a Aeronautics

and

Space Report

of the 

President

Fiscal Year

2000

Activities

National Aeronautics

and Space Administration

Washington, DC 20546

Fiscal Year 1997 Activities
bAeronautics and Space Report of the President 

The National Aeronautics and Space Act of

1958 directed the annual Aeronautics and

Space Report to include a “comprehensive

description of the programmed activities and the

accomplishments of all agencies of the United

States in the field of aeronautics and space

activities during the preceding calendar year.”

In recent years, the reports have been prepared

on a fiscal year basis, consistent with the budgetary period now used in programs of the

Federal Government. This year’s report covers

activities that took place from October 1, 1999,

through September 30, 2000.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

TABLE OF CONTENTS c

National Aeronautics and Space Administration . . . . . . . . 1

Department of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Federal Aviation Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Department of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Federal Communications Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Department of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Department of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Department of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Smithsonian Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

A-1 U.S. Government Spacecraft Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful in 

Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

B Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles, 

October 1, 1999–September 30, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

C U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights, 

1961–September 30, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

E-1A Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Budget Summary–

Budget Authority (in millions of real-year dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

E-1B Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Budget Authority in Millions of

Equivalent FY 1999 Dollars (adjusted for inflation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

E-2 Federal Space Activities Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

E-3 Federal Aeronautics Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Glossary and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

d
NASA accomplished four extremely successful Space Shuttle missions in FY 2000.

STS-103 serviced the Hubble Space Telescope with three Extravehicular

Activities (EVA) to renew and refurbish the Telescope. In addition to replacing all

six gyroscopes, the crew also installed a refurbished Fine Guidance Sensor, a new

spacecraft computer, a Voltage/Temperature Improvement Kit to protect spacecraft batteries from overcharging and overheating, and a new S-Band Single

Access Transmitter. The crew also replaced the degraded outer telescope insulation with the New Outer Blanket and Shell/Shield Replacement Fabric. STS-103

carried several hundred thousand student signatures as part of a student outreach

program. This mission was launched on December 19, 1999, and landed on

December 27, 1999.

STS-99 was the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), as part of an

international project spearheaded by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency

and NASA, with participation from the German Aerospace Center and the

Italian Space Agency. SRTM consisted of a modified radar system that flew

onboard the Space Shuttle during the 11-day mission. SRTM used C-band and Xband interferometric synthetic aperture radars to acquire topographic data of

Earth’s land mass between 60 degrees north latitude and 54 degrees south latitude.

The Shuttle’s radar covered 99.98 percent of the planned mapping area at least

once. Besides contributing to the production of better maps, the SRTM measureFiscal Year 2000 Activities

1

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS

AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

NASA
ments could lead to improved water drainage modeling, more realistic flight

simulators, better locations for cell towers, and enhanced navigation safety.

The STS-99 mission was launched on February 11, 2000, and landed on

February 22, 2000.

STS-101 delivered supplies to the International Space Station that

included water, a docking mechanism accessory kit, film and videotape for documentation, office supplies, personal items, exercise equipment, medical support

supplies, and a passive dosimetry system. Flight objectives included ISS

ingress/egress to take air samples, monitor carbon dioxide, measure air flow,

rework/modify ISS ducting, replace air filters, and replace emergency and power

equipment. The crew also assembled the Strela crane, conducted a spacewalk to

install exterior handrails, and set up the centerline camera cable. Assembled parts,

tools, and equipment for future missions were also transferred to the ISS. Atlantis’

steering jets were fired in a series of three maneuvers to boost the Station’s orbital

altitude by 27 miles. This mission inaugurated the Atlantis’ new Multifunction

Electronic Display Subsystem known as the “glass cockpit.” This mission was

launched on May 19, 2000, and landed on May 29, 2000.

STS-106 was International Space Station (ISS) assembly flight ISS-2A.2b

and utilized the SPACEHAB Double Module and the Integrated Cargo Carrier to

bring supplies to the Station. The main goal of this flight was to prepare Russianbuilt ISS Service Module (SM) Zvezda (“Star”) for the arrival of the first resident,

or Expedition crew, in late 2000. Supplies transferred included clothing, medical

kits, personal hygiene kits, laptop computers and a printer, household items, and

critical life-support hardware such as an Elektron oxygen generation unit and a

Vozdukh carbon dioxide removal unit. Major items unloaded from SPACEHAB

included medical equipment for the ISS Crew Health Care System, which will

serve as the heart of the Station’s clinic for orbiting crews. Spacewalk activities

included the hookup of electrical, communications, and telemetry cables between

Zvezda and the Zarya Control Module. 

In addition, NASA personnel worked with their colleagues in the Russian

Aviation and Space Agency to support their launch of Zvezda, a Progress resupply

ship, and to prepare for the first ISS Expedition crew launch in October 2000.

After the successful launch and mating of the first two ISS elements

(Functional Cargo Block [FGB] Zarya or “Dawn” and Node 1 Unity) and the first

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 2
logistics resupply mission to the ISS (2A.1/STS-96) in FY 1999, the ISS was further enlarged in FY 2000 and readied for the launch of the first permanent crew.

The third construction element of the ISS, the Russian-built Service

Module (SM) Zvezda (“Star”) had originally been scheduled for launch in 1998.

After several delays, this launch was postponed until summer 2000, causing

NASA to take measures to prolong the life of the orbiting FGB module beyond its

original service certification. This was done by splitting the next Shuttle ISS logistics mission (2A.2) into two flights. The first of these missions, 2A.2a, was

remanifested to perform FGB lifetime and maintenance tasks before SM arrival.

The second, 2A.2b, was flown after delivery of the SM to perform SM outfitting

for the Expedition One crew arrival. Thus, after a 2-year hiatus, FY 2000 was the

year NASA returned to the business of assembling the ISS.

On May 19, 2000, NASA launched STS-101 (flight 2A.2a) to ferry supplies required by the Expedition One crew, as well as to replace electronics in the

Russian-built Zarya module. This flight extended Zarya’s service life through

December 2000, accommodating the SM schedule slip from November 1999 to

July 2000. The SM provides propulsion capability, living quarters, and life support

for the early ISS crews. With the successful SM launch on July 11 (flight 1R), the

floodgate opened, and assembly and further resupply missions followed at a rapid

pace. The SM docked with the orbiting ISS on schedule 2 weeks later (July 25,

2000), followed by the first Russian progress resupply mission (flight 1P) on

August 6, 2000. Next, the STS-106 (flight 2A.2b) launched on September 6,

delivered supplies, and outfitted the SM in preparation for the assembly mission

STS-92 (flight 3A), with the Z1 Truss and PMA-3 (Pressurized Mating Adapter)

on October 5, 2000. 

While the ISS Program was returning to the task of ISS assembly, NASA’s

ground teams spent much of FY 2000 preparing for future assembly missions.

NASA significantly reduced the amount of program risk by completing the first

Multi-Element Integration Test (MEIT-1) early in 2000. MEIT-1 testing included

ISS Flights 3A-6A (early truss segments, multipurpose logistics modules, initial

power array, the U.S. Laboratory (“Destiny”), and the Canadian robotic arm, and

verified element-to-element and element-to-orbiter interfaces). The MEIT-1

ground team completed the soft mate of power, avionics, and fluid connections

with flight connectors or jumpers. The ground team systems tests included command and data handling, communications and tracking, electrical power system,

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

3
thermal control system, and guidance, navigation, and control testing. End-to-end

testing and mission sequence testing were completed in March, and critical U.S.

Lab software-to-software and hardware-to-software interfaces were verified as well. 

With MEIT-1 complete, MEIT-2 was able to begin on schedule in

September 2000. Like MEIT-1, this test was being performed as close to the inflight configuration as possible, with actual hardware and software response. It

includes mission control-to-ISS interfaces, allowing engineers to validate operational flight plans and procedures. The test will include the mobile transporter, a

movable base of the Station’s Canadian mechanical arm that allows it to travel

along the Station truss.

At the end of FY 2000, all major ISS elements through the end of Phase II,

including the U.S. Laboratory and the U.S. Airlock had been delivered to NASA’s

Kennedy Space Center, as well as the truss segments and solar arrays through flight

12A. Of the projected 391,000 pounds of U.S. ISS hardware, 275,000 pounds (70

percent) had been delivered to the Kennedy Space Center or placed in orbit by

the end of the fiscal year.

The Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) project continued its atmospheric vehicle

and parafoil flight testing with a high success rate. The first of two 80-percent scale

atmospheric vehicles was modified to match the expected production vehicle body

shape and completed a captive carry test attached to the wing of a B-52 in early

August. In September 2000, the full-scale parafoil completed its fourth flight test.

Production of the operational CRV’s was expected to begin in 2002 with delivery

onorbit of the first CRV in early 2006.

The ISS research program also made tremendous progress during FY 2000.

By the end of the fiscal year, the Human Research Facility and two EXPRESS

Racks, with subrack payloads, had been delivered to Kennedy Space Center and

were in final integration and test in preparation for launch on ISS flights 5A.1 and

6A. The third and fourth EXPRESS Racks completed final fabrication and assembly and are preparing for delivery to Kennedy Space Center in early FY 2001 for

launch on 7A.1. The first three payloads were delivered to the ISS to begin onorbit operations in late FY 2000. Crew training continued for the first four

increments, and the payload operations support capabilities were delivered and

tested in preparation to support payload operations beginning in FY 2001. 

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 4
In addition, the first two commercial (reimbursable) agreements were negotiated and signed with Dreamtime Holdings, Inc., and SkyCorp, Inc. These two

commercial (reimbursable) payloads were targeted for delivery to the ISS during

FY 2001.

The primary goal of the Space Shuttle Safety Upgrade Program continued

to be the improvement of crew flight safety and situational awareness, protect

people both during flight and on the ground, and increase the overall reliability of

the Shuttle system. To continue the accomplishment of this goal during FY 2000,

NASA continued working on improving existing Space Shuttle operational mission assurance and reliability through several safety and supportability upgrade

initiatives. To improve Shuttle safety, an effort was initiated to proactively upgrade

the Shuttle elements and keep it flying safely and efficiently through FY 2012 and

beyond to meet Agency commitments and goals for human access to space. The

upgrades with the most benefit in decreasing Shuttle risk are the Electric Auxiliary

Power Unit (EAPU), the Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) Thrust Vector Control/

Auxiliary Power Unit (SRB/APU), and the Advanced Health Management

System (AHMS). A project to provide a Cockpit Avionics Upgrade (CAU) was

also approved for program formulation to improve crew workload and situational

awareness and provide an enhanced caution and warning system. During FY 2000,

significant project formulation activities occurred for these four major upgrade

projects. Conceptual planning and project formulation was also performed for several smaller upgrade projects to improve not only safety but supportability.

NASA began the Human Exploration and Development of Space (HEDS)

Technology/ Commercialization Initiative (HTCI) to support future decisions by

developing and validating highly innovative new technologies that make possible

future revolutionary new systems and infrastructures of value to both human

exploration and the commercial development of space. During FY 2000, NASA

engaged a Nationwide team of innovators in the formulation of the HTCI, including over 100 participants in two workshops as well as numerous derivative working

meetings. A broad framework for planning was defined that involved six major

themes: space resources development; space utilities and power; habitation and

bioastronautics; space assembly, inspection, and maintenance; exploration and

expeditions; and space transportation. Within each of these themes, a range of

focused technology “elements” were identified and prioritized, allowing a full

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

5
assessment of NASA’s ongoing programs in terms of how they support future

human/robotic exploration and development of space. FY 2000 program formulation activities culminated in the definition of a program implementation plan,

including an innovative competitive solicitation strategy to be implemented,

beginning in FY 2001. 

In summer of 2000, a new HEDS Strategic Plan was published, and for the

first time in many years, NASA described plans to develop capabilities that will

carry humans beyond low-Earth orbit. The new plan communicates the HEDS

mission, challenges, strategic goals, and strategic roadmap with time-phased objectives for longer stays and more distant locations. In addition, the Strategic Plan

carefully and successfully balanced current political realities dealing with a major

human exploration effort with pursuing technology advances that will benefit the

commercial space industry and NASA’s Enterprises. 

During FY 2000, the NASA Exploration Team studied various mission

approaches for expanding human presence beyond low-Earth orbit. Each of these

mission studies, referred to as an architecture, provides descriptive information of

the overall exploration theme and its derivation from and links to driving national

needs, including those articulated in the HEDS Strategic Plan. Example mission

architectures to the Moon, Sun-Earth Libration Points, Near-Earth Asteroids, and

Mars were developed during the study. The focus of the FY 2000 architectures was

to determine the existence of common capabilities and core technologies between

destinations. Specific key technologies and their resulting architectural benefits

were identified in the areas of crew health and performance, advanced space transportation, advanced space power, advanced information, and operations. In

addition, the capabilities of the Intelligent Synthesis Environment (ISE) HEDS

Exploration Large-Scale Application were used by the design team to improve the

speed and quality of the overall study results. Key system and strategic improvements to the ISE capabilities that can improve the exploration architecture study

process were identified. 

The first HEDS payload designed for operation on the Martian surface was

completed in FY 2000. The Mars In situ propellant-production Precursor (MIP)

Flight Demonstration payload successfully completed all acceptance tests and was

certified ready for flight. MIP’s principal objective is to demonstrate the production of pure, propellant-grade oxygen using Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide as

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 6
feedstock in a robust, efficient chemical process. With NASA’s cancellation of the

Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander, MIP has been placed indefinitely into environmentally controlled storage at the NASA Johnson Space Center.

There were 22 U.S. Expendable Launch Vehicle launches in FY 2000. Five

of the 22 launches were NASA-managed missions, 9 were Department of Defense

(DoD)-managed missions, and 8 were FAA-licensed commercial launches. In

addition, NASA flew one payload as a secondary payload on one of the FAAlicensed commercial launches. This year, two new launch vehicles debuted: the

Lockheed-Martin Atlas IIIA and the Boeing Delta III, each serving as transition

vehicles leading the way for the new generation of Evolved Expendable Launch

Vehicle family of vehicles. 

In June 2000, the NASA Launch Services (NLS) contracts were awarded

to Boeing and Lockheed Martin to enable access to space on the Nation’s current

and future Atlas and Delta launch services. These contracts include onramps for

new launch vehicle providers as they become flight demonstrated and will be key

contracts to address NASA launch requirements for the next decade. NASA also

initiated a study to assess domestic alternatives for resupply and contingency missions to the ISS, to augment current international launch commitments and the

Space Shuttle. The results of the industry studies are being used to formulate

Agency strategy for assuring access to space for the ISS throughout its on-orbit life.

In the area of space communications, NASA’s Space, Deep Space, and

Ground networks successfully supported all NASA flight missions and numerous

commercial, foreign, and other Government agency missions. Included were the

launch of ISS hardware (including the Russian Service Module), NASA’s Terra

Earth Observation mission, GOES-L, planetary encounters, and the Galileo spacecraft’s encounters of Jupiter’s moons. The Tracking and Data Relay Satellite-H

(TDRS-H) was also successfully launched, and checkout was initiated. The networks provided data delivery for all customers in excess of 98 percent. 

The Consolidated Space Operations Contract (CSOC) completed its 21st

month of a 5-year basic period of performance. Operations support continued at

Johnson Space Center, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Goddard Space Flight

Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, and Kennedy Space Center. Customer operations are meeting, and often exceeding, contractual expectations.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

7
The Space Operations Management Office (SOMO)/CSOC commercialization program made significant progress in avoiding costs by outsourcing space

communications data services to commercial providers. DataLynx, Universal

Space Network, and Konsburg-Lockheed Martin were put under contract to provide data. The proportion of commercial Earth stations that support NASA

missions rose to 33 percent. These service providers are making investments to

establish the network, a cost that NASA avoids. Additionally, an Indefinite

Delivery Indefinite Quantity contract relationship was established with 14 commercial firms qualified to provide both mission and data services.

Other significant activities included the automation of the orbit determination function for most Space Network missions, implementation of an X-Band

uplink capability for the 70-meter antennas at Goldstone and Canberra, completion of the Mars communications infrastructure Phase A study, demonstration of

the Low-Power Transceiver, initiation of the Ka-Band Transition project for the

Space Network and Ground Network, completion of the White Sands Complex

Alternate Resource Terminal, and preparations for the launch of TDRS-I and

TDRS-J.

Finally, the development of a strategic and visionary architecture to support

future Agency communication and navigation needs was initiated. An Agencywide team was formed to investigate the architecture to address the evolution and

unification of the Space, Ground, Deep Space, and Wide Area Networks.

In FY 2000, NASA continued its commitment to safety for the public,

astronauts and pilots, the NASA workforce, and high-value equipment and property. NASA met its FY 2000 safety goal of 0.30 lost time incidents per 200,000

workhours. The NASA Centers conducted their annual occupational safety and

health program performance evaluation assessments, which included a baseline

performance assessment for system safety. The NASA Centers used the results of

these assessments to develop plans for additional improvement in NASA safety

programs. Several additional Centers announced their intent to pursue Star certification, using the Department of Labor’s Voluntary Protection Program

guidelines. NASA safety and mission assurance experts stepped up activities to

support the increased flight rate of the Space Shuttle and the construction and

permanent human habitation of the ISS, conducting the necessary assurance functions and providing independent evaluation of flight readiness. In addition,

NASA experts assessed safety and likelihood of success for Expendable Launch

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 8
Vehicle missions, safety of aviation operations, impact of orbital debris, and safety

and mission assurance considerations in operations and engineering processes.

NASA initiated a new Safety and Mission Assurance (SMA) review process for

spacecraft launches, the Integrated Mission Assurance Review. Also, NASA made

safety and risk management a compelling priority and an expectation in the acquisition process through changes to the NASA Federal Acquisition Regulation

Supplement and an aggressive training effort. All NASA sites were certified under

ISO 9001 in FY 1999. In FY 2000, NASA passed the required audits for maintaining its ISO 9001 certification.

FY 2000 did not begin well for NASA’s Space Science Enterprise. In

December 1999, NASA had to declare the Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 mission

a failure, only a few months after the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter in September.

The failures were a great disappointment to NASA scientifically, and they also

served as a wake-up call to take a long, hard look at its Mars Program. As part of this

assessment, NASA convened several teams of experts to look at the Mars program

from top to bottom. The result was that by the end of the fiscal year, NASA had

unveiled a new and scientifically robust program for future Mars exploration.

Despite the two Mars failures, the Space Science Enterprise had many successes, and its programs delivered a wealth of compelling science, including Mars

science. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) delivered a landmark discovery in the

history of planetary exploration: scientists using imaging data from MGS observed

features that suggest there may be current sources of water at or near the surface of

the red planet. The images show the smallest features ever observed from Martian

orbit, approximately the size of a sports utility vehicle. NASA scientists compared

these features to those left by flash floods here on Earth.

Findings from the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) mission confirmed that asteroid 433 Eros is a consolidated, primitive sample from the solar

system’s beginnings: an undifferentiated asteroid with homogeneous structure, that

never separated into a distinct crust, mantle, and core. NEAR is the first indepth

study of an asteroid. Since entering Eros’ orbit on February 14, 2000, the NEAR

Shoemaker spacecraft has taken more than 100,000 images and extensive measurements of Eros’ composition, structure, and landforms, at distances ranging from

22 to 220 miles (35 to 350 kilometers).

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

9
The Chandra X-Ray Observatory, launched in July 1999, has delivered a

wealth of science in its relatively short history. One Chandra highlight is that it

recently resolved a 37-year old mystery: the origin of the diffuse x-ray background.

The diffuse x-ray background was originally discovered by the first x-ray rocket

flight in 1967. The whole sky glows bright in x-rays, but until FY 2000, scientists

had lacked the sharp imaging power to see if the glow is all due to unresolved individual point sources. Scientists now know that the glow is made up of discrete,

individually distinct sources. These faraway sources include quasars, galaxies, and

some mystery objects. The mystery objects shine brightly in x-rays but fail to show

up as counterparts in optical light. Therefore, at the end of the fiscal year, NASA

space scientists had no idea yet as to their nature or distance, except that they are

point-like sources of x-radiation.

During FY 2000, scientists gathered data from a variety of sources to prove

that long-suspected theory that the universe is flat and accelerating. Combining

results from ground-based astronomy, the Hubble Space Telescope, and infrared

observations from the Balloon Observations for Millimetric Extragalactic

Radiation and Geomagnetics (BOOMERANG) balloon flight, scientists confirmed that the inflationary scenario of Big Bang cosmology is correct and that

space is accelerating, implying a new phenomenon in nature called “dark energy.”

A week’s advance warning of potential bad weather in space is now possible

thanks to the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft. With a

technique that uses ripples on the Sun’s visible surface to probe its interior, SOHO

scientists have, for the first time, imaged solar storm regions on the far side of the

Sun, the side facing away from Earth. Understanding solar variability is becoming

an increasingly important topic both to researchers and to the public.

NASA’s Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) mission delivered more important news about our Sun. Giant fountains of fast-moving,

multimillion degree gas in the outermost atmosphere of the Sun revealed an

important clue to a long standing mystery—the heating source that makes the

corona 300 times hotter than the Sun’s visible surface. TRACE captured dramatic

images of the immense coils of hot, electrified gas, known as coronal loops. A 30-

year old theory assumed that the loops are heated evenly throughout their height.

The TRACE observations show that instead, most of the heating must occur at

the bases of the coronal loops, near where they emerge from and return to the solar

surface. 

10Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 
In Origins news, planet-hunting astronomers crossed an important threshold in planet detection with the discovery of two planets that may be smaller in

mass than Saturn. Of the 30 extra-solar planets around Sun-like stars detected

previously, all have been the size of Jupiter or larger. The existence of these Saturnsized candidates suggests that many stars harbor smaller planets, in addition to the

Jupiter-sized ones. 

Finding Saturn-sized planets reinforces the theory that planets form by a

snowball effect of growth from small ones to large, in a star-encircling dust disk.

The 20-year-old theory predicts there should be more smaller planets than large

planets, and this is a trend the researchers have begun to see in their data.

In December 1999, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) got its third visit

from a Space Shuttle. The crew of Discovery installed new gyroscopes and a new

computer and performed a host of other upgrades. The result was that HST is now

more powerful and robust than at any other time in its 10-year history. It has continued to deliver the profound science and amazing images that we have come to

expect from the most famous space-based observatory in history.

There were many other space science highlights during FY 2000. The Space

Science Enterprise unveiled the details of two exciting new programs, the aforementioned New Mars Program and Living With a Star, a comprehensive program

to learn more about our Sun and its effects on Earth. These new initiatives,

together with our existing research and exploration programs, bode well for a continuation of exciting and ground-breaking new space science discoveries as we

enter the new millennium.

The Aerospace Technology Enterprise continued to pioneer the identification, development, verification, transfer, application, and commercialization of

high-payoff aeronautics and space transportation technologies, and plays a key role

in maintaining a safe and efficient national aviation system and an affordable, reliable space transportation system. The Enterprise addressed 10 overarching

objectives in aviation, space transportation, and technology innovation through a

wide range of programs. This summary covers a small sample of significant accomplishments that will lead to improved aviation safety, increased air system capacity,

reduced environmental impact from aviation operations, new technology innovations, and significant strides that were made toward achieving affordable space

access for the Nation.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

11
In aviation safety, a major flight demonstration of technologies for preventing runway incursions was held at Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport.

NASA’s Boeing 757 research aircraft was a testbed for auditory alerts and sophisticated cockpit visual displays (e.g., electronic moving maps to show real-time

aircraft location on the airport runways, and head-up displays with enhanced

runway information and runway incursion alerts) to improve pilot situational

awareness. The integrated set of tools proved highly effective and will contribute

to the safety of future generations of aircraft.

NASA has continued an intensive research program to mitigate the effects

of icing on aviation safety. An interactive training program on CD-ROM has been

developed for pilots of commuter and general aviation aircraft as a result of NASA

icing research. Three of seven modules have been completed, teaching pilots the

factors involved in aircraft icing and how to handle icing situations to avoid deadly

accidents. The program has been well received by pilots. The remaining modules

are expected by June 2001. In addition, NASA has also published a report entitled

“Ice Accretions and Icing Effects for Modern Airfoils. “Prior to this effort, the

NACA four-digit series airfoil sections, created in the 1950’s, served as the stateof-the-art. This report has significantly advanced the state-of-the-art in aircraft

icing-prediction tools by providing a broad base of information about ice accretions and the resulting effects on aerodynamic performance for airfoils being

designed and used on today’s aircraft. The report documents ice accretions formed

over a wide range of aircraft icing conditions and resulting aerodynamic performance degradation for airfoils as represented in three classes of aircraft—commercial

transport, business jet, and general aviation. It provides a database for development of ice accretion and aerodynamic performance codes for use in the

development and application of ice-protection systems and the process of certifying aircraft for flight in icing conditions. NASA also has completed the concept

design for a new ice management system to improve safety of aircraft operating in

icing conditions and to advance state-of-the-art, in-flight deck information management and decision-making of onboard, in-flight icing operations. This will

increase aviation safety by enabling the aircraft to identify hazardous icing conditions, manage and operate onboard ice protection systems, and provide flight crew

near-real-time information on level of hazard to manage the icing encounter.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

12
NASA also continued developing the technologies that will provide complete weather information and situational awareness to pilots and ground operators

of any atmospheric condition that affects the operation and safety of an aircraft. In

FY 2000, NASA flight tests demonstrated commercially ready graphical weather

display systems that will now enter inservice evaluations with multiple airlines.

NASA also developed and documented a theoretical methodology for predicting error-vulnerability in design of human-automation systems. In particular, it

focuses attention on the problem of ambiguities associated with pilot interaction

with cockpit automation. Such ambiguities, which directly lead to so-called

“automation surprises,“ are documented in many pilot incident reports. This report

helped to define the precise connection between a machine’s behavior, the task

specification, the required user interface, and the user-model for ensuring correct

and unambiguous interaction between a user and a machine. 

In aviation system capacity, low-visibility conditions cause delays of at least

15 minutes for 180,000 flights annually in the United States, while delays in excess

of 15 minutes affect an additional 120,000 flights annually. Costs associated with

these delays are estimated in excess of $3 billion. A major accomplishment for

capacity research was the transfer to the FAA of three decision support tools for aircraft arrival and surface operations. The FAA is deploying the NASA-developed

Passive Final Approach Spacing Tool, Traffic Management Advisor, and Surface

Movement Advisor to key sites in the national airspace system as part of its nextgeneration air traffic management system. Airports with the tools in place have

already shown improvements in the capacity of their extended terminal areas.

A second accomplishment in aviation system capacity was the completion

of the Terminal Area Productivity (TAP) project, which developed ground and

airborne technologies to reduce lateral and in-trail space separations for landing.

The goal is to safely maintain good weather operating capacity during bad weather

and low-visibility conditions. Several NASA technologies and operational concepts were field-demonstrated at the Dallas-Fort Worth and Atlanta Hartsfield

airports. Together, the elements of TAP demonstrated throughput increases of up

to 17 percent over current nonvisual operations for a single runway, the ability to

land with only 2,500 feet of parallel runway separation even though current rules

require a lateral spacing of 4,300 feet, and guidance, control, and situation awareness systems to reduce runway congestion while meeting FAA guidelines for safety.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

13
In FY 2000, NASA completed the development of “FutureFlight Central”

which is a world-class research facility dedicated to addressing the future needs

of the Nation’s airports. This facility will allow researchers to examine ways

to increase the flow of aircraft through the national airspace system safely, efficiently, and under all weather conditions, and will permit integration of tomorrow’s

technologies in a risk-free simulation of any airport, airfield, and tower-cab environment. The three-dimensional visual model of an airport is viewed from the

360-degree windows of the tower cab. Up to 12 air traffic controllers in the tower

cab interact in the live-action simulation through a simulated radio and telephone

system with pilots and ramp controllers. The imaging system, powered by supercomputers, provides a realistic view of weather conditions, environmental and

seasonal effects, and the movement of up to 200 active aircraft and ground vehicles.

NASA researchers continued their efforts to mitigate both the local and

global environmental impacts of aviation operations. Building on the accomplishments of the past years, they have made significant advances in the reduction of

aircraft noise and emissions. Last year, NASA successfully tested in laboratory

flametube experiments, three fuel injector concepts that achieved NO

x (nitrogen

oxide) reductions of greater than 75 perfect. In addition, NASA developed an

innovative compressor flow-control concept. It was developed by selecting an

inverse design technique for optimum blade shape and shock placement and by

managing the flow between the blade tips and endwall (inner compressor liner)

with the proper matching of highly loaded stages. Application of these techniques

is reducing overall losses and enabling higher efficiency at higher aerodynamic

loading on the compressor blades. These techniques could lead to compressor

designs with fewer stages and a system that is lighter weight, thus attaining revolutionary gains in compressor performance. It is expected that these design

methodologies will result in attaining the goals of reducing CO

2 (carbon dioxide)

emissions and increasing efficiency of advanced aircraft engines. NASA also

demonstrated “smart” turbomachinery concepts that have the potential to minimize pollutants throughout mission cycle by actively suppressing

thermoacoustic-driven pressure oscillations. Successful development of this technology will enable lean combustors that will result in the reduction of NOx and

CO

2 throughout the mission cycle.

NASA also made significant strides toward its goals of confining aircraft

noise within airport boundaries. Over the past several years, NASA has identified

the sources of aircraft related noise and developed technologies to mitigate their

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

14
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

15 effect. Last year, NASA conducted a systems analysis that indicated a 7 decibel

(dB), with the potential of up to 9 dB, noise reduction from NASA-developed

component technologies for large subsonic transport aircraft. These include a

reduction of community noise of 3 to 7 dB, depending on aircraft suitability from

engine cycle changes; 3 dB reduction from fan and stator geometry optimization;

3 dB from advanced low-noise engine nozzles; 2 to 3 dB reduction from engine

inlet shape; 1 dB from active engine noise control; 4 dB from improved design of

flap, slat, and landing gear systems; and 2 dB from advanced operations. Similar

advances have been made for rotorcraft. The use of higher harmonic control, coupled with a low-noise approach, resulted in a 16.5 dB reduction of peak blade

vortex interaction noise. NASA also demonstrated an active-control technology

that achieved a 23 dB reduction in rotorcraft interior noise.

In the area of technology innovation, NASA completed the low-altitude

testing of a solar-powered, Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV) aircraft that is

designed to fly to 100,000 feet in altitude or have a flight duration of 100 hours

once outfitted with high-performance solar cells. NASA also successfully demonstrated continous over-the-horizon control of a remotely piloted aircraft outside of

controlled airspace using commercial satellite networks. The aircraft flew a series

of direct commands from the ground station as well as a series of way point sets.

On one demonstration, the ground controller sent up a simulated search pattern

while the aircraft was over 200 nautical miles (nm) from base, and the aircraft

tracked the pattern perfectly. The flexibility of the system was demonstrated when

air traffic control directed a change from its planned altitude of 45,000 feet to

44,000 feet. The ground controller quickly uploaded a descent command to bring

the aircraft to the new altitude. 

NASA also developed and validated an apparatus for large scale rotor testing in the National Full-size Aerodynamics Complex 80’x120’ wind tunnel at

NASA Ames Research Center. This apparatus provides a unique national capability to test both helicopters and tiltrotors up to 50,000 pounds (lbs) thrust and

6,000 horsepower.

NASA’s cooperative efforts to develop advanced engine technology to revitalize general aviation continued in FY 2000. Based on significant technical

progress with the NASA-developed General Aviation Propulsion turbine engine,

Eclipse, a new aircraft company, announced that it will utilize a derivative of this

engine for the Eclipse 500 aircraft.
In the area of space transportation, thermal protection materials may radically change the design and performance of future aerospace vehicles, overturning

the conventional wisdom that only blunt-body aerospace vehicles can survive the

searing temperatures of reentry into Earth’s atmosphere. The Slender

Hypervelocity Aerothermodynamic Research Probe’s second ballistc flight test

successfully demonstrated performance of 1-millimeter (mm) radius, ultra-high

temperature ceramic tiles with leading edges at speeds greater than Mach 22 and

at altitudes greater than 43 kilometers (km). The use of sharp leading edges on

hypersonic vehicles has the potential to increase spacecraft maneuverability (more

like an airplane), eliminate the electromagnetic interference that causes the communications blackouts on reentry, and reduce propulsion requirements due to

lowered drag.

Between April and August 2000, a 10-kilowatt (kw) Hall effect thruster,

designated T-220, was subjected to a 1,000-hour life test evaluation. Hall effect

thrusters are propulsion devices that electrostatically accelerate xenon ions to produce thrust. Hall effect propulsion has been in development for many years, and

low-power devices (1.35 kw) have been used in space for satellite orbit maintenance. The T-220 produces sufficient thrust to enable efficient orbital transfers,

saving hundreds of kilograms in propellant over conventional chemical propulsion

systems. This test is the longest operation ever achieved on a high-power Hall

thruster (greater that 4.5 kw) and is a key milestone leading to the use of this technology for future NASA, commercial, and military missions. 

Another accomplishment in space transportation was the completion of 14

single-engine hot fire tests of the X-33 program’s Linear Aerospike Engine. The

unusual design allows the engine to be more efficient and effective than today’s

rocket engines. 

NASA also completed NASA Solar electric propulsion Technology

Application Readiness (NSTAR) ground testing of the sister engine used for the

Deep Space-1 (DS-1) mission. The goal of demonstrating 100 percent of the

engine design life was achieved on May 9, 2000, after the engine had accumulated

10,375 hours of operation. Approximately half of the 10,375 hours were intentionally spent at a throttle level corresponding to two-thirds of full power. Prior

to the NSTAR project and over a timespan of more than 30 years, no ion engine

to be used for primary propulsion had ever been successfully operated for more

than a small fraction of its design life. The success of these tests, together with the

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

16
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

17 success of the flight test on DS-1, has now made ion propulsion a legitimate

option for deep space solar system exploration missions. 

NASA’s Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) continued to seek to understand

the Earth system and the effects of natural and human-induced changes on the

global environment. ESE continued to exploit the vantage point of space to conduct research on global and regional scale changes in the interactions among the

atmosphere, land, oceans, ice, and life that comprise the Earth’s system. Together

with its partners, ESE provides a sound, scientific basis for economic investment

and environmental policy decisions in both the public and private sectors. ESE’s

three goals in this period were to expand scientific knowledge about the Earth

system, to disseminate knowledge about the Earth system, and to enable the productive use of ESE science and technology in the public and private sectors.

In December 1999, ESE launched the Terra satellite—the flagship mission

of the Earth Observing System. Terra is the first satellite to monitor daily, simultaneously and on a global scale, the Earth’s biosphere, cloud cover, atmospheric

aerosols, land surface, and response to solar radiation. This approach enables scientists to study the interactions among these major Earth system components that

determine the cycling of water and nutrients on Earth. One product is near-daily

measurements of photosynthetic processes on the Earth’s surface (both land and

oceans) from which calculations of carbon uptake are made. Terra’s instruments

were activated for science operations in February 2000 and continued to operate

normally. Data from Terra are publicly available from Goddard Space Flight

Center’s Distributed Active Archive Center. 

Using the Landsat 7 satellite launched in 1999, ESE and the U.S. Geological

Survey (USGS) completed the first update of the global maps of 30-meter resolution land cover data. Researchers undertook a variety of land cover studies around

the world with these data, and practical application of these same data are being

made in agriculture and forest management. NASA supplied both Landsat and

Terra data to the U.S. Forest Service and regional authorities combating the largescale fires that swept the Los Alamos region of New Mexico and the areas spanning

the border of Montana and Idaho in the Northwest in 2000. In addition, USGS

scientists used Landsat 7 data to provide a synoptic view of the landscape simultaneously with the outbreak of infectious diseases—most recently in the outbreak of

the West Nile Virus in New York City during the summer of 2000.
The QuikSCAT satellite, also launched in 1999, began providing 25-kilometer resolution data on ocean surface winds. NASA provided these data to the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in near real time,

and researchers continued to employ these data to improve marine weather forecasting. The Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) with Japan

completed its nominal 3-year mission to provide the first measurements of global

rainfall over the tropics. NASA managers extended the lifetime of TRMM to support additional research. Combining data from QuikSCAT and TRMM,

researchers began experimenting with the capability to dramatically improve hurricane landfall prediction.

The balance of Earth Observing System satellites such as Aqua, Jason,

ICEsat, and Aura proceeded in development in FY 2000 for launch in 2001–2003.

In addition, a series of small, focused research satellites, which will provide the first

precise measurements of the Earth’s geoid, continued in development.

In February 2000, NASA flew the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission to

produce the first intererometric synthentic aperture radar data set from space. The

SRTM mission, cosponsored by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, collected topographic data on the entire land surface of the Earth between 60°N and

56°S. These data will have a wide variety of applications in hydrology, flood plain

mapping, civil engineering, and aviation safety. Germany and Italy contributed

the experimental X-band radar system for the mission.

In addition to its satellite observations, NASA continued to operate

research aircraft for in situ and remote sensing of the atmosphere and land surface.

In some cases, these aircraft are operated in tandem with satellites in integrated

research campaigns. In 2000, NASA flew its ER-2 aircraft into the North polar

stratosphere to explore the processes of ozone destruction over the Arctic.

Antarctic ozone processes are well understood; now for the first time, researchers

have similar data for the Arctic. In fall 2000, NASA led an international campaign, Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI) 2000, to explore

the interactions of land and atmosphere in southern Africa. This campaign

mapped the appearance and transport of aerosols in the atmosphere resulting from

large-scale fires on the ground.

Three major airborne scientific campaigns for research and validation of

satellite measurements were carried out during FY 2000. The Stratospheric

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

18
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

19 Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) III Ozone Loss and Validation Experiment

(SOLVE) campaign was conducted from December 1999 to March 2000. SOLVE

was a field measurement campaign using NASA’s ER-2 and DC-8 research aircraft,

high altitude balloons, and ground-based instruments to examine the processes

that control polar to midlatitude stratospheric ozone levels. The campaign

included cooperation with Canada, Germany, Japan, Sweden, and Russia. The

SAFARI 2000 effort included ground-based and airborne field campaigns in southern African nations, including Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique,

Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The objective of the

campaign was to identify and understand the relationships between the physical,

chemical, biological, and anthropogenic processes that underlie the land and

atmospheric systems of southern Africa. Researchers made measurements during

the wet season (February–March 2000) to identify and quantify major sources of

emissions and ecosystem processes during peak biomass. The dry-season episode of

the campaign (August–September 2000) tracked the movement, transformations,

and fallout of dry-season emissions from biomass burning. Finally, NASA’s DC-8

aircraft carrying the NASA airborne synthetic aperture radar (AIRSAR) instrument, the Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer and Advanced

Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer MODIS/ASTER

(MASTER) simulator, and other instrumentation flew from August to October

2000 in the Pacific Rim. This campaign, called PacRim II, involved extensive data

collections over 18 countries, with NASA’s aircraft operating out of American

Samoa, Australia, French Polynesia, Guam, Japan, New Zealand, the Philippines,

and Singapore before returning to the United States. The objective was to further

advance Earth science research and applications in all the countries involved,

specifically in the areas of agriculture, coastal processes, geology and tectonics, disaster management, forestry and vegetation, urban and regional development, and

continued cooperation in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data and interferometry research. Topographic mapping, forest canopy analysis and mapping, volcano

and tectonic research, geological research, and archaeology were all made possible

with the data collected during the PacRim II campaign.

Together with the Canadian Space Agency, ESE initiated the second

Antarctic Mapping Mission using the Radarsat-1 spacecraft to produce radar topographic maps of the south polar ice sheet. Researchers planned to compare these
data with those from the first Antarctic Mapping Mission in 1997 to establish rates

of change in diverse portions of Antarctica.

Regarding knowledge dissemination, ESE distributed 8.8 million data products in response to 1.5 million requests during the fiscal year. More than

distributing data, however, NASA continued to try to ensure that these data are

used broadly to improve Earth science education in the United States. ESE sponsored 340 workshops to train teachers in the use of Earth science information

products in their curricula. NASA also awarded 51 new graduate fellowships. 

ESE’s third goal is the final step toward ensuring the benefits of its new scientific knowledge will extend beyond the science community to the broader

economy and society. Through its Commercial Remote Sensing Program, ESE

partnered with private companies in the remote-sensing information product business to develop 20 new products, such as oilspill containment software, models to

predict wildfire behavior, and crop health information systems. ESE sponsored

three U.S. regional assessments of the impacts of climate change, in concert with

academia and regional authorities, to help them plan for the future. Finally, ESE

demonstrated the ability of new technologies to make Landsat-type measurements

far less expensively in the future and transferred new software technologies to academia and industry to manage large Earth science data sets.

After the end of FY 2000, NASA established a new Enterprise called the

Biological and Physical Research Enterprise (BPRE) from the former Office of Life

and Microgravity Sciences and Applications. For convenience’s sake, this report

will refer to this office as BPRE.

During FY 2000, BPRE executed a memorandum of understanding with the

National Cancer Institute focusing on new approaches to detect, monitor, and

treat disease. This cutting-edge effort uses biological models to develop medical

sensors that will be smaller, more sensitive, and more specific than today’s state of

the art. The Enterprise established a pricing policy for a commercial demonstration program on the ISS and entered into two initial commercial agreements. 

In FY 2000, BPRE continued to develop a robust scientific community to

maximize return from future flight opportunities including the International Space

Station. BPRE made awards under six NASA Research Announcements (NRA)

in FY 2000 and built its investigator community to approximately 960 investigations as part of continuing preparations for ISS utilization. BPRE researchers

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

20
published over 1,400 articles in peer-reviewed journals in FY 1999, with similar

publication rates expected for FY 2000. 

While BPRE researchers completed preparations for their next dedicated

spaceflight research mission, BPRE ground-based research continued to provide

important results. Investigators demonstrated that muscle healing is inhibited by a

period of simulated microgravity before injury. Investigators also identified a key

gene in the regulation of plant growth and the response of plants to gravity identified. BPRE research also showed that a parathyroid hormone modulates the

response of bone-building cells to mechanical stimulation. A BPRE-supported

researcher demonstrated that it is possible to amplify a beam of atoms, similar to

the way a beam of light can be amplified, by increasing the number of atoms in an

initial atom beam with light and a Bose-Einstein condensate. Researchers fabricated single-wall carbon nanotubes using flame synthesis.

In addition, BPRE made significant progress toward developing new,

advanced life-support technologies and improved approaches for maintaining

health in the hostile environment of space. BPRE completed utilities outfitting of

its new BIOplex closed life-support test chamber system. Researchers produced the

next generation of tunable diode lasers and continued testing of an advanced

miniature mass spectrometer for monitoring spacecraft atmospheres. Groundbased research designed to simulate spaceflight demonstrated that the clinically

approved drug, midodrine, prevented human orthostatic intolerance (or fainting

on return to gravity). BPRE research implicated elevated levels of nitric oxide and

decreased blood vessel contraction, thus identifying a target for the control of

blood pressure changes associated with spaceflight. 

BPRE’s Space Product Development Program continued to market the benefits of space-based research to industry, facilitate industry’s access to space, provide

space research expertise and flight hardware, and advocate the commercial use of

space. The program continued to be executed through Commercial Space Centers

(CSC) that established industry partnerships with the objective of developing new

commercial space products or dual-use technologies. The industry partners continued to invest substantial cash and/or in-kind resources in the projects. 

There were a number of highlights of this CSC work during FY 2000. The

Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics CSC received a Space

Technology Hall of Fame 2000 Award from Space Foundation/NASA for innovative light-emitting diode (LED) technology for medical applications. Originally

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

21
used to light space-flown plant chambers, the LED technology is finding uses in

photodynamic cancer therapy and wound healing. Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS)

continued its strategic partnership with BioServe Space Technologies CSC on

microgravity fermentation research for improved production of antibiotics. BMS

and BioServe have had an ongoing collaboration on this research for several years

and this research partnership was expected to continue on the ISS. HewlettPackard (HP) signed a membership agreement with the Center for Commercial

Applications of Combustion in Space (CCACS) CSC. HP scientists in Colorado

will work with CCACS scientists to develop techniques for in situ imaging of bone

in-growth into porous ceramic implants. They and several other groups are partners in the CCACS biomaterials consortium. Two companies joined the Center

for Advanced Microgravity Materials Processing (CAMMP) as full members:

Polaroid Corporation and Busek Co., Inc. Researchers built a system to explore the

growth of silver halides and began testing at CAMMP.

During FY 2000, NASA continued its international activities, expanding

cooperation with its partners through new agreements, discussions in multilateral

fora, and support for ongoing missions.

NASA concluded over 60 cooperative and reimbursable international

agreements for projects in each of NASA’s Strategic Enterprises. These agreements

include ground-based research, aircraft campaigns, satellite missions, and agreements for research facilities and experiments to be flown on the ISS. One such

agreement was a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed between NASA

and the Japanese Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences for cooperation on

the ASTRO-E mission, the fifth in a series of Japanese astronomy satellites

devoted to observations of celestial X-ray sources. Another was a NASAAustralian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization MOU

for cooperation on Australia’s first satellite mission called Federation Satellite or

FEDSAT. NASA will provide a scientific instrument for this experimental

microsatellite to be launched in 2001. In addition, the ISS partners approved a

Crew Code of Conduct for the ISS, paving the way for a permanent human presence. This Code of Conduct was called for in the Intergovernmental Agreement

and Memoranda of Understanding for the ISS. Agreement on the text was reached

in September 2000, followed by steps taken in each partner nation to enter it into

force.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

22
As part of the U.S. Government team, NASA continued its discussions

with the Government of Japan to clarify the 1995 United States-Japan CrossWaiver Agreement on Space Activities. The Cross-Waiver Agreement ensures

that Japan and the United States agree to waive liability claims for cooperative

U.S.-Japan space activities.

NASA participated in numerous international meetings designed to review

ongoing or to foster new cooperation. These included the Committee on Earth

Observing Satellites (CEOS) annual plenary meeting, the United Nations

Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its subcommittees, and the InterAgency Consultative Group for Space Science. NASA and Portugal held a

workshop in Lisbon during December 1999 to exchange information with the goal

of identifying opportunities for cooperation. In May 2000, NASA hosted a Space

Science International Partnership Conference to exchange information on future

plans for space science programs at which 20 space agencies participated.

NASA also engaged in discussions with current and potential future partners at the Senior Management level, hosting visitors from around the world. In

addition, the NASA Administrator traveled overseas to review the status of ongoing cooperation or to promote new cooperation. In May 2000, the NASA

Administrator gave a keynote address at the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite

System) 2000 conference in Edinburgh, Scotland, as part of a series of announcements by the U.S. Government concerning the President’s decision to terminate

selective availability on the GPS signals effective at midnight on May 1, 2000.

The Administrator traveled to Rome and Padua, Italy, in June 2000, where he

received an honorary doctorate from the University of Padua and held meetings

with the Vatican and the Italian Space Agency. The Administrator led a NASA

delegation to the launch of the first element of the International Space Station,

the Zvezda Service Module on July 12, 2000, from the Baikonur launch facility in

Kazakhstan. In August 2000, the Administrator visited Morocco where he signed

four new agreements for cooperation with the Royal Remote Sensing Center of

Morocco. These agreements provide for the installation of an Aerosol Robotic

Network aerosol measurement station in Morocco and cooperation on coastal

upwelling ecosystems, precipitation research, and desertification research. In late

August and early September, the Administrator accompanied a U.S. congressional

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

23
delegation, led by Congressman James Walsh of New York, Chairman of the House

Appropriations Subcommittee to France, Russia, and Ireland.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

24
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

25

DEPARTMENT OF

DEFENSE

DoD

In the area of satellite control, the DoD, together with NASA and the National

Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), developed a comprehensive architecture for future Satellite Operations (SATOPS) in the 2020 timeframe. The

SATOPS Architecture Transistion Plan includes conducting launch, early-orbit checkout anomaly resolution, and low data rate operations, using a single interoperable

ground- and space-network for DoD, NASA, NOAA, and the National

Reconnaissance Office (NRO). This Government network allows for increased interoperability and reduced ground infrastructure. Towards this goal, the Air Force Satellite

Control Network began upgrading its remote tracking stations to be compatible with

Unified S-Band (USB), the band in which NASA conducts its own satellite operations.

In terms of environmental monitoring, the National Polar-orbiting Operational

Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) is a tri-agency program of the Departments

of Defense and Commerce (DOC) and NASA. In FY 2000, the NPOESS Integrated

Program Office (IPO) awarded two system program definition and risk-reduction contracts. In addition, the IPO continued critical contract down-select activities for the

suite of environmental sensors that will fly on NPOESS. The NPOESS Preparatory

Project (NPP), an IPO and NASA joint mission, continued to progress in FY 2000. A

joint DoD/NOAA/NASA working group conducted a successful mission requirements

review on the way to the 2005 NPP launch.

DoD, NASA, NOAA, and other Federal agencies completed a Space Weather

Architecture Transition Plan which received National Security Space Senior Steering

Group (NSS SSG) approval during FY 2000. The plan outlines actions and activities

which will start the implementation of the recommendations from the comprehensive

1999 National Security Space Architect Space Weather Architecture Study over the
next several years, part of which is the Government’s multiagency investment strategy.

This study laid out the structure for a space weather architecture to meet all U.S.

Government requirements and mitigate the adverse impacts of solar events by the year

2025. The NSS SSG, via an Architecture Implementation Memorandum, directed

stakeholder organizations and agencies to start implementing actions. 

The DOD successfully launched the Tri-Service Experiments Mission 5

(TSX-5) on a Pegasus launch vehicle in FY 2000. The TSX-5 mission operates two

experimental payloads for 6 months to 1 year in support of two DoD Space Experiments

Review Board experiments. The two experiments are the Space Technology Research

Vehicle-2 (STRV-2) and the Compact Environmental Anomaly Sensor (CEASE).

STRV-2 is a multinational, highly integrated suite of experiments designed to push the

envelope of space-based imaging technology, satellite vibration suppression, and material science. STRV-2 is sponsored by the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. CEASE

is an environmental scanner, providing the spacecraft with essential knowledge about

the surrounding space. CEASE used this flight to prove its near-spacecraft environmental assessment capabilities. Phillips Laboratory Geophysics Laboratory sponsors

CEASE.

The DOD, via the U.S. Air Force, also successfully launched Defense

Meteorological Satellite Program Satellite 15 (DMSP S-15) from Vandenberg Air Force

Base, California, on a Titan II booster in FY 2000. This DoD polar-orbiting weather

satellite mission will ultimately converge with NOAA’s polar-orbiting mission to form

NPOESS. S-15 is the first DMSP satellite whose post-launch checkout was conducted

from NOAA’s Satellite Operations Control Center in Suitland, Maryland. Previous

DMSP postlaunch checkouts were conducted from Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska.

Last year, as part of the merger designed to promote efficiency and cut down public

expense, the DoD transferred control of its weather satellites to NOAA and closed the

6th Space Operations Squadron at Offutt after nearly 35 years of continuous operations.

The Air Force Reserve now operates a backup DMSP command and control facility at

Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado. NOAA’s Suitland facility is now the primary location for providing functions associated with command and control of all U.S. weather

satellites, including early orbit checkout following launch operations, satellite state-ofhealth maintenance, and satellite sensor and payload management.

In the area of space-based communications, programs achieved several key milestones in FY 2000 with several launches and major programmatic decisions. The first

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

26
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

27 Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) satellite equipped with the Service

Life Enhancement Program (SLEP) package was launched in January 2000. The second

of four was successfully launched in October 2000. These satellites represent a significant increase in capability over the DSCS III satellites, with higher-powered

transponders and greater total system capacity, up to a 200 percent increase. Regarding

the highly protected SatCom systems, DoD will be accelerating the first satellite in the

Advanced EHF satellite system to mitigate the loss of the the Milstar Flight 3 satellite

in April 1999. For mobile communications, the UHF Follow-On (UFO) 10 satellite was

launched in November 1999, ensuring the UFO constellation will continue to provide

global UHF coverage well into the future.

In the area of positioning and navigation, as directed by President Clinton,

Selective Availability (SA) was discontinued shortly after midnight on May 1, 2000.

The currently planned Global Positioning System (GPS) modernization program will

add new military signals (known as the M-code) and a second civil signal to some Block

IIR and all Block IIF satellites, and will add a third civil signal on the Block IIF satellites. Since SA was discontinued, horizontal position errors of less than 10 meters have

routinely been observed. Worldwide transportation safety, scientific, and commercial

interests benefit from the increased accuracy.

Plans were put in place for a significant investment over the next several years

to modernize GPS to enhance its ability to meet both military and civil needs for the

foreseeable future. The currently planned GPS modernization program will add new

military signals (known as the M-code) to Block IIR and IIF satellites, a second civil

signal on IIR satellites, and a third civil signal (L5) on IIF satellites. Since the GPS modernization program will address both military and civil requirements, a Memorandum of

Agreement (MOA) was signed with the Department of Transportation. This MOA

provides for formal civil participation in the modernization activities.

The Secretaries of Defense and Transportation jointly signed the latest revision

of the Federal Radionavigation Plan. This plan outlines future policies for Governmentprovided radionavigation services for the foreseeable future and is updated biennially.

The Department completed a Presidentially mandated Broad Area Review that

resulted from the three consecutive launch failures of the Titan IV system in 1999.

Several of the resultant recommendations have been completed with the remaining

items at various stages of completion.

In September 2000, DoD also restructured its Evolved Expendable Launch
Vehicle (EELV) program to include additional risk-reduction efforts. It increased technical personnel to provide Government oversight of critical processes. In April 2000,

contractor-defined Critical Design Reviews for EELV systems were completed. In

August 2000, DoD completed and received approval from the Department of State to

support importing of technical drawing and manufacturing processes required to support

U.S. coproduction of the RD-180 engine, still awaiting approval from the Russian government for license to export required documentation.

The interagency report on Future Management and Use of U.S. Space Launch

Bases and Ranges was released on February 8, 2000. This report identified several key

recommendations that have been incorporated into near-term plans of several agencies,

including DoD, DoT, DoC, and NASA. 

The DoD successfully launched 12 satellites using the Pegasus, Minotaur, Delta,

Atlas, and Titan IV vehicles. The DoD successfully demonstrated the Minotaur launch

system in January 2000. The Minotaur is a derivative vehicle using components of the

Minuteman II vehicle.

In the areas of intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, the Space Based

Infrared System (SBIRS) made significant progress toward fielding the followon system

to the Nation’s Defense Support Program (DSP) missile launch early warning satellites.

SBIRS is fielded in three increments. The technical difficulties in 1999 that had set

back the transition to a new mission control station have been resolved. The program

is now on a clear path to declaring an initial operating capability for the “SBIRS

Increment 1” in November of 2001. Increment 1 consolidated the DSP’s overseas

ground stations located in Europe and Australia, with the old U.S. ground station into

a single mission-control station located at Buckley Air Force Base, Colorado. The overseas sites were replaced with minimally staffed relay ground stations in order to realize

savings in staffing, operations, and maintenance. The addition of the SBIRS High component, also known as “SBIRS Increment 2,” has made significant progress in detailed

design work for the key components of the system.

The Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) sensor payload, and the mobile multimission

processors, both passed successful critical design reviews, paving the way to begin fabrication of HEO flight payloads and SBIRS mobile ground stations. The DoD also

conducted requirements definition and trade studies for SBIRS low.

An integrated DoD Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) capability advanced considerably in 2000 with the publishing of the ISR Integrated

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

28
Capstone Strategic Plan. This plan affects both space and airborne collection systems

and their ground processing and exploitation segments.

The DoD Space Test Program (STP) continued its 35-year legacy of enabling

future DoD space superiority. STP had six launches during FY 2000, including three

major satellite missions, using four different boosters plus the Space Shuttle. One of the

major missions was Tri-Service Experiments-5, which carried a BMDO payload that has

already proven the ability to detect from space nonafterburning threats such as cruise

missiles. The Multi-Spectral Thermal Imager satellite was launched by STP in a partnership with DoE; it is now demonstrating state-of-the-art imaging technology for treaty

monitoring, bomb damage assessment, and battlefield intelligence. The Air Force

Research Lab and STP collaborated on the Mightysat II.1 mission. That spacecraft is

proving the utility of an experimental hyperspectral imager on a low-cost light satellite.

DoD also completed an extensive review of the Space Control Mission Area and

began the implementation of several of the recommendations from the review that the

Deputy Secretary of Defense had directed. The primary area of emphasis was in space

surveillance with the designation of the Air Force as the lead system integrator. The

space control technology effort within the Air Force continued to identify and develop

critical technology to meet DoD requirements.

The successfully completed Space Control Broad Area Review that was directed

by the Deputy Secretary of Defense resulted in 26 specific taskings in 5 major areas:

space surveillance, space system protection, space prevention, space negation, and operations. Efforts continued to supervise and track tasking accomplishments. Completion

and approval of the results of the Space Surveillance Task Force (SSTF) was one of the

significant accomplishments.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

29

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

31

FEDERAL AVIATION

ADMINISTRATION

FAA

The FAA continued in its mission to assure a safe, secure, efficient, and environmentally friendly civil air navigation and commercial space transportation system.

During FY 2000, the agency performed and sponsored research and development

programs to enhance the effectiveness of its mission; issued regulations and guidelines for better flight standards, operations, and maintenance; and provided

equipment and training for a modernized air traffic control system.

During FY 2000, the FAA and NASA signed the “FAA-NASA Integrated

Safety Research Plan,” a guide for future research collaboration between the two

agencies. This plan builds on existing safety research initiatives. It introduces the

ability to analyze the combined research portfolios in a simple, easy-to-understand

format, including making needed programmatic adjustments. It describes how

both NASA and FAA will achieve ongoing communication and coordination

with respect to safety research in pursuit of common safety goals. This plan provides the framework to enable both agencies to make complementary, coordinated

investment decisions. 

In FY 2000, human factors scientists conducted research to enhance the

safety and efficiency of the National Airspace System (NAS) through improved

performance of air carrier crews, general aviation pilots, aviation maintenance

technicians, air traffic controllers, and NAS system maintenance technicians. The

agency conducted aeromedical research with a focus on improving the health,

safety, and survivability of aircraft passengers. The aviation medicine research program continued to support the 5-year National Institute for Occupational Safety

and Health cabin environment study ordered by Congress. Research was conducted to address the FAA’s goal for an equivalent level of safety for all aircraft
occupants with targeted areas including seats/restraints for infants and small children, and side-facing seats in corporate aircraft. Researchers continued to

investigate the nature of in-flight medical emergencies and the use of defibrillators

on commercial flights. 

During the past year, the air carrier-training program conducted Line

Oriented Safety Audits to collect data on antecedents to crew error, errors (including errors made in automation usage), and responses to error. Air carriers

continued to use the results to understand crew performance, develop training programs, and analyze accidents and incidents. The model used in this program is an

integral part of the Aviation Safety Analysis Program, a confidential reporting

system that flight crews use to report incidents to their carriers. The air carriertraining program also conducted research to collect and analyze data regarding the

relationship between simulator platform motion and its impact on training effectiveness. The general aviation research program produced two CD-ROMs that

focus on preflight and inflight decisionmaking. Taken together, these training

tools help to make pilots aware of methods to improve their judgment by developing personal strategies to control risk. Aviation maintenance research designed

and delivered to air carriers a job aid, providing best practices for the design, production, and use of technical information with recommended incorporation of

simplified English. 

In FY 2000, the FAA initiated new research to adapt the military’s Human

Factors Analysis and Classification System to assess aviation incidents and accidents. This project is integrated with a research project on human error by

EUROCONTROL, a body established to harmonize air traffic in Europe. Research

also addressed human-factor issues in runway incursions and completed a congressionally ordered review of the effect of fatigue and shift patterns in the air traffic

control workforce. A new booklet entitled Human Factors for Air Traffic Control

Specialists: A User’s Manual for Your Brain, provides helpful information on

memory, pilot/controller communication, and threats to performance. The Human

Factors program continued to enhance the performance of screeners through the

development of Threat Image Projection software. This software, which is for both

carry-on and checked baggage, improves screener training and enhances awareness. The program developed a networked Screener Readiness Test to be used in

support of the proposed rule for the Certification of Screening Companies. 

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

32
During FY 2000, the FAA released an upgraded version of the Emissions

and Dispersion Modeling System (EDMS 3.2). EDMS is designed to assess the air

quality impact of airport emission sources, particularly aviation sources consisting

of aircraft, auxiliary power units, and ground-support equipment. The

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has formally accepted EDMS as the preferred air quality guideline model—EPA’s highest ranking. EDMS is FAA’s

required model to perform air quality analyses for aviation sources. The FAA

began development of a modeling System for assessing Aviation’s Global

Emissions (SAGE). The SAGE model is planned as a forecasting system with a

global aircraft emissions module as its main component. The FAA, in cooperation

with the EPA, NOAA, and NASA, developed a fact sheet on condensation trails,

or “contrails,” that are formed by aircraft in flight, describing the formation, occurrence, and effects of “contrails.” Also, the FAA released an upgraded version of the

Integrated Noise Model (INM 6.0). INM is the FAA’s standard tool for assessing

aircraft noise in the vicinity of airports; this is the most widely used model of its

kind in the world. 

In FY 2000, the FAA continued in its mission to develop and deploy products that prevent explosives, weapons, and other threat material from being

introduced on to aircraft. Major areas of concentration included certification testing, checked and carry-on baggage screening, using bulk and trace explosives

detection, human factors, aircraft hardening, Aviation Security Technology

Integration (ASTI), and airport deployment of systems by the security equipment

integrated product team. The Aviation Security Laboratory (ASL) conducted certification tests on the InVision CTX 9000Dsi Explosives Detection System (EDS)

production unit and the L3 eXaminer 3DX 6000 unit. Both systems passed agency

tests. Bulk detection research included additional work in quadrupole resonance

and x-ray diffraction techniques. The ASL evaluated 2 new Explosives Trace

Detection (ETD) models that are now deployed at over 170 locations. 

Other activities in FY 2000 included development of quality control standards for deployed ETD systems. As an alternative for EDSs at smaller airports,

ASL conducted an evaluation of directed trace. This involves x-ray identification

of target items to be directly screened by trace systems. As a follow-on, the ASL

initiated the Argus program for the development of a lower-cost EDS. This system

would also be automated and have the same performance requirements, except for

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

33
lower throughput. In the area of personnel screening, three ETD portal prototypes

and the evaluation of two bulk detection portals were completed. The ASL evaluated several large cargo inspection systems and a large bulk EDS for break-bulk

cargo. 

The agency also established an explosives standard system (Trace Personnel

Standard-Dry Transfer Method) enabling the evaluation of emerging explosives

trace detection technology. In addition, the FAA completed the screener selection

test assessment and fielded 6 perceptual and cognitive tests at 18 major U.S. airports. The objective was to develop a screener aptitude test to predict future

performance of checkpoint security screener candidates. The FAA provided over

250 copies of the BlastFX software tool to Government agencies. Blast/FX is a selfcontained software package that can be used to model and analyze the effects of a

blast on facilities. The FAA also conducted two Radio Frequency Identification

(RFID) Baggage Tag trials in conjunction with United and Continental Airlines.

The tests provided critical operational performance information to support airline

efforts to develop an international standard for RFID Baggage Tag use.

In FY 2000, the Aircraft Hardening Program conducted a series of explosive

tests on B-737 and B-747 aircraft under pressurized conditions for the purpose of

refining the vulnerability criteria for carry-on luggage. The program evaluated

hardened luggage containers following flight trials. Blast tests with containers

holding mail also were completed. The ASTI Program is developing a Systems

Security Architecture which looks at the integration of a total airport security

system. Work continued on the Airport Security Construction Guidelines project

to provide a ready reference for security issues in new airport construction or for

major renovations. The SEIPT deploys equipment at our Nation’s airports. This

fiscal year, 24 EDS’s and 118 ETD’s were installed. In addition, 476 TIP Ready Xray (TRX) systems were procured for future installation.

During the fiscal year, the agency worked with the aviation industry to

update the National Airspace System Plan through the year 2015. The plan is

based on the “Free Flight” operational concept in which pilots may choose the

most efficient and economical routes to their destinations. The agency continued

to acquire new automation systems for the national airspace system by installing

the Host and Oceanic Computer System Replacement at its 20 air traffic control

centers and 3 oceanic centers. The system provides information on aircraft moveAeronautics and Space Report of the President 

34
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

35 ments throughout domestic and oceanic airspace and is faster and more reliable

than the predecessor system. The agency also deployed the Display System

Replacement to 8 en route centers, replacing 30-year-old equipment and providing enhanced capability to display aircraft position, identification, and weather

information, as well as to monitor and control system equipment and support

planned enhancements to the air traffic control environment. 

Following the successful use in FY 2000 of a system called the Surface

Movement Advisor, which optimizes vehicular activity on airport pavement, the

FAA made two major upgrades to its User Request Evaluation Tool (URET) at the

Indianapolis and Memphis air route traffic control centers. URET provides controllers with automatic conflict detection, trial planning for assistance with conflict

resolution or user requests, conformance monitoring of current flight trajectory, and

some electronic flight data capability. FAA and NASA researchers also continued

joint efforts on air traffic management systems that will enhance the capacity and

efficiency of the national airspace system and enable Free Flight Phase 1. In addition, Air Traffic Control/Airway Facilities research, through collaboration with

NASA and the Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, continued assessing the impact of shared separation procedures in a Free Flight environment on

pilot and controller performance, workload, and situation awareness.

The Safe Flight 21 program, a joint Government/industry initiative

designed to validate the capabilities of advanced communication, navigation, and

surveillance, as well as air traffic procedures associated with free flight, began

demonstrating Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) technology. In July 2000, 25 aircraft from the Cargo Airline Association, the FAA,

avionics manufacturers, universities, the U.S. Navy, and NASA participated in a

flight demonstration to begin testing ADS-B. UPS Aviation Technologies Inc., a

subsidiary of United Parcel Service, demonstrated its proposed avionics equipment

in Bethel, Alaska. As a result of that test, the FAA awarded a $3.9 million contract to UPS Aviation Technologies for state-of-the-art avionics systems,

installation kits, terrain databases, ground-based transceivers, an avionics-training

simulator, and training assistance. 

The FAA continued progress toward implementation of the Wide Area

Augmentation System (WAAS) that will provide availability, integrity, and accuracy for the Global Positioning System (GPS) to be used for en route navigation
and precision civilian navigation. During the fiscal year, the agency completed a

series of Category I precision approach test flights at Iceland’s Keflavik Airport,

using signals from both the FAA’s WAAS testbed and the United Kingdom’s

Northern European Satellite Test Bed. The FAA leased three ground reference

stations and a master station to the Chilean government for flight testing satellite

navigation in Chile. The Chilean government outfitted an aircraft with a GPS

receiver to fly precision and nonprecision Category 1 Instrument Flight Rules

(IFR) conditions at the Arturo Merino Benitez International Airport in Santiago.

With support from the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore, the FAA also

installed and tested a WAAS test reference station at Singapore Changi Airport.

In FY 2000, the FAA developed and installed in all FAA, DoD, and National

Weather Service Next-Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) systems, an

advanced algorithm that detects tornadoes early in their development and shows

where they will move. The agency installed on the prototype Integrated Terminal

Weather System at the Orlando Terminal Radar Control a convective growth and

decay forecast product, which not only predicts thunderstorm movement, based on

the storm’s track, but also includes the effects of storm growth and decay. 

The FAA transferred to industry its Weather Support to Deicing Decision

Making (WSDDM) system, a stand-alone integrated display system developed in

response to industry’s need for accurate, local weather data to plan and conduct

airport deicing operations. The FAA began using the system at LaGuardia Airport

in New York City. WSDDM uses Doppler radar, surface weather station data, and

snow gauges located at and near the airport to determine precipitation type, temperature, wind speed and direction, and the liquid water equivalent of snow. The

agency, in conjunction with industry, installed the first commercial infrared deicing facility at Newark International Airport in New Jersey. 

The agency continued its development of a centralized database of these

icing conditions and acquired data from several foreign locations, including South

America, in order to facilitate a better understanding of worldwide Supercooled

Large Droplet (SLD) icing conditions which affect aircraft flight safety. Also, the

FAA sponsored investigatory efforts to assess the time of effectiveness of aircraft

deicing fluids during various freezing precipitation conditions and, in conjunction

with Transport Canada and industry, provided time of effectiveness information in

a set of holdover time guidelines which are used by airlines worldwide.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

36
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

37 During the fiscal year, the FAA and NASA expanded integrated efforts to

reduce the fatal commercial accident rate by 80 percent by the year 2026. As part

of its safety efforts, the FAA continued advanced research activities in a number

of critical aviation safety areas. Based on stringent fire test criteria developed by

FAA researchers, the FAA issued two major regulatory changes in FY 2000 regarding aircraft thermal acoustic insulation. An airworthiness directive requires the

replacement of insulation blankets in over 700 aircraft. Also, a Notice of Proposed

Rulemaking proposed new insulation fire test criteria which address both inflight

fire resistance and postcrash fuel fire burnthrough protection. The FAA’s focus on

ground-based measures for fuel tank explosion prevention was bolstered by the

findings of a detailed cost analysis completed in FY 2000 that demonstrated the

cost-effectiveness of this concept. 

In partnership with the Naval Air Systems Command and the Office of

Naval Research, the FAA began development of Arc Fault Circuit Breakers

(AFCB) which will replace thermal circuit breakers currently in use. Unlike thermal breakers, AFCB’s can detect electrical arcing and rapidly remove power to the

affected circuit, drastically reducing the chances of fire and related damage. AFCB

prototypes were successfully tested aboard the FAA B-727. Also, in support of the

Aging Transport Systems Rulemaking Advisory Committee (ATSRAC), the FAA

completed intrusive wiring inspections of six recently retired transport aircraft.

Researchers removed samples from the aircraft and subjected them to an extensive

battery of laboratory tests. 

In October 1999, the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center subjected

a fully instrumented narrow-body transport airplane fuselage section with an onboard conformable auxiliary fuel tank to a vertical drop impact test. Postcrash

fuel-fed fire is a major contributor to the fatal accident rate. The objective of the

test was to determine the interaction between a typical transport airplane fuselage,

particularly its floor structure, and this type of fuel tank under severe, but survivable, impact conditions.

The agency completed construction of the full-scale Aircraft Structural Test

Evaluation and Research facility which is being used to test fuselage panel specimens under conditions representative of those seen by an aircraft in actual

operation. In FY 2000, the FAA released a computerized design tool, the Repair
Assessment Procedure and Integrated Design for Commuters (RAPIDC), that will

improve the safety of airframe structures of commuter-size airplanes by implementing damage tolerance analysis techniques. The release of RAPIDC is in direct

support of the agency’s Notice Of Proposed Rulemaking on aging airplane safety.

Also in FY 2000, the agency released a software code called Design

Assessment of Reliability with Inspection that is designed to improve the structural integrity of turbine engine rotor disks used in commercial aircraft engines by

assessing rotor design and life management. The FAA and the Helicopter

Association International developed and released a Web-based Maintenance

Malfunction Information Reporting system which allows helicopter operators and

repair stations to fulfill FAA Service Difficulty Reporting requirements and create

manufacturer warranty claim forms. Researchers at the Airworthiness Assurance

Center of Excellence located at the FAA Technical Center completed a firstgeneration, PC-version of XRSIM, which simulates radiographic (X-ray) inspection of aircraft components and is used during the development of inspection

procedures to optimize radiographic inspections. The agency also developed the

Web-based Air Personnel Module of Safety Performance Analysis System, which

expedites the Aviation Safety Inspector’s activities in the areas of certification,

recertification, surveillance, and investigation by providing readily accessible

information from a variety of data sources and highlighting important information. 

In May 2000, in cooperation with the rotorcraft industry, the FAA released

the Rotorcraft Damage Tolerance R&D Roadmap, identifying 10 critical research

areas to support the implementation of damage tolerance requirements in the

design and certification of rotorcraft components. In June 2000, the FAA completed the integration of the U.S. Army, National Transportation Safety Board

(NTSB), and FAA rotorcraft accident/incident databases. It also utilized several

mining technologies to perform problem identification and countermeasure evaluation for rotorcraft.

The FAA and several Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 121

air carriers developed a system engineering model of the generic functions of air

carrier operations, the Air Carrier Operations System Model (ACOSM), Version

1.0. The ACOSM serves to support a systems approach to aviation safety oversight

since it was used in the development of safety performance measures, risk indicaAeronautics and Space Report of the President 

38
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

39 tors, and data objects; work processes to support the collection of data for analysis;

and analytical methods, including information presentation. The model also provides a common definition of air carrier processes and terminology to promote

understanding of air carrier operational activities and functions.

In October 1999, the FAA and the Boeing Corporation completed the first

set of full-scale pavement response tests at the National Airport Pavement Test

Facility that was designed to provide high-quality, accelerated test data from rigid

and flexible pavements subjected to simulated aircraft traffic. Full-scale traffic testing started in February 2000.

The FAA established a Video Landing Loads Facility at Atlantic City

International Airport where high-resolution video images of typical landings are

recorded. Researchers analyzed digitized images to obtain landing contact parameters, such as sink speed, velocity, pitch, roll, and yaw. This facility provides typical

usage data to characterize the landing load environment for a wide variety of airplane models in both good and bad weather conditions at this airport. At the end

of the fiscal year, over 800 video images had been captured. 

The FAA published its initial commuter airplane Operational Loads

Monitoring report, “Statistical Loads Data for BE-1900D Aircraft in Commuter

Operation.” The output from the Operational Loads Monitoring research provides

validation for airframe certification requirements and advisory materials. This

research independently assesses the original equipment manufacturers’ design

assumptions and aircraft usage analysis. Also in FY 2000, the FAA published an

Operational Loads Monitoring report for the B-767ER airplane. 

In conjunction with Sandia National Labs, the FAA completed a reliability study of an interlayer crack inspection technique commonly used on older

aircraft. The study found that target flaw sizes around 0.2 inches were not being

found reliably. Briefings with industry and the Aircraft Certification Office have

led to efforts to reassess specific inspection requirements. FAA sponsored research

that resulted in development of a new nondestructive testing technique and a prototype, the Meandering Winding Magnetometer. This technology has been proven

to be superior to other techniques for finding cracks in areas of engine disks, which

have experienced fretting damage. In addition, the FAA with Sandia National

Labs, Textron, and Federal Express personnel installed composite doubler repairs

on two DC-10 aircraft in the FedEx fleet. This is the first use of bonded compos-
ite doublers as permanent repairs for skin damage in commercial aircraft. Also,

during the fiscal year, FAA with Iowa State University developed a prototype

semiautomated tap test system with imaging capability and turned this system over

to industry for beta testing. 

The initial research effort by the FAA’s Airworthiness Assurance Center of

Excellence to investigate copper and silver sulfide deposits on fuel quantity indication systems (such as what apparently contributed to the TWA flight 800

accident) was completed and a report issued. The deposit growth mechanism has

been characterized and reproduced in the laboratory, and ignition of fuel across the

reproduced deposits with DC current has been demonstrated in the laboratory.

Research on the risk arising from an uncontained engine failure has resulted

in the release of a beta version of the uncontained engine debris damage assessment model. This software tool utilizes engine fragment trajectory data derived

from actual events to predict the risk to an aircraft’s critical flight systems.

Researchers continued to evaluate generic airplane designs with this tool in support of an Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committee.

In FY 2000, the FAA issued a Wildlife Control Manual that provides means

to mitigate the wildlife threat. This manual is based on extensive research over the

last 10 years. 

In FY 2000, the FAA and the general aviation industry continued their collaborative efforts to find a new fuel to replace current leaded aviation gasoline.

The FAA role is testing and evaluating of industry-supplied fuels. FAA’s piston

engine testing capability was significantly upgraded at the William J. Hughes

Technical Center with the addition of a new dynamometer and control system, as

well as a temperature/humidity conditioned air supply for the main test cell. These

improvements will enable more timely responses on the part of FAA as new fuel

formulations are provided for evaluation. Testing began on an experimental fuel

formulation supplied by Exxon Research. 

FAA’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation licensed two successful

space launches by Sea Launch during the fiscal year. These were the first licensed

launches without any involvement from a Federal launch range. Overall, there

were 18 launches during the fiscal year that were FAA licensed as commercial,

although 2 were failures. The agency also issued a launch operator license to

Orbital Sciences Corporation for the first commercial launches from Kwajalein

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

40
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

41 Missile Range operated by the U.S. Army in the Marshall Islands, and renewed

five launch operator licenses. 

The FAA and NASA signed a Memorandum of Understanding Concerning

Future Space Transportation Systems which describes the FAA/NASA cooperative activities that will be conducted under the category of Future Space

Transportation Systems and Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) Technology,

Research, and Development. Also, the agency and its Commercial Space

Transportation Advisory Committee released the 1999 Commercial Space

Transportation Forecasts, which projects an average total of 51 commercial space

launches per year through 2010, an increase of over 40 percent from the 36 commercial launches conducted worldwide in 1998. In addition, the agency issued

final rules on financial responsibility requirements for licensed launch activities

and commercial transportation licensing regulation. FAA also issued Notices of

Proposed Rulemaking on commercial space transportation reusable launch vehicle

and reentry licensing regulation, licensing and safety requirements for operation of

a launch site, and financial responsibility requirements for licensed reentry activities. Also in FY 2000, the FAA published a draft Programmatic Environmental

Impact Statement for Commercial Launch Vehicle Programs as part of its responsibility under the National Environmental Policy Act.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

43

DEPARTMENT OF

COMMERCE

DoC

In FY 2000, the DoC engaged in a wide variety of activities that furthered U.S.

interests in aeronautics and space, including satellite operations and licensing,

technology development, civilian and commercial space policy support, and trade

promotion. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

was involved in many space activities. In September 2000, NOAA’s National

Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) launched the

Nation’s newest polar-orbiting environmental satellite, NOAA-16, from

Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. It replaced the 6-year-old NOAA-14

and improves weather forecasting and monitoring of environmental events around

the world. In the United States, NOAA’s National Weather Service uses the data

primarily for long-range weather and climate forecasts. It is the second in a series

of 5 polar-orbiting satellites with improved imaging and sounding capabilities that

will operate over the next 10 years. The direct broadcast, on a free and open basis,

of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) instrument data provides imagery to scientific, commercial, and educational groups throughout the

world. In addition, the search and rescue instruments on NOAA-16 will continue

to support a global community that has established ground stations that “listen” for

distress beacons relayed through the NOAA polar and Russian Cospas satellites.

Also, new development of microwave instrumentation from NOAA-15 has

enabled NOAA short-term weather forecasting and warning programs to measure

moisture in the atmosphere for identifying conditions conducive to heavy precipitation.

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)-11, launched

on May 3, 2000, was stored in orbit, ready to replace GOES-8 or -10, which are

stationed at 75 degrees east and 135 degrees west, respectively. If one of them fails,
GOES-11 can be put into service without delay and provide expected delivery of

data within 2 days of activation. GOES-8 continued to overlook the East Coast of

North and South America and out over the Atlantic Ocean. GOES-10 continued

to overlook the West Coast and out over the Pacific Ocean, including Hawaii.

Similar to the other operational GOES, GOES-11 will be used to monitor Earth’s

atmosphere and surface to support NOAA’s forecasting and warning programs.

Following the launch and testing of the spacecraft, NOAA developed capability

to process and disseminate the new data stream.

As part of NOAA’s share of convergence of DoC and DoD meteorological

satellite programs, NESDIS continued to operate the Defense Meteorological

Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites. During the course of the year, five DMSP

satellites provided atmospheric, ocean, and space weather measurements to operational forecast centers. In part from these satellites, NESDIS’ data centers

continued to provide useful new products for public and Government use. The

National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) used lights seen in DMSP images

recorded at night to monitor possible power problems during the Y2K transition

from December 31, 1999, to January 1, 2000. DMSP data were also used, for the

first time, to support weather forecasts for the Olympic Games in Australia. DMSP

nighttime imagery also was used to monitor wildfires in remote areas in Asia and

middle America. NGDC also provided input on the near real-time transmittal of

DMSP low-resolution Operational Linescan System (OLS) data to Singapore for

use in the Program to Address ASEAN Regional Transboundary Smoke (PARTS).

In addition, OLS data transmittal to Singapore commenced in March 2000 on a

daily basis.

The Director of NESDIS’ National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) was a

coauthor of a chapter on climate variability and change in a report of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Publication of the final report is

expected to occur in May 2001. NCDC also continued its activities in climate

monitoring by providing leadership in overseeing, as lead editor, the World

Meteorological Organization (WMO) Guide to Climatological Practices and in coordinating the WMO Global Climate Statement.

NOAA, in collaboration with the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Air Force, and

NASA, continued to lead the national Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided

Tracking (SARSAT) and the international Cospas-Sarsat programs. The

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

44
SARSAT program uses search and rescue payloads on NOAA and Russian satellites to detect emergency beacons used by aviators and mariners in distress. In

FY 2000, the SARSAT program contributed to the rescue of 227 lives. Since its

inception in 1982 over 11,000 lives have been rescued as a result of the CospasSarsat System. In October 1999, Cospas-Sarsat decided to phase out by 2009

satellite processing of 121.5 MHz emergency signals in response to international

guidance, in favor of emergency beacons operating at 406 MHz.

In FY 2000, NOAA repositioned the surplus spacecraft GOES-7, which was

launched in 1987, to 175 degrees east longitude. This was done to support the PanPacific Education and Communications Experiment by Satellite (PEACESAT)

program, which is a public service satellite telecommunications network that links

educational institutions, regional organizations, and governments in the Pacific

Islands region. The PEACESAT program, a partnership with the University of

Hawaii, uses a NOAA command and telemetry processor that is no longer needed

to operate the newer GOES satellites.

Within NOAA’s Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), a

number of aeronautics and space activities occurred within the Space

Environment Center (SEC) in Boulder, Colorado. The SEC provided real-time

monitoring and forecasting of solar and geophysical events, conducted research in

solar-terrestrial physics, and developed techniques for forecasting solar and geophysical disturbances. SEC’s Space Weather Operations Center is jointly operated

by NOAA and the U.S. Air Force and serves as the national and global warning

center for disturbances that can affect people and equipment that operate in the

space environment. This past fiscal year, the SEC continued to upgrade physicsbased numerical models, which are used to produce operational space forecasts.

The center also won a Hammer Award from Vice President Al Gore as part of the

initiative for reinventing Government for its work incorporating data obtained

from its sensors on NASA satellites into its operational forecasts and disseminating these data on the World Wide Web. The SEC also improved its Web site to

distribute space weather information to interested users. It has the only full-time

space weather forecasting office in the world, and the forecasts are crucial to the

telecommunications industry, astronauts, power companies, weather satellite operations, and users of GPS. The SEC disseminated to the public the first real-time

images of the magnetosphere/ionosphere response to changing space weather conditions. These images will enable new research and development activities that

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

45
will lead to improved space weather monitoring and predictive capabilities.

Additionally, OAR continued to use the wide range of satellite data products

developed by NOAA and other agencies. Scientists continued to use these products in the fields of oceanography, air quality, water resource management, severe

storm prediction, and climatology. Also, the NESDIS GOES and Polar-orbiting

Environmental Satellite (POES) instruments monitored changes in the near-Earth

space environment due to bursts of energetic particles and fields from the Sun.

During a peak in solar cycles, GOES and POES measurements made critical contributions to space weather forecasts. Finally, in anticipation of improving weather

monitoring and prediction, OAR continued using GPS with meteorological observations, including COSMIC (occultation) and the use of ground-based GPS sites

Continuously Operating Reference System (CORS) to continuously measure the

3-D distribution of precipitable water vapor in Earth’s atmosphere, to continuously

measure total electron content in Earth’s ionosphere, and to monitor other space

weather phenomena.

NOAA continued its international activities and cooperation over the

course of FY 2000. In particular, NESDIS involvement with activities associated

with the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) contributed to the

establishment of the ad hoc Disaster Management Support Group (DMSG). The

objective of the group is to maintain momentum for activities in disaster management support and to move toward the demonstration of coordinated space agency

responses and development of suitable response models. The Director of NESDIS’s

Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution (OSDPD) chairs the group.

NESDIS also hosts the Secretariat in support of the DMSG. In September,

NESDIS presented its activities in Earth observation education and training at a

meeting and workshop of the CEOS ad hoc Working Group on Education and

Training in Dehra Dun, India. This group is assessing technology trends and the

consequent need for Earth observation education and training—especially in

developing countries. In addition, NOAA provided continued support to the

CEOS Working Group on Information Systems and Services and worked with the

National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST) to organize a working group

meeting for the CEOS Calibration-Validation Working Group.

NOAA’s CEOS involvement at the 5th Integrated Global Observing

Strategy (IGOS) Partners Meeting contributed to progress on theme concept

development. NESDIS’ Oceanic Research and Applications Division Chief parAeronautics and Space Report of the President 

46
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

47 ticipated on the team that developed a prototype Oceans Theme, which NASA

produced as a brochure. NESDIS, earlier in the year, had indicated its readiness to

contribute to development of operations for follow-on Jason altimetry missions.

NOAA scientists are participating in the development of IGOS Coral

Reef/Coastal, Global Carbon Cycle, and Water Cycle Themes.

Throughout FY 2000, NESDIS responded to requests from the White

House, U.S. Department of State, U.S. Agency for International Development

(USAID), and in some instances, the United Nations or foreign governments, to

provide data or information products for assistance in responding to various stages

of disaster. The response activity included floods in Mozambique, Venezuela, and

Vietnam; wildfires in Bolivia and Ethiopia; and drought in central Asia and the

horn of Africa. NESDIS continued to support multiyear projects that are funded

by USAID to work with colleagues in Brazil and Bolivia on satellite-derived wildfire applications. NESDIS was further involved in implementation of Hurricane

Mitch recovery and development activities in Central America with the countries

of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.

NESDIS continued to play an important role in a number of interagency and

international disaster-planning activities, such as the Subcommittee on Natural

Disaster Reduction (SNDR), which is under the White House Committee on

Environment and Natural Resources (CENR). At the request of USAID, NESDIS

continued to participate in the U.S. Government-sponsored Hurricane Mitch

reconstruction and development project in Central America. NESDIS’ participation was part of a Department of Commerce initiative that involves installation of

a regional satellite ground receiving station in Costa Rica. In addition, funding has

been obtained to install a network of satellite display systems in six additional

countries in Central America to display and analyze GOES satellite data and products from the Costa Rica ground station. This is meant to enhance access to, and

use of, GOES satellite imagery by the national meteorological and hydrological

agencies in Central America for weather and flood forecasting, and also disaster

preparation, management, and mitigation. As requested by USAID in Brazil,

NESDIS continued to work with the government of Brazil, using satellite imagery

to detect wildfires that threaten the Amazon rainforest.

NESDIS staff gave presentations at the Third International Conference of

the Global Disaster Information Network (GDIN) held in Ankara, Turkey. On
April 27, 2000, President Clinton signed an Executive Order that established

GDIN activities within the United States and affirmed a commitment to support

international GDIN activities. The Executive Order designated NOAA, the U.S.

Department of State, and the Office of the Vice President as cochairs of an interagency committee to implement GDIN throughout the U.S. Government.

NESDIS continued to serve an important role for support and implementation of

GDIN.

The pace of NOAA’s commercial remote sensing licensing work accelerated

in FY 2000 and proved to be the busiest ever for such activities. NESDIS approved

five foreign partnership agreements and six amendments to current licenses. In

August 2000, NOAA issued its much-awaited new private remote-sensing regulations that provided the regulated community with increased transparency and

predictability in the licensing process. The year also saw a major focus on outreach

activities, with the Assistant Administrator meeting twice with NOAA licensee

CEOs to discuss issues affecting the industry. This included hosting a Senior

Executives Forum on Commercial Remote Sensing in conjunction with the

United States Space Foundation and the National Space Symposium. Finally, the

RAND Corporation conducted a commercial remote-sensing industry-wide risk

assessment that will offer an objective view of the technical, regulatory, and

market risks confronting this nascent industry.

NOAA’s National Ocean Service (NOS) continued to use both remote

sensing technology and the Global Positioning System (GPS) to meet its mission

of mapping the national shoreline, producing airport obstruction charts, and monitoring and analyzing coastal and landscape changes. In its use of remote-sensing

applications, the office has benefited from the development of high-performance,

low-cost workstations and the advent of digital imagery, which has revolutionized

the evolution of three-dimensional surface models and other derived products

(such as orthophotographs) in support of NOAA’s coastal mapping and airport

survey programs. In FY 2000, NOS’s National Geodetic Survey (NGS) collaborated with the U.S. Air Force to complete a high-resolution, three-dimensional

mapping project at Cape Chiniak on Kodiak Island in Alaska. The goal was to

explore the use of digital photogrammetric techniques of digitized aerial photographs for the production of a LEVEL-5 digital topographic elevation data product,

in an area with complex terrain. NGS has demonstrated that photogrammetric

procedures can deliver with ease, high-resolution digital surface model data that

are accurate to the submeter level.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

48
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

49 NGS has traditionally used only airborne photography for mapping missions. The advent of high-resolution, space-borne imagery is useful for precision

(better than 5 meters) mapping projects. Beginning in FY 2000, NOAA/NGS

acquired SPIN-2 data (a trademark for Russian digital ortho-rectified, geo-coded

imagery data) with a resolution of approximately 2 meters, acquired from

Microsoft’s TerraServer. This server is an online database that offers free public

access to maps and aerial photographs of the United States through partnership

with the U.S. Geological Survey. NGS used this data to assess the need to acquire

high-resolution, metric-quality photography over specific areas under their Coast

and Shoreline Change Analysis Program. Such updated information will be used

to aid in updating nautical charts produced by NOS’s Coast Survey. Additionally,

IKONOS and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite data, acquired from Space

Imaging, are used in conjunction with SPIN-2 data. IRS 5-meter-resolution satellite data also was acquired to access shoreline mapping for Charleston, South

Carolina.

Currently, Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)

data are being assessed for shoreline mapping, coastal change detection, and airport obstruction charting. This past year, the AVIRIS sensor was flown in the

NOAA Twin Otter, which was the first low-altitude operational use of this sensor.

The results provided 2- and 4-meter resolution. The integration of the image data

with GPS and inertial navigation technologies enabled NASA Jet Propulsion

Laboratory engineers to construct high quality scenes for NOAA.

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) was tested in a wide variety of applications including assessing storm damage to beaches, mapping the Greenland ice

sheet, and measuring heights within forest timber stands. NGS explored the possibility of integrating LIDAR into the production of shoreline mapping and

airspace obstruction charts. 

The NGS continued to evaluate the use of RADARSAT data to delineate

shorelines. In addition, NGS experimented with satellite-based Synthetic

Aperture Radar (SAR). Since SAR is largely unaffected by the presence of dense

cloud cover, it can offer substantial benefit to acquisition of data for shoreline

mapping in areas such as Alaska. 

The largest effort for NGS in FY 2000 was active outsourcing of its photogrammetric processes, including the acquisition of aerial photography. This past
year, NGS held its first outsourcing workshop, which allowed contractors to learn

first-hand about NGS mapping and surveying programs. Topics covered included

aerial photography over airports, aerial photography over U.S. shorelines, geodetic

control at airports, shoreline mapping, and height modernization projects. 

In addition, NOS’s Coastal Services Center (CSC) utilized LANDSAT

Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery to produce land cover data sets and to determine

landscape changes in coastal Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and

North Carolina. CSC contributed to procurement of LANDSAT TM imagery for

use in land cover analysis in Hawaii and brown marsh analysis activities in coastal

Louisiana. NOAA’s Coastal Change Analysis Project (CCAP) has also used this

type of data in conjunction with aerial imagery, to assess the health of the

Chesapeake Bay, and in particular, the land loss in the Blackwater area.

NGS also procured French Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT)

multispectral imagery for use in analyzing the brown marsh phenomenon.

OrbImage SeaWiFS imagery, in conjunction with NOAA Coastwatch and

NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), assisted in determination and monitoring of harmful algae bloom transport within the Gulf of

Mexico. NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer imagery was also

used to determine turbidity and sea surface temperature in coastal regions of the

United States.

NOAA/NGS continued to advance the use of GPS for centimeter-level

positioning through its National CORS Program. At the end of the fiscal year, the

National CORS network contained over 200 sites and was increasing at a rate of

approximately 3 new sites per month. In FY 2000, NOS initiated the Cooperative

CORS program enabling States and local institutions that have established their

own CORS sites to make their associated GPS data more accessible to the public.

Space Weather Total Electron Content provides a measure of the ionospheric disturbance, which affects radio signals, including those used for navigation, such as

GPS signals. NOS derives maps of Total Electron Content from the observations

of GPS receivers in the National CORS network and from globally distributed

International GPS Service for Geodynamics stations. The technique developed by

NOS to model the ionosphere was a direct result of NOS efforts to account for

positioning errors inherent in the GPS signal.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

50
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

51 In addition, NGS continued leading a program, termed Height

Modernization, which utilizes GPS to efficiently provide accurate, consistent elevation information for a wide variety of activities Nationwide. Traditionally,

“elevation” meant height above mean sea level (technically referred to as orthometric height). In its most accurate definition, “elevation” is defined as a height

above a surface called the “geoid.” The geoid is a very complex surface, defined by

variations in Earth’s gravity field (encircling the entire planet) and which is nearly

identical to mean sea level over the oceans. However, GPS elevations are heights

above an “ellipsoid,” a simple geometric surface that differs from the geoid in its

simplicity. As such, one significant element of Height Modernization is to provide

an accurate model between the ellipsoid and the geoid. The objective is to achieve

GPS elevations that are consistent with the more traditional “elevation”—often

known as sea level. Height Modernization and GPS will make significant strides

in providing more robust height measurements for users of GPS. Activities relying

on these height improvements include mapping vertical measurements—flood

mapping, positioning of ships in three dimensions, and accurate port water-level

information for safe and efficient transportation into U.S. ports, and air navigation.

NOS also computed precise GPS orbits (satellites location) to an accuracy

of 7 centimeter (cm) Root Mean Square (RMS) in support of users of the National

Spatial Reference System and is working toward achieving an accuracy of 5 cm

RMS. Such orbits are needed for users requiring submeter positioning. NOS makes

the orbits available in a timeframe that meets users’ requirements, including a

rapid product (8-14 cm accuracy) available within a 16-hour turnaround, and a

more accurate product available within 7 to 10 days of data collection. The GPS

orbits are computed using station coordinates and velocities derived in the

International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF).

The GPS orbital data are available without cost and can be retrieved from the

Internet.

Also at DoC, the Technology Administration (TA) continued to engage in

a number of space-related activities through the Office of Space

Commercialization (OSC) and NIST. During FY 2000, OSC concentrated the

majority of its resources on issues related to satellite navigation and the U.S. GPS.

This included participation in numerous interagency working groups, steering

groups, review teams, and executive committees in support of the Interagency GPS
Executive Board (IGEB), established by President Clinton to manage GPS as a

national asset. DoC, represented by TA and NOAA, serves on the IGEB as a key

advocate for the commercial, scientific, and governmental users of GPS.

Through the IGEB process, both OSC and NOAA participated in interagency deliberations leading to major GPS-related decisions, including the

deactivation of GPS Selective Availability (SA) in May 2000 and the acceleration

of the GPS modernization program. The SA decision was announced at a White

House press conference featuring remarks by NOAA Administrator James Baker

and through a press release by Secretary of Commerce William Daley—both hailing it as an important advance for commercial GPS users. Afterwards, NOAA

monitored and evaluated the newly improved GPS performance and published the

results on its public Web site. This effort was important in promoting the global

benefits of the White House decision.

OSC continued to participate in ongoing talks between the United States

and Europe on potential cooperation in satellite navigation, helping develop negotiating strategies and draft agreement language, and serving on official U.S.

delegations led by the Department of State (DoS). OSC hosted one round of the

U.S.-European talks as well as several meetings with U.S. industry to hear its views

on the subject. OSC also participated in a round of GPS-related consultations

with Russia (again led by DoS) and a number of outreach missions to Belgium,

Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Spain, and Portugal. During these international meetings, OSC provided educational briefings to Government and industry

representatives on international GPS markets and applications.

OSC played a lead role in the implementation of the IGEB Executive

Secretariat, the permanent office that provides day-to-day staff support to the

IGEB and its working groups. With the support of the Under Secretary for

Technology, OSC significantly increased its commitment of personnel, office

space, and other resources to the IGEB Executive Secretariat, helping solidify its

legitimacy and visibility within the national GPS management structure. Among

other things, OSC provided a Director for the IGEB Executive Secretariat and

funding to support a major GPS industry trade fair on Capitol Hill. OSC created

and hosted the highly popular IGEB Web site. OSC also provided drafting assistance to congressional staff on legislation enabling DoC to accept funding from

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

52
interagency sources in order to support the IGEB Executive Secretariat. NOAA

also continued to support the IGEB Executive Secretariat by assigning personnel

to serve in the office and participating in the GPS trade fair.

In the area of satellite imaging, OSC, NOAA, and the International Trade

Administration’s (ITA) Office of Aerospace (OA) continued to represent commercial interests as part of the Remote Sensing Interagency Working Group

(RSIWG). Led by the DoS, the RSIWG is charged with coordinating policy for

the export of remote-sensing satellite systems and negotiating government-to-government agreements covering the safeguarding of those systems’ technology. The

RSIWG completed agreements with Japan, Canada, and Spain in FY 2000.

OSC and OA continued to actively support the Office of the U.S. Trade

Representative (USTR) and its working groups in developing options for handling

trade with Russia, China, and Ukraine in the area of commercial space launch

services. In June 2000, OA participated in the termination of the U.S.-Ukraine

agreement and in annual consultations with Russia that led to its ultimate expiration on December 31, 2000. These efforts created a more open market

environment in this important trade sector.

OSC and OA continued to support the ongoing work of the White Houseled Interagency Working Group on Future Management and Use of the U.S. Space

Launch Bases and Ranges. The review will examine the appropriate division of

responsibilities for bases and ranges between the Government and commercial sectors. Working closely with the FAA, OSC and OA solicited and collected privatesector views on this subject and continued efforts to integrate these into a national

strategy for launch range management.

During FY 2000, NIST delivered to NASA’s Johnson Space Center an efficient, reliable laboratory version of a pulse-tube oxygen liquefier for use in rockets

to bring rock samples from Mars to Earth. New concepts were used in the system,

and it performed according to NIST models, yielding one of the highest efficiencies ever achieved in cryocoolers.

With support from the U.S. Air Force, NIST assisted in efforts to develop

microscale heat exchangers for use in compact cryocoolers to cool infrared detectors on satellites. These heat exchangers should be at least an order of magnitude

smaller and lighter than more conventional heat exchangers. NIST also provided

technical guidance to Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin in their research

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

53
and development of cryocoolers for the Spaced-Based InfraRed System in lowEarth orbit (SBIRS-Low).

Using cofunding from NIST’s Advanced Technology Program (ATP), 3M

and Lockheed Martin formed a joint venture to develop a nonhazardous alternative for aircraft exterior spray paint. This alternative, known as Paint Replacement

Film (PRF), consists of an advanced “peel and stick” polymer film with a pressuresensitive adhesive, and has a unique potential to reduce aircraft drag and reduce

fuel consumption. A commercial long-haul aircraft, sheathed in the film, could

save $250,000 or more a year in fuel, require less corrosion maintenance, and provide more color and pattern options for commercial aircraft. During FY 2000, PRF

began undergoing large-scale flight evaluations on a variety of commercial and

military aircraft.

In projects funded by the U.S. Air Force and FAA, NIST embarked on

research to assess the flammability and physical properties of clay nanocomposites

when used in aircraft parts. Clay nanocomposites improve the parts’ mechanical

properties, especially when subjected to extreme heat, and reduce the need for

environmentally problematic flame-retardants. With funding from NASA, NIST

continued its comprehensive research on fires and fire suppression in microgravity

environments. These projects better characterize the ignition, spread, and suppression of fires in the microgravity of space, helping to protect astronauts and

their spacecraft. With support from DoD, NIST continued to search for effective

and environmentally friendly alternatives to halon for aircraft fire protection. In

other work funded by NASA and FAA, NIST researchers evaluated the performance of new technologies for detecting fires in aircraft cargo spaces.

In the area of timing, NIST continued to support the Primary Atomic

Reference Clock in Space (PARCS), a laser-cooled cesium clock being developed

for deployment aboard the International Space Station. The PARCS project,

which has completed its first two NASA reviews, was scheduled to fly in early

2005. In addition, NIST continued to provide synchronization support for NASA’s

Deep Space Network, used for space navigation. 

The NIST force calibration facilities, which include a unique deadweight

stack of 1 million pounds of weight, continued to allow NASA and other aeroAeronautics and Space Report of the President 

54
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

55 space organizations to reliably measure propulsive force. This facility dates back to

the original space race of the 1950’s and 1960’s. Other NIST facilities continued

to provide the U.S. aerospace industry with world-class measurement services for

the mechanical quantities of mass, acceleration, shock, sound pressure, and ultrasonic power.

OA took the lead role in seeking resolution of the dispute over a European

Union (EU) regulation restricting the registration and operation of aircraft modified with noise-suppression technology, including aircraft engine “hush kits” and

replacement engines. OA and other Federal agencies participated in bilateral

negotiations with the EU seeking withdrawal of the regulation. In March 2000,

following the failure of intensive high-level bilateral negotiations, the United

States initiated dispute settlement proceedings in the International Civil Aviation

Organization under Article 84 of the Chicago Convention.

OA participated in an interagency effort that led to the Czech government

providing a tariff waiver for large civil aircraft, helicopters, and certain spare parts.

The waiver eliminated for 1 year the 4.8-percent tariff differential between U.S.

and EU aircraft. The Czech government confirmed its intention to join the WTO

Trade in Civil Aircraft Agreement (which, among other things, binds tariffs on

aircraft and parts to zero) as part of any future multilateral trade negotiations.

OA played an active role in the Export-Import Bank’s approval of $143 million in financing to support the installation of U.S. engines, avionics, parts, and

equipment into Russian-designed and manufactured Ilyushin-96T cargo aircraft.

This action marked a milestone in aviation history and the final hurdle in the realization of a dream to foster U.S. and Russian aerospace cooperation. The

ITA-established U.S.-Russia Business Development Committee Aerospace

Subgroup had been working toward this goal since the opening of the Russian

market.

In FY 2000, OA continued to assist the U.S. aerospace industry in competing in the global marketplace. To promote the export of U.S. aerospace products,

OA sponsored Aerospace Product Literature Centers at major international exhibitions and air shows in China, Germany, Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa,

Russia, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom. Trade leads generated

through this program totaled more than 10,000. OA worked closely with the overseas posts to maximize the exposure of small- and medium-sized U.S. companies to

the export market in these events.
In May 2000, OA organized and managed an aerospace executive trade mission to Rio de Janeiro, Brasilia, and Sao Paulo, Brazil. Over 20 U.S. business

representatives attended the mission, which arranged high-level meetings with

Brazilian government and industry aerospace officials. The program also arranged

one-to-one meetings for each of the participants, and several identified local representatives, agents, or distributors, or negotiated sales contracts during the

mission.

OA sponsored a Government briefing attended by over 100 U.S. aerospace

industry representatives on the relationship between e-commerce and the aerospace industry. OA and the ITA Advocacy Center supported U.S. companies in

international aerospace competitions, including helicopters, commercial transport

aircraft, remote-sensing satellites, and space launch vehicles.

OA and ITA’s Advocacy Center supported U.S. companies bidding for

international aerospace contracts. The competitions spanned all areas of the aerospace industry including space launch vehicles, commercial aircraft, helicopters,

and air traffic management projects.

The March 15, 1999, implementation of the 1998 National Defense

Authorization Act provision that moved export licensing jurisdiction for commercial communications satellites from the DoC to the DoS has harmed U.S.

satellite and related component manufacturers. The movement of jurisdiction has

also resulted in substantial backlash from potential foreign buyers of U.S. satellites.

U.S. satellite manufacturers continue to lose contracts and business to foreign suppliers. As an example, during 2000, publicly reported orders of U.S.-made

geostationary satellites dropped from 16 in 1998 to 13, while orders for European

spacecraft rose from 6 to 16 during the same period. Satellite and security experts

believe that a weakened satellite industry will jeopardize America’s global surveillance, reconnaissance, and communications network. Satellite manufacturers

have detailed many of these problems in testimony to Congress. Lockheed Martin

reported that long-time customers, such as Japan, are looking to European manufacturers for meeting future satellite requirements. Boeing Satellite Systems and

Loral Space and Communications have reported similar foreign market reactions.

Foreign buyers want to retain a choice in launch service providers, and they want

predictability and timeliness in delivery schedules; this includes the licensing

process.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

56
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

57 The congressionally mandated movement of all commercial satellites to

DoS’s jurisdiction has resulted in the plummeting of U.S. global market share from

73 percent to 42 percent. The DoS’s licensing function continues to be unable to

process commercial satellite export license applications in a timely and certain

manner. Under the monitoring provisions of the legislation, the DOD and DOS

have been forced to require U.S. manufacturers to obtain DOS-issued Technology

Transfer Agreements for the launch support of satellites previously licensed by the

DoC, even when the customers or the launch service providers have been NATO

allies.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

59

DEPARTMENT OF THE

INTERIOR

DoI

The first full year of Landsat-7 operations under joint U.S. Geological Survey

(USGS) and NASA Landsat Program Management was very successful. The

USGS assumed responsibility from NASA for flight operations for the Landsat 7

satellite, expanding the long-standing role of the USGS in the Landsat program

that includes processing, archiving, and distributing data from Landsats 1 through

7. Since its launch in April 1999, Landsat 7 has carried out the mission objective

of building a seasonal global archive of data by capturing more than 300,000

scenes of Earth for the U.S. and a growing network of 14 ground stations operated

by 8 international cooperators. Landsat 7 extends an important long-term record

of Earth’s land and near-shore areas for environmental research and applications

such as forestry, agriculture, geology, land cover classification, and geographic

research.

At the end of FY 2000, NASA and USGS were assessing four funding and

management options for the follow-on to Landsat 7, known as the Landsat Data

Continuity Mission (LDCM). As specified by the Land Remote Sensing Policy

Act of 1992, these options were private-sector owned and operated; a U.S.

Government-private sector cooperative effort; a U.S. Government-owned and

-operated system (Landsat-7 model); and an international consortium. NASA and

USGS drafted and distributed for public review a specification that defines the

characteristics of data that would be expected from any LDCM operator, no matter

which funding/management option is chosen.

The USGS Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center

Earth Observing System (EOS) Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC),

which is funded by NASA, began receiving data successfully from the Terra satel-
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

60 lite during FY 2000. Data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging

Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission

and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) sensors were processed by systems at the

NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center and in Japan, respectively, and then sent to

the EROS Data Center DAAC. MODIS data were released to the public in early

spring 2000.

The USGS and Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) Image

Corporation agreed to make more than 700,000 historical SPOT satellite images

acquired over the United States from 1986 through 1998 available to other Federal

agencies. These data are being permanently archived at the USGS EROS Data

Center, where they will be distributed to Federal research and operational users at

the cost of reproduction, plus a royalty fee paid to SPOT Image Corporation.

SPOT data complement the USGS Landsat archive by substantially increasing the

number of available low-cloud-cover images and by filling gaps in Landsat coverage. SPOT data are used for applications such as environmental research, forestry,

agriculture, geology, and land-cover mapping.

DoI personnel continued to use both the DoD Navstar GPS Precise

Positioning Service (PPS) and augmented differential GPS for real-time positioning in wildland areas. DoI assisted the DoT and DoD in their efforts to expand the

Nationwide Differential GPS (NDGPS) by identifying project areas that are out

of reach of current differential GPS methods. DoD turned off the Selective

Availability feature that limited the accuracy of the Navstar Standard Positioning

Service (SPS) signal in May 2000, making higher accuracy positioning available

to all civil users. Now, DoI GPS coordinators are seeking suitable civilian GPS

equipment that take advantage of this change in GPS signal access. At the end of

FY 2000, tests were underway to determine if PPS performance is needed in areas

of heavy vegetation cover and steep terrain.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the Federal Highway

Administration continued to develop a digital baseline inventory of all public-use

roads in the FWS National Wildlife Refuge System. The Refuge System explored

ways to use GPS units to standardize some of the inventory and monitoring functions carried out on all refuge units. Remotely sensed data are not used as widely

as other inventory and monitoring tools due both to cost and inconsistent avail-
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

61 ability, but the Pacific Islands were exploring the use of Landsat 7 and other new

satellite data to define critical habitats for endangered species. Remotely sensed

data may offer the only current method to collect data to designate critical habitat for over 200 species, many of them on inaccessible islands.

The National Park Service (NPS) used Landsat and SPOT satellite data,

along with conventional aerial photography, Light Detection and Ranging

(LIDAR), and digital orthophotography to map and monitor land cover, vegetation, cultural features, and other specific features in many national parks. The

USGS continued to collaborate with NPS to map the vegetation and obtain uniform baseline data on the composition and distribution of vegetation types for 235

U.S. national park units. Vegetation mapping was completed at Devils Tower

National Monument, Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Scotts Bluff National

Monument, and Tuzigoot National Monument. In 2000, the program expanded its

coverage to include two FWS National Wildlife Refuges in the Western United

States. Approximately 400 GPS units were used to support NPS mapping and navigation needs for a variety of resource management and maintenance applications.

The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM) continued to use GPS technology in FY 2000 for project work and training.

Restoration of Western U.S. surface mine topography has been field verified for

GPS use. The Mountaintop Removal Environmental Impact Statement Task

Force used GPS to classify and map ephemeral streams in surface mining areas of

Appalachia. OSM personnel used GPS to map the location of monitoring points

and subsidence features to support a project to monitor the hydrologic impacts of

mine subsidence above underground longwall mining in southwestern

Pennsylvania.

OSM continued prototyping the use of 1-meter IKONOS panchromatic

data to map mine infrastructure, water features, active mining areas, and reclaimed

land acreage. Stereo IKONOS data were used to generate digital elevation models,

measure slopes, and create three-dimensional spatial databases of active surface

coal mines. OSM also continued using the IKONOS 4-meter multispectral data to

map vegetation health and vigor in reclaimed areas and to monitor water depth

and sediment content.

The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) used new remote-ensing technologies to

develop inundation maps and emergency response plans for different scenarios of

operational water releases from BOR dams and releases caused by potential dam
failures. BOR scientists used LIDAR data acquired from aircraft to generate digital elevation models with submeter vertical accuracy to allow for precise modeling

of flood boundaries and flood water depths. BOR personnel continued research to

determine the feasibility of using high-resolution Space Imaging Corporation.

IKONOS satellite imagery to classify land use and land cover for potentially

flooded areas, thus providing better estimates of loss of life and property.

BOR staff used commercial Earth Search Sciences Inc. Probe 1 hyperspectral and IKONOS imagery to map the extent of the invasive plant species purple

loosestrife at Winchester Wasteway, Washington, to monitor biological control

efforts at that location. BOR and USGS personnel also collected ground spectral

data of another invasive plant, leafy spurge, in Theodore Roosevelt National Park,

North Dakota, in preparation for detailed large-scale mapping using Airborne

Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS), Earth Observing-1 Hyperion,

IKONOS, and Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (CASI) data. BOR continued to use Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), Indian Remote Sensing Satellite

multispectral and panchromatic imagery, as well as USGS digital orthophoto quarterquads, to map agricultural crops in the Colorado River basin. Scientists used

irrigation status and crop type data with crop water use coefficients and locally

varying climate data to calculate agricultural consumptive water use.

The Minerals Management Service used GPS to assist in determining baseline points used to delineate offshore boundaries in the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Accurate boundaries were needed to support Territorial Submerged Lands jurisdictions as well as a proposed national monument for protection of coral reefs

around St. Thomas and St. Croix.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) used remote sensing and GPS to support BIA and tribal initiatives to map land use, inventory natural resources, and

conduct environmental assessments. Scientists used digital orthophotography,

National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) aerial photography, National

Elevation Dataset (NED) data, and Digital Raster Graphics (DRG) as backdrops

to model potential flood inundation zones caused by the failure of BIA-managed

dams. BIA used these datasets with GPS and digital cameras to map irrigation

structure condition on irrigated agricultural lands within BIA irrigation districts

on Indian reservations in the Western United States. The BIA also expanded the

applications of both civilian and military (encrypted) GPS receivers in natural

resource planning, inventory, and mapping.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

62
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

63 The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) used remotely sensed data from

satellites and aircraft sensors, and GPS technology, to support 47 Bureauwide landuse planning programs during FY 2000. These technologies were used in conjunction with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to address increased energy and

mineral demands, competing resource demands from urban growth, and other

changing resource conditions on the public lands. Scientists continued to use data

from traditional and digital aerial cameras and multispectral and hyperspectral

sensors with GIS technology to support inventory, assessment, modeling, and

monitoring efforts associated with wildlife habitat, wilderness, recreation, rangeland, timber, fire, minerals, and hazardous materials.

The USGS and BLM used Landsat-7, RADARSAT, and European Remote

Sensing Satellite (ERS)-2 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images to investigate

glacier dynamics at Bering Glacier, Alaska. The potential failure of the ice dam

that impounds water in Berg Lake threatens to inundate large areas of Native

American lands that are important wildlife habitat, used for subsistence hunting,

popular for numerous recreational uses, and contain mineral resources that may

soon be developed. Hence, lives as well as economic development are at risk from

this unpredictable hazard.

The USGS, the French Space Agency (CNES), and NASA developed a

dynamic algorithm to determine snow depth from passive microwave observations

obtained by the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) on the Defense

Meteorological Satellite. USGS and NASA planned to use the new algorithm to

improve measurements of global snowpack. USGS and CNES also developed a

new technique to map snow depth using radar altimeter observations from the

ERS-2 satellite that is based on attenuation of the radar pulse by the snow pack.

The USGS also worked with scientists at the University of Washington to

improve snow-melt runoff forecasts using SSM/I passive microwave observations.

Investigators continued to develop techniques to combine hydrology models with

a microwave snow-pack scattering model to determine the distribution of snow

water equivalent for test basins in the Upper Rio Grande River, Colorado, and the

upper Salmon River, Idaho. This technique has yielded greatly improved snowwater equivalent estimates when compared to conventional microwave techniques

based solely on the satellite observations.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

64 The year 2000 wildland fire season was quite active in the United States;

almost 80,000 fires burned some 6,940,000 acres. The USGS EROS Data Center

responded by providing spatial technologies and research experience to support

wildfire management. Landsat-7 data acquired before and after the Jasper Fire in

the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota illustrated the change in green

biomass caused by the fire, and demonstrated the capability for mapping the fire

perimeter and the severity of burn. The Black Hills National Forest staff and the

governor of South Dakota used these data to make a rapid assessment of the Jasper

Fire. National Forest staff also used the data to map fire severity and model tree

mortality. The NPS determined that these products could be of value as the tool

for the national yearly mapping of the extent of wild land fires.

The BLM, BIA, and U.S. Forest Service (USFS) continued to work with

the USGS to validate the utility of the Fire Potential Index (FPI), a fire ignition

predictive tool developed by USGS and USFS scientists. The FPI characterizes

relative fire potential for forests, rangelands, and grasslands both regionally and

locally, using NOAA AVHRR multispectral satellite data with information from

vegetation maps and daily weather information to generate 1-km resolution fire

potential maps. The FPI is updated daily to reflect changing weather conditions

and is posted by the USFS and the Alaskan Fire Service on their Web sites. Fire

management staffs in Alaska, Arizona, California, Oregon, Montana, Nevada, and

Wyoming continued to use the FPI in their daily decisionmaking process to supplement traditional information sources for establishing priorities for prevention

activities to reduce the risk of wildland fire ignition and spread, and for allocating

suppression forces to improve the probability that initial attack will control fires

occurring in areas of high concern. Scientists tested the FPI in Argentina, Chile,

Mexico, and Venezuela with the support of the Pan American Institute for

Geography and History. The Joint Research Center for Remote Sensing in Ispra,

Italy, worked with the USGS to test and implement the FPI for all of Europe.

The regional component of the interagency Multi-Resolution Land

Characterization Project (MRLC) was completed in FY 2000 with release of the

National Land Cover Data (NLCD) set. These data were derived from Landsat

TM data acquired in the early 1990’s and shows the distribution of 21 categories

of land cover across the conterminous 48 United States. The NPS became a

member of the MRLC consortium this year, joining USGS, EPA, NASA, NOAA,

and other agencies. In FY 2000, researchers began work on NLCD 2001, which
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

65 will cover all 50 United States and Puerto Rico using current data.

The USGS carried out a study of ground-water flooding in the Puget Sound

Basin, Washington, using RADARSAT SAR data. Ground-water flooding occurs

in the complex glacial geologic framework of the region when the water table rises

above low-lying land surfaces as a result of above-average precipitation. This flooding lasts for several weeks until the water table lowers. Groundwater flooded areas

were identified by comparing SAR images from dry periods with images from wet

periods.

USGS developed a field spectral radiometer for rapid, frequent remote

monitoring of turbidity in the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon. The instrument measured the brightness and color of river water every 30 minutes from

August 1999 to September 2000. The measurements were highly correlated to turbidity and total suspended sediment concentration measured from water samples

collected during part of this time period, thus confirming the value of the method.

Because of access restrictions within national parks and the high cost of monitoring remote areas such as the Grand Canyon, this system offers frequent,

noninvasive remote monitoring of such areas. Near real-time monitoring is possible if the measurements are telecommunicated directly to an office for recording

and analysis.

USGS scientists used Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR)

data from the ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites to detect an uplift of several centimeters

that occurred during the first half of 1993 in the San Bernardino groundwater

basin of Southern California. This uplift correlates with unusually high runoff from

the surrounding mountains and increased groundwater levels in nearby wells. The

deformation of the land surface is used to identify the location of faults that restrict

groundwater flow, map the location of recharge, and suggest the actual distribution

of fine-grained aquifer materials. The results demonstrated that naturally occurring

runoff and resultant recharge can be used with InSAR deformation mapping to

help define the structure and important hydrogeologic features of a groundwater

basin. This approach may be particularly useful to investigate remote areas having

limited ground-based hydrogeologic data.

The USGS used digitized aerial photographs and airborne digital Scanning

Hydrographic Operational Airborne LIDAR Survey (SHOALS) laser bathymetry

data to map coral reef environments on the Hawaiian island of Molokai. The laser
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

66 bathymetry and aerial photography images show information to a depth of approximately 35 and 20 meters, respectively. Researchers used digitized aerial

photographs collected in September 1993 and January 2000 to detect changes in

the amount of sea grass and sand cover on the inner and fore reef areas.

The USGS cooperated with NOAA and the United Kingdom Royal

Aircraft Establishment National Remote Sensing Council to produce a

1:5,000,000-scale map of the Antarctic continent using NOAA Advanced Very

High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellite data. The USGS also printed six

image maps at 1:250,000-scale around Ross Island using Landsat Multispectral

Scanner (MSS) data. Using Landsat data, the USGS also produced satellite image

maps of South Florida and the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Numerous agencies

involved in environmental restoration programs used these products.

In FY 2000, the USGS Volcano Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP)

responded to the eruptions at Guagua Pichincha and Tungurahua volcanoes in

Ecuador. For the first time, VDAP personnel combined classified reconnaissance

data of the volcanoes acquired through the National Civil Applications Program

with field-based and aerial observations of eruption features to assess the nature

and magnitude of danger to people and property in the area. This project represented a new collaboration between the USGS Volcano Hazards Program and

NCAP personnel.

In cooperation with university research groups and the National Science

Foundation, the USGS assisted in the expansion of the network of continuously

operating permanent GPS stations to measure crustal deformation in tectonically

active areas in the western United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and the South Victoria

land region of the Transantarctic Mountains (near McMurdo, Antarctica). Data

continued to be transmitted to analysis centers for processing and analysis to produce highly accurate estimates for horizontal and vertical changes in Earth’s crust.

The study area in Antarctica involves measuring crustal rebound resulting from

changes in ice sheet mass balance. These measurements may contribute information for investigations of global sea-level changes.

The USGS cooperated with universities in Southern California to establish

a large array of GPS receivers to make continuous measurements between stations

that bridge known faults. Immediately following a major earthquake, new dualfrequency geodetic receivers are deployed on stations in the affected region to
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

67 measure postearthquake rebound. Using advanced GPS data processing software

and coordinated data, baseline vectors are determined to a few millimeters in each

component. In FY 2000, technicians upgraded GPS networks at Mt. St. Helens in

Washington and at Augustine Volcano in Cook Inlet, Alaska, to better monitor

deformation at those hazardous volcanoes.

GPS use continued to expand to meet a wide range of USGS water

resources applications. Researchers performed high-accuracy GPS surveys to prepare highly accurate digital elevation models of levees along the Mississippi and

Missouri Rivers in areas that were flooded during 1993. Researchers continued to

use this information to modify flood plain management practices to reduce damage

from major floods in the future. High-accuracy differential GPS surveys provided

elevation data at the few centimeter (cm) level for surface water flow modeling in

the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Initiative where extremely low relief

requires elevation accuracies of at least 15 cm to be achieved over wide areas.

Traditional differential leveling methods could not meet this requirement because

it is much too expensive and time-consuming. In Puerto Rico, the public benefitted from use of GPS surveying techniques to help manage water resources.

Researchers used GPS measurements to accurately map reservoir depth and reveal

that the storage capacity of the Lago Dos Bocas reservoir had been reduced by over

40 percent due to sedimentation during the last 52 years.

USGS scientists regularly used GPS technology in a variety of projects in

the Great Lakes region in FY 2000. Scientists used GPS receivers and aerial photographs to determine sample locations, provide geographic reference for GIS data

sets and assist in navigation during wetland restoration projects on FWS National

Wildlife Refuges. GPS technology supported side-scan sonar surveys conducted in

several Great Lakes and habitat mapping projects in the Detroit River to locate

sample sites and provide geographic reference for biological data. Researchers used

GPS to guide sampling procedures and simplify navigation in open water for studies of larval fish habitat preference in Lake Erie. GPS was also used as part of native

clam research in several national parks in Michigan.

USGS developed a GPS database of accurate locations of 16,000 bridges for

the State of Pennsylvania. This engineering application will benefit public safety

through assessment of the condition of bridges that are located on rivers with
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

68 unstable channels and high scour potential where countermeasures are necessary

to protect bridges from possible damage.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

69

FEDERAL

COMMUNICATIONS

COMMISSION

FCC

All FCC accomplishments in space during FY 2000 were related to communications and Earth observation satellites. The FCC formulates rules to facilitate and

regulate the U.S. domestic satellite industry and the licensing of all stations and

satellite launches. Internationally, the FCC continued to coordinate satellite placement with other countries. FCC’s specific accomplishments are outlined for FY

2000.

In the area of satellite authorizations and launches, the FCC authorized a

number of launches of communications satellites. On August 8, 2000, the FCC

authorized licensing of the entire Intelsat constellation upon Intelsat’s privatization. Upon its privatization, Intelsat will be a U.S. licensee with 17 satellites in

orbit and authorizations for 10 additional launches. The FCC authorized E-SAT to

launch and operate six nonvoice, Nongeostationary orbit (NGSO) mobile satellites in low-Earth orbit. On June 28, 2000, E-SAT successfully launched its first

satellite, and on August 17, 2000, the satellite was brought into operation. The

FCC also authorized Space Imaging, Inc., to launch and operate two satellites in

low-Earth orbit to provide Earth exploration satellite services. On December 15,

1999, Space Imaging successfully brought into operation its first satellite. On

October 18, 1999, Globalstar launched four satellites in NGSO orbit. On each of

two more occasions, it also launched four satellites on November 22, 1999, and on

February 8, 2000. This brought the Globalstar constellation up to 28 satellites in

orbit with 24 operational and 4 spares. 

On December 4, 1999, ORBCOMM launched 7 satellites into NGSO orbit,

which brought the ORBCOMM constellation up to 35 satellites in orbit. On

November 30, 1999, the FCC granted SatCom Systems, Inc., a U.S. company, and

TMI Communications and Company, L.P., a Canadian company, authority to
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

70 operate mobile Earth terminals to provide mobile satellite service in the United

States via a Canadian-licensed satellite, MSAT-1. Sirius Satellite Radio launched

two NGSO Digital Audio Radio Service (DARS) satellites during FY 2000. The

launches, authorized by a special temporary authority issued on December 20,

1999, took place on July 1, 2000, and September 5, 2000. During FY 2000, there

were also seven C/Ku-band satellite launches: Loral TELSTAR-12 on October 19,

1999; PanAmSat PAS-9 on July 28, 2000; Galaxy XR on January 24, 2000; Galaxy

IVR on April 18, 2000; Galaxy XI on December 21, 1999; GE Americom GE-7 on

September 14, 2000; and GE-4 on November 13, 1999.

During FY 2000, the FCC was also active in international satellite coordination. On July 27, 2000, the United States and Mexico signed an agreement on

the implementation and operation of the Satellite Digital Audio Radio Service.

Both countries may now implement DARS systems in the 2310–2360 MHz band.

In October 1999, December 1999, February 2000, July 2000, and August 2000 the

FCC held satellite network coordination meetings with the Administrations of the

United Kingdom, Brazil, Canada, India, and Malaysia, respectively.

In December 1999, U.S. and French negotiators finalized a coordination

agreement on behalf of EUTELSAT for certain satellites. Similarly, in February

and April 2000, INTELSAT negotiators finalized coordination agreements for certain satellites.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

71

DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE

USDA

USDA research and operational programs used remotely sensed data and related

technologies to monitor, assess, and administer agricultural, rangeland, and

forestry resources. The Agriculture Research Service (ARS) enhanced remotesensing knowledge and developed productive applications at research facilities

located throughout the United States. At the ARS Jornada Experimental Range,

the ARS Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory (HRSL) collected laser-scanning data and visible, thermal infrared, and video imagery to infer surface

temperature, albedo, vegetation indices, roughness, and other land surface characteristics. These parameters were used as inputs for land-surface models, coupled

with atmospheric models to determine heat and water balance for the area. With

the launch of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS)-AM1 satellite, the HRSL

has flown multispectral thermal infrared sensors over the Jornada Experimental

Range to estimate surface emissivity and temperature for selected EOS-AM1 overpasses. ARS used these data to estimate the surface sensible heat flux. Thermal

infrared radiation data from ASTER were used to map surface fluxes at the El Reno

Grazinglands sites. The remote-sensing fluxes were in good agreement with ground

measurements. Aircraft flights with a digital multispectral camera collected multiangle reflectance, an intrinsic surface characteristic needed for radiometric

correction of optical remote-sensing data, for accurate estimates of shortwave

albedo and for improved cover-type classification.

Research coordinated by a HRSL scientist demonstrated the feasibility of

large-scale soil moisture detection using airborne and space microwave platforms.

With these advances in the theory and the planned launches of new microwave

remote-sensing satellites, it is feasible to implement a global observing soil moisture system. Research is focused on developing and implementing these tools
through large-scale field experimentation in the United States and Asia.

Although soil moisture is a critical variable for climate and agriculture, measuring

soil moisture over continental scales has been hindered by a lack of appropriate

instrumentation.

Scientists at the HRSL combined NOAA’s Advanced Very High

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellite data with field-level measurements of

ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange from other ARS locations to estimate carbon

sequestration in rangelands of the Western United States at 1 kilometer resolution. Historic Landsat MSS and Landsat 7 Extended Thematic Mapper data were

used to validate estimates of carbon sequestration at 30 to 100 meters resolution.

A simple operational approach has been developed at the HRSL for relating evapotranspiration (the amount of water evaporated from soil and transpired

by plants) to satellite observations of surface temperature, vegetative cover and

type, and measurements of near-surface wind speed and air temperature from the

synoptic weather network. This scheme reduces both the errors associated with

satellite observations and defining weather data at large scales, and thus, it has

potential in providing regional scale assessment of evapotranspiration. This information will greatly enhance techniques for estimating crop yield and for assessing

vegetation stress on a regional basis, ultimately improving agricultural management decisions.

The HRSL used airborne and satellite imagery for delineating consistent

patterns of crop growth within fields for developing within-field management

zones for precision farming. Scientists merged the use of crop growth models with

remote-sensing data to quantify the amount of production in the growth patterns

and used geostatistical techniques to improve airborne scanner image analysis to

map within-field crop foliage density.

Scientists at the HRSL evaluated the application of MODIS to develop a

crop yield map for the soybean and corn crop in McLean County, Illinois, in cooperation with the Illinois State Statistical Office and the Research and

Development Division of National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) in

Fairfax, Virginia. The Illinois State Water Survey cooperated in acquiring ground

data.

Using remote-sensing and geospatial technologies, the HRSL evaluated the

economic and environmental impact of three farming systems on surface and subsurface water quality. Subsurface flow patterns were mapped with groundAeronautics and Space Report of the President 

72
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

73 penetrating radar and linked to crop yields and remotely sensed images. A new

spectral method was developed to assess chlorophyll content of plant canopies that

indicates crop fertilizer needs. These assessments of spatial and temporal variability of crops will benefit farmers by providing a watershed-scale demonstration site

where crop yields, profitability, and environmental impact can be compared under

identical hydro-geological setting and climatic conditions.

The ARS Soil and Water Research Unit at Lincoln, Nebraska, used multispectral and hyperspectral data to evaluate crop vegetation indices in terms of

chlorophyll meter readings and for prediction of yield for irrigated corn. Using

combinations of individual reflectance bands, the most appropriate band combinations at each growth stage were determined for making relative crop yield maps.

At Weslaco, Texas, the ARS Integrated Farming and Natural Resources

Unit used color-infrared aerial photography to successfully detect the invasive

alien aquatic weed, giant salvinia, in Texas waterways. These data were used by

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department personnel involved in controlling this

aquatic weed. Airborne multispectral and hyperspectral images and yield monitor

data were collected from several fields owned by Rio Farms, Inc., of Monte Alto,

Texas, and used by Rio Farms to make farm management decisions. Multispectral

digital imagery was used successfully to detect and assess foot rot infection in south

Texas citrus orchards.

At the ARS National Soil Tilth Laboratory in Ames, Iowa, comparisons

with plant tissue testing, leaf chlorophyll readings, broadband reflectance with

ground-based instruments, and airborne sensors showed that detection of the

nitrogen status early in the season is possible when canopy observations are combined with meteorological models for predicting the expected nitrogen use.

Observations made during the grain-filling period related well to yield and showed

where nitrogen was not a contributing factor to yield variation across the field.

Remote sensing of the soil and crop provided a spatial representation of the agronomic variation across varying soils. Scientists used ground-based, narrow-band

sensors to develop spectral libraries for corn, soybean, and wheat. Scientists used

the information collected from this system to determine growth rates, light interception, biomass, and lead chlorophyll content across a range of soils and

management practices.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

74 At the ARS J. Phil Campbell, Sr., Natural Resource Conservation Center

in Watkinsville, Georgia, researchers used Landsat satellite imagery to classify land

use in the Upper Oconee Watershed of Georgia into 10 types. Land use within

selected subwatersheds will be related to observations of water quality. These studies focused on portions of the Upper Oconee Watershed receiving Federal funding

in the Environmental Quality Improvement Program (EQIP). These remote-sensing data are used to determine the efficacy of the EQIP program within the context

of the predominant land use.

The ARS Plant Science and Water Conservation Research Laboratory, in

Stillwater, Oklahoma, used commercially available high-spatial resolution multispectral imagery to determine reflectance characteristics of pest insect infested

wheat. These data were used with spatial interpolation techniques to create maps

of spatially varying pest density, and the spatial pattern metrics were used to

develop a “spatial signature” for greenbug infestations in wheat fields from the

processed imagery so that greenbug infested fields can be quickly, accurately, and

inexpensively identified.

Scientists at the ARS Genetics and Precision Agriculture (GAPA)

Research Unit at Mississippi State University, Mississippi, combined high-resolution, multispectral imagery and improved insect scouting methods to create a

georeferenced pest density map on nearly 1,100 acres of cotton on Perthshire Farm

in the Mississippi Delta. These maps were loaded into a ground sprayer to dispense

pesticides and/or growth regulator chemicals (PIX) only where needed with the

use of a variable rate controller. Several spatially variable prescriptions (Maps)

were made throughout the growing season, pointing out the success of this cooperative, insect management effort between ARS, ITD Spectral Visions, GPS, Inc.,

Perthshire Farm, and farm consultants. GAPA scientists also collaborated with

Mississippi State University scientists to identify spectrally narrow crop

reflectance wavebands sensitive to nitrogen, potassium, and water deficit in

upland cotton. Researchers developed algorithms for detecting crop nutrient and

water stress conditions from hyperspectral or multispectral airborne platforms. In

cooperation with Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) scientists,

GAPA scientists delineated soil management zones in a 400-acre, irrigated cotton

field. By applying different fertilizer nitrogen prescriptions based on simulated

yields from the ARS Cotton Model, they confirmed that natural soil boundaries
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

75 are better than an arbitrary rectangular grid system when a decision support system

is used to optimize soil nitrogen applications.

At the ARS Wind Erosion and Water Conservation Research Unit in

Lubbock, Texas, irrigation timing, based on remotely measuring temperature of

crop canopies was successfully demonstrated under field conditions. The correlation between canopy temperature and leaf water potential of corn and cotton was

studied after irrigation rates were either increased or decreased. Significant

changes were detected in canopy temperature and leaf water potential of cotton,

but only in leaf water potential of corn. The absence of a measured canopy temperature response in corn suggests that a modification in the procedure for

remotely monitoring corn temperature is needed to increase its sensitivity to the

water status of corn to optimize irrigation management. The response of five vegetation indices was compared with the development of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and

Fractional Vegetative Area (FVA) and compared with their impact on canopy

Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) absorption. The vegetation indices

varied more linearly with FVA than LAI, and FVA is more influential in PAR

absorption, thus linearity in FVA may be a more relevant criteria in choosing an

index design to monitor crop productivity.

At the ARS Western Integrated Cropping Systems Research Unit in

Shafter, California, aerial imagery was acquired of cotton and other crops using a

multispectral digital camera to detect and characterize pests in cotton, including

spider mites and aphids; for measurements of water stress using a thermal camera;

midseason yield estimation; and development of remote sensing for targeted soil

sampling for salinity management. Spectral signatures for mites and other stressors

of cotton were developed using multispectral remote-sensing technologies, both

on the ground and from aircraft. Researchers at the ARS Water Management

Research Unit in Ft. Collins, Colorado, used ground-based, remote-sensing techniques (multispectral sensors mounted on a high-clearance tractor) to assess the

plant Nitrogen status in irrigated corn for in-season nitrogen management. A previously developed Nitrogen Reflectance Index (NRI), calculated from canopy

reflectance data acquired in the green and near-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum from a nadir view (0°) and an oblique view (75°), was

compared to measured plant nitrogen. The NRI was not representative of plant

nitrogen at the sixth leaf growth stage (V6) for either view angle because of the

soil background influence on canopy reflectance. However, the oblique view NRI
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

76 was a good predictor of plant nitrogen at V9 and V12, as was the nadir view NRI

at V12. The nadir view NRI was not as sensitive as the oblique view NRI at the

V9 growth stage because soil was still visible through the canopy. Consequently,

the nadir view NRI provides a conservative estimate of plant nitrogen prior to

complete canopy cover.

The ARS Rangeland Resources Research Unit in Cheyenne, Wyoming,

and BLM used an ultralight airplane to obtain Very-Large Scale Aerial (VLSA)

70-mm color photographs from 20 feet above ground to evaluate range condition.

This effort demonstrated the practicality of using this type of aircraft to rapidly

acquire a statistically adequate number of VLSA images (samples) over extensive

rangeland areas. The imagery is being tested as a means for measuring ground

cover and the leaf area of dominant functional plant types. The results are used to

monitor rangeland health and for estimating CO2 fluxes and carbon cycling.

The ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory in Oxford, Mississippi, has

worked on projects that used the Next Generation Weather Radar, the Surface

Radiation Network (SURFRAD), and the Soil Climate Analysis Network as part

of the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment and its continental component

based on the Mississippi River. Researchers used these data to model the variations

of the global hydrological regime, its impact on atmospheric and surface dynamics,

and variations in regional hydrological processes and water resources and their

response to changes in the environment, such as the increase in greenhouse gases.

The ARS Southeast Watershed Research Laboratory in Tifton, Georgia, is

working with scientists from the ARS Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory,

Georgia Institute of Technology, and University of South Carolina to perfect

methods to estimate soil-water conditions at the land surface using remote sensing

techniques. Past research has indicated the applicability of such a technique for

sparsely vegetated landscapes. However, because of the difficulty associated with

closed canopies in heavily vegetated landscapes, less work has been done in areas

with dense vegetation. Initial studies conducted in July 2000 indicated that techniques can be developed for landscapes with dense canopies.

ARS scientists at the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory (USWCL) in

Phoenix, Arizona, refined methods to integrate remotely sensed information with

computer models that predict crop growth, based on weather and soil conditions

to help meet the information needs for precision farming. Remotely sensed data
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

77 provide information on plant conditions at fine spatial resolution at select times

during the season for improving the crop model predictions.

In cooperation with agricultural engineers at the University of Arizona,

USWCL scientists developed a system (AgIIS) of visible, near infrared, and thermal sensors mounted on a cart that travels the length of a linear move irrigation

system collecting measurements at 1-meter intervals. Researchers processed the

data to generate an image that was used to detect crop and water stress. A Canopy

Chlorophyll Content Index (CCCI) developed from multispectral reflectance

data, obtained while using the AgIIS sensor in a cotton experiment, has now been

modified for use in wheat. As chlorophyll content is a good indicator of fertilizer

needs, the CCCI may find use in assessing midseason fertilizer requirements of

wheat and in predicting grain quality. Scientists at the ARS South Central

Agricultural Research Laboratory in Lane, Oklahoma, and at the Horticultural

Research and Development Centre in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec, Canada,

provided quality assessment observations and evaluated the potential to integrate

the remotely sensed data with models to predict crop quality.

Scientists at the ARS Northwest Irrigation and Soils Research Laboratory

in Kimberly, Idaho, in cooperation with Utah State University made remote-sensing measurements with an aircraft to develop reflectance-based,

evapotranspiration (ET) crop coefficients for irrigated bean, sugar beet, and

potato. High resolution, airborne multispectral digital imagery were used to

develop vegetation indices related to the spatial and temporal variation in crop

growth and biophysical parameters obtained in field measurements. Ground-based

measurements obtained for a field of beans verified the reflectance-based ET crop

coefficients developed from the remotely sensed data. Airborne or multispectral

satellite imagery can be used to develop spatially and temporally variable ET crop

coefficients useable for precision irrigation scheduling with potential also for

assessing aggregate irrigation water requirements and yield for mixed cropping patterns in large irrigated tracts.

The ARS Northwest Watershed Research Center (NWRC) in Boise,

Idaho, used synthetic aperture radar to map the extent of frozen soil in rugged

topography. Ground data on soil water content, snow depth, and soil freezing were

collected in conjunction with overpasses of the RADARSAT platform. Summer

scenes were acquired to obtain imagery during dry, unfrozen conditions to be used
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

78 as a reference. Data are currently being analyzed to determine the optimal

approach to differentiating freezing effects from those due to topography, vegetation, and surface roughness.

NWRC scientists conducted an analysis of Landsat and SPOT imagery to

determine the relationship between satellite-derived vegetation indices and the

soil water regime and found a good correlation between the vegetation index or

Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) and the seasonal water stress, relative to

evaporative demand in semiarid rangelands. 

Invasion of cheatgrass, an exotic annual grass, into rangelands throughout

the Intermountain West has dramatically altered the natural fire regime, thus

impacting public safety, plant community integrity, and rangeland hydrology.

NWRC scientists developed analysis tools to map fuel types, quantify fuel biomass

and moisture, and assess fire severity in the Snake River Birds of Prey National

Conservation Area near Boise, Idaho, using Landsat imagery. These tools will be

useful to land management agencies for assessing fire hazards, planning fuels reduction treatments, predicting fire behavior, and evaluating postfire rehabilitation

needs on rangelands.

NWRC scientists evaluated remote sensing to assess stream shading as a surrogate to direct stream temperature measurement. If good relationships exist

between remotely sensed stream shading values and stream temperature, land

managers could use these remotely sensed data to evaluate stream temperature

variability for extensive and dynamic rangeland stream systems.

Scientists at the ARS Southwest Watershed Research Center (SWRC) in

Tucson, Arizona, developed a spatially explicit hydro-ecological model calibrated

with satellite images to produce daily estimates of regional plant growth, evaporation, and soil moisture. Over a 10-year period, this model simulated daily plant and

root growth and rangeland health in the ARS Walnut Gulch Experimental

Watershed with accuracies that were three times better than conventional products without satellite images. This breakthrough provided spatially distributed

information about vegetation and soil conditions for day-to-day grassland management and for long-term evaluation of the effects of climate change and

drought.

SWRC scientists cooperated with NASA and Michigan State University to

develop a remote-sensing method to estimate biomass of senescent grasses. This

information will be used with rangeland managers to make biomass information
Fiscal Year 1999 Activities

79 into usable data products, and finally, assess the potential for such information to

be provided on an ongoing basis as a commercial product.

SWRC scientists worked with the Environmental Protection Agency to

develop a PC-based GIS hydrologic tool to relate landscape patterns to watershed

condition across multiple scales for applications across a wide range of conditions

and geographies. This PC-based tool was applied to three watersheds of different

sizes and climatic characteristics, ranging from the semiarid ecosystem in the ARS

Walnut Gulch Experimental Watershed and San Pedro River Basin in Arizona to

the humid Cannonsville watershed in New York.

Scientists at the ARS Grazinglands Research Laboratory (GRL) in El Reno,

Oklahoma, combined remotely sensed near-surface estimates of soil water content

with meteorological, vegetation, and soils data to produce estimates of total root

zone soil water content at watershed scales. Scientists at GRL cooperated with scientists at the HRSL in the calibration and validation of satellite microwave

sensors to provide a regional soil water content product. Scientists at the GRL also

worked with scientists at the ARS Sub-Tropical Animal Research Station in

Brooksville to detect forage quality using hand-held hyperspectral remote sensing.

The ARS Application and Production Technology Research Unit in

Stoneville, Mississippi, used an aircraft system with a digital video camera and a

GPS interface so images could be associated with ground position images to map

weed populations from altitudes of 70 to 1,500 feet. Scientists analyzed images to

distinguish weeds from the surrounding crops earlier in the season, when weed

management plans need to be defined

Researchers at the ARS Southern Regional Research Center in New

Orleans, Louisiana, designed submersed sensor arrays for monitoring harmful algal

species. A prototype of this sensor was installed in the St. John’s River as part of

collaborative research efforts with regional, State, and Federal research groups to

monitor algal species in the river. Scientists at the ARS Catfish Genetics Research

Unit in Stoneville, Mississippi, installed automated oxygen sensors for monitoring

oxygen levels in catfish ponds. This sensor system controls aeration equipment to

maintain desired oxygen levels for catfish growth.

The Foreign Agricultural Service’s (FAS) satellite remote-sensing program

remained a critical element in USDA’s analysis of global agricultural production

and crop conditions by providing timely, accurate, and unbiased estimates of global
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

80 agriculture area, yield, and production. Satellite-derived early warnings of unusual

crop conditions and production enabled more rapid, objective, and precise determinations of global supply conditions necessary for commodity price discovery.

FAS used a full private-Government partnership program that contracts over 90

percent of its imagery from the commercial space industry and partners within

other government agencies (NASA, NOAA, USGS) to ensure that FAS requirements are defined for mission planning and research. FAS continued to strengthen

its abilities to extract the most from acquired data by sharing over 900 satellite

scenes with partner USDA agencies. Over the past year, the FAS remote-sensing

program provided global crop condition assessments in support of trade policy and

food aid decisions made by USDA policymakers. These included crop assessments

on China, the Korean Peninsula, Indonesia, Eastern Europe, North Africa, the

countries of the former Soviet Union, India, the horn of Africa, and Mexico. 

The Farm Service Agency (FSA) fielded reegineered business processes

combining the use of digital orthophotography, GIS, GPS, and satellite imagery to

replace the use of hardcopy aerial photography from the National Aerial

Photography Program (NAPP) and aerial 35mm slides. Over 200 counties will be

empowered with GIS technology by the end of 2000. FSA, through the Farm

Service Agency-Foreign Agricultural Service Center for Remote Sensing, fielded

compressed Landsat and AVHRR imagery to several State offices for disaster monitoring and compliance testing. FSA tested the use of the Space Imaging IKONOS

imagery for use in digital compliance programs. FSA currently acquires aerial

35mm slides over much of the continental United States one to three times per

year. The IKONOS imagery is being evaluated as one of many possible digital

replacements. FSA continues to cost share with FAS analysis of imagery over the

United States, receiving timely reports on U.S. crop conditions from FAS. These

imagery-based reports, combined with weather data, crop model results, and GIS

products, made possible the development of accurate and timely projections and

comprehensive evaluations of crop disaster situations. FSA continues to be a partner in NAPP but has been unable to partner in National Digital Orthophoto

Program (NDOP) activities due to a lack of funds.

The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) used remote-sensing

data to construct area frames for statistical sampling, estimate crop area, create

crop-specific land-cover data layers for GIS, and assess crop conditions. For area
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

81 frame construction, NASS combined digital Landsat and SPOT data with USGS

digital line-graph data, enabling the user to assign each piece of land in a State to

a category, based on the percentage of cultivation or other variables. NASS implemented a new remote-sensing-based area frame and sample for Pennsylvania and

North Carolina. The remote-sensing acreage estimation project analyzed Landsat

data from the 1999 crop season in Arkansas, Illinois, Mississippi, New Mexico, and

North Dakota to produce crop acreage estimates for major crops at State and

county levels, and a crop-specific categorization in the form of a digital mosaic of

TM scenes distributed to users on a CD-ROM. For the 2000 crop season, NASS

headquarters and several NASS field offices continued partnership agreements

with State organizations to decentralize the Landsat processing and analysis tasks

and expanded into Indiana and Iowa. Data for 2000 acreage estimation analysis

were collected in Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Mississippi, New Mexico, and

North Dakota. Vegetation condition images, based on AVHRR data, were used

with conventional survey data to assess crop conditions. The 2000 drought conditions in Nebraska and South Dakota, southern Texas, and the southeastern States

were followed closely with these data.

The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) continued its cooperative partnership with Federal, State, and local agencies in developing 1-meter

digital orthoimagery coverage of the Nation through NDOP and NAPP. By year’s

end, approximately 2,500 counties were completed with digital orthoimagery coverage. NRCS delivered digital orthoimagery to its county field service centers for

their use in a desktop GIS in place of using paper copies of aerial photographs.

NRCS continued to advance the use of GPS at the county field offices, and at the

end of the fiscal year, there were more than 1,000 GPS receivers in use. 

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

83

NATIONAL

SCIENCE FOUNDATION

NSF

After extensive data analysis, an international team of cosmologists led by Andrew

Lange of the California Institute of Technolgoy and Paolo de Bernadis of the

University of Rome released the first results from the BOOMERanG (Balloon

Observations Of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation and Geomagnetics)

Antarctic long-duration balloon flight that took place during FY 1999. The measurements provide the first truly convincing observational evidence that is

consistent with the leading “inflationary” theories of creation. 

“Cosmic shear” is defined as slight distortions in the images of distant galaxies caused by large intervening structures of primarily dark matter. During FY 2000,

J. Anthony Tyson and his colleagues detected a statistical signal of cosmic shear for

the first time, using wide-field images with the NSF Cerro Tololo Inter-American

Observatory 4-meter telescope. This initial detection was based upon measurements of the images of about 50,000 galaxies. These measurements provide a

powerful tool to determine fundamental cosmological parameters related to the distribution of mass in the universe and test the foundations of cosmology. 

John Dickey of the University of Minnesota is midway through an NSFsponsored 4-year project to carry out a survey of radio emission in the inner Milky

Way using radio-wavelength telescopes in Australia. The survey is producing maps

of the density and velocity distribution of interstellar hydrogen gas. These maps

trace out the violent motions of the interstellar medium associated with supernova

remnants and stellar winds. The first survey results have revealed several very

large-scale structures, including an immense shell or bubble more than 1,500 light

years in diameter. This supershell, located in the outer galaxy, at about 33,000 light
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

84 years from the Galactic center, is the largest and most empty supershell yet discovered in the Milky Way.

Alyssa Goodman of Harvard University has produced important results in

another NSF-sponsored project that offers quantitative new measures of how

material in the interstellar medium is distributed. She has been developing and

applying new methods for analyzing both numerical simulations and observed data

sets. With these new, discriminating statistical techniques, she and collaborators

have shown that simulations without magnetic fields and/or self-gravity cannot

match the behavior exhibited by real observations. Only simulations of magnetized, self-gravitating turbulence are able to approach matching the behavior of the

real star-forming interstellar medium. Self-gravity means that one has to include

the effects of the gravitational field of the material in the interstellar medium upon

itself. That is, each molecule and grain in the interstellar medium has a gravitational field that interacts on every other molecule and grain in the medium. The

total effect cannot be ignored if one wishes to obtain results that agree with real

observations.

Among the most active areas of research and discovery in astronomy today

are investigations into the birth and the death of stars and their planetary systems.

Searches for extrasolar planets have become increasingly productive recently, and

samples have grown from a few curiosities to data sets whose properties and characteristics can be analyzed for insight into common formation processes. Several

groups have been extremely active and productive in the search for extrasolar

planetary systems. Using high-precision radial velocity measurements of candidate

stars, investigators have been monitoring the presence of planets by regular

changes in velocity, as the star and planet revolve around a common center of

gravity. Common center of gravity means that if one were to place oneself above

the plane of the orbit of the planet around the star, and traced the path that the

planet made, one would find that both the planet and the star appear to orbit a

common point, known as the “center of gravity.”

NSF-sponsored researchers Paul Butler of the Carnegie Institute of

Washington; Geoffrey Marcy of the University of California, Berkeley; and Steve

Vogt of the University of California, Santa Cruz and collaborators have found 30

of 44 known extrasolar planets. Their most recent work includes the first optical

detection of a planet as it passed in front of its host star and the discovery of the

first multiple planet system. 
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

85 Observations show that flattened disks of gas and dust are common around

young stars. Several of the stars known to have giant gas planets also have disks,

believed to be the remnants of the nebulae from which the planets formed. Peter

Bodenheimer and collaborators at the University of California, Santa Cruz, have

been performing numerical simulations of the interactions between protoplanets

and disks. They find that once a planet grows to about Jupiter’s mass, a gap is created in the disk. If two giant planets form, each one opens up a gap. Ultimately,

the inner planet is driven outward slightly, and the outer one tends to be driven

inward. These models are beginning to provide a theoretical basis for understanding the unusual properties of the extrasolar planets, such as their close proximity

to their stars, and their high orbital eccentricities. 

Fragmentation of molecular cloud cores, during their self-gravitational collapse to form stars, is the leading explanation for the origin of binary and multiple

protostars. Molecular cloud cores appear to be supported against collapse in large

part by magnetic fields. However, most protostellar fragmentation calculations

have either ignored the effects of magnetic fields or found that in the presence of

frozen-in magnetic fields, fragmentation is prohibited. 

Alan Boss of the Carnegie Institute of Washington and collaborators have

computed the first three-dimensional calculations that show magnetic tension also

helps in avoiding a central density singularity during protostellar collapse. The net

effect is to enhance fragmentation of collapsing magnetic cloud cores into multiple protostar systems. 

During the approximately 15-billion-year lifetime of our Milky Way galaxy,

several billion supernova explosions have progressively enriched it with the

oxygen that we breathe, the iron in our blood cells, the calcium in our bones, and

the silicon in the soil at our feet. Supernova explosions, with a peak luminosity as

high as an entire galaxy of stars, trigger the births of new stars, are the source of

the energetic cosmic-rays that irradiate us on Earth, and collectively may have

helped shape the earliest galaxies. In addition, supernova have recently been used

to measure the geometry of the universe and implicated as a potential source of

gamma-ray bursts. 

Modeling supernova has proven problematic: most models collapse, but do

not explode. What material is initially ejected when the supernova detonates

tends to fall back onto the stellar core. Adam Burrows of the University of Arizona

and collaborators have developed a time-dependent, spherically symmetric code
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

86 for modeling supernova explosions and have applied it to the problem of supernova in binary star systems. Explosions of massive stars in binary systems and the

velocity “kicks” that the component stars receive are believed to be the origin of

some of the high velocities seen in pulsars. 

Because of its direct impact on terrestrial life, understanding how the Sun

works has a very high scientific priority. NSF-sponsored researchers Douglas Braun

of the Solar Physics Research Corporation and Charles Lindsey of Northwest

Research Associates obtained the first images of an active region on the far side of

the Sun using seismic holography techniques. Active regions are the centers of

energetic phenomena such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections whose occasional bursts of radiation interfere with telecommunications and power

transmissions on Earth and can pose significant hazards to astronauts and spacecraft. 

William Merline and colleagues at the Southwest Research Institute have

used ground-based adaptive optics to search for satellites orbiting asteroids. The

team has discovered a satellite around the asteroid 45 Eugenia. The main asteroid’s

diameter is close to 215 km, and the Moon’s size is estimated to be 13 km in diameter. The Moon is 285 times fainter than the main asteroid and is very close to the

main asteroid (just over 5 asteroid diameters away). 

Jens Gundlach and Stephen Merkowitz of the University of Washington

have made an important new determination of one of the fundamental constants

of nature, the gravitational constant. Their value for the gravitational constant is

a hundred times more precise than the previously accepted value. 

Detailed model studies for thermonuclear explosions on the surface of an

accreting neutron star have been performed by the research groups of Hendrik

Schatz of Michigan Statue University, Michael Wiescher of the University of

Notre Dame, and Lars Bildsten of the Universtiy of California, Santa Barbara. The

results defined for the first time the endpoint for the process that drives the thermonuclear explosion and sets new limits on the resulting abundance distribution

in the crust of the neutron star. 

During large magnetic storms, the electric fields and particle populations,

which typically occur at high latitudes in the auroral region, move toward the

equator, and their effects can be observed over the continental United States.

Intense convection electric fields cause the plasma in the ionosphere to move at

high speeds, which can cause density variations in the ionosphere that can disrupt
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

87 transionospheric communication and navigation signals. John Foster of the

Massachuessetts Institute of Technology, using the Millstone Hill incoherent scatter radar near Boston, observed such a disturbance during the magnetic storm of

October 15, 1999. Scientists have been using these detailed radar and optical

observations to test quantitatively their understanding about the relationship

between these various atmospheric phenomena. By connecting ionospheric phenomena to magnetospheric processes, scientists will better understand the coupled

space weather environment and will be able to improve forecasts of magnetic

storms and the resulting effects on technological systems. 

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

89

DEPARTMENT OF

STATE

DoS

The DoS continued its efforts to coordinate international agreements and arrangements for cooperation on the International Space Station (ISS). During FY 2000,

DoS made preparations for the first meeting of the partners to the ISS

Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA). Originally scheduled for fall 2000, it ultimately took place in Berlin in December 2000. At the meeting, delegations

expressed great satisfaction with the significant progress that has been made in

assembling the ISS on orbit. The successful launch of the Expedition One crew

marked the beginning of a permanent human presence onboard the ISS. With the

recent successful missions, the ISS has now initiated integrated operations, allowing initial research onboard the ISS. This progress demonstrates that the ISS

management structure is functioning on the basis of genuine partnership, as envisioned in the IGA. 

During FY 2000, the DoS led U.S. Government participation in the United

Nations’ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). The

Committee was formed in 1958 and is the only standing body of the United

Nations to consider international cooperation in the exploration of outer space.

Over the past year, the Committee undertook important work in areas such as

orbital space debris, meteorology, astronomy and astrophysics, space transportation, human space flight, planetary exploration, and environmental monitoring.

The Committee also considered legal issues related to international liability and

responsibility of launching states and equitable access to geostationary orbit. 

The DoS continued to lead an interagency effort to promote the U.S. GPS

as a worldwide standard for satellite-based navigation and to protect the spectrum

in which GPS operates. Diplomatic efforts included visits by U.S. experts to more
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

90 than than a dozen foreign capitals for discussions on GPS-related issues. These

efforts directly contributed to the successful achievements of U.S. objectives at the

World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC). Most significantly, the WRC

defeated Resolution 220 (a proposal to share the spectrum used by GPS L1 with

mobile satellite systems) and approved a new allocation of spectrum for additional

GPS signals which are a part of the modernization of GPS capabilities. The DoS

also led the preparation of a draft framework agreement between the United States

and the European Community on satellite navigation systems. This draft was provided to the European Commission and the European Union member states in

October 2000.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

91

DEPARTMENT OF

ENERGY

DoE

During FY 2000, DoE worked on a demonstration of technologies to clean up

dense, nonaqueous phase liquid solvents at Launch Complex 34, Cape Canaveral,

Florida. At the end of the fiscal year, the demonstration had removed 5,000 kilograms (kg) of solvents at a cost of $5.1 million, of which DoE has funded $3.1

million. DoE developed these technologies, and the test data will benefit DoE sites

in terms of cost and performance data. Agencies who are cofunding this demonstration of technologies include the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, Environmental

Protection Agency, and three private companies.

DoE continued to support NASA’s space exploration program by maintaining the program and facility infrastructure for providing radioisotope power sources

and heater units and developing new, advanced power systems covering a range of

power levels required to meet more stringent power system requirements for future

missions. DoE personnel initiated safety analyses to support potential use of

radioisotope heater units on the Mars 2003 mission and radioisotope power systems on the Europa Orbiter mission. DoE competitively contracted with several

potential system contractors to develop a conceptual design of a radioisotope

Stirling power system, which adds heat through a wall to an expanding gas at high

temperature to perform work. One of these contractors will be selected to proceed

with the development and demonstration of the radioisotope Stirling power

system for potential use on the Europa Orbiter, Solar Probe, and Mars 2007 missions. Finally, a bench-scale demonstration was completed of a process to recover

Plutonium-238 scrap for reuse as an energy source for future NASA missions.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

93

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

The Smithsonian Institution continued to contribute to national aerospace goals

through the activities of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO),

which is joined with the Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge,

Massachusetts, to form the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA),

where over 300 scientists are engaged in a broad program of research in astronomy,

astrophysics, and science education. The Smithsonian Institution also continued

to contribute to the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington,

DC, through its research and education activities.

SAO has had a lead role in operating the NASA Chandra X-ray

Observatory, which completed its first year of observations in FY 2000 with a series

of widely reported results and discoveries. Chandra studied the presence of compact x-ray stars in supernova remnants, the galactic center x-ray source, the disk

and jets in the Crab Nebula, and obtained deep images that resolve the x-ray background into faint sources. Chandra also found superbubbles of very hot gas within

colliding galaxies; discovered that even small, failed stars emit x-ray flares; found

x-rays coming from a comet; and opened a new field of research by discovering

medium-sized black holes. 

SAO is also the leader of another NASA satellite, the Submillimeter Wave

Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) mission, a space telescope that studies the chemistry

and dynamics of the interstellar gas clouds in the Milky Way galaxy. SWAS discovered that water, a key component for life, is prevalent throughout space, and

found that a substantial amount of water is present in the Martian atmosphere,

but, surprisingly, SWAS has been unable to find any molecular oxygen in space.

Another SAO program called “The Milky Way in Molecular Clouds: A New
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

94 Complete CO Survey,” this fiscal year completed a 20-year radio astronomy effort

and released an image of the entire galaxy with unprecedented detail and clarity. 

In FY 2000 SAO astronomers and their colleagues discovered two new

moons of Jupiter (numbers 17 and 18) and a new moon of Saturn (number 22).

Solar scientists at SAO used the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer

(TRACE) spacecraft to watch the Sun as its activity climbed to a peak during the

maximum of its 12-year solar cycle; they also used the Solar and Heliospheric

Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft to study the Sun. New models of the solar activity based on these observations promise to help predict storms of charged space

particles. SAO scientists this year discovered several new planets around other,

nearby stars, including one Jupiter-sized planet, and achieved the first detection of

a new planet by observing it pass in front of the face of its star. Scientists also

detected a class of objects, intermediate in size, between stars and planets called

“brown dwarfs,” in the Orion nebula. Some very newly formed stars were observed

in the process of collapsing, and others were found to have disks or rings of material around them, with compositions resembling that of our own solar system at the

time of its formation. SAO scientists continued to be leaders in the field of cosmology and the structure of the universe, especially through the incredible, recent

discovery that the universe may be accelerating its expansion due to a repulsive

force to gravity. Scientists also developed another new technique for calibrating

the distances to galaxies during FY 2000. 

The Science Education Department (SED) at CfA continued to host teachers from across the United States at sessions designed to train them in the use of

the Department’s many curriculum programs for grades 3-12. SED activities

included the “MicroObservatory Program,” which enables classrooms to control

small telescopes located around the world, plan observations, take data, and share

their results with other schools. SED produced several new television and video

shows this year, while staff throughout SAO continued their active involvement

with schools. The 7 public Web sites at SAO received about 80 million hits during

the year.

The Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (CEPS) at NASM continued

to conduct an active research program in planetary and terrestrial geology and geophysics using remote-sensing data from Earth-orbiting satellites and manned and

unmanned space missions. The scope of research activities includes work on

Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and Mars, and corresponding field studies in terrestrial
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

95 analog regions. CEPS staff studied a variety of geophysical processes, such as volcanism, floods, cratering, tectonics, and sand movement. Many of the terrestrial

studies also address topics of current concern for global climate change. As a

NASA Regional Planetary Image Facility, CEPS houses an extensive collection of

images of the planets and their satellites. CEPS continued to have curatorial

responsibility for two museum exhibit galleries. The “Exploring the Planets”

gallery highlights the planets and their satellites and explores what we have

learned about our solar system from interplanetary spacecraft. Planning is actively

underway for a new “Exploring the Planets” gallery. The “Looking at Earth” gallery

illustrates the ways in which aerial photography and satellite images are used to

obtain a better understanding of the Earth. Staff participated in the development

and presentation of public programs, including teacher workshops, special events,

and outreach activities in the community. CEPS staff also continued to be responsible for developing and maintaining the NASM Web site, including innovative

online exhibit materials, interactive educational programs, research highlights,

and virtual tours of museum galleries. 

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

97

APPENDICES
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

98 APPENDIX A-1

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Earth Orbita Earth Escapea

Year Success Failure Success Failure

1957 0 1 0 0

1958 5 8 0 4

1959 9 9 1 2

1960 16 12 1 2

1961 35 12 0 2

1962 55 12 4 1

1963 62 11 0 0

1964 69 8 4 0

1965 93 7 4 1

1966 94 12 7 1 b

1967 78 4 10 0

1968 61 15 3 0

1969 58 1 8 1

1970 36 1 3 0

1971 45 2 8 1

1972 33 2 8 0

1973 23 2 3 0

1974 27 2 1 0

1975 30 4 4 0

1976 33 0 1 0

1977 27 2 2 0

1978 34 2 7 0

1979 18 0 0 0

1980 16 4 0 0

1981 20 1 0 0

1982 21 0 0 0

1983 31 0 0 0

1984 35 3 0 0

1985 37 1 0 0

1986 11 4 0 0

1987 9 1 0 0

1988 16 1 0 0

1989 24 0 2 0

1990 40 0 1 0

1991 32 c 0 00

1992 26 c 0 10

1993 28 c 1 10

1994 31 c 1 10

1995 24 c, d 2 1 0 

1996 30 1 3 0

1997 22 e 0 10

1998 23 0 2 0

1999 35 4 2 0

2000 (through September 30, 2000) 23 f 0 00

TOTAL 1,475 153 94 15

a. The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape” flights

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth.

b. This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and, therefore, is included in the Earth-orbit success totals.

c. This excludes commercial satellites. It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle.

d. This counts the five orbital debris radar calibration spheres that were launched from STS-63 as one set of spacecraft.

e. This includes the SSTI Lewis spacecraft that began spinning out of control shortly after it achieved Earth orbit.

f. Counts OCS, OPAL, FALCONSAT, and ASUSAT microsatellites as one set, and The Picosats 4-8 as another set.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

99 APPENDIX A-2

World Record of Space Launches Successful

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)

People’s European

Calendar United USSR/ Republic United Space

Year States CIS Francea Italya Japan of China Australia Kingdom Agency India Israel

1957 2

1958 5 1

1959 10 3

1960 16 3

1961 29 6

1962 52 20

1963 38 17

1964 57 30

1965 63 48 1

1966 73 44 1

1967 57 66 2 1 1

1968 45 74

1969 40 70

1970 28 81 2 1 b 1 1

1971 30 83 1 2 b 21 1

1972 30 74 1 1

1973 23 86

1974 22 81 2 b 1

1975 27 893123

1976 26 99 1 2

1977 24 98 2

1978 32 88 3 1

1979 16 87 2 1

1980 13 89 2 1

1981 18 98 3 1 2 1

1982 18 101 1 1

1983 22 98 3 1 2 1

1984 22 97 3 3 4

1985 17 98 2 1 3

1986 6 91 2 2 2

1987 8 95 3 2 2

1988 12 90 2 4 7

1989 17 74 2 7 1

1990 27 75 3 5 5 1

1991 20 c 62 2 1 9 1

1992 31 c 55 2 3 7 b 2

1993 24 c 45 1 1 7 b 

1994 26 c 49 2 5 6 b 2

1995 27 c 33 b 1 2 b 12 b 1

1996 32 c 25 1 3 d 10 1

1997 37 19 2 6 11 1

1998 36 25 2 6 11

1999 30 29 4 10 1

2000 21 27 3 7

(through September 30, 2000)

TOTAL 1,197 3,625 10 8 54 61 1 1 125 11 3

a. Since 1979, all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA.

b. Includes foreign launches of U.S. spacecraft.

c. This includes commercial expendable launches and launches of the Space Shuttle, but because this table records launches rather than spacecraft, it does

not include separate spacecraft released from the Shuttle.

d. This includes the launch of ChinaSat 7, even though a third stage rocket failure led to a virtually useless orbit for this communications satellite.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

100 APPENDIX B

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1999–September 30, 2000

Launch Date Apogee and

Spacecraft Name Perigee (km),

COSPAR Designation Period (min),

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

Oct. 7, 1999 Global Positioning 21,164 km

Navstar 46 (USA 145) System (GPS) 20,097 km

55A navigation satellite 736.2 min

Delta II 53.1°

Nov. 23, 1999 UHF Follow on 10 Geosynchronous

UFO 10 is a military

63A communications

Atlas IIA satellite

Dec. 4, 1999 Communications 834 km

Orbcomm A-G satellite 830 km

65A-G 101.5 min

*Pegasus XL 45°

Dec. 12, 1999 Quasi-military 851 km Uses visible,

DMSP F15 (USA 147) satellite 837 km infrared, and

67A 101.8 min microwave imagers

Titan 98.9° to monitor weather.

Dec. 18, 1999 Weather Satellite 685 km Joint spacecraft with

Terra 654 km Japan and Canada.

68A 98.1 min

Atlas IIAS 98.2°

Dec. 20, 1999 Hubble Space 609 km

STS-103 Telescope servicing 563 km

69A mission 96.4 min

Space Shuttle 28.5°

Dec. 21, 1999 Experimental 710 km South Korean

Kompsat remote sensing 688 km spacecraft.

70A satellite 98.8 min

*Taurus 98.3°

Dec. 21, 1999 Solar science 727 km Carries active

ACRIMSAT satellite 683 km cavity radiometer

70B 99 min irradiance monitor

Taurus 98.3° instrument.

Jan. 21, 2000 Military Geosynchronous Defense Satellite

DSCS 3 (USA 148) communications Communications

1A satellite System 3.

Atlas II

Jan. 27, 2000 Military 773 km Joint air force

JAWSAT minisatellite 773 km Academy-Weber

4A 100.4 min state university

Minuteman 100.2° SATellite launched

OCS, OPAL

FALCONSAT, and

ASUSAT

microsatellite.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

APPENDIX B 101

(Continued)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1999–September 30, 2000

Launch Date Apogee and

Spacecraft Name Perigee (km),

COSPAR Designation Period (min),

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

Jan. 27, 2000 Military 773 km Optical Calibration

OCS microsatellite 773 km Sphere

4B 100.4 min

Minuteman 100.2°

Jan. 27, 2000 Military 773 km Orbiting

OPAL microsatellite 773 km Picosatellite

4C 100.4 min Automated

Minuteman 100.2° Launcher

Jan. 27, 2000 Military 773 km

FALCONSAT microsatellite 773 km

4D 100.4 min

Minuteman 100.2°

Jan. 27, 2000 Military 773 km Arizona State

ASUSAT microsatellite 773 km University

4E 100.4 min SATellite

Minuteman 100.2°

Jan. 27, 2000 Engineering student 805 km Tethered

Picosats 4-8 experimental 750 km picosatellites were

4H-M satellites 100.4 min launched by OPAL.

Minuteman 100.2°

Feb. 3, 2000 Communications Geosynchronous Spanish spacecraft.

Hispasat satellite

7A

*Atlas IIAS

Feb. 8, 2000 Communications 930 km Final members of

Globalstar A-D satellites 914 km Globalstar fleet,

8A-D 103.5 min now totaling 52

*Delta II 52° min members including

4 reserves.

Feb. 11, 2000 Earth mapping 242 km Joint NASA-NIMA

STS-99 mission 224 km (National Imagery

10A 89.2 min and Mapping

Space Shuttle 57° Agency) mission to

produce a 3-D map

of 70% of global

terrain.

Mar. 12, 2000 Quasi-military 614 km Multi-spectral

MTI reconnaissance 577 km Thermal Imager

14A satellite 96.6 min

Taurus 97.4°
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

102 APPENDIX B

(Continued)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1999–September 30, 2000

Launch Date Apogee and

Spacecraft Name Perigee (km),

COSPAR Designation Period (min),

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

Mar. 25, 2000 Magnetospheric 45,995 km Imager for

IMAGE science satellite 993 km Magnetopause-to17A 856 min Aurora Global

Delta II 89.9° Exploration

May 3, 2000 Weather satellite Geosynchronous

GOES 11

22A

Atlas IIA/Centaur

May 8, 2000 Military Geosynchronous

DSP 20 (USA 149) reconnaissance

24A satellite

Titan IVB

May 11, 2000 GPS navigation 20,200 km

Navstar 51 (USA 150) satellite 20,200 km

25A 712 min

Delta II 55°

May 19, 2000 Repair and upgrade 320 km

STS-101 International Space 320 km

27A Station (ISS) 91 min

Space Shuttle 51.6°

May 25, 2000 Communications Geosynchronous European

Eutelsat W4 satellite spacecraft.

28A

*Atlas IIIA

June 7, 2000 Military satellite 1,704 km Tri-service

TSX 5 404 km eXperiments 5

30A 106 min satellite is designed

*Pegasus XL 69° to monitor other

spacecraft and

aircraft.

June 30, 2000 Tracking and Data Geosynchronous

TDRS 8 Relay Satellite

34A

Atlas IIA

July 14, 2000 Communications Geosynchronous

Echostar 6 satellite

38A

*Atlas IIAS

July 16, 2000 Navigational 20,456 km

Navstar 48 (USA 151) satellite 167 km

40A 358 min

Delta II 39°
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

APPENDIX B 103

(Continued)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1998–September 30, 1999

Launch Date Apogee and

Spacecraft Name Perigee (km),

COSPAR Designation Period (min),

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

July 19, 2000 Experimental Orbital parameters

Mightysat 2.1 technology military unknown

42A satellite

Minotaur

Aug. 17, 2000 Military-intelligence Orbital parameters Joint militaryUSA 152 satellite unknown National

47A Reconnaissance

Titan IVB Office radar imaging

mission.

Aug. 23, 2000 Dummy satellite to 20,634 km

DM-F3 test launch 192 km

48A capability of new 361 min

*Delta III Delta III vehicle 27.6°

Sept. 8, 2000 Resupply and repair 386 km

STS-106 mission to the ISS 375 km

53A 92.2 min

Space Shuttle 51.6°

Sept. 21, 2000 Weather satellite 850 km

NOAA 16 843 km

55A 102.1 min

Titan II 98.8°

* Commercial launch licensed as such by the Federal Aviation Administration. More launch data are available at

http://ast.faa.gov/launch/history.cfm.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

104
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

105 APPENDIX C

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Vostok 1 Apr. 12, 1961 Yury A. Gagarin 0:1:48 First human flight.

Mercury-Redstone 3 May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 0:0:15 First U.S. flight; suborbital.

Mercury-Redstone 4 July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 0:0:16 Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; 

astronaut safe.

Vostok 2 Aug. 6, 1961 German S. Titov 1:1:18 First flight exceeding 24 hrs.

Mercury-Atlas 6 Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 0:4:55 First American to orbit.

Mercury-Atlas 7 May 24, 1962 M. Scott Carpenter 0:4:56 Landed 400 km beyond target.

Vostok 3 Aug. 11, 1962 Andriyan G. Nikolayev 3:22:25 First dual mission (with Vostok 4).

Vostok 4 Aug. 12, 1962 Pavel R. Popovich 2:22:59 Came within 6 km of Vostok 3.

Mercury-Atlas 8 Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 0:9:13 Landed 8 km from target.

Mercury-Atlas 9 May 15, 1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 1:10:20 First U.S. flight exceeding 24 hrs.

Vostok 5 June 14, 1963 Valery F. Bykovskiy 4:23:6 Second dual mission (with Vostok 6).

Vostok 6 June 16, 1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 2:22:50 First woman in space; within 5 km of Vostok 5.

Voskhod 1 Oct. 12, 1964 Vladimir M. Komarov 1:0:17 First three-person crew.

Konstantin P. Feoktistov

Boris G. Yegorov

Voskhod 2 Mar. 18, 1965 Pavel I. Belyayev 1:2:2 First extravehicular activity (EVA), by Leonov, 

10 min.

Aleksey A. Leonov

Gemini 3 Mar. 23, 1965 Virgil I. Grissom 0:4:53 First U.S. two-person flight; first manual 

John W. Young maneuvers in orbit.

Gemini 4 June 3, 1965 James A. McDivitt 4:1:56 21-min. EVA (White).

Edward H. White, II

Gemini 5 Aug. 21, 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 7:22:55 Longest duration human flight to date.

Charles Conrad, Jr.

Gemini 7 Dec. 4, 1965 Frank Borman 13:18:35 Longest human flight to date.

James A. Lovell, Jr.

Gemini 6-A Dec. 15, 1965 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 1:1:51 Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7.

Thomas P. Stafford

Gemini 8 Mar. 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong 0:10:41 First docking of two orbiting spacecraft

David R. Scott (Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket).

Gemini 9-A June 3, 1966 Thomas P. Stafford 3:0:21 EVA; rendezvous.

Eugene A. Cernan

Gemini 10 July 18, 1966 John W. Young 2:22:47 First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

Michael Collins Agena 10, then Agena 8).

Gemini 11 Sep. 12, 1966 Charles Conrad, Jr. 2:23:17 First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km.).

Gemini 12 Nov. 11, 1966 James A. Lovell, Jr. 3:22:35 Longest EVA to date (Aldrin, 5 hrs.).

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.

Soyuz 1 Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. Komarov 1:2:37 Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident.

Apollo 7 Oct. 11, 1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 10:20:9 First U.S. three-person mission.

Donn F. Eisele

R. Walter Cunningham

Soyuz 3 Oct. 26, 1968 Georgiy T. Beregovoy 3:22:51 Maneuvered near uncrewed Soyuz 2.

Apollo 8 Dec. 21, 1968 Frank Borman 6:3:1 First human orbit(s) of Moon; first human 

James A. Lovell, Jr. departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; 

William A. Anders highest speed attained in human flight to date.

Soyuz 4 Jan. 14, 1969 Vladimir A. Shatalov 2:23:23 Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred two 

Soyuz 5 Jan. 15, 1969 Boris V. Volynov 3:0:56 cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4.

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov

Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 James A. McDivitt 10:1:1 Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of 

David R. Scott lunar module to landing and takeoff from lunar 

Russell L. Schweickart surface and rejoining with command module. 
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

106 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 Thomas P. Stafford 8:0:3 Successfully demonstrated complete system, 

John W. Young including lunar module to 14,300 m from the 

Eugene A. Cernan lunar surface.

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 Neil A. Armstrong 8:3:9 First human landing on lunar surface and safe 

Michael Collins return to Earth. First return of rock and soil 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. samples to Earth and human deployment of 

experiments on lunar surface.

Soyuz 6 Oct. 11, 1969 Georgiy Shonin 4:22:42 Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

Valery N. Kubasov without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments,

Soyuz 7 Oct. 12, 1969 A. V. Filipchenko 4:22:41 including welding and Earth and celestial 

Viktor N. Gorbatko observation.

Vladislav N. Volkov

Soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969 Vladimir A. Shatalov 4:22:50

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev

Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 10:4:36 Second human lunar landing explored surface of 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. Moon and retrieved parts of Surveyor 3 

Alan L. Bean spacecraft, which landed in Ocean of Storms 

on Apr. 19, 1967.

Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 James A. Lovell, Jr. 5:22:55 Mission aborted; explosion in service module. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. Ship circled Moon, with crew using Lunar 

John L. Swigert, Jr. Module as “lifeboat” until just before reentry. 

Soyuz 9 June 1, 1970 Andriyan G. Nikolayev 17:16:59 Longest human space flight to date.

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov

Apollo 14 Jan. 31, 1971 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 9:0:2 Third human lunar landing. Mission demonStuart A. Roosa strated pinpoint landing capability and 

Edgar D. Mitchell continued human exploration.

Soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 Vladimir A. Shatalov 1:23:46 Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev space station launched Apr. 19. Crew 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov recovered Apr. 24, 1971.

Soyuz 11 June 6, 1971 Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 23:18:22 Docked with Salyut 1, and Soyuz 11 crew 

Vladislav N. Volkov occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

Viktor I. Patsayev perished in final phase of Soyuz 11 capsule 

recovery on June 30, 1971.

Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 David R. Scott 12:7:12 Fourth human lunar landing and first Apollo “J” 

Alfred M. Worden series mission, which carried Lunar Roving 

James B. Irwin Vehicle. Worden’s inflight EVA of 38 min., 

12 sec. was performed during return trip.

Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972 John W. Young 11:1:51 Fifth human lunar landing, with roving vehicle.

Charles M. Duke, Jr.

Thomas K. Mattingly II

Apollo 17 Dec. 7, 1972 Eugene A. Cernan 12:13:52 Sixth and final Apollo human lunar landing, 

Harrison H. Schmitt again with roving vehicle.

Ronald E. Evans

Skylab 2 May 25, 1973 Charles Conrad, Jr. 28:0:50 Docked with Skylab 1 (launched uncrewed May 

Joseph P. Kerwin 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged station.

Paul J. Weitz

Skylab 3 July 28, 1973 Alan L. Bean 59:11:9 Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days.

Jack R. Lousma

Owen K. Garriott

Soyuz 12 Sep. 27, 1973 Vasiliy G. Lazarev 1:23:16 Checkout of improved Soyuz.

Oleg G. Makarov
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

107 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Skylab 4 Nov. 16, 1973 Gerald P. Carr 84:1:16 Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; 

Edward G. Gibson last of Skylab program.

William R. Pogue

Soyuz 13 Dec. 18, 1973 Petr I. Klimuk 7:20:55 Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources 

Valentin V. Lebedev experiments.

Soyuz 14 July 3, 1974 Pavel R. Popovich 15:17:30 Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew 

Yury P. Artyukhin occupied space station.

Soyuz 15 Aug. 26, 1974 Gennady V. Sarafanov 2:0:12 Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3.

Lev S. Demin

Soyuz 16 Dec. 2, 1974 Anatoly V. Filipchenko 5:22:24 Test of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov configuration.

Soyuz 17 Jan. 10, 1975 Aleksey A. Gubarev 29:13:20 Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station.

Georgiy M. Grechko

Anomaly (Soyuz 18A) Apr. 5, 1975 Vasiliy G. Lazarev 0:0:20 Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered 

Oleg G. Makarov after abort.

Soyuz 18 May 24, 1975 Petr I. Klimuk 62:23:20 Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station.

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov

Soyuz 19 July 15, 1975 Aleksey A. Leonov 5:22:31 Target for Apollo in docking and joint 

Valery N. Kubasov experiments of ASTP mission.

Apollo July 15, 1975 Thomas P. Stafford 9:1:28 Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint (ASTP) 

Donald K. Slayton experiments of ASTP mission.

Vance D. Brand

Soyuz 21 July 6, 1976 Boris V. Volynov 48:1:32 Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station.

Vitaliy M. Zholobov

Soyuz 22 Sep. 15, 1976 Valery F. Bykovskiy 7:21:54 Earth resources study with multispectral camera 

Vladimir V. Aksenov system.

Soyuz 23 Oct. 14, 1976 Vyacheslav D. Zudov 2:0:6 Failed to dock with Salyut 5.

Valery I. Rozhdestvenskiy

Soyuz 24 Feb. 7, 1977 Viktor V. Gorbatko 17:17:23 Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station.

Yury N. Glazkov

Soyuz 25 Oct. 9, 1977 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 2:0:46 Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

Valery V. Ryumin station.

Soyuz 26 Dec. 10, 1977 Yury V. Romanenko 37:10:6 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Georgiy M. Grechko Soyuz 27; crew duration 96 days, 10 hrs.

Soyuz 27 Jan. 10, 1978 Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 64:22:53 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Oleg G. Makarov Soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days, 22 hrs., 59 min.

Soyuz 28 Mar. 2, 1978 Aleksey A. Gubarev 7:22:17 Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech 

Vladimir Remek cosmonaut to orbit.

Soyuz 29 June 15, 1978 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 9:15:23 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov crew duration 139 days, 14 hrs., 48 min.

Soyuz 30 June 27, 1978 Petr I. Klimuk 7:22:4 Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski Polish cosmonaut to orbit.

Soyuz 31 Aug. 26, 1978 Valery F. Bykovskiy 67:20:14 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; 

Sigmund Jaehn crew duration 7 days, 20 hrs., 49 min. 

Jaehn was first German Democratic Republic 

cosmonaut to orbit.

Soyuz 32 Feb. 25, 1979 Vladimir A. Lyakhov 108:4:24 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; 

Valery V. Ryumin crew duration 175 days, 36 min.

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov

Soyuz 33 Apr. 10, 1979 Georgi I. Ivanov 1:23:1 Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. 

Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit.

Soyuz 34 June 6, 1979 (unmanned at launch) 7:18:17 Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for 

Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned 

without a crew.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

108 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Soyuz 35 Apr. 9, 1980 Leonid I. Popov 55:1:29 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. 

Valery V. Ryumin Crew duration 184 days, 20 hrs., 12 min.

Soyuz 36 May 26, 1980 Valery N. Kubasov 65:20:54 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. 

Bertalan Farkas Crew duration 7 days, 20 hrs., 46 min. 

Farkas was first Hungarian to orbit.

Soyuz T-2 June 5, 1980 Yury V. Malyshev 3:22:21 Docked with Salyut 6. First crewed flight of newVladimir V. Aksenov generation ferry.

Soyuz 37 July 23, 1980 Viktor V. Gorbatko 79:15:17 Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 36. 

Pham Tuan Crew duration 7 days, 20 hrs., 42 min. 

Pham was first Vietnamese to orbit.

Soyuz 38 Sep. 18, 1980 Yury V. Romanenko 7:20:43 Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez to orbit.

Soyuz T-3 Nov. 27, 1980 Leonid D. Kizim 12:19:8 Docked with Salyut 6. First three-person flight 

Oleg G. Makarov in Soviet program since 1971.

Gennady M. Strekalov

Soyuz T-4 Mar. 12, 1981 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 74:18:38 Docked with Salyut 6.

Viktor P. Savinykh

Soyuz 39 Mar. 22, 1981 Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 7:20:43 Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian 

Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha cosmonaut to orbit.

Space Shuttle Apr .12, 1981 John W. Young 2:6:21 First flight of Space Shuttle; tested spacecraft in 

Columbia (STS-1) Robert L. Crippen orbit. First landing of airplane-like craft from

orbit for reuse.

Soyuz 40 May 14, 1981 Leonid I. Popov 7:20:41 Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian 

Dumitru Prunariu cosmonaut to orbit.

Space Shuttle Nov. 12, 1981 Joe H. Engle 2:6:13 Second flight of Space Shuttle; first scientific 

Columbia (STS-2) Richard H. Truly payload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator 

arm. Returned for reuse.

Space Shuttle Mar. 22, 1982 Jack R. Lousma 8:0:5 Third flight of Space Shuttle; second scientific 

Columbia (STS-3) C. Gordon Fullerton payload (OSS 1). Second test of remote 

manipulator arm. Flight extended 1 day 

because of flooding at primary landing site; 

alternate landing site used. Returned for reuse.

Soyuz T-5 May 13, 1982 Anatoly Berezovoy 211:9:5 Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 days. 

Valentin Lebedev Crew returned in Soyuz T-7.

Soyuz T-6 June 24, 1982 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 7:21:51 Docked with Salyut 7. Chrétien first French 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov cosmonaut to orbit.

Jean-Loup Chrétien

Space Shuttle June 27, 1982 Thomas K. Mattingly II 7:1:9 Fourth flight of Space Shuttle; first DoD payload; 

Columbia (STS-4) Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. additional scientific payloads. Returned July 4. 

Completed testing program. Returned for reuse.

Soyuz T-7 Aug. 19, 1982 Leonid Popov 7:21:52 Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second woman

Aleksandr Serebrov to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5.

Svetlana Savitskaya

Space Shuttle Nov. 11, 1982 Vance D. Brand 5:2:14 Fifth flight of Space Shuttle; first operational 

Columbia (STS-5) Robert F. Overmyer flight; launched two commercial satellites 

Joseph P. Allen (SBS 3 and Anik C-3); first flight with four 

William B. Lenoir crew members. EVA test canceled when 

spacesuits malfunctioned.

Space Shuttle Apr. 4, 1983 Paul J. Weitz 5:0:24 Sixth flight of Space Shuttle; launched TDRS-1.

Challenger (STS-6) Karol J. Bobko

Donald H. Peterson

F. Story Musgrave
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

109 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Soyuz T-8 Apr. 20, 1983 Vladimir Titov 2:0:18 Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 station.

Gennady Strekalov

Aleksandr Serebrov

Space Shuttle June 18, 1983 Robert L. Crippen 6:2:24 Seventh flight of Space Shuttle; launched two 

Challenger (STS-7) Frederick H. Hauck commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and Palapa 

John M. Fabian B-1); also launched and retrieved SPAS 01; 

Sally K. Ride first flight with five crew members, including 

Norman T. Thagard first woman U.S. astronaut.

Soyuz T-9 June 28, 1983 Vladimir Lyakhov 149:9:46 Docked with Salyut 7 station.

Aleksandr Aleksandrov

Space Shuttle Aug. 30, 1983 Richard H. Truly 6:1:9 Eighth flight of Space Shuttle; launched one 

Challenger (STS-8) Daniel C. Brandenstein commercial satellite (Insat 1-B); first flight of 

Dale A. Gardner U.S. black astronaut.

Guion S. Bluford, Jr.

William E. Thornton

Space Shuttle Nov. 28, 1983 John W. Young 10:7:47 Ninth flight of Space Shuttle; first flight of 

Columbia (STS-9) Brewster W. Shaw Spacelab 1; first flight of six crew members, 

Owen K. Garriott one of whom was West German; first non-U.S. 

Robert A. R. Parker astronaut to fly in U.S. space program 

Byron K. Lichtenberg (Merbold).

Ulf Merbold

Space Shuttle Feb. 3, 1984 Vance D. Brand 7:23:16 Tenth flight of Space Shuttle; two communicaChallenger Robert L. Gibson tion satellites failed to achieve orbit; first 

(STS 41-B) Bruce McCandless use of Manned Maneuvering Unit in space.

Ronald E. McNair

Robert L. Stewart

Soyuz T-10 Feb. 8, 1984 Leonid Kizim 62:22:43 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space 

Vladimir Solovev duration record of 237 days. Crew returned

Oleg Atkov in Soyuz T-11.

Soyuz T-11 Apr. 3, 1984 Yury Malyshev 181:21:48 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Gennady Strekalov Indian in space. Crew returned in 

Rakesh Sharma Soyuz T-10.

Space Shuttle Apr. 6, 1984 Robert L. Crippen 6:23:41 Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle; deployment of 

Challenger Francis R. Scobee Long-Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF-1) 

(STS 41-C) Terry J. Hart for later retrieval; Solar Maximum Satellite 

George D. Nelson retrieved, repaired, and redeployed.

James D. van Hoften

Soyuz T-12 July 17, 1984 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 11:19:14 Docked with Salyut 7 station. First female EVA.

Svetlana Savistskaya

Igor Volk

Space Shuttle Aug. 30, 1984 Henry W. Hartsfield 6:0:56 Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

Discovery Michael L. Coats U.S. nonastronaut.

(STS 41-D) Richard M. Mullane

Steven A. Hawley

Judith A. Resnik

Charles D. Walker

Space Shuttle Oct. 5, 1984 Robert L. Crippen 8:5:24 Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle; first with 

Challenger Jon A. McBride seven crew members, including first flight 

(STS 41-G) Kathryn D. Sullivan of two U.S. women and one Canadian 

Sally K. Ride (Garneau).

David Leestma

Paul D. Scully-Power

Marc Garneau
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

110 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle Nov. 8, 1984 Frederick H. Hauck 7:23:45 Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle; first retrieval 

Discovery David M. Walker and return of two disabled communications 

(STS 51-A) Joseph P. Allen satellites (Westar 6, Palapa B2) to Earth.

Anna L. Fisher

Dale A. Gardner

Space Shuttle Jan. 24, 1985 Thomas K. Mattingly 3:1:33 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission.

Discovery Loren J. Shriver

(STS 51-C) Ellison S. Onizuka

James F. Buchli

Gary E. Payton

Space Shuttle Apr. 12, 1985 Karol J. Bobko 6:23:55 Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications 

Discovery Donald E. Williams satellites. First U.S. Senator in space (Garn).

(STS 51-D) M. Rhea Seddon

S. David Griggs

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

Charles D. Walker

E. J. Garn

Space Shuttle Apr. 29, 1985 Robert F. Overmyer 7:0:9 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo bay 

Challenger Frederick D. Gregory of Shuttle. 

(STS 51-B) Don L. Lind

Norman E. Thagard

William E. Thornton

Lodewijk van den Berg

Taylor Wang

Soyuz T-13 June 5, 1985 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 112:3:12 Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to 

Viktor Savinykh Earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 spacecraft, 

Sept. 26, 1985.

Space Shuttle June 17, 1985 Daniel C. Brandenstein 7:1:39 Eighteenth STS flight. Three communications 

Discovery John O. Creighton satellites. One reusable payload, Spartan-1. 

(STS 51-G) Shannon W. Lucid First U.S. flight with French and Saudi 

John M. Fabian Arabian crew members.

Steven R. Nagel

Patrick Baudry

Prince Sultan Salman Al-Saud

Space Shuttle July 29, 1985 Charles G. Fullerton 7:22:45 Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo bay.

Challenger Roy D. Bridges

(STS 51-F) Karl C. Henize

Anthony W. England

F. Story Musgrave

Loren W. Acton

John-David F. Bartoe

Space Shuttle Aug. 27, 1985 Joe H. Engle 7:2:18 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three communiDiscovery Richard O. Covey cations satellites. Repaired Syncom IV-3.

(STS 51-I) James D. van Hoften

William F. Fisher

John M. Lounge

Soyuz T-14 Sep. 17, 1985 Vladimir Vasyutin 64:21:52 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Viktor Savinykh, 

Georgiy Grechko Aleksandr Volkov, and Vladimir Vasyutin 

Aleksandr Volkov returned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985, when 

Vasyutin became ill.

Space Shuttle Oct. 3, 1985 Karol J. Bobko 4:1:45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission.

Atlantis Ronald J. Grabe

(STS 51-J) Robert L. Stewart

David C. Hilmers

William A. Pailes
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

111 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle Oct. 30, 1985 Henry W. Hartsfield 7:0:45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated German 

Challenger Steven R. Nagel Spacelab D-1 in shuttle cargo bay. 

(STS 61-A) Bonnie J. Dunbar

James F. Buchli

Guion S. Bluford, Jr.

Ernst Messerschmid

Reinhard Furrer (FRG)

Wubbo J. Ockels (ESA)

Space Shuttle Nov. 26, 1985 Brewster H. Shaw 6:21:4 Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three comAtlantis Bryan D. O’Connor munications satellites. First flight of Mexican 

(STS 61-B) Mary L. Cleave astronaut (Neri Vela).

Sherwood C. Spring

Jerry L. Ross

Rudolfo Neri Vela

Charles D. Walker

Space Shuttle Jan. 12, 1986 Robert L. Gibson 6:2:4 Twenty-fourth STS flight. Launched one comColumbia Charles F. Bolden Jr. munications satellite. First member of U.S. 

(STS 61-C) Franklin Chang-Díaz House of Representatives in space (Bill

Steve A. Hawley Nelson).

George D. Nelson

Robert Cenker

Bill Nelson

Soyuz T-15 Mar. 13, 1986 Leonid Kizim 125:1:1 Docked with Mir space station on May 5/6

Vladimir Solovyov transferred to Salyut 7 complex. On June 25/26 

transferred from Salyut 7 back to Mir.

Soyuz TM-2 Feb. 5, 1987 Yury Romanenko 174:3:26 Docked with Mir space station. Romanenko 

Aleksandr Laveykin established long-distance stay in space record 

of 326 days.

Soyuz TM-3 July 22, 1987 Aleksandr Viktorenko 160:7:16 Docked with Mir space station. Aleksandr 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov Aleksandrov remained in Mir 160 days, 

Mohammed Faris returned with Yury Romanenko. Viktorenko 

and Faris returned in Soyuz TM-2, July 30, 

with Aleksandr Laveykin who experienced 

medical problems. Faris first Syrian in space.

Soyuz TM-4 Dec. 21, 1987 Vladimir Titov 180:5 Docked with Mir space station. Crew of Yury 

Musa Manarov Romanenko, Aleksandr Aleksandrov, and 

Anatoly Levchenko Anatoly Levchenko returned Dec. 29 in

Soyuz TM-3.

Soyuz TM-5 June 7, 1988 Viktor Savinykh 9:20:13 Docked with Mir space station; Aleksandrov first 

Anatoly Solovyev Bulgarian in space. Crew returned Jun. 17 in 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov Soyuz TM-4.

Soyuz TM-6 Aug. 29, 1988 Vladimir Lyakhov 8:19:27 Docked with Mir space station; Mohmand first 

Valery Polyakov Afghanistani in space. Crew returned Sept. 7,

Abdul Mohmand in Soyuz TM-5.

Space Shuttle Sep. 29, 1988 Frederick H. Hauck 4:1 Twenty-sixth STS flight. Launched TDRS-3.

Discovery (STS-26) Richard O. Covey

John M. Lounge

David C. Hilmers

George D. Nelson

Soyuz TM-7 Nov. 26, 1988 Aleksandr Volkov 151:11 Docked with Mir space station. Soyuz TM-6 

Sergey Krikalev returned with Chrétien, Vladimir Titov, 

Jean-Loup Chrétien and Musa Manarov. Titov and Manarov 

completed 366-day mission Dec. 21. Crew of

Krikalev, Volkov, and Valery Polyakov 

returned Apr. 27, 1989, in Soyuz TM-7.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

112 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle Dec. 2, 1988 Robert “Hoot” Gibson 4:9:6 Twenty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD 

Atlantis (STS-27) Guy S. Gardner mission.

Richard M. Mullane

Jerry L. Ross

William M. Shepherd

Space Shuttle Mar. 13, 1989 Michael L. Coats 4:23:39 Twenty-eighth STS flight. Launched TDRS-4. 

Discovery (STS-29) John E. Blaha

James P. Bagian

James F. Buchli

Robert C. Springer

Space Shuttle May 4, 1989 David M. Walker 4:0:57 Twenty-ninth STS flight. Venus orbiter 

Atlantis (STS-30) Ronald J. Grabe Magellan launched.

Norman E. Thagard

Mary L. Cleave

Mark C. Lee

Space Shuttle Aug. 8, 1989 Brewster H. Shaw 5:1 Thirtieth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission.

Columbia (STS-28) Richard N. Richards

James C. Adamson

David C. Leestma

Mark N. Brown

Soyuz TM-8 Sep. 5, 1989 Aleksandr Viktorenko 166:6 Docked with Mir space station. Crew of 

Aleksandr Serebrov Viktorenko and Serebrov returned in 

Soyuz TM-8, Feb. 9, 1990.

Space Shuttle Oct. 18, 1989 Donald E. Williams 4:23:39 Thirty-first STS flight. Launched Jupiter probe 

Atlantis (STS-34) Michael J. McCulley and orbiter Galileo. 

Shannon W. Lucid

Franklin R. Chang-Díaz 

Ellen S. Baker

Space Shuttle Nov. 22, 1989 Frederick D. Gregory 5:0:7 Thirty-second STS flight. Dedicated DoD 

Discovery (STS-33) John E. Blaha mission.

Kathryn C. Thornton 

F. Story Musgrave 

Manley L. “Sonny” Carter

Space Shuttle Jan. 9, 1990 Daniel C. Brandenstein 10:21 Thirty-third STS flight. Launched Syncom IV-5 

Columbia (STS-32) James D. Wetherbee and retrieved LDEF.

Bonnie J. Dunbar

Marsha S. Ivins

G. David Low

Soyuz TM-9 Feb. 11, 1990 Anatoly Solovyov 178:22:19 Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned 

Aleksandr Balandin Aug. 9, 1990, in Soyuz TM-9.

Space Shuttle Feb. 28, 1990 John O. Creighton 4:10:19 Thirty-fourth STS flight. Dedicated DoD 

Atlantis (STS-36) John H. Casper mission. 

David C. Hilmers

Richard H. Mullane

Pierre J. Thuot

Space Shuttle Apr. 24, 1990 Loren J. Shriver 5:1:16 Thirty-fifth STS flight. Launched Hubble Space 

Discovery (STS-31) Charles F. Bolden, Jr. Telescope (HST). 

Steven A. Hawley

Bruce McCandless II

Kathryn D. Sullivan

Soyuz TM-10 Aug. 1, 1990 Gennady Manakov 130:20:36 Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned 

Gennady Strekalov Dec. 10, 1990, with Toyohiro Akiyama, 

Japanese cosmonaut and journalist in space.
APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle Oct. 6, 1990 Richard N. Richards 4:2:10 Thirty-sixth STS flight. Ulysses spacecraft to 

Discovery (STS-41) Robert D. Cabana investigate interstellar space and the Sun. 

Bruce E. Melnick

William M. Shepherd

Thomas D. Akers

Space Shuttle Nov. 15, 1990 Richard O. Covey 4:21:55 Thirty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD 

Atlantis (STS-38) Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. mission.

Charles “Sam” Gemar

Robert C. Springer

Carl J. Meade

Space Shuttle Dec. 2, 1990 Vance D. Brand 8:23:5 Thirty-eighth STS flight. Astro-1 in cargo bay.

Columbia (STS-35) Guy S. Gardner

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

John M. “Mike” Lounge

Robert A. R. Parker

Samuel T. Durrance

Ronald A. Parise

Soyuz TM-11 Dec. 2, 1990 Viktor Afanasyev 175:01:52 Docked with Mir space station. Toyohiro 

Musa Manarov Akiyama returned Dec. 10, 1990, with 

Toyohiro Akiyama previous Mir crew of Gennady Manakov 

and Gennady Strekalov.

Space Shuttle Apr. 5, 1991 Steven R. Nagel 6:0:32 Thirty-ninth STS flight. Launched Gamma Ray 

Atlantis (STS-37) Kenneth D. Cameron Observatory to measure celestial gamma-rays.

Linda Godwin

Jerry L. Ross

Jay Apt

Space Shuttle Apr. 28, 1991 Michael L. Coats 8:7:22 Fortieth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission.

Discovery (STS-39) Blaine Hammond, Jr.

Gregory L. Harbaugh

Donald R. McMonagle

Guion S. Bluford, Jr.

Lacy Veach

Richard J. Hieb

Soyuz TM-12 May 18, 1991 Anatoly Artsebarskiy 144:15:22 Docked with Mir space station. Helen Sharman 

Sergei Krikalev first from United Kingdom to fly in space. 

Helen Sharman Crew of Viktor Afanasyev, Musa Manarov, 

and Helen Sharman returned May 20, 1991. 

Artsebarskiy and Krikalev remained on board 

Mir, with Artsebarskiy returning Oct. 10, 1991, 

and Krikalev doing so Mar. 25, 1992.

Space Shuttle June 5, 1991 Bryan D. O’Connor 9:2:15 Forty-first STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life 

Columbia (STS-40) Sidney M. Gutierrez Sciences (SLS-1) in cargo bay.

James P. Bagian

Tamara E. Jernigan

M. Rhea Seddon

Francis A. “Drew” Gaffney

Millie Hughes-Fulford

Space Shuttle Aug. 2, 1991 John E. Blaha 8:21:21 Forty-second STS flight. Launched fourth 

Atlantis (STS-43) Michael A. Baker Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

Shannon W. Lucid (TDRS-5).

G. David Low

James C. Adamson

Space Shuttle Sep. 12, 1991 John Creighton 5:8:28 Forty-third STS flight. Launched Upper 

Discovery (STS-48) Kenneth Reightler, Jr. Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS).

Charles D. Gemar

James F. Buchli

Mark N. Brown

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

113
APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Soyuz TM-13 Oct. 2, 1991 Aleksandr Volkov 90:16:00 Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned 

Toktar Aubakirov Oct. 10, 1991, with Anatoly Artsebarskiy

(Kazakh Republic) in the TM-12 spacecraft.

Franz Viehboeck (Austria)

Space Shuttle Nov. 24, 1991 Frederick D. Gregory 6:22:51 Forty-fourth STS flight. Launched Defense 

Atlantis (STS-44) Tom Henricks Support Program (DSP) satellite.

Jim Voss

F. Story Musgrave

Mario Runco, Jr.

Tom Hennen

Space Shuttle Jan. 22, 1992 Ronald J. Grabe 8:1:15 Forty-fifth STS flight. Carried International 

Discovery (STS-42) Stephen S. Oswald Microgravity Laboratory-1 in cargo bay.

Norman E. Thagard

David C. Hilmers

William F. Readdy

Roberta L. Bondar

Ulf Merbold (ESA)

Soyuz TM-14 Mar. 17, 1992 Aleksandr Viktorenko 145:15:11 First manned CIS space mission. Docked with 

Aleksandr Kaleri Mir space station Mar. 19. The TM-13 

Klaus-Dietrich Flade capsule with Flade, Aleksandr Volkov, and 

(Germany) Sergei Krikalev returned to Earth Mar. 25. 

Krikalev had been in space 313 days.

Viktorenko and Kaleri remained on the 

Mir space station.

Space Shuttle Mar. 24, 1992 Charles F. Bolden 8:22:9 Forty-sixth STS flight. Carried Atmospheric 

Atlantis (STS-45) Brian Duffy Laboratory for Applications and Science 

Kathryn D. Sullivan (ATLAS-1).

David C. Leestma

Michael Foale

Dirk D. Frimout

Byron K. Lichtenberg

Space Shuttle May 7, 1992 Daniel C. Brandenstein 8:21:18 Forty-seventh STS flight. Reboosted a crippled 

Endeavour (STS-49) Kevin P. Chilton INTELSAT VI communications satellite.

Richard J. Hieb

Bruce E. Melnick

Pierre J. Thuot

Kathryn C. Thornton

Thomas D. Akers

Space Shuttle June 25, 1992 Richard N. Richards 13:19:30 Forty-eighth STS flight. Carried U.S. 

Columbia (STS-50) Kenneth D. Bowersox Microgravity Laboratory-1.

Bonnie Dunbar

Ellen Baker

Carl Meade

Lawrence J. DeLucas

Eugene H. Trinh

Soyuz TM-15 July 27, 1992 Anatoly Solovyov 189:17:43 Docked with Mir space station July 29. Tognini 

Sergei Avdeyev returned to Earth in TM-14 capsule with 

Michel Tognini (France) Aleksandr Viktorenko and Aleksandr Kaleri. 

Solovyov and Avdeyev spent over six months 

in the Mir orbital complex and returned to 

Earth in the descent vehicle of the TM-15 

spacecraft on Feb. 1, 1993. 

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

114
APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle Jul. 31, 1992 Loren J. Shriver 7:23:16 Forty-ninth STS flight. Deployed Tethered 

Atlantis (STS-46) Andrew M. Allen Satellite System-1 and Eureca 1.

Claude Nicollier (ESA)

Marsha S. Ivins

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

Franklin R. Chang-Díaz

Franco Malerba (Italy)

Space Shuttle Sep. 12, 1992 Robert L. Gibson 7:22:30 Fiftieth STS flight. Carried Spacelab J. Jemison 

Endeavour (STS-47) Curtis L. Brown, Jr. first African American woman to fly in

Mark C. Lee space. Mohri first Japanese to fly on NASA 

Jerome Apt spacecraft. Lee and Davis first married couple 

N. Jan Davis in space together.

Mae C. Jemison

Mamoru Mohri 

Space Shuttle Oct. 22, 1992 James D. Wetherbee 9:20:57 Fifty-first STS flight. Studied influence of 

Columbia (STS-52) Michael A. Baker gravity on basic fluid and solidification 

William M. Shepherd processes using U.S. Microgravity 

Tamara E. Jernigan Payload-1 in an international mission. 

Charles L. Veach Deployed second Laser Geodynamics Satellite 

Steven G. MacLean and Canadian Target Assembly.

Space Shuttle Dec. 2, 1992 David M. Walker 7:7:19 Fifty-second STS flight. Deployed the last major 

Discovery (STS-53) Robert D. Cabana DoD classified payload planned for Shuttle 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. (DoD 1) with ten different secondary payloads.

James S. Voss

Michael Richard Clifford

Space Shuttle Jan. 13, 1993 John H. Casper 5:23:39 Fifty-third STS flight. Deployed Tracking and 

Endeavour (STS-54) Donald R. McMonagle Data Relay Satellite-6. Operated Diffused 

Gregory J. Harbaugh X-ray Spectrometer Hitchhiker experiment to 

Mario Runco, Jr. collect data on stars and galactic gases.

Susan J. Helms

Soyuz TM-16 Jan. 24, 1993 Gennady Manakov 179:0:44 Docked with Mir space station Jan. 26. On 

Aleksandr Poleschuk July 22, 1993, the TM-16 descent cabin 

landed back on Earth with Manakov, 

Poleschuk, and French cosmonaut Jean-Pierre 

Haignere from Soyuz TM-17 on board.

Space Shuttle Apr. 8, 1993 Kenneth D. Cameron 9:6:9 Fifty-fourth STS flight. Completed second flight 

Discovery (STS-56) Stephen S. Oswald of Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications 

C. Michael Foale and Science and deployed Spartan-201.

Kenneth D. Cockerell

Ellen Ochoa

Space Shuttle Apr. 26, 1993 Steven R. Nagel 9:23:39 Fifty-fifth STS flight. Completed second 

Columbia (STS-55) Terence T. Henricks German microgravity research program in 

Jerry L. Ross Spacelab D-2.

Charles J. Precourt

Bernard A. Harris, Jr.

Ulrich Walter (Germany)

Hans W. Schlegel (Germany)

Space Shuttle June 21, 1993 Ronald J. Grabe 9:23:46 Fifty-sixth STS flight. Carried Spacelab comEndeavour (STS-57) Brian J. Duffy mercial payload module and retrieved 

G. David Low European Retrievable Carrier in orbit since

Nancy J. Sherlock August 1992.

Peter J. K. Wisoff

Janice E. Voss

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

115
APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Soyuz TM-17 July 1, 1993 Vasiliy Tsibliyev 196:17:45 Docked with Mir space station July 3. Haignere 

Aleksandr Serebrov returned to Earth with Soyuz TM-16. Serebrov

Jean-Pierre Haignere and Tsibliyev landed in TM-17 spacecraft on

Jan. 14, 1994.

Space Shuttle Sep. 12, 1993 Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. 9:20:11 Fifty-seventh STS flight. Deployed ACTS 

Discovery (STS-51) William F. Readdy satellite to serve as testbed for new 

James H. Newman communications satellite technology and 

Daniel W. Bursch U.S./German ORFEUS-SPAS.

Carl E. Walz

Space Shuttle Oct. 18, 1993 John E. Blaha 14:0:29 Fifty-eighth STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life 

Columbia (STS-58) Richard A. Searfoss Sciences-2 payload to determine the effects 

Shannon W. Lucid of microgravity on M. Rhea Seddon 

David A. Wolf and animal subjects.

William S. McArthur

Martin J. Fettman

Space Shuttle Dec. 2, 1993 Richard O. Covey 10:19:58 Fifty-ninth STS flight. Restored planned 

Endeavour (STS-61) Kenneth D. Bowersox scientific capabilities and reliability of the

Tom Akers Hubble Space Telescope.

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

Kathryn C. Thornton

Claude Nicollier

F. Story Musgrave

Soyuz TM-18 Jan. 8, 1994 Viktor Afanasyev 182:0:27 Docked with Mir space station Jan. 10. 

Yuri Usachev Afanasyev and Usachev landed in the TM-18

Valery Polyakov spacecraft on July 9, 1994. Polyakov remained

aboard Mir in the attempt to establish a new

record for endurance in space.

Space Shuttle Feb. 3, 1994 Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 8:7:9 Sixtieth STS flight. Carried the Wake Shield 

Discovery (STS-60) Kenneth S. Reightler, Jr. Facility to generate new semi-conductor 

N. Jan Davis films for advanced electronics. Also carried 

Ronald M. Sega SPACEHAB. Krikalev’s presence signified a

Franklin R. Chang-Díaz new era in cooperation in space between

Sergei K. Krikalev (Russia) Russia and the United States.

Space Shuttle Mar. 4, 1994 John H. Casper 13:23:17 Sixty-first STS flight. Carried U.S. Microgravity 

Columbia (STS-62) Andrew M. Allen Payload-2 to conduct experiments in materials

Pierre J. Thuot processing, biotechnology, and other areas.

Charles D. Gemar

Marsha S. Ivins

Space Shuttle Apr. 9, 1994 Sidney M. Gutierrez 11:5:50 Sixty-second STS flight. Carried the Space 

Endeavour (STS-59) Kevin P. Chilton Radar Laboratory-1 to gather data on the 

Jerome Apt Earth and the effects humans have on its

Michael R. Clifford carbon, water, and energy cycles.

Linda M. Godwin

Thomas D. Jones

Soyuz TM-19 July 1, 1994 Yuri I. Malenchenko 125:22:53 Docked with Mir space station July 3. Both 

Talgat A. Musabayev Malenchenko and Musabayev returned to 

Earth with the Soyuz TM-19 spacecraft, 

landing in Kazakhstan on Nov. 4 together 

with Ulf Merbold of Germany, who went up

aboard Soyuz TM-20 on Oct 3, 1994. 

Merbold gathered biological samples on the 

effects of weightlessness on the human body

body in the first of two ESA missions to Mir 

to prepare for the International Space 

Station.

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

116
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

117 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle July 8, 1994 Robert D. Cabana 14:17:55 Sixty-third STS flight. Carried International 

Columbia (STS-65) James D. Halsell, Jr. Microgravity Laboratory-2 to conduct research

Richard J. Hieb into the behavior of materials and life in near 

Carl E. Walz weightlessness.

Leroy Chiao

Donald A. Thomas

Chiaki Naito-Mukai (Japan)

Space Shuttle Sep. 9, 1994 Richard N. Richards 10:22:50 Sixty-fourth STS flight. Used LIDAR In-Space 

Discovery (STS-64) L. Blaine Hammond, Jr. Technology Experiment to perform atmosJ. M. Linenger pheric research. Included the first untethered 

Susan J. Helms spacewalk by astronauts in over 10 years.

Carl J. Meade

Mark C. Lee

Space Shuttle Sep. 30, 1994 Michael A. Baker 11:5:36 Sixty-fifth STS flight. Used Space Radar 

Endeavour (STS-68) Terrence W. Wilcutt Laboratory-2 to provide scientists with data to

Thomas D. Jones help distinguish human-induced environmental

Steven L. Smith change from other natural forms of change.

Daniel W. Bursch

Peter J. K. Wisoff

Soyuz TM-20 Oct. 3, 1994 Aleksandr Viktorenko * Soyuz TM-19 returned to Earth on Nov. 4, 1994, 

Yelena Kondakova with Yuri Malenchenko, Talgat Musabayev, 

Ulf Merbold (ESA) and Ulf Merbold. Valeriy Polyakov remained

aboard Mir.

Space Shuttle Nov. 3, 1994 Donald R. McMonagle 10:22:34 Sixty-sixth STS flight. Three main payloads: the

Atlantis (STS-66) Curtis L. Brown, Jr. third Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications 

Ellen Ochoa and Science (ATLAS-3), the first Cryogenic 

Joseph R. Tanner Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for the 

Jean-François Clervoy (ESA) Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite (CRISTAScott E. Parazynski SPAS-1), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter

Ultraviolet (SSBUV) spectrometer. Astronauts

also conducted protein crystal growth

experiments.

Space Shuttle Feb. 3, 1995 James D. Wetherbee 8:6:28 Sixty-seventh STS flight. Primary objective: first 

Discovery (STS-63) Eileen M. Collins close encounter in nearly 20 years between 

Bernard A. Harris, Jr. American and Russian spacecraft as a prelude 

C. Michael Foale to establishment of International Space 

Janice E. Voss Station. (Shuttle flew close by to Mir.) Main 

Vladimir G. Titov (Russia) Payloads: Spacehab 3 experiments and Shuttle

Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for

Astronomy (Spartan) 204, Solid Surface

Combustion Experiment (SSCE), and Air 

Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) Calibration 

Test. Also launched very small Orbital Debris 

Radar Calibration Spheres (ODERACS).

Space Shuttle Mar. 2, 1995 Stephen S. Oswald 16:15:8 Sixty-eighth STS flight. Longest Shuttle mission 

Endeavour (STS-67) William G. Gregory to date. Primary payload was a trio of ultraJohn M. Grunsfeld violet telescopes called Astro-2.

Wendy B. Lawrence

Tamara E. Jernigan

Ronald A. Parise

Samuel T. Durrance
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

118 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Soyuz TM-21 Mar. 14, 1995 Vladimir Dezhurov * Thagard was the first American astronaut to fly 

Gennadi Strekalov on a Russian rocket and to stay on the Mir 

Norman Thagard (U.S.) space station. Soyuz TM-20 returned to Earth

on Mar. 22, 1995, with Valeriy Polyakov, 

Alexsandr Viktorenko, and Yelena 

Kondakova. Polyakov set world record by 

remaining in space for 438 days.

Space Shuttle June 27, 1995 Robert L. Gibson 9:19:22 Sixty-ninth STS flight and one hundredth U.S. 

Atlantis (STS-71) Charles J. Precourt human space flight. Docked with Mir space 

Ellen S. Baker station. Brought up Mir 19 crew (Anatoly Y.

Gregory Harbaugh Solovyev and Nikolai M. Budarin). Returned 

Bonnie J. Dunbar to Earth with Mir 18 crew (Vladimir N. 

Dezhurov, Gennady M. Strekalov, and 

Norman Thagard). Thagard set an American 

record by remaining in space for 115 days.

Space Shuttle July 13, 1995 Terence Henricks 8:22:20 Seventieth STS flight. Deployed Tracking and 

Discovery (STS-70) Kevin R. Kregel Data Relay Satellite (TDRS). Also conducted 

Nancy J. Currie various biomedical experiments.

Donald A. Thomas

Mary Ellen Weber

Soyuz TM-22 Sep. 3, 1995 Yuri Gidzenko * Soyuz TM-21 returned to Earth on Sep. 11, 1995, 

Sergei Avdeev with Mir 19 crew (Anatoliy Solovyev and 

Thomas Reiter (ESA) Nikolay Budarin).

Space Shuttle Sep. 7, 1995 David M. Walker 10:20:28 Seventy-first STS flight. Deployed Wake Shield 

Endeavour (STS-69) Kenneth D. Cockrell Facility (WSF-2) and Spartan 201-03.

James S. Voss

James H. Newman

Michael L. Gernhardt

Space Shuttle Oct. 20, 1995 Kenneth D. Bowersox 15:21:52 Seventy-second STS flight. Carried out microColumbia (STS-73) Kent V. Rominger gravity experiments with the U.S. 

Catherine G. Coleman Microgravity Laboratory (USML-2) 

Michael Lopez-Alegria payload.

Kathryn C. Thornton

Fred W. Leslie

Albert Sacco, Jr.

Space Shuttle Nov. 12, 1995 Kenneth D. Cameron 8:4:31 Seventy-third STS flight. Docked with Mir 

Atlantis (STS-74) James D. Halsell, Jr. space station as part of International Space 

Chris A. Hadfield (CSA) Station (ISS) Phase I efforts.

Jerry L. Ross

William S. McArthur, Jr.

Space Shuttle Jan. 11, 1996 Brian Duffy 8:22:1 Seventy-fourth STS flight. Deployed OAST 

Endeavour (STS-72) Brent W. Jett, Jr. Flyer. Retrieved previously launched 

Leroy Chiao Japanese Space Flyer Unit satellite. Crew 

Winston E. Scott performed spacewalks to build experience 

Koichi Wakata (Japan) for ISS construction.

Daniel T. Barry

Soyuz TM-23 Feb. 21, 1996 Yuri Onufrienko * Soyuz TM-22 returned to Earth on Feb. 29, 1996, 

Yuri Usachyou with Mir 20 crew (Yuri Gidzenko, Sergei 

Avdeev, and Thomas Reiter).
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

119 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle Feb. 22, 1996 Andrew M. Allen 13:16:14 Seventy-fifth STS flight. Deployed Tethered 

Columbia (STS-75) Scott J. Horowitz Satellite System, U.S. Microgravity Payload 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman (USMP-3), and protein crystal growth 

Maurizio Cheli (ESA) experiments.

Claude Nicollier (ESA)

Franklin R. Chang-Díaz

Umberto Guidoni (ESA)

Space Shuttle Mar. 22, 1996 Kevin P. Chilton 9:5:16 Seventy-sixth STS flight. Docked with Mir 

Atlantis (STS-76) Richard A. Searfoss space station and left astronaut Shannon 

Linda M. Godwin Lucid aboard Mir. Also carried SPACEHAB 

Michael R. Clifford module.

Ronald M. Sega

Shannon W. Lucid**

Space Shuttle May 19, 1996 John H. Casper 10:2:30 Seventy-seventh STS flight. Deployed 

Endeavour (STS-77) Curtis L. Brown Spartan/Inflatable Antenna Experiment, 

Andrew S. W. Thomas SPACEHAB, and PAMS-STU payloads.

Daniel W. Bursch

Mario Runco, Jr.

Marc Garneau (CSA)

Space Shuttle June 20, 1996 Terrence T. Henricks 16:21:48 Seventy-eighth STS flight. Set Shuttle record

Columbia (STS-78) Kevin Kregel for then-longest flight. Carried Life and 

Richard M. Linnehan Microgravity Sciences Spacelab. 

Susan J. Helms

Charles E. Brady, Jr.

Jean-Jacques Favier (CSA)

Robert B. Thirsk (ESA)

Soyuz TM-24 Aug. 17, 1996 Claudie Andre-Deshays (ESA) * Soyuz TM-23 returned to Earth on Sep. 2, 1996,

Valery Korzun with Claudie Andre-Deshays, Yuri 

Alexander Kaleri Onufrienko, and Yuri Usachev.

Space Shuttle Sep. 16, 1996 William F. Readdy 10:3:19 Seventy-ninth STS flight. Docked with Mir 

Atlantis (STS-79) Terrence W. Wilcutt space station. Picked up astronaut Shannon 

Jerome Apt Lucid and dropped off astronaut John Blaha.

Thomas D. Akers

Carl E. Walz

John E. Blaha**

Shannon W. Lucid***

Space Shuttle Nov. 19, 1996 Kenneth D. Cockrell 17:15:53 Set record for longest Shuttle flight. At age 61, 

Columbia (STS-80) Kent V. Rominger Musgrave became oldest person to fly in 

Tamara E. Jernigan space. He also tied record for most space 

Thomas David Jones flights (six) by a single person. Crew 

F. Story Musgrave successfully deployed ORFEUS-SPAS II 

ultraviolet observatory and Wake Shield 

Facility payloads.

Space Shuttle Jan. 12, 1997 Michael A. Baker 10:4:56 Fifth Shuttle mission to Mir. Jerry Linenger 

Atlantis (STS-81) Brent W. Jett replaced John Blaha as U.S. resident on Mir. 

Peter J.K. “Jeff” Wisoff

John M. Grunsfeld

Marsha S. Ivins

Jerry M. Linenger**

John E. Blaha***
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

120 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Soyuz TM-25 Feb. 10, 1997 Vasily Tsibliev * Soyuz TM-24 returned to Earth on March 2, 

Aleksandr Lazutkin 1997, with Reinhold Ewald, Valery Korzun, 

Reinhold Ewald and Aleksandr Kaleri.

Space Shuttle Feb. 11, 1997 Kenneth D. Bowersox 9:23:36 Crew successfully performed second servicing 

Discovery (STS-82) Scott J. Horowitz mission of the Hubble Space Telescope. 

Joseph R. Tanner

Steven A. Hawley

Gregory J. Harbaugh

Mark C. Lee

Steven L. Smith

Space Shuttle Apr. 4, 1997 James D. Halsell, Jr. 3:23:34 Crew deployed a Spacelab module configured as 

Columbia (STS-83) Susan L. Still the first Microgravity Science Laboratory. 

Janice Voss Shuttle fuel cell malfunction necessitated an 

Michael L. Gernhardt early termination of the mission.

Donald A. Thomas

Roger K. Crouch

Gregory T. Linteris

Space Shuttle May 15, 1997 Charles J. Precourt 9:5:21 Sixth Shuttle mission to Mir. Michael Foale 

Atlantis (STS-84) Eileen Marie Collins replaced Jerry Linenger on Mir. 

Jean-François Clervoy

Carlos I. Noriega

Edward Tsang Lu

Elena V. Kondakova 

Michael Foale**

Jerry M. Linenger***

Space Shuttle July 1, 1997 James D. Halsell, Jr. 15:16:45 Reflight of STS-83 and the same payload, the 

Columbia (STS-94) Susan L. Still Microgravity Science Laboratory. Mission 

Janice Voss proceeded successfully.

Michael L. Gernhardt

Donald A. Thomas

Roger K. Crouch

Gregory T. Linteris

Soyuz TM-26 Aug. 5, 1997 Anatoly Solovyev * Soyuz TM-25 returned to Earth on August 14, 

Pavel Vinogradov 1997, with Vasily Tsibliev and Aleksandr 

Lazutkin.

Space Shuttle Aug. 7, 1997 Curtis L. Brown, Jr. 11:20:27 Crew successfully deployed two payloads: 

Discovery (STS-85) Kent V. Rominger CRISTA-SPAS-2 on infrared radiation and 

N. Jan Davis an international Hitchhiker package of four 

Robert L. Curbeam, Jr. experiments on ultraviolet radiation. The 

Stephen K. Robinson crew also successfully performed the Japanese 

Bjarni V. Tryggvason Manipulator Flight Demonstration of a 

robotic arm.

Space Shuttle Sep. 25, 1997 James D. Wetherbee 10:19:21 Seventh Shuttle docking with Mir. David Wolf 

Atlantis (STS-86) Michael J. Bloomfield replaced Michael Foale on Mir. Parazynski 

Scott E. Parazynski and Titov performed a spacewalk to retrieve 

Vladimir Titov four Mir Environmental Effects Payload 

Jean-Loup Chrétien experiments from the exterior of the docking 

Wendy B. Lawrence module and left a solar array cover cap for 

David A. Wolf** possible future repair of the damaged Spektr

C. Michael Foale*** module. 
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

121 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle Nov. 19, 1997 Kevin R. Kregel 15:16:34 Payloads included USMP-4, Spartan 201-04

Columbia (STS-87) Steven W. Lindsey free-flyer, Collaborative Ukrainian 

Kalpana Chawla Experiment (CUE) in space biology, and 

Winston E. Scott several other “hitchhiker” payloads.

Takao Doi

Leonid K. Kadenyuk

Space Shuttle Jan. 22, 1998 Terrence W. Wilcutt 8:19:47 Eighth Shuttle docking mission to Mir. Andrew

Endeavour (STS-89) Joe F. Edwards, Jr. Thomas replaced David Wolf on Mir. Shuttle

James F. Reilly II payloads included SPACEHAB double 

Michael P. Anderson module of science experiments.

Bonnie J. Dunbar

Salizhan S. Sharipov

Andrew S. Thomas**

David A. Wolf***

Soyuz TM-27 Jan. 29, 1998 Talgat Musabayev * Soyuz TM-26 left Mir and returned to Earth on

Nikolai Budarin February 19 with Anatoly Solovyev, Pavel

Leopold Eyharts Vinogradov, and Leopold Eyharts.

Space Shuttle Apr. 17, 1998 Richard A. Searfoss 15:21:50 Carried Neurolab module for microgravity 

Columbia (STS-90) Scott D. Altman research in the human nervous system. 

Richard M. Linnehan Secondary goals included measurement of

Kathryn P. Hire Shuttle vibration forces, demonstration of the

Dafydd Rhys Williams bioreactor system for cell growth, and three 

Jay Clark Buckey, Jr. Get Away Special payloads.

James A. Pawelczyk

Space Shuttle June 2, 1998 Charles J. Precourt 9:19:48 Last of nine docking missions with Mir, this one

Discovery (STS-91) Dominic L. Pudwill Gorie brought home Andrew Thomas. Payloads 

Franklin R. Chang-Díaz included DoE’s Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 

Wendy B. Lawrence to study high-energy particles from deep 

Janet Lynn Kavandi space, four Get Away Specials, and two Space 

Valery V. Ryumin Experiment Modules.

Andrew S. Thomas***

Soyuz TM-28 Aug. 13, 1998 Gennady Padalka * Docked to Mir using manual backup system

Sergei Avdeev because of prior failure of one of two 

Yuri Baturin automatic systems. Soyuz TM-27 left Mir 

returned to Earth with Talgat Musabayev, 

Nikolai Budarin, and Yuri Baturin.

Space Shuttle Oct. 29, 1998 Curtis L. Brown, Jr. 8:21:44 Payloads included a SPACEHAB

Discovery (STS-95) Steven W. Lindsey pressurized module, the Pansat

Scott E. Parazynski communications amateur satellite, and

Stephen K. Robinson the Spartan 201-05 solar observatory.

Pedro Duque (ESA) Performed biomedical experiments on

Chiaki Mukai (NASDA) space flight and aging. Second flight of

John H. Glenn John Glenn.

Space Shuttle Dec. 4, 1998 Robert D. Cabana 11:19:18 Payloads included Unity (Node 1), the

Endeavour (STS-88) Frederick W. Sturckow first U.S. module of the ISS, as well as

James H. Newman SAC-A and Mightysat 1.

Nancy J. Currie

Jerry L. Ross

Sergei K. Krikalev (RSA)

Soyuz TM-29 Feb. 20, 1999 Viktor Afanasyev * Soyuz mission to Mir.

Jean-Pierre Haignere (ESA)

Ivan Bella
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

122 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961–September 30, 2000

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle May 27, 1999 Kent V. Rominger 9:19:13 ISS supply and repair mission; also

Discovery (STS-96) Rick D. Husband launched the Starshine student passive

Daniel T. Barry reflector satellite.

Valery I. Tokarev (RSA)

Ellen Ochoa

Julie Payette (CSA)

Tamara E. Jernigan

Space Shuttle July 23, 1999 Eileen M. Collins 4:22:50 Deployed Chandra X-ray Observatory.

Columbia (STS-93) Jeffrey S. Ashby Collins was first female commander of a

Michel Tognini (CNES) Shuttle mission.

Steven A. Hawley

Catherine G. Coleman

Space Shuttle Dec. 19, 1999 Curtis L. Brown 7:23:11 Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission #3

Discovery (STS-103) Scott J. Kelly

Steven L. Smith

C. Michael Foale

John M. Grunsfeld

Claude Nicollier

Jean-Francois Clervoy

Space Shuttle Feb. 11, 2000 Kevin Kregel 11:5:38 Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM).

Endeavour (STS-99) Dominic Gorie The main objective of STS-99 was to obtain

Gerhard P.J. Thiele the most complete high-resolution digital

Janet Kavandi topographic database of Earth, using

Janice Voss a special radar system.

Mamoru Mohri

Soyuz TM-30 Apr. 4, 2000 Sergei Zalyotin 72:19:43 Final Soyuz mission to Mir.

Alexander Kaleri

Space Shuttle May 19, 2000 James Halsell, Jr. 9:20:9 Second crew visit to the International Space

Atlantis (STS-101) Scott Horowitz Station ISS (2A.2a), to deliver supplies, 

Susan Helms perform maintenance, and reboost its orbit.

Yury V. Usachev

James Voss

Mary Ellen Weber

Jeff Williams

Space Shuttle Sept. 8, 2000 Terrence Wilcutt 11:19:11 Third logistics/outfitting flight to ISS (2A.2b)

Atlantis (STS-106) Scott Altman to prepare the station for its first resident crew.

Daniel Burbank

Edward T. Lu

Yuri I. Malenchenko

Rick Mastracchio

Boris V. Morukov

* Mir crew members stayed for various and overlapping lengths of time.

** Flew up on Space Shuttle; remained in space aboard Russian Mir space station.

*** Returned to Earth via Space Shuttle from Russian Mir space station.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

123 APPENDIX D

(Continued)

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

Max. Payload (kg)d

Max. Dia Geosynch. SunStages: Thrust x Height 185-km Transfer Synch. First

Vehicle Engine/Motor Propellanta (kilonewtons)b, c (m) Orbit Orbit Orbite Launchf

Pegasus 6.71x15.5h 380 — 210 1990

280e

1. Orion 50S Solid 484.9 1.28x8.88

2. Orion 50 Solid 118.2 1.28x2.66

3. Orion 38 Solid 31.9 0.97x1.34

Pegasus XL 6.71x16.93 460 — 335 1994g

1. Orion 50S-XL Solid 743.3 1.28x10.29 350e

2. Orion 50-XL Solid 201.5 1.28x3.58

3. Orion 38 Solid 31.9 0.97x1.34

Taurus 2.34x28.3 1,400 255 1,020 Not

0. Castor 120 Solid 1,687.7 2.34x11.86 1,080e scheduled

1. Orion 50S Solid 580.5 1.28x8.88

2. Orion 50 Solid 138.6 1.28x2.66

3. Orion 38 Solid 31.9 0.97x1.34

Delta II 2.44x29.70 5,089 1,842i 3,175 1990,

(7920, 7925) 3,890e Delta-7925

1. RS-270/A LOX/RP-1 1,043.0 (SL) 3.05x38.1 [1960, Delta]

Hercules GEM (9) Solid 487.6 (SL) 1.01x12.95

2. AJ10-118K N204/A-50 42.4 2.44x5.97

3. Star 48Bj Solid 66.4 1.25x2.04

Atlas E 3.05x28.1 820e — 910k 1968, Atlas F

1,860e, k [1958,

1. Atlas: MA-3 LOX/RP-1 1,739.5 (SL) 3.05x21.3 Atlas LV-3A]

Atlas I 4.2x43.9 — 2,255 — 1990, I [1966,

Atlas Centaur]

1. Atlas: MA-5 LOX/RP-1 1,952.0 (SL) 3.05x22.16 

2. Centaur I: LOX/LH2 73.4/ 3.05x9.14

RL10A-3-3A (2) engine

Atlas II 4.2x47.5 6,580 2,810 4,300 1991, II [1966,

5,510e Atlas Centaur]

1. Atlas: MA-5A LOX/RP-1 2,110.0 (SL) 3.05x24.9

2. Centaur II: LOX/LH2 73.4/engine 3.05x10.05

RL10A-3-3A (2)

Atlas IIA 4.2x47.5 6,828 3,062 4,750 1992, Atlas

6,170e IIA [1966,

1. Atlas: MA-5A LOX/RP-1 2,110.0 (SL) 3.05x24.9 Atlas Centaur]

2. Centaur II: LOX/LH2 92.53/engine 3.05x10.05

RL10A-4 (2)

Atlas IIAS 4.2x47.5 8,640 3,606 5,800 1993, IIAS

7,300e [1966,

1. Atlas: MA-5A LOX/RP-1 2,110.0 (SL) 3.05x24.9 Atlas Centaur]

Castor IVA (4)j Solid 433.6 (SL) 1.01X11.16

2. Centaur II: LOX/LH2 92.53/engine 3.05x10.05

RL10A-4 (2)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

124 APPENDIX D

(Continued)

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

Max. Payload (kg)d

Max. Dia Geosynch. SunStages: Thrust x Height 185-km Transfer Synch. First

Vehicle Engine/Motor Propellanta (kilonewtons)b, c (m) Orbit Orbit Orbite Launchf

Titan II 3.05x42.9 1,905e — — 1988,

1. LR-87-AJ-5 (2) N204/A-50 1,045.0 3.05x21.5 Titan II SLV

2. LR-91-AJ-5 N204/A-50 440.0 3.05x12.2 [1964, Titan II 

Gemini]

Titan III 3.05x47.3 14,515 5,000l — 1989, 

0. Titan III SRM (2) Solid 6,210.0 3.11x27.6 Titan III 

(5-1/2 segments) [1964,

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) N204/A-50 1,214.5 3.05x24.0 Titan IIIA]

2. LR91-AJ-11 N204/A-50 462.8 3.05x10.0

Titan IV 3.05x62.2 17,700 6,350m — 1989,

0. Titan IV SRM (2) Solid 7,000.0 3.11x34.1 14,110e Titan IV

(7 segments)

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) N204/A-50 1,214.5 3.05x26.4

2. LR91-AJ-11 N204/A-50 462.8 3.05x10.0

Titan IV/ 4.3x62.2 — 5,760a — 1994, 

0. Titan IV SRM (2) Solid 7,000.0 3.11x34.1 Titan IV

(7 segments) Centaur

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) N204/A-50 1,214.5/engine 3.05x26.4

2. LR91-AJ-11(1) N204/A-50 462.5 3.05x10.0

3. Centaur:

RL-10A-3-3A LOX/LH2 73.4 4.3x9.0

4. SRMU

(3 segments) 7690 3.3x34.3

Space Shuttlen 23.79x56.14h 24,900o 5,900p — 1981,

1. SRB: Solid 11,790.0 (SL) 3.70x45.46 Columbia

Shuttle SRB (2)

2. Orbiter/ET: LOX/LH2 1,668.7 (SL) 8.41x47.00 (ET)

SSME (3) 23.79x37.24h (orbiter)

3. Orbiter/OMS: N204/MMH 26.7 23.79x37.24h

OMS engines (2)

Delta III

1. RS-27A LOX/RP-1 1,043.0 (SL) 4x39.1 8,292 3,810 6,768 1998g

Alliant GEM (9) Solid 608.8 1.16x14.7

2. RL-10B-2 LOX/LH2 110 4x8.8

3. Star 48B Solid 66.4 1.25x2.04
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

125 APPENDIX D

(Continued)

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

NOTES:

a. Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: i. Applies to Delta II-7925 version only.

A-50 = Aerozine 50 (50% Monomethyl Hydrazine, 

50% Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine) j. Two Castor IVA motors ignited at liftoff. Two Castor IVA

RP-1 = Rocket Propellant 1 (kerosene) motors ignited at approximately 57 seconds into flight. 

Solid = Solid Propellant (any type)

LH2 = Liquid Hydrogen k. With TE-M-364-4 upper stage.

LOX = Liquid Oxygen

MMH = Monomethyl Hydrazine l. With Transfer Orbit Stage.

N204 = Nitrogen Tetroxide

m. With appropriate upper stage

b. Thrust at vacuum except where indicated at sea level (SL).

n. Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters fire in parallel with the

c. Thrust per engine. Multiply by number of engines for Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME), which are mounted on

thrust per stage. the aft end of the Shuttle Orbiter Vehicle and burn fuel, and

oxidizer from the External Tank. The boosters stage first, with 

d. Inclination of 28.5 ̊ except where indicated. SSME’s continuing to fire. The External Tank stages next, just

before the orbiter attains orbit. The Orbiter Maneuvering

e. Polar launch from Vandenberg AFB, CA. Subsystem is then used to maneuver or change the orbit of the

Orbiter Vehicle.

f. First successful orbital launch [ditto of initial version].

o. 204-km circular orbit.

g. First launch was a failure

p. With Inertial Upper Stage or Transfer Orbit Stage.

h. Diameter dimension represents vehicle wing span.

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the 

Director of Space Transportation System Support Programs.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

126 APPENDIX E-1A

(Continued)

Space Activities of the U.S. Government

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY—BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of real-year dollars)

NASA NASA Total

FY Total Spaceb DoD Otherc DoEd DoC DoI Ag NSFa DoT Space

1959 331 261 490 34 34 785

1960 524 462 561 43 43 1,066

1961 964 926 814 68 68 1,808

1962 1,825 1,797 1,298 199 148 51 3,294

1963 3,673 3,626 1,550 257 214 43 5,433

1964 5,100 5,016 1,599 213 210 3 6,828

1965 5,250 5,138 1,574 241 229 12 6,953

1966 5,175 5,065 1,689 214 187 27 6,968

1967 4,966 4,830 1,664 213 184 29 6,707

1968 4,587 4,430 1,922 174 145 28 0.2 1 6,526

1969 3,991 3,822 2,013 170 118 20 0.2 1 31 6,005

1970 3,746 3,547 1,678 141 103 8 1 1 28 5,366

1971 3,311 3,101 1,512 162 95 27 2 1 37 4,775

1972 3,307 3,071 1,407 133 55 31 6 2 39 4,611

1973 3,406 3,093 1,623 147 54 40 10 2 41 4,863

1974 3,037 2,759 1,766 158 42 60 9 3 44 4,683

1975 3,229 2,915 1,892 158 30 64 8 2 54 4,965

1976 3,550 3,225 1,983 168 23 72 10 4 59 5,376

TQ* 932 849 460 31 5 22 3 1 12 1,352

1977 3,818 3,440 2,412 194 22 91 10 6 65 6,046

1978 4,060 3,623 2,738 226 34 103 10 8 71 6,587

1979 4,596 4,030 3,036 248 59 98 10 8 73 7,314

1980 5,240 4,680 3,848 231 40 93 12 14 72 8,759

1981 5,518 4,992 4,828 234 41 87 12 16 78 10,054

1982 6,044 5,528 6,679 313 61 145 12 15 80 12,520

1983 6,875 6,328 9,019 327 39 178 5 20 85 15,674

1984 7,458 6,858 10,195 395 34 236 3 19 103 17,448

1985 7,573 6,925 12,768 584 34 423 2 15 110 20,277

1986 7,807 7,165 14,126 477 35 309 2 23 108 21,76

1987 10,923 9,809 16,287 466 48 278 8 19 112 1 26,562

1988 9,062 8,322 17,679 741 241 352 14 18 115 1 26,742

1989 10,969 10,097 17,906 560 97 301 17 21 121 3 28,563

1990 12,324 11,460 15,616 506 79 243 31 25 124 4 27,582

1991 14,016 13,046 14,181 772 251 251 29 26 211 4 27,999

1992 14,317 13,199 15,023 798 223 327 34 29 181 4 29,020

1993 14,310 13,064 14,106 731 165 324 33 25 180 4 27,901

1994 14,570 13,022 13,166 632 74 312 31 31 179 5 26,820

1995 13,854 12,543 10,644 759 60 352 31 32 278 6 23,946

1996 13,884 12,569 11,514 828 46 472 36 37 231 6 24,911

1997 13,709 12,457 11,727 789 35 448 42 39 219 6 24,973

1998 13,648 12,321 12,359 839 103 435 43 39 213 6 25,519

1999 13,653 12,459 13,203 982 105 575 59 37 200 6 26,644

2000 13,601 12,521 13,197 990 102 571 60 44 207 6 26,708

* Transition Quarter

a. NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

b. Includes $2.1 billion for replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

c. “Other” column is the total of the non-NASA, non-DoD budget authority figures that appear in succeeding columns. The total is sometimes

different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The “Total Space” column does not include the “NASA Total” column

because it includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as in space. For the years 1989–1997, this “Other” column also includes small

figures for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

d. DoE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998, making them slightly different. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

127 APPENDIX E-1B

(Continued)

Space Activities of the U.S. Government

BUDGET AUTHORITY IN MILLIONS OF EQUIVALENT FY 1999 DOLLARS

(adjusted for inflation)

Inflation NASA NASA Total

FY Factors Total Spaceb DoD Otherc DoEd DoC DoI Ag NSFa DoT Space

1959 4.815 1,594 1,257 2,359 164 164 3,780

1960 4.7234 2,475 2,182 2,650 203 203 5,035

1961 4.6789 4,510 4,333 3,809 318 318 8,459

1962 4.6168 8,426 8,296 5,993 919 683 235 15,208

1963 4.5603 16,750 16,536 7,068 1,172 976 196 24,776

1964 4.5071 22,986 22,608 7,207 960 946 14 30,775

1965 4.4495 23,360 22,861 7,003 1,072 1,019 53 30,937

1966 4.3748 22,640 22,159 7,389 936 818 118 30,484

1967 4.1954 20,834 20,264 6,981 894 772 122 28,139

1968 4.1487 19,030 18,379 7,974 723 602 116 0.8 4 27,075

1969 4.0008 15,967 15,291 8,054 682 472 80 0.8 4 125 24,026

1970 3.8304 14,349 13,586 6,427 540 395 31 4 4 107 20,554

1971 3.6355 12,037 11,274 5,497 589 345 98 7 4 134 17,359

1972 3.4561 11,429 10,614 4,863 461 190 107 21 7 136 15,937

1973 3.2967 11,229 10,197 5,351 486 178 132 33 7 136 16,033

1974 3.1523 9,573 8,697 5,567 498 132 189 28 9 139 14,762

1975 2.9433 9,504 8,580 5,569 464 88 188 24 6 158 14,613

1976 2.6768 9,502 8,633 5,308 451 62 193 27 11 159 14,391

TQ 2.4968 2,327 2,120 1,149 77 12 55 7 2 3,346

1977 2.4153 9,222 8,309 5,826 467 53 220 24 14 156 14,602

1978 2.3161 9,403 8,391 6,341 523 79 239 23 19 164 15,256

1979 2.1688 9,968 8,740 6,584 538 128 213 22 17 158 15,862

1980 2.012 10,543 9,416 7,742 465 80 187 24 28 145 17,623

1981 1.8526 10,223 9,248 8,944 434 76 161 22 30 145 18,627

1982 1.69 10,214 9,342 11,287 528 103 245 20 25 135 21,158

1983 1.5819 10,875 10,010 14,267 517 62 282 8 32 135 24,794

1984 1.5139 11,291 10,383 15,435 598 51 357 5 29 156 26,415

1985 1.4593 11,051 10,106 18,632 852 50 617 3 22 160 29,590

1986 1.4134 11,035 10,127 19,966 674 49 437 3 33 152 30,767

1987 1.3805 15,079 13,542 22,485 643 66 384 11 26 154 1 36,669

1988 1.3449 12,188 11,193 23,777 997 324 473 19 24 155 1 35,966

1989 1.3029 14,292 13,156 23,331 730 126 392 22 27 158 4 37,216

1990 1.2544 15,459 14,375 19,589 634 99 305 39 31 155 5 34,598

1991 1.2085 16,938 15,766 17,137 933 303 303 35 31 255 5 33,836

1992 1.1647 16,675 15,373 17,498 929 260 381 40 34 210 5 33,800

1993 1.1391 16,300 14,881 16,068 832 188 369 38 28 205 5 31,781

1994 1.1109 16,186 14,467 14,627 703 82 347 34 34 199 6 29,796

1995 1.086 15,045 13,621 11,559 824 65 382 34 35 302 7 26,004

1996 1.0635 14,766 13,367 12,245 880 49 502 38 39 245 6 26,493

1997 1.0434 14,304 12,998 12,236 824 37 467 44 41 229 6 26,057

1998 1.026 14,002 12,641 12,680 861 106 446 44 40 219 6 26,182

1999 1.013 13,831 12,621 13,375 995 106 582 60 37 203 6 26,991

2000 1 13,601 12,521 12,521 990 102 571 60 44 207 6 26,708

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

128 APPENDIX E-2

(Continued)

Federal Space Activities Budget

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays

1998 1999 2000 1998 1999 2000

actual actual est. actual actual est.

NASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,321 12,459 12,521 12,866 12,466 12,427

Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,359 13,203 13,197 12,230 12,453 12,755

Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 105 102 97 103 103

Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 575 571 336 431 517

Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 59 60 42 42 59

Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 37 44 39 37 44

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 6 6 6 6

NSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 200 207 221 216 207

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget.
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

129 APPENDIX E-3

(Continued)

Federal Aeronautics Budget

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays

1998 1999 2000 1998 1999 2000

actual actual est. actual actual est.

NASAa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,327 1,194 1,060 1,339 1,217 1,014

Defenseb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,256 5,532 6,460 6,354 5,913 6,099

Transportationc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,146 2,271 2,201 2,528 2,369 2,243

a. Research, Development, Construction of Facilities, Research and Program Management

b. Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment.

c. Federal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget.

Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

131

A

ACTS Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

ADEOS Advanced Earth Observing Satellite

ADS-B Automated Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast

AEAP Atmospheric Effects of Aviation Project

AGATE Advanced General Aviation Technology Experiment

AMOS Air Force Maui Optical Site

ARS Agricultural Research Service (USDA)

AST Advanced Subsonic Technology (Program)

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer

ASTP Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

ATLAS Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

AVIRIS Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer

AVOSS Advanced Vortex Sensing System

AXAF Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (former name of Chandra X-ray 

Observatory)

B

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs (DoI)

Black hole A completely collapsed, massive dead star whose gravitational field is so 

powerful that no radiation can escape from it; because of this property, its 

existence must be inferred rather than recorded from radiation emissions

BXA Bureau of Export Administration (DoC)

C

CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States

CITEL Commission on Inter-American Telecommunications

CME Coronal Mass Ejections

CNES Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (France)

COPUOS Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (United Nations)

Corona The outer atmosphere of the Sun, extending about a million miles above 

the surface

CORS Continuously Operating Reference Station

Cosmic rays Not forms of energy, such as x-rays or gamma rays, but particles of 

matter

COSPAR Committee on Space Research

CrIS Cross-track Infrared Sounder

CRISTA-SPAS Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for the 

Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite

CSC Commercial Space Center

CSOC Consolidated Space Operations Contract

CT Computerized Tomography

CUE Collaborative Ukrainian Experiment

GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

132 D

DAAC Distributed Active Archive Center

DARWIN Design Assessment of Reliability With Inspection

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program—DoD’s polar-orbiting 

weather satellite system

DoC Department of Commerce

DoD Department of Defense

DoE Department of Energy

DoI Department of the Interior

DoS Department of State

DoT Department of Transportation

DSN Deep Space Network

DSP Defense Support Program

E

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (program)

EHF Extremely High Frequency

El Niño A warm inshore current annually flowing south along the coast of 

Ecuador around the end of December and extending about every 7 to 

10 years down the coast of Peru

EOS Earth Observing System—a series of satellites, part of NASA’s Earth 

Science Enterprise, being designed for launch at the end of the 1990’s 

togather data on global change

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

EPIC Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPA)

ERAST Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (project)

EROS Earth Resources Observation System (USGS)

ERS European Remote-Sensing Satellite

ESE Earth Science Enterprise

ESA European Space Agency

ET External Tank

ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper-Plus (Landsat instrument)

EUV Extreme ultraviolet

EVA Extravehicular activity

F

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FACE Free Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment

FAR Federal Acquisition Regulation

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA)

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FGB Functional Cargo Block (Russian acronym)

Fly-by-light The use of light signals to connect the pilot’s control devices with the 

aircraft control surfaces; or the use of light (fiber optic) control 

connections with no mechanical backup linkages and providing the pilot

direct control of aircraft motion rather than control surface position

Fly-by-wire The use of electrical signals to connect the pilot’s control devices with 

the aircraft control surfaces; or the use of electrical control connections
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

with no mechanical backup linkages and providing the 133

pilot direct control of aircraft motion rather than control 

surface position

Free flight A concept being developed by the FAA and the aviation community in which pilots could ultimately choose their own 

routes, speeds, and altitudes in flight, thus improving safety, 

while saving fuel, time, and natural resources.

FSA Farm Service Agency (USDA)

FSS Fixed Satellite Service

FWS (U.S.) Fish and Wildlife Service (DoI)

FY Fiscal Year

G

Gamma rays The shortest of electromagnetic radiations, emitted by some 

radioactive substances

GDIN Global Disaster Information Network

Geo-stationary Traveling around the Earth’s equator at an altitude of at least 

35,000 kilometers and at a speed matching that of the Earth’s 

rotation, thereby maintaining a constant relation to points on 

the Earth

Geosynchronous Geostationary

GIS Geographic Information System

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

GOIN Global Observation Information Network

GPS Global Positioning System

H

Heliosphere The region of the Sun’s influence, including the Sun and the inter

planetary medium

HST Hubble Space Telescope

Hypersonic Faster than Mach 4; faster than “high speed”

Hyperspectral An instrument capability using many very narrow spectral frequency 

bands (300 or more), enabling a satellite-based passive sensor to 

discriminate specific features or phenomena on the body being 

observed (such as Earth)

I

ICM Interim Control Module

IGEB International GPS Executive Board

IGOS Integrated Global Observing Strategy

IGS International GPS Service for Geodynamics

INM Integrated Noise Model

INMARSAT International Mobile Satellite Organization

InSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar

INSAT Indian Remote Sensing Satellite

Integrated modular avionics Aircraft-unique avionics cabinet that replace multiple black boxes 

with shared common equipment and generic software

INTELSAT International Telecommunications Satellite (Organization)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

134 Interferometry The production and measurement of interference from two or 

more coherent wave trains emitted from the same source

Internet An international computer network that began about 1970 as the 

NSF Net; very slowly it became a collection of more than 40,000 

independently managed computer networks worldwide that have 

adopted common protocols to permit the exchange of electronic 

information

Ionosphere That region of Earth’s atmosphere so named because of the 

presence of ionized atoms in layers that reflect radio waves and 

short-wave transmissions

IPO Integrated Program Office

ISO International Organization for Standardization

ISS International Space Station

ITA International Trade Administration (DoC)

ITU International Telecommunications Union

J

JEM Japanese Experimental Module

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA)

K

K-band Radio frequencies in the 20-gigahertz range

Ka-band Radio frequencies in the 30-gigahertz range

KSC Kennedy Space Center

Ku-band Radio frequencies in the 11–12-gigahertz range

L

Landsat Land [remote sensing] Satellite—a series of satellites designed to 

collect information about Earth’s natural resources

Laser Light amplified by simulated emission of radiation—a device that 

produces an intense beam of light that may be strong enough to 

vaporize the hardest and most heat-resistant materials, first 

constructed in 1960

LDEF Long-Duration Exposure Facility

LEO Low-Earth Orbit—100 to 350 nautical miles above Earth

LH2 Liquid Hydrogen

LIDAR Light Intersection Direction and Ranging

LOX Liquid Oxygen

LVIS Laser Vegetation Imaging Sensor

M

Mach A relative number named after Austrian physicist Ernst Mach 

(1838–1916) and indicating speed with respect to that of sound in

a given medium; in dry air at 32 degrees Fahrenheit and at sea 

level, for example, Mach 1=approximately 741 miles per hour 

(1,192 kilometers per hour)

Magnetosphere The region of Earth’s atmosphere in which ionized gas plays an

important role in the atmospheric dynamics and where, 

consequently, the geomagnetic field also exerts an important 

influence;other magnetic planets, such as Jupiter, have 

magnetospheres that are similar in many respects to Earth’s
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

135 MCC-H Mission Control Center–Houston

MCC-M Mission Control Center–Moscow

MCO Mars Climate Orbiter

MHz Megahertz

MilSatCom Military Satellite Communications

MISR Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer

MMH Monomethyl Hydrazine

MMS Minerals Management Service (DoI)

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer

MPL Mars Polar Lander

MPLM Multi-Purpose Logistics Module N

NAPP National Aerial Photography Program

NAS National Airspace System (FAA)

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASDA National Space Development Agency (of Japan)

NASM National Air and Space Museum

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA)

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NAWQA National Water Quality Assessment

NCAP National Civil Applications Program (USGS)

NDGPS Nationwide Differential GPS

NDOP National Digital Orthoquad Program

NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service 

(NOAA)

Neutron Any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought to be comstar posed primarily of neutrons; see pulsar

NEXRAD Next Generation Weather Radar

NGS National Geodetic Survey

NGSO Nongeostationary satellite

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology (DoC)

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (DoC); also the 

designation of that administration’s Sun-synchronous satellites in 

polar orbit

Nominal Functioning as designed

NOx Oxides of nitrogen

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

NPP NPOESS Preparatory Project

NPS National Park Service (DoI)

NRA NASA Research Announcement

NRCS National Resources Conservation Service (USDA)

NRO National Reconnaissance Office (DoD)

NSC National Security Council

NSF National Science Foundation

NTIA National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

(DoC)—the Federal Government’s radio spectrum manager, which 

coordinates the use of LEO satellite networks, such as those for 

Landsat, Navstar GPS, the Space Shuttle, and the Television and 

Infrared Operational Satellite (TIROS), with other countries of the 

world
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

136 NWRC Northwest Watershed Research Center (ARS)

O

ODERACS Orbital Debris Radar Calibration Spheres

OLMSA Office of Life and Microgravity Sciences and Applications (NASA)

OMPS Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite

Order of An amount equal to 10 times a given value; thus if some

magnitude quantity was 10 times as great as another quantity, it would 

be an order of magnitude greater; if 100 times as great, it 

would be larger by two orders of magnitude

ORFEUS- Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet SpectrographSPAS Shuttle Pallet Satellite

OSMRE Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (DoI)

OSS Office of Space Science (NASA)

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy

P

PAMS-STU Passive Aerodynamically Stabilized Magnetically Damped SatelliteSatellite Test Unit

PARCS Primary Atomic Reference Clock in Space

Pathfinder A program that focuses on the processing, reprocessing, maintaining, 

archiving, and distributing existing Earth science data sets to make 

them more useful to researchers; NASA, NOAA, and USGS are 

involved in specific Pathfinder efforts

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl

PEACESAT Pan-Pacific Education and Communications Experiment by Satellite

PECAD Production Estimates and Crop Assessment Division (FAS)

Photo- The science or art of obtaining reliable measurements by means of 

grammetry photography

PMA Pressurized Mating Adapter

POES Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (program)

PPS Precise Positioning Service

PRA Probabilistic Risk Assessment

Pulsar A pulsating radio star, which is thought to be a rapidly spinning 

neutron star; the latter is formed when the core of a violently 

exploding star, called a supernova, collapses inward and becomes 

compressed together; pulsars emit extremely regular pulses of radio 

waves

Q

Quasar A class of rare cosmic objects of extreme luminosity and strong radio 

emission; many investigators attribute their high-energy generation to 

gas spiraling at high velocity into a massive black hole

QuikSCAT Quick Scatterometer

R

RADARSAT Canadian Radar Satellite

Ramjet A jet engine with no mechanical compressor, consisting of specially 

shaped tubes or ducts open at both ends, along with the air necessary 
Fiscal Year 2000 Activities

137 for combustion being shoved into the duct and compressed by the 

forward motion of the engine

RFID Radio Frequency Identification

RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle

RPA Remotely Piloted Aircraft

RSA Russian Space Agency

RSML Remote Sensing and Modeling Laboratory (ARS) S

SAMRSS Shafter Airborne Multispectral Remote Sensing System

SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar

SBIRS Space Based Infrared System

SBS Satellite Business Systems

Scramjet Supersonic-combustion ramjet

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor

SLS Spacelab Life Sciences

SMA Safety and Mission Assurance

SNOE Student Nitric Oxide Experiment

SOFIA Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy

SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

Solar wind A stream of particles accelerated by the heat of the solar corona (outer

region of the Sun) to velocities great enough to permit them to escape 

from the Sun’s gravitational field

SPACEHAB Commercial module for housing Shuttle experiments

SPARTAN Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy

SPOT Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (French satellite for the 

observation of Earth)

SRB Solid Rocket Booster

SRM Solid Rocket Motor

SRMU Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade

SSBUV Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet

SSCC Space Station Control Center

SSCE Solid Surface Combustion Experiment

SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine

SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave Imager

SSRMS Space Station Remote Manipulator System

SSTF Space Station Training Facility

SSTI Small Satellite Technology Initiative

START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

STS Space Transportation System

SWAS Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite T

TA Technology Administration (DoC)

TATP Triacetone triperoxide (terrorist explosive) 

TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

TERRIERS Tomographic Experiment using Radiative Recombinative Ionospheric 
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 

138 EUV and Radio Sources

TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer

TOPEX Ocean Topography Experiment

TRACE Transition Region and Coronal Explorer

TRACON Terminal Radar Approach Control (system)

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

U

UARS Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite

UHF Ultrahigh Frequency—any frequency between 300 and 3,000 megacycles per second

UNISPACE United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of 

Outer Space

URET User Request Evaluation Tool

U.S. United States

USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGS U.S. Geological Survey (DoI)

USML U.S. Microgravity Laboratory

USMP U.S. Microgravity Payload

USWCL U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory (ARS)

V

VCL Vegetation Canopy Lidar

VHF Very High Frequency—any radio frequency between 30 and 300 

megacycles per second

VLBA Very Large Baseline Array

VLSA Very Large Scale Aerial

W

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System

Wind shear Variation of wind speed and wind direction with respect to a horizontal 

or vertical plane; powerful but invisible downdrafts called microbursts 

focus intense amounts of vertical energy in a narrow funnel that can 

force an aircraft to the ground nose first if the aircraft is caught 

underneath

WIRE Wide-field Infrared Explorer

WRC World Radiocommunication Conference

WSDDM Weather Support to Deicing Decision Making

WSF Wake Shield Facility

X-Y-Z

X rays Radiations of very short wavelengths, beyond the ultraviolet in the 

spectrum

XRSIM X-ray simulation software