID support, the USGS continued to assist 

African countries in producing and using AVHKR-based 

vegetation condition maps for locust control and vegetation monitoring in Africa. The USGS successfully transferred 

this technology to the AGRHYMET Regional Center in 

Niamey, Niger; the Center provided the products directly 

to AGRHYMET countries during the 1990 season, and 

similar products were provided to Sudan and Morocco. 

Although the locust situation has improved dramatically 

since 1988, the maps provide important information 

during years of low locust populations as well as in plague 

years. 

The USGS also continued to provide technical 

assistance to the USAID Famine Early Warning System 

project which was established in 1985 by USAID to 

identify human populations at risk of food shortages and 

famine in seven Sahelian countries. The project uses GIS 

technology and AVHRR satellite data to target and monitor areas with famine risk. The USGS also assisted in the 

development of data-handling procedures and maintains 

the Famine Early Warning System data archive. 

Middle East 

The USGS continued its support of remote-sensing 

activities in the Middle East. The USGS supported the 

Saudi Arabia Directorate General for Mineral Resources 

Remote Sensing facility in mineral-resource and general 

geologic mapping studies. Landsat image maps at scales 

of 1:20,000, 1:50,000, and 1:250,000 were produced for 

the Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates, to support 

ground-water studies and general geologic mapping. 

At the request of the Yemen Government and 

USAID, the USGS provides assistance in the application of 

airborne and satellite remotely sensed data to mineralresource assessments in North Yemen. The Government 

of Jordan received assistance from the USGS, through 

USAID, in the use of remotely sensed data to support 

general geologic mapping of the entire country. The 

USGS also provided technical assistance to the Government of Qatar’s National Remote Sensing Center. 

102 
Latin America 

Under the auspices of the Pan American Institute of 

Geography and History and the DMA Inter-American 

Geodetic Survey, and in cooperation with the Instituto 

Geografico Militar of Bolivia, the USGS conducted an 

evaluation of SPOT and Landsat TM data in 1989 for 

change detection and map revision of the Santa Cruz de 

la Sierra (Bolivia) 1:50,000-scale map. This project successfully demonstrated the use of satellite images with 

sufficient spatial and spectral resolution and positional 

accuracy for map revision at 1:50,000 scale. 

Since 1988, the BOR has provided consultation to 

the Brazilian Ministry of Irrigation on the use of land 

remote sensing and GIS technology to compile basic 

environmental information for planning irrigation development in the semiarid, northeast region of Brazil. 

Iceland 

The USGS continued cooperation with the NASA 

Goddard Space Flight Center and the National Research 

Council of Iceland in a study of active volcanic zones and 

glaciers of Iceland using SLAR and airborne laser altimeter 

data. A Global Positioning System survey facilitated 

precise plotting (with an error of less than one meter) on 

base maps of numerous airborne laser altimeter profiles 

of lava flows, erosional changes on the island of Surtsey, 

and heavily crevassed surfaces of several outlet glaciers 

from the Vatnajokull ice cap in Iceland. 

Antarctica 

The USGS, NOAA, and the Royal Aircraft Establishment Remote Sensing Center (United Kingdom) are 

compiling a 1:5,000,000-scale image mosaic map of 

Antarctica from AVHRR satellite images. It will be the first 

image map ever published of the entire continent. Because the ice-bound coast of Antarctica is dynamic, 

conventional mapping techniques are unsuitable for 

rapidly mapping the entire continent. 

The USGS has completed collection of data for the 

National Science Foundation-funded study on the ice 

streams of West Antarctica, using low-frequency, shortpulse, ice-penetrating radar, and is now analyzing the 

data. Significant variations in the bottom return of 

the radar signal tentatively appear to be related to the 

dynamics of the ice streams. These studies suggest that 

the West Antarctica ice sheet may behave abnormally, 

which may be relevant to global-change studies. 

103 
Department of Agriculture 

Space-related activities of the US. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) have in the past primarily focused on 

satellite remote sensing. The research utilizes remotely 

sensed data from space platforms in the assessment of 

agricultural conditions and in management of water, soil, 

and forest resources. In 1989 and 1990 effects were 

expanded to include basic research on the development 

of plant-growing systems that could be adapted to manned 

space vehicles. Plant scientists at USDA's Beltsville 

Agricultural Kesearch Center in Beltsville, MD are now 

engaged in research on plant-growth characteristics in 

controlled environments. The primary objective of the 

research is to find optimum growing conditions for 

particular plants given certain environmental stress factors. 

The research has a direct bearing on growth and 

productivity of plants that might be grown in the closed 

environment of a spacecraft. 

Recent results in remote sensing research, using 

Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) and thematic mapper 

(TM) data, have demonstrated that digital Landsat data 

can be used to monitor suspended sediments-such as 

soil particles, sand, and organic matter-in lakes and 

reservoirs. Suspended sediments are the major cause of 

degradation of surface water quality. 

A two-year investigation by USDAs Agricultural 

Kesearch Service (AKS) on the utility of remotely sensed 

data to monitor suspended sediments in selected lakes in 

Oklahoma was completed in 1989. The cooperative 

project involving the Oklahoma Conservation Commission and the AKS Water Quality and Watershed Research 

Laboratory based in Durant, OK has produced technology 

which can economically assess in detail the suspended 

sediment in Oklahoma reservoirs on a repetitive basis. 

The effort is now being expanded to a State-wide 

assessment of over 100 lakes in cooperation with the 

Oklahoma Water Kesources Board and another 60 lakes 

in cooperation with the Oklahoma Conservation Commission. A unique feature of the initial research activity 

was the use of a corps of volunteer observers who visited 

and collected data from 16 small- to medium-sized lakes 

in south-central Oklahoma each day of a Landsat overpass. 

The suspended sediments in lakes and reservoirs 

are derived from upland soil loss. This upland soil loss is 

caused by sheet, rill, and gully erosion and has been 

recognized as a significant cause of topographic change 

on the landscape. Currently, changes in landscape topogCloswp of tomato plant growing In a plant culture system 

designed for NASA. Two plastic pipes are fitted one inside the 

other. The inner pipe is wettable and porous. It serves as the 

source from which the roots draw nutrients and also helps 

support the roots. (USDA, Agricultural Research Service 

photo) 

raphy and soil loss from gullies are estimated using field 

measurements which are costly and time consuming, yet 

do not accurately map the surface topography in the detail 

necessary to provide good estimates of soil loss. Kesearch 

at the USDA ARS Hydrology Laboratory, Beltsville, MD is 

under way to evaluate the use of remote-sensing technology 

to measure upland soil erosion and the subsequent 

suspended sediments in water bodies. 

An airborne laser profiler is being used to monitor 

soil surface topography. Airborne laser-profile data collected over simulated gullies and natural conditions 

clearly showed the location, depth, and cross section of 

simulated gullies as small as 20 to 70 centimeters wide and 

10 to 30 centimeters deep and demonstrated the potential 

for using this technology to monitor changes in surface 

104 
Tomatoes growing in a plant culture system designed for 

NASA. Unlike hydroponic systems on Earth, plants in space 

systems willbe unable to absorb waterornutrients in the form 

of water droplets. In weightlessness or very small simulated 

gravity from centrifugal force, the liquid will have to be 

absorbed as a thin fllm to keep it from floatingaway. (USDA, 

Agricultural Research Service photo) 

topography to provide better estimates of soil loss from 

uplands and thus better estimates of the potential impact 

of suspended sediments on water quality. 

Using these two remote-sensing techniques, Landsat 

MSS and TM, and the laser profiler can provide conservation agencies with better information on upland soil 

loss and suspended sediments in inland water. Improved 

information will allow conservation agencies to make 

better plans for controlling soil loss and improving water 

quality. 

The University of Texas at Austin and the AKS 

Remote Sensing Research Unit at Weslaco, TX have begun 

a cooperative program with support from the local cotton 

industry to evaluate agricultural applications of Landsat 

multispectral satellite imagery in the Rio Grande Valley. 

The primary application studied was that of monitoring 

the destruction of defoliated cotton stalks for pink bollworm control. Initial research indicated that other useful 

agricultural management applications would be possible, 

including mapping of saline soil and cotton root rot 

occurrence. Preliminary results indicate that Landsat 20- 

meter-resolution, TM multispectral satellite imagery is 

sufficient for on-farm management decisions about individual fields. 

Research was begun in 1989 to integrate satellite 

remote-sensing data into forage-production modeling. 

The project is a cooperative effort of the ARS Crops 

Research Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO and the Earth 

Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center, U.S. 

Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, SD. The primary goal of 

the investigation is to develop procedures for monitoring 

primary production in grassland ecosystems. A significant 

aspect of the new research is the use of low-resolution 

multispectral data from U.S. polar-orbiting weather satellites as a primary data source. Data from the advanced 

very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) sensor are 

being compared with data derived on-site at an experimental range in northeastern Colorado. The AVHRR data 

are converted to “vegetation index numbers” through 

mathematical combinations of two channels (spectral 

bands) on the sensor. The vegetative index numbers 

indicate the presence and amount of green vegetation. 

Successful development of procedures to monitor large 

grassland areas using AVIIRK-derived parameters will 

overcome, in part, the disadvantages of the low-resolution sensor and will permit full and advantageous use of 

the system’s other primary characteristics: coverage of 

large areas of Earth’s surface and frequent repeat coverage. 

Scientists from 20 countries presented their research 

at USDA’s 15th annual science symposium, “Remote 

Sensing for Agriculture,” held in May 1990. The symposium, co-sponsored by the Department’s Agricultural 

Kesearch Service and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center, examined how some of the newest space technology can help agriculture and the environment. Much of 

the research presented was aimed at interpreting measurements of spectral radiation-light, heat, and microwaves reflected or emitted from soil, water, and plants. As 

techniques for comparing spectral measurements made 

from sensors on aircraft and satellites improve, remote 

105 
Scientists of USDA ’s Agricultural Research Service 

demonstrate applications of airborne video systems at the 

Department’s 15th annual science symposium, “Remote 

Sensing for Agriculture. ” Videotaping farms, ranches, and 

forests from aircraft could provide fine detail and immediate, 

costeffective information for monitoring and management. 

(USDA, Agricultural Research Service photo) 

Root growth of sixday-old soybean plants is monitored to 

determine the response to different wavelengths of light. 

More growthgoes into the leaves when plants are exposed to 

light without its blue component. (USDA, Agricultural Research 

Service photo) 

sensing will be increasingly used to monitor crop and 

forage growth over large areas of Earth’s surface. 

The “spinoff” from space research and development 

to agriculture, for example, the use of satellite data and 

imagery to monitor vegetation conditions, has been wellpublicized. What is less well-known, except in portrayal 

of futuristic scenarios, is the reverse flow, from agricultural research to space systems development. 

As the prospect for extended habitation of space 

draws nearer, there will be increased need to be able to 

develop a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS), 

in which higher plants (or perhaps algae) are used as a 

means of providing food, regenerating the atmosphere, 

and recycling human wastes. 

Through its extramural programs at a number of 

universities and through its intramural programs at the 

Kennedy Space Center in Florida, the Ames Research 

Center in California, and the Johnson Space Center in 

Texas, NASA is taking the essential steps required to have 

a functional CELSS in space. 

During the past two years, scientists at the Beltsville 

Agricultural Research Center have been working with 

NASA scientists to identify radiation requirements for 

growing plants in space and to develop special systems 

for growing tomato plants in solution culture on a tabular 

membrane system. The studies are part of an AKS research 

program in the Climate Stress Laboratory to determine the 

physiological and morphological effects of root restriction. 

Guidance on radiation requirements is being provided by 

AKS scientists in the Plant Photobiology Laboratory. 

Although USDA scientists have provided informal 

advice to NASA in their CELSS program since the mid1970s, this is the first effort by ARS investigators to 

develop a cooperative laboratory research program with 

NASA on CELSS. Although there are many questions 

which must be answered before astronauts can begin to 

harvest crops in space, this example of technology 

transfer on the part of USDA opens up an exciting avenue 

for continued close cooperation between the two Federal 

agencies. 

106 
Federal Communications Commission 

Communications Satellites 

International Commercial Communications Satellites 

At the beginning of 1989, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) global 

communications system consisted of 13 operating satellites in geostationary orbit: one INTELSAT IV-A, three 

INTELSAT Vs, one INTELSAT V-M, two INTELSAT V-As 

and one INTELSAT V-B in the Atlantic Ocean Kegion 

(AOR); two INTELSAT V-Ms and one INTELSAT V-A in the 

Indian Ocean Region (ION; and one INTELSAT V and 

one INTELSAT V-M in the Pacific Ocean Region (POK). 

The last INTELSAT IV-A series satellite was retired in 

August 1989. 

The final INTELSAT V series satellite, the INTELSAT 

V-B (F-151, was launched on January 26, 1989, by an 

Aridne 2 rocket and placed in orbit at 60 degrees East 

Longitude in the IOR. The first INTELSAT VI series 

satellite, the INTELSAT VI (F-2), was launched successfully on October 27, 1989, by an Ariane 44L launch 

vehicle, and was placed in orbit at 335.5 degrees East 

Longitude in the AOR. The second INTELSAT VI series 

satellite, the INTELSAT VI (F-31, was launched on a Martin 

Marietta Titan 3 launch vehicle on March 14, 1990. 

Because the second stage failed to separate from the 

payload, the satellite did not achieve geosynchronous 

orbit and is presently stranded in a low-Earth orbit some 

300 miles high. In an effort to rescue the satellite, 

INTELSAT has contracted with NASA for a shared shuttle 

mission in early 1992. The third INTELSAT VI series 

satellite, the INTELSAT VI (F-4) was launched on a Titan 

3 on June 23, 1990. IJpon completion of in-orbit testing, 

thc satellite will enter service at the 332.5 degree East 

Longitude orbital location in the AOK. As of September 

30, 1990, INTELSAT deployed or had plans to deploy a 

total of 15 satellites in geosynchronous orbit: two Vs, one 

V-M, one V-A, one V-B, and two VIS in the AOK; two VMs, one V-A, and one V-B in the IOK; and two Vs, one VM, and one V-A in the POR. 

The IJnited States and the United Kingdom completed Article XIV(d) consultation with INTELSAT for two 

Ku-band satellites to be used by the Orion Satellite 

Corporation for service between the United States and the 

United Kingdom. The Commission is now considering 

Orion's request for final authority to construct, launch, 

and operate the satellites. 

Artist's rendition of INTELSAT VI, first one of series launched 

October 27,1989. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

In 1989 and 1990, domestic fixed-satellite licensees 

continued to implement satellite systems that were authorized in 1988. These satellites will provide domestic 

satellite capacity through the 1990s and will offer users a 

wide range of services including video services, highspeed data services, private network services, and audio 

services. 

Although no new satellites have been launched 

since the beginning of 1989, 42 satellites are currently 

authorized for operation. As of September 30, 1990, 30 

domestic fixed-satellites were in-orbit and located between 69 degrees West Longitude and 143 degrees West 

Longitude on the geostationary orbital arc. 

Maritime Satellite Service 

Efforts to establish a Global Maritime Distress and 

Safety System are continuing. The International Maritime 

107 
Organization is developing the system which will use 

INMAKSATA, INMAKSAT B, INMAKSAT C, and INMARSAT 

M ship Earth stations via the International Maritime 

Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) satellite system. On 

two other satellite systems, emergency position indicating 

radio beacons (satellite EPIRBs) are providing initial 

distress alerting information from ships to rescue coordination centers. The systems are the polar-orbiting SARSAT, 

a NOAA Weather Service satellite for search-and-rescue 

satellite data tracking, and the Russian equivalent, called 

COSPAS. The INMARSAT Council, in mid-1990, approved 

L-band EPIRBs through the INMARSAT satellites at 

geostationary orbit. The Global Maritime Distress and 

Safety System is planned to be phased in between 1992 

and 1999. 

INMARSAT serves over 10,000 vessels through its 59 

member-country organization. Twenty coast stations in 

15 countries are in operation, with several more planned. 

Currently, INMARSAT is leasing the following groups of 

satellites. These include two in-orbit satellites from the 

European Space Agency-an operational MAKECS A in 

the Pacific Ocean Region (POR) and an operational 

MAKECS B-2 in the Atlantic Ocean Region (AOR); three 

in-orbit INTELSAT Maritime Communications Subsystem 

(MCS) satellite packages-the operational MCS B (F-6) in 

the AOK, the operational MCS D (F-8) in the POR, and the 

operational MCS A (F-5) in the Indian Ocean Region 

(IOR); and three MARISAT back-up spare satellites leased 

from Comsat General-the MARISAT F-1 in the AOR, the 

MARISAT F-3 in the POR, and the MARISAT F-2 in the IOR 

which are also for special-purpose use. In the fall of 1990, 

INMARSAT introduced operation in a “Fourth Ocean 

Region,’’ the Atlantic Ocean Region-West (AOR-W), by 

relocating the MAKECS B-2 further west, thereby enabling 

INMAKSAT to provide improved global coverage. 

The first INMAKSAT second-generation satellite is 

projected to become operational in late 1990. The secondgeneration satellite’s capacity will about triple that of the 

present leased satellites. In 1989, INMARSAT issued a 

Request for Proposals for a third-generation satellite 

system. The specifications for this system include spot 

beams and the capability to operate within the full 

maritime spectrum. In mid-1990, the INMARSAT Council 

authorized the Director General to negotiate and award 

a contract to GE Astro by the end of 1990 for the purchase 

of three or four INMARSAT satellites, pending the successful negotiation of outstanding technical, managerial, 

legal/contractual, and financial issues. 

Aeronautical Satellite Service 

In 1989, the Federal Communications Commission 

decided that the public interest requires that INMARSAT 

international aeronautical mobile satellite services be 

made available to users in the United States and that these 

services are best suited for aircraft that are in international 

flight. The Commission also concluded that the best 

means of both promoting competition in the provision of 

INMAKSAT aeronautical services and achieving timely 

and effective U.S. entry into the world market would be 

to permit Comsat to be the U.S. provider of INMARSAT 

aeronautical space segment capacity as ancillary to its role 

as U.S. Signatory and operating entity for INMARSAT 

maritime services. 

The process of adopting amendments to the 

INMARSAT Convention and Operating Agreement, which 

will allow it to offer aeronautical services on a competitive 

basis, was completed in 1989 and the amendments are in 

effect. INMARSAT’s four second-generation spacecraft 

are being constructed with 3 megahertz (MHz) of bidirectional bandwidth in the Aeronautical Mobile-Satellite Service (R) band. The third generation satellites are 

proposed to be capable of operating over the entire 

Aeronautical Mobile-Satellite Service (R) allocation of 10 

MHz of bi-directional bandwidth. 

The International Civil Aviation Organization through 

its subcommittee on Future Air Navigation Systems and 

the Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service Panel have been 

discussing standards for aeronautical satellite services and 

other issues involving the use of satellites in a coordinated 

program for civil aviation. The aviation community is 

actively developing, through the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee, aircraft equipment standards for 

satellite voice-and-data services. The aviation industry, in 

cooperation with INMARSAT, is developing aircraft antennas and avionics needed for this service. Aeronautical 

Radio, Inc., has requested to provide international aeronautical services via INMARSAT by interconnecting its 

terrestrial VHF (very high-frequency) network with satellite facilities for oceanic coverage. In addition, the 
American Mobile Satellite Corporation is proposing to 

provide exclusive U.S. domestic aeronautical mobilesatellite service on its system (see following section). 

In September 1990, the United States formally 

accepted amendments to the INMARSAT Convention and 

Operating Agreement which will enable INMARSAT to 

provide land mobile-satellite services on a competitive 

basis. These amendments are similar to earlier amendments which enabled INMARSAT to provide aeronautical 

services. The land mobile amendments will enter into 

force upon acceptance by two-thirds of INMAKSAT’s 

member countries representing two-thirds of the investment shares. With U. s. acceptance, the investment share 

requirement of two-thirds was met; however, acceptance 

by 22 additional member countries was still needed. In 

anticipation of approval, the third-generation INMARSAT 

satellites are proposed to be capable of operating over the 

entire land mobile-satellite allocation of 7 MHz of bidirectional bandwidth. 

Mobile Satellite Services 

The radiodetermination satellite service (RDSS) 

continued to develop in 1989. This service was authorized 

in 1986 and allows subscribers to determine latitude, 

longitude, and altitude, and to exchange brief coded 

messages using hand-held or vehicle-mounted transceivers. Geostar Positioning Corporation, the licensee in this 

service, continued construction of its three dedicated 

KDSS satellites, which are to operate in the frequency 

bands allocated for RDSS. Geostar also commenced twoway start-up service in 1989 by using capacity on domestic fixed satellites on a non-interference basis. 

In addition, the Commission in 1989 authorized 

the American Mobile Satellite Corporation to construct, 

launch, and operate three satellites in the mobile satellite 

service (MSS). The satellite network, which is expected to 

be implemented in 1993 and 1994, will provide a variety 

of domestic land, aeronautical, and maritime mobile 

satellite services. The mobile telephone, radio, and data 

services proposed for the system will be used for longrange vehicle dispatch and location services, emergency 

communications, rural telephone service, and paging 

service. Aeronautical voice-and-data communications are 

planned for both safety and commercial purposes, such 

as air traffic control and airline passenger communications. Issuing the MSS license culminated a proceeding in 

which the Commission proposed to allocate spectrum for 

MSS in 1985, allocated 27 MHz of L-band spectrum in 

1986, and established licensing procedures in 1987. 

In 1989, the Commission also authorized Qualcomm 

Corporation to construct and operate a two-way mobile 

data communications network that uses capacity on 

domestic fixed satellites. Although Qualcomm’s proposed 

satellite-to-mobile-unit transmission link was to operate 

in frequency bands that were not allocated to the mobile 

satellite service, the Commission permitted Qualcomm to 

provide these services on a non-interference basis to 

other authorized services in those bands. Qualcomm’s 

network is designed to provide a variety of data services 

between a customer’s operation center and its mobile 

users. 

Finally, in response to several applications that were 

filed, the Commission initiated proceedings to consider 

establishing new mobile-satellite services in new frequency 

bands. In 1990, the Commission adopted a Notice of 

Inquiry asking for information that will assist it in developing 

technical standards and regulatory policies for the possible introduction of a satellite sound-broadcasting service. 

In addition, the Commission issued a Notice of Proposed 

Rulemaking to reallocate frequencies in the lower portion 

of the L-band to a generic mobile-satellite service (that is, 

to land, aeronautical, and maritime mobile-satellite communications). 

Direct Broadcast Satellite Servlce 

The Commission authorized the Direct Broadcast 

Satellite (DBS) service in July 1982, in order to provide 

satellite delivery of video programming directly to homes 

via small (two 3-foot-diameter1, relatively inexpensive 

($300-$500), receiving stations. The Commission granted 

the first several conditional construction permits later that 

year. Two of those original permittees continue to hold 

their permits and are currently scheduled to begin operations by late 1992. U.S. Satellite Broadcasting Company, 

Inc., and Dominion Video Satellite, Inc., are each authorized to provide eight channels of service to each half of 

the United States. 

Several additional parties have subsequently re- 
ceived conditional construction permits and should begin 

operations in three to four years. Hughes Communications Galaxy, Inc., and Advanced Communications Corporation received conditional construction permits several years ago and are each authorized to provide 27 

channels of service to each half of the United States. In 

February 1990, formation of “Sky Cable,” a partnership 

consisting of Hughes, Cablevision Systems Corporation, 

NBC, and The News Corporation Limited, was announced. 

Sky Cable projects launch of its service in late 1993. 

Continental Satellite Corporation, Direct Broadcast 

Satellite Corporation, DIRECTSAT Corporation, and 

EchoStar Satellite Corporation have each been authorized 

to begin satellite construction to provide 11 channels of 

service to each half of the United States. All conditional 

permittees have recently submitted contracts which claim 

to demonstrate due diligence in satellite construction. 

Most of these parties would prefer to operate with 

single signals covering the entire United States, rather 

than with pairs of signals, each covering half of the 

country. The Commission has approved such operations, 

although it also instituted a rulemaking proceeding to 

determine whether and how to ensure DBS service to 

Alaska and Hawaii in light of such single-signal operations. Commission action on this matter can be expected 

in the near future. 

International Conference Activities 

During 1989, the Commission adopted a Notice of 

Inquiry initiating the private sector preparations for the 

1992 International Telecommunication Union World Administrative Radio’s “Conference for Dealing with Frequency Allocations in Certain Parts of the Spectrum.” The 

agenda for this conference has been finalized. The main 

objective of the conference is to provide allocations for 

radio services including space services which were not 

satisfied at previous radio conferences and to accommodate low-Earth-orbit satellite systems. The Commission 

also established a U.S. Government/private sector Advisory Committee to provide recommendations for positions 

and proposals for this conference. 

The Commission also consulted with INTELSAT in 

accordance with Article XIV(d) of the INTELSAT Agreement for transborder service to Canada, Mexico, Latin 

America, and other Caribbean countries. These services 

are carried on 33 domestic satellites that are operational 

or have been authorized for launch and operation through 

1991 consistent with the 1988 Orbit Assignment Order. 

Similarly, the United States concurred in the INTELSAT 

consultation for the provision of transborder services to 

the United States from the Canadian Anik satellites and the 

Mexican Morelos satellites. 

110 
Department of Transportation 

Two organizations within the Department of 

Transportation conduct major research and development 

programs in the field of aeronautics and space. These are 

the Federal Aviation Administration, one of the 

Department’s modal administrations, and the Office of 

Commercial Space Transportation, which is a component 

of the Office of the Secretary. 

Federal Aviation Administration 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is charged 

with the dual mission of regulating air safety and fostering 

civil aviation. The agency engages in a broad range of 

research and development concerned with increasing 

safety, promoting aviation, and enhancing the efficiency 

of air navigation and air traffic control. 

Aviation Safety 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System 

The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System 

(TCAS) program reached important milestones during 

calendar year 1989 and fiscal year 1990. The system uses 

air-to-air interrogations between transponder-equipped 

aircraft to provide pilots with traffic advisories that 

indicate the range, bearing, and altitude of aircraft posing 

a potential threat. Some types of TCAS also provide a 

resolution advisory when conflicts occur between two 

aircraft carrying altitude-reporting transponders. 

The program has three elements. The first, TCAS I, 

a low-power system that provides alerting information 

without recommended escape maneuvers, will be required in turbine-powered airplanes with 10 to 30 passenger seats by early 1995. FAA completed specifications 

for the system, and in 1989 awarded a contract for design, 

fabrication, and evaluation of six TCAS I units. 

The second element, the TCAS I1 version, which 

provides not only traffic alerts but also resolution advisories that indicate whether the pilot should climb or 

descend, will be mandatory in all aircraft of more than 30 

seats by December 31, 1993. In 1989, FAA completed the 

third TCAS 11 limited installation program, a six-month test 

involving two airliners, and awarded a contract to evaluate the system’s use by commuter airlines. In 1990, the 

A controller operates ARTS Ill€ equipment at the New York 

Terminal Approach Control Facility. 

agency contracted for a program to monitor the system’s 

national implementation, and certificated the first production TCAS I1 installation. More than 100 of the units 

had been installed by September 30, 1990. 

TCAS 111, the third element, generates traffic alerts 

and resolution advisories that include rightkft turns as 

well as altitude changes. During 1989-90, FAA completed 

technical specifications for TCAS 111 and also completed 

two studies verifying that TCAS I1 units can be upgraded 

to TCAS I11 performance levels. 

Aircraft Crashworthiness 

The agency completed analysis of a new doublewalled auxiliary fuel system, which demonstrated significantly improved rupture resistance under crash impact 

forces, and enhanced the program KRASH computer 

model that simulates impact effects. FAA conducted a fullscale vertical drop test of an Aero Commander 680E, a 

commuter-class aircraft with a high-wing design. The test 

yielded information on occupant survivability and data on 

metal structures that will be used for comparison with 

future tests on advanced composite structures. The agency 

also started collecting impact data on low-wing commuter 

aircraft, beginning with vertical drop tests on a Cessna 

421B. FAA concluded new agreements with elements of 

111 
NASA and DOD for joint research on composite structurcs. With thc Navy, thc agcncy dcvelopcd a method for 

estimating residual strength in damaged composite structures. 

A via tion Weather 

Lou?-LerTel Wind Shear Alert System One of 

se\wal FAA approaches to the hazard of wind shear, a 

sudden change in wind speed and dircction, is the 

ground-based Low-Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS) 

system, which uses computer proccssing to compare 

wind speed and direction from sensors located at the 

airport. 'I'hc tmsic \.ersion generates an alert for air traffic 

controllcrs whcnever center-field wind data differ significantly from data at the airport perimeter. .. By September ,- 

30, 1990, FAA had deployed 60 of the phase-two version, 

an upgraded system that provides an alert whenever any 

sensor's data deviate from the network average. The 

agency also contracted to further upgrade phase-two with 

new computers and software. In addition, FAA continued 

work on phase-three LLWAS, which has an expanded 

network of sensors and other enhancements. Two prototype phase-three systems were commissioned for operational use in 1988, and in 1990 FAA prepared to contract 

for seven more. 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar. FAA continued an operational evaluation of Terminal Doppler 

Weather Kadar (TDWK) using two test radars, one at 

Denver and the other at Kansas City in 1989 and Orlando 

in 1990. Major objectives were to establish procedures for 

use of TDWK data, evaluate air traffic displays and the 

integration of wind shear warnings from TDWK and other 

systems, and determine if wind shear characteristics vary 

geographically. Radar output was displayed to air traffic 

controllers in real time. The evaluations supported procurement of 47 TDWK radars. 

Airborne Wind Shear Program In a joint program to develop system requirements for airborne wind 

shear detection and avoidance equipment, FAA and 

NASA have been assessing three promising sensor technologies that employ microwave radar, laser radar, or 

infrared devices. In 1989, the program emphasized flightcrew alerting and operational procedures, with tests 

yielding important data on the key question of how far in 

A sensor for the Low Level Wind Shear Alert System, 

mounted on a tall steel pool. 

front of the aircraft the sensors need to look for timely 

hazard detection. In 1990, FAA and NASA executed a 

second agreement with the aim of developing advanced 

technology involving onboard sensors, reception and 

processing of ground-based data, and transmittal of 

airborne data to the ground. 

Icing. FAA and the National Center for Atmospheric 

Research in 1989 began a six-year research program to 

develop improved forecast methods based upon data 

now routinely available and also to address basic research 

topics such as the formation of supercooled liquid water 

in the atmosphere. Other activities included publication 

of a three-volume Aircraft Icing Handbook for aircraft 

designers and certification engineers. 

Automated Weather Observing System. The 

Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) automatically collects a variety of weather data, analyses it, 

and provides round-the-clock weather forecasts to pilots 

by radio broadcast and telephone voice response. Besides providing grants for partial AWOS funding, FAA in 

1988 ordered 160 of the advanced AWOS I11 systems for 

installation at airports without towers. The agency's first 

operational AWOS began service in 1989, and 50 more 

had been installed by September 30, 1990. FAA also 

continued its program to procure additional and more 

sophisticated Automated Surface Observing Systems. 

112 
The Thermal Neutron Analysis system for detecting 

explosives hidden in passenger-checked baggage. 

Electromagnetic Environment Program. In cooperation with the Society of Automotive Engineers and 

industry, FAA produced a draft Advisory Circular and 

Users Manual on the hazards of electromagnetic radiation 

to flight. The agency ]published a Lightning Protection 

Handbook for certifica.tion specialists and design engineers, and Advisory Circulars on protecting aircraft from 

lightning’s direct and indirect effects. FAA also prepared 

a draft plan for a research and development project on 

High Intensity Radiated Fields. 

tities of explosives. Other new technology being considered by the agency includes millimeter wave imaging, a 

technique capable of detecting both metallic and nonmetallic weapons, and chemiluminescence explosive 

vapor detection. 

The agency participated with Baltimore-Washington Airport’s operator and air carriers in completing a 

conceptual design for upgrading all aspects of security at 

two concourses. The design is part of a long-term 

examination of an integrated systems approach to aviation security that includes such considerations as personnel selection, training, communications, technology, and 

architecture. 

Airport Pavement Research 

FAA developed criteria for coal tar’s use to seal and 

protect airport pavements and for pavement design using 

alternative materials such as lime and fly ash. The agency 

sponsored research on employment of polymers for such 

purposes as runway repair and strengthening. FAA 

completed a successful three-year test of an improved 

pavement design method at an airport where severe frost 

damage had forced runway closure and also issued a 

survey-based report identifying research needed to address winter pavement distress. Other projects included 

work on a method of predicting pavement performance 

that will account for material characteristics and the mix 

of aircraft using the runway. 

Aviation Security 

Human Factors Research 

The first of six thermal neutron analysis (TNA) 

systems purchased by the agency began operation in 

September 1989 at John F. Kennedy Airport. TNA is a 

high-technology explosives detection system capable of 

searching 600 passenger-checked bags per hour and able 

to detect all known commercial explosives, including 

plastics. By the end of 1990, the second, third, and fourth 

TNA systems were operational at airports serving Miami, 

Washington-Dulles, and London, England. An electronic 

device to provide an alternative, nonradioactive neutron 

source for the TNA system was successfully tested. 

FAA-funded research to identify the next generation 

of explosives-detection systems showed promising results. 

Gamma-ray resonance absorption was demonstrated in 

the laboratory to be capable of detecting smaller quanIn 1989, a Government-industry task force reported 

on the need for human factors research to improve civil 

aviation performance and safety. In response to this 

initiative and to 1988 legislation, the FAA formed a Human 

Factors Coordinating Committee. With NASA and DOD, 

the Committee sponsored planning groups that prepared 

a draft National Plan for Aviation Human Factors to be 

released for public comment in early FY 1991. 

In cooperation with NASA, the FAA investigated the 

effects of fatigue and circadian desynchronization on 

crew alertness during long over-water flights. As a result, 

FAA is studying regulatory actions allowing controlled 

rest periods on certain types of long-haul flights. NASA 

and FAA also continued evaluation of Cockpit Resource 

113 
Management (CKM) training. FAA issued a rule authorizing the Advanced Qualification Program, a new training 

approach in which CKM is mandatory. 

The agency joined NASA and the Air force in a multiyear program to classify and evaluate pilots’ strategies for 

coping with excessively low or high workloads. FAA also 

completed an initial report on development of a standard 

flight-crew error classification, and began analyzing data 

to determine human performance factors in commuter 

and air taxi crashes. 

FAA developed a prototype that uses “expert systems” computer technology for realistic radar training 

exercises, demonstrated this system at Boston in 1989, 

and then in 1990 contracted for operational evaluation at 

two other locations. FAA also sponsored development of 

a prototype human factors course for certification personnel. 

The agency initiated studies on human factors 

related to aircraft maintenance and inspection and to the 

need for revised analyses of the tasks of airway facilities 

maintenance technicians. Examples of the many other 

projects included the following: work to improve instrument approach chart design; flight simulator experiments 

on data link’s use in hazardous weather alerting; and 

establishment of a working group to combat pilot/ 

controller communications errors. 

Other Safety Developments 

Aging Aircraft. FAA published and then expanded 

its National Aging Aircraft Research Program Plan to deal 

with the problems of the aging transport fleet by addressing such issues as structural fatigue, corrosion, nondestructive testing, flight loads, and human factors. The 

agency sponsored the second annual International Aging 

Aircraft Conference in 1989 and participated in the third 

in 1990. FAA completed a survey of non-destructive 

inspection equipment and initiated work with NASA to 

assure coordination of research on aging aircraft problems. The agency developed a course on corrosion 

control, based on DOD work, and began offering this 

training to its own inspection personnel and to industry. 

International Aircraft Operator Information 

System. The agency completed program and implementation plans for creation of a data collection and dissemination system to provide the latest airworthiness safety 

A cabin safety tuselage burnthrough test after the fire was 

extinguished. 

information quickly to all operators of US.-certificated 

aircraft. 

Turbine Engine Rotor Burst Protection. FAA 

completed the first phase of its cooperative project with 

the Army and Navy on the development of lightweight 

“soft wall” materials that can absorb and contain fragments from disintegrating turboshaft engine rotors. FAA 

also initiated two research contracts on soft wall and 

ceramic protective materials. 

Aircraft Digital Systems. The agency conducted 

studies of flight-critical digital systems technology, in 

cooperation with NASA, and prepared handbook material 

on measuring software quality. 

Aviation Fuels. FAA completed its evaluation of 

alternate fuels for light aircraft, concluding that piston 

engines and associated fuel systems would require significant modifications to permit safe use of gasoline-alcohol 

blends. Alcohol-derived ethers (either straight or blended 

with aviation gasoline) showed promise as alternate fuels 

for piston engines, despite some limitations. Small turbine 

engines would require some redesign to avoid operational problems with alternate fuels containing more than 

114 
An impact test of an approach lighting support tube as part 

of the Low Impact Resistance Structure development 

program. 

15 percent alcohol, while blends containing less alcohol 

could also create certain problems. Flight tests showed 

performance decay in turbine engines during climb for all 

alcohol blends. 

Aircrafi Rescue and Firefighting. The agency 

began a major effort to establish firefighting requirements 

at general aviation airports and heliports through a 

program that will include full-scale tests simulating 

postcrash fuel fires. A new foam agent that reduces overall 

agent-to-water weight ratio was tested during 1989 and 

will be incorporated into the prototype of a new lightweight 

firefighting vehicle. FAA is also developing foam-agent 

specifications to assure uniform standards. 

FireSafety. Working with the Air Force, the agency 

in 1989 completed a four-year program to evaluate 

inflight cabin smoke evacuation. Major results included a 

valve with a converging-diverging nozzle that allows 

continuous smoke evacuation during descent and final 

approach, and a device that produces realistic, buoyant 

test smoke. FAA also completed a two-year burnthrough 

test program in which intact fuselages were exposed to 

large external fuel fires. The agency sponsored an international program in which 18 laboratories conducted 

smoke chamber tests of the same aircraft interior materials, which led to testing improvements. Working with 

Boeing, FAA completed a product definition study on an 

Aircraft Command in Emergency Situations (ACES) system to provide more timely and reliable information to the 

crew during an in-flight fire, and decided to develop an 

ACES prototype. Other aircraft systems fire safety projects 

included evaluation of an onboard cabin water-spray 

system, flight testing of hand-operated smoke evacuation 

valves, and work on a study of recycling Halon 1301 used 

for aircraft fire protection. 

In 1990, FAA initiated a fuel-fire, risk-assessment 

program to identify the most probable causes of postcrash 

fires and promising prevention methods. The agency also 

continued a contract for small-scale tests to evaluate new 

fuel modifiers to minimize postcrash fire hazards. 

Low Impact Resistance Structures. FAA continued developing Low Impact Resistance Structures 

(LIRS) to reduce damage to aircraft that might collide with 

air navigation equipment and supports. The agency 

participated with Commerce’s National Institute of Standards and Technology in projects that included the 

following: development of analytical computer models; 

completion of an impact testing facility for LIRS components; design and testing of specialized electronic measurement systems; work on offshore LIRS design criteria; 

preliminary plans for field impact tests; and scheduling of 

a full-scale tower impact test. 

Jet Engine Bird Hazard Program The agency 

published an interim report on its worldwide collection of 

data on bird ingestion by commuter, executive, and 

Boeing 737 transport jet engines. The collected information will be used in upgrading airport and engine certification standards. FAA also completed the first year of a 

two-year study on bird ingestion in advanced, highbypass turbofan engines installed on wide-bodied transports. 

Medical Certification. FAA developed and will 

further refine computerized tests to detect cognitive 

deficits related to injury or diseases such as alcoholism. 

The agency completed a study on causes of medical 

certification denial for airline pilots, and conducted 

research on a variety of other topics such as the safety of 

beta-blockers and certain medications in treating hypertension in pilots. 

115 
Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

Air Traffic Control Modernization 

Advanced Automation System. The wholly new 

Advanced Automation System (AAS) will replace the air 

traffic control automation equipment now used in enroute and terminal air traffic control. AAS will include new 

computer software, processors, controller workstations 

called “Sector Suites,” and tower position consoles. The 

system will increase productivity, traffic capacity, and 

reliability and will provide the flexibility needed for future 

automation improvements. 

In 1989, production began on the first segment of 

the program, the Peripheral Adapter Module Replacement Item. The contractor continued design work on 

other key system elements, and FAA in 1990 took delivery 

of the IBM 3090 Job Shop Processor, a part of the AAS 

system support computer complex. 

Automated En-Route Air Traffic Control 

System The Automated En-Koute Air Traffic Control 

System (AERA) project will provide interactive software 

for use with the Advanced Automation System, improving 

airspace system capacity and efficiency through further 

automation. FAA made substantial progress on AERA-2, 

which provides controllers with advanced notice of 

potential problems and suggests resolutions. Laboratory 

evaluations of prototypes resulted in specifications for 

algorithms to accomplish problem resolution and computer-human interface. AEKA-3, the most advanced phase 

of the program, will automate aircraft separation and 

many planning functions, enabling air traffic controllers 

to concentrate on managing the overall safe flow of traffic. 

In 1989 and 1990, three key functional AEKA-3 elements 

were integrated into a “Protocenter” that is a basic 

prototype of an air route traffic control center. These 

elements were functions to ensure the following: that 

aircraft pairs never violate separation standards; that 

sufficient airspace is reserved for the safety of aircraft 

flying in clusters; and that the aircraft will meet metering 

requirements. 

Advanced Traffic Management System. The 

Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS) program 

goal is an evolutionary sequence of automation capabilities to enhance air traffic flow management. The Aircraft 

Projected Delay for Traffic 

Growth at Lindbergh Field 

Each scenario: No alterations to procedures 

or designs at the airport or in the airspace. 

Total Delay at 3 Levels of Traffic 

Minutes 

Aircraft 

per 

Hour of the Day 

Example from a SIMMOD computer simulation study 

conducted by the FAA in 1989. 

Situation Display system, which collects and displays realtime air traffic control data at the national flow control 

facility, was expanded to other major facilities during 

1989-90. The Monitor Alert function, which provides 

automated alerts of projected congestion and delay, is 

being adapted for national use. In 1990, initial algorithms 

for automated generation of alternative flow management 

strategies were incorporated into the ATMS testing program. 

Voice Switching and Control System. This system will provide controllers at air traffic control centers 

with computer controlled voice switching for intercom, 

interphone, and air-ground communications. It will be 

more efficient and economical than the present electromechanical system. In 1989 and 1990, the agency began 

testing two prototype systems. 

New York TRACON. FAA received the first benefits 

from a complex, two-stage program to increase the 

capacity of the New York TRACON (Terminal Radar 

Approach Control Facility), which services three major 

airports and 40 satellite airports. Stage I provides tracking 

of 1,700 aircraft within a 15,000-square-mile area, while 

116 
and help to define requirements for future data link 

capabilities. 

Airport Visual Aids and Lights 

The Precision Runway Monitor prototype installed a 

Raleigh-Durham, NC. 

Stage I1 will increase the tracking capability to 2,800 

aircraft. In April 1989, FAA successfully placed the Stage 

I system in operation at the TRACON. After system testing 

at FAA’s Technical Center, the Stage I1 hardware was 

installed at the TRACON in 1990 and on-site system testing 

began. 

Aeronautical Data Link. FAA began operational 

demonstrations of Aeronautical Data Link applications for 

the new Pre-Departure Clearance procedure at three 

major airports. Clearances arriving from en-route traffic 

control centers were intercepted at prototype Tower 

Workstations and routed to the airline dispatch computers with local departure information automatically appcndcd, cxcept when local circumstances required voice 

intervention. Airlines then delivered clearances to their 

crews using the Aircraft Communications Addressing and 

Reporting System Very-High-Frequency data link and/or 

printers located at the departure gates. Results included 

delay reduction for participating carriers and relief of 

voice frequency congestion. The experience gained will 

be used to develop specifications for an interim Tower 

Workstation implementation at high-density terminals 

The agency collected observations to test the effectiveness of standard taxiway signs, developed an improved marking of taxiway intersections, with associated 

lighting, and also completed a test plan for an operational 

evaluation of a self-contained, radioluminescent lighting 

system. In-service evaluation of an FAA-developed “holdshort” lighting system began at Boston Logan Airport 

during 1990. 

Airport Capacity 

Airport Capacity Design Teams. FAA continued 

to sponsor and participate in local airport capacity design 

teams that perform in-depth studies of current and 

anticipated demand levels, identify the causes of delay, 

and produce coordinated action plans. The teams quantify the benefits of various capacity enhancement actions 

and evaluate new technology applications. By September 

30, 1990, plans had been completed for a total of 11 

airports and were under way at 12 more. Over 400 task 

force projects had been designed, and six airports were 

considering new runways as a result of the studies. 

Simulation Models. The agency continued to upgrade SIMMOD, a simulation model for airports and 

associated airspace that is an extremely cost effective 

method of addressing capacity and delay problems. 

SIMMOD has been acquired by nearly 100 users since its 

public release in late 1989. FAA expanded use of the 

National Airspace System Performance Capability, which 

simulates the entire en-route air traffic control system and 

the Nation’s busiest airports, providing a quantitative 

foundation for FAA decisionmaking on issues that may 

have widespread effects on the airspace system. The 

agency also initiated efforts to develop a National Simulation Laboratory with large-scale, integrated capabilities 

that permit evaluation of new technologies, procedures, 

and global aviation concepts. 

Precision Runway Monitor. The Precision Runway Monitor program’s aim is to increase airport capacity 

through a safe reduction of constraints on use of parallel 

117 
or converging runways during instrument meteorological 

conditions. FAA has developed prototypes of two versions of a monopulse radar much faster and more 

accurate than today’s equipment. In one, an electronically 

scanned (E-scan) antenna updates the aircraft position 

every half second. The other version adds a second 

antenna to a Mode S type ground interrogator to achieve 

a 2.4-second update rate. Both systems have an improved 

radar display, automated predictor, and both visual and 

aural alerts. They are expected to reduce the spacing 

required between parallel runways used for simultaneous, 

independent parallel approaches from today’s 4,300 feet 

to perhaps as low as 2,500 feet. 

The Mode S type prototype was deployed at Memphis in 1988, and the E-scan prototype at Raleigh/Durham 

Airport in 1989. Operational demonstrations of both 

systems were conducted. Upon completion of the demonstration reports, a decision is expected as to whether 

the 4,300-foot spacing can be reduced and the update rate 

necessary to reduce it. The report tentatively recommends 

that a 2.4-second update rate is satisfactory for spacings 

3,400 feet or greater, and further analysis will yield a 

recommendation for less than 3,400 feet. 

Airport Surface Traffic Automation. The purpose of the Airport Surface Traffic Automation (ASTA) 

program is to develop techniques to prevent runway 

incursions and more fully automate control of aircraft 

ground movement, expediting traffic flow and increasing 

all-weather airport surface capacity. Program accomplishments included an initial ASTA-1 real-time simulation 

capability, an integrated system design, and a preliminary 

safety system description. FAA also contracted for operational evaluation of the Airport Movement Area Safety 

System, a commercially available system that detects 

possible incursions and alerts controllers. This early ASTA 

program product would be deployed at airports with the 

Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE-3) radar 

system. 

Terminal Air Traflic Control Automation. The 

Terminal Air Traffic Control Automation (TATCA) program is developing automation aids to increase terminal 

airspace capacity while enhancing safety and fuel efficiency. One project is a Converging Runway Display Aid 

(CKDA) that will allow dependent operations on both 

runways of a converging pair during instrument meteorological conditions, a procedure not presently permitted at 

most converging-runway airports. The aid will provide 

additional display information that will enable controllers 

to safely stagger approaches. In 1990, FAA was preparing 

CRDA algorithms for field evaluation, and also planning 

for field evaluation of the Center-TRACON Automation 

System (CTAS), which consists of three sets of integrated 

tools for providing advisories to controllers. These tools 

schedule arrivals to minimize delays, assist selection of 

conflict-free and fuel-efficient descent paths, and aid 

sequencing and spacing of aircraft on final approach. 

Other TATCA accomplishments included development of 

techniques for more accurately estimating winds aloft 

using radar surveillance data. 

Satellite Applications for Civil Aviation 

The U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS) will offer 

civil aviation another supplemental navigation aid, upgrade oceanic navigation, and improve approach and 

landing capability for the many airports not served by any 

instrument approach aid. For GPS to fully benefit U.S. 

aviation, international acceptance of satellite navigation is 

essential. In 1989, FAA initiated an activity with the Soviet 

Union, in cooperation with the International Civil Aviation Organization, to develop worldwide standards supporting these systems. Another of the rapidly emerging 

satellite applications for aviation is the Automatic Dependence Surveillance (ADS) technique, which will improve 

the safety and efficiency of oceanic flights by using data 

link to communicate the real-time positions of aircraft to 

control facilities. FAA’s Oceanic Display and Planning 

System (ODAPS), an automated system to assist in controlling oceanic flights, is installed in California and New 

York. The West Coast ODAPS began limited operations, 

and preparations continued to make the second unit 

operational. ODAPS can be enhanced to accept ADS 

position reports via satellite and provide two-way data 

link between pilot and controller. 

Synthetic Vision 

The Synthetic Vision Technology Demonstration 

project is a multi-agency/industxy cooperative effort jointly 

managed by FAA and the Air Force to develop a visual118 
Synthetic vision technology uses a Heads-Up Display to 

present a processed image of the runway to the pilot of an 

incoming aircraft. 

imaging system for very low visibility landing. Kelying on 

millimeter-wave technology, the system will give pilots a 

processed image of the runway area. A contractor was 

selected to deliver a weather-penetrating sensor for 

incorporation into the demonstration system, and FAA 

also initiated a Government/industry, certification-issues 

study team that developed a draft Advisory Circular for the 

Synthetic Vision concept. 

Ro torcraft/Powered-L;ft Vehicles Program 

Heliports and Vertiports. FAA published case 

studies of rotorcraft contributions to disaster relief, an 

analysis of rotorcraft operations at the successful Indianapolis Downtown Heliport, and the results of several 

tests on key heliport design parameters. Similar tests on 

vertiport parameters were planned, and approach lighting systems for rotorcraft instrument procedures were 

validated and documented in Advisory Circulars. 

Civil Tiltrotor. In cooperation with industry and 

with other agencies, FAA completed a draft Civil Tiltrotor 

Implementation Plan. The agency formed a new Vertical 

Flight Program Office and a special advisory subcommittee on tiltrotor technology and its civil applications. The 

subcommittee held hearings in June 1990 and prepared a 

report on alternatives for producing tiltrotors and the 

technology’s potential for commercial use, export, and 

the relief of airport congestion. FAA and NASA completed 

Phase I1 of their joint Civil Tiltrotor Missions and Applications Study, which offers new insights into such issues as 

civil tiltrotor designs, costs, markets, possible risk areas, 

and recommended additional research. FAA began an 

overall economic analysis of national tiltrotor implementation, and 15 local governments continued vertiport 

feasibility studies under Airport Improvement Program 

grants. 

Rotorcrafl Training and Safety. FAA completed 

a multi-year effort with the publication of the last of four 

volumes on Aeronautical Decision Making training for 

helicopter emergency service personnel. The agency 

began flight demonstrations and analysis of night-vision 

goggles to determine their suitability for civil rotorcraft 

use in low-visibility conditions. FAA conducted research 

on advanced procedures for approaches to heliports and 

investigated the use of side-stick and side-arm manipulators for rotorcraft and tiltrotors. The agency also conducted a comprehensive review of accidents to develop 

data on crash-resistant fuel systems for rotorcraft and 

planned a series of rotorcraft drop tests. 

Commercial Space Transportation 

Fiscal years 1989 and 1990 were turning points for 

the Department of Transportation’s Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation and the U.S. commercial launch 

industry. The first suborbital and orbital U.S. commercial 

launches licensed under the Commercial Space Launch 

Act began during FY 1989: on March 29, 1989, Space 

Services Inc. of America conducted a suborbital launch 

from the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. The 

two-stage Black Brant rocket carried a payload of several 

materials-processing experiments designed by the University of Alabama-Huntsville Consortium for Materials 

Development. On August 27, 1989, a McDonnell Douglas 

Delta rocket lifted off from Cape Canaveral carrying a 

British Satellite Broadcasting Co. communications satellite. A total of 10 successful launches took place during 

fiscal years 1989 and 1990. 

Key achievements for FYs 1989 and 1990 included 

119 
the following: 14 commercial launch licenses and six 

Commercial Launch Manifests were issued. The latest 

manifest, issued in July 1990, lists a total of 35 commercial 

launch contracts. 

State of the U.S. Commercial Launch Industry 

Launch Services Companies. As of the end of 

fiscal year 1990, at least six U.S. launch firms were actively 

marketing their services on a national and/or worldwide 

basis. These included three major aerospace companies-General Dynamics Commercial Launch Services, 

McDonnell Douglas Commercial Delta, Inc., and Martin 

Marietta Commercial Titan, 1nc.-as well as several smaller 

f irms. 

Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure 

U.S. firms currently rely upon the existing national 

launch infrastructure to support their operations. This 

infrastructure consists of several launch sites and facilities 

which are made available on a direct cost-reimbursable 

basis to commercial launch firms under the provisions of 

the Commercial Space Launch Act, as amended. 

An important development in this area has been the 

intentions of several States to consider constructing or 

developing commercial spaceports. The principal domestic spaceport initiatives are those for Hawaii, Florida, and 

Virginia. 

Hawah! In April 1988, the State of Hawaii completed a feasibility study and made the preliminary 

selection of two possible commercial space launch sitesPalima Point and Kahilipali Point-on the Island of 

IIawaii. After approval of funding by the legislature, the 

State recently began studies to prepare a master plan and 

an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the proposed spaceport. The EIS process began in September 

1989, with joint FederaVState participation, and it is 

scheduled to be completed by the end of 1990. 

In the summer of 1989, Hawaii requested a preliminary determination from the Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation as to the suitability of the two 

alternative sites. The Office conducted a study to determine whether launch activities may be safely conducted 

from either or both sites, the results of which were issued 

in a report entitled, “Safety Assessment of Two Proposed 

Hawaii Launch Sites: Palima Point and Kahilipali Point.” 

A determination was made that both sites are acceptable 

from a safety perspective as candidate commercial launch 

sites. 

Fbrida In 1988, the State of Florida commissioned 

a feasibility study on the prospects for commercial 

spaceports. This study, which was released in February 

1989, identified potential launch sites and urged State 

officials to move quickly on the spaceport initiative. The 

Florida legislature created the Spaceport Florida Authority 

in June 1989. The Authority is charged with overseeing 

the development of commercial launch complexes at or 

near Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and Cape San Blas 

in the Panhandle. 

Virginia The Commonwealth of Virginia has also 

been exploring the feasibility of establishing launch sites 

dedicated to commercial launches at either a Federal or 

a non-Federal location within the Commonwealth. In 

particular, Virginia’s Center for Innovative Technology is 

seeking commercial space possibilities that could lead to 

small satellite launches from NASA’s Wallops Island Flight 

Facility. 

On the foreign scene, a feasibility study on a 

possible commercial launch facility at Australia’s Cape 

York peninsula was completed by the Cape York Space 

Agency in 1989. The agency is proposing to launch Sovietbuilt Zenit rockets from the facility. A U.S. company, 

USBI, a subsidiary of United Technologies, applied for an 

export license to serve as project manager of the launch 

facility. In August 1990, President Bush approved the 

export license. Construction of the facility could begin as 

early as 1992 and be completed in 1995. 

International Competition 

Currently, the world commercial launch services 

market is dominated by the U.S. and European launch 

companies. However, because of Arianespace’s greater 

presence in earlier years, it still leads in terms of outstanding launch contracts. In total, the U.S. commercial launch 

firms have outstanding contracts to launch 22 orbital 

payloads, whereas Arianespace has outstanding contracts 

for 35. 

The People’s Republic of China has been marketing 

launch services since 1984 and currently holds two firm 

120 
commercial launch contracts. The Soviet Union is also 

marketing launch services, although as of September 1990 

it still had not secured contracts to launch Western-built 

satellites. 

Licensing and Regulatory Program 

Licensing Actiuity. The 14 commercial launch licenses issued during fiscal years 1989 and 1990 were 

distributed among five companies: Space Services Inc. of 

America, McDonnell Douglas Corporation, Martin Marietta 

Commercial Titan, Inc., General Dynamics Commercial 

Launch Services, and American Rocket Company. 

Insurance Requirements. In November 1988, 

Congress enacted the Commercial Space Launch Act 

Amendments of 1988 (Amendments), which established 

comprehensive financial responsibility requirements and 

allocation of risk principles applicable to commercial 

launch activities licensed by the Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation. The Amendments require, among 

other things, that financial responsibility requirements be 

based on a determination of the actual risks associated 

with each proposed activity. Prior to passage of the 

legislation, the Office of Commercial Space Transportation had been relying on this approach as a matter of 

general policy. 

In 1989 and 1990, in accordance with the Amendments, the Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

crafted specific insurance and related financial responsibility requirements covering the licensed launch activities 

of seven companies: McDonneH Douglas, American Kocket 

Company, Martin Marietta Commercial Titan, Inc., General Dynamics Commercial Launch Services, Space Services Inc. of America, Orbital Sciences Corporation, and 

LTV. A regulatory proposal is currently being developed 

to codify the Office’s approach to establishing appropriate levels of insurance and other financial responsibility 

requirements. 

Research for Regulatory Functions. The Office 

of Commercial Space Transportation has conducted a 

comprehensive review of safety data compiled by various 

Government agencies, identified information gaps, and 

initiated studies to fill these gaps and enable us to fulfill 

our regulatory responsibilities. The Office also conducted 

several studies on the ability of the commercial launch 

industry to develop and remain competitive. Some studies focused on scheduling procedures at US. launch 

ranges, the availability of commercially reasonable launch 

facilities, and the effects of Government procurement 

practices on commercial launch costs. Some examples of 

the research follow: 

Scheduling Commercial Launch Operations 

at National Ranges. As required by Section 6 of the 

Amendments, the Office of Commercial Space Transportation conducted a study and issued a report on the 

scheduling of commercial launch operations at US. 

launch ranges. The study report, entitled “A Study of the 

Scheduling of Commercial Launch Operations at National 

Ranges,” examined the issues associated with commercial 

launch companies using the facilities and resources at 

national ranges and the impact of current practices on the 

competitive stance of U.S. commercial launch firms in the 

international launch services market. 

Commercial Baseline Assessments. The Office of Commercial Space Transportation documented the 

capabilities of the national ranges to handle commercial 

operations. Baseline assessments for Vandenberg Air 

Force Base in California and Wallops Island in Virginia 

were completed in 1989. This follows the assessment of 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida in 1988. An 

assessment for White Sands in New Mexico is under way 

and will be completed in 1990. 

OrbitaZDebds. OCST contributed research data 

concerning space debris for the “Interagency Report on 

Orbital Debris,” issued in February 1989. 

Research Supporting Future Rulemaking 

and Licensing Activities. The Office is assembling resources to support a number of rulemaking actions. One 

rulemaking action will focus on codlfying the Office’s 

approach to setting appropriate levels and terms of 

financial responsibility, acceptable forms of coverage, 

and allowable exclusions. 

Other areas of activity will involve several major 

changes in the licensing process which will move the 

Office away from a case-by-case evaluation procedure for 

launch and pre-launch activities toward an integrated 

regulatory model covering both site and launch operations. 

121 
Environmental Protection Agency 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), through 

it.. Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las 

Vegas, NV, routinely conducts research and technical 

support using remote sensing as part of an overall 

environmental monitoring program. Large-scale aerial 

photography is collected and interpreted to support the 

provisions of the Kesource Conservation and Recovery 

Act and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, 

Compensation, and Liability Act (CEKCLA); medium-scale 

photography is collected and interpreted to support nonpoint-source pollution studies, wetlands protection, coastalzone studies, and forest-ecosystem decline caused by 

acid deposition; and high-altitude photography is 

interpreted for broad area studies in the coastal zone and 

to contribute land-use and land-cover information in riskassessment studies. Airborne and satellite multispectral 

scanner data are collected and interpreted to support 

water-quality, non-point-source pollution, hazardouswaste, and critical-habitat investigations. Airborne laser 

systems are developed which contribute to air and water 

monitoring, and a geographic information system is used 

to integrate multiple data sets in support of all EPA 

programs. 

Photointerpretation analysis of hazardous waste site using 

largescale vertical aerial photography. 

Hazardous Waste 

Large-scale aerial photography is used to develop 

site characterization data during the remedial investigation and feasibility study portion of remedial actions 

under CERCLA (the Superfund) and may be used to 

support ranking under the site identification. Aerial 

photographs are collected from a variety of archival 

sources which may date from the late 1920s and continue 

to the present. A site history is developed by visually 

interpreting the historical photography, annotating changes 

at the site. This provides vital information on the location 

of drums, pits, and lagoons, as well as the level of activity 

at the site over time. Further, photographic interpretations 

provide documentation of cleanup progress and are 

sometimes used to monitor post-cleanup status. The same 

photographs are also used to develop detailed topographic maps of each site which are critical to the cleanup 

process. The opening illustration shows the interpretation 

of a single date of this photography at a Superfund site. 

Kepeated interpretations of photography of different 

dates provides a permanent record of the site's history for 

litigation and cleanup. 

Aerial photography is also used to support site 

selection and monitoring at hazardous waste facilities 

operating under the Resource Conservation and Recovery 

Act. During the site selection process, aerial photographs, 

airborne multispectral scanner data, and satellite imagery 

are interpreted to develop a detailed site characterization. 

The interpretations are then used with collateral data 

(such as soils, geology, and groundwater data) to determine applicability under the site-selection criteria. Aerial 

photography is routinely used to monitor development, 

operation, and closure activities once a site has been 

approved for operation. 

Aerial photography also supports emergency actions 

during spills and accidents. Photographs are acquired 

through local contractors and are interpreted and sent to 

the field within 24 to 48 hours of an accident or spill. 

These photographs of existing conditions form a permanent 

record of the on-scene conditions and are used to develop 

control and remedial strategies. 

122 
Water Quality 

Remote sensing systems are developed and used by 

EPA to support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. The 

Landsat satellite system and an airborne multispectral 

scanner are used in conjunction with water samples to 

map the extent of Chlorophyll a, Secchi depth, turbidity, 

dissolved organic carbon, and a variety of other waterquality parameters in both freshwater lakes and nearcoastal marine environments. A Laser Fluorosensor system is under development to augment the passive scanner 

systems, increasing the number of variables measured 

and the accuracy of measurement of current variables. 

Currently, the system is being updated to permit finer 

interpretation of spectral response, resulting in more 

accurate determinations of water-quality variables, and 

laboratory analyses are being conducted to develop the 

methods for monitoring blue-green algae in aquatic 

systems. 

Aerial photography and satellite data also support 

non-point-source pollution studies. Satellite imagery 

provides the broad view of land cover, while aerial 

photographs provide detailed interpretations of the distributions of feeder lots, poultry farms, and other activities 

requiring high spatial resolution. These data are used as 

inputs to models of pollutant transport to estimate the 

migration of nutrients and toxics into surface and subsurface water systems. For example, the Blackfoot River 

system was studied using satellite remote sensing to 

determine non-point-source inputs to Lake Pend Orielle, 

ID. Algal blooms in Lake Pcnd Orielle are related to 

nutrients from the surrounding watershed. The remote 

sensing provided land-cover inputs to the WRENS (Water 

Kesources Evaluation for Silvaculture) model which was 

used to simulate alternative non-point-source management scenarios. 

Air Quality 

EPA is currently using an airborne, two-frequency 

LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) laser radar system 

to monitor particulates associated with major urban 

plumes and emissions sources and is developing (with 

NASA support) an airborne Ultraviolet Differential Absorption LIDAR (UV DIAL) to simultaneously measure 

ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulates. These instruments 

provide range-resolved profiles under the aircraft which 

can be used to monitor pollutant transport in coastal areas 

and complex terrain where models function poorly and 

where air-pollution transport problems are most severe. 

Currently, the LIDAR system is being used, with 

other measurements, to determine the extent of the 

Denver Brown Cloud and to develop an understanding of 

the movement of air pollutants between El Paso, TX and 

Juarez, Mexico. 

EPA, in conjunction with the U.S. National Park 

Service, is also conducting remote measurements of 

visibility in Class I areas (National Parks and Wilderness 

Areas). Photographic and electro-optical sensors are 

deployed to monitor scenic vistas to determine atmospheric extinction coefficients. Variations in extinction 

coefficients are then related to variations in air-pollutant 

levels. Models are then used to predict the visual impact 

of emerging legislation on both wilderness areas and on 

urban scenes. The photographs are then systematically 

altered to show the effects predicted over a series of airquality scenarios. 

Ecological Risk Assessment 

EPA has championed a new interagency program, 

designed to determine long-term status and trends in the 

Nation’s ecological resources. The program, called the 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program, uses 

both remote sensing and field study to characterize the 

landscape and to monitor indicators of ecological health 

in the Nation’s wetlands, near-coastal systems, Great 

Lakes, forests, agricultural lands, inland waters, and arid 

lands. Satellite remote sensing and aerial photography 

interpretation will be integrated to describe the pattern of 

the landscape at over 12,000 sample locations throughout 

the United States. These patterns will be monitored at a 

minimum of 10-year intervals to determine changes in the 

Nation’s ecosystems, and the resulting database will 

potentially provide a valuable stimulus to the study of the 

Nation’s landscape ecology. Field study of over 3,000 sites 

will be used to determine status and trends of indicators 

of ecological health, providing vital information on condition of ecosystems as part of the puzzle for determining 

ecological risk. The information derived throughout this 

program will be shared through the use of an integrated 

information system which is being designed to make use 

123 
of state-of-the-art distributed computer networks. This 

information will be of critical concern to policymakers 

including the President, members of Congress, and the 

public. 

the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program, 

global change, and hazardous waste cleanup. 

Interagency Cooperation 

Data Integration 

Often, single-media monitoring and modeling do 

not provide sufficient scientific explanation of the complex environmental phenomena which affect human and 

ecological health. A geographic information system (GIS) 

has been implemented in EPA to provide a tool for multimedia data integration and analysis. The GIS is used to 

overlay and combine data from remote sensing, existing 

spatial databases, and tabular data from State, local, and 

EPA national databases to provide analyses of complex 

environmental situations for programs such as wetlands 

and estuarine protection, water quality, acid deposition, 

The EPA is working with other Federal agencies, 

State, and local governments to assure coordination of 

activities in environmental monitoring. The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program, in particular, is 

designed to promote interagency information exchange 

and cooperation by including other agencies in important 

planning and implementation roles. EPA is working 

closely with NASA, NOM, USGS, and other agencies to 

assure that, as NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth develops, 

we will be able to use the newly developed space sensing 

systems to monitor ecosystem condition and to detect 

global change. 

124 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is the principal 

supporter of ac:tdcmic research in atmospheric sciences 

and ground-based astronomy. NSF support is provided 

partly through grants to individual intrcstigators, and 

partly through contrxts and cooperative agreements with 

universities and consortia operating observatories and 

other large fdities. 

The National Science Foundation is a major participant in thc IJ S. Global Change Kescarch Program, an 

interagency program designated as a i’rcsidential initiati\te in January 1989. This program comprises both spaccbased and ground-based research thrusts in several 

critical arrtas, including the atmospheric sciences. 

Astronomical Sciences 

The SL~CCCSS of NASA’s Voyager 2 spacecraft’s encounter with Neptune and its moon, Triton, in the summer 

of 1989, was significantly aided by the Very Large Array 

(VU). The VU, a radio telescope located in New Mexico, 

was used in combination with NASA’s Deep Space 

Network to acquire data relayed by the spacecraft. 

Approximately 50 percent more data were recorded than 

would have been recovered without the VU. 

The VLA was also used by astronomers to map the 

moon of a planet other than Earth by radar reflections for 

the first time. Observations of Saturn’s moon, Titan, have 

shown that the reflectivity of the surface is consistent with 

the presence of a deep methane ocean but that such an 

ocean could not be spread uniformly over Titan’s surface. 

Astronomers mapped the galaxy distribution in the 

nearby universe. This revealed large coherent structures, 

which consist of thin, sheet-like features, where most of 

the galaxies are concentrated, and large voids interspersed 

between them. The extent of the largest features is limited 

only by the portions of the universe surveyed so far. This 

picture poses a challenge to the current understanding of 

the origin and evolution of the universe which requires 

the assumption of a more homogeneous distribution of 

matter. 

Astronomers reported the discovery of a population 

of faint blue galaxies that could have been the first formed 

in the universe. The galaxies were detected by using the 

latest charge-coupled device technology (sensitive, twodimensional sensors), and by pushing observing and 

image-processing technologies to their limits. 

A short exposure of the sun’s disk and a longer exposure of 

the sun’s limb, both taken on June 20,1989, are combined to 

show both the solar flare against the disk and the associated 

eruptingprominence over the limb. This composite photograph 

(prepared by Big Bear Solar Observatory, Big Bear City, CA) 

illustrates the highly active sun as seen during the second 

most active solar maximum period since such events began 

to be recorded. 

Cosmologists at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station 

made measurements of the absolute intensity of the 

cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBK) at five 

wavelengths at the same time that the newly launched 

NASA Cosmic Background Explorer satellite was making 

similar measurements at shorter wavelengths. This combined effort allowed the CMBR spectrum to be measured 

over a wider wavelength range than is possible from 

either Earth or from space. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

MAX’91 is a coordinated program between NSF and 

NASA to study solar disturbances. One of the greatest 

solar activity maxima in recorded history should occur 

125 
during 1990. The first MAX’91 campaign to study the 

active solar output was conducted in June and July 1989. 

Ground-based measurements from several observatories 

were coordinated with satellite measurements from the 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) satellite, to provide measurements relating to the variable solar output in a wide 

spectral range of radiations. This campaign has already 

permitted comparisons of solar flare outputs, such as 

visible and ultraviolet light, and even energetic x-rays. 

Such information is critical to understanding solar outputs 

and their impact on Earth’s atmosphere, an important 

element in the U.S. Global Change Research Program. 

MAX’91 will be continued in 1990, albeit without SMM, 

which was lost when it reentered Earth’s atmosphere in 

December 1989. 

In 1989, investigators using NSF-funded telescopes 

reported that by studying a large sample of solar-like stars, 

one can observe the states of activity that our own sun 

may have experienced, both in the past and possibly in 

the future. They reported that about one-third of such 

stars currently exist in a dormant mode, approximating 

the Maunder minimum (or Little Ice Age) of the 17th 

century. The investigators also observed that most solarlike stars show solar activity cycles similar to our sun’s 11- 

year solar cycle. By studying the characteristics of such 

stars, it should be possible to estimate the probability and 

frequency with which our sun moves into periods of low 

and high activity, or into passive periods resembling the 

Maunder minimum. Such estimates would have an impact 

on our projections for future trends in global climate 

change. 

Measurements were made at South Pole Station and 

Palmer Station, Antarctica, of very-low-frequency radio 

waves transmitted by the Soviet satellite AKTIVNY, 

launched to study wave-particle interactions in Earth’s 

magnetosphere. This is a project of NASA and the Soviet 

space agency IKI. 

NSF’s ultraviolet (W) radiation monitoring system 

was established in 1988 at South Pole, McMurdo, and 

Palmer Stations in Antarctica, and in Ushuaia, Argentina, 

to provide high-quality data on the levels of incident W 

radiation associated with ozone depletion over Antarctica. During 1989, instrumentation was upgraded to 

improve temperature tolerance and reliability. A data 

center with high standards of quality assurance was 

created in 1989 to provide a data directory and reduced 

data to researchers worldwide. The data from this monitoring system serve as a standard for all related research 

on W influx and its effects on biological systems in 

Antarctica and its surrounding ocean. These data were 

used this year to corroborate satellite-born Total Ozone 

Monitoring Spectrometer (TOMS) data. 

NSF provided support for a team of NASA Goddard 

Space Flight Center researchers to fly ozonesonde balloons 

from Palmer Station, Antarctica during the austral spring 

of 1989 and 1990, when stratospheric ozone is formed. At 

the same time NASA provided satellite ozone maps from 

the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) to NSFsponsored researchers in Antarctica. 

In January 1990, two large balloons (28 and 13 

million cubic feet) were launched by NASA from McMurdo 

Station, Antarctica. The payload included a gamma ray 

detector to study the sun and Supernova 1987a, a cosmic 

ray detector, and an X-ray camera to image the aurora. 

Unfortunately both flights were terminated prematurely 

because of balloon system failure. An attempt will be 

made to refly the experiments during the 1990-1991 

season. 

126 
The Smithsonian Institution participates in national space 

programs through basic research conducted at the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in 

Cambridge, MA, and at the Center for Earth and Planetary 

Studies (CEPS) and the Laboratory for Astrophysics (LfA) 

at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC. 

The Museum’s exhibits, lectures, and education programs 

also contribute to public understanding of space research 

and exploration. SA0 also conducts programs designed 

to improve pre-college science instruction and serves as 

the U.S. gateway for SIMBAD, an international astronomical 

computer database. 

Space Science 

High-Energy Astrophysics 

Larinched June 1, 1990, Roentgen satellite (ROSAT, 

a joint project among the Federal Kepublic of Germany, 

the United Kingdom, and the United States) will map the 

entire sky in x-rays and then use a High-Resolution 

Imager built at SA0 to make detailed studies of selected 

objects. Test images taken in July included a “first light” 

observation of the Cygnus X-2 compact binary, a cluster 

of galaxies, the Cas A supernova remnant, and a landmark 

image of the moon. SA0 is operating the U.S. ROSAT Data 

Center in cooperation with the Goddard Space Flight 

Center. 

Each year since the last focused images of cosmic xray sources were obtained a decade ago, scientists from 

around the world have come to SA0 to use data from the 

Einstein (NEAO-2) Observatory. In 1989, this information 

was converted to CD-ROM format by SA0 and made 

available free to all qualified scholars. 

Although the Einstein Observatory produced 5,000 

images during its 18-month lifetime, SA0 researchers felt 

some valuable data had been overlooked. When Einstein’s 

telescope slewed from one “pointed” observation to 

another in a different part of the sky, its detectors also 

recorded the strips of sky along the way. A computer 

program was devised to reconstruct these thin strips into 

a “slew survey catalog” of some 1,000 bright x-ray objects, 

half of which had not been seen before. 

In March 1989, the third largest solar flare ever 

recorded was observed by a rocket-borne x-ray telescope 

The highest resolution x-ray image ever obtained of the sun’s 

corona was taken September ll, 1989 by a Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory/lBM telescope aboard a NASA 

sounding rocket launched from White Sands Missile Range, 

NM. Boosted to a height of 150 miles, the Normal Incidence 

X-ray Telescope observed the sun for five minutes and took 38 

frames of film before parachuting back to Earth. The images 

revealed hitherto unseen details of active regions (bright 

areas) as well as of a medium-sized solar flare, which probably 

reached temperatures of 10 million degrees Celsius, and a 

dark solar prominence. X-ray “bright points” were clearly 

resolved into loops at the center of the image. (Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory and the ISM Thomas 1. Watson 

Research Center photo) 

built by SA0 and IBM’s Watson Kesearch Center. The 

Normal Incidence X-ray Telescope obtained high-resolution x-ray images on the flare’s onset phase, which, when 

combined with simultaneous observations in other wavelengths, provide new insights into these eruptive events. 

A subsequent flight in September 1989 produced the 

highest-resolution x-ray images to date of the sun’s outer 

atmosphere, or corona. 

A balloon-borne Energetic X-ray Imaging Telescope 

Experiment, a joint Harvard-SA0 experiment, was successfully flown from Alice Springs, Australia, in May 1989. 

127 
During the 30-hour flight, the experiment observed many 

x-ray-emitting objects, including the Crab Nebula, Supernova 1987a, x-ray binaries, a black hole candidate, and a 

globular cluster containing a millisecond pulsar. 

Solar Physics 

One of the outstanding problems in solar physics is 

determining the mechanism responsible for heating the 

outer atmosphere of the sun and accelerating particles 

from it to form the solar wind, which then streams into 

interplanetary space. In anticipation of flight aboard the 

Solar Heliospheric Observatory in 1995, SA0 scientists are 

designing an Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer to seek 

how and where the solar wind is accelerated. 

Stellar and Galactic Studies 

Using infrared detector arrays and Fabry-Perot 

spectrometers, Laboratory for Astrophysics (LfA) scientists obtained spectral images of regions of star formation 

in molecular clouds and of shocked and ionized gas in 

colliding and active galaxies. Theoretical aspects of the 

research centered on models of intergalaxy collisions and 

line shapes from ionized winds in young stellar outflows. 

The database created by the Infrared Astronomy Satellite 

was used extensively in this program. 

As part of NASA’s Small Explorer Program, SA0 will 

build and operate a Submillimeter Wave Astronomy 

Satcllite for planned launch in 1994 to study how molecular clouds in the Milky Way collapse to form stars and 

planets. 

Lunar Studies 

Nearly two decades after the Apollo astronauts 

returned samples of lunar soil, a completely new rock 

type was identified on the moon by an SA0 scientist 

sifting through the old material. Tiny grains of a magnesium-rich mineral called cordierite, usually present only 

in very deep geological deposits, were found in a 

collection from the Apollo 15 mission. Presence of the 

rare mineral on the lunar surface suggests it was “excavated” by a meteorite impact, perhaps the same one that 

created the Imbrium Basin near where the sample was 

collected. 

, 

The joint F.R.G.-U. K.-U.S. ROSAT (Roentgen satellite) was 

launched into a near-perfect orbit by a Delta I/ rocket from 

Cape Canaveral, FL, on June 1, 1990. The largest x-ray 

telescope ever flown, ROSATis equipped with a High-Resolution 

Imager built by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory to 

provide focused images of cosmic x-ray sources. The ROSAT 

mission will make a map of the entire sky in x rays as well as 

detailed studies of selected objects. Test observations made 

with the High-Resolution Imager in July included images of the 

compact x-ray binary Cygnus X-2, the Cas A supernova 

remnant, a cluster of galaxies, and the moon. (NASA photo) 

128 
Terrestrial Studies 

During 1989 and 1990, CEPS staff addressed several 

issues of global change related to ongoing studies of 

remote-sensing data on arid and semi-arid regions. For 

example, investigations of Earth’s deserts included the 

comparison of Landsat images of the Selima sand sheet in 

southwestern Egypt with field analyses to estimate sediment transport budgets for chevron-shaped bedforms. In 

addition, reflectance characteristics and surface processes 

in stabilized dune environments in Egypt, Mali, and 

Botswana were studied using multi-temporal Landsat 

data. In the area of terrestrial tectonics, evidence of 

reactivation of the Najd fault system of central Arabia was 

analyzed by using AVHRK (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiomcter), Landsat, and SPOT (the French Satellite 

pour L’Observation de la Tewe) data. A kinematic and 

mechanical analysis of periodically spaced folds in the 

continental flood-basalts of the Columbia Plateau in 

northwestern United States was also completed. 

Three flights of SAO’s balloon-borne infrared spectrometer in 1989 and 1990 obtained spectra of several 

important stratospheric molecules. How the abundances 

of molecules such as ozone, carbon dioxide, hydrogen 

peroxide, and hydroxyl vary with both time and altitude 

is now being analyzed as part of the effort to determine 

what processes may preserve or destroy Earth’s protective 

shield of atmosphere. 

Planetary Sciences 

Research in planetary geology at CEPS continued 

with the analysis and comparison of crustal deformation 

on Earth, Mars, and Venus. Detailed 1:500,000 mapping 

of parts of Mars not only contributes to understanding that 

planet’s geologic history, but may help select potential 

landing sites for future missions. The migration of dust 

deposits on Mars under the present climatic conditions 

was investigated, as was the timing and mechanisms for 

erosional and depositional modification of surfaces in 

Mars’ eastern hemisphere. 

In research complementing various planetary flyby 

missions, the LfA used infrared heterodyne spectroscopy 

to measure absolute wind velocities in the atmospheres of 

Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, and to model the tropospheres/ 

mesospheres of these planets. 

129 
Department of State 

The Department of State is responsible for evaluating and 

advancing U.S. foreign-policy interests in space activity. 

It evaluates the foreign-policy aspects of space programs, 

policies, and agreements, and advises the President on 

international space matters. In addition to these 

responsibilities, State represents the U.S. Government in 

international government-to-government negotiations 

involved in space. 

The 1988 International Agreement on Space Station 

Cooperation calls for a government-level meeting to be 

held every three years to review space station cooperation 

and issues involving it. The first of these meetings was 

held at the Department of State in September 1989. 

Representatives of each of the governments participating 

in this cooperative venture-the United States, nine 

members of the European Space Agency, Japan, and 

Canada-attended. The principal topic of discussion was 

the impact of an anticipated cut in the Bush Administration’s 

budget request for space station activities. The meeting 

concluded with a joint statement emphasizing the partners’ commitment to “continue to consult and to work 

together to preserve the international character of the 

project and the balance of mutual benefits and responsibilities reflecting the genuine partnership set forth in the 

agreements.” 

The Department has worked with NASA throughout 

this period to support the space shuttle program. State 

Department activities have included continued work on 

negotiation of agreements for emergency-landing facilities in other nations, and activation of a Space Shuttle Task 

Force for each shuttle launch to provide a direct link to 

U.S. embassies in countries where emergency-landing 

facilities are located. In addition, the State Department has 

worked with NASA and other agencies on charting a 

course for future human exploration of space. Deliberations 

aimed at producing recommendations on how to implement the President’s moon-Mars initiative began within 

the National Space Council in late 1989. The feasibility of 

international cooperation in carrying out a manned mission 

to the moon and Mars has been a question of particular 

interest to the State Department. The Department also 

took part in the National Space Council proceedings that 

resulted in the continuation of the National Aero-Space 

Plane program. 

In addition to U.S. policy implementation and 

bilateral negotiations, the Department of State represents 

the U.S. Government in international organizations involved in space issues. These include the United Nations 

and related organizations such as the International Telecommunications Union, INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organizations), and INMARSAT 

(International Maritime Satellite Organization). 

U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses 

of Outer Space 

The 53-member U.N. Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), its Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, and its Legal Subcommittee all met 

during 1990. For several decades after its inception in 

1958, the Committee worked successfully in the exchange 

of scientific information and negotiated four widely 

accepted conventions that form the basis of international 

space law. However, during the 1970s and early 1980s, 

the scientific and legal work of the Committee became 

attenuated, with debates becoming increasingly political. 

In the last five years, however, the United States has 

worked closely with other delegations, particularly with 

Western delegations, to reinvigorate the scientific content 

of the Committee’s work. Notable progress has been 

made with the incorporation of U.S. proposals dealing 

with astronomy, planetary exploration, and the geosphere/ 

biosphere onto the agenda of the Scientific and Technical 

Subcommittee, as well as an item concerning spin-offs 

from space programs onto the agenda of COPUOS. 

At the February 1990 Scientific and Technical Subcommittee meeting, member states focused on the use of 

space technology for search-and-rescue problems. The 

Subcommittee decided to pay particular attention to the 

use of space technology in disaster relief activities. The 

Legal Subcommittee met in March 1990 to consider 

questions relating to the use of nuclear-power sources in 

space, utilization of geostationary orbit, and the delimitation of outer space. The Subcommittee also continued its 

consideration of the new agenda item on dealing with the 

application of the principle that space exploration should 

be carried out for the benefit of all countries, taking 

particular account of the needs of developing countries. 

In 1990, the United States, with the support of other 

Western countries, continued efforts to make the work of 

COPUOS and the Subcommittee more relevant to the 

present state of space exploration. To this end, at its June 

1990 meeting, member states agreed on a U.S. proposal 
concerning the International Space Year (ISY). This topic 

was first proposed by the United States at the 1988 session 

of COPUOS. On the basis of a joint resolution of Congress 

in 1986, which was endorsed by President Reagan, 

international scientific organizations and national space 

agencies will celebrate 1992 as the International Space 

Year. COPUOS recommended, and the General Assembly 

has since agreed, that it could play a meaningful role in 

ISY without any impact on the regular budget of the 

United Nations through the training and education capabilities of the U.N. Programme on Space Applications. 

International Maritime Satellite Organization 

At its 36th session, in July 1990, the International 

Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) Council 

identified G.E. Astro as its prime candidate for building 

the organization’s third-generation satellite system. Contract negotiations are scheduled to be completed by the 

end of the year. INMARSAT’s third-generation satellites 

will incorporate many state-of-the-art features. They will 

use four spot-beam antennas to conserve valuable L-band 

spectrum and will operate at 10 times the power of the 

second-generation satellites that will enter into service in 

late 1990 and carry a payload twice the weight of an 

average civilian communications satellite. With such high 

power, INMARSAT will introduce a range of new mobile 

satellite services permitting the use of small, briefcase-size 

terminals. This will enhance INMARSAT’s usefulness for 

emergency/distress services, ease communications for 

global travelers, and significantly benefit the development of low-cost communications for the developing 

world. 

After several years of discussions, the INMARSAT 

Council agreed to establish a second network in the 

Atlantic Ocean Region, effective September 29, 1990. As 

a result, the MAKECS B-2 satellite has been relocated to 55 

degrees West to improve services in the Western Hemisphere. 

In January 1989, an extraordinary meeting of the 

organization’s Assembly of Parties adopted amendments 

to its Convention and Operating Agreement authorizing 

provision of satellite-based services to vehicles on land. 

The United States deposited its acceptance of these 

amendments in September 1990. Once the amendments 

come into force, INMARSAT will be authorized to offer 

space segment for land mobile satellite services on a 

voluntary, non-exclusive basis. 

The 1985 amendments to the Convention and 

Operating Agreement authorizing provision of satellitebased communications to the aeronautical community 

came into force in October 1989. As a result, several 

international consortia have been established to offer 

international services to aeronautical users. 

In the United States, the Federal Communications 

Commission (FCC) decided that the American Mobile 

Satellite Corporation (AMSC) would be the sole provider 

of mobile satellite communications services in the L-band 

of the radio-frequency spectrum. The FCC considered 

that a single licensee would best manage the scarce 

spectrum between safety and non-safety services, with 

priority given to aviation traffic. In a separate decision, the 

FCC limited the provision of INMARSAT’s aeronautical 

services in the United States solely to international flight. 

This decision is being contested. 

INMARSAT’s Council approved a lease request 

submitted by AMSC for space capacity enabling the U.S. 

licensee for mobile satellite services to begin before its 

own satellite system is operational. A similar lease was 

approved by the Canadian licensee. As a result, INMARSAT 

repositioned an old MARISAT (maritime communications 

system) satellite at 106 degrees West to improve coverage 

for its North American customers. 

The United States submitted two formal notifications to INMARSAT pursuant to Article 8 of the Convention with respect to the proposed use of separate space 

segment facilities for maritime purposes. One involved 

the interim position reporting and dedicated radio determination service to be used for maritime purposes to 

be provided by the Geostar Corporation. The other 

concerned a temporary maritime service provided by the 

Alpha Lyracom Corporation via the Pan American Satellite 

System. In both cases, the Council found that the use of 

such separate space systems was technically compatible 

with the INMARSAT system and expressed the view to the 

Assembly of Parties that the services would not cause 

significant harm to the system. This finding was affirmed 

by the Sixth Assembly of Parties in January 1989. 

At the Seventh Assembly of Parties meeting in 

Lisbon, October 31 to November 2, 1989, expedited 

procedures were adopted to facilitate future consultations 

of separate systems required by Article 8. Under the new 

131 
procedures, the INMARSAT Council can act on the 

Assembly’s behalf in certain circumstances. In the first 

application of the new procedures, In March 1990, the 

Council authorized the Alpha Lyracom Corporation to 

conduct a 30-day test of two-way data communications 

between ships in the Caribbean and a U.S. Earth station 

via the Pan American Satellite System (PanAmSat). 

The Seventh Assembly of Parties also agreed that 

INMARSAT, in consultation with the International Maritime Organization (IMO), should continue studying an 

appropriate formula to pay for safety/distress-related 

communications. Maritime tradition is that these services 

are provided free of charge. Many INMARSAT members, 

however, consider only the initial shore-to-shore alerts 

should be free of space segment user charges and that 

ship-to-shore NAV/MET danger reports and search-andrescue communications should be at reduced cost. A joint 

IMOANMAKSAT Meeting of Experts has been set for 

December 1990 to consider the need for establishing an 

international funding mechanism to cover the communication costs of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety 

System which comes into effect in 1992. 

International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organizations 

The first of five International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organizations (INTELSAT) VI-series satellites 

was successfully launched on October 27, 1989 by an 

Ariane 4 vehicle. While undergoing in-orbit testing during 

the rest of the year, the satellite was used on a preoperational basis to provide international television coverage of major political and social developments in the 

world. Two additional INTELSAT VI-series satellites were 

launched in 1990, one on March 14 and the other on June 

23. Both of these launches used Titan 111 vehicles. While 

the June 23 launch was successful, the March 14 launch 

left the satellite in a low-Earth orbit. INTELSAT is working 

with NASA in anticipation of an early 1992 space shuttle 

mission that would boost the satellite to its operational 

geostationary orbit. INTELSAT now operates 15 satellites 

in geostationary orbit. 

In July 1989, the 14th INTELSAT Assembly of Parties 

made a favorable recommendation on the second proposed 

U.S. international satellite system separate from the 

INTELSAT system. That system, to be operated by Orion 

Satellite Corporation, is expected to begin service between 

North America and Europe in 1992. It will join the Pan 

American Satellite System, which became operational in 

1988, in helping to fulfill the policy objectives in Presidential Determination 85-4. The PanAmSat system, for example, 

has been instrumental in providing television coverage of 

world events. Extensive U.S. diplomatic efforts are leading to broader acceptance of the U.S. policy and opening 

new markets for U.S. commercial participation. 

132 
Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency 

The United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

(ACDA) was established in 1961 to advise the President on 

arms control policy. As potential uses of space become 

technologically more feasible, ACDA’s role in the 

development of policy for and support of arms control in 

outer space has expanded. 

Arms control issues were mentioned in the President’s 

National Space Policy Report of November 2, 1989: 

The United States will consider and, as appropriate, formulate policy positions on arms control 

measures governing activities in space, and will 

conclude agreements on such measures only if they 

are equitable, effectively verifiable, and enhance 

the security of the United States and our Allies. 

The primary forum for negotiations on nuclear 

and space arms is the Nuclear and Space Talks with 

the Soviet Union in Geneva. The instructions to the 

United States Delegation will be consistent with this 

National Space Policy directive, established legal 

obligations, and additional guidance by the President. The United States will continue to consult with 

its Allies on these negotiations and ensure that any 

resulting agreements enhance the security of the 

United States and its Allies. Any discussions on arms 

control relating to activities in space in forums other 

than NST [Nuclear and Space Talks1 must be consistent with, and subordinate to, the foregoing activities and objectives. 

Bilateral Discussions 

on Space Arms Control 

In the Defense and Space Talks, a component of the 

Nuclear and Space Talks with the Soviet Union in Geneva, 

the United States continues to seek agreement on a 

cooperative transition to a more stable nuclear balance 

that would rely increasingly on strategic defenses, should 

they prove feasible, while preserving U.S options to 

deploy such strategic defenses when they are ready. To 

this end, the United States tabled a revised draft Defense 

and Space Treaty in December 1989. This U.S. draft Treaty 

preserves the central elements of the agreement reached 

at the Washington Summit in December 1987 and reflects 

the outcome of the Wyoming Ministerial in September 

1989. 

Under this U.S. draft Defense and Space Treaty, the 

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty would remain in force unless 

and until that Treaty was terminated or superseded as 

follows: 

Either Party would be permitted to give notice of 

its intent to deploy strategic ballistic missile defenses 

beyond the limitations in the Treaty. 

Upon giving such notice, the initiating Party 

would propose specific measures to implement a cooperative transition to a strategic regime which would 

include such defenses. 

The Parties would then conduct for a period of 

three years intensive discussions of strategic stability on 

such measures. 

If, after this three-year period, either Party decides to deploy strategic ballistic missile defenses in a 

manner prohibited by the Treaty, then that Party shall give 

six months’ written notice to the other Party of its decision 

to deploy such defenses. 

In this event, this latter notice requirement shall 

supersede the notice provision of Article XV of the Treaty. 

Upon expiration of the six-month notification 

period, the Treaty shall be terminated, unless the Parties 

agree otherwise. 

In addition, each Party would have supreme 

national interests withdrawal rights under the U.S. draft 

Defense and Space Treaty. 

The United States has also proposed that each Party 

may develop, test, and deploy space-based anti-ballistic 

missile radars and their substitutes without restriction. 

This proposal is designed to avoid future definition and 

verification problems and to encourage stabilizing spacebased sensors. Additionally, the United States has adopted 

a testing-in-space initiative which includes the testing-inspace assurance of 1988 and the proposed notification 

procedures for both sides’ testing in space. To demonstrate that the U.S. testing of space-based components of 

anti-ballistic missile systems based on “other physical 

principles” capable of substituting for anti-ballistic missile 

interceptor missiles, which is permitted by the AntiBallistic Missile Treaty, does not represent the deployment 

of such components, the United States is prepared to carry 

out such permitted testing only from a limited number of 

designated test satellites. 

In April 1990, the United States proposed a freestanding executive agreement, not connected to the Anti133 
Ballistic Missile Treaty, on predictability measures in the 

field of strategic ballistic missile defense. The United 

States proposed that the following confidence-building 

measures be implemented on a reciprocal, comparable, 

and voluntary basis: exchanges of data, meetings of 

experts, briefings, visits to laboratories, observations of 

tests, and notifications of anti-ballistic missile test satellites. In addition, at the end of August 1990, the United 

States proposed a Dual Pilot Implementation of Predictability Measures plan in which the United States and the 

Soviet Union would each conduct a single cycle of 

selected predictability measures projects. 

Fundamental differences continue to remain between 

the United States and the Soviet Union on defense and 

space issues. The Soviet Union seeks to limit the Strategic 

Defense Initiative. The Soviet Union also favors a protocol 

to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, rather than a new 

Defense and Space Treaty, as a means of dealing with 

defense and space issues. At the Wyoming Ministerial in 

September 1989, the Soviet Union excluded linkage 

between completion of a Strategic Arms Reduction Talks 

(STAKT) agreement and the achievement of a Defense 

and Space agreement. The United States welcomed this, 

believing that the STAKT and Defense and Space treaties 

must stand on their own merits. 

Multilateral Discussions on Space Arms 

Control 

U.S. National Space Policy was stated by President 

Keagan on July 4, 1982, and reaffirmed in his March 31, 

1984, Keport to Congress on U.S. Policy and Anti-Satellite 

Arms Control: “The United States will consider verifiable 

and equitable arms control measures that would ban or 

otherwise limit testing and deployment of specific weapon 

systems, should those measures be compatible with U.S. 

national security.” Guided by these criteria, ACDA continues to deal with multilateral space arms control issues. 

In FY 1990, ACDA participated in multilateral discussions 

on outer space mainly in two fora: the United Nations and 

the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva. However, 

neither the United States nor any other party has been able 

to identify any outer space arms control issues appropriate for multilateral negotiations. 

Conference on Disarmament 

In 1989 and 1990, ACDA participated in discussions 

on outer space arms control issues in the Conference on 

Disarmament in Geneva. During both the 1989 and 1990 

sessions, the United States again supported the formation 

of an appropriate specialized Ad Hoc Committee to consider issues relevant to space arms control, without a 

negotiating mandate. The Committee adopted the following 

program of work for both its 1989 and 1990 sessions: 

Examination and identification of issues relevant 

to the prevention of an arms race in outer space; 

Existing agreements relevant to the prevention of 

an arms race in outer space; 

Existing proposals and future initiatives on the 

prevention of an arms race in outer space. 

The United States and its allies participated actively 

in the work of the Ad Hoc Committee, especially in reviewing the arms control aspects and implications of the 

current outer space legal regime. Several experts, including 

the U.S. Deputy Defense and Space negotiator, made 

presentations at meetings of the Committee. While discussion enhanced understanding, issues appropriate for 

multilateral negotiations were not, in the U.S. view, 

identified. 

United Nations 

The First Committee of the U.N. General Assembly, 

the other major forum where the United States pursues its 

multilateral arms control objectives for outer space, met 

from October through December, 1989. During that 

session, four draft resolutions (U.S.S.R., Canada, China, 

and Non-Aligned) on outer space were submitted for First 

Committee consideration. Of these four resolutions, only 

one, the neutral and non-aligned resolution, was voted 

upon. The United States voted against the resolution 

because: 

it took no notice of the more positive international climate that has developed from improved relations 

between the United States and the Soviet Union; 

it called for negotiations at the Conference on 

Disarmament on measures to “prevent an arms race in 

outer space;” and 

it consisted of hostile rhetoric, with elements that 

1-34 
were deliberately aimed at, and critical of, fundamental 

elements of U.S. policy. 

During its 1990 session (October 15-November 16), the 

First Committee called for a United Nations study on outer 

space confidence-building measures. Again, the United 

States objected to this and other proposed studies because of the financial implications. The United States 

urged members of the First Committee to call for studies 

only when they are likely to be productive and constructive. 

135 
United States Information Agency 

During the 20th anniversary of the Apollo lunar landing, 

the United States Information Agency (USIA) highlighted 

NASA’s historic role in space exploration and increasingly 

important scientific missions to help protect Earth’s 

environment. The Hubble Space Telescope and prospects 

for enhanced international cooperation in space 

exploration, as well as the President’s call for the 

establishment of a manned scientific outpost on the 

moon, insured continuing overseas interest in USIA’s 

coverage of NASA’s many activities. With a wide variety 

of means at its disposal to publicize NASA initiatives to 

foreign audiences, ranging from WORLDNET (USIA’s 

international satellite television network) TV interviews, 

international teleconferences and Voice of America 

broadcasts to Wireless File articles, and American experts 

traveling overseas, USIA remains uniquely equipped to 

continue to tell the world about US. progress in space 

sciences and exploration. 

Television 

Throughout 1989 and 1990 USIA’s Television and 

Film Service and NASA cooperated very closely. As a 

result, every major space undertaking received significant 

worldwide exposure through WORLDNET, USIA’s international satellite television network. NASA officials were 

particularly helpful in explaining U.S. space policy to 

global audiences in WORLDNET’s live, interactive telepress 

conferences with journalists and scientists overseas. 

During the past two years, WORLDNET produced 

over 15 interactive programs on space-related issues with 

audiences at U.S. Information Service posts in Europe, 

Africa, and the Middle East. To celebrate the 20th anniversary of the first moon landing, WORLDNET telecast five 

programs with the U.S. astronauts. The manager of the 

National Aero-Space Plane Program talked to audiences 

in Latin America and Europe. NASA’s Exhibits Coordinator spoke about the Paris Air Show to European audiences. 

A prominent NASA scientist discussed depletion of the 

ozone layer, while the Assistant Administrator for External 

Kelations took part in a WORLDNET interactive program 

on the future of U.S. space policy. Other topics included 

international scientific cooperation in space exploration, 

the commercial uses of space, and satellite communications. 

In addition to the interactives, WORLDNET broadcast every space shuttle launching live via satellite for 

television viewers around the world. It devoted special 

attention to the Voyager’s dramatic flyby of Neptune, 

carrying live satellite coverage of the closest encounter, 

aired live on national television in Australia thanks to the 

WORLDNET hook-up. NASA’s ongoing press conferences during the Voyager mission were also broadcast 

live. 

The new WORLDNET news program, Newsfile, 

transmitted by satellite five days a week to all geographic 

areas, carried 20 NASA-related stories as of the end of 

September 1990. 

Voice of America 

In English and 42 foreign languages, the Voice of 

America (VOA) chronicled both the triumphs and setbacks of the 1989-1990 space effort, a period that marked 

the 20th anniversary of the first moon landing, the return 

of Voyager 2 photographs from Neptune, the Galileo 

space probe to Jupiter, and the orbiting of the Cosmic 

Background Explorer. VOA reported on these events in 

its regularly scheduled programs including “New Horizons,” “Science Notebook,” “Science in Our Lives,” “Focus/Close-Up,” “U.S. Opinion Roundup,” “Press Conference, USA,” and “Talk to America.” 

The Voice of America provided live coverage of the 

1989 Discovery, Atlantis (Magellan), and Atlantis (Galileo), 

and 1990 Discovery (Hubble) missions. NASA officials 

participated in several VOA program efforts. The project 

to retrieve the Long-Duration Exposure Facility satellite 

from orbit was also covered through interviews with the 

space agency’s project scientist. 

World space activities were monitored and analyzed in interviews with a space policy expert, a Library 

of Congress aerospace analyst, and a Soviet space program expert. A special live broadcast to mark the 20th 

anniversary of the Apollo I1 moon landing included 

commentary from a former astronaut and a former analyst 

from the National Commission on Space. 

Last year three astronauts answered questions 

phoned in by listeners from around the world on an 

extended “Talk to America” program, a live call-in show 

broadcast worldwide. 

From 1989 to the end of September 1990,18 weekly 

20-minute “New Horizons” programs dealt with such 

136 
space issues as a report on the Magellan space probe to 

Venus, international cooperation in space, and a glimpse 

at living in the space environment of Space Habitat. Two 

“New Horizons” broadcast were concerned with space 

and geology. One examined the moon as the ultimate 

geological field trip. The other explained the role of 

satellites in discovering more about Earth’s composition. 

Using the voices of telescope designers and builders, as well as space agency planners, the VOA broadcast 

several “New Frontiers” programs about the Hubble 

Space Telescope. In the days prior to liftoff, VOA featured 

live reports from its correspondent at the Kennedy Space 

Center, and then live coverage of the launch. American 

newspaper editorials about the mission were broadcast 

on “Opinion Koundup.” When it became apparent that 

Hubble was to be a troubled mission, listeners heard 

details of the emerging difficulties in newscasts and 

reports from our science correspondents. VOA also 

broadcast a “New Horizons” program entitled “The Trouble 

with Hubble,” describing the now-infamous mirror 

problems. As new developments with the space telescope 

have become available, VOA has carried the reports and 

will continue to follow-up with further “New Horizons.” 

For the Astro 1 astronomy mission, the VOA prepared 

and broadcast two separate “New Horizons,” one in 

February 1990 and the other in April 1990. Prior to each 

launch attempt, there were preview reports from science 

correspondents. When the Space Shuttle Columbia is 

ready for a fifth launch attempt, VOA will be on-the-air 

with further live coverage. 

The worldwide weekly public affairs program, 

“Press Conference, USA,” brought listeners news of space 

with the president of the U.S. Space Foundation as guest 

and, on another program, the author of Space, Inc. about 

the commercialization of space and opportunities for 

business in space. 

In addition to regular science programs, Hubble 

was the topic on “Focus” after its launch. “Focus,” the 

VOA daily, 20-minute documentary program that is 

broadcast worldwide, looked at the lasting scientific 

impact of the mission. 

year voyage to the planet Jupiter and placement of the 

Hubble Space Telescope in orbit around Earth. USIAs 

coverage continued as the space telescope, despite a 

focusing problem, produced dramatic new images of a 

distant galaxy and an unprecedented look at an exploding 

star. The Wireless File also carried stories on the unmanned Magellan spacecraft’s rendezvous with Venus, 

which provided scientists with the most detailed images 

of the cloud-enveloped planet. 

USIA covered the launch of a British communications satellite aboard the first U.S. commercial space 

rocket. The Delta rocket, built by McDonnell Douglas, 

was also used to launch an Indonesian satellite and a 

communications satellite for India. Coverage highlights 

also included a feature on the NASA launch of a scientific 

research satellite to study Earth’s invisible magnetic fields 

and another on how scientists are studying the atmospheres of other planets to better understand global 

warming and other aspects of Earth’s weather and climate. 

USIA magazines dedicated various articles to NASA 

and space. America Illustrated contained articles in Kussian on the return of the shuttle, mapping Mars, the 20th 

anniversary of Apollo 11, and Pioneer 10. Topic offered 

features dealing with the recollections of an astronaut, 

spinoff benefits from space, the Shuttle Atlantis, a picture 

story on U.S. programs in space, monitoring Earth from 

space, and the Hubble Telescope. Dialogue prepared 

articles on charting the galaxies, NASA training aircraft, 

California’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, tracking by telescope, and a review of communications satellites. AlMajul 

featured Arabic-language stories on weather satellites and 

Voyager 2 as the superstar of unmanned flight. In 

addition, a special pamphlet, “On the Frontier: The United 

States in Space,” was produced in multiple language 

versions. 

The Editorial Services Branch regularly produced 

space-related materials in its special features service, 

including such topics as the last rendezvous of Voyager 

2, the 20th anniversary of Apollo 11, new technology from 

space research, rescue via space satellites, unexpected 

uses for satellites, NASA’s robot laborers in space, and art 

in space. 

Press and Publications 

American Participants 

The Press Division provided news and feature 

stories on all five space shuttle missions. These included 

deployment of the unmanned Galileo spacecraft on a sixUnder the American Participant Program, which involves sending prominent Americans overseas to meet 

137 
with foreign government officials, scientists, scholars, and 

journalists, five NASA astronauts and one scientist visited 

foreign countries in 1990. An astronaut navigator visited 

Portugal to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the 

Portuguese era of discoveries. NASA’s Director of Solar 

System Exploration visited Brazil to assist in opening 

ceremonies at the 20th anniversary of the Rio de Janeiro 

planetarium and participate in a seminar at the Brazilian 

space agency. 

Teleconferences 

The outlook for the U.S. space program and the 20th 

anniversary of the Apollo lunar landing and NASA’s 

scientific efforts to protect the ozone layer and probe solar 

phenomena formed the core subjects of interest to foreign 

media, scientists, and scholars. Experts in Egypt, Mexico, 

Pakistan, and South Africa participated in 10 separate 

teleconferences with NASA officials, scientists, and current or former astronauts. Five current or former astronauts and a former NASA Administrator gave television 

and radio audiences their unique perspective on American space initiatives and their contributions to them. A 

senior NASA scientist demonstrated the space agency’s 

role in mobilizing the worldwide effort to protect the 

ozone layer. The head researcher for the gamma ray 

imaging device at the Goddard Space Flight Center spoke 

of NASA’s scientific efforts to understand the impact of 

solar activity on Earth’s atmosphere. 

138 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Earth Orbip Earth Escape' Calendar Earth Orbir Earth Escape' 

Year Success Failure success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Year 

1958 ............................. 5 

1960 ............................ 16 

1961 ........................... 35 

1962 ........................... 55 

1963 ........................... 62 

1964 ........................... 69 

1965 ........................... 93 

1967 ........................... 78 

1 

8 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

8 

7 

12 

4 

15 

1 

1 

2 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

0 

4 

4 

7 

10 

3 

8 

3 

8 

0 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

lb 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

1972 ........................... 33 

1973 ........................... 23 

1974 ........................... 27 

1975 30 

1976 33 

1977 ........................... 27 

1978 34 

1979 18 

1980 ........................... 16 

1981 ........................... 20 

1982 ........................... 21 

1983 ........................... 31 

1989 ........................... 24 

1990 

(through Sep. 30) ...... 31 

2 

2 

2 

4 

0 

2 

2 

0 

4 

1 

0 

0 

3 

1 

4 

1 

1 

0 

0 

8 

3 

1 

4 

1 

2 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

TOTAL ................... 1,192 144 81 15 

'The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. "Escape" flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth. 

This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. 

139 
APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People's European Calendar United U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia United Space India Israel 

Year States Kingdom of China Agency 

1957 ............................. 2 ....................... 

1958 ............................ 5 1 ....................... 

1959 IO 

1960 .......................... 16 ..................... 

.......................... ...................................................................................................................................... 

..................... 

..................................................................................................................................... 

1971 .......................... 30 

1972 .......................... 30 

1973 .......................... 23 

1974 .......................... 22 ................. 

1975 .......................... 27 

1976 .......................... 26 99 ...................................................... 

1981 .......................... x8 

1982 .......................... 18 

1983 .......................... 22 

1984 .......................... 22 

1985 .......................... 17 

1986 ..... 6 

1987 ........................... 8 

1988 .......................... 12 

............................ 

98 ............................ 

98 ...................................................... 

95 ...................................................... 3 ................. 2 .......................................................... 2 ................... 90 ........................ .... 4 ................................... 7 ............................... 1 

74 ...................................................... 2 ............................................................................. .7 ............................... 

TOTAL .................... 895 2,181 10 8 38 23 1 1 30 3 1 

1990 

(through Sep. 30) ..... 19 56 ...................................................... 3 ................. 4 .......................................................... 3 .............................. 1 

TOTAL .................... 914 2,237 10 8 41 27 1 1 33 3 2 

'Includes foreign launches of U.S. spacecraft. 

140 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches 

January 1,1989-September 30,1990 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

hunch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Remarks 

Feb. 14 

GPS (Block 1IR) 

13A 

Delta I1 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into successful orbit. 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

Mar. 13 Objective: To deploy the Tracking and Data Relay 

Space Shuttle Satellite-D. 

Discovery Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying satellite as well as 

(STS-29) experiments. Orbiter Experiments Autonomous 

21A Supporting Instrumentation System (OASIS-I), Space 

Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), 

Air Force Maui Optical Systems (AMOS) Calibration Test, 

Chromosome and Plant Cell Division in Space Experiment 

(CHROMEX), IMAX Corporation Camera Experiment 

(IMAX), Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), and two Shuttle 

Student Involvement Projects. 

Weight including spacecraft and experiments: 263,289 Ibs. 

Mar. 13 

TDRS 4 

21B 

Mar. 24 

USA 36 

26A 

Deki 

May 4 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

33A 

(STS-30) 

Objective: To deliver Tracking and Data Relay System 

Spacecraft: Three-axis stabilized, momentum-biased 

satellite to geosynchronous orbit. 

configuration with two sun-oriented solar panels attached. 

TDRS measures 57.17 ft tip to tip of deployed solar panels. 

TDRS composed of 3 modules: (1) cquipmcnt module 

houses attitude control, electrical power, propulsion, 

telemetry, tracking, and command subsystcms; (2) payload 

module consists of processing and frequency-generation 

equipment; (3) antenna module supports dual deployable 

and fiied antennas, multiple-access array, and remainder 

of telecommunications hardware. Weight at launch, 

including IUS upper stage: 43,212 Ibs. 

Objective: DOD space test. 

Spacecraft: Not announced 

20,346 

20,018 

718.0 

55.1 

337 

305 

91.0 

28.5 

35,808 

35,768 

1,436.1 

0.0 

First in a series of Block I1 operational 

Navstar Globdl Positioning Satellites 

(GPS) launched aboard the newest 

U.S. Air Force expendable launch 

vehicle, the Delta 11. Operational 

system to be composed of 21 satellites 

in six orbital planes. In orbit. 

Transportation System. Piloted by 

Michael L. Coats and John E. Blaha. 

Mission Specialists James P. Bagian, 

James F. Buchli, and Robert C. 

Springer. Discovery launched from 

Kennedy Space Center (KSC), hunch 

Pad 39B at 957 am., EST. Satellite 

succcssfully deployed and 

experiments conducted. Shuttle 

landed at Edwards AFB, CA, Mar. 18 

at 936 a.m., EST. Mission duration 4 

days, 23 hours, 39 minutes. 

Launched from shuttle Discovery Mar. 

13. Fourth of a series. Spacecraft 

replaced partially degraded TDRS 1 at 

410 W, and TDRS 1 moved to 790 W 

serving temporarily as on-orbit spare. 

Leased by NASA from Continental 

Telephone Company (CONTEL). 

Twenty-eighth flight of Space 

499 

487 

94.5 

47.7 

objective: To deploy Magellan spacecraft. 

Spacecraft Shuttle orbiter carrying satellite as well as 331 

297 

90.8 

28.9 

experiments. Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA), 

Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (ME), Air Force Maui 

Optical Site Calibration (AMOS). Weight, including 

Magellan and experiments: 260,878 Ibs. 

USA 36 (also known as Delta 1831, 

experimental missile-hunting Satellite 

equipped with a laser radar, seven 

video imaging cameras and an 

infrared imager. In orbit. 

Twenty-ninth flight of Space 

Transportation System. Piloted by 

David M. Walker and Ronald J. Grabc. 

Mission specialists Norman E. 

Thagard, Mary L. Cleave, and Mark C. 

Lee. Atlantis successfully launched at 

2:46:59 pm., EDT after several 

countdown holds. Satellite 

suceessfully deployed and 

experiments conducted. Shuttle 

landed May 8 at 3:43:37.89 pm, EDT 

at Edwards AFB, CA on runway 22. 

Mission duration of 4 days, 57 minutes. 

141 
APPENDIX A-+Continued 

Successful US. Launches 

January 1,1989-September 30,1990 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Remarks 

May 4 

Magellan 

33B 

May 10 

USA 37 

35A 

Jun. 10 

GPS (Block IIR) 

44A 

Delta I1 

Jun. 14 

USA 39 

46A 

Titan IV 

Aug. 8 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

6lA 

(STS-28) 

Aug. 8 

USA 40 

6lB 

Aug. 8 

USA 41 

61C 

Aug. 18 

GPS (Block IIR) 

64A 

Delta I1 

sep. 4 

USA 43 

69A 

Titan I11 

USA 44 

69B 

Obiective: To dace satellite cawinrr radar sensor into orbit Trans-Venus Magellan successfully launched from ,I 

around Venus to obtain data on planetary surface. 

panels with span of 9.2 m. Composed of satellite 

structure, thermal control, power, attitude control, 

propulsion, command data and storage, and 

telecommunications subsystems. Magellan and IUS 

booster weight 45,748 Ibs. 

Spacecraft: Thrcc-axis stabilized, length, 6.4 m, and solar 

Objective: Not announced. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

objective: To launch Spacecraft into succcssf~~l orbit. 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

objective: To launch upgraded Defense Support Program 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

satellite (DSP-1). 

Objective: DOD mission payload/cargo not announced. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter canying classified DOD payload/ 

cargo. Six Detailed Supplementary Objectives (DSOs) were 

completed, including those associatcd with the Extended 

Duration Orbiter (EDO) Medical Program. 

Weight: Not announced. 

Objective: Not announced. 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

Objective: Not announced. 

Objective: To launch satellite into successful orbit 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Not announced. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Not announced. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

trajectory srhuttlc Atlantis on-revolution 5, 6 

hours, 14 minutes after launch. 

Spacecraft placed on planned 

trajectory for rendezvous and orbit 

with Venus on Aug. 10, 1990. 

Not In orbit. 

announced. 

20,401 

19,962 operational Navstar Global Positioning 

Second in a series of Block I1 

718.0 

54.7 

Satellites (GPS) launched by Delta 11. 

Completed system will have 21 

operational and three spare satellites. 

Also known as USA 38. In orbit. 

Not First launch of Titan IV expendable 

announced. launch vehicle. In orbit. 

317 

314 

Thirtieth flight of Space Transportation 

System. Piloted by Brewster Shaw and 

90.5 Richard Richards. Mission specialists 

56.9 James Adamson, David Leestrna, and 

Mark Brown. Shuttle lift-off at 

8:37 am., EDT from KSC. Landing at 

Edwards AFB, CA, 9:37:53 EDT, 

Aug. 13. Mission duration: 5 days, 

1 hour. 

Not In orbit. 

announced. 

Not In orbit. 

announced. 

20,252 

20,111 operational Navstar Global Positioning 

Third in a series of 21 Block I1 

718.0 

55.0 

Satellites (GPS) launched aboard a 

Delta I1 expendable launch vehicle. 

Also known as USA 42. In orbit. 

Not In orbit. 

announced. 

Not In orbit. 

announced. 

142 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

January 1,1989-September 30,1990 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacccraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Perigee (km), Remarks 

Scp. 6 

USA 45 

72A 

Titan I1 

Scp. 25 

FltSatCom F-8 

77A 

Atlas Centaur 68 

Oct. 18 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

84A 

(STS-34) 

Oct. 18 

Galileo 

840 

Oct. 21 

GPS (Block IIR) 

85A 

Delta I1 

Nov. 18 

COBE 

89A 

Delta 5920 

Objective: Not announced. 

Spacecraft: Not announced, 

Objective: To launch Navy communications satellite into 

Spacecraft: Body is 8 feet in diameter and 22.8 feet high. 

geosynchronous transfer orbit. 

Parabolic antenna is 16 feet in diameter with 80-inch solid 

center surrounded by wire mesh screen. Once in orbit, the 

folded screen is deployed, 13.5-foot helical receiving 

antenna, 13 inches in diameter at base, mounted outside 

the edgc of the transmit antenna dish. Weight, going into 

orbit, with apogec kick motor: 5,100 Ibs. 

objective: To successfully launch Galilco spacecraft toward 

rendezvous with Jupiter. 

Spacecraft: Shuttlc orbiter carrying spacecraft with Inertial 

Upper Stagc (IUS) booster with additional experiments. 

Shuttlc Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet Instrument (SSBUV), 

Growth Hormone Concentration and Distribution in Plants 

(GHCD), Polymcr Morphology Exp. (PM), Mesoscale 

Lightning Exp. (MLE), Sensor Tech. Exp. (STEX), Air Force 

Maui Optical Site (AMOS), IMAX, and one Shuttle Student 

Involvement Projcct. Weight, including space probc and 

experiments (not including shuttle): 46,009 Ibs. 

objective: To launch spacecraft into successful trajectory 

toward Jupiter to allow close-range studies over a period 

of almost two years. 

Spacecraft: Composed of three segments. The first, the 

probe, includes a heat shield, a 2.5-m parachute, six 

instruments together with control and data system, a radiorelay transmitter, and other supporting equipment. The 

probe weighs 335 kg (including 28 kg of scientific 

instrumcnts). The sccond segment is the spinning main 

section which includes the propulsion module, 

communications antennas, main computers, and most 

support systems. The third segment carries field and 

particle instrumcnts. Orbiter (second and third segments) 

weighs 2,668 kg (including 103 kg of science instruments 

and 935 kg of propellant). 

Objective: To launch satellite into successful orbit. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

objective: To successfully launch satellite to enable it to 

measure diffuse infrared radiation (cosmic background). 

Spacecraft: Rotating threc-axis stabilized; length 7.2 m 

(stowed) and 27.5 m with solar panels deployed in orbit. 

Carries three instruments, Diffcrcntial Microwave 

Radiometer (DMR), Far Infrared Absolute 

Spectrophotometer (FIRAS), and Diffuse Infrared 

Background Experiment (DIRBE). 

Weight: 2,206 kg. 

Not 

announced. 

35,799 

35,776 

1,436.2 

4.8 

160 

160 

90 

34.30 

TransJupiter 

trajectory 

In orbit. 

Successfully launched by NASNindustry 

team for Dept. of Navy. Last in NASA 

inventory of Atlas Centaur rockets. 

Sixth, and last in a series of 

geosynchronous satellites part of a 

worldwide Navy, Air Forcc, and DOD 

communications system. Also known 

as USA 46. In orbit. 

Thirtyfirst flight of Space Transportation 

System. Donald E. Williams, 

commander, Michael J. McCulley, pilot. 

Mission Specialists Shannon W. Lucid, 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz, and Ellen S. 

Baker. Lift-off at 12:53:40 pm., EDT 

from KSC. Landing at Edwards AFB, CA 

runway 23 after 80 orbits at 12:33 pm, 

EDT, Oct. 23. Spacecraft deployed 

successfully and cxpcrimcnts 

conducted. Mission duration 4 days, 23 

hours, 39 minutes. 

Spacecraft successfully launched from 

shuttle Atlantis. Planned arrival at 

Jupiter December 1995. 

20,283 

20,079 

717.9 

54.7 

895 

886 

102.8 

99.0 

Fourth in series of Block I1 operational 

Navstar Global Positioning Satellites 

(GPS). Also known as USA 47. In orbit. 

Cosmic Background Explorer (CODE) 

successfully launched using the 184th 

and last NASA-owned Delta. COBE is 

the 65th Explorer class mission. 

Launched from Vandenbeg AFB, CA. 

Mission life: one year planned, primary 

mission; one year planned cxtendcd 

mission. In orbit. Returning data. 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful US. Launches 

January 1,1989-September 30,1990 

Launch Datc (GMT), 

Spacccraft Namc, 

COSPAR Dcsignation, 

Launch Vehiclc 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(”) 

Perigee (km), 

Remarks 

NOV. 23 Objcctivc: Not announccd. Not Thirty-second flight of Space 

Space Shuttle Spacccraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying unannounccd DOD announced. Transportation Systcm. Discovcry 

Discovcry (STS-33) satellite. launched from KSC, Nov. 22 at 7:23 

90A Wcight: Not available. pm., EST. Crew composed of 

Fredcrick D. Grcgory, commandcr, 

John E. Blaha, pilot. Mission specialists 

Kathryn C. Thornton, F. Story 

Musgrave, Manely L. “Sonny” Carter. 

Landed Edwards AFB, CA runway 4 at 

7:31 pm., EST, Nov. 27. Mission 

duration: 5 days, 7 min. 

Nov. 23 

DOD 

90B 

Dec. 11 

GPS (Block IIR) 

97A 

Delta I1 

Jan. 1, 1990 

Skynet 4A 

1A 

Titan I11 

Jan. 1 

JCSAT 2 

1B 

Jan. 9 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

2A 

(STS-32) 

Objective: Not announccd. 

Spacecraft Not announccd. 

Objective: To launch satellite into succcssful orbit. 

Spacccraft: Not announccd. 

Objective: To successfully launch satellite. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Weight: 3,320 Ibs. 

Objective: To successfully launch satcllitc. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Weight: 14,700 Ibs. 

Objective: To launch Syncom IV-5, rctrievc Long Duration 

Exposure Facility (LDEF), and conduct scicntific and 

medical experiments while in wcightless environmcnt. 

Spacecraft: Shuttlc orbitcr carrying satcllitc as wcll as 

following middeck expcrimcnts: American Flight 

Echocardiograph (AFE), Characterization of Ncurospora 

Circadian Rhythms (CNCR), Fluid Expcrimcnt Apparatus 

(FEA), LatituddLongitudc Locator (L3), Protcin Crystal 

Growth (PCG), and IMAX camera. Additionally Mcsoscale 

Lightning Experiment (MLE), and Air Force Maui Optical 

Site Calibration Test (AMOS). Weight of orbiter and cargo 

at SRB ignition: 256,670 Ibs. 

Jan. 9 Objcctivc: To launch satellite into transfcr orbit. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, telescoping satelk 

Dimensions: 15 fcet long, 13 feet in diameter. 

Total weight in cargo bay: 

17,000 Ibs., weight of satellite in orbit 3,060 Ibs 

Syncom IV-5 

(Leasat-5) 

2B 

Jan. 24 Dcvelopmcnt of spaccflight techniques and 

USA-50 technology. 

8A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Not 

announced. 

20,359 

20,010 Global Positioning Satcllitcs (GPS) 

Fifth in a series of Block I1 operational 

launched by U.S. Air Force Delta 11. 

Also known as USA 49. In orbit. 

718.1 

54.9 

35,782 

33,685 

Commercial launch by Martin Marietta for 

British Ministry of Defcncc. In orbit. 

1,382.5 

3.4 

7,191 

82 1 

180.1 

0.3 

342 

316 

90.8 

28.4 

36,363 

34,858 

1,427.1 

1.4 

Second satellite in dual payload Titan 3 

launch. Satellite owned by Japancsc 

Communications Satcllite Co. In orbit. 

Thirty-third flight of Space Transportation 

Systcm. Piloted by Daniel C. 

Brandcnstcin and James D. Wcthcrbec. 

Mission specialists Bonnie J. Dunbar, 

Marsha S. Ivins, and G. David Low. 

Columbia lifted off from KSC, pad 39-A 

at 7:35 a.m., EST. Aftcr succcssfully 

deploying Syncom rV-5 Columbia crew 

successfully captured LDEF Jan. 11, at 

l0:16 am., EST. Aftcr dctailcd 

photographic survcy, satellitc berthed 

in cargo bay 4 1/2 hours later. LDEF 

had been launched by STS-41C in April 

1984. Shuttk landed at Edwards Air 

Force Base, CA, Jan. 20 at 135 am., 

PST. Landing delayed onc day because 

of ground fog at landing site. Mission 

duration: 10 days, 21 hrs, making this 

the longest shuttle flight to date. 

Successfully launched from Columbia for 

U.S. Navy. Replacement for FltSatCom 

spacecraft. Fourth operational satellite 

in the Leasat system. In orbit. 

20,088 Global Positioning Satellite (GPS). Sixth 

718.0 

54.6 In orbit. 

navigation satellite in the serics. 

144 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

January 1,1989-September 30,1990 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Period (mid, 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Perigee (km), Remarks 

Feb. 14 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

USA-51 technology. 

15A Spacecraft Not announced. 

Delta I1 

Feb. 14 

USA-52 

15B 

objective: 

Feb. 28 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

1 9A 

(STS-36) 

Feb. 28 

198 

Intelsat 6 F-3 

21A 

Titan I11 

USA-53 

Mar. 14 

Mar. 26 

USA-54 

25A 

Delta I1 

Apr. 5 

PEGSAT 

28A 

Pcgasus 

Apr. 5 

USA-55 

28B 

549 Low-power atmospheric compensation 

532 

95.3 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 

43 program. In orbit. 

experiment (LACE) satellite. Part of the 

objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 470 

technology. 464 

20,275 43.1 

264 

248 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 93.8 

Objective: To successfully launch DOD payload. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying unannounced satellite. 

Weight: Not available. 89.4 

61.9 

Relay Mirror Experiment (NE) satellite. 

Part of the Strategic Defense Initiative 

(SDI) program testing. In orbit. 

Thirty-fourth flight of Space 

Transportation System. Piloted by 

John 0. Creighton and John H. Casper. 

Mission specialists David C. Hilmcrs, 

Richard M. Mullane, and Pierre J. 

Thout. Atlantis launched from Pad 39- 

A, at KSC, 2:50 a.m., EST. Shuttle 

landed at Edwards AFB, CA, Mar. 4, at 

10:08 am., PST. Mission duration 4 

days, 10 hrs., 19 min. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

Objcczive: To successfully launch satellite into 

geosynchronous orbit. 166 satellite in useless orbit. Intclsat may 

Spacecraft: Launch configuration is 17.5 feet (5.3 rn) tall, with 

diameter of 12 feet (3.6 m). Five antennas, and two 

cylindrical solar arrays. In orbit telescoping spacecraft is 

nearly 39 feet (1 1.7 m) tall. Weight at launch, including 

apogee kick stage: 27,425 Ibs (12,466 kg). 

Not Classified payload launched by shuttle 

technology. announced. Atlantis crew. In orbit. 

338 Launch vchicle malfunction, stranding 

89.3 

28.6 attempt. In orbit. 

request NASA to use shuttle in rescue 

objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 716.0 series. In orbit. 

Objective: To succcssfully launch satellite, and test new 

Spacecraft Two barium canisters, 50 inches (127 cm) high 

20,207 Global Positioning Satellite (GPS). 

technology. 20,059 Seventh navigation satellite in the 

55.1 

682 NASA-built small payload, to obtain 

launch delivery system. 500 environmental measurements of 

and 42 inches (106 cm) wide. 

Weight: 272 Ibs. 

96.4 

94.1 

Pegasus launch vehicle for DARPA, 

deploy Navy satellite, and conduct two 

NASA scientific chemical-release 

experiments over north-central 

Canada. 

Objective: To succcssfully launch small experimental Navy 

Spacecraft: Polygonal sphere. 96.3 deployed from Pegsat. In orbit. 

673 Navy-designed Small Experimental 

satellite. 498 Communications Satellite (SECS) 

Weight: 150 Ibs. 94.1 

Apr. 11 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

USA-56 technology. announced. 

31.4 Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Atlas E 

Not In orbit. First of triple payload launch. 

Apr. 11 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

USA-57 technology. 

310 Spaceflight: Not announced. 

Not 

announced. 

In orbit. Second of triple payload launch. 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

January 1,1989-September 30,1990 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Remarks 

Apr. 11 

31C 

Apr. 13 

PALAPA-B2R 

34A 

Dclta 

Apr. 24 

USA-~~ 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-3 1) 

37A 

Apr. 25 

Hubble Space 

Tclcscope 

37B 

May 9 

M-l 

43A 

scout 

May 9 

43B 

M-2 

Jun. 1 

ROSAT 

49A 

Delta I1 

objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

Objcctive: To succcssfully launch spacecraft into 

geosynchronous orbit. 

spacecraft: Not available. 

technology. 

Objective: To successfully launch Hubble Space Telcscopc 

and conduct scientific and medical experiments while in 

weightless environment. 

following experiments: Ascent Particle Monitor (APM), 

IMAX camera, Investigation into Polymer Membrane 

Processing (IPMP), Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), 

Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME), Ion Arc (Studcnt 

Experiment), and Air Force Maui Optical Site Calibration 

Test (AMOS). Weight of orbiter and cargo at main engine 

cutoff. 259,229 Ibs. 

Objective: To succcssfully perform a variety of astronomical 

observations as a long-term (15-year) international 

observatory with many different Scientific goals and 

observational modes. 

Spacecraft. Cylindrical body made up of three major elements: 

the support systems module, the optical telescope 

assembly, and the Scientific instruments. Electrical power 

provided by two solar arrays containing 48,000 solar cells. 

Optical tclcscope assembly contains two mirrors, a 94-inch 

primary mirror located near the center of the HST. The 13- 

inch secondary mirror is located 16 feet in front of the 

primary mirror Two mirrors must remain in precise 

alignment for the images to be in focus. HST's scientific 

instruments are the Wide Field/Planetary Camera, the 

Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph, the Faint Object 

Spectrograph, and the High Speed Photometer. Weight at 

launch approximately 25,000 Ibs (11,355.4 kg). 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying satellite as well as 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To conduct an all-sky survey for six months, 

using the imaging telescopes to measure positions of xray and extreme, ultraviolet (XW) sources, while 

obtaining fluxes and spectral information. 

Spacecraft: Square-shaped central body containing scientific 

instruments, with three solar arrays. Launch configuration 

dimensions 4.5 m x 2.2 m x 2.4 m. Instrumentation 

includes most powerful x-ray tclescopc ever built, with 

Secondary telescope a Wide Field Camera. Launch weight: 

2,424 kg. 

technology. 

Not 

announced 

37,785 

35,717 

1,485.1 

0.4 

619 

613 

96.8 

28.4 

620 

61 1 

96.8 

28.4 

783 

641 

98.6 

89.8 

782 

640 

98.6 

89.8 

588 

567 

96.1 

52.9 

In orbit. Third of triple payload launch 

Indonesian communications satellite 

launched by United States. In orbit. 

Thirty-fifth flight of Space Transportation 

System. Piloted by Loren J. Shriver and 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. Mission 

specialists Steven A. Hawley, Bruce 

McCandless 11, and Dr. Kathryn D. 

Sullivan. Discovery launched from 

KSC, Pad 39-B, 8:33 a.m., EDT. Landed 

at Edwards AFB, CA, Apr. 29> at 

6:49 a.m., PDT. Mission duration 

5 days, 1 hr, 16 min. 

Successfully deployed by shuttle orbiter 

Discovery. Faint Object Camera (FOC) 

became first scientific instrument to 

complete its orbital verification 

activities on Jun. 6. First images taken 

by Wide Field/Planctary Camera 

released May. 20. Spherical aberration 

in the FIST optical system announced 

publicly Jun. 27. Problcm traced to a 

spacing error in the reflective null 

corrector, an optical reference device 

used in the manufacture of the primary 

mirror. The Wide Field/Planetary 

Camera was directed to study 

developing storm on Saturn; images 

expected to be three to 10 times better 

than those from Earth-based 

telescopes. 

First of dual Lightsat launch. In orbit 

Second in dual Lightsat launch. In orbit. 

Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT) international 

cooperative satellite successfully 

launched from the Cape Canaveral Air 

Force Station, FL. This joint mission 

with the Federal Republic of Germany 

and the United Kingdom has a twophase schedule: (a) a six-month survey 

to be conducted by German scientists 

and (b) a 12-month pointed phase, 

where telescopes are pointed at preselected individual x-ray sources. 

Spacecraft still in orbit and returning 

data. 

146 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

January 1,1989-September 30,1990 

Launch Date (0, 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Remarks 

Jun. 8 

50A 

Titan N 

USA-59 

objective: Dcvelopmcnt of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

technology. 

Not 

announced. booster. In orbit. 

One of four satellites launched by single 

Jun. 8 

USA-60 

50B 

Jun. 8 

50C 

USA-6 1 

Jun. 8 

USA-62 

SOD 

Jun. 12 

INSAT 1D 

5 1A 

Dclta 

Jun. 23 

Intelsat 6 F-4 

56A 

Titan I11 

Jul. 25 

CRRES 

65A 

Atlas l/Ccntaur 69 

Aug. 2 

68A 

Delta I1 

USA-63 

Aug. 18 

BSB-R2 

74A 

Delta 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To successfully launch communications satellite 

to geosynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Same basic configuration as INSAT 1B launched 

by shuttle in 1983. 

technology. 

technology. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch satellite into geosynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Same as Intclsat 6 launched Mar. 14. 

Objective: To successfully launch satellite into a highly 

elliptical geosynchronous transfer orbit to enable 

performance of active chemical release experiments in the 

ionosphere and magnetosphere. 

Spacecraft: Octagonal satellite with two attached solar arrays 

and dcployablc magnctorneter boom and 24 releasable 

canisters. 

Weight: 3,842 Ibs. 

Navy objectives can be met. 

Objective. To place satellite into successful orbit from which 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

Objective: To successfully launch satellite. 

Spacecraft Not available. 

Not 

announced. 

Second of four satellite launch. In orbit 

Not 

announced. 

Third offour satellite launch. In orbit. 

Not 

announced. 

Fourth of four satellite launch. In orbit. 

35,974 

35,767 

1,440.0 

0.2 

35,791 

35,785 

1,436.2 

0.0 

33,612 

335 

591.9 

18.2 

20,665 

19,931 

722.7 

54.7 

35,859 

35,565 

1,432.2 

0.3 

Launched by United States for India to 

rcplace INSAT 1B. Completes INSAT 1 

scries. In orbit. 

Launched by Martin Marietta for Intelsat. 

Third in a series of five Intelsat 6 

satellites. Operational in early Sept. 

Spacecraft in orbit located at 

332.50 East. 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects 

Satellite, a joint NASMUSAF payload, 

launched atop the first commercial 

Atlas launch vehicle. First canister 

released over the South Pacific 

Sept. 10. In orbit. 

Global Positioning Satellite (GPS). 

Eighth navigation satellite, In orbit. 

Launched for British Satellite 

Broadcasting. In orbit. 

147 
APPENDIX B-1 

US.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1984-1990 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Feb. 6, 1984 

Mar. 1, 1984 

June 9, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Aug. 31, 1984 

Sept. 1, 1984 

Sept. 21, 1984 

Nov. 9, 1984 

Nov. 10, 1984 

Nov. 14, 1984 

Mar. 22, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 13, 1985 

June 17, 1985 

June 18, 1985 

June 19, 1985 

June 30, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Aug. 29, 1985 

Sep. 29, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Nov. 28, 1985 

Jan. 12, 1986 

Dec. 5, 1986 

Mar. 20, 1987 

Sep. 25, 1989 

Jan. 1, 1990 

Jan. 1, 1990 

Jan. 9, 1990 

Mar. 14, 1990 

Apr. 13, 1990 

Jun. 23, 1990 

Aug. 18, 1990 

Westar-6 

Palapa-B2 

Uosat-2 

Intelsat V F-9 

SBS-4 

Syncom IV-2 

Telstar-3C 

Galaxy-3 

Anik-D2 

Syncom IV-1 

NATO IIID 

Intelsat VA F-10 

Telesat-I 

Syncom Tv-3 

Arabsat-1B 

Telstar-3D 

Intelsat VA FMORELOS-A 

AUSSAT-1 

ASC-1 

Syncom IV-4 

Intelsat VA F. 

MORELOS-B 

AUSSAT-2 

1 

2 

RCA Satcom K-2 

RCA Satcom K-l 

Fltsatcom 7 

Palapa B-2P 

FltSatCom F-8 

Skynet 4A 

JCSAT 2 

Syncom IV-5 

Intelsat 6 F-3 

Palapa-B2R 

Intelsat 6 F-4 

BSB-2R 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 3920 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3914 

Adas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttlc 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Delta 182 

AtlasKentaur 

Titan 111 

Titan 111 

Space Shuttle 

Titan I11 

Delta 

Titan I11 

Delta 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

3920/PAM-D 

PAM-D 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Launched for Western Union, PAM-D failed to fire properly, satellite 

Launched for Indonesia, booster motor failed, satellite retrieved and 

Secondary payload with Landsat-5, for amateur radio communications. 

Seventh in series, launch vehicle failure, satellite reentered Oct. 24. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems, Inc. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

Third in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

retrieved by Shuttle, and returned to earth for refurbishment. 

returned to Earth by Shuttle. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

NATO defense-related communications satellite. 

First in series of six improved satellites. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Launched for Arab Satellite Communication Organization (ASCO). 

Launched for the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). 

Second in series of improved satellites launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Australia's National Satellite Company. 

hunched for American Satellite Company. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Second satellite launched for Australia's National Satellite Company. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Launched for DoD. 

Indonesia domestic communications. 

Sixth, and last in series of geosynchronous satellites, for U.S. Navy. 

Launched for British Ministry of Defence. 

Second of dual Titan I11 launch, for Japanese Communications Satellite Co. 

Leasat 5, fourth in series of satellites, for U.S. Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for British Satellite Broadcasting. 

148 
APPENDIX B-1-Continued 

USdaunched Applications Satellites, 1984-1990 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

WEATHER OBSERVATION' 

Dec. 12, 1984 NOAA-9 Atlas E 

Sep. 17, 1986 NOM-10 Atlas E 

Feb. 26, 1987 GOES 7 Delta 179 

June 20, 1987 DMSP F-8 Atlas E 

Feb. 2, 1988 DMSP F-9 Atlas E 

Sep. 24, 1988 NOAA-11 Atlas E 

Mar. 1, 1984 Landsat-5 Delta 3920 

Mar. 13, 1985 GEOSAT Atlas E 

Launched for NOAA, to replace NOAA-7. 

Launched for NOAA. 

Launched for NOM, operational as GOES-East. 

Third in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to replace NOAA-9. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Fifth experimental earth resources satellite, to replace ailing Landsat-4. 

GEODESY 

Measure ocean surface height. 

NAVIGATION' 

Feb. 5, 1984 IRT Space Shuttle Balloon to test Shuttle rendezvous radar. 

June 13, 1984 Navstar-9 Atlas E Global Positioning System satellite. 

Sept. 8, 1984 Navstar-10 Atlas E Global Positioning System satellite. 

Oct. 12, 1984 Nova-3 scout Second of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Aug. 3, 1985 Oscar 24 scout Part of Navy Transit System. 

Aug. 3, 1985 Oscar 30 scout Part of Navy Transit System. 

Oct. 9, 1985 Navstar-11 Atlas E Global Positioning System satellite. 

Apr. 25, 1988 SOOS-3 scout Dual satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Jun. 16, 1988 NOVA-2 scout Third of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Aug. 25, 1988 SOOS-4 scout Dual satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Feb. 14, 1989 GPS-1 (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

June 10, 1989 GPS-2 (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

Aug. 18, 1989 GPS-3 (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

Oct. 21, 1989 GPS-4 (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

Dec. 11, 1989 GPS-5 (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

Jan. 24, 1990 GPS-6 (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

Mar. 26, 1990 GPS-7 (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

Aug. 2, 1990 GPSS (Block IIR) Delta I1 Global Positioning System satellite. 

'Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

149 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.Sdaunched Scientific Satellites, 1984-1990 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 6, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Aug. 16, 1984 

Oct. 5, 1984 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 20, 1985 

July 29, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 14, 1986 

Mar. 25, 1988 

Nov. 18, 1989 

Fcb. 14, 1990 

Feb. 14, 1990 

Apr. 5, 1990 

Apr. 25, 1990 

June 1, 1990 

Jul. 25, 1990 

Long Duration 

Exposure 

Fa c i 1 i ty 

(LDEF-1) 

Charge 

Composition 

Explorer 

(CCE) 

Ion Release 

Module 

(IRM) 

United 

Kingdom 

Satellite 

(UKS) 

Budget 

Earth Radiation 

Satellite (ERBS) 

Spartan-1 

Plasma 

NUSAT-1 

Diagnostic 

Package 

(PDP) 

GLOMR 

Polar Bear 

San Marco D/L 

COBE 

LACE 

RME 

PEGSAT 

Hubble Space 

Telescope 

ROSAT 

CRRES 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

scout 

scout 

Delta 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Pegasus 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Atladcentaur 

Scientific experiments designed for retrieval from space by Shuttle. 

Measurement of Earth's magnetosphere, one of three satellites composing 

Active Magnetosphere Particle Tracer Explorers Mission (AMPTE). 

Second of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same vehicle. 

Third of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same vehicle 

First of three satellites in Earth Radiation Budget Experiment Research 

Program. NOM-9 and NOAA-G carrying other instruments in Program 

Northern Utah Satellite (air traffic control radar system calibrator). 

Reusable free-flying platform. 

Reusable experimental platform. 

Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite. 

Experiments to study radio interference caused by Aurora Borealis, for DoD. 

International satellite to study earth's lower atmosphere. 

Measurement of cosmic background. 

Low-powered atmospheric compensation experiment, for DOD. 

Second payload, relay mirror experiment satellite, for DOD. 

Chemical release experiment satellite for NASA and DOD. 

Long-term astronomical 

observations. 

Measurement of x-ray and extreme ultraviolet sources 

Chemical release experiment. 

150 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1990 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20, 1975 

Scpt. 9, 1975 

Jan. 15, 1976 

Aug. 20, 1977 

Scp. 5, 1977 

May 20, 1978 

Aug. 8, 1978 

May 4, 1989 

Oct. 18, 1989 

Viking 1 

Viking 2 

Helios 2 

Voyager 2 

Voyager 1 

Pioneer Venus 1 

Pioneer Venus 2 

Magellan 

Galilco 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIEC e n t a u r 

Adas-Centaur 

Adas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6, 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data 

to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for 

signs of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20, 

1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data 

to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for 

signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million !un of Sun, measuring 

solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload had same West 

German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, 

arrived Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed for 

outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data. 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through 

Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Aug. 10, 1990, returning radar image 

of surface. 

Planetary exploration spacecraft, composed of probe to enter Jupiter’s 

atmosphere and orbiter to return scientific data. 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crcw 

Vostok 1 

McrcuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gcmini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

Soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

Soyuz 4 

Soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dcc. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Scpt. 12, I966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11. 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1969 

Mar. 3, 1969 

May 18, 1969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Lconov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W.Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

DOM F. Eiselc 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Geogiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovcll, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schwcickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) 

0: 1:48 

0: 0:15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:l8 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10: 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4:53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1:51 

0: 10: 41 

3: 0:21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2 23 : 17 

3 : 22 : 35 

1: 2:37 

10 : 20: 9 

3: 22: 51 

6: 3: 1 

2 : 23 : 23 

3: 0:56 

10: 1: 1 

8: 0: 3 

Highlights 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of 

First 3-man crew. 

astronaut safe. 

Vostok 5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual 

21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date 

Longest-duration manned flight to date 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered 

min). 

maneuvers in orbit. 

(Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket) 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

flight; highest Earthorbit altitude (1,372 

km). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date 

(Aldrin, 5 hrs 37 min). 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbiKs) of moon; first manned 

departure from Earth's sphere of 

influence; highest speed attained in 

manned flight to date. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 

cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit 

operation of lunar module to landing and 

takeoff from lunar surface and rejoining 

with command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 14,300 

m from the lunar surface. 

152 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew Flight Time 

(davs: hrs: min) Highlights 

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

S0)WZ 12 

Skylab 4 

SO)W 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14, 1969 

Apr. 11, 1970 

June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6, 1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2. 1974 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr, 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Ceman 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Latarcv 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pope 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. 

Rukavishnikov 

8: 3: 9 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

4 : 22 : 50 

10: 4 :36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17: 16: 59 

9: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23: 18: 22 

12: 7: 12 

11: 1 :51 

12:13:52 

28: 0: 50 

59: 11: 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1 : 16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15 : 17 : 30 

2: 0:12 

5 : 22 : 24 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock and 

soil samples to Earth, and manned 

deployment of experiments on lunar 

surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

ccrtain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial observation. 

Second manned lunar landing. Explored 

surface of moon and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. 

Ship circled moon, with crew using LM as 

"lifeboat" until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission 

demonstrated pinpoint landing capability 

and continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew 

recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew 

occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capusle recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo 

'7" series mission, which carried Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. Worden's inflight EVA of 38 

min 12 sec was performed during return 

trip. 

Roving Vehicle. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned 

May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged 

station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration 

mission; last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources 

Dockcd with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

experiments. 

occupied space station. 

153 
APPENDX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights (davs:hrs:min) 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Gcorgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alckscy A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vancc D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Akscnov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valcriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valcriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romancnko 

Gcorgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarcv 

Vladimir Remck 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Alcksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1:28 

48: 1: 32 

7 : 21 : 54 

2: 0: 6 

17: 17 : 23 

2: 0:46 

37: IO : 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

7 : 22 : 17 

79: 15 : 23 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

108 : 4: 24 

1~23: 1 

73 : 18 : 17 

55: 1: 29 

65 : 20 : 54 

3 : 22 : 21 

79 : 15 : 17 

7 : 20 : 43 

12: 19: 8 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupicd 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crcw 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied 

Targct for Apollo in docking and joint 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint 

station. 

recovered after abort. 

station. 

experirncnts of ASTP mission. 

experiments of ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied 

Earth resources study with multispectral 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

station. 

camera system. 

station. 

station. 

Soyuz 27; crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 

min. 

Czcch cosmonaut to orbit. 

Soyuz 31; crew duration 137 days 14 hrs 

48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszcwski was 

first Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 29; crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 47 

min. Jaehn was first German Democratic 

Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

Dockcd with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 34; crew duration 175 days 36 

min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 

station. Ivanov was first Bulgarian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

for Soyuz 32 crew whilc Soyuz 32 

returned unmanned. 

Soyuz 37. Crew duration 184 days 20 hrs 

12 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crcw returned in 

Soyuz 35. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 

46 min. Farkas was first Hungarian to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight 

of ncw-generation ferry. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 36. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 

42 min. Pham was first Vietnamese to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first 

Cuban to orbit. 

Docked wtih Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in 

Soviet program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Rcmck was first 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crcw returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6, latcr served as fcny 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

July 6, 1976 

Sept. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb. 7, 1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dcc. 10, 1977 

Jan. 10, 1978 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

Sowz 27 

Mar. 2, 1978 

June 15, 1978 

June 27, 1978 

Aug. 26, 1778 

Pctr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jachn 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valcriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. lvanov 

Soyuz 32 Fcb. 25, 1977 

soyuz 33 Apr. 10, 1979 

soyuz 34 June 6, 1979 (unmanned at launch) 

soyuz 35 Apr. 9, 1980 Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Soyuz 36 May 26, 1980 

Soyuz T-2 

soyuz 37 

June 5, 1980 

July 23, 1980 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Soyuz 38 

Soyuz T-3 

Sept. 18, 1980 

Nov. 27, 1980 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Amaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Olcg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

154 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) Highlights 

Soyuz T-4 

soyuz 39 

Mar. 12, 1981 vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn 

74 : 18 : 38 

Mar. 22, 1981 7 : 20 : 43 

Gurragcha 

Apr. 12, 1981 John W. Young 2: 6:21 

Robert L. Crippen 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first 

Mongolian cosmonaut to orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested 

spacecraft in orbit. First landing of 

airplanelike craft from orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first 

Romanian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first 

scientific payload (OSTA 1). Tested 

remote manipulator arm. Returned for 

reuse. 

scientific payload (OSS 1). Second test of 

remote manipulator arm. Flight extended 

1 day because of flooding at primary 

landing site; alternate landing site used. 

Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 

211 days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-7. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first 

French cosmonaut to orbit. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD 

payload, additional scientific payloads. 

Returned July 4. Completed orbital flight 

testing program. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second 

Soviet woman to orbit. Crew returned in 

SOPZ T-5. 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

operational flight; launched 2 

commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik C3); first flight with 4 crew mcmbers. EVA 

test cancelled when spacesuits 

malfunctioned. 

TDRS 1. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

C o I u m b i a 

(STS 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

May 14, 1981 

Nov. 12, 1981 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumiuu Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Mar. 22, 1982 

7:20 :41 

2: 6:13 

8: 4:49 

Soyuz T-5 

So)uz T-6 

May 13, 1982 

June 24, 1982 

Anatoliy Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsficld, Jr. 

211: 9: 5 

7 : 21 : 51 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

Soyuz T-7 

June 27, 1982 7: 1: 9 

Aug. 19, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Ovcrmyer 

Joseph P. Allcn 

William B. Lcnoir 

7:21 :52 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 5) 

5: 2:14 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 6) 

Apr. 4, 1983 Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

Vladirnir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardncr 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robcrt A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

5: 0:24 

Soyuz T-8 Apr. 20, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

2: 0:18 Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 

station. 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 7) 

6: 2 :24 Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 

commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and 

Palapa B-11, also launched and retrieved 

SPAS 01; first flight with 5 crew 

members, including first woman U.S. 

astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

one commercial satellite (Insat LB), first 

flight of U.S. black astronaut. 

Soyuz T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

June 28, 1983 

Aug. 30, 1983 

149: 9: 46 

6: I: 9 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Nov. 28, 1983 10: 7 : 47 Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

Spacelab 1, first flight of 6 crew 

members, one of whom was West 

German, first non-U.S. astronaut to fly in 

U.S. space program. 

155 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41B) 

SOFZ T-10 

SOWZ T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-4 1C) 

Soyuz T-12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-4 1D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41G) 

Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hmmin) Highlights 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1A) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-510 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-5 1 B) 

Soyuz T-13 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Feb. 8, 1984 

Apr. 3, 1984 

Apr. 6, 1984 

July 17, 1984 

Aug. 30, 1984 

Sept. 5, 1984 

Nov. 8, 1984 

Jan. 24, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 5, 1985 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Robert L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

VIadimir Solovev 

Oleg Atkov 

Yuriy Malyshev 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frances R. Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. van Hoften 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Michacl L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Rcsnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippcn 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Garneau 

Frederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. Buchli 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M. Rhea Seddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. Gam 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thornton 

Lodewijk Vandenberg 

Taylor Wang 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Viktor Savinykh 

7 : 23 : 16 

62 : 22 : 43 

181 : 21 : 48 

6 : 23 : 41 

11 : 19 : 14 

6: 0:56 

8: 5 :24 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two 

communication satellites failed to achieve 

orbit. First use of Manned Maneuvering 

Unit (MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set 

space duration record of 237 days. Crew 

returned in Soyuz T-11. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment 

of LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar 

Maximum Satellite retrieved, repaired, and 

redeployed. 

T-10. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woman 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

US. non-astronaut. 

Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight 

of 7 crewmembers, including first flight of 

two U.S. women and one Canadian. 

7 : 23 : 45 Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

retrieval and return of two disabled 

communications satellites (westar 6, 

Palapa B2) to Earth. 

3 : 1 : 33 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

6 : 23 : 55 Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications 

satellites. First U.S. Senator in space. 

7:0:9 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo 

bay of shuttle. 

112: 3: 12 Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to 

Earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 

spacecraft, Sept. 26, 1985. 

156 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs : min) Highlights 

Space Shuttle June 17, 1985 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1G) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-5 1 F) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS- 5 1 I) 

Soyuz T-14 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-51J) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-61A) 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-6 1 B) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-61C) 

SOFZ T-15 

Soyuz TM-2 

July 29, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Sept. 17, 1985 

Oct. 3, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Jan. 12, 1986 

Mar. 13, 1986 

Feb. 5, 1987 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

John 0. Creighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

7 : 22 : 45 Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo 

bay. 

7: 2 :18 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. Repaired 

Syncom IV-3. 

64: 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut-7 station. Viktor 

Savinykh, Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir 

Vasyutin returned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985, 

when Vasyutin became ill. 

mission. 

4: 1 :45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicted DoD 

7: 1 : 39 Eighteenth STS flight. Three 

communications satellites. One reusable 

payload, Spartan-1. First US. flight with 

French and Saudi Arabian crewmen. 

Steven R. Nagel 

Patrick Baudry 

Sultan bin Salrnan bin 

Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud 

Charles G. Fullerton 

Roy D. Bridges 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartoe 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van Hoften 

William F. Fisher 

John M.Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grechko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Pailes 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Steven R. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford 

Emst Messcrschmid 

Reinhard Furrer 

Wubbo J. Ockels 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Bryan D. O'Connor 

Mary L. Cleve 

Sherwood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolfo Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steven A. Hawley 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenker 

Bill Nelson 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovyov 

Yuriy Romanenko 

Aleksandr Laveykin 

7: 0 :45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated 

German Spacelab D-l in shuttle cargo 

bay. 

6 : 22 : 54 Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. First flight of 

Mexican astronaut. 

6: 2: 4 Twenty-fourth STS flight. Launched one 

communications satellite. First member of 

US. House of Representatives in space. 

125: 1 : 1 Docked with MIR space station on May 5/6 

transferred to Salyut 7 complex. On June 

25/26 transferred from Salyut 7 back to 

MIR. 

Romanenko established long distance stay 

in space record of 326 days. 

174: 3 : 26 Docked with MIR space station. 

157 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(daw hrs:min> Highlights 

Soyuz TM-4 

Soyuz TM-5 

Soyuz TM-6 

STS-26 

SO~Z TM-3 July 22, 1987 Aleksandr Viktorenko 160 : 7: 16 Docked with MIR space station. Aleksandr 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Mohammed Faris 

Aleksandrov remained in MIR 160 days, 

returned with Yuriy Romanenko. 

Viktorenko and Faris returned in Soyuz 

TM-2, July 30 with Aleksandr Laveykin 

who experienced medical problems. 

Mohammed Faris first Syrian in space. 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew of 

Yuriy Romanenko, Aleksandr 

Aleksandrov, and Anatoliy Levchenko 

returned Dec. 29 in Soyuz TM-3. 

Aleksandrov first Bulgarian in space. 

Crew returned Jun. 17 in Soyuz TM-4. 

8: 19:27 Docked with MIR space station, Mohmand 

first Afghanistan in space. Crew returned 

Sep. 7 in Soyuz TM-5 

4: 1 Twenty-sixth STS flight. Launched TDRS 3. 

9 : 20 : 13 Docked with MIR space station, 

SOPZ TM-7 

STS-27 

STS-29 

STS-30 

STS-28 

soy2 

TM-8 

Dec. 21, 1987 Vladimir Titov 

Musa Manarov 

Anatoliy Levchenko 

180: 5 

Jun. 7, 1988 Viktor Savinykh 

Anatoly Solovyev 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Aug. 29, 1988 Vladimir Lyakhov 

Vakriy Polyakov 

Abdul Mohmand 

Frederick H. Hauck 

Richard 0. Covey 

John M. Lounge 

David C. Hilmers 

George D. Nelson 

Nov. 26, 1988 Aleksandr Volkov 

Sergey Krikalev 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Sep. 29, 1988 

Dcc. 2, 1988 Robert "Hoot" Gibson 

Guy S. Gardner 

Richard M. Mullane 

Jerry L. Ross 

William M. Shepherd 

Michael L. Coats 

John E. Blaha 

James P. Bagian 

James F. Buchli 

Robert C. Springer 

David M. Walker 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Norman E. Thagard 

Mary L. Cleave 

Mark C. Lee 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Richard N. Richards 

James C. Adamson 

David C. Leestma 

Mark N. Brown 

Mar. 13, 1989 

May 4, 1989 

Aug. 8, 1989 

Scp. 5, 1989 Aleksandr Viktorenko 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

151 : 11 Docked with MIR space station. Soyuz TM6 returned with Chretien, Vladimir Titov, 

and Musa Manarov. Titov and Manarov 

completed 366-day mission Dec. 21. 

Crew of Krikalev, Volkov, and Valeriy 

Polyakov returned Apr. 27, 1989 in Soyuz 

Twenty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD 

TM-7. 

4 : 9: 6 

mission. 

4 : 23 : 39 Twenty- eighth 

STS flight. 

Launched 

TDRS-4. 

4: 0 :57 Twentyninth 

STS flight. 

Venus orbiter 

Magellan 

launched. 

Thirtieth STS 

flight. 

Dedicated DOD 

mission. 

5: 1 

166: 6 Docked with MIR space 

station. Crew of Viktorenko 

and Serebrov returned in 

Soyuz TM-8, Feb. 9, 1990. 

158 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1990 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(davs:hrs:min) Highlights 

STS-33 

STS-32 

STS-34 Oct. 18, 1989 

Nov. 23, 1989 

Jan. 9, 1990 

soyuz 

TM-9 

STS-36 

STS-31 

soyuz 

TM-10 

Feb. 11, 1990 

Feb. 28, 1-0 

Apr. 24, 1990 

Aug. 1, 1990 

Donald E. Williams 

Michael J. McCulley 

Shannon W. Lucid 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Ellen S. Baker 

Frederick D. Gregory 

John E. Blaha 

Kathryn C. Thornton 

F. Story Musgrave 

Manley L. "Sonny" Carter 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

James D. Wetherbee 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

Marsha S. Ivins 

G. David Low 

Anatoliy Solovyov 

Aleksandr Balandin 

John 0. Creighton 

John H. Casper 

David C. Hilmers 

Richard H. Mullane 

Pierre J. Thout 

Loren J. Shriver 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr 

Steven A. Hawley 

Bruce McCandless I1 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Gennadiy Manakov 

Gennadiy Strekalov 

4 : 23 : 39 

5: 0 :7 

10 : 21 

178 : 22 : 19 

4 : 10 : 19 

5:1:16 

mission 

in 

progress 

Thirty-first 

STS flight. 

Launched 

Jupiter probe 

and orbiter 

Galileo. 

Thirty-second 

STS flight. 

Dedicated DOD 

mission. 

Thirty-third 

STS flight. 

Launched Syncom 

W-5 and 

retrieved Long 

Duration 

Exposure 

Facility 

(LDEF). 

Docked with MIR 

space station. 

Crew returned 

Aug. 9, 1990, 

in Soyuz TM-9. 

Thirty-fourth 

STS flight. 

Dedicated DOD 

mission. 

Thirty-fifth 

STS flight. 

Launched Hubble 

Space 

Telescope 

(HS??. 

Docked with MIR 

space 

station. 

159 
APPENDIX D 

US. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Payload (kdb 

Vehicle Stages/(engincs) prop ell an^ Thrust Max. Dia. 185-Km Geosynch.- Circular First 

(kilonewtons) x Height Orbit Transfer Sun- Launch' 

orbit 'ynch. 

Orbit (m) 

scout 

Delta 3900 Series 

(Thor-Delta)' 

Delta I1 

Atlas E 

Atlas-Centaur 

Titan IV 

Titan I1 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Titan 111(34)D/IUS 

Titan III(34)D/ 

Transtage 

1. Algol IIIA ............. 2. Castor IIA ............ 3. Antares IIIA ......... 

4. Altair IIIA ............. 

1. Thor plus ............. 9 TX 526-2 ........... 

2. Delta .................... 

1. Thor plus ............. 9 TX 526-2 .......... 2. Delta .................... Atlas booster (MA-3) & 

sustainer .............. 1. Atlas booster (MA-5) 

& sustainer .......... 2. Centaur ................ 1. Two 7-segment, 

3.05 m dia ............ 2. (LR-87) ................. 3. (LR-91) ................. 4. IUS 1st stage ........ 

Solid ........................ Solid ........................ Solid ........................ Solid ........................ 

LOWRF-1 ............... Solid ........................ 

Nz0,/Aerozine-50 .... LOWRF-1 ............... Solid ........................ Nz0,/Aerozine-50 .... 

LOWRF-1 ............... 

LOWRF-1 ............... LOWLH, ............... 

Solid ........................ N,O,/Acrozine ......... N,O,/Aerozine ......... Solid ........................ 

431.1 

285.2 

83.1 

25.6 

912.0 

375 each 

44.2 

920.8 

432 each 

43.0 

1,722.0 

1,913.0 

146.0 

12,402.0 

2,452.0 

472.0 

185.0 

1.14x22.9 

2.44x35.4 

2.90~39.62 

3.05x28.1 

3.05x45.0 

5.08x62.2 

255 

205d 

3,045 

2,180d 

__ 

2,090d' 

6,100 

17,690 

__ 

1,275 

1,819 

- 

2,360 

2,404 

2,135d 1982(60) 

-- 1989 

1,500" 1972(59) 

-- 1984(72) 

1989 

5. IUS 2nd stage ...... Solid ........................ 76.0 

24-Hour Sun-synch. 185-Km Polar Transfer 

Orbit Orbit Orbit 

1. (LR-87[21) 

2. (LR-91) 

1. (LR-87) ................. 2. (LR-91) ................. 3. Agena ................... 1. Two 5 '/z-segment, 

3.05 m dia ........... 2. LR-87 .................... 3. LR-91 .................... 4. IUS 1st stage ........ 5. IUS 2nd stage ...... 

Same as Titan III(34)D 

4. Transtage ............. plus: 

N,O,/Aerozine-50 .... Nz0,/Aerozine-50 .... N,O,/Aerozine ......... N,O,/Aerozine ......... 

IRFNMUDMH ........ 

Solid ........................ N,O,/Aerozine ........ N,O,/Aerozine ........ Solid ........................ Solid ........................ 

N,O,/Aerozinc ........ 

2,108.4 3.05~28.5 2,200 -- -- 1988 (62) 

444.8 1,905d 

455.1 

71.2 

2,341.0 3.05x48.4 3,6W 3,060" 1966 

11,564.8 3.05x48.0 14,920 1,850" 

2,366.3 

449.3 

275.8 

115.7 

3.05x46.9 14,920 1,855d -- 1984h 

69.8 

-- 1982 

Space Shuttle 

(reusable) 

1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) Fm 

in parallel with 

2. Two solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRBs) fire in 

parallel with SSMEs WNH,CLO/ 

Mounted on 

external tank (ET') 

SRBs ..................... LOWLH, ................ 1,670 each 

PBAN ............ 11,790 each 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

24,900 1981 

in full 

performance 

23.79~37.24 configuration 

wing long 

span 

3.71x45.45 

8.40x46.88 

* Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen 

and a modified kerosene - LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer - Solid; 

inhibited red-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine - IRFNMUDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMWN,H, - 

N,O,/aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen - LOWLH,; 

aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene acrolonitrile 

terpolymer - WNH,CLO,/PBAN. 

Due east launch except as indicated. 

The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a 

Polar launch. 

Maximum performance based on 3920, 3920DAM configurations. 

With dual TE 364-4. 

Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to be 

date in parentheses for the initial version. 

PAM - payload assist module. 

*With 96' flight azimuth. 

scheduled as needed. 

160 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the 

director of Space Transportation System Support Programs. 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

NASA Total 

Fiscal Year Defense Other Energy Interior mCUl- NSF DOT EPA Space Total Space’ merce mre 

1959 ............................ 1960 ............................ 

1961 

1962 ............................ 1963 ............................ 

1966 ............................ 

1967 ..................... 

1971 ...................... 

1974 ............................ 1975 ............................ 1976 ............................ Transitional Quarter ... 1977 

1978 

1979 ............................ 1980 ............................ 1981 ............................ 1982 ............................ 

1984 ............................ 

1986 ............................ 1987 ............................ 1988 ............................ 1989 ............................ 1990 

1991 [est.] .................... 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1,824.9 

3,673.0 

5,099.7 

5,249.7 

5,174.9 

4,965.6 

4,587.3 

3,990.9 

3,745.8 

3,311.2 

3,306.6 

3,406.2 

3,036.9 

3,229.1 

3,550.3 

931.8 

3,817.8 

4,060.1 

4,595.5 

5,240.2 

5,518.4 

6,043.9b 

6,875.3’ 

7,248.0 

7,572.6 

7,766.0 

10,507.0 

9,025.8 

10,969.0 

13,073.4 

14,647.0 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1,796.8 

3,626.0 

5,016.3 

5,137.6 

5,064.5 

4,830.2 

4,430.0 

3,822.0 

3,547.0 

3,101.3 

3,071.0 

3,093.2 

2,758.5 

2,915.3 

3,225.4 

849.2 

3,440.2 

3,622.9 

4,030.4 

4,680.4 

4,992.4 

5,527.6 

6,327.9 

6,648.3 

6,924.9 

7,165.0 

9,809.0‘ 

8,302.4 

10,097.5 

12,141.6 

13,602.8 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1,298.2 

1,549.9 

1,599.3 

1,573.9 

1,688.8 

1,663.6 

1,921.8 

2,013.0 

1,678.4 

1,512.3 

1,407.0 

1,623.0 

1,766.0 

1,892.4 

1,983.3 

460.4 

2,411.9 

2,738.3 

3,035.6 

3,848.4 

4,827.7 

6,678.7 

9,018.9 

10,194.9 

12,767.9 

14,126.0 

16,286.8 

17,678.7 

17,906.1 

19,382.4 

20,443.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

127.3 

96.7 

108.7 

115.8 

106.6 

111.2 

30.9 

130.7 

157.0 

177.5 

160.0 

157.7 

234.4 

241.7 

292.5 

473.7 

368.4 

352.1 

625.6 

439.7 

330.2 

372.7 

34.3 

43.3 

67.7 

147.8 

213.9 

210.0 

228.6 

186.8 

183.6 

145.1 

118.0 

102.8 

94.8 

55.2 

54.2 

41.7 

29.6 

23.3 

4.6 

21.7 

34.4 

58.6 

39.6 

40.5 

60.6 

38.9 

34.1 

34.0 

34.6 

47.6 

240.8 

97.2 

78.6 

106.2 

... 

... 

... 

50.7 

43.2 

2.8 

12.2 

26.5 

29.3 

28.1 

20.0 

8.0 

27.4 

31.3 

39.7 

60.2 

64.4 

71.5 

22.2 

90.8 

102.8 

98.4 

92.6 

87.0 

144.5 

177.8 

236.0 

422.9 

308.9 

277.9 

351.5 

301.3 

201.7 

210.5 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

0.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.9 

11.7 

12.3 

12.1 

4.6 

3.0 

2.0 

2.0 

7.6 

13.6 

17.0 

19.0 

24.0 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

0.7 

0.8 

0.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

0.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

15.2 

20.4 

19.4 

14.8 

22.9 

18.5 

18.3 

20.5 

26.4 

27.4 

... 

0.1 

0.6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

0.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.0 d ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

1.4 

2.7 

3.5 

3.6 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

784.7 

1,065.8 

1,808.2 

3,294.8 

5,434.5 

6,831.4 

6,955.5 

6,969.8 

6,709.5 

6,528.9 

5,975.8 

5,340.5 

4,740.9 

4,574.7 

4,824.9 

4,640.3 

4,914.3 

5,319.9 

1,340.5 

5,982.8 

6,518.2 

7,243.5 

8,688.8 

9,977.8 

12,440.7 

15,588.5 

17,135.7 

20,166.5 

21,659.4 

26,447.9 

26,606.7 

28,443.3 

31,854.2 

34,418.5 

aExcludes amounts for air transportation (subfundon 402) . bIncludes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed . ‘Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds . dNSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA . 

‘Includes $2.1 billion for replacement of shuttle orbiter Challenger . 

SOURCE: Offce of Management and Budget . 

161 
4- 

k 

In cy Y In 0 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Federal Agencies 1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991 

Actual Actual Estimate Actual Actual Estimate 

NASA' .............................................................. 

Commerce ........ 

Interior ............................................................. 

................... 

................... Transportation .................................................. EPA ................................................................... 

TOTAL ................................................. 

10,098 

17,906 

97 

301 

17 

0 

21 

3 

12,142 

19,382 

79 

202 

19 

0 

26 

4 

13,603 

20,443 

106 

211 

24 

0 

27 

4 

10,195 

14,504 

97 

306 

17 

0 

21 

2 

12,292 

15,448 

79 

232 

19 

0 

26 

3 

28,443 31,854 34,419 25,143 28,100 

13,129 

16,314 

106 

223 

24 

0 

27 

4 

1 

29,828 

'Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

bNSF funding for balloon research transfcrrcd to NASA. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

SOURCE: Ofice of Management and Budget. 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991 

Actual Actual Estimate Actual Actual Estimate 

Federal Agcncics 

NASA' .............................................................. 872 932 1,044 855 889 1,040 

Department of Defenseb ................................ 8,240 8,552 8,979 6,420 7,711 8,317 

Department of Transportation' ..................... 1,544 1,891 2,300 1,216 1,471 1,870 

TOTAL .............................................................. 10,656 11,375 12,324 8,491 10,071 11,227 

'Research and Development, Construction of 

Facilities, Research and Program Management. 

bResearch, Development, Testing, and 

Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. 

'Federal Aviation Administration: Research, 

Engineering, and Dcvclopment; Facilities, 

Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

163 
APPENDIX F-1 

EXECUTIVE ORDER 12675 

ESTABLISHING THE NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL 

By the authority vcstcd in mc as Prcsidcnt by thc Constitution and laws of the Unitcd States of America, and in ordcr to providc a 

coordinatcd proccss for dcvcloping a national space policy and strategy and for monitoring its implementation, it is hereby ordcrcd as follows: 

Section. 1. Establishment and Composition of the National Space Council 

(a) There is established thc National Spacc Council (“the Council”). 

(b) Thc Council shall be composcd of the following membcrs: 

(1) The Vicc Prcsidcnt, who shall bc Chairman of the Council; 

(2) The Secretary of State; 

(3) The Secretary of thc Treasury; 

(4) The Secrctary of Dcfcnsc; 

(5) The Secretary of Commcrce; 

(6) The Secretary of Transportation; 

(7) The Director of thc Officc of Managcmcnt and Budgct; 

(8) The Chief of Staff to thc Presidcnt; 

(9) The Assistant to the Prcsidcnt for National Security Affairs; 

(10) The Assistant to the Prcsidcnt for Scicncc and Technology; 

(1 1) Thc Director of Central Intelligence; and 

(12) The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

(1) The Chairman of the Joint Chicfs of Staff; and 

(2) The hcads of othcr cxccutivc dcpartmcnts and agcncics and othcr scnior officials in the Executive Officc of the 

Prcsidcnt. 

(c) Thc Chairman shall, from timc to time, invite the following to participate in meetings of thc Council: 

Section 2. Functions of the Council. 

(a) Thc Council shall advisc and assist the Presidcnt on national spacc policy and strategy, and pcrform such othcr duties as the 

Prcsidcnt may from timc to timc prcscribc. 

(b) In addition, the Council is directed to: 

(1) review Unitcd Statcs Govcrnmcnt space policy, including long-range goals, and develop a strategy for national space 

activitics; 

(2) develop rccommcndations for the Prcsident on spacc policy and spacc-related issues; 

(3) monitor and coordinate implementation of the objcctives of the President’s national space policy by cxccutivc 

dcpartmcnts and agcncics; and 

(4) foster close coordination, cooperation, and technology and information cxchangc among the civil, national sccurity, and 

commercial spacc sectors, and facilitate resolution of differences concerning major space and space-rclatcd policy issues. 

(c) The crcation and opcration of thc Council shall not interfere with cxisting lincs of authority and rcsponsibilitics in thc dcpartmcnts 

and agcncics. 

Section 3. Responsibilities of the Chairman. 

(a) The Chairman shall scrvc as the President’s principal advisor on national space policy and strategy. 

(b) Thc Chairman shall, in consultation with the members of thc Council, establish proccdurcs for the Council and cstablish the 

agcnda for Council activitics. 

(c) The Chairman shall report to thc Prcsidcnt on thc activitics and rccommcndations of the Council. The Chairman shall advisc the 

Council as appropriate regarding thc President’s directions with rcspcct to thc Council’s activities and national spacc policy gcncrally. 

(d) Thc Chairman shall authorize thc cstablishmcnt of such committccs of the Council, including an cxccutivc committec, and of such 

working groups, composed of scnior designees of the Council mcmhcrs and of other officials invited to participate in Council 

meetings, as hc deems necessary or appropriate for the cfficicnt conduct of Council functions. 

Section 4. National Space Policy Planning Process. 

(a) Thc Council will establish a proccss for dcvcloping and monitoring thc implementation of national space policy and stratcgy. 

(b) To implement this proccss, each agency rcprcscntcd on thc Council shall providc such information regarding its current and 

planned spacc activitics as thc Chairman shall rcqucst. 

(c) The head of each cxccutivc departmcnt and agency shall ensure that its space-related activitics conform to national space policy 

and stratcgy. 

Section 5. Establishment of Vice President‘s Space Policy Advisory Bod. 

(a) The Vicc Prcsidcnt shall establish; in accordancc with the provisions of the Federal Advisory Committee Act, as amcndcd (5 U.S.C. 

App. 21, govcrning Prcsidcntial advisory committccs, an advisory committec of private citizens to advisc the Vicc President on thc 

spacc policy of the Unitcd Statcs (“the Board”). 

(b) Thc Board shall be composcd and function as follows: 

(1) The Board shall be composcd of members appointed by the Vice President. 

(2) Thc Vicc President shall dcsignatc a Chairman from among the members of the Board. Thc Exccutivc Secretary of the 

National Spacc Council shall scrvc as the Sccrctary to the Board. 

164 
(3) Members of the board shall serve without any compensation for their work on the Board. However, they shall be 

entitled to travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, as authorized by law, for persons serving 

intermittently in the Government service (5 U.S.C. 5701-5707), to the extent funds are available for that purpose. 

(4) Necessary expenses of the Board shall be paid from funds available for the expenses of the National Space Council 

(5) Notwithstanding the provisions of any other Executive order, the responsibilities of the President under the Federal 

Advisory Committee Act, as amcndcd, except that of reporting annually to the Congress, which are applicable to the Board 

established by this order, shall be performed on a reimbursable basis by the Director of the Office of Administration in the 

Executive Office of the President, in accordance with the guidelines and procedures established by the Administrator of 

General Services. 

Section 6. Microgravity Research Board. 

Section l(c) of Executive Order No. 12660 is amended by dclcting “Economic Policy Council” and inserting in lieu thereof “National 

Space Council.” 

Section 7. Administrative Provisions. 

(a) The Office of Administration in the Executive Office of the President shall provide the Council with such administrative support 

on a reimbursable basis as may be necessary for the performance of the functions of the Council. 

(b) The President shall appoint an Executive Secretary who shall appoint such staff as may be necessary to assist in the performance 

of the Council’s functions. 

(c) All Federal departments, agencies, and interagency councils and committees having an impact on space policy shall extend, as 

appropriate, such cooperation and assistance to the Council as is necessary to carry out its responsibilities under this order 

(d) The head of each agency serving on the Council or represented on any working group or committee of the Council shall provide 

such administrative support as may be necessary, in accordance with law and subject to the availability of appropriations, to enable 

the agency head or its representative to carry out his responsibilities. 

Section 8. Report. 

The Council shall submit an annual report setting forth its assessment of and recommendations for the space policy and strategy of 

the United States Government. 

George Bush 

The White House, 

April 20, 1989. 

165 
APPENDIX F-2 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immcdiatc Rclcase November 16, 1989 

FACT SHEET 

U.S. National Space Policy 

On Novcmbcr 2, 1989, thc President approved a national space policy that updates and reaffirms U.S. goals and activities in space. The updated 

policy is thc result of a review undertaken by the National Space Council. Thc revisions clarify, strengthen, and streamline sclccted aspccts of 

thc policy. Arcas affcctcd include civil and commcrcial remote sensing, space transportation, space debris, federal subsidies of commercial spacc 

activitics, and Spacc Station Frccdom. 

Ovcrall, the Prcsidcnt’s ncwly-issued national space policy rcvalidatcs the ongoing direction of U.S. space efforts and provides a broad policy 

framcwork to guidc futurc U.S. space activitics. 

The policy rcaffirms thc nation’s commitmcnt to thc cxploration and use of space in support of our national well being. United Statcs lcadcrship 

in space continucs to be a fundamental objcctivc guiding U.S. space activities. The policy recognizes that leadership rcquircs United Statcs 

prccminencc in key areas of space activity critical to achicving our national sccurity, scientific, technical, economic, and foreign policy goals. 

Ttic policy also rctains thc long-tcrm goal of expanding human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the Solar Systcm. This goal 

providcs thc overall policy framework for the Presidcnt’s human space cxploration initiative, announced July 20, 1989, in which the Prcsidcnt 

callcd for complcting Spacc Station Frccdom, returning pcrmancntly to the Moon, and exploration of the planet Mars. 

These and othcr aspccts of U.S. national space policy are contained in the attached document entitled “National Space Policy.” 

Attachmcnt 

November 2, 1989 

INTRODUCTION 

This documcnt contains national policy, guidclincs, and implementing actions with respect to the conduct of United States space programs and 

rclatcd activities. 

United Statcs space activitics are conducted by three scparatc and distinct sectors: two strongly interacting governmental sectors (Civil and 

National Security) and a separate, non-governmental Commcrcial Sector. Close coordination, cooperation, and technology and information 

cxchangc will bc maintaincd among thcsc sectors to avoid unnccessary duplication and promote attainment of United States spacc goals. 

GOALS AND PRINCIPLES 

A fundamcntal objcctivc guiding United Statcs space activitics has bccn, and continucs to be, space leadership. Leadership in an increasingly 

compctitivc intcrnational cnvironmcnt does not rcquirc United States preemincncc in all areas and disciplines of space entcrprisc. It does 

rcquirc Unitcd Statcs prccminencc in the kcy arcas of spacc activity critical to achicving our national sccurity, scientific, technical, cconomic, and 

forcign policy goals. 

- Thc overall goals of Unitcd Statcs space activities arc: (1) to strengthen the security of the United States; (2) to obtain Scientific, 

technological and ccomonic benefits for the gcncral population and to improve the quality of life on Earth through space-relatcd activities; (3) to 

encourage continuing United States privatc-sector investment in space and related activities; (4) to promote international cooperative activities 

taking into account United States national sccurity, forcign policy, scientific, and cconomic interests; (5) to cooperate with othcr nations in 

maintaining the frecdom of space for all activities that cnhancc the security and wclfare of mankind; and, as a long-range goal, (6) to expand 

human prcscnce and activity beyond Earth orbit into thc solar system. 

United Statcs space activities shall be conducted in accordance with the following principlcs: 

- The United States is committed to the exploration and use of outer space by all nations for peaceful purposes and for the 

bcncfit of all mankind. “Peaceful purposes” allow for activities in pursuit of national security goals. 

- The United States will pursue activities in space in support of its inherent right of self-defense and its defense 

commitments to its allies. 

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- The United States rejects any claims to sovereignty by any nation over outer space or celestial bodies, or any portion 

thereof, and rejects any limitations on the fundamental right of sovereign nations to acquire data from space. 

- The United States considers the space systems of any nation to be national property with the right of passage through 

and operations in space without interference. purposeful interference with space systems shall be viewed as an infringement on sovereign 

rights. 

- The United States shall encourage and not preclude the commercial use and exploitation of space technologies and 

systems for national economic benefit, These commercial activities must be consistent with national security interests, and international and 

domestic legal obligations. 

- The United States will, as a matter of policy, pursue its commercial space objectives without the use of direct Federal 

subsidies. 

- The United States shall encourage other countries to engage in free and fair trade in commercial space goods and 

services, . 

- The United Smtes will conduct international cooperative space-related activities that are expected to achieve sufficient 

scientific, political, economic, or national security benefits for the nation. The United States will seek mutually beneficial international 

participation in space and space-related programs. 

CLW, SPACE POLICY 

- The United States civil space sector activities shall contribute significantly to enhancing the Nation’s science, technology, 

economy, pride, sense of well-being and direction, as well as United States world prestige and leadership. Civil sector activities shall comprise a 

balanced strategy of research, development, operations, and technology for science, exploration, and appropriate applications. 

- The objectives of the United States civil space activities shall be (1) to expand knowledge of the Earth, its environmcnt, the solar 

systcm, and the universe; (2) to create new opportunities for use of thc space environment through the conduct of appropriate research and 

experimentation in advanced technology and systems; (3) to develop space technology for civil applications and, wherever appropriate, make 

such technology available to the commercial sector; (4) to preserve the United States preeminence in critical aspects of space science, 

applications, technology, and manned space flight; (5) to establish a permanently manned presence in space; and (6) to engage in international 

cooperative efforts that further United States overall space goals. 

COMMERCIAL. SPACE POLICY 

The United States government shall not preclude or deter the continuing development of a separate non-governmental Commercial Space 

Sector. Expanding private sector investment in space by the market-driven Commercial Sector generates economic benefits for the Nation and 

supports governmental Space Sectors with an increasing range of space goods and services. Governmental Space Sectors shall purchase 

commercially available space goods and services to the fullest extent fcasible and shall not conduct activities with potential commercial 

applications that preclude or deter Commercial Sector space activities except for national security or public safety reasons. Commercial Sector 

space activities shall be supervised or regulated only to the extent required by law, national security, international obligations, and public safety. 

NATIONAL SECURITY SPACE POLICY 

The United States will conduct those activities in space that are necessary to national defense. Space activities will contribute to national 

security objectives by (1) deterring, or if necessary, defending against enemy attack; (2) assuring that forces of hostile nations cannot prevent 

our own use of space; (3) negating, if necessary, hostile space systems; and (4) enhancing operations of United States and Allied forces. 

Consistent with treaty obligations, the national security space program shall support such functions as command and control, communications, 

navigation, environmental monitoring, warning, surveillance, and force application (including research and development programs which 

support these functions). 

INTER-SECTOR POLICIES 

This section contains policies applicable to, and binding on, the national security and civil space sectors 

- The United States Government will maintain and coordinate separate national security and civil operational space systems where 

differing needs of the sectors dictate 

- Survivability and endurance of national security space systems, including all necessary system elements, will be pursued 

commensurate with the planned use in crisis and conflict, with the threat, and with the availability of other assets to perform the mission 

- Government sectors shall encourage to the maximum extent feasible, the development and use of United States private sector 

space capabi~ities 

- A continuing capability to remotely sense the Earth from space is important to the achievement of United States space goals To 

ensure that the necessary capability exists, the United States government will: (a) ensure the continuity of LANDSAT-type remote sensing data; 

(b) discuss remote sensing issues and activities with foreign governments operating or regulating the private operation of remote sensing 

systems; (c) continue government research and development for future advanced remote sensing technologies or systems; and (d) encourage 

the development of commercial systems, which image the Earth from space, competitive with, or superior to, foreign-operated civil or 

commercial systems. 

167 
- Assured access to space, sufficient to achieve all United States space goals, is a key element of national space policy. United 

States space transportation systems must provide a balanced, robust, and flexible capability with sufficient resiliency to allow continued 

operations despite failures in any single system. The United States government will continue research and development on component 

technologies in support of future transportation systems. The goals of United States space transportation policy are: (1) to achieve and 

maintain safe and reliable access to, transportation in, and return from, space; 

launch and rccovcry systems; (3) to encourage to thc maximum extent feasible, the development and use of United States private sector space 

transportation capabilities; and (4) to reduce the costs of space transportation and related services. 

(2) to exploit the unique attributes of manned and unmanncd 

- Communications advancements are critical to all United States space sectors. To ensure necessary capabilities exist, the United 

States government will continue research and development efforts for future advanced space communications technologies. 

- The United States will consider and, as appropriate, formulate policy positions on arms control measures governing activities in 

space, and will conclude agreements on such measures only if they are equitable, effectively verifiable, and enhance the security of the United 

States and our allies 

- All space sectors will seck to minimize the creation of space debris. Design and operations of space tests, experiments and 

systcms will strivc to minimize or reduce accumulation of space debris consistent with mission requirements and cost effectiveness. The United 

Statcs government will encourage other space-faring nations to adopt policies and practices aimed at debris minimization. 

IMPLEMENTIh'G PROCEDURES 

Normal interagency procedures will be cmploycd wherever possible to coordinate the policies enunciated in this directive. 

Executive Order No. 12675 established thc National Space Council to provide a coordinated process for developing a national space policy and 

strategy and for monitoring its implementation. 

The Vice President serves as the Chairman of the Council, and as the President's principal advisor on national space policy and strategy Other 

members of the Council arc the Sccrctaries of State, Treasury, Defense, Commerce, and Transportation; the Chief of Staff to the President, the 

Director of the Office of Management and Budget, the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, the Assistant to the President for 

Scicncc and Technology, the Director of Central Intelligence, and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The 

Chairman, from time to time, invites the Chairman of the Joint Chicfs of Staff, the heads of executive agencies and other senior officials to 

participate in meetings of the Council. 

The following Policy Guidelines and Implementing Actions providc a framework through which the policies in this directive shall be carried 

out. Agencies will use these sections as guidance on priorities, including preparation, review, and execution of budgets for space activities, 

within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President. Affected Government agencies shall ensure that their current 

policics arc consistent with this directive and, where neccssary, shall establish policies to implement these practices. 

CML SPACE SECTOR GUIDELINES 

- Introduction. In conjunction with other agencies: NASA will continue the lead role within the Federal Government for 

advancing space science, exploration, and appropriate applications through the conduct of activities for research, technology, development and 

rclatcd Operations; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration will gather data, conduct research, and make predictions about the Earth's 

environment; DOT will license and promote commercial launch operations which support civil sector operations. 

- Space Science. NASA, with the collaboration of other appropriate agencies, will conduct a balanced program to support scientific 

research, exploration, and experimentation to expand understanding of: (1) astrophysical phenomena and the origin and evolution of the 

univcrsc; (2) the Earth, its cnvironmcnt and its dynamic relationship with the Sun; (3) the origin and evolution of the solar system; (4) 

fundamental physical, chemical, and biological processes; (5) the effects of the space environment on human beings; and (6) the factors 

governing the origin and spread of life in the univcrsc. 

- Space Exploration. In order to investigate phenomena and objects both within and beyond the solar system, NASA will conduct 

a balanced program of manned and unmanncd exploration. 

- Human Exploration. To implement the long-range goal of expanding human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit 

into the solar system, NASA will continue the systematic development of technologies necessary to enable and support a range of future 

manned missions. This technology program (Patllfindcr) will be oriented toward a Presidential decision on a focused program of manned 

exploration of thc solar system. 

- Unmanned Exploration. NASA will continue to pursue a program of unmanned exploration where such exploration can 

most efficiently and effectively satisfy national space objectives by among other things: achieving scientific objectives where human presence is 

undcsirablc or unnecessary; exploring realms where the risks or costs of life support are unacceptable; and providing data vital to support 

future manned missions. 

- Pcrmanent Manned Presence. NASA will develop the Space Station to achieve permanently manned operational capability by thc 

mid-1990s. Space Station Freedom will: (1) Contributc to United States preeminence in critical aspects of manned spaceflight; (2) providc 

168 
support and stability to scientific and technological investigations; (3) provide early benefits, particularly in the materials and life scicnccs; (4) 

promote private sector experimentation preparatory to independent commercial activity; (5) allow evolution in keeping with the needs of 

Station users and the long-term goals of the United States; (6) provide opportunities for commercial sector participation; and (7) contribute to 

the longer term godl of expanding human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the solar system. 

- Manned Spaceflight Precminence. Approved programs such as efforts to improve and safely operate the Space Transportation 

System (STS) and to develop, deploy, and use the Space Station, are intended to ensure United States preeminence in critical aspects of 

manncd spaceflight. 

- Space Applications. NASA and other agencies will pursue the identification and development of appropriate applications flowing 

from their activities. Agencies will seek to promote private sector development and implementation of applications. 

- Such applications will create new capab es, or improve the quality or efficiency of continuing activities, including 

long-term scientific observations. 

- NASA will seek to ensure its capability to conduct selected critical missions through an appropriate mix of assured 

access to space, on-orbit sparing, advanced automation techniques, redundancy, and other suitable measures. 

- Agencies may enter cooperative research and development agreements on space applications with firms secking to 

advance the relevant state-of-the-art consistent with United States Government space objectives. 

- Management of Federal civil operational remote sensing is the responsibility of the Department of Commerce. The 

Department of Commerce will: (a) consolidate Federal needs for civil operational rcmote sensing products to be met either by the private 

sector or the Federal government; (b) identify needed civil operational system research and development objectives; and (c) in coordination 

with other departments or agencies, provide for the regulation of private sector operational remote sensing systems. 

- Civil Government Space Transportation. The unique Space Transportation System (STS) capability to provide manned access to 

Space will be exploited in those areas that offer the greatest national return, including contributing to United States preeminence in critical 

aspects of manned spaceflight. The STS fleet will maintain the Nation's capability and will be used to support critical programs requiring 

manncd presence and other unique STS capabilities. In support of national space transportation goals, NASA will establish sustainable STS 

flight rates to provide for planning and budgeting of Government space programs. NASA will pursue appropriate enhancements to STS 

cs, upper Stages, and systems for deploying, servicing, and retrieving spacecraft as national and user requirements are 

defined. 

- International Cooperation. The United States will foster incrcased international cooperation in civil space activities by seeking 

mutually beneficial international participation in civil space and space-related programs. The National Space Council shall be responsible for 

oversight of civil space cooperation with the Soviet Union. No such cooperative activity shall be initiated until an appropriate interagency 

review has been complcted. United States cooperation in international civil space activities will: 

- United States participation in international space ventures, whether public or private, must be consistent with United 

States tcchnology transfer laws, regulations, Executive Orders and presidential directives. 

- Support the public, nondiscriminatory direct readout of data from Federal civil systems to foreign ground stations and 

the provision of data to foreign users under specified conditions. 

- Be conducted in such a way as to protect the commcrcial value of intellectual property developed with Federal support. 

Such cooperation will not preclude or deter commercial space activities by the United States private sector, except as required by national 

security or public safcty 

COMMERCLAL SPACE SECTOR GUIDELINES 

- NASA and the Departments of Commerce, Defense, and Transportation will work cooperatively to develop and implement 

spccific measures to foster the growth of private sector commercial use of space. A high-level focus for commercial space issues has been 

crcatcd through establishment of the National Space Council. 

- To stimulate private sector investment, ownership, and operation of space assets, the United States Government will facilitate 

private sector access to appropriate U.S space-related hardware and facilities, and encourage the private sector to undertake commercial space 

ventures Governmental Space Sectors shall: 

- Utilize commercially available goods and services to the fullest extent feasible, and avoid actions that may preclude or 

deter commercial space sector activities except as required by national security or public safety. A space good or service is "commercially 

available" if it is currently offered commercially, or if it could be supplied commercially in response to a government service procurement 

requcst. "Feasible" means that such goods or services meet mission requirements in a cost-effective manner. 

- Enter into appropriate cooperative agreements to encourage and advance private sector basic research, development, 

and operations while protecting the commercial value of the intellectual property developed; 

- Provide for the use of appropriate Government facilities on a reimbursable basis; 

- Identify, and eliminate or propose for elimination, applicable portions of United States laws and regulations that 

unnecessarily impede commercial space sector activities; 

169 
- Encourage free and fair trade in commercial space activities. Consistent with the goals, principles, and policies set 

forth in this dircctivc, thc LJnitcd States Tradc Rcprescntative will conduct, or, as appropriatc, negotiate with othcr countries to cncouragc frce 

and fair tradc in commcrcial space activitics. In entering into space-related tcchnology devclopmcnt and transfer agrccments with othcr 

countries, Exccutivc Dcpartmcnts and agcncies will take into consideration whether such countries practice and cncouragc frcc and fair trade 

in commcrcial space activitics. 

- Providc for the timely transfer of Govemmcnt-developed space tcchnology to the private sector in such a manner as to 

protect its commercial value, consistcnt with national security. 

- Price Governmcnt-provided goods and services consistent with OMB Circular A-25 

NATIONAL SECURITY SPACE SECTOR GUIDELINES 

Gcncral: 

- The Department of Defense (DOD) will develop, operate, and maintain an assured mission capability through an 

appropriate mix of robust satcllite control, assurcd access to space, on-orbit sparing, proliferation, reconstruction or other mcans. 

- The national security space program, including disscmination of data, shall be conducted in accordance with Executive 

Orders and applicable directives for the protection of national security information and commensurate with both the missions performed and 

the security measures necessary to protect rclatcd space activities. 

- DOD will ensure that thc national security space program incorporates the support requirements of the Stratcgic 

Dcfensc Initiative. 

- Space support: 

- The national security space scctor may use both manncd and unmanned launch systems as determined by specific 

mission rcquircmcnts. Payloads will be distributed among launch systems and launch sites to minimize the impact of loss of any singlc launch 

system or launch site on mission pcrformancc. The DOD will procurc unmanned launch vehicles or scrviccs and maintain launch capability 

on both thc East and Wcst coasts. DOD will also continue to enhancc thc robustness of its satellite control capability through an appropriate 

mix of satcllite autonomy and survivable command and control, processing, and data dissemination systems. 

- DOD will study conccpts and technologies which would support future contingency launch capabilities 

- Forcc Enhancement: 

- The national security space sector will develop, operate, and maintain space systems and develop plans and 

architectures to mcct the rcquiremcnts of opcrational land, sea, and air forccs through all levels of conflict commensurate with their intended 

use. 

- Space Control: 

- The DOD will develop, opcratc, and maintain enduring space systems to ensure its freedom of action in space. This 

rcquircs an intcgratcd combination of antisatcllite, survivability, and surveillance capabilities. 

- Antisatellite (ASAD Capability. The United States will develop and deploy a comprehensive capability with programs 

as rcquircd and with initial operations capability at thc earliest possible date. 

- DOD space programs will pursue a survivability enhancement program with long-term planning for future 

rcquircmcnts The DOD must provide for the survivability of selected, critical national security space assets (including associated terrestrial 

componcnts) to a degree commcnsurate with the value and utility of the support they provide to national-level decision functions, and military 

opcrational forccs across the spcctrum of conflict. 

- Thc United Statcs will dcvelop and maintain an integrated attack warning, notification, verification, and contingency 

reaction capability which can effectively detect and react to threats to United Statcs space systems. 

- Forcc Application. The DOD will, consistent with treaty obligations, conduct research, development, and planning to be 

prcparcd to acquire and deploy space systems should national security conditions dictate. 

INTER-SECTOR GUIDELINE3 

Thc following paragraphs identify selcctcd, high priority cross-sector efforts and responsibilities to implement plans supporting major United 

Statcs space policy objectives: 

- Space Transportation Guidelines. 

- The United States national space transportation capability will be based on a mix of vehicles, consisting of the Space 

Transportation Systcm (STS), unmanncd launch vehiclcs (ULVs), and in-spacc transportation systems. The elements of this mix will be defined 

to support the mission necds of national security and civil government sectors of Unitcd States space activitics in the most cost cffcctive 

llldMCr. 

170 
- AS determined by specific mission requirements, national security space sector will use the STS and ULVs. In 

coordination with NASA, the DOD will assure the Shuttle’s utility to national defense and will integrate missions into the Shuttle system. 

Launch priority will be provided for national security missions as implemented by NASA-DOD agreements. Launches necessar). to preserve 

and protect human life in space shall have the highest priority except in times of national security emergency. 

- The STS will continue to be managed and operated in an institutional arrangement consistent with the current NASA/ 

DOD Memorandum of Understanding. Responsibility will remain in NASA for operational control of the STS for civil missions, and in the DOD 

for operational control of the STS for national security missions, Mission management is the responsibility of the mission agency. 

- United States commercial launch operations are an integral element of a robust national space launch capability. NASA 

will not maintain an expendable launch vehicle (ELV) adjunct to the STS. NASA will provide launch services for commercial and foreign 

payloads only where those payloads must be man-tended, require the unique capabilities of the STS, or it is determined that launching the 

payloads on the STS is important for national security or foreign policy purposes. Commercial and foreign payloads will not be launched on 

government owned or operated ELV systems except for national security or foreign policy reasons. 

- Civil Government agencies will encourage, to the maximum extent feasible, a domestic commercial launch industry by 

contracting for necessary ELV launch services directly from the private sector or with DOD. 

- NASA and the DOD will continue to cooperate in the development and use of military and civil space transportation 

systems and avoid unnecessary duplication of activities. They will pursue new launch and launch support concepts aimed at improving costeffcctivcness, responsiveness, capability, reliability, availability, maintainability, and flexibility. Such cooperation between the national security 

and civil sectors will ensure efficient and effective use of national resources. 

- Guidelines for the Federal Encouragement of Commercial Unmanned Launch Vehicles (ULVs): 

- The United States Government Fully endorses and will facilitate the commercialization of United States unmanned 

launch vehicles (ULVs). 

- The Department of Transportation (DOT) is the lead agency within the Federal Government for developing, 

coordinating, and articulating Federal policy and regulatory guidance pertaining to United States commercial launch activities in consultation 

with DOD, State, NASA, and other concerned agencies. All Executive departments and agencies shall assist the DOT in carrying out its 

cs, as set forth in the Commercial Space Launch Act and Executive Order 12465. 

- The United States Government encourages the use of its launch and launch-related fac 

commercial launch operations. 

- The United States Government will have priority use of government facilities and support services to meet national 

security and critical mission requirements, The United States Government will make all reasonable efforts to minimize impacts on commercia~ 

operations. 

- The United States Government will not subsidize the commercialization of ULVs, but will price the use of its facilities, 

equipment, and services with the goal of cncouraging viable commercial ULV activities in accordance with the Commercial Space Launch Act. 

- The United States Government will encourage free market competition within the United States private sector. The 

United States Government will provide equitable treatment for all commercial launch operators for the sale or lease of Government equipment 

and facilities consistent with its economic, foreign policy, and national security interests. 

- NASA and DOD, for those unclassified and releasable capabilities for which they have responsibility, shall, to the 

maximum extent feasible: 

- Use best efforts to provide commercial launch firms with access, on a reimbursable basis, to national launch 

and launch-related fac es, equipment, tooling, and services to support commercial launch operations; 

- Develop, in consultation with the DOT, contractual arrangements covering access by commercial launch 

firms to national launch an launch-related property and services they request in support of their operations; 

- Provide technical advice and assistance to commercial launch firms on a reimbursable basis, consistent with 

the pricing guidelines herein; and 

- Conduct, in coordination w 

commercial launch operations conducted at Federal launch fa 

T, appropriate environmental analyses necessary to ensure that 

are in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act. 

- Government ULV Pricing Guidelines. The price charged for the use of United States Government facilities, equipment, and 

services, will be based on the following principles: 

- Price all services (including those associated with production and launch of commercial ULVs) based on the direct costs 

incurred by the United States Government. Reimbursement shall be credited to the appropriation from which the cost of providing such 

property or service was paid. 

- The United States Government will not seek to recover ULV design and development costs or investments associated 

with any existing facilities or new facilities required to meet United States Government needs to which the U.S. Government retains title; 

171 
- Tooling, equipment, and residual ULV hardware on hand at the completion of the United States Govcrnment's program 

will bc priced on a basis that is in the best overall interest of the United States Government, taking into consideration that these sales will not 

constitute a subsidy to the private sector opcrator. 

- Commercial Launch Firm Requirements. Commercial launch firms shall: 

- Maintain all facilities and equipment leased from the United States Government to a level of readiness and repair 

specified by the United States Government; 

- ULV operators shall comply with all requirements of the Commercial Space Launch Act, all regulations issued under the 

Act, and all terms, conditions or restrictions of any license issued or transferred by the Secretary of Transportation under the Act. 

- Technology Transfer Guidelines. 

- The United States will work to stem the flow of advanced western space technology to unauthorized destinations. 

Exccutivc departments and agencies will be fully responsible for protecting against adverse technology transfer in the conduct of their 

programs. 

- Sales of United States space hardware, software, and related technologies for use in foreign space projccts will be 

consistent with relevant international and bilateral agreements and arrangements. 

- Space Infrastructure. All Sectors shall recognize the importance of appropriate investments in the facilities and human resources 

necessary to support United States space objectives and maintain investments that are consistent with such objectives. The National Space 

Council will conduct a feasibility study of alternate methods for encouraging private sector investment, including capital funding, of Unitcd 

States space infrastructure such as ground facilities, launcher developments, and orbital assembly and test facilities. 

- The primary forum for negotiations on nuclear and space arms is the Nuclear and Space Talks (NST) with the Sovict Union in 

Geneva. The instructions to the United States Delegation will be consistent with this National Space Policy directive, established legal 

obligations, and additional guidance by the President. The United States will continue to consult with its Allies on these negotiations and 

ensure that any resulting agreements enhance thc security of the United States and its Allies. Any discussions on arms control rclating to 

activities in space in forums other than NST must be consistent with, and subordinate to, the foregoing activities and objectives. 

172 
APPENDIX F-3 

White House Fact Sheet on the 

Commercial Space Launch Policy 

September 5,1990 

POLICY FINDINGS 

A commercial space launch industry can provide many benefits to the U.S. including indirect benefits to U.S. national security. 

The long-term goal of the United States is a free and fair market in which U.S. industry can compete. To achieve this, a set of 

coordinated actions is needed for dealing with international competition in launch goods and services in a manner that is consistent with our 

nonproliferation and technology transfer objectives. These actions must address both the short term (actions which will affect competitiveness 

over approximately the next 10 years) and those which will have their principal effect in the longer term (ie, after approximately the year 

2000). 

- In the near term, this includes trade agreements and enforcement of those agreements to limit unfair competition. It also includes 

- For the longer term, the Unitcd States should take actions to encourage technical improvements to reduce the cost and increase the 

the continued use of US-manufactured launch vehicles for launching U.S. Government satellites. 

reliability of U.S. space launch vehicles. 

IMPLEMENTING ACCIONS 

US. Government satellites will be launched on U.S.-manufactured launch vehicles unless specifically exempted by the President. 

Consistent with guidelines to be developed by the National Space Council, U.S. Government agencies will actively consider 

commercial space launch needs and factor them into their decisions on improvements in launch infrastructure and launch vehicles aimed at 

reducing cost and increasing responsiveness and reliability of space launch vehicles. 

The U.S. Government will enter into negotiations to achieve agreement with the European Space Agency (ESA), ESA member states, 

and others as appropriate, which defines principles of free and fair trade 

Nonmarket launch providers of space launch goods and services create a special case because of the absence of market-oriented 

pricing and cost stmctures. To deal with their entry into the market there needs to be a transition period during which special conditions may 

be required. 

There also must be an effective means of enforcing international agreements rclatcd to space launch goods and services 

* U.S. G.P.0.:1991-293-155 173